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https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/03%3A_Art_of_the_Ancient_Near_East/3.01%3A_Mesopotamia	3.1: Mesopotamia The Mesopotamian Cultures Sumer was an ancient Chalcolithic civilization that saw its artistic styles change throughout different periods in its history. Discuss the historical importance of the various civilizations that existed in Mesopotamia Key Points - The Eridu economy produced abundant food, which allowed its inhabitants to settle in one location and form a labor force specializing in diverse arts and crafts. - Writing produced during the early Sumerian period suggest the abundance of pottery and other artistic traditions. - Elements of the early Sumerian culture spread through a large area of the Near and Middle East. - The Sumerian city states rose to power during the prehistorical Ubaid and Uruk periods. Key Terms - theocratic :A form of government in which a deity is officially recognized as the civil ruler. Official policy is governed by officials regarded as divinely guided, or is pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religion or religious group. - casting :A sculptural process in which molten material (usually metal) is poured into a mold, allowed to cool and harden, and become a solid object. - Cuneiform :One of the earliest known forms of written expression that began as a system of pictographs. It emerged in Sumer around the 30th century BC, with predecessors reaching into the late 4th millennium (the Uruk IV period). - Chalcolithic :Also known as the Copper Age, a phase of the Bronze Age in which the addition of tin to copper to form bronze during smelting remained yet unknown. The Copper Age was originally defined as a transition between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. Sumer was an ancient civilization in southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Ages. Although the historical records in the region do not go back much further than ca. 2900 BCE, modern historians believe that Sumer was first settled between ca. 4500 and 4000 BCE by people who may or may not have spoken the Sumerian language. These people, now called the “Ubaidians,” were the first to drain the marshes for agriculture; develop trade; and establish industries including weaving, leatherwork, metalwork , masonry, and pottery. The Sumerian city of Eridu, which at that time bordered the Persian Gulf, is believed to be the world’s first city. Here, three separate cultures fused—the peasant Ubaidian farmers, the nomadic Semitic-speaking pastoralists (farmers who raise livestock), and fisher folk. The surplus of storable food created by this economy allowed the region’s population to settle in one place, instead of migrating as hunter-gatherers. It also allowed for a much greater population density, which required an extensive labor force and a division of labor with many specialized arts and crafts. An early form of wedge-shaped writing called cuneiform developed in the early Sumerian period. During this time, cuneiform and pictograms suggest the abundance of pottery and other artistic traditions. In addition to the production of vessels , clay was also used to make tablets for inscribing written documents. Metal also served various purposes during the early Sumerian period. Smiths used a form of casting to create the blades for daggers. On the other hand, softer metals like copper and gold could be hammered into the forms of plates, necklaces, and collars. By the late fourth millennium BCE, Sumer was divided into about a dozen independent city-states delineated by canals and other boundary makers. At each city center stood a temple dedicated to the particular patron god or goddess of the city. Priestly governors ruled over these temples and were intimately tied to the city’s religious rites. The Ubaid Period The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of painted pottery, as seen in the example below, produced domestically on a slow wheel. This style eventually spread throughout the region. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu by farmers who first pioneered irrigation agriculture. Eridu remained an important religious center even after nearby Ur surpassed it in size. The Uruk Period The transition from the Ubaid period to the Uruk period is marked by a gradual shift to a great variety of unpainted pottery mass-produced by specialists on fast wheels. The trough below is an example of pottery from this period. By the time of the Uruk period (ca. 4100–2900 BCE), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified , temple-centered cities where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. Artifacts of the Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area—from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as Central Iran. The Uruk civilization, exported by Sumerian traders and colonists, had an effect on all surrounding peoples, who gradually developed their own comparable, competing economies and cultures. Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and likely headed by priest-kings ( ensis ), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. The later Sumerian pantheon (gods and goddesses) was likely modeled upon this political structure. There is little evidence of institutionalized violence or professional soldiers during the Uruk period. Towns generally lacked fortified walls, suggesting little, if any, need for defense. During this period, Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. Gilgamesh The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish, whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic (ca. 2100 BCE)—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, the second millennium BCE was associated with increased violence. Cities became walled and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. Ceramics in Mesopotamia The invention of the potter’s wheel in the fourth millennium BCE led to several stylistic shifts and varieties in form of Mesopotamian ceramics. Differentiate Ubaid pottery from later styles in Mesopotamian ceramics Key Points - The invention and evolution of the potter’s wheel allowed individuals to produce vessels at increasing speeds and in increasing numbers. - Ubaid pottery was more decorative and unique than Uruk pottery. - As ceramics evolved, shapes and sizes of clay objects became more varied. - Clay could also be used for writing tablets that could be fired, if the owner believed the text was important. Key Terms - ceramics :The craft of making objects from clay. - throwing :Shaping clay on a potter’s wheel. - stylus :A writing implement that incises lines into surfaces, such as clay. - kiln :A special kind of oven used for firing ceramic objects at high temperatures. Although ceramics developed in East Asia c. 20,000-10,000 BCE, the practice of throwing arose with the invention of the potter’s wheel in Mesopotamia around the fourth millennium BCE. The earliest clay vessels date to the Chalcolithic Era, which is divided into the Ubaid (5000-4000 BCE) and Uruk (4000-3100 BCE) periods. The Chalcolithic Era The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia. Ceramists produced vases, bowls, and small jars domestically on slow wheels, painting unique abstract designs on the fired clay. Experts differentiate the Ubaid period from the Uruk period by the style of pottery produced in each era. During the Uruk period, the potter’s wheel advanced to allow for faster speeds. As such, ceramists could produce pottery more quickly, leading to the mass production of standardized, unpainted styles of vessels. The Akkiadian Empire As the Akkadian Empire overtook the Sumerian city-states , ceramists continued to produce bowls, vases, jars, and other objects in a variety of shapes and sizes. Like Uruk pottery, the surfaces of these objects were left unpainted, although some vessels appear to have a form of abstract reliefs on the surface. This photograph displays the various forms (including a form that resembles a present-day cake stand) that pottery took during the Akkadian Empire. Ur III The Third Ur Dynasty , better known as Ur III, witnessed the continuation of unpainted ceramic vessels that took a variety of forms. This photograph depicts an urn that resembles today’s flower vases, as well as bowls, cups, and a smaller vase. As in previous eras, clay was also used to produce writing tablets that were incised with styluses fashioned from blunted reeds. Often, tablets were used for record-keeping (the ancient version of an office memo). Like other ceramic objects, tablets could be fired in a kiln to produce a permanent form if the text was believed significant enough to preserve. The tablets in the photograph below contain information about farm animals and workers. Babylonian Ceramics Pottery produced during the “Old” Babylonian period shows a return to painted abstract designs and increased variety in forms. In this photograph, a bowl, a jar, and a goblet show remnants of paint on their exteriors. Sculpture in Mesopotamia While the purposes that Mesopotamian sculpture served remained relatively unchanged for 2000 years, the methods of conveying those purposes varied greatly over time. Identify the purposes of the sculptures featured in this concept Key Points - Mesopotamian sculptures were predominantly created for religious and political purposes. - Common materials included clay, metal, and stone fashioned into reliefs and sculptures in the round . - The Uruk period marked a development of rich narrative imagery and increasing lifelikeness of human figures. - Hieratic scale was often used in Mesopotamian sculpture to convey the significance of gods and royalty. - After the end of the Uruk period, subject matter began to depict scenes of warfare and became increasingly violent and intimidating. Key Terms - register :A usually horizontal division of separate scenes in two- or three-dimensional art. - hieratic scale :A visual method of marking the significance of a figure through its size. The more important a figure is, the larger it appears. - terra cotta :Clay that has been fired in a kiln. - high relief :A sculpture that projects significantly from its background, providing deep shadows. - votive :An object left in temples or other religious locations for a variety of spiritual purposes. - colossal :Extremely tall. - lyre :A hand-held stringed instrument resembling a small harp. - cylinder seal :A small object adorned with carved images of animals, writing, or both, used to sign official documents. - in the round :Sculpture that stands freely, separate from a background. - relief :A sculpture that projects from a background. - mixed-media :Artwork consisting of two or more different materials. - nomadic :Mobile; moving from one place to another, never settling in one location for too long. The current archaeological record dates sculpture in Mesopotamia the tenth millennium BCE, before the dawn of civilization . Sculptural forms include humans, animals, and cylinder seals with cuneiform writing and imagery in the round or as reliefs. Materials range from terra cotta , stones like alabaster and gypsum, and metals like copper and bronze . Hunter-Gatherers and Samarra Because the artists of the hunter-gatherer era were nomadic , the sculptures they produced were small and lightweight. Even after cultures discovered agricultural methods, such as irrigation and animal domestication, artists continued to produce small sculptures. The seated female figure below (c. 6000 BCE), likely carved from a single stone, hails from the prehistoric Samarra culture (5500-4800 BCE). Like many prehistoric female figures, the features of this sculpture suggest that it was used in fertility rituals . Its breasts are accentuated, and its legs are spread in a position that might resemble a woman in labor. While the artist emphasized areas of the body related to reproduction, he or she did not add facial features or feet to the figure. Uruk Period Spirituality and communication are reflected in sculptures dating the Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) of the late prehistoric era. Scholars believe that the gypsum Uruk trough was used as part of an offering to Inanna, the goddess of fertility, love, war, and wisdom. In addition to reliefs of animals, reliefs of reed bundles, sacred objects associated with Inanna, adorn the exterior of the trough. For these reasons, scholars do not believe the trough was used for agricultural purposes. Animals, along with forms of writing, also appear on early cylinder seals, which were carved from stones and used to notarize documents. Officials or their scribes rolled the seals on wet clay tablets as a form of signature. Cylinder seals were also worn as jewelry and have been found along with precious metals and stones in the tombs of the elite members of society. The trough, cylinder seals, and various other sculptures of the Uruk period serve as examples of the rich narrative imagery that arose during this time. The Uruk period also marked an evolution in the depiction of the human body, as seen in the Mask of Warka (c. 3000 BCE), named for the present-day Iraqi city in which it was discovered. This marble “mask” is all that remains of a mixed- media sculpture that also consisted of a wooden body, gold leaf “hair,” inlaid “eyes” and “eyebrows,” and jewelry. Like most sculptures produced during the time, the sculpture was originally painted in an attempt to make it look lifelike. Early Dynastic Period Sculpture built on older traditions and grew more complex during the Early Dynastic Period (2900-2350 BCE). Although artists still used clay and stone, copper became the dominant medium. Subject matter focused on spiritual matters, war, and social scenes. A cylinder seal discovered in the royal tomb of Queen Puabi depicts two registers of a palace banquet scene punctuated by cuneiform script, marking a growing complexity in the imagery of this form of notarization. Each register features hieratic scale, in which the queen (upper register) and the king (lower register) are larger than their subjects. Another sculpture of note is a mixed-media bull’s head that once adorned a ceremonial lyre found in Puabi’s tomb in Ur. The head consists of a gold “face,” lapis lazuli (a blue precious stone) “fur,” and shell “horns.” Although much of the lyre, whose dominant material was wood, disintegrated over time, contemporaneous imagery depicts lyres with similar decoration. Scholars believe that lyres were used in burial ceremonies and that the music that was played held religious significance. Sculptures in human form were also used as votive offerings in temples. Among the best known are the Tell Asmar Hoard, a group of 12 sculptures in the round depicting worshipers, priests, and gods. Like the cylinder seal found in Queen Puabi’s tomb, the figures in the Tell Asmar Hoard show hieratic scale. Worshipers, as in the image below, stand with their arms in front of their chests and their hands in the position of holding offerings. Materials range from alabaster to limestone to gypsum, depending on each figure’s significance. One common feature is the large hollowed out eye sockets, which were once inlaid with stone to make them appear lifelike. The eyes held spiritual significance, especially that of the gods, which represented awesome otherworldly power. Akkadian Empire During the period of the Akkadian Empire (2271-2154 BCE), sculpture of the human form grew increasingly naturalistic, and its subject matter increasingly about politics and warfare. A cast bronze portrait head believed to be that of King Sargon combines a naturalistic nose and mouth with stylized eyes, eyebrows, hair, and beard. Although the stylized features dominate the sculpture, the level of naturalism was unprecedented. The Victory Stele of Naram Sin provides an example of the increasingly violent subject matter in Akkadian art, a result of the violent and oppressive climate of the empire. Here, the king is depicted as a divine figure, as signified by his horned helmet. In typical hieratic fashion, Naram Sin appears larger than his soldiers and his enemies. The king stands among dead or dying enemy soldiers as his own troops look on from a lower vantage point. The figures are depicted in high relief to amplify the dramatic significance of the scene. On the right hand side of the stele, cuneiform script provides narration. Babylon and Assyria The second millennium BCE marks the transition from the Middle Bronze Age to the Late Bronze Age . The most prominent cultures in the ancient Near East during this period were Babylonia and Assyria. Clay was the dominant medium during this time, but stone was also used. The most common surviving forms of second millennium BCE Mesopotamian art are cylinder seals, relatively small free-standing figures, and reliefs of various sizes. These included cheap plaques, both religious and otherwise, of molded pottery for private homes. Babylonian culture somewhat preferred sculpture in the round to reliefs. Depictions of human figures were naturalistic. The Assyrians, on the other hand, developed a style of large and exquisitely detailed narrative reliefs in painted stone or alabaster. Intended for palaces, these reliefs depict royal activities such as battles or hunting. Predominance is given to animal forms, particularly horses and lions, which are represented in great detail. Human figures are static and rigid by comparison, but also minutely detailed. The Assyrians produced very little sculpture in the round with the exception of colossal guardian figures, usually lions and winged beasts, that flanked fortified royal gateways. While Assyrian artists were greatly influenced by the Babylonian style, a distinctly Assyrian artistic style began to emerge in Mesopotamia around 1500 BCE. Architecture in Mesopotamia Domestic and public architecture in Mesopotamian cultures differed in relative simplicity and complexity. As time passed, public architecture grew to monumental heights. Differentiate how Mesopotamian cultures approached domestic and public architecture Key Points - Mesopotamian cultures used a variety of building materials. While mud brick is the most common, stone also features as a structural and decorate element. - The ziggurat marked a major architectural accomplishment for the Sumerians , as well as subsequent Mesopotamian cultures. - Palaces and other public structures were often decorated with glaze or paint, stones, or reliefs . - Animals and human-animal hybrids feature in the religions of Mesopotamian cultures and were often used as architectural decoration. Key Terms - alto relief :A sculpture with significant projection from its background. - bas reliefs :Sculptures that minimally project from their backgrounds. - public sphere :The world outside the home. - ziggurat :A towering temple, similar to a stepped pyramid, that sat in the center of Mesopotamian city-states in honor to the local pantheon. - private sphere :The home, or the domestic realm. - load-bearing :A form of architecture in which the walls are the structure’s main source of support. - stacking and piling :A form of load-bearing architecture in which the walls are thickest at the base and grow gradually thinner toward the top. - pilaster : A rectangular column that projects partially from the wall to which it is attached; it gives the appearance of a support, but is only for decoration. The Mesopotamians regarded “the craft of building” as a divine gift taught to men by the gods, and architecture flourished in the region. A paucity of stone in the region made sun baked bricks and clay the building material of choice. Babylonian architecture featured pilasters and columns , as well as frescoes and enameled tiles. Assyrian architects were strongly influenced by the Babylonian style , but used stone as well as brick in their palaces, which were lined with sculptured and colored slabs of stone instead of being painted. Existing ruins point to load-bearing architecture as the dominant form of building. However, the invention of the round arch in the general area of Mesopotamia influenced the construction of structures like the Ishtar Gate in the sixth century BCE. Domestic Architecture Mesopotamian families were responsible for the construction of their own houses. While mud bricks and wooden doors comprised the dominant building materials, reeds were also used in construction. Because houses were load-bearing, doorways were often the only openings. Sumerian culture observed a rigid division between the public sphere and the private sphere , a norm that resulted in a lack of direct view from the street into the home. The sizes of individual houses varied, but the general design consisted of smaller rooms organized around a large central room. To provide a natural cooling effect, courtyards became a common feature in the Ubaid period and persist into the domestic architecture of present-day Iraq. Ziggurats One of the most remarkable achievements of Mesopotamian architecture was the development of the ziggurat, a massive structure taking the form of a terraced step pyramid of successively receding stories or levels, with a shrine or temple at the summit. Like pyramids, ziggurats were built by stacking and piling . Ziggurats were not places of worship for the general public. Rather, only priests or other authorized religious officials were allowed inside to tend to cult statues and make offerings . The first surviving ziggurats date to the Sumerian culture in the fourth millennium BCE, but they continued to be a popular architectural form in the late third and early second millennium BCE as well . The image below is an artist’s reconstruction of how ziggurats might have looked in their heyday. Human figures appear to illustrate the massive scale of these structures. This impressive height and width would not have been possible without the use of ramps and pulleys. Political Architecture The exteriors of public structures like temples and palaces featured decorative elements such as bright paint, gold, leaf, and enameling. Some elements, such as colored stones and terra cotta panels, served a twofold purpose of decoration and structural support, which strengthened the buildings and delayed their deterioration. Between the thirteenth and tenth centuries BCE, the Assyrians replaced sun-baked bricks with more durable stone and masonry. Colored stone and bas reliefs replaced paint as decoration. Art produced under the reigns of Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BCE), Sargon II (722-705 BCE), and Ashurbanipal (668-627 BCE) inform us that reliefs evolved from simple and vibrant to naturalistic and restrained over this time span. From the Early Dynastic Period (2900-2350 BCE) to the Assyrian Empire (25th century-612 BCE), palaces grew in size and complexity. However, even early palaces were very large and ornately decorated to distinguish themselves from domestic architecture. Because palaces housed the royal family and everyone who attended to them, palaces were often arranged like small cities, with temples and sanctuaries , as well as locations to inter the dead. As with private homes, courtyards were important features of palaces for both utilitarian and ceremonial purposes. By the time of the Assyrian empire, palaces were decorated with narrative reliefs on the walls and outfitted with their own gates. The gates of the Palace of Dur-Sharrukin, occupied by Sargon II, featured monumental alto reliefs of a mythological guardian figure called a lamassu (also known as a shedu ), which had the head of a human, the body of a bull or lion, and enormous wings. Lamassu figure in the visual art and literature from most of the ancient Mesopotamian world, going as far back as ancient Sumer (settled c. 5500 BCE) and standing guard at the palace of Persepolis (550-330 BCE). Although the Romans often receive credit for the round arch, this structural system actually originated during ancient Mesopotamian times. Where typical load-bearing walls are not strong enough to have many windows or doorways, round arches absorb more pressure, allowing for larger openings and improved airflow. The reconstruction of Dur-Sharrukin shows that the round arch was being used as entryways by the eighth century BCE. Perhaps the best known surviving example of a round arch is in the Ishtar Gate, which was part of the Processional Way in the city of Babylon. The gate, now in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, was lavishly decorated with lapis lazuli complemented by blue glazed brick. Elsewhere on the gate and its connecting walls were painted floral motifs and bas reliefs of animals that were sacred to Ishtar, the goddess of fertility and war. The photograph above shows the immense scale of the gate. The photograph below shows the detail of a relief of a bull from the gate’s wall. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ubaid pottery.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubaid_period#/media/File:Frieze-group-3-example1.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Cities of Sumer (en). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cities_of_Sumer_(en).svg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Uruk_Trough_-British_Museum.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=31079210. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Stele of Vultures detail 01. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stele_of_Vultures_detail_01.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Casting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sumer. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cuneiform. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - theocratic. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/theocratic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chalcolithic. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcolithic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Vase from the Late Ubaid Period. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubaid_period#/media/File:Frieze-group-3-example1.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Old Babylonia Pottery. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Old_Babylonian_pottery_in_the_Oriental_Institute_Museum#/media/File:Old_Babylonian_pottery_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum,_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC07013.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Cuneiform texts from Ur III. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ur_III_administrative_texts_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum,_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC06995.JPG#/media/File:Ur_III_administrative_texts_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum,_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC06995.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Akkadian Pottery. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=40794666. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Ur III Pottery. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ur_III_pottery_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum,_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC06984.JPG#/media/File:Ur_III_pottery_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum,_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC06984.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Ubaid Period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubaid_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Art of Mesopotamia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Uruk Period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruk_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ur III Cuneiform Tablets. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=40794957. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Babylonian Pottery. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=40809484. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Cuneiform. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_script#Akkadian_cuneiform. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ur III pottery. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=40794961. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Akkadian Pottery . Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=40794666 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Bull's_head_of_the_Queen's_lyre_from_Pu-abi's_grave. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bull%27s_head_of_the_Queen%27s_lyre_from_Pu-abi%27s_grave_PG_800,_the_Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur,_Southern_Mesopotamia,_Iraq._The_British_Museum,_London..JPG . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Victory_stele_of_Naram_Sin_9066. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victory_stele_of_Naram_Sin_9066.jpg#/media/File:Victory_stele_of_Naram_Sin_9066.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Burney reflief. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Burney_Relief#/media/File:British_Museum_Queen_of_the_Night.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Cylinder seal from tomb of Queen Pubai. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Nic%27s_events_-_British_Museum_with_Cory_and_Mary,_6_Sep_2007_-_185.jpg#/media/File:Flickr_-_Nic%27s_events_-_British_Museum_with_Cory_and_Mary,_6_Sep_2007_-_185.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sargon_of_Akkad. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg#/media/File:Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Uruk-period Cylinder Seal . Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cylinder_seal_lions_Louvre_MNB1167.jpg#/media/File:Cylinder_seal_lions_Louvre_MNB1167.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Mask of Warka/Uruk Head. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:UrukHead.jpg#/media/File:UrukHead.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Votive of Male Worshiper from Tell Asmar. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mesopotamia_male_worshiper_2750-2600_B.C.jpg#/media/File:Mesopotamia_male_worshiper_2750-2600_B.C.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Female Statuette from Samarra. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FemaleStatuetteSamarra6000BCE.jpg#/media/File:FemaleStatuetteSamarra6000BCE.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Uruk Trough. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Uruk_Trough_-British_Museum.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Samarra Culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarra_culture . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tell Asmar Hoard. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_Asmar_Hoard. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Inanna. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Inanna. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Art of Mesopotamia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Akkadian Empire. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_Empire. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cylinder Seal. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_seal. 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https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/03%3A_Art_of_the_Ancient_Near_East/3.02%3A_Assyria	3.2: Assyria The Assyrian Culture The Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian capitals of Nimrud, Dur-Sharrukin, and Nineveh are known today for their ruins of great palaces and fortifications. Describe the key aspects of the Assyrian capitals of Nimrud, Dur-Sharrukin, and Nineveh Key Points - Nimrud, also known as Kalhu, was the Assyrian capital from the thirteenth century BCE until 706 BCE. Ashurnasirpal II made the city famous when he built a large palace and temples on top of ancient ruins c. 880 BCE. - Dur-Sharrukin was a single-period site; therefore, few individual objects were found. The primary discoveries shed light on Assyrian art and architecture. - Nineveh, the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire , rose to greatness under Sennacherib . He laid out new streets and squares and built within it the famous “palace without a rival”, the plan of which has been mostly recovered. Key Terms - Obelisk :A tall, square, tapered, stone monolith topped with a pyramidal point, frequently used as a monument. - ziggurat :A temple tower of the ancient Mesopotamian valley, having the form of a terraced pyramid of successively receding stories. Nimrud and Ashurnasirpal II Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located in southern, modern Iraq on the River Tigris. In ancient times the city was called Kalhu. The ruins of the city are found some 30 kilometers (19 miles) southeast of Mosul. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser I made Nimrud, which existed for about a thousand years, the capital in the thirteenth century BCE. The city gained fame when king Ashurnasirpal II of Assyria (c. 880 BCE) built a large palace and temples on the site of an earlier city that had long fallen into ruins. Nimrud housed as many as 100,000 inhabitants and contained botanic gardens and a zoologic garden. Ashurnasirpal’s son, Shalmaneser III (858–824 BCE), built the monument known as the Great Ziggurat and an associated temple. The palace, restored as a site museum, is one of only two preserved Assyrian palaces in the world. The other is Sennacherib’s palace at Nineveh. Nimrud remained the Assyrian capital until 706 BCE when Sargon II moved the capital to Dur-Sharrukin, but it remained a major center and a royal residence until the city was completely destroyed in 612 BCE when Assyria succumbed under the invasion of the Medes. Excavations at Nimrud in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries revealed remarkable bas- reliefs, ivories , and sculptures . A statue of Ashurnasirpal II was found in an excellent state of preservation , as were colossal winged man-headed lions, each guarding the palace entrance. The large number of inscriptions pertaining to king Ashurnasirpal II provide more details about him and his reign than are known for any other ruler of this epoch. Portions of the site have been also been identified, such as temples to Ninurta and Enlil, a building assigned to Nabu (the god of writing and the arts), and extensive fortifications. Furthermore, the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, discovered in 1846, stands six-and-a-half-feet tall and commemorates the king’s victorious campaigns from 859–824 BCE. It is shaped like a temple tower at the top, ending in three steps. On one panel, Israelites led by king Jehu of Israel pay tribute and bow in the dust before king Shalmaneser III, who is making a libation to his god. The cuneiform text on the obelisk reads “Jehu the son of Omri” and mentions gifts of gold, silver, lead, and spear shafts . The “Treasure of Nimrud” unearthed in these excavations is a collection of over 600 pieces of gold jewelry and precious stones. Sargon II and Dur-Sharrukin Dur-Sharrukin, or present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of King Sargon II. Today, Khorsabad is now a village in northern Iraq, and is still inhabited by Assyrians. The construction of Dur-Sharrukin was never finished. Sargon, who ordered the project, was killed during a battle in 705. After his death, his son and successor Sennacherib abandoned the project and relocated the capital with its administration to the city of Nineveh. Dur-Sharrukin was constructed on a rectangular layout. Its walls were massive, with 157 towers protecting its sides. Seven gates entered the city from all directions. A walled terrace contained temples and the royal palace. The main temples were dedicated to the gods Nabu, Shamash, and Sin, while Adad, Ningal, and Ninurta had smaller shrines. A ziggurat was also constructed at the site. The palace was adorned with sculptures and wall reliefs, with its gates flanked by winged-bull shedu statues weighing up to 40 tons. On the central canal of Sargon’s garden stood a pillared pleasure-pavilion which looked up to a great topographic creation—a man-made Garden Mound. This mound was planted with cedars and cypresses and modeled after the Amanus mountains in northern Syria. The colossal bull statue (above) was uncovered outside the throne room. It was found split into three large fragments. The torso alone weighed about 20 tons. Since Dur-Sharrukin was a single-period site that was evacuated in an orderly manner after the death of Sargon II, few individual objects were found. The primary discoveries from Khorsabad shed light on Assyrian art and architecture. Nineveh Nineveh was an ancient Assyrian city on the eastern bank of the Tigris River, and the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Its ruins are across the river from the modern-day major city of Mosul in Iraq. Today, Nineveh’s location is marked by two large mounds, Kouyunjik and Nabī Yūnus “Prophet Jonah,” and the remains of the city walls. These were fitted with fifteen monumental gateways which served as checkpoints on entering and exiting the ancient city, and were probably also used as barracks and armories. With the inner and outer doors shut, the gateways were virtual fortresses. Five of the gateways have been explored to some extent by archaeologists. Nineveh was an important junction for commercial routes crossing the Tigris. Occupying a central position on the great highway between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, Nineveh united the East and the West, and received wealth from many sources. Thus, it became one of the oldest and greatest of all the region’s ancient cities, and the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The area was settled as early as 6000 BCE, and by 3000 BCE had become an important religious center for worship of the Assyrian goddess Ishtar. It was not until the Neo-Assyrian Empire that Nineveh experienced a considerable architectural expansion. King Sennacherib is credited with making Nineveh a truly magnificent city during his rule (c. 700 BCE). He laid out new streets and squares and built within it the famous “palace without a rival”, the plan of which has been mostly recovered. It comprised at least 80 rooms, many of which were lined with sculpture. A large number of cuneiform tablets were found in the palace. The solid foundation was made out of limestone blocks and mud bricks. Some of the principal doorways were flanked by colossal stone-door figures that included many winged lions or bulls with the heads of men. The stone carvings in the walls include many battle and hunting scenes, as well as depicting Sennacherib’s men parading the spoils of war before him. Nineveh’s greatness was short-lived. In around 627 BCE, after the death of its last great king Ashurbanipal, the Neo-Assyrian empire began to unravel due to a series of bitter civil wars, and Assyria was attacked by the Babylonians and Medes. From about 616 BCE, in a coalition with the Scythians and Cimmerians, they besieged Nineveh, sacking the town in 612, and later razing it to the ground . The Assyrian empire as such came to an end by 605 BC, with the Medes and Babylonians dividing its colonies between them. Following its defeat in 612, the site remained largely unoccupied for centuries with only a scattering of Assyrians living amid the ruins until the Sassanian period, although Assyrians continue to live in the surrounding area to this day. Architecture in Assyria Assyrian architecture eventually emerged from the shadow of its predecessors to assume distinctive attributes, such as domes and diverse building materials, that set it apart from other political entities. Identify the distinguishing characteristics of Assyrian architecture Key Points - Inscriptions and reliefs produced under the Assyrian Empire depict structures with octagonal and circular domes , which were unique to the region at the time. - Assyrian ziggurats eventually consisted of enameled walls and two towers. - Massive fortified walls are a common attribute in Assyrian fortresses, pointing to the political instability of the time and the need for architectural defense. - Architectural materials in the Assyrian empire were quite diverse, consisting of a variety of woods, stones, and metals. Key Terms - lamassu : A guardian figure consisting of the head of a human, massive wings, and the body of a lion or bull. During the Assyrian Empire’s historical span from the 25th century BCE to 612 BCE, architectural styles went through noticeable changes. Assyrian architects were initially influenced by previous forms dominant in Sumer and Akkad. However, Assyrian structures eventually evolved into their own unique style. Temples Little is known of the construction of Assyrian temples with the exception of the distinctive ziggurats and massive remains at Mugheir. Ziggurats in the Assyrian Empire came to be built with two towers (as opposed to the single central tower of previous styles) and decorated with colored enameled tiles. Contemporaneous inscriptions and reliefs describe and depict structures with octagonal and circular domes, unique architectural systems for the time. Little remains of the temple at Mugheir, but the ruins of its base remain quite impressive, measuring 198 feet (60 m) long by 133 feet (41 m) wide by 70 feet (21 m) high. Dur-Sharrukin Building plans remained rectangular through much of the empire’s history. The fortress of Sargon II (reigned 722–705 BCE) at Dur-Sharrukin, or Khorsabad, was the best known. Consisting of a stone foundation punctuated by seven gates, the fortress housed the emperor’s palace and a ziggurat among massive load-bearing walls with regularly spaced towers. Despite the intended political symbolism of Assyrian superiority, these fortified walls signify preparation for an attack by enemy invaders. Among the ornamental features excavated was a monumental lamassu outside the throne room. After the death of Sargon II, the site was abandoned. Nimrud Lamassu figures abounded throughout the Assyrian Empire, featuring in the Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II (reigned 883-859 BCE) at Nimrud. Reconstructions show that they adorned the gateways of the palace, including an entrance marked by a round arch . According to contemporaneous inscriptions, the palace consisted of wood from a diverse number of tree species, alabaster , limestone , and a variety of precious metals. As with Dur-Sharrukin, the palace of Ashurnasirpal II was surrounded by fortified load-bearing walls. Balawat Gates Builders increasingly used wood, particularly cedar and cypress, in architecture. As a result, much of the architecture has decayed, leaving archaeologists to produce reconstructions for present-day scholars. One example is the Balawat Gates, from the Assyrian outpost of Balawat, or Imgur-Enlil. Two sets were commissioned during the reign of Ashurnasirpal II and one addition set under the reign of his son Shalmaneser III (859–824 BCE). Assyrian inscriptions suggest the gates were made of cedar. Experts estimate that the gates stood over 22 feet high. The metal bands that adorned the gates suggest that they measured 285 feet wide. Lacking hinges, the gates opened by turning enormous pine pillars that rotated in stone sockets. Despite the long-term fragility of wood, the scale of the gates and the mechanisms by which they opened and closed point to the political instability of the time and the need to defend all parts of the empire. Artifacts of Assyria Assyrian artifacts consist of a variety of media and range in size from hand-held to monumental. Discuss artifacts that have been found from Assyria Key Points - The Assyrian Lion Weights and the Statue of Ashurnasirpal II represent rare examples of surviving Assyrian sculpture in the round . - The Assyrian Lion Weights represent the importance of weights and measures and accommodation of more than one language. - The Statue of Ashurnasirpal II, the lamassu reliefs , and the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III provide examples of art rich in political and religious symbolism . - The Statue of Ashurnasirpal II and the lamassu reliefs provide examples of royal hairstyles and beard lengths. Key Terms - stylized :Art that is not naturalistic, yet not distorted enough to be abstract. - sculpture in the round :A free-standing object that is usually meant to be viewed from multiple angles. - relief :A sculpture that projects from a background. - Obelisk :Four-sided monument that tapers with height and is usually capped by a pyramidal form. - register :A usually horizontal band on an artwork that divides designs into logical patterns. - bas relief :A sculpture with minimal projection from its background. Artifacts produced during the Assyrian Empire range from hand-held to monumental and consist of a variety of media , from clay to bronze to a diversity of stone. While reliefs comprise the majority of what archaeologists have found, existing sculptures in the round shed light on Assyrian numerical systems and politics. Assyrian Lion Weights The Assyrian Lion Weights (800-700 BCE) are a group of solid bronze weights that range from two centimeters (approximately 0.8 inches) to 30 centimeters (approximately 12 inches). Admired as sculptures in the round today, the weights represent one of only two systems of weights and measures in the region at the time. This system was based on heavy mina (about one kilogram) and was used for weighting metals. Additionally, they bear inscriptions in Assyrian cuneiform and Phoenician script, indicating use by speakers of both languages. Eight lions in the set bear the only known inscriptions from the reign of Shalmaneser V (reigned 727-722 BCE). Statue of Ashurnasirpal II This magnesite (magnesium carbonate) sculpture of Ashurnasirpal II (9th century BCE) serves as a rare example of sculpture in the round produced during the Assyrian Empire. The kings stands stiffly with a sickle in his right hand (at his side) and a mace in his left, which he holds to his torso. Both objects are symbolic; the sickle was used as a weapon against monsters, while the mace was a symbol of political and religious authority. The inscription on his chest announce his genealogy, titles, and military triumphs. Although the sculpture is stylized , it gives the viewer a glimpse into fashion norms for rulers at the time. The length of the king’s hair and beard set him apart from commoners, who would have found such styles impractical. Lamassu The lamassu was a mythological guardian figure with large wings, the head of a human, and the body of a lion or a bull. Originally a protective spirit to the households of Babylonian commoners, the lamassu was later adopted by Assyrian royalty to protect political and religious interests. In Assyrian sculpture, lamassu figures bear similar beards and hairstyles to those of Ashurnasirpal II in the sculpture discussed above. These monumental sculptures usually appeared in relief form in pairs at major entrances to cities, palaces, or fortresses. Each lamassu directed its gaze toward one of the cardinal directions, which explains why some look straight ahead and others have their heads turned. Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III Erected during a time of civil war (825 BCE), the limestone Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III is the most intact Assyrian obelisk found to date. Each side consists of five registers of bas reliefs that celebrate the achievements of King Shalmaneser III (reigned 858-824 BCE). Three registers on each side focus on conquered kings from specific regions paying tribute to the Assyrian ruler. The registers at the top and bottom of each side bear an inscription from the annals of Shalmaneser III, celebrating his annual military campaigns. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Nineveh_north_palace_king_hunting_lion.jpg. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 501px-Human_headed_winged_bull_profile.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=54505. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Lamassu. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamassu. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Shalmaneser V. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalmaneser_V. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Obelisk. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Obelisk. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Statue of Ashurnasirpal II. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Ashurnasirpal_II. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Assyrian Lion Weights. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_lion_weights. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:23.779942	2020-05-01T17:30:30	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/03%3A_Art_of_the_Ancient_Near_East/3.02%3A_Assyria", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "3.2: Assyria", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/03%3A_Art_of_the_Ancient_Near_East/3.03%3A_Neo-Babylonia	3.3: Neo-Babylonia Neo-Babylonia The Neo-Babylonian Empire developed an artistic style motivated by their ancient Mesopotamian heritage. Describe the artistic and architectural accomplishments of King Nebuchadnezzar II, including the city of Babylon Key Points - The Neo-Babylonian Empire was a civilization in Mesopotamia between 626 BCE and 539 BCE. During the preceding three centuries, Babylonia had been ruled by the Akkadians and Assyrians, but threw off the yoke of external domination after the death of the last strong Assyrian ruler. - Neo-Babylonian art and architecture reached its zenith under King Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled from 604–562 BC. He was a great patron of art and urban development and rebuilt the city of Babylon to reflect its ancient glory. - Most of the evidence for Neo-Babylonian art and architecture is literary. Of the material evidence that survives, the most important fragments are from the Ishtar Gate of Babylon. - Neo-Babylonians were known for their colorful glazed bricks, which they shaped into bas-reliefs of dragons, lions, and aurochs to decorate the Ishtar Gate. Key Terms - glazed :Having a vitreous coating whose primary purposes are decoration or protection. - aurochs :An extinct European mammal, Bos primigenius, the ancestor of domestic cattle. - ziggurat :A temple tower of the ancient Mesopotamian valley, having the form of a terraced pyramid of successively receding stories. The Neo-Babylonian Empire, also known as the Chaldean Empire, was a civilization in Mesopotamia that began in 626 BC and ended in 539 BC. During the preceding three centuries, Babylonia had been ruled by the Akkadians and Assyrians, but threw off the yoke of external domination after the death of Assurbanipal, the last strong Assyrian ruler. The Neo-Babylonian period was a renaissance that witnessed a great flourishing of art, architecture, and science. The Neo-Babylonian rulers were motivated by the antiquity of their heritage and followed a traditionalist cultural policy, based on the ancient Sumero-Akkadian culture . Ancient artworks from the Old-Babylonian period were painstakingly restored and preserved, and treated with a respect verging on religious reverence. Neo-Babylonian art and architecture reached its zenith under King Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled from 604–562 BC and was a great patron of urban development, bent on rebuilding all of Babylonia’s cities to reflect their former glory. It was Nebuchadnezzar II’s vision and sponsorship that turned Babylon into the immense and beautiful city of legend. The city spread over three square miles, surrounded by moats and ringed by a double circuit of walls. The river Euphrates, which flowed through the city, was spanned by a beautiful stone bridge. At the heart of the city lay the ziggurat Etemenanki , literally “temple of the foundation of heaven and earth.” Originally seven stories high, it is believed to have provided the inspiration for the biblical story of the Tower of Babel. It was also during this period that Nebuchadnezzar supposedly built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, although there is no definitive archeological evidence to establish their precise location. Ancient Greek and Roman writers describe the gardens in vivid detail. However, the lack of physical ruins have led many experts to speculate whether the Hanging Gardens existed at all. If this is the case, writers might have been describing ideal mythologized Eastern gardens or a famous garden built by the Assyrian king Sennacherib (704–681 BCE) at Nineveh roughly a century earlier. If the Hanging Gardens did exist, they were likely destroyed around the first century CE. Most of the evidence for Neo-Babylonian art and architecture is literary. The material evidence itself is mostly fragmentary. Some of the most important fragments that survive are from the Ishtar Gate, the eighth gate to the inner city of Babylon. It was constructed in 575 BC by order of Nebuchadnezzar II, using glazed brick with alternating rows of bas-relief dragons and aurochs. Dedicated to the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, it was a double gate, and its roofs and doors were made of cedar, according to the dedication plaque. Babylon’s Processional Way, which was lined with brilliantly colorful glazed brick walls decorated with lions, ran through the middle of the gate. Statues of the Babylonian gods were paraded through the gate and down the Processional Way during New Year’s celebrations. The reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate and Processional Way, built at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin in 1930, features material excavated from the original site. To compensate for missing pieces, museum staff created new bricks in a specially designed kiln that was able to match the original color and finish. Other parts of the gate, which include glazed brick lions and dragons, are housed in different museums around the world. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ish-tar Gate detail. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ish-tar_Gate_detail.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Fotothek df ps 0002470 Innenru00e4ume ^ Ausstellungsgebu00e4ude. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_ps_0002470_Innenr%C3%A4ume_%5E_Ausstellungsgeb%C3%A4ude.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Neo-Babylonian Empire. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - aurochs. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aurochs. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ishtar Gate. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishtar_Gate. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/glazed. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - ziggurat. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ziggurat. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:23.946710	2020-05-01T17:30:32	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/03%3A_Art_of_the_Ancient_Near_East/3.03%3A_Neo-Babylonia", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "3.3: Neo-Babylonia", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/03%3A_Art_of_the_Ancient_Near_East/3.04%3A_Persia	3.4: Persia Art of the Persian Empire The art of the Persian Empire combined a diversity of styles from other cultures to create a unique Persian style. Discuss the art produced at the beginning of the Persian Empire Key Points - Assyria, ancient Egypt, and Mycenae are three of many cultures whose styles feature in Persian art. - Gold and silver objects demonstrate advanced skill in metalworking among artists living in the Persian Empire. - Multilingual inscriptions, such as those on a relief of Cyrus the Great, demonstrate the diversity of those living in the Persian Empire. Key Terms - rhyton :A large ceremonial drinking cup fashioned in the shape of an animal’s head. - syncretic :Art that bears the style(s), themes, or other attributes of more than one culture. - stylized :Art that is not naturalistic but not distorted enough to be abstract. Persia, centered around present-day Iran, was the site of a vast empire that existed in three general phases. The Achaemenids (550–330 BCE) established the first Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great, who quickly expanded the empire’s borders. Zoroastrianism , an ancient monotheistic religion, dominated the Persian Empire until Islam supplanted it in the seventh century CE. While the religion was unique, the art of the empire was largely syncretic , combining the styles of diverse conquered and neighboring peoples. The result was a new, unique Persian style. Metalworking One artistic technique incorporated from other cultures involved the smithing and hammering of gold, possibly adopted from the Medes. The most common surviving metal objects are ceremonial drinking cups called rhyta made of gold and silver. Rhyta were used in prehistoric Aegean and Greek cultures, most notably the Mycenaeans in the sixteenth century BCE. The gold rhyton below, which bears a stylized ram’s head in relief, dates to the Achaemenid period. Better known than ceremonial rhyta is the Oxus Treasure, a 180-piece trove of reliefs, figurines , jewelry, and coins made of gold and silver. The treasure is important because it demonstrates the variety of forms in which metal was worked during the early Persian Empire. The gold chariot below demonstrates the precision possible with small sculptures and includes a small votive based on the Egyptian god Bes. The griffin-headed bracelet also found in the treasure was once inlaid with enamel and precious stones. Once thought to have originated with the ancient Egyptians, the manner of goldsmithing evident in the amulet was later found in Assyrian art. The style of the animals originated with the Scythians, who inhabited the Steppes of Russia. Cyrus the Great Persian art incorporated not only the styles of conquered peoples but also their languages. A large bas relief representing Cyrus the Great as a four-winged guardian figure proclaims his rank and ethnicity as an Achaemenidian in three languages. The stylized profile pose in which the king stands recalls the dominant Egyptian style of depicting the human body in art. Cyrus is believed to have died in December 530 BCE and was interred in a tomb that further demonstrates the syncretism of Persian art. The load-bearing tomb, pyramidal-roofed, sits atop a geometric mound that resembles a stepped pyramid of Pre-Dynastic Egypt. Despite the razing of the original city centuries ago, the tomb remains largely intact. Art and Architecture of the Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire was known for its eclectic style of art and architecture synthesized from many foreign influences between 550 and 330 BCE. Discuss Achaemenid art and architecture in the Persian Empire Key Points - The Achaemenid Empire stretched across western Asia from the Indus Valley in the east to Thrace and Macedon in the west. - The quintessential characteristic of Persian art and architecture is its eclectic nature, combining elements of Median, Assyrian, and Asiatic Greek styles . - The Achaemenid Persians were particularly skilled at constructing complex frieze reliefs , crafting precious metals, and glazed brick masonry. They also constructed spectacular cities for governance and habitation, temples for worship and social gatherings, and mausoleums honoring fallen kings. - The ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire was Persepolis, which preserves the best of ancient Persian architecture. It is best known for its pillared Apadana Hall, decorated with complex sculptural reliefs depicting the king and his subjects. - The palace at Persepolis stood for nearly 200 years until it was looted and burned by the armies of Alexander the Great in 330 BCE. Key Terms - hypostyle :Having a roof supported on a row of columns. - immortal :A member of an elite regiment of the Persian army. - fluted :Having semicylindrical vertical grooves, either for decoration or to trim weight. - capital :The topmost part of a column. - frieze :Any sculptured or richly ornamented band in a building or, by extension, in rich pieces of furniture. Ancient Persian art developed and flourished under the Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE), an Iranian empire in Western Asia, which eventually came to rule the ancient world from the Indus Valley in the east to Thrace and Macedon in the west. Not only was the Achaemenid Dynasty militarily and politically influential, but it also left a long-lasting social and cultural legacy throughout its vast realms. Among its greatest cultural achievements was the development of Achaemenid art and architecture, which were intimately intertwined, reflected techniques and influences from the many corners of its huge empire, and synthesized different styles to develop a unique Persian style. The Achaemenid Persians were particularly skilled at constructing complex frieze reliefs; crafting precious metals into jewelry, vessels , statuettes, and a myriad of other shapes; glazed brick masonry; decorating palaces; and creating gardens. They also constructed spectacular cities for governance and habitation, temples for worship and social gatherings, and mausoleums honoring fallen kings. The quintessential characteristic of Persian art and architecture is its eclectic nature, combining elements of Median, Assyrian, and Asiatic Greek styles. Persepolis The extraordinary architectural legacy of the Achaemenids is best seen in the ruins of the opulent city of Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire. Located about 70 kilometers northeast of the modern Iranian city of Shiraz, Persepolis is a wide, elevated complex 40 feet high, 100 feet wide, and a third of a mile long. It consists of multiple halls, corridors, a wide terrace, and a symmetrical double stairway providing access to the terrace, decorated with reliefs depicting scenes from nature and daily life. The largest hall in the complex is the audience hall of Apadana. This hypostyle hall has a total of 36 fluted columns with capitals sculpted into unique forms . It famously features the exquisite “ Treasure Reliefs”—friezes emphasizing the divine presence and power of the king and depicting scenes from all across his vast empire and his army of Persian immortals . The construction of Persepolis was initiated by Darius I (550–486 BCE), who also commissioned the construction of a grand palace in the city of Susa. The palace featured imperial art on an entirely unprecedented scale. Materials and artists were drawn from all corners of the empire to work on it. Styles, tastes, and motifs intermingled in a lavish expression of the hybrid art and architecture that was characteristic of the Persian Achaemenid style. This attention to diversity also appears in the reliefs from the hall of Apadana, in which leaders and dignitaries from various provinces appear in regional fashions beneath a frieze punctuated by male lamassus adopted from previous Mesopotamian cultures . The palace at Persepolis stood for nearly 200 years. In 330 BCE, the Macedonian emperor Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) captured the city and allowed his troops to loot the palace. Inscriptions describe a great fire that engulfed “the palace” but do not specify which palace. Scholars believe these writings describe the destruction of Persepolis, based on the condition of the ruins found there. The fire likely started in the living quarters of the former emperor Xerxes I (518–465 BCE) and spread throughout the rest of the city. This event brought an end to the Achaemenid Empire and made Persepolis a Macedonian province. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Early Empire.png. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Empire#/media/File:Achaemenid_(greatest_extent).svg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Rython_boz.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rython_boz.jpg#/media/File:Rython_boz.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 632px-Oxus_chariot_model.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oxus_chariot_model.jpg#/media/File:Oxus_chariot_model.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 480px-Armlet_from_the_Oxus_Treasure_BM_1897.12-31.116.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armlet_from_the_Oxus_Treasure_BM_1897.12-31.116.jpg#/media/File:Armlet_from_the_Oxus_Treasure_BM_1897.12-31.116.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 360px-Pasargades_winged_man.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pasargades_winged_man.jpg#/media/File:Pasargades_winged_man.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 320px-Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great.jpg#/media/File:Tomb_of_Cyrus_the_Great.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Persian Empire. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Empire. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Zoroastrianism. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Oxus Treasure. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxus_Treasure. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Persian Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mycenaean Greece. Provided by : Wikpedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cyrus the Great. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Achaemenid Empire. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Rhyton. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyton. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 2009-11-24 Persepolis 02. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2009-11-24_Persepolis_02.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Decorative motives2 griffins frieze Louvre Sb3323. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Decorative_motives2_griffins_frieze_Louvre_Sb3323.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Persepolis The Persian Soldiers. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Persepolis_The_Persian_Soldiers.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Achaemenid Empire. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Xerxes I. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Alexander the Great. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Persepolis. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Achaemenid architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - frieze. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/frieze. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - hypostyle. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypostyle. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/fluted. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - immortal. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/immortal. 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https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art	4: Ancient Egyptian Art Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52947 Boundless Boundless 4.1: Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Art 4.2: The Early Dynastic Period 4.3: The Old Kingdom 4.4: The Middle Kingdom 4.5: The New Kingdom 4.6: Late Egyptian Art	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:24.126381	2020-05-01T17:29:51	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "4: Ancient Egyptian Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art/4.01%3A_Introduction_to_Ancient_Egyptian_Art	4.1: Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Art Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Art Ancient Egyptian art is the painting, sculpture, and architecture produced by the civilization in the Nile Valley from 5000 BCE to 300 CE. Create a timeline of ancient Egyptian civilization, marking the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms Key Points - Ancient Egyptian art reached considerable sophistication in painting and sculpture , and was both highly stylized and symbolic. - The Nile River, with its predictable flooding and abundant natural resources, allowed the ancient Egyptian civilization to thrive sustainably and culturally. Much of the surviving art comes from tombs and monuments; hence, the emphasis on life after death and the preservation of knowledge of the past. In a narrower sense, Ancient Egyptian art refers to the second and third dynasty art developed in Egypt from 3000 BCE and used until the third century. - Most elements of Egyptian art remained remarkably stable over this 3,000 year period, with relatively little outside influence. Key Terms - wadi :A valley, gully, or stream bed in northern Africa and southwest Asia that remains dry except during the rainy season. - Ancient Egypt :A civilization that existed in the valley of the Nile River from 3150 BC to 30 BC. Noted for building the Great Pyramids of Giza. - pyramid :An ancient massive construction with a square or rectangular base and four triangular sides meeting in an apex, such as those built as tombs in Egypt or as bases for temples in Mesoamerica. Ancient Egyptian art includes the painting, sculpture, architecture, and other arts produced by the civilization in the lower Nile Valley from 5000 BCE to 300 CE. Ancient Egyptian art reached considerable sophistication in painting and sculpture, and was both highly stylized and symbolic. Much of the surviving art comes from tombs and monuments; hence, the emphasis on life after death and the preservation of knowledge of the past. In a narrower sense, Ancient Egyptian art refers to art of the second and third dynasty developed in Egypt from 3000 BCE until the third century. Most elements of Egyptian art remained remarkably stable over this 3,000 year period, with relatively little outside influence. The quality of observation and execution began at a high level and remained so throughout the period. Ancient Egypt was able to flourish because of its location on the Nile River, which floods at predictable intervals, allowing controlled irrigation, and providing nutrient-rich soil favorable to agriculture. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of Aswan, and nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt are found along riverbanks. The Nile ends in a large delta that empties into the Mediterranean Sea. The settlers of the area were able to eventually produce a surplus of edible crops, which in turn led to a growth in the population. The regular flooding and ebbing of the river is also responsible for the diverse natural resources in the region. Natural resources in the Nile Valley during the rise of ancient Egypt included building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones, all of which contributed to the architecture, monuments, jewels, and other art forms for which this civilization would become well known. High-quality building stones were abundant. The ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile Valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis (valleys) of the eastern desert. Deposits of decorative stones dotted the eastern desert and were collected early in Egyptian history. The Prehistory of Egypt spans the period of earliest human settlement to the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt in ca. 3100 BCE, beginning with King Menes/Narmer. The Predynastic Period is traditionally equivalent to the Neolithic period, beginning ca. 6000 BCE and including the Protodynastic Period (Naqada III). The Predynastic period is generally divided into cultural periods, each named after the place where a certain type of Egyptian settlement was first discovered. However, the same gradual development that characterizes the Protodynastic period is present throughout the entire Predynastic period, and individual “cultures” must not be interpreted as separate entities but as largely subjective divisions used to facilitate the study of the entire period. Old Kingdom The Old Kingdom is the name given to the period in the third millennium BCE when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievement—the first of three so-called “Kingdom” periods which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley (the others being Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom). While the Old Kingdom was a period of internal security and prosperity, it was followed by a period of disunity and relative cultural decline referred to by Egyptologists as the First Intermediate Period. During the Old Kingdom, the king of Egypt (not called the Pharaoh until the New Kingdom) became a living god, who ruled absolutely and could demand the services and wealth of his subjects. Under King Djoser, the first king of the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, the royal capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis. A new era of building was initiated at Saqqara under his reign. King Djoser’s architect, Imhotep, is credited with the development of building with stone and with the conception of the new architectural form—the Step Pyramid . Indeed, the Old Kingdom is perhaps best known for the large number of pyramids constructed at this time as pharaonic burial places. For this reason, the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as “the Age of the Pyramids.” Middle Kingdom The Middle Kingdom of Egypt is the period in the history of ancient Egypt stretching from the establishment of the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Thirteenth Dynasty, between 2055 and 1650 BCE. During this period, the funerary cult of Osiris rose to dominate Egyptian popular religion. New Kingdom The New Kingdom of Egypt, also referred to as the Egyptian Empire, is the period between the sixteenth century and the eleventh century BCE, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of Egypt. The New Kingdom followed the Second Intermediate Period and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate Period. It was Egypt’s most prosperous time and marked the peak of its power. The Ptolemaic dynasty was a Macedonian Greek royal family which ruled the Ptolemaic Empire in Egypt during the Hellenistic period. Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 BCE to 30 BCE. They were the last dynasty of ancient Egypt. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Saqqara BW 5. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saqqara_BW_5.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - La Tombe de Horemheb cropped. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_Tombe_de_Horemheb_cropped.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Ptolemaic dynasty. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Late Period of ancient Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Third Intermediate Period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Amarna art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Predynastic Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - New Kingdom. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Kingdom. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:24.202129	2020-05-01T17:30:35	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art/4.01%3A_Introduction_to_Ancient_Egyptian_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "4.1: Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art/4.02%3A_The_Early_Dynastic_Period	4.2: The Early Dynastic Period Art in the Early Dynastic Period The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as art, architecture and religion, took shape during the Early Dynastic Period. Summarize the common aesthetic practices in the Early Dynastic Period of Egyptian art, including the use of symbolism and color Key Points - The Early Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately followed the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt around 3100 BC, and is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties . - Ancient Egyptian art forms depicted gods, human beings, heroic battles, and nature, and were intended to provide solace in the afterlife; many of the common aesthetic practices were formalized during the Early Dynastic Period. - Much of Egyptian art revolved around the theme of permanence, as artists endeavored to preserve everything from the present as clearly and permanently as possible. - Symbolism , ranging from the pharaoh’s regalia (signifying his power to maintain order) to depictions of goddesses, gods, and animals, is omnipresent in Egyptian art. Colors also served symbolic purposes to suggest concepts such as youth, royalty, or divinity. - The first mastabas were constructed as burial sites for eminent Egyptians and became models for the Step Pyramids that would be developed later in the Old Kingdom. Key Terms - pictographs (hieroglyphics) :An ideogram that conveys its meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object; often used in writing and graphic systems. - mastaba :A rectangular structure with a flat top and slightly sloping sides, built during Ancient Egyptian times above tombs that were situated on flat land. The Early Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately followed the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt around 3100 BC. It is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties, lasting from the Protodynastic Period of Egypt until about 2686 BC, or the beginning of the Old Kingdom. During the First Dynasty, the capital moved from Abydos to Memphis, with a unified Egypt ruled by an Egyptian god-king. Abydos remained the major holy land in the south. Before the unification of Egypt, the land was settled with autonomous villages. With the early dynasties, and for much of Egypt’s history thereafter, the country came to be known as the Two Lands, and the rulers established a national administration and appointed royal governors. The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization , such as art, architecture and many aspects of their polytheistic religion, took shape during the Early Dynastic period. Many of the common aesthetic practices of Egyptian art and architecture were formalized during this era, as Egyptian society grew and advanced rapidly toward refined civilization. Much of Egyptian art revolved around the theme of permanence, from large architectural structures to writing and imagery of the afterlife. Artists endeavored to preserve everything from the present as clearly and permanently as possible. A new and distinctive pottery appeared during this time, along with the use of copper, the Mesopotamian process of sun-dried bricks, and architectural building principles such as the arch and decorative recessed walls. Ceramic objects were commonly interred with the dead in tombs. Mundane objects such as plates ensured the continuation of activities practiced in the physical world, while other vessels stored the internal organs of the body after it was embalmed. Open-air temple buildings of the central government were constructed of wood or sandstone. It was also during this period that the Egyptian writing system was further developed: Initially composed of a few symbols, by the end of the third dynasty, it had been expanded to include more than 200 symbols, both phonograms and ideograms. While funeral practices for peasants remained much the same as in predynastic times, wealthier members of Egyptian society began seeking something more. The first mastabas were constructed in the form of a flat-roofed, rectangular structure with outward sloping sides that marked the burial site of many eminent Egyptians. These structures became models for the Step Pyramids that would be developed later in the Old Kingdom. Symbolism is omnipresent in Egyptian art, and played an important role in establishing a sense of order. Symbols ranged from the pharaoh’s regalia (signifying his power to maintain order), to the individual symbols of Egyptian gods and goddesses, to animals depicted as highly symbolic figures. The crocodile god Sobek, depicted in the sunken relief below (and possibly in the imagery of the plate above), served a variety of purposes including fertility, military prowess, and protection. On the other hand, the god Seth (also known as Set), sometimes symbolized by a hippopotamus, symbolized chaos and disorder. Colors were more expressive rather than natural. For instance, red skin painted on characters implied vigorous, tanned youths; yellow skin was used for women or middle-aged men who worked indoors; blue or gold indicated divinity because of its unnatural appearance and association with precious materials; and the use of black for royal figures expressed the fertility of the Nile from which Egypt was born. Stereotypes were employed to indicate the geographical origins of foreigners. Art forms were characterized by regularity and detailed depiction of gods, human beings, heroic battles, and nature, and were intended to provide solace to the deceased in the afterlife. Media ranged from papyrus drawings to pictographs (hieroglyphics) and included funerary sculpture carved in relief and in the round from sandstone, quartz diorite, and granite. The art displays an extraordinarily vivid representation of the Ancient Egyptian’s socioeconomic status and belief systems. Architecture of the Early Dynastic Period The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian architecture took shape during the Early Dynastic Period. Describe the building materials and characteristics of Egyptian architecture during the Early Dynastic Period Key Points - Due to the scarcity of wood, the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and limestone . - Ancient Egyptian houses were made of mud collected from the Nile River. The mud was placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden. - Ancient Egyptian temples were aligned with astronomically significant events like solstices and equinoxes, requiring precise measurements at the moment of the particular event. - Large tombs of pharaohs at Abydos and Naqada, in addition to cemeteries at Saqqara and Helwan near Memphis, reveal structures built largely of wood and mud bricks, with some small use of stone for walls and floors. - Human sacrifice was practiced as part of the funerary rituals associated with all of the pharaohs of the first dynasty and is clearly demonstrated by retainers being buried near each pharaoh’s tomb. Key Terms - Early Dynastic Period :The period in Egyptian history immediately following the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt, c. 3100 BC; generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties. - tenon :A projecting member left by cutting away the wood around it, and made to insert into a mortise, and in this way secure together the parts of a frame. First and Second Dynasties Due to the scarcity of wood, the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and limestone. After the end of the Early Dynastic Period , stone became used in tombs and temples, while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses, and the walls of temple precincts. Ancient Egyptian houses were made of mud collected from the Nile River. The mud was placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden. Many Egyptian towns situated near the cultivated area of the Nile Valley have disappeared, either by flooding as the river bed slowly rose during the millennia, or the mud bricks of which they were built were used by peasants as fertilizer. Fortunately, the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud brick structures. Large tombs of pharaohs at Abydos and Naqada, in addition to cemeteries at Saqqara and Helwan near Memphis, reveal structures built largely of wood and mud bricks, with some small use of stone for walls and floors. Stone was used in quantity for the manufacture of ornaments , vessels , and occasionally for statues. Tamarix was used to build boats such as the Abydos Boats. One of the most important indigenous woodworking techniques was the fixed mortise and tenon joint, where xed tenon was made by shaping the end of one timber to fit into a mortise (or hole) that is cut into a second timber. A variation of this joint using a free tenon eventually became one of the most important features in Mediterranean and Egyptian shipbuilding. It creates a union between two planks or other components by inserting a separate tenon into a cavity (mortise) of the corresponding size cut into each component. Tombs and Funerary Practices Human sacrifice was practiced as part of the funerary rituals associated with all of the pharaohs of the first dynasty. It is clearly demonstrated as existing during this dynasty by retainers being buried near each pharaoh’s tomb as well as animals sacrificed for the burial. The tomb of Djer is associated with the burials of 338 individuals. The people and animals sacrificed, such as donkeys, were expected to assist the pharaoh in the afterlife. For unknown reasons, this practice ended with the conclusion of the dynasty, with shabtis taking the place of actual people to aid the pharaohs with the work expected of them in the afterlife. Ancient Egyptian temples were aligned with astronomically significant events like solstices and equinoxes, requiring precise measurements at the moment of the particular event. Measurements at the most significant temples may have been ceremonially undertaken by the pharaoh himself. Painting of the Early Dynastic Period The Early Dynastic Period of Ancient Egypt reached a high level in painting and sculpture that was both highly stylized and symbolic. Describe the characteristics of painting and sculpture during the Early Dynastic Period Key Points - Much of the surviving art of the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt comes from tombs and monuments, and thus there is an emphasis on life after death and the preservation of knowledge of the past. - All Egyptian reliefs were painted, and less prestigious works in tombs, temples, and palaces were just painted on a flat surface. - Egyptian paintings are painted in such a way to show a profile view and a side view of the animal or person, a technique known as composite view. - The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief , which is well suited to very bright sunlight. - By Dynasty IV (2680–2565 BCE) at the latest, the idea of the Ka statue was firmly established. These were put in tombs as a resting place for the ka portion of the soul. Key Terms - relief :A type of artwork in which shapes or figures protrude from a flat background. - Ka statue :A type of ancient Egyptian statue intended to provide a resting place for the ka, or spirit, of the person after death. The ancient Egyptians believed the ka (or life-force), along with the physical body, the name, the ba (personality or soul), and the šwt (shadow) made up the five aspects of a person. Ancient Egyptian art reached a high level in painting and sculpture , and was both highly stylized and symbolic. Much of the surviving art comes from tombs and monuments, and thus there is an emphasis on life after death and the preservation of knowledge of the past. Painting All Egyptian reliefs were painted, and less prestigious works in tombs, temples, and palaces were just painted on a flat surface. Stone surfaces were prepared by whitewash, or, if rough, a layer of coarse mud plaster, with a smoother gesso layer above; some finer limestones could take paint directly. Pigments were mostly mineral, chosen to withstand strong sunlight without fading. The binding medium used in painting remains unclear; egg tempera and various gums and resins have been suggested. It is clear that true fresco , painted into a thin layer of wet plaster, was not used. Instead the paint was applied to dried plaster, in what is called fresco a secco in Italian. After painting, a varnish or resin was usually applied as a protective coating, and many paintings with some exposure to the elements have survived remarkably well, although those on fully exposed walls rarely have. Small objects including wooden statuettes were often painted using similar techniques. Many ancient Egyptian paintings have survived due to Egypt’s extremely dry climate. The paintings were often made with the intent of making a pleasant afterlife for the deceased. The themes included journey through the afterworld or protective deities introducing the deceased to the gods of the underworld (such as Osiris). Some tomb paintings show activities that the deceased were involved in when they were alive and wished to carry on doing for eternity. Egyptian paintings are painted in such a way to show a profile view and a side view of the animal or person—a technique known as composite view. Their main colors were red, blue, black, gold, and green. Sculpture The monumental sculpture of Ancient Egypt is world famous, but refined and delicate small works exist in much greater numbers. The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very bright sunlight. The main figures in reliefs adhere to the same figure convention as in painting, with parted legs (where not seated) and head shown from the side, but the torso from the front, and a standard set of proportions making up the figure, using 18 “fists” to go from the ground to the hair-line on the forehead. This appears as early as the Narmer Palette from Dynasty I, but elsewhere the convention is not used for minor figures shown engaged in some activity, such as the captives and corpses. Other conventions make statues of males darker than females. Very conventionalized portrait statues appear from as early as Dynasty II (before 2,780 BCE), and, with the exception of the art of the Amarna period of Ahkenaten and some other periods such as Dynasty XII, the idealized features of rulers changed little until after the Greek conquest. By Dynasty IV (2680–2565 BCE) at the latest, the idea of the Ka statue was firmly established. These were put in tombs as a resting place for the ka portion of the soul. The so-called reserve heads, or plain hairless heads, are especially naturalistic, though the extent to which there was real portraiture in Ancient Egypt is still debated. Early tombs also contained small models of the slaves, animals, buildings and objects – such as boats necessary for the deceased to continue his lifestyle in the afterworld – and later Ushabti figures. However, the great majority of wooden sculpture has been lost to decay, or probably used as fuel. Small figures of deities, or their animal personifications, are commonly found in popular materials such as pottery . There were also large numbers of small carved objects, from figures of the gods to toys and carved utensils. Alabaster was often used for expensive versions of these, while painted wood was the most common material, normally used for the small models of animals, slaves, and possessions that were placed in tombs to provide for the afterlife. Very strict conventions were followed while crafting statues, and specific rules governed the appearance of every Egyptian god. For example, the sky god (Horus) was essentially to be represented with a falcon’s head, while the god of funeral rites (Anubis) was to be always shown with a jackal’s head. Artistic works were ranked according to their compliance with these conventions, and the conventions were followed so strictly that, over three thousand years, the appearance of statues changed very little. These conventions were intended to convey the timeless and non-aging quality of the figure’s ka. Sculpture of the Early Dynastic Period The small-scale sculptures of the Early Dynastic Period in ancient Egypt provide insight into the foundations of Egyptian customs and the unification of the country. Discuss the characteristics of sculpture during the Early Dynastic Period Key Points - Many conventions of ancient Egyptian sculpture developed during the Early Dynastic period. - The sculpture of Early Dynastic Egypt consisted of small objects carved in the round , in sunken relief , and in low relief. - The small-scale El-Amra clay model of cattle provides an example of typical tomb sculptures of Early Dynastic Egypt. - The rich detail of the Palette of Narmer provides an artistic interpretation of the unification of Egypt. Key Terms - hieratic scale :A manner of depicting figures’ sizes as relative to their importance. The monumental sculpture of Ancient Egypt is world famous, but refined and delicate small works exist in much greater numbers. The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunken relief, which is well suited to very bright sunlight. The main figures in reliefs adhere to the same figure convention as in painting, with parted legs (where not seated) and head shown from the side, but the torso from the front, and a standard set of proportions making up the figure, using 18 “fists” to go from the ground to the hair-line on the forehead. This appears as early as the Narmer Palette from Dynasty I (c. 31st century BCE), but there, as elsewhere, the convention is not used for minor figures shown engaged in some activity, such as the captives and corpses. Other conventions make statues of males darker than females. Very conventionalized portrait statues appear from as early as Dynasty II (before 2,780 BCE). Early tombs contained small sculptural models of the slaves, animals, buildings, and objects, such as boats necessary for the deceased to continue his lifestyle in the afterlife, and later Ushabti figures. However, the great majority of wooden sculpture has been lost to decay, or probably used as fuel. Small figures of deities, or their animal personifications, are commonly found in popular materials such as pottery. There were also large numbers of small carved objects, from figures of the gods to toys and carved utensils. Alabaster was often used for expensive versions of these, while painted wood was the most common material, normally used for the small models of animals, slaves, and possessions that were placed in tombs to provide for the afterlife. Tomb Sculpture The El-Amra clay model of cattle (c. 3500 BCE) predates the Early Dynastic Period but provides an idea of the appearance and production method of tomb sculptures of the time. Cattle more commonly represented a source of blood, rather than meat or dairy products, but likely symbolized a source of food in the afterlife. The model is small scale (8.2 cm high), was fired at a low temperature, and was originally painted. Remnants of linen on the model suggests that it was either placed under a cloth or completely wrapped in one. Palette of Narmer The Palette of Narmer (c. 31st century BCE) is named for the pharaoh who unified Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt and founded the Dynasty I. As in the art of many cultures of ancient times, the palette contains hieratic scale , in which Narmer is the largest figure. Narmer’s headgear symbolizes the historic unification of the two kingdoms. On the recto (front) side of the palette, he wears the bulbed White Crown of Upper Egypt. To the right is a set of papyrus flowers, which symbolize Lower Egypt. On the second register of the verso (back) side, he wears the more geometric Red Crown of Lower Egypt. The figures on both sides of the palette were carved in low relief. The recto side of the palette depicts the unification of Egypt as a violent one. Narmer wields a mace in his right hand as he grabs a kneeling man by the hair with his left. The king’s right arm is raised in a manner that foreshadows a deadly blow about to be struck to the enemy. Behind Narmer is his servant holding his sandals. In the bottom register, two conquered foes either flee in fear or lie dead or dying. The hieroglyphs to the left of each man’s head respectively represent a walled city and the name of a defeated town. Meanwhile, the presence of the cow goddess Bat on the top register and the falcon god Horus to the right of Narmer suggests that the king acted with divine approval. The subject matter of the verso side is more complex than that of the recto side. Bat once again flanks each side of the top register. On the second register, Narmer marches between his sandal bearer on the left and a procession of standard bearers. To the far right are ten decapitated corpses of vanquished foes. Above them are the names of towns that have fallen to Narmer. The third register depicts two mythological animals whose intertwined necks symbolize the newly unified Egypt and form a recessed area in which cosmetics were ground. On the bottom-most register, a bull tramples a vanquished foe and knocks over the walls of a city. From the epithet “Bull of His Mother,” the image likely symbolizes the pharaoh, the perceived son of Bat. In later hieroglyphics , the bull with the bowed head would symbolize force. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Man_on_boat_Ancient_Egypt.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=13760518. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Egypt.Sobek.01. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Egypt.Sobek.01.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Art of ancient Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Early Dynastic Period of Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_of_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - pictographs (hieroglyphics). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/pictographs%20(hieroglyphics). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - mastaba. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mastaba. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sobek. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sobek. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Set (Deity). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(deity). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Egyptian Deities. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_deities. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hunting, Fishing, and Animals in Ancient Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting,_fishing_and_animals_in_ancient_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Saqqara pyramid. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saqqara_pyramid.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Egyptian architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Early Dynastic Period of Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_of_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Early Dynastic Period of Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_of_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - tenon. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tenon. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Early Dynastic Period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Early%20Dynastic%20Period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - AmenhotepIII. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AmenhotepIII.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Maler der Grabkammer der Nefertari 004. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Nefertari_004.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Art of ancient Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - relief. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/relief. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ka statue. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka%20statue. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-El-Amra_cattle_british_museum.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10630679. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Narmer_Palette.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=27338888%20. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - El-Amra Clay Model of Cattle. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/El-Amra_clay_model_of_cattle. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Early Dynastic Period (Egypt). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Narmer Palette. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmer_Palette. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Painting of the Early Dynastic Period. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : www.boundless.com/atoms/5315. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:24.310960	2020-05-01T17:30:39	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art/4.02%3A_The_Early_Dynastic_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "4.2: The Early Dynastic Period", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art/4.03%3A_The_Old_Kingdom	4.3: The Old Kingdom The Pyramids of the Old Kingdom Known as the “Age of the Pyramids,” the Old Kingdom was characterized by revolutionary advancements in architecture. Describe the layout and function of the Pyramids of Giza Key Points - The Old Kingdom (2686 BC–2182 BC) was a period of political stability and economic prosperity, during which great tombs were built for Egyptian Kings in the form of pyramids . - Early Egyptians built mastabas to mark the tombs of their deceased. The first king to launch a major pyramid building project was King Djoser, who built his famous “Step Pyramid” at Saqqara. - The Pyramids of Giza are the greatest architectural achievement of the time and include three pyramid structures and the Great Sphinx monument. - While we know that the stone for the pyramids was quarried, transported, and cut from the nearby Nile , we still cannot be sure just how the massive stones were then put into place. Key Terms - mastaba :A rectangular structure with a flat top and slightly sloping sides, built during Ancient Egyptian times above tombs that were situated on flat land. - sphinx :A creature with the head of a human and the body of an animal (commonly a lion). - limestone :An abundant rock of marine and freshwater sediments, primarily composed of calcite (CaCO₃); it occurs in a variety of forms, both crystalline and amorphous. - quarry :To obtain (mine) stone from an excavation pit, usually by blasting, cutting, or digging. - Pyramid Texts :A collection of spells to assure the resurrection of the deceased and protect the Pharaoh from various malignant influences. The Old Kingdom of Egypt existed from the third through the sixth Dynasties (2686 BC–2182 BC). A period of political stability and economic prosperity, it is characterized by revolutionary advancements in royal funerary architecture. Both Egyptian society and the economy were greatly impacted by the organization of major state-sponsored building projects, which focused on building tombs for their kings. These tombs were built in the form of great pyramids, and for this reason, the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as the “Age of the Pyramids.” Evolution of the Mastaba During the Old Kingdom, royal mastabas eventually developed into rock-cut “step pyramids” and then “true pyramids,” although non-royal use of mastabas continued to be used for more than a thousand years. As the pyramids were constructed for the kings, mastabas for lesser royals were constructed around them. The interior walls of the tombs were decorated with scenes of daily life and funerary rituals . Because of the riches included in graves, tombs were a tempting site for grave-robbers. The increasing size of the pyramids is in part credited to protecting the valuables within, and many other tombs were built into rock cliffs in an attempt to thwart grave robbers. Djoser’s “Step Pyramid” The first king to launch a major pyramid building project was King Djoser, who ruled in the 3rd Dynasty. He built his famous “Step Pyramid” at Saqqara, not far from the capital city of Memphis (near modern-day Cairo). In the following dynasties, the pyramid design changed from the “step” pyramid to a true pyramid shape as kings continued to build tombs for their kings. Among these, the Pyramids of Giza are considered the greatest architectural achievement of the time. The Pyramids of Giza The Pyramids of Giza, also known as the Giza Necropolis , are one of the oldest remaining wonders of the world. The Necropolis includes three pyramid complexes: the Great Pyramid (built by King Khufu of the 4th Dynasty); the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (buit by Khufu’s son); and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure. The Necropolis also includes several cemeteries, a workers’ village, an industrial complex, and a massive sculpture known as the Great Sphinx. The Great Sphinx is a limestone statue of a reclining sphinx—a mythical creature with a lion’s body and a human head. It is commonly believed that the head is that of King Khafra, who ruled during the 4th dynasty. It is the largest monolith statue in the world, standing 241 ft long, 63 ft wide, and 66.34 ft high. We still do not know exactly how the huge and impressive stone monuments were built. Most of the stone for the interior seems to have been quarried immediately to the south of the construction site. The smooth exterior of the pyramid, however, was made of a fine grade of white limestone that was quarried from the other side of the Nile River. These exterior blocks had to be carefully cut, transported by river barge to Giza, and dragged up ramps to the construction site. Theorists disagree as to the method by which the stones were then put into place and how possible the method was. It’s also possible that the architects developed their techniques over time. The sides of all three of the Giza pyramids were astronomically oriented to the north-south and east-west within a small fraction of a degree. To ensure that the pyramid remained symmetrical, the exterior casing stones all had to be equal in height and width. Workers might have marked all the blocks to indicate the angle of the pyramid wall and trimmed the surfaces carefully so that the blocks fit together. The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the pyramids might have been accomplished by several thousand skilled workers and unskilled laborers. Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a single pyramid. Mummification and Burial Ritual In order to preserve the body and, therefore, the soul of the deceased, Egyptians used the process of mummification. This involved removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying the mummy in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Because it was believed that the deceased would continue his or her earthly life in the afterlife, accommodations were made to ensure this transition. The Opening of the Mouth Ceremony was a ritual involving the symbolic animation of a mummy by magically opening its mouth so that it could breathe, speak, eat, and drink in the afterlife. Many mummies were provided with some form of funerary literature, often consisting of spells and instructions for navigating the afterlife. During the Old Kingdom, only the pharaoh had access to this material, which scholars refer to as the Pyramid Texts . The Pyramid Texts are a collection of spells to assure the royal resurrection and protect the pharaoh from various malignant influences. Sculpture of the Old Kingdom Egyptian artisans during the Old Kingdom perfected the art of sculpting and carving intricate relief decoration out of stone. Discuss the role of ka statues and funerary art in the Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt Key Points - Egyptian sculpture took the form of statues (which were often life-sized) and reliefs (which were carved into blocks of stone). Many sculptures were painted using natural minerals. - Sculptures from the Old Kingdom are characteristically more natural in style than their predecessors. - Sculptures, such as the ka statues , often served as funerary art , accompanying the deceased in burial tombs with the intention of preserving life after death. - Reserve heads, found in the tombs of commoners, might have served as an equivalent of the ka statue, but the exact purpose remains a matter of debate. The Great Sphinx , located among the Pyramids of Giza, is the largest monolith statue in the world. Key Terms - Ka statue :A type of ancient Egyptian statue intended to provide a resting place for the ka, or spirit, of the person after death. The ancient Egyptians believed the ka (or life-force), along with the physical body, name, ba (personality or soul), and šwt (shadow) made up the five aspects of a person. - funerary art :Any work of art forming, or placed in, a repository for the remains of the dead (such as a tomb). - ochre :An earth pigment containing silica, aluminum, and ferric oxide. - monolith :A large single block of stone used in architecture and sculpture. Egyptian sculptors created the first life-sized statues and fine reliefs in stone, copper, and wood. They perfected the art of carving intricate relief decoration and produced detailed images of animals, plants, and even landscapes, recording the essential elements of their world for eternity in scenes painted and carved on the walls of temples and tombs. Kings used reliefs to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes, and sculptures of kings, goddesses, and gods were common as well. Sculptures from the Old Kingdom are characteristically more natural in style than their predecessors. Toward the end of the Old Kingdom, images of people shifted toward formalized nude figures with long bodies and large eyes. The Great Sphinx, located among the Pyramids of Giza, is the largest monolith statue in the world, standing 241 feet long, 63 feet wide, and 66.34 feet high. Carved out of limestone , it represents a mythical creature known as a sphinx, with a lion’s body and a human head. It is commonly believed that the head of the Great Sphinx is that of the Fourth Dynasty (2680-2565 BCE) pharaoh Khafre, whose pyramid stands directly behind the giant sculpture. While most sculptures were made of stone, wood was sometimes used as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed. By the Fourth Dynasty, the idea of the ka statue was firmly established. Typically made of wood or stone, these statues were placed in tombs as a resting place for the ka , or spirit, of the person after death. Other sculptural works served as funerary art, accompanying the deceased in burial tombs with the intention of preserving life after death. Strict conventions that changed very little over the course of Egyptian history were intended to convey the timeless and non-aging quality of the figure’s ka. The Fourth Dynasty also witnessed the production of so-called “reserve heads,” plain and hairless naturalistic busts found primarily in non-royal tombs. Each head bears a striking individuality despite many common features, leading to the argument that they were portraits. Some scholars believe that they were intended as the commoners’ equivalent of ka statues, although the exact purpose remains a matter of debate. Very strict conventions governed the crafting of deity figures, and these rules were followed so strictly that over three thousand years, the appearance of statues changed very little. For example, the sky god (Horus) was to be represented with a falcon’s head, while the god of funeral rites (Anubis) was to be always shown with a jackal’s head. In addition to funerary art, Egyptians surrounded themselves with objects to enhance their lives in this world, producing cosmetic vessels and finely carved and inlaid furniture. Over time, Egyptian artists adopted a limited repertoire of standard types and established a formal artistic canon that would define Egyptian art for more than 3,000 years while remaining flexible enough to allow for subtle variation and innovation. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - All Gizah Pyramids. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sphinx partially excavated2. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sphinx_partially_excavated2.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Example of a Mastaba. Provided by : Wikimedia commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastaba#/media/File:Mastaba-faraoun-3.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - mastaba-schematics.png. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15962446. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Saqqara1 Djoser's step pyramid. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saqqara1_Djoser's_step_pyramid.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Great Sphinx. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Sphinx. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Old Kingdom of Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - sphinx. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sphinx. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - limestone. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/limestone. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - quarry. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quarry. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Egyptian Architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_egyptian_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Giza Pyramid Complex. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mastaba. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastaba. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hathor Menkaure Bat triad fourth dynasty Cairo Museum. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hathor_Menkaure_Bat_triad_fourth_dynasty_Cairo_Museum.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-Reserve_heads.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3786481. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Ka Statue of horawibra. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ka_Statue_of_horawibra.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Tourist at Sphinx, Giza plateau. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tourist_at_Sphinx,_Giza_plateau.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Art History/Ancient Art. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Art_History/Ancient_Art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt%23Culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Old Kingdom of Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Great Sphinx. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Sphinx. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - funerary art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/funerary%20art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - monolith. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/monolith. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - ochre. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ochre. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Art of Ancient Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Reserve Head. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_head. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:24.406709	2020-05-01T17:30:40	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art/4.03%3A_The_Old_Kingdom", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "4.3: The Old Kingdom", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art/4.04%3A_The_Middle_Kingdom	4.4: The Middle Kingdom Sculpture of the Middle Kingdom Innovations during the Middle Kingdom included the solemnity evident in portraits of Senusret III and block statues. Discuss the sculptural innovations during Egypt’s Middle Kingdom Key Points - Mentuhotep II was the first pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom , restoring stability after a period of pharaonic weakness and civil war. Senusret III is considered to be perhaps the most powerful Egyptian ruler of the dynasty and led the kingdom to an era of peace and prosperity. - Senusret III is known for his strikingly somber sculptures in which he appears careworn and grave. While many statues portray him as a vigorous young man, others deviate from this standard and illustrate him as mature and aging. This is often interpreted as a portrayal of the burden of power and kingship. - Another important innovation in sculpture during the Middle Kingdom was the block statue, which consisted of a man squatting with his knees drawn up to his chest. - Aristocratic women’s role as art patrons during the Middle Kingdom speaks to their high status and gender equality. Key Terms - deified :To be treated as worthy of worship, or regarded as a god. - Middle Kingdom :Egypt in the Twelfth and Thirteenth dynasties, between 2055 BC and 1650 BC. Mentuhotep II The Middle Kingdom (c. 2000-1650 BCE) was marked by the reunification of Egypt following a period of weak pharaonic power and civil war called the First Intermediate. Mentuhotep II restored stability in 2041 BCE after launching an attack that met with little resistance. After toppling the last rulers of the Tenth Dynasty, Mentuhotep II began consolidating his power over all Egypt, completing the process circa 2000 BCE. His subjects considered him to be divine or semi-divine, as suggested in a relief depicting the pharaoh receiving offerings . Senusret III During the Middle Kingdom, relief and portrait sculpture captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical perfection. Some of the finest examples of sculpture during this time was at the height of the empire under Pharaoh Senusret III. Senusret III (also written as Senwosret III or Sesostris III) ruled from 1878–1839 BCE and was the fifth monarch of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. His military campaigns gave rise to an era of peace and economic prosperity that not only reduced the power of regional rulers, but also led to a revival in craftwork, trade, and urban development in the Egyptian kingdom. One of the few kings who were deified and honored with a cult during their own lifetime, he is considered to be perhaps the most powerful Egyptian ruler of the dynasty. Aside from his accomplishments in architecture and war, Senusret III is known for his strikingly somber sculptures in which he appears careworn and grave. Deviating from the standard way of representing kings, Senusret III and his successor Amenemhat III had themselves portrayed as mature, aging men. This is often interpreted as a portrayal of the burden of power and kingship. The change in representation as ideological, and not something to be interpreted as the portrayal of an aging king, is shown by the fact that in one single relief, Senusret III was represented as a vigorous young man, following the centuries old tradition, and as a mature aging king. Block Statues and Women Patrons Another important innovation in sculpture that occurred during the Middle Kingdom was the block statue, which would continue to be popular through to the Ptolemaic age almost 2,000 years later. Block statues consist of a man squatting with his knees drawn up to his chest and his arms folded on top of his knees. Often, these men are wearing a wide cloak that reduces the body of the figure to a simple block-like shape. In some cases the cloak covers the feet completely, and in others the feet are left uncovered. The head of the sculpture contains the most detail. The sculpture pictured below—the fact that a private woman could have a sculpture made for herself—speaks volumes for the equality of gender in ancient Egypt. The heavy tripartite wig frames the broad face and passes behind the ears, thus giving the impression of forcing them forward. They are large in keeping with the ancient Egyptian ideal of beauty; the same ideal required small breasts, and in this respect, the sculpture is no exception. Whereas the natural curve of the eyebrows dips towards the root of the nose, the artificial eyebrows in low relief are absolutely straight above the inner corners of the eyes, a feature which places the bust early in the early Twelfth Dynasty. Around 1900 BCE, these artificial eyebrows, too, began to follow the natural curve and dipped toward the nose. Tombs of the Middle Kingdom Grand and royal tombs continued to be built for the deceased during the prosperous Middle Kingdom. Compare and contrast the tombs and burial goods of the Middle Kingdom with those of the Old Kingdom. Key Points - As the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the country’s prosperity and stability, they stimulated a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects, including tombs and burial goods . - While burial goods continued to be common, objects of daily use were not typically included as they were in the Old Kingdom. - Toward the end of the Middle Kingdom, new objects were introduced, such as shabtis and scarabs. - Coffin Texts evolved from the previous Pyramid texts of the Old Kingdom, expanding and introducing spells that were more relatable to nobles and non-royal Egyptians. Key Terms - Pyramid Text :A collection of spells to protect the pharaoh from harm in the afterlife. - Osiris :The god of the underworld and husband of the goddess Isis in the Egyptian pantheon. He is usually depicted with green skin and wrapped in a mummy’s linen. - shabti :A figurine placed in tombs to act as servants for the deceased in the afterlife. - sarcophagus :A stone coffin, often inscribed or decorated with sculpture. - burial goods :Items included in tombs that were thought to be necessary in the afterlife, from everyday objects to jewelry and valuables. Royal funerary practices in the Middle Kingdom remained much the same as in the Old Kingdom, with kings continuing to build pyramids for their burials. Unlike the Old Kingdom, however, Middle Kingdom royal pyramids were not quite as well constructed, and so few of them remain as pyramid structures today. Among the tombs built during this time are Amenemhat I’s funerary monument at El-Lisht; Sesostris I’s funerary monument; Amenemhat III’s pyramid at Hawara, which includes an elaborate labyrinth complex; and Sesostris II’s pyramid at Illahun. The construction of pyramids declined toward the end of the Twelfth Dynasty , as instability led to the decline of the Middle Kingdom. Burial goods continued to be commonplace in tombs. Starting in the First Intermediate period, wooden models became very popular, often depicting everyday activities that the deceased expected to continue doing in the afterlife. The standard coffin was rectangular and brightly painted, often including an offering formula. Unlike the Old Kingdom, objects of daily use were not often included in the tombs; however, they reappeared toward the end of the Middle Kingdom. Other new objects were introduced toward the end of the Middle Kingdom as well, including the first shabtis (also known as ushabtis) and the first scarabs. Shabtis were funerary figurines placed in tombs of the deceased to help them in the afterlife. Used from the Middle Kingdom until the end of the Ptolemaic Period nearly 2000 years later, most shabtis were of a small size, often covering the floor around a sarcophagus . Exceptional shabtis were of larger size, or produced as a one-of-a-kind master work. They were generally distinguished from other statuettes by being inscribed with the name of the deceased, his titles, and often with spells from the Coffin Texts . Shabtis were created to act as the deceased’s servants, performing the manual labor necessary for the plentiful existence of the afterlife. Scarabs were popular amulets believed to be protectors of written products. The scarab was also used as a holder or medium for personal name seals. A figurine of a scarab would be carved out of stone, and then on the smooth stomach of the scarab, the engraving of a seal was made. Another change in funerary practice during this time had to do with non-royal Egyptians. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom experienced an increase in expressions of personal piety and what could be called a democratization of the afterlife. In this worldview , all people possessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company of the gods after death. In the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts, which contained spells to help the dead reach the afterlife successfully, were only accessible to the elite. During the Middle Kingdom, Egyptians outside of the elite levels of society gained access to this funerary literature and began incorporating it into their own burials. Coffin Texts, as they are called by the scholars, expanded upon the Pyramid Texts, introducing new spells and incorporating slight changes to make them more relatable to the nobility. As seen in the image below, Coffin Texts could appear as paintings or inscriptions on the inside of the coffin. Due to the limited writing surfaces of some of these objects, the spells were often abbreviated, giving rise to long and short versions. In contrast to the Pyramid Texts, which focus on the celestial realm, the Coffin Texts emphasize the subterranean elements of the afterlife ruled by Osiris in a place called the Duat . People of all classes had access to this afterlife, in which they would be judged by Osiris and his council according to their deeds in life. This realm is described as containing threatening beings, traps, and snares for which the deceased must be prepared. Spells in the Coffin Texts were intended to help the deceased contend with these impediments. Stelae of the Middle Kingdom The stelae of Ancient Egypt served many purposes, from funerary, to marking territory, to publishing decrees. Describe the purposes of stelae in ancient Egyptian art Key Points - The earliest Egyptian stelae date back to the mid- to late third millennium BCE. - Stelae are stone slabs that are inscribed, carved, or painted with imagery or text. While most were taller than they were wide, slab stelae took a horizontal dimension . - Funerary stelae were generally built in honor of the deceased and decorated with their names and titles. - Stelae also were used to publish laws and decrees, record a ruler’s exploits and honors, mark sacred territories or mortgaged properties, or to commemorate military victories. - Obelisks , special forms of boundary stelae, were erected in pairs to mark the entrances of temples. Key Terms - obelisk :A tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. - lintel :A structural horizontal block that spans the space or opening between two vertical supports. - funerary :Of or relating to the interment or commemoration of the dead. - stelae :Stone or wooden slabs, generally taller than they are wide, often erected for funerals commemorative purposes and decorated with images or text. Egyptians were well known for their stelae, the earliest of which date back to the mid- to late third millennium BCE. Stelae are stone slabs that served many purposes, from funerary, to marking territory, to publishing decrees. Images and text were intimately interwoven and inscribed, carved in relief , or painted on the stelae. While most stelae were taller than they were wide, the slab stelae took a horizontal dimension and was used by a small list of ancient Egyptian dignitaries or their wives. The huge number of stelae surviving from ancient Egypt constitute one of the largest and most significant sources of information on those civilizations . Funerary stelae were generally built in honor of the deceased and decorated with their names and titles. While some funerary stelae were in the form of slab stelae, this funerary stelae of a bowman named Semin (c. 2120-2051 BCE) appears to have been a traditional vertical stelae. Slab stelae, when used for funerary purposes, were commonly commissioned by dignitaries and their wives. They also served as doorway lintels as early as the third millennium BCE, most famously decorating the home of Old Kingdom architect Hemon. Stelae also were used to publish laws and decrees, to record a ruler’s exploits and honors, mark sacred territories or mortgaged properties, or to commemorate military victories. Much of what we know of the kingdoms and administrations of Egyptian kings are from the public and private stelae that recorded bureaucratic titles and other administrative information. One example of such stelae is the Annals of Amenemhat II , an important historical document for the reign of Amenemhat II (r. 1929–1895 BCE) and also for the history of Ancient Egypt and understanding kingship in general. Many stelae were used as territorial markers to delineate land ownership. The most famous of these would be used at Amarna during the New Kingdom under Akhenaten. For much of Egyptian history, including the Middle Kingdom , obelisks erected in pairs were used to mark the entrances of temples. The earliest temple obelisk still in its original position is the red granite Obelisk of Senusret I (Twelfth Dynasty) at Al-Matariyyah in modern Heliopolis. The obelisk was the symbol and perceived place of existence of the sun god Ra. Architecture of the Middle Kingdom When Egypt had military and political security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth, its architecture flourished. Describe the major building projects initiated during Egypt’s Middle Kingdom Key Points - The reign of Amenemhat III is known for its exploitation of resources and construction of the so-called “Black Pyramid .” - Ancient Egyptian architects used sun-dried bricks, fine sandstone, limestone , and granite for their building purposes, though typically reserved stone for temples and tombs. - Hieroglyphic and pictorial carvings in brilliant colors were abundantly used to decorate Egyptian structures. - Senusret III is known for his construction of massive forts to defend the region after his many military campaigns. - The Karnak Temple Complex is an example of fine architecture that was begun during the Middle Kingdom and continued through the Ptolemaic period. Key Terms - hieroglyph :An element of an Egyptian writing system. As the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the country’s prosperity and stability, there was a resurgence of building projects. When Egypt had secured military and political security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth, its architecture flourished. Grand tombs in the form of pyramids continued to be built throughout the Middle Kingdom, along with villages, cities, and forts. The reign of Amenemhat III is especially known for its exploitation of resources, in which mining camps—previously only used by intermittent expeditions—were operated on a semi-permanent basis. A vast labor force of Canaanite settlers from the Near East aided in mining and building campaigns. Ancient Egyptian architects used sun-dried bricks, fine sandstone, limestone, and granite for their building purposes. As in the Old Kingdom, stone was most often reserved for tombs and temples, while bricks were used for palaces, fortresses, everyday houses, and town walls. Mud was collected from the nearby Nile River, placed in molds, and left to dry and harden in the hot sun until they formed bricks for construction. Architects carefully planned all their work, fitting their stones and bricks precisely together. Hieroglyphic and pictorial carvings in brilliant colors were abundantly used to decorate Egyptian structures, and motifs such as the scarab, sacred beetle, solar disk, and vulture were common. The “Black Pyramid” of Amenemhat III The Black Pyramid, the first to house both the pharaoh and his queens, was built for Amenemhat III (r. 1860–1814 BCE). It is one of the five remaining pyramids of the original eleven pyramids at Dahshur in Egypt. Originally named Amenemhet is Mighty , the pyramid earned the name “Black Pyramid” for its dark, decaying appearance as a rubble mound. Typical for Middle Kingdom pyramids, the Black Pyramid, although encased in limestone, is made of mud brick and clay instead of stone. The ground-level structures consist of the entrance opening into the courtyard and mortuary temple, surrounded by walls. There are two sets of walls; between them, there are ten shaft tombs, which are a type of burial structure formed from graves built into natural rock. The capstone of the pyramid was covered with inscriptions and religious symbols. Workers’ Villages and Forts Workers’ villages were often built nearby to pyramid construction sites. Kahun (also known as El-Lahun), for example, is a village that was associated with the pyramid of Senusret II. The town was laid out in a regular plan, with mud-brick town walls on three sides. No evidence was found of a fourth wall, which may have collapsed and been washed away during the annual inundation. The town was rectangular in shape and was divided internally by a mud brick wall as large and strong as the exterior walls. This wall divided about one third of the area of the town, and in this smaller area the houses consisted of rows of back-to-back, side-by-side single room houses. The larger area, which was higher up the slope and thus benefited from whatever breeze was blowing, contained a much smaller number of large, multi-room villas, indicating perhaps a class separation between workers and overseers. A major feature of the town was the so-called “acropolis” building; its column bases suggest its importance. Senusret III was a warrior-king who helped the Middle Kingdom reach its height of prosperity. In his sixth year, he re-dredged an Old Kingdom canal around the first cataract to facilitate travel to upper Nubia, using this to launch a series of brutal campaigns. After his victories, Senusret III built a series of massive forts throughout the country to establish the formal boundary between Egyptian conquests and unconquered Nubia. Buhen was the northernmost of a line of forts within signaling distance of one another. The fortress itself extended more than 150 meters along the west bank of the Nile, covering 13,000 square meters, and had within its wall a small town laid out in a grid system. At its peak, it probably had a population of around 3500 people. The fortress also included the administration for the whole fortified region. Its fortifications included a moat three meters deep, drawbridges, bastions, buttresses , ramparts, battlements, loopholes, and a catapult. The walls of the fort were about five meters thick and ten meters high . The Karnak Temple Complex The Karnak Temple Complex is an example of fine architecture that was begun during the Middle Kingdom and continued through the Ptolemaic period. Built by Senusret I, it was comprised of a vast mix of temples, chapels, pylons , and other buildings. The White Chapel, also referred to as the Jubilee Chapel, is one of the finest examples of architecture during this time. Its columns were intricately decorated with reliefs of a very high quality. Later in the New Kingdom, the Chapel was demolished; however, the dismantled pieces were discovered in the 1920s and carefully assembled into the building that is seen today. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - RedGraniteHeadOfSesostrisIII-BritishMuseum-August19-08. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RedGraniteHeadOfSesostrisIII-BritishMuseum-August19-08.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 509px-Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020391.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=394177. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Block statue Pa-Akh-Ra CdM. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Block_statue_Pa-Akh-Ra_CdM.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - ThreeStatuesOfSesotrisIII-RightProfiles-BritishMuseum-August19-08. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ThreeStatuesOfSesotrisIII-RightProfiles-BritishMuseum-August19-08.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 315px-Head_and_Torso_of_a_Noblewoman,_ca._1844-1837_B.C.E._59.1.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=33311525. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt%23Old_Kingdom. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Senusret III. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Senusret_III. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - deified. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/deified. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mentuhotep II. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentuhotep_II. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 12th Dynasty (1991 - 1783). Provided by : Saylor. Located at : http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/12th-Dynasty-El-Lisht-Hawara-Illahun_1.pdf . License : CC BY: Attribution - 360px-Coffin_of_Gua.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3804227%20. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Egyptian funerary figurines louvre 180flip. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Egyptian_funerary_figurines_louvre_180flip.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Scarab550bc. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scarab550bc.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Scarab artifact. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarab_artifact. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Egyptian tomb. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_tomb. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Shabti. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabti. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mummification. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mummification%23The_Egyptian_mummification_process. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt%23Old_Kingdom. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - sarcophagus. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sarcophagus. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - burial goods. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/burial%20goods. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pyramid Text. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid%20Text. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Coffin Texts. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffin_Texts. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 593px-Annalenstein.png. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25589325. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 360px-Funerary_stele_of_bowman_Semin.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2757021. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 320px-Heliopolis200501.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15285922. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Slab stela. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Slab_stela. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Obelisk. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Obelisk. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Stele. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Stele. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - funerary. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/funerary. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundary Stelae of Akhenaten. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_Stelae_of_Akhenaten. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Annals of Amenemhat II. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Amenemhat_II. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lintel. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lintel. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Senusret I. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Senusret_I. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 589px-Black_Pyramid_of_Amenemhat_III..JPG. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12634500. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - White Chapel. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_Chapel.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Buhen3. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buhen3.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Buhen. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Buhen. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - El-Lahun. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/El-Lahun. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt%23Old_Kingdom. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Karnak. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnak. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Egyptian architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - El-Lisht. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/El-Lisht. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - White Chapel. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Chapel. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - hieroglyph. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/hieroglyph. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pyramid of Amenemhat III (Dahshur). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Amenemhat_III_(Dahshur). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:24.536779	2020-05-01T17:30:43	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art/4.04%3A_The_Middle_Kingdom", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "4.4: The Middle Kingdom", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art/4.05%3A_The_New_Kingdom	4.5: The New Kingdom Architecture of the New Kingdom The golden age of the New Kingdom created huge prosperity for Egypt and allowed for the proliferation of monumental architecture. Explain why the New Kingdom is considered the golden age of Ancient Egyptian art Key Points - Luxor Temple is a large temple complex located in what was ancient Thebes and is known for its use of symbolism and illusionism. - The Temples at Karnak, part of the great city of Thebes, were constructed as an ancient place of worship for the god Amun. They consist of a vast mix of temples, chapels, pylons , obelisks , and hypostyle halls decorated with elaborate friezes . - The Temples of Karnak consists of four main parts: the Precinct of Amun-Re, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the Temple of Amenhotep IV. - Although pyramids were no longer built at this time, magnificent tombs were constructed for the pharaohs and powerful nobles of the New Kingdom in the Valley of the Kings over a period of nearly 500 years. - Among the most famous tombs in the Valley of the Kings are the tombs of Tutankhamun, Hatshepsut, Ramesses, and Nerfertiti. Key Terms - pylon :A gateway to the inner part of an Ancient Egyptian temple. - hypostyle hall :A structure in which a roof is supported by columns. - frieze :Any sculptured or richly ornamented band in a building or, by extension, in rich pieces of furniture. The New Kingdom is known as the golden age of ancient Egyptian history and is the period of Hatshepsut, Tutankhamun, Ramses II, and other famous pharaohs. The wealth gained through military dominance created huge prosperity for Egypt and allowed for the proliferation of monumental architecture, especially works that glorified the pharaohs’ achievements. Starting with Hatshepsut, buildings were of a grander scale than anything previously seen in the Middle Kingdom . Luxor Temple Luxor Temple is a large temple complex located on the east bank of the Nile River in what was ancient Thebes (today the city of Luxor). There are six great temples: four on the left bank known as Goornah, Deir-el-Bahri, the Ramesseum, and Medinet Habu; and two on the right bank known as the Karnak and Luxor. The Luxor temple was built with Nubian sandstone from south-western Egypt. Like other Egyptian structures, common techniques were the use of symbolism and illusionism . For example, a sanctuary shaped like an Anubis Jackal was used as a representational symbol of Anubis. To emphasize height and distance and enhance an existing pathway, two obelisks flanking the entrance were built with the illusion that they were the same height—even though they weren’t. Temples at Karnak This complex is comprised of a vast mix of decayed temples, chapels, pylons, and other buildings. An ancient place of worship for the god Amun, it was part of the monumental city of Thebes. Today, the complex is a vast open-air museum and the largest ancient religious site in the world. The complex consists of four main parts: the Precinct of Amun-Re, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the Temple of Amenhotep IV. The Precinct of Amun-Re, also referred to as the Temple of Amun , is the largest of the temples and the only one open to the public today. The columns of its Hypostyle Hall imitate lotus plants and contain elaborate sunken relief . Almost every pharaoh of that dynasty has added something to the temple site. It features large sandstone columns, several colossal statues, and one of the largest obelisks, weighing 328 tons and standing 29 meters tall. Many of the walls were decorated with richly ornamented friezes. Located to the south of the newer Amen-Re complex, the Precinct of Mut was dedicated to the mother goddess Mut . Hapshepsut helped to restore the original precinct, which had been ravaged during the Hyksos occupation, and had twin obelisks erected at the entrance to the temple; one still stands as the tallest surviving ancient obelisk in the world. The precinct has several smaller temples associated with it and has its own sacred lake, constructed in a crescent shape. Six hundred black granite statues were found in the courtyard to her temple, possibly the oldest portion of the site. The smaller Precinct of Montu is dedicated to the war-god of the Theban Triad, Montu, and is located to the north of the Amun-Re complex. The Temple of Amenhotep IV was located east of the main complex and was destroyed immediately after the death of its builder, so its full extent and layout is currently unknown. The Valley of the Kings By this time, pyramids were no longer built by kings, but they continued to build magnificent tombs. This renowned valley in Egypt is where, for a period of nearly 500 years, tombs were constructed for the Pharaohs and powerful nobles of the New Kingdom. The valley is known to contain 63 tombs and chambers, the most well known of which is the tomb of Tutankhamun (commonly known as King Tut). Despite its small size, it is the most complete ancient Egyptian royal tomb ever found. In 1979, the Valley became a World Heritage Site, along with the rest of the Theban Necropolis . Hatshepsut The Temple of Hatshepsut was Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple and was the first to be built in the area. The focal point of the tomb was the Djeser-Djeseru , a colonnaded structure of perfect harmony that predates the Parthenon by nearly one thousand years. Built into a cliff face, Djeser-Djeseru, or “the Sublime of Sublimes,” sits atop a series of terraces that once were graced with lush gardens. Funerary goods belonging to Hatshepsut include a lioness “throne,” a game board with carved lioness head, red-jasper game pieces bearing her title as pharaoh, a signet ring, and a partial shabti figurine bearing her name. Tutankhamun Tutankhamun was an Egyptian pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty, who ruled from around 1332 BC to 1323 BCE. Popularly referred to as “King Tut,” the boy-king took the throne when he was nine and ruled until his early death at age nineteen. Tutankhamun was buried in a tomb that was small relative to his status. His death may have occurred unexpectedly, before the completion of a grander royal tomb, so that his mummy was buried in a tomb intended for someone else. His mummy still rests in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings, though is now on display in a climate-controlled glass box rather than his original golden sarcophagus . Relics and artifacts from his tomb, including his pectoral jewels and a red granite lion, are among the most traveled artifacts in the world. Ramses II The Tomb of Nefertari, the most famous of Ramses’s consorts, is also located in the Valley of the Kings and is known for its magnificent wall paintings. The Ramesseum was the great mortuary temple of Ramses II. An enormous pylon representing scenes of the great pharaoh’s reign stood before one of the opening courts, with the royal palace at the left and a gigantic statue of the king looming up at the back. Scattered remains of two statues of the seated king can be seen, one in pink granite and the other in black granite, which once flanked the entrance to the temple. Thirty-nine out of the 48 columns still stand in the hypostyle hall, and part of the gold-and-blue decorated ceiling has also been preserved. The ancient temples in Thebes were transformed to reflect honor to Ramses’s power. Later, Ramses moved the capital of his kingdom from Thebes to the newly established city of Pi-Ramses, which he used as a main base for his campaigns. Dominated by huge temples and the king’s vast residential palace, it was complete with its own zoo. Ramses constructed the complex of Abu Simbel and is perhaps best known for his mortuary temple known as the Ramesseum. After his death, he was buried in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings; his body was later moved to a royal cache , where it was discovered in 1881. It is now on display in the Cairo Museum. The Book of the Dead The Book of the Dead was a funerary text designed to assist a deceased person’s journey through the underworld and into the afterlife. Describe what the Book of the Dead was and explain its use in Ancient Egypt Key Points - The Book of the Dead was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom and Coffin Texts of the Middle Kingdom . - Unlike previous texts which were written on walls or objects in the funerary chamber, the Book of the Dead was written on expensive papyrus . - There was no single Book of the Dead , and works tended to vary widely, perhaps based on the preferences of the people commissioning them. - The text of a Book of the Dead in the New Kingdom was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs , with lavish illustrations between the text. Key Terms - hieratic :A writing system used in pharaonic Egypt that was developed alongside the hieroglyphic system, primarily written in ink with a reed brush on papyrus, allowing scribes to write quickly without resorting to the time consuming hieroglyphs. - papyrus :A material similar to paper made from the Cyperus papyrus plant. The Book of the Dead is the modern name of an ancient Egyptian funerary text, used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BCE) to around 50 BCE. The original Egyptian name is translated as “Book of Coming Forth by Day,” or “Book of Emerging Forth into the Light.” According to ancient Egyptian beliefs, it was the ba (the free-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased) that went “forth by day” into the underworld and afterlife, while the ka (life force) remained in the tomb. Despite the word “book” in the common title, the Book of the Dead was actually printed on scrolls, as opposed to bound texts. The text, placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased, consisted of magic spells intended to assist a deceased person’s journey through the Duat , or underworld, and into the afterlife. At present, some 192 spells are known, though no single manuscript contains all of them. The spells served a range of purposes, such as giving the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, guiding them past obstacles in the underworld, or protecting them from various hostile forces. In total, the spells in the Book of the Dead provide vital information regarding ancient Egyptian beliefs on death, interment, and the afterlife. Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts The Book of the Dead was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom and the Coffin Texts of the Middle Kingdom. However, it differed from its predecessors in many ways. For instance, Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style , were exclusive to those of royal privilege, and saw the afterlife as being in the sky. The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, included illustrations for the first time, and were available to wealthy private individuals. Both were painted onto walls or objects in the funerary chamber. The Book of the Dead , in contrast , was painted on expensive papyrus, written in cursive hieroglyph, and saw the afterlife as being part of the underworld. The earliest examples developed towards the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period, around 1700 BCE, and included new spells among older texts. By the Seventeenth Dynasty , the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus. The Book of the Dead The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous “Spell 125,” the Weighing of the Heart, is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Tuthmose III (c.1475 BCE). In “Spell 125,” the heart of the deceased must be weighed against the Feather of Truth before the deceased can pass into the afterlife. The jackal-headed god Anubis weighed the heart, while the ibis-headed god Thoth recorded the results. A heavy heart indicated sin and resulted in the deceased being devoured by a crocodile-like creature named Ammit. On the other hand, a lightweight heart equal with the weight of the feather allowed the deceased to enter the afterlife and enjoy an eternity that, although plentiful, required manual labor. For this reason, the Book of the Dead included spells for statuettes called shebti (later ushebti ) to perform in the deceased’s place. From the fourteenth century BCE onward, the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll and the text was illustrated with elaborate and lavish vignettes. Later in the Third Intermediate Period, the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the first century BCE, though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times. There was no single Book of the Dead , and works tended to vary widely. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies, perhaps choosing the spells they thought were most vital in their own progression to the afterlife. Later in the Twenty-Fifth and Twenty-Sixth Dynasties, however, the Book was revised and standardized, with spells consistently ordered and numbered for the first time. Books were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funeral, or by the relatives of someone recently deceased. They were written by scribes, and sometimes the work of several different scribes was literally pasted together. Composed of joined sheets of papyrus, the dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary from one to 40 meters. Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops, with space left for when the name of the deceased would be written in later. The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs, most often from left to right, but also sometimes from right to left. The hieroglyphs were in columns separated by black lines , and illustrations were put in frames above, below, or between the columns of text. The text was written in both black and red ink from either carbon or ochre , respectively. The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely: some contain lavish color illustrations, even making use of gold leaf , while others contain only line drawings or a simple illustration at the opening. Sculpture of the New Kingdom Sculpture in the New Kingdom continued in the traditional style until undergoing a drastic shift during the Amarna period. Summarize ancient Egyptian sculpture during the New Kingdom Key Points - Traditionally, all Egyptian reliefs were painted. - The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief , which is well suited to very bright sunlight. - Statues typically depicted Egyptian pharaohs, often representing them as gods. - Amarna art is characterized by a sense of movement and activity in images, with figures being more realistically (less idealistically) depicted. Key Terms - sunk relief :A type of artwork in which an image is made by cutting the relief sculpture itself into a flat surface. - relief :A type of artwork in which shapes or figures protrude from a flat background. Sculpture in the New Kingdom continued in the traditional Egyptian style , with many great works produced by pharaohs over the years. However, during the later Amarna period, it underwent a drastic shift in style to emphasize more naturalistic (and less idealistic) human figures, such as those with drooping bellies. While reliefs and sculptures in the round continued to be painted, the skin tones of male and female figures was now the same value of brown. Some scholars believe that the shift was due to a new group of artists whose training was different from those trained in the traditional methods at Karnak. Hatshepsut Hatshepsut’s (1508–1458 BCE) construction of statues was so prolific that, today, almost every major museum in the world has a statue of hers among their collections. While some statues show her in typically feminine attire, others depict her in the royal ceremonial attire. The physical aspect of the gender of pharaohs was rarely stressed in the art, and with few exceptions, subjects were idealized. The Osirian statues of Hatshepsut, located at her tomb, follow the Egyptian tradition of depicting the dead pharaoh as the god Osiris. However, many of the official statues commissioned by Hatshepsut show her less symbolically, and more naturally, as a woman in typical dresses of the nobility of her day. Ramses II Statues typically depicted Egyptian pharaohs, often representing them as gods. In the famous sculptures outside the main temple at Abu Simbel, Ramses II (1303–1213 BCE) is depicted in a row of four colossal statues. Other deities are frequently shown in paintings and reliefs. Most of the larger sculpture survives from Egyptian temples or tombs, where massive statues were built to represent gods and pharaohs and their queens. Amarna Art The style of sculpture shifted drastically during the Amarna Period in the late Eighteenth Dynasty , when Pharaoh Akhenaten moved the capital to the city of Amarna. This art is characterized by a sense of movement and activity in images, with figures having raised heads, many figures overlapping, and many scenes full and crowded. Sunken relief was widely used. Figures are depicted less idealistically and more realistically, with an elongation and narrowing of the neck; sloping of the forehead and nose; prominent chin; large ears and lips; spindle-like arms and calves; and large thighs, stomachs, and hips. For example, many depictions of Akhenaten’s body show him with wide hips, a drooping stomach, thick lips, and thin arms and legs. This is a divergence from the earlier Egyptian art which shows men with perfectly chiseled bodies, and there is generally a more “feminine” quality in male figures. Some scholars suggest that the presentation of the human body as imperfect during the Amarna period is in deference to Aten. Like previous works, faces on reliefs continued to be shown exclusively in profile. The illustration of figures’ hands and feet showed great detail, with fingers and toes depicted as long and slender. The skin color of both males and females was generally dark brown, in contrast to the previous tradition of depicting women with lighter skin. Along with traditional court scenes, intimate scenes were often portrayed. In a relief of Akhenaten, he is shown with his primary wife, Nefertiti, and their children in an intimate setting. His children are shrunken to appear smaller than their parents, a routine stylistic feature of traditional Egyptian art. While the religious changes of the Amarna period were brief, the styles introduced to sculpture had a lasting influence on Egyptian culture . Painting of the New Kingdom Painting for much of the New Kingdom continued to follow established conventions. However, significant changes to the human form emerged during the Amarna Period. Discuss Egyptian painting in the New Kingdom Key Points - For much of the New Kingdom, paintings continued in the conventions established during the Early Dynastic Period . - Paintings in tombs continued to be made with the intent of making a pleasant afterlife for the deceased. - During the Amarna Period, human figures were produced in a more naturalistic and less idealized manner than figures from earlier eras. - The decoration of Amarna Period tombs for non-royals was quite different from previous eras and clearly worshiped the Aten over other gods and goddesses. Key Terms - Aten : The supreme sun disk that assumed the apex of the Egyptian pantheon under Akhenaten’s religious reforms. Painters for much of the New Kingdom continued to depict the human figure in largely the same manner as their predecessors in previous eras. A significant change, however, occurred during the Amarna Period under the pharaoh Akhenaten (r. 1351–1334 BCE), when the body assumed a less idealized form . While many theories exist as to why this change occurred, the exact reason remains unknown. TT52 The tomb known as TT52 houses an official named Nakht and his wife Tawy (14th century BCE). Among the decorations are richly colored paintings that depict the couple in the standard 18 fists-high profile pose, frontal torso, outward palms pose. As in paintings of previous eras, both figures are the same height. Their skin tones also follow the traditions that depict men with dark brown skin and women with light yellow skin. Elsewhere in the tomb, Nakht assumes a more dynamic (albeit still stylized) pose as he hunts and fishes, a convention that also follows the style established during the Early Dynastic Period. During the New Kingdom, religious scenes comprise the majority of paintings in the tombs of the elite. This trend, echoed in the decorative objects in these tombs, is evident in the painting of Nakht and Tawy making an offering . However, scenes from everyday life, such as hunting and fishing, remain an important part of the imagery . Amarna-Style Painting Art from this period is characterized by a sense of increased movement and activity in images, with busy and crowded scenes and many of the figures overlapping. Male and female figures are depicted with the same dark brown skin tone, a departure from the past in which women are depicted with lighter skin tones. The human body is portrayed more realistically, rather than idealistically, though at times depictions border on caricature. For example, many depictions of Akhenaten’s body show him with wide hips, a drooping stomach, thick lips, and thin arms and legs. This is a divergence from the earlier Egyptian art which shows men with perfectly chiseled bodies, and there is generally a more “feminine” quality in male figures. Some scholars suggest that the presentation of the human body as imperfect during the Amarna period is in deference to the Aten. Non-Elite Tombs Although many non-elite tombs from the New Kingdom were plundered, leaving few images and objects for modern scholars to study, it is evident that the decoration was quite different from previous eras. These tombs did not feature any funerary or agricultural scenes. Images of the tomb occupant were also absent, with the exception of instances in which he or she was depicted with a member of the royal family. Decorations from the Amarna Period clearly worshiped the Aten, with excerpts from the Hymn to the Aten often present in the tombs. There is an absence of other gods and goddesses and no mention of Osiris or the underworld. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ramesseum-Cour_et_Colosse.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=134275. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tut tomb.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Egypt.KV62.01.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Il tempio di Hatshepsut. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Il_tempio_di_Hatshepsut.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Karnakpanorama. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karnakpanorama.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Karnakfrieze1. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karnakfrieze1.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Great Hypostyle Hall . Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Hypostyle_Hall. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortuary_Temple_of_Hatshepsut. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/hypostyle-hall. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Karnak. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnak. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ramses II. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramses_II. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Valley Of The Kings. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_Of_The_Kings. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Luxor Temple. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxor_Temple. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - frieze. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/frieze. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - pylon. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pylon. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ramesseum. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesseum. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hatshepsut. Provided by : Boundless. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:24.666822	2020-05-01T17:30:46	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art/4.05%3A_The_New_Kingdom", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "4.5: The New Kingdom", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art/4.06%3A_Late_Egyptian_Art	4.6: Late Egyptian Art Late Egyptian Art The Late Period of Ancient Egypt (664–332 BCE) marked a maintenance of artistic tradition with subtle changes in the representation of the human form. Describe art in the Late Period of Ancient Egypt Key Points - Though foreigners ruled Ancient Egypt during the Late Period , Egyptian culture was more prevalent than ever. - Some sculptures of the Late Period maintain traditional techniques, while others feature more naturalistic attributes. - One major contribution from the Late Period of ancient Egypt was the Brooklyn Papyrus . This was a medical papyrus with a collection of medical and magical remedies for victims of snakebites based on snake type or symptoms. - The Thirtieth Dynasty took its artistic style from the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. Key Terms - Late Period :The time of Ancient Egypt between the Third Intermediate Period until the conquest by Alexander the Great, from 664 BCE until 332 BCE; often regarded as the last gasp of the Egyptian culture. The Late Period of ancient Egypt refers to the last flowering of native Egyptian rulers after the Third Intermediate Period from the Twenty-Sixth Saite Dynasty into Persian conquests, and ended with the conquest by Alexander the Great and establishment of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. It ran from 664 BC until 332 BCE. Though foreigners ruled the country at this time, Egyptian culture was more prevalent than ever. Libyans and Persians alternated rule with native Egyptians. Despite continued conventions in art, some notable changes in the human form did arise. The sculpture (pictured below) of the god Horus as a child (664–332 BCE) represents a combination of the typical stylized stance of Egyptian statuary with a fleshier body and pensive gesture of the right hand and arm. The Late Period is often regarded as the last gasp of a once great culture, during which the power of Egypt steadily diminished. Twenty-Sixth Dynasty The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, also known as the Saite Dynasty, reigned from 672–525 BCE. Canal construction from the Nile to the Red Sea began. According to Jeremiah, during this time many Jews came to Egypt, fleeing after the destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem by the Babylonians (586 BCE). Jeremiah and other Jewish refugees arrived in Lower Egypt, notably in Migdol, Tahpanhes, and Memphis. Some refugees also settled at Elephantine and other settlements in Upper Egypt (Jeremiah 43 and 44). Jeremiah mentions pharaoh Apries (as Hophra, Jeremiah 44:30) whose reign came to a violent end in 570 BCE. This and other migrations during the Late Period likely contributed to some notable changes in art. One major contribution from the Late Period of ancient Egypt was the Brooklyn Papyrus. This was a medical papyrus with a collection of medical and magical remedies for victims of snakebites based on snake type or symptoms. Artwork during this time was representative of animal cults and animal mummies . The faience sculpture below shows the god Pataikos wearing a scarab beetle on his head, supporting two human-headed birds on his shoulders, holding a snake in each hand, and standing atop crocodiles. The style of this sculpture marks a departure from its predecessors in its fleshiness, positioning of its arms and hands, and slight smile. Despite the changes that took place in the sculpture of Pataikos, artists continued to use the traditional canon of proportions. A sunken relief from a chapel at Karnak depicting Psamtik III, the final pharaoh of this dynasty, displays the maintenance of traditional conventions in representing the body. Twenty-Seventh Dynasty The First Achaemenid Period (525–404 BCE) marked the conquest of Egypt by the Persian Empire under Cambyses II. In May 525 BCE, Cambyses defeated Psamtik III in the Battle of Pelusium in the eastern Nile Delta. This basalt portrait bust (pictured below) of an unknown Egyptian dignitary from the period shows little change from convention in the representation of the human form. His necklace is typical of those made in the Achaemenid Period. Twenty-Eighth through Thirtieth Dynasties The Twenty-Eighth Dynasty consisted of a single king, Amyrtaeus, prince of Sais, who rebelled against the Persians and briefly re-established indigenous Egyptian rule. He left no monuments with his name. This dynasty reigned for six years, from 404–398 BCE. The Twenty-Ninth Dynasty ruled from Mendes, from 398–380 BCE. The Thirtieth Dynasty took the art style from the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. A series of three pharaohs ruled from 380 BCE until their final defeat in 343 BCE led to the reoccupation by the Persians. Art featuring Nectanebo II, the final ruler of this dynasty, appears largely in the traditional Egyptian style. Except for the small-scale greywacke (sandstone) statue in the Metropolitan Museum, which shows him standing before the image of Horus as a falcon, no other annotated portraits of the pharaoh are known. A fragment of Nectanebo II’s portrait, with its partial smile and sagging chin, in the Museum of Fine Arts in Lyon, is slightly more naturalistic than previous representations of pharaohs. Art and Architecture in the Kingdom of Kush The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient African state whose art and architecture were inspired by Egyptian design, but were distinctly African. Evaluate the influence of both Egyptian and African art on the art produced by the Kingdom of Kush Key Points - Kushite pharaohs built and restored many temples and monuments throughout the Nile Valley, and the construction of Kushite pyramids became widespread. - The Kushites used relief sculpture to decorate the walls of palaces and pyramids. The cuts used were deeper and more strategic than Egyptian hieroglyphics . The reliefs mostly depict scenes from African daily life, animals, battle scenes, and kings. - Kushite portrait sculpture adopts some Egyptian attributes but emphasizes distinctly indigenous features, such as wide faces and unique regalia, hairstyles, and symbolism. - Pottery was an important Kushite craft and consisted mostly of pots and bowls that were shaped from clay and then painted in many different colors. Common decorative motifs included animals and geometric and plant-based patterns. - The kings of Kush adopted the Egyptian architectural idea of building stone pyramids as funerary monuments. However, Kushite pyramids were built above the underground graves, whereas the Egyptian graves were inside the pyramid. Key Terms - relief :A type of artwork in which shapes or figures protrude from a flat background. - pyramid :An ancient massive construction with a square or rectangular base and four triangular sides meeting in an apex, such as those built as tombs in Egypt or as bases for temples in Mesoamerica. The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient African state situated on the confluences of the Blue Nile, White Nile, and River Atbara in what is now the Republic of Sudan. Established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt, Kush was centered at Napata in modern day northern Sudan in its early phase, and then moved further south to Meroë in 591 BCE. After king Kashta invaded Egypt in the eighth century BCE, the Kushite kings ruled as Pharaohs of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty of Egypt for a century, until they were expelled by Psamtik I in 656 BCE. The reign of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty ushered in a renaissance period for ancient Egypt, and art and architecture emulating the styles of the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms flourished. Kushite pharaohs built and restored many temples and monuments throughout the Nile Valley, and the construction of Kushite pyramids became widespread. Some of these are still standing in modern Sudan. Kushite Arts The Kushite arts were inspired by the Egyptians, but were drastically African. Most remarkable among these was Kushite relief sculpture, which adorned the walls of palaces or pyramids. The cuts that are on the walls are deeper and more strategic than Egyptian hieroglyphics. There are many reliefs scattered across the land of Africa. They mostly depict scenes from African daily life and animals. Reliefs depicting battle scenes or kings are somewhat less common. Statues of rulers and other royal individuals emphasize the foreign, non-Egyptian origin of their subjects. The Head of a Kushite Ruler (c. 716-702 BCE), identified by some scholars as King Shabaqa, depicts a man with a typically round Kushite face. Although his eyes bear resemblance to those of Egyptian individuals in art, his hairstyle and regalia are distinctly non-Egyptian. The front of his headband once featured two cobras. While Egyptian pharaohs commonly wore a single cobra on their headgear, the double-cobra motif was unique to the Kushite culture . Pottery was another important Kushite craft and consisted mostly of pots and bowls that were shaped from clay and then painted in many different colors. Most pottery was initially made for the wealthy, but later on, many commoners also began using pottery in their households. While decoration usually took the form of painted designs, some types of pottery also had stamped designs. Common motifs included geometric and plant-based patterns. The finest pottery was decorated with paintings of animals, such as giraffes, antelopes, frogs, crocodiles, snakes, and a variety of birds. Kushite Architecture The kings of Kush adopted the Egyptian architectural idea of building pyramids as funerary monuments. However, Kushite pyramids were built above the underground graves, whereas the Egyptian graves were inside the pyramid. The kings’ tombs were lodged under large pyramids made of stone. For a short time, the Kushite kings were mummified. Ordinary citizens were buried in much smaller pyramids. The most famous examples of Kushite pyramids are located in their capital Meroë. There are three cemeteries in Meroë; the north and south cemeteries are royal cemeteries and house the pyramids of kings and queens, whereas the west cemetery is a purely non-royal site. Egyptian Art After Alexander the Great Hellenistic art, richly diverse in subject matter and in stylistic development, characterized culture after Alexander the Great. Describe the major events of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and the key characteristics of Hellenistic art Key Points - The Ptolemaic Kingdom (332–30 BCE) in and around Egypt began following Alexander the Great ‘s conquest in 332 BCE and ended with the death of Cleopatra VII and the Roman conquest in 30 BCE. - Hellenistic art is richly diverse in subject matter and in stylistic development. It was created during an age characterized by a strong sense of history. For the first time, there were museums and great libraries, such as those at Alexandria and Pergamon. - Prominent in Hellenistic art are representations of Dionysos, the god of wine and legendary conqueror of the East, as well as those of Hermes, the god of commerce. In strikingly tender depictions, Eros, the Greek personification of love, is portrayed as a young child. - Hellenistic civilization continued to thrive even after Rome annexed Egypt after the battle of Actium and did not decline until the Islamic conquests. - Portraits of male rulers grew increasingly naturalistic, while those of female rulers and non-elites remained stylized . Key Terms - Hellenic :Referring to the ancient Greek world. - Alexander the Great :Alexander the Great was a king of Macedon, a state in northern ancient Greece. Born in Pella in 356 BCE, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until the age of 16. By the age of 30, he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from the Ionian Sea to the Himalayas. He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of history’s most successful commanders. The Ptolemaic Kingdom (332–30 BCE) in and around Egypt began following Alexander the Great’s conquest in 332 BCE and ended with the death of Cleopatra VII and the Roman conquest in 30 BCE. It was founded when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt, creating a powerful Hellenistic state stretching from southern Syria to Cyrene and south to Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a center of Greek culture and trade. Hellenistic Art Hellenistic art is richly diverse in subject matter and in stylistic development. It was created during an age characterized by a strong sense of history. For the first time, there were museums and great libraries, such as those at Alexandria and Pergamon. Hellenistic artists copied and adapted earlier styles , and also made great innovations. Representations of Greek gods took on new forms . The popular image of a nude Aphrodite, for example, reflects the increased secularization of traditional religion. Also prominent in Hellenistic art are representations of Dionysos, the god of wine and legendary conqueror of the East, as well as those of Hermes, the god of commerce. In strikingly tender depictions, Eros, the Greek personification of love, is portrayed as a young child. Encouraged by the many pharaohs, Greek colonists set up the trading post of Naucratis, which became an important link between the Greek world and Egypt’s grain. As Egypt came under foreign domination and decline, the pharaohs depended on the Greeks as mercenaries and even advisers. When the Persians took over Egypt, Naucratis remained an important Greek port, and the colonists were used as mercenaries by both the rebel Egyptian princes and the Persian kings, who later gave them land grants, spreading the Greek culture into the valley of the Nile . When Alexander the Great arrived, he established Alexandria on the site of the Persian fort of Rhakortis. Following Alexander’s death, control passed into the hands of the Lagid (Ptolemaic) dynasty ; they built Greek cities across their empire and gave land grants across Egypt to the veterans of their many military conflicts. Hellenistic civilization continued to thrive even after Rome annexed Egypt after the battle of Actium and did not decline until the Islamic conquests. One significant change in Ptolemaic art is the sudden re-appearance of women, who had been absent since about the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. This phenomenon was likely due, in part, to the increasing importance of women as rulers and co-regents, as in the case of the series of Cleopatras. Although women were present in artwork, they were shown less realistically than men in the this era, as is evident in a portrait of a Ptolemaic queen (possibly Cleopatra VII) from the first century BCE. Unlike its Classical and Hellenistic counterparts elsewhere in the Hellenic world, this sculpture bears a more stylized appearance. Among male rulers, portraiture assumed a more naturalistic appearance, even when the sitter was pictured in traditional Egyptian regalia, as in a relief of Ptolemy IV Philopator (r. 221–204 BCE), who wears the traditional pharaonic crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. However, even with this Greek influence on art, the notion of the individual portrait still had not supplanted Egyptian artistic norms among non-elites during the Ptolemaic Dynasty. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Roll,_664_-_332_B.C.E._Brooklyn_Papyrus_47.218.48a-f.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=33288717 . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 480px-Head_of_Nectanebo_II-MBA_Lyon_H1701-IMG_0204.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15270671 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 360px-Karnak_Psammetique_III.jpg. 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Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubian_pyramids. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - African Kingdoms. Provided by : bmssancientcivilizations Wikispace. Located at : bmssancientcivilizations.wikispaces.com/African+Kingdoms. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kingdom of Kush. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - relief. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/relief. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - pyramid. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pyramid. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 370px-Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_(3rdu20132nd_century_BCE)_-_2009.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6185029. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 360px-Ptolemaic_Queen_(Cleopatra_VII-),_50-30_B.C.E.,_71.12.jpg. 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Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom%23Art_during_the_Ptolemies. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Alexander the Great. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:24.779882	2020-05-01T17:30:50	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/04%3A_Ancient_Egyptian_Art/4.06%3A_Late_Egyptian_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "4.6: Late Egyptian Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/05%3A_Art_of_the_Aegean_Civilizations	5: Art of the Aegean Civilizations Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52948 Boundless Boundless 5.1: The Aegean Bronze Age 5.2: Minoan Art 5.3: Mycenaean Art	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:24.860622	2020-05-01T17:29:51	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/05%3A_Art_of_the_Aegean_Civilizations", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "5: Art of the Aegean Civilizations", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/05%3A_Art_of_the_Aegean_Civilizations/5.01%3A_The_Aegean_Bronze_Age	5.1: The Aegean Bronze Age Sculpture of the Cyclades Cycladic art during the Greek Bronze Age is noted for its abstract, geometric designs of male and female figures. Discuss the form and function of the Cycladic marble figurines Key Points - The Cyclades are a chain of Greek islands in the middle of the Aegean Sea. They encircle the island of Delos. - Cycladic marble figurines of abstract male and female forms have been found at burial sites. These figurines are small, abstract, and rely on geometric shapes and flat plans for their design and would have been painted. - The female figurines depict a woman with her legs together and arms folded over her abdomen, with her breasts and pubic region emphasized. - The male figures are often depicted sitting in a chair and playing a harp or a lyre . Key Terms - incised :To mark or cut the surface of an object for decoration. - Cycladic :Of, or relating to the Cyclades. The Cyclades are a group of Greek islands in the Aegean Sea that encircle the island of Delos. The islands were known for their white marble, mined during the Greek Bronze Age and throughout Classical history. Their geographical location placed them, like the island of Crete, in the center of trade between Greece, Egypt, Asia Minor, and the Near East. The indigenous civilization on the Cyclades reached its high point during the Bronze Age. The islands were later occupied by the Minoans, Mycenaeans, and later the Greeks. Cycladic Sculptures Cycladic art is best known for its small-scale, marble figurines. From the late fourth millennium BCE to the early second millennium BCE, Cycladic sculptures went through a series of stylistic shifts, with their bodily forms varying from geometric to organic. The purpose of these figurines is unknown, although all that have been discovered were located in graves. While it is clear that they were regularly used in funerary practices, their precise function remains a mystery. Some are found in graves completely intact, others are found broken into pieces, others show signs of being used during the lifetime of the deceased, but some graves do not contain the figurines. Furthermore, the figurines were buried equally between men and women. The male and female forms do not seem to be identified with a specific gender during burial. These figures are based in simple geometric shapes. Cycladic Female Figures The abstract female figures all follow the same mold. Each is a carved statuette of a nude woman with her arms crossed over her abdomen. The bodies are roughly triangular and the feet are kept together. The head of the women is an inverted triangle with a rounded chin and the nose of the figurine protrudes from the center. Each figure has modeled breasts, and incised lines draw attention to the pubic region with a triangle. The swollen bellies on some figurines might indicate pregnancy or symbolic fertility. The incised lines also provide small details, such as toes on the feet, and to delineate the arms from each other and the stomach. Their flat back and inability to stand on their carved feet suggest that these figures were meant to lie down. While today they are featureless and remain the stark white of the marble, traces of paint allow us to know that they were once colored. Paint would have been applied on the face to demarcate the eyes, mouth, and hair. Dots were used to decorate the figures with bracelets and necklaces. Cycladic Male Figures Male figures are also found in Cycladic grave sites. These figures differ from the females, as the male typically sits on a chair and plays a musical instrument, such as the pipes or a harp. Harp players, like the one in the example below, play the frame harp, a Near Eastern ancestor of the modern harp. The figures, their chairs, and instruments are all carved into elegant, cylindrical shapes. Like the female figures, the shape of the male figure is reliant on geometric shapes and flat planes . The incised lines provide details (such as toes), and paint added distinctive features to the now-blank faces. Other Cycladic Figures While reclining female and seated male figurines are the most common Cycladic sculptures discovered, other forms were produced, such as animals and abstracted humanoid forms. Examples include the terra cotta figurines of bovine animals (possibly oxen or bulls) that date to 2200–2000 BCE, and small, flat sculptures that resemble female figures shaped like violins; these date to the Grotta–Pelos culture , also known as Early Cycladic I (c. 3300–2700 BCE). Like other Cycladic sculptures discovered to date, the purposes of these figurines remain unknown. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-MuseAckrotiriItem70-6643-wpd.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2488131. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-Violin-shaped_female_cycladic_figurines.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23106250. License : CC BY: Attribution - Cycladic harp player. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cycladic_harp_player.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Goulandris Master - Cycladic Female Figurine - Walters 23253. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Goulandris_Master_-_Cycladic_Female_Figurine_-_Walters_23253.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nomos Kykladon. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nomos_Kykladon.png. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Female Figure of the Late Spedos Type. Provided by : The J. Paul Getty Museum. Located at : http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/objects/13046/attributed-to-the-schuster-master-female-figure-of-the-late-spedos-type-cycladic-about-2400-bc/ . License : CC BY: Attribution - History of the Cyclades. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Cyclades%23Cycladic_civilisation. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cycladic art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycladic_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cycladic civilization. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycladic_civilization. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cyclades. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclades. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - incised. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/incised. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cycladic. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Cycladic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Male Harp Player of the Early Spedos Type. Provided by : The J. Paul Getty Museum. Located at : http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/objects/10949/unknown-maker-male-harp-player-of-the-early-spedos-type-cycladic-2700-2300-bc/ . License : CC BY: Attribution - Grotta-Pelos Culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Grotta-Pelos_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:24.938115	2020-05-01T17:30:53	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/05%3A_Art_of_the_Aegean_Civilizations/5.01%3A_The_Aegean_Bronze_Age", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "5.1: The Aegean Bronze Age", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/05%3A_Art_of_the_Aegean_Civilizations/5.02%3A_Minoan_Art	5.2: Minoan Art The Minoans The Protopalatial period of Minoan civilization (1900 to 1700 BCE) and the Neopalatial Period (1700 to 1450 BCE) saw the establishment of administrative centers on Crete and the apex of Minoan civilization, respectively. Summarize the key elements of the Minoan Propalatial and Neopalatial periods Key Points - The Minoan civilization was named after the mythical King Minos, because the first excavator, Sir Arthur Evans , mistook the many rooms and corridors of the administrative palace of Knossos to be the labyrinth in which Minos kept the Minotaur. - The Protopalatial period (1900–1700 BCE) saw the establishment of administrative centers on the island of Crete. The identifying features of Minoan civilization—extensive sea trade and the building of communal civic centers—are first seen on the island during this time. - The Protopalatial period ended in 1700 BCE when the palaces of the island were destroyed and life on the island was significantly disrupted. The unknown cataclysmic event is believed to be either an earthquake or an invasion. - During the Neopalatial period (1700–1450 BCE), the Minoans recovered from the cataclysm and reached the height of their civilization, eventually controlling the major trade routes in the Mediterranean. Key Terms - labyrinth : A maze, especially underground or covered. - minotaur : A monster with the head of a bull and the body of a man. - Linear A : A syllabary used to write the as-yet-undeciphered Minoan language, and an apparent predecessor to other scripts. Discovery and Excavation The ancient sites on the island of Crete were first excavated in the early 1900s by the British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans. Evans excavated the site of Knossos, where he discovered a palace. From this fact and related points, he decided to name the civilization after the mythical King Minos. The many rooms of the palace at Knossos were so oddly shaped and disordered to Evans that they reminded him of the labyrinth of the Minotaur. According to myth, Minos’ wife had an illicit union with a white bull, which lead to the birth of a half bull and half man, known as the Minotaur. King Minos had his court artist and inventor, Daedalus, build an inescapable labyrinth for the Minotaur to live in. Archaeological evidence dates the arrival of the earliest inhabitants of Crete in approximately 6000 BCE. Over the next four thousand years the inhabitants developed a civilization based on agriculture, trade, and production. The Minoan’s civilization on Crete existed during the Bronze Age , from 3000 to 1100 BCE , although the Mycenaeans from Greece invaded the island in the mid-1400s BCE and occupied it for the last centuries before the Greek Dark Age. The Minoans were known as great seafarers. They traded extensively throughout the Mediterranean region. Protopalatial Period The Protopalatial Period is considered the civilization’s second phase of development, lasting from 1900 to 1700 BCE. During this time the major sites on the island were developed, including the palatial sites of Knossos, Phaistos, and Kato Zakros, which were the first palaces or administrative centers built on Crete. These civic centers appear to denote the emergence of a collective community governing system, instead of system in which a king ruled over each town. During this period the Minoan trade network expanded into Egypt and the Near East; the first signs of writing, the still undeciphered language Linear A , appear. The period ended with a cataclysmic event, perhaps an earthquake or an invasion, which destroyed the palace centers. Neopalatial Period The Neopalatial period occurred from 1700 to 1450 BCE, during which time the Minoans saw the height of their civilization. Following the destruction of the first palaces in approximately 1700 BCE, the Minoans rebuilt these centers into the palaces that were first excavated by Sir Arthur Evans. During this period, Minoan trade increased and the Minoans were considered to rule the Mediterranean trading routes between Greece, Egypt, Anatolia , the Near East, and perhaps even Spain. The Minoans began to settle in colonies away from Crete, including on the islands of the Cyclades, Rhodes, and in Egypt. Minoan Architecture Minoan palace centers were divided into numerous zones for civic, storage, and production purposes; they also had a central, ceremonial courtyard. Discuss the architectural design of Minoan palaces Key Points - The palaces excavated on Crete functioned more as administrative centers with rooms for civic functions, storage, workshops, and shrines located around a central, ceremonial courtyard. - The palaces have no fortification walls, suggesting a lack of enemies and conflict, although the natural surroundings provide a high level of protection, and the multitude of rooms creates a continuous, protective façade . - Minoan columns were uniquely shaped, constructed from wood, and painted. They are tapered at the bottom, larger at the top, and fitted with a bulbous, pillow-like capital . - The complex at Phaistos bears many similarities with its counterpart at Knossos, although it is smaller. - Minoan builders rebuilt new complexes atop older ones in the aftermath of damaging earthquakes. Key Terms - pithoi : (Singular: pithos) Large storage jars for liquids—oil, wine, and water—and grains. - labyrinth : A maze, especially underground or covered. - fresco : A water-based painting applied to wet or dry plaster. - capital : The topmost part of a column. The most well known and excavated architectural buildings of the Minoans were the administrative palace centers. When Sir Arthur Evans first excavated at Knossos, not only did he mistakenly believe he was looking at the legendary labyrinth of King Minos, he also thought he was excavating a palace. However, the small rooms and excavation of large pithoi , storage vessels , and archives led researchers to believe that these palaces were actually administrative centers. Even so, the name became ingrained, and these large, communal buildings across Crete are known as palaces. Although each one is unique, they share similar features and functions. The largest and oldest palace centers are at Knossos, Malia, Phaistos, and Kato Zakro. The Complex at Knossos The complex at Knossos provides an example of the monumental architecture built by the Minoans. The most prominent feature on the plan is the palace’s large, central courtyard. This courtyard may have been the location of large ritual events, including bull leaping, and a similar courtyard is found in every Minoan palace center. Several small tripartite shrines surround the courtyard. The numerous corridors and rooms of the palace center create multiple areas for storage, meeting rooms, shrines, and workshops. The absence of a central room and living chambers suggest the absence of a king and, instead, the presence and rule of a strong, centralized government. The palaces also have multiple entrances that often take long paths to reach the central courtyard or a set of rooms. There are no fortification walls, although the multitude of rooms creates a protective, continuous façade. While this provides some level of fortification, it also provides structural stability for earthquakes. Even without a wall, the rocky and mountainous landscape of Crete and its location as an island creates a high level of natural protection. The palaces are organized not only into zones along a horizontal plain, but also have multiple stories. Grand staircases, decorated with columns and frescos , connect to the upper levels of the palaces, only some parts of which survive today. Wells for light and air provide ventilation and light. The Minoans also created careful drainage systems and wells for collecting and storing water, as well as sanitation. Their architectural columns are uniquely constructed and easily identified as Minoan. They are constructed from wood, as opposed to stone, and are tapered at the bottom. They stood on stone bases and had large, bulbous tops, now known as cushion capitals. The Minoans painted their columns bright red and the capitals were often painted black. Phaistos Phaistos was inhabited from about 4000 BCE. A palatial complex, dating from the Middle Bronze Age , was destroyed by an earthquake during the Late Bronze Age. Knossos, along with other Minoan sites, was destroyed at that time. The palace was rebuilt toward the end of the Late Bronze Age. The first palace was built about 2000 BCE. This section is on a lower level than the west courtyard and has a nice facade with a plastic outer shape, a cobbled courtyard, and a tower ledge with a ramp that leads up to a higher level. The old palace was destroyed three times in a time period of about three centuries. After the first and second disaster, reconstruction and repairs were made, so there are three, identifiable construction phases. Around 1400 BCE, the invading Achaeans destroyed Phaistos, as well as Knossos. The palace appears to have been unused thereafter. The Old Palace was built in the Protopalatial period. When the palace was destroyed by earthquakes, new structures were built atop the old. In one of the three hills of the area, remains from the Neolithic era and the Early Minoan period have been found. Two additional palaces were built during the Middle and Late Minoan periods. The older one looks like the palace at Knossos, although the Phaistos complex is smaller. On its ruins (probably destroyed by an earthquake around 1600 BCE), the Late-Minoan builders constructed a larger palace had several rooms separated by columns. Like the complex at Knossos, the complex at Phaistos is arranged around a central courtyard and held grand staircases that led to areas believed to be a theater, ceremonial spaces , and official apartments. Materials such as gypsum and alabaster added to the luxurious appearance of the interior. Minoan Painting Minoan painting is distinguished by its vivid colors and curvilinear shapes that bring a liveliness and vitality to scenes. Differentiate between Kamares ware and Marine-style vase painting, and describe Minoan wall paintings Key Points - The fresco known as Bull Leaping, found in the palace of Knossos, is one of the seminal Minoan paintings. It depicts the Minoan culture ‘s fascination with the bull and the unique event of bull leaping—all painted in the distinctive Minoan style . - The Minoan city of Akrotiri on the island of Thera was destroyed by a volcanic eruption that preserved the wall paintings in the town’s homes. One fresco, known as Flotilla, depicts a highly developed society. - Kamares ware is pottery made from a fine clay. These vessels are painted with marine scenes and abstract flowers, shapes, and geometric lines . - Marine-style vase painting depicts marine life and scenes with organic shapes that fill the entire surface of the pot, using a technique known as horror vacui . Unlike Kamares ware, Marine-style scenes are painted in dark colors on a light surface. Key Terms - horror vacui : Latin, meaning fear of empty space; this is also the name for a style of painting when the entire surface of a space is filled with patterns and figures. - fresco :In painting, the technique of applying water-based pigment to plaster. - buon fresco :A more durable mural painting technique in which alkaline resistant pigments, ground in water, are applied to plaster when it is still wet, as opposed to fresco-secco when the plaster has been allowed to dry and is remoistened. Wall Painting The Minoans decorated their palace complexes and homes with fresco wall paintings. Buon fresco is a form of painting where the pigment is painted onto a wet limestone plaster. When the plaster dries the painting also dries, becoming an integral part of the wall. In the Minoan variation, the stone walls are first covered with a mixture of mud and straw, then thinly coated with lime plaster, and lastly with layers of fine plaster. The Minoans had a distinct painting style with shapes formed by curvilinear lines that add a feeling of liveliness to the paintings. The Minoan color palette is based in earth tones of white, brown, red, and yellow. Black and vivid blue are also used. These color combinations create vivid and rich decoration. Because the Minoan alphabet, known as Linear A , has yet to be deciphered, scholars must rely on the culture’s visual art to provide insights into Minoan life. The frescoes discovered in locations such as Knossos and Akrotiri inform us of the plant and animal life of the islands of Crete and Thera (Santorini), the common styles of clothing, and the activities the people practiced. For example, men wore kilts and loincloths. Women wore short-sleeve dresses with flounced skirts whose bodices were open to the navel, allowing their breasts to be exposed. Knossos Fragments of frescoes found at Knossos provide us with glimpses into Minoan culture and rituals . A fresco found on an upper story of the palace has come to be known as Bull Leaping. The image depicts a bull in flying gallop with one person at his horns, another at his feet, and a third, whose skin color is brown instead of white, inverted in a handstand leaping over the bull. While the different skin color of the figures may differentiate male (dark) and female (light) figures, the similarity of their clothing and body shapes (lean with few curves) suggest that the figures may all be male. The figures participate in an activity known as bull-leaping. The human figures are stylized with narrow waists, broad shoulders, long, slender, muscular legs, and cylindrical arms. Unlike the twisted perspective seen in Egyptian or Ancient Near Eastern works of art, these figures are shown in full profile, an element the adds to the air of liveliness. Although the specifics of bull leaping remain a matter of debate, it is commonly interpreted as a ritualistic activity performed in connection with bull worship. In most cases, the leaper would literally grab a bull by his horns, which caused the bull to jerk his neck upwardly. This jerking motion gave the leaper the momentum necessary to perform somersaults and other acrobatic tricks or stunts. Bull Leaping appears to divide these steps between two participants, with a third extending his arms, possibly to catch the leaper. Thera The Minoans settled on other islands besides Crete, including the volcanic, Cycladic island of Thera (present-day Santorini). The volcano on Thera erupted in mid-second millennium BCE and destroyed the Minoan city of Akrotiri. Akrotiri was entombed by pumice and ash and since its rediscovery has been referred to as the Minoan Pompeii. The frescoes on Akrotiri were preserved by the blanketing volcanic ash. The wall paintings found on Thera provide significant information about Minoan life and culture, depicting a highly developed society. A fresco commonly called Flotilla or Akrotiri Ship Procession represents a culture adept at a variety of seafaring occupations. Differences in clothing styles could refer to different ranks and roles in society. Deer, dolphins, and large felines point to a sense of biodiversity among the islands of the Minoan civilization . In one room is a wall painting known as the Landscape with Swallows, or as the Spring Fresco . It depicts a whimsical, hilly landscape with lilies sprouting from the ground . Sparrows, painted in blue, white, and red, swoop around the landscape. The lilies sway gracefully and the hills create an undulating rhythm around the room. The fresco does not depict a naturalistic landscape, but instead depicts an essence of the land and nature, whose liveliness is enhanced through the colors and curvilinear lines. Vase Painting Minoan ceramics and vase painting are uniquely stylized and are similar in artistic style to Minoan wall painting. As with Minoan frescoes, themes from nature and marine life are often depicted on their pottery. Similar earth-tone colors are used, including black, white, brown, red, and blue. Kamares ware, a distinctive type of pottery painted in white, red, and blue over a black backdrop, is created from a fine clay. The paintings depict marine scenes, as well as abstract floral shapes, and they often include abstract lines and shapes, including spirals and waves. These stylized, floral shapes include lilies, palms, papyrus , and leaves that fill the entire surface of the pot with bold designs. The pottery is named for the location where it was first found in the late nineteenth century—a cave sanctuary at Kamares, on Mount Ida. This style of pottery is found throughout the island of Crete as well in a variety of locations on the Mediterranean. The Marine style emerged during the late Minoan period. As the name suggests, the decorations on these vessels take their cue from the sea. The vessels are almost entirely covered with sea creatures such as dolphins, fish, and octopi, along with seaweed, rock, and sponges. Unlike their Kamares ware predecessors, the light and dark color scheme is inverted: the figures are dark on a light background. Like the landscape frescoes at Thera, these paintings demonstrate a keen understanding and intimate knowledge of the marine environment. In the Marine-style Octopus Vase from the city of Palaikastro, the octopus wraps around the jug, mimicking and accentuating its round shape. The octopus is painted in great detail, from each of its distinct stylized suckers to its bulbous head and the extension of its long tentacles. The surface of this vessel is covered by the main image; bits of seaweed fill the negative space . This filling of the empty space with additional images or designs is another characteristic of Minoan Marine-style pottery. The style is known as horror vacui, which is Latin for fear of empty space. The same aesthetic is seen later, in Greek Geometric pottery. Minoan Sculpture Minoan sculpture consists of figurines that reflect the culture’s artistic style and important aspects of daily life. Give examples of Minoan sculpture Key Points - Most known Minoan sculptures are small scale. They range from single figures, often frontal, to figure groups that include both people and animals. The wide variety of materials used for these figurines represent the extent of the Minoan trade network throughout the Mediterranean. - The Snake Goddess statue from Knossos represents an important female figure in Minoan culture . Due to her connection with snakes and felines, as well as her bare breasts, she is perhaps an earth goddess or a Minoan priestess. - The Bull Leaper demonstrates the Minoan use of bronze in art as well as highlighting the importance of the bull in Minoan sculpture and artistic style . - An ivory bull leaper from Knossos demonstrates another position the acrobat’s body assumed during the act. - The Palaikastro Kouros is a rare example of a large-scale Minoan sculpture. Its size and rare materials lead experts to believe that it was used as a cult image. Key Terms - lost-wax casting :The most common method of using molten metal to make hollow, one-of-a-kind sculptures. When heat is applied to the clay mold, the wax layer within melts and forms channels, which the artist then fills with molten metal. - faience :A low-fired, opaque, quartz ceramic that creates a glass-like material in bright shades of blue, green, white, and brown that originates from Ancient Egypt. - chthonic :Dwelling within or under the earth. - curvilinear :Having bends; curved; formed by curved lines. As with their painting, Minoan sculpture demonstrates stylistic conventions including curvilinear forms; active, energized scenes; and long-limbed humans with broad shoulders and narrow waists. Women are often depicted in large, long, layered skirts that accentuate their hips. So far, the majority of sculptures and figurines found during Minoan excavations have been small scale. Materials The small-scale sculptures of the Minoans were produced in many different materials including ivory, gold, faience , and bronze. The variety of materials acknowledges the extensive trade network established by the Minoans. For instance, faience, an quartz ceramic , is an Egyptian material. Its presence in sculpture found on Crete demonstrates that the material was shipped raw from Egypt to Crete, where it was then formed to create Minoan sculpture. Bronze was an important material in Minoan culture and many figurines were produced in this medium , mostly created using the lost-wax casting technique. Snake Goddess One figurine, known as the Snake Goddess , depicts a woman with open arms who holds a snake in each hand, with a feline sitting on her head. The purpose or function of the statue is unknown, although it is believed that she may have been an earth goddess or priestess. The snakes are considered chthonic animals—related to the earth and the ground—and are often symbols of earth deities . Furthermore, the Snake Goddess is dressed in a layered skirt with a tight bodice, covered shoulders, and exposed breasts. The prominence of her breasts may suggest that she is fertility figure. Although her function remains unknown, the figure’s significance to the culture is unquestionable. Other figures in similar poses and outfits have also been found among Minoan ruins. Bull Leaper The Bull Leaper bronze, depicting a bull and an acrobat, was created as a single group. The figures are similar in style and position, as seen in several bull-leaping frescoes , including one from the palatial complex at Knossos. The bull stands frozen in a flying gallop, while a leaper appears to be flipping over his back. The acrobat’s feet are planted firmly on the bull’s rump, and the figure bends backwards with its arms planted on the bull’s head, perhaps preparing to launch off of the bull. The two figures, bull and man, mirror each other, as the bull’s back sways in the gallop and the man’s back is arched in a deep back bend. In another sculpture of a bull leaper (c. 1500 BCE), the acrobat is frozen in a forward-facing mid-somersault position. This ivory sculpture from Knossos is the only complete surviving figure from a larger arrangement and is the earliest three-dimensional representation of the bull leap. Experts believe that thin gold wires were used to suspend the figure over a bull. The figures are made with curvilinear lines and the positioning of both figures adds a high degree of movement and action that was commonly found in Minoan art. Palaikastro Kouros While most known Minoan sculpture is small scale, at least one sculpture serves as an exception to this rule. The so-called Palaikastro Kouros (not to be confused with the stylized male sculptures of ancient Greece), which dates to the Late Minoan period (late fifteenth century BCE), stands at almost 20 inches (50 cm) tall. It is an example of a Chryselephantine sculpture: it consists of a wooden frame, with thin carved slabs of ivory attached to represent the flesh. Sheets of gold leaf likely represent details such as hair and clothing. Its head consists of a semiprecious green stone called serpentine with rock crystal eyes. Because of its scale and the rareness of its media, experts believe the sculpture was a cult image. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Map Minoan Crete-en. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_Minoan_Crete-en.svg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Neopalatial Period. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : www.boundless.com/users/307859/textbooks/painting-1-8adf00aa-c11d-45a0-864a-1de2e11ad1f5/ancient-greece-aegean-civilizations-2/the-minoans-35/the-neopalatial-period-256-10991/. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/The Minoans. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Saylor.org%27s_Ancient_Civilizations_of_the_World/The_Minoans. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Minoan chronology. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_chronology. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient History/Greece/Minoan Civilization. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ancient_History/Greece/Minoan_Civilization. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Arthur Evans. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Evans. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Minoan civilization. Provided by : Wikipedia. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Knossos_-_North_Portico_02.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20916502. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Definition of Labyrinth in Art History. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com/art-history/definition/labyrinth/. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Minoan civilization. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization%23Architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Knossos. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Knossos. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Phaistos. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaistos. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - pithoi. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/pithoi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - AMI - Kamaresvase 2. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AMI_-_Kamaresvase_2.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - NAMA Akrotiri 4. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NAMA_Akrotiri_4.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bull-leaping. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bull-leaping.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - AMI - Oktopusvase. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AMI_-_Oktopusvase.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Knossos_fresco_women.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1350752. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-AKROTIRI_SHIP-PROCESSION-FULL_PANO.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1567513%20. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Wall Paintings of Thera. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Paintings_of_Thera. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Thera. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Thera%23Minoan_Akrotiri. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Knossos. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Knossos%23Frescoes. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Throne Room, Knossos. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Throne_Room,_Knossos. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Minoan pottery. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_pottery. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kamares Ware. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamares_Ware. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Thera eruption. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Thera_eruption%23Minoan_civilization. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bull-Leaping Fresco. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull-Leaping_Fresco. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Definition of Horror Vacui in Art History. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com/art-history/definition/horror-vacui. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - fresco. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fresco. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Definition of Buon Fresco in Art History. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com/art-history/definition/buon-fresco. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Snake Goddess Crete 1600BC. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Snake_Goddess_Crete_1600BC.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Minoan Bull-leaper. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Minoan_Bull-leaper.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 601px-The_Bull_Leaper_Knossos_1500BC.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=190666. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Minoan girl, c. 1600-1500 BCE, bronze, Crete, Cleveland Museum of Art. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Minoan_girl,_c._1600-1500_BCE,_bronze,_Crete,_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Casting. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com/users/284900/textbooks/art-100-02/sculpture-11/methods-of-sculpture-56/casting-284-13046/. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bull-Leaping. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull-leaping. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Palaikastro Kouros. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaikastro_Kouros. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chryselephantine Sculpture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chryselephantine_sculpture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - faience. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/faience. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient History/Greece/Minoan Civilization. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ancient_History/Greece/Minoan_Civilization. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/The Minoans. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Saylor.org%27s_Ancient_Civilizations_of_the_World/The_Minoans. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Minoan civilization. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization%23Minoans_beyond_Crete. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Minoan chronology. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_chronology. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Arthur Evans. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Evans%23Discovery_of_Minoan_civilization. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - curvilinear. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/curvilinear. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - chthonic. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chthonic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:25.078796	2020-05-01T17:30:54	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/05%3A_Art_of_the_Aegean_Civilizations/5.02%3A_Minoan_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "5.2: Minoan Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/05%3A_Art_of_the_Aegean_Civilizations/5.03%3A_Mycenaean_Art	5.3: Mycenaean Art Mycenaean Architecture The architecture of Mycenaean citadel sites reflects the society’s war-like culture and its constant need for protection and fortification. Describe the characteristics of Mycenaean architecture, such as their use of Cyclopean masonry and the corbel arch Key Points - The city of Mycenae was the center of Mycenaean culture . It is especially known for its protective gateway, the Lion Gate, and the Treasury of Atreus, an example of a tholos tomb. Mycenaean architecture reflects their warring society. A wide, strong wall built from large, roughly cut stones (known as cyclopean masonry ) was one method of protection, as was limited access to citadel sites and well-protected gates. - Since a lintel over a doorway could not support the wall above it without collapsing, the Mycenaeans used corbeled vaults and a relieving triangle over lintels to redistribute the weight off the horizontal beam and into the supporting walls. - The central feature of a Mycenaean citadel site was the megaron , a room that functioned as the king’s audience chamber. The megaron is entered through a porch with two columns and the main room included four columns around a central hearth. - Uniformity among the citadel sites throughout the Mycenaean civilization allow us to easily compare components such as megarons. Key Terms - post-and-lintel : A simple construction method using a header as the horizontal member over a building void supported at its ends by two vertical columns. - corbel : A structural member jutting out of a wall to carry a superincumbent weight. - ashlar : Masonry made of large, square-cut stones. - megaron : The rectangular great hall in a Mycenaean building, usually supported with pillars. - cyclopean masonry : A type of stonework found in Mycenaean architecture, built with massive limestone boulders that are roughly fitted together with minimal clearance between adjacent stones and no use of mortar. - citadel : The core fortified area of a town or city. Mycenaean Architecture Mycenaean culture can be summarized by its architecture, whose remains demonstrate the Mycenaeans’ war-like culture and the dominance of citadel sites ruled by a single ruler. The Mycenaeans populated Greece and built citadels on high, rocky outcroppings that provided natural fortification and overlooked the plains used for farming and raising livestock. The citadels vary from city to city but each share common attributes, including building techniques and architectural features. Building Techniques The walls of Mycenaean citadel sites were often built with ashlar and massive stone blocks. The blocks were considered too large to be moved by humans and were believed by ancient Greeks to have been erected by the Cyclopes—one-eyed giants. Due to this ancient belief, the use of large, roughly cut, ashlar blocks in building is referred to as Cyclopean masonry. The thick Cyclopean walls reflect a need for protection and self-defense since these walls often encircled the citadel site and the acropolis on which the site was located. Corbel Arch The Mycenaeans also relied on new techniques of building to create supportive archways and vaults. A typical post and lintel structure is not strong enough to support the heavy structures built above it. Therefore, a corbeled (or corbel) arch is employed over doorways to relieve the weight on the lintel. The corbel arch is constructed by offsetting successive courses of stone (or brick) at the springline of the walls so that they project towards the archway’s center from each supporting side, until the courses meet at the apex of the archway (often, the last gap is bridged with a flat stone). The corbel arch was often used by the Mycenaeans in conjunction with a relieving triangle, which was a triangular block of stone that fit into the recess of the corbeled arch and helped to redistribute weight from the lintel to the supporting walls. Citadel Sites Mycenaean citadel sites were centered around the megaron, a reception area for the king. The megaron was a rectangular hall, fronted by an open, two-columned porch. It contained a more or less central open hearth, which was vented though an oculus in the roof above it and surrounded by four columns. The architectural plan of the megaron became the basic shape of Greek temples, demonstrating the cultural shift as the gods of ancient Greece took the place of the Mycenaean rulers. Citadel sites were protected from invasion through natural and man-made fortification. In addition to thick walls, the sites were protected by controlled access. Entrance to the site was through one or two large gates, and the pathway into the main part of the citadel was often controlled by more gates or narrow passageways. Since citadels had to protect the area’s people in times of warfare, the sites were equipped for sieges. Deep water wells, storage rooms, and open space for livestock and additional citizens allowed a city to access basic needs while being protected during times of war. Mycenae The citadel site of Mycenae was the center of Mycenaean culture. It overlooks the Argos plain on the Peloponnesian peninsula, and according to Greek mythology was the home to King Agamemnon. The site’s megaron sits on the highest part of the acropolis and is reached through a large staircase. Inside the walls are various rooms for administration and storage along with palace quarters, living spaces, and temples. A large grave site, known as Grave Circle A, is also built within the walls. The main approach to the citadel is through the Lion Gate, a cyclopean-walled entrance way. The gate is 20 feet wide, which is large enough for citizens and wagons to pass through, but its size and the walls on either side create a tunneling effect that makes it difficult for an invading army to penetrate. The gate is famous for its use of the relieving arch, a corbeled arch that leaves an opening and lightens the weight carried by the lintel. The Lion Gate received its name from its decorated relieving triangle of lions one either side of a single column. This composition of lions or another feline animal flanking a single object is known as a heraldic composition . The lions represent cultural influences from the Ancient Near East. Their heads are turned to face outwards and confront those who enter the gate. Mycenae is also home to a subterranean beehive-shaped tomb (also known as a tholos tomb) that was located outside the citadel walls. The tomb is known today as the Treasury of Atreus, due to the wealth of grave goods found there. This tomb and others like it are demonstrations of corbeled vaulting that covers an expansive open space. The vault is 44 feet high and 48 feet in diameter. The tombs are entered through a narrow passageway known as a dromos and a post-and-lintel doorway topped by a relieving triangle. Tiyrns The citadel site of Tiryns, another example of Mycenaean fortification, was a hill fort that has been occupied over the course of 7000 years. It reached its height between 1400 and 1200 BCE, when it was one of the most important centers of the Mycenaean world. Its most notable features were its palace, its Cyclopean tunnels, its walls, and its tightly controlled access to the megaron and main rooms of the citadel. Just a few gates provide access to the hill but only one path leads to the main site. This path is narrow and protected by a series of gates that could be opened and closed to trap invaders. The central megaron is easy to locate, and it is surrounded by various palatial and administrative rooms. The megaron is accessed through a courtyard that is decorated on three sides with a colonnade . The famous megaron has a large reception hall, the main room of which had a throne placed against the right wall and a central hearth bordered by four wooden columns that served as supports for the roof. It was laid out around a circular hearth surrounded by four columns. Although individual citadel sites varied to a degree, their overall uniformity allows us to compare design elements easily. For example, the hearth of the megaron at the citadel of Pylos provides an idea of how its counterpart at Tiryns appears. Mycenaean Metallurgy The Mycenaeans were masterful metalworkers, as their gold, silver, and bronze daggers, drinking cups, and other objects demonstrate. List the items found in Mycenaean burial sites that demonstrate the Mycenaeans’ skill in metallurgy Key Points - Grave Circle A and B, at Mycenae, are a series of shaft graves enclosed by a wall from the 16th century BCE. These grave sites were originally excavated by Heinrich Schleimann, and the grave goods found there demonstrate the incredible skill Mycenaeans possessed in metalwork. - Gold death masks were commonly placed over the face of the wealthy deceased. These death masks record the main features of the dead and are made with repoussé , a metalworking technique. When compared to other masks, the Death Mask of Agamemnon is most likely a fake. - Bronze daggers inlaid with gold, silver, and niello are a common grave good found at Mycenaean burial sites. These daggers represent international trade and cultural connections between the Mycenaeans and the Minoans, Egyptians, and Near Eastern cultures . - Rhytons were also crafted out of gold and silver. Some, such as the Silver Siege Rhyton, were used for ritual libations . - Other objects of gold, silver, and bronze have been excavated from Mycenaean grave sites and cities, including armor, jewelry, signet rings, and seals. Key Terms - diadem : A crown or headband worn as a symbol of sovereignty. - repoussé : A metalworking technique in which a thin sheet of malleable metal is shaped by hammering from the reverse side to create a design in low relief. - rhyton : A container, having a base in the form of a head, from which fluids are intended to be drunk. - niello : Any of various black metal alloys, made of sulphur with copper, silver or lead, used to create decorative designs on other metals. Grave Circle A at Mycenae Grave Circle A is a set of graves from the sixteenth century BCE located at Mycenae. The grave circle was originally located outside the walls of the city but was later encompassed inside the walls of the citadel when the city’s walls were enlarged during the thirteenth century BCE. The grave circle is surrounded by a second wall and only has one entrance. Inside are six tombs for nineteen bodies that were buried inside shaft graves. The shaft graves were deep, narrow shafts dug into the ground . The body would be placed inside a stone coffin and placed at the bottom of the grave along with grave goods. The graves were often marked by a mound of earth above them and grave stele . The grave site was excavated by Heinrich Schleimann in 1876, who excavated ancient sites such as Mycenae and Troy based on the writings of Homer and was determined to find archaeological remains that aligned with observations discussed in the Iliad and the Odyssey. The archaeological methods of the nineteenth century were different than those of the twenty-first century and Schleimann’s desire to discover remains that aligned with mythologies and Homeric stories did not seem as unusual as it does today. Upon excavating the tombs, Schleimann declared that he found the remains of Agamemnon and many of his followers. Grave Circle B An additional grave circle, Grave Circle B, is also located at Mycenae, although this one was never incorporated into the citadel site. The two grave circles were elite burial grounds for the ruling dynasty . The graves were filled with precious items made from expensive material, including gold, silver, and bronze. The amount of gold, silver, and previous materials in these tombs not only depict the wealth of the ruling class of the Mycenae but also demonstrates the talent and artistry of Mycenaean metalworking. Reoccurring themes and motifs underline the culture’s propensity for war and the cross-cultural connections that the Mycenaeans established with other Mediterranean cultures through trade, including the Minoans, Egyptians, and even the Orientalizing style of the Ancient Near East Gold Death Masks Repous sé death masks were found in many of the tombs. The death masks were created from thin sheets of gold, through a careful method of metalworking to create a low relief . These objects are fragile, carefully crafted, and laid over the face of the dead. Schleimann called the most famous of the death masks the Mask of Agamemnon, under the assumption that this was the burial site of the Homeric king. The mask depicts a man with a triangular face, bushy eyebrows, a narrow nose, pursed lips, a mustache, and stylized ears. This mask is an impressive and beautiful specimen but looks quite different from other death masks found at the site. The faces on other death masks are rounder; the eyes are more bulbous; and at least one bears a hint of a smile. None of the other figures have a mustache or even the hint of beard. In fact, the mustache looks distinctly nineteenth century and is comparable to the mustache that Schleimann himself had. The artistic quality between the Mask of Agamemnon and the others seems dramatically different. Despite these differences, the Mask of Agamemnon has inserted itself into the story of Mycenaean art. Bronze Daggers Decorative bronze daggers found in the grave shafts suggest there were multicultural influences on Mycenaean artists. These ceremonial daggers were made of bronze and inlaid in silver, gold, and niello with scenes that were clearly influenced from foreign cultures. Two daggers that were excavated depict scenes of hunts, which suggest an Ancient Near East influence. One of these scenes depicts lions hunting prey, while the other scene depicts a lion hunt. The portrayal of the figures in the lion hunt scene draws distinctly from the style of figures found in Minoan painting. These figures have narrow waists, broad shoulders, and large, muscular thighs. The scene between the hunters and the lions is dramatic and full of energy, another Minoan influence. Another dagger depicts the influence of Minoan painting and imagery through the depiction of marine life, and Egyptian influences are seen on a dagger filled with lotus and papyrus reeds along with fowl. Gold and Silver Drinking Cups A variety of gold and silver drinking cups have also been found in these grave shafts. These include a rhyton in the shape of a bull’s head, with golden horns and a decorative, stylized gold flower, made from silver repoussé. Other cups include the golden Cup of Nestor, a large two handle cup that Schleimann attributed to the legendary Mycenaean hero Nestor, a Trojan War veteran who plays a peripheral role in The Odyssey. A silver rhyton called the Silver Siege Rhyton was likely used for ritual libations. The Silver Siege Rhyton is unique for its depiction of a siege. The scene is only preserved on a portion of the rhyton, but a landscape of trees and a fortress wall are clearly recognizable. The figures in the scene appear to be in various positions, some men fight each other. An archer crouches with his bow and arrow, while others throw rocks down from the wall at the invaders. A third rhyton in the form of a bull’s head suggests a similarity with the Minoan culture, like the dagger mentioned earlier. The rhyton consists primarily of silver with gold-leaf accents. Its purpose as a ceremonial vessel arguably places the bull in a role of significance in the Mycenaean culture. Other Objects Additional gold trinkets include signet rings that depict images of hunts, combat, and animals, along with other decorative jewelry, such as bracelets, earrings, pendants, and diadems (headbands designating their wearers’ sovereign status). Bronze armor, including breastplates and helmets, were also uncovered in excavations of the tomb sites. Mycenaean Ceramics The Mycenaeans were talented potters whose ceramic styles and decorations reflect their skill and the values of their culture. Describe the figurines, rhytons, kraters, and other ceramic objects made by the Mycenaeans Key Points - Mycenaean pottery can be identified by the types of clay and painting the artists used to create and decorate their vessels . Different pottery centers preferred different clay, slips , and motifs . Popular themes include nature, marine life, narratives, and abstract design. - The Warriors Vase depicts a static scene of a woman bidding farewell to armed warriors. The vase, from Mycenae, is decorated with minimal color and a uniform design. This vase represents the culture ‘s dependence on warfare. - Mycenaean rhytons crafted from terra cotta were usually conically shaped and painted to represent different animals, such as a boar or a bull; they also had other details added to them. - Small-scale Mycenaean figurines made from terra cotta are abstract simple figures, often of women, that are simply painted and detailed. The figures have bodies that are rounded or stand with outstretched arms, their legs are represented by cylindrical bases. Key Terms - rhyton : A container, having a base in the form of a head, from which fluids are drunk. - krater : An ancient Greek vessel for mixing water and wine. - figurine : A small carved or molded figure; a statuette. Mycenaean Ceramics The Mycenaeans created numerous ceramic vessels of various types and decorated them in a variety of styles . These vessels were popular outside of Greece, and were often exported and traded around the Mediterranean and have been found in Egypt, Italy, Asia Minor, and Spain. Two of the main production centers were the Mycenaean cities at Athens and Corinth. The products of the two centers were distinguishable by their color and decoration. Corinthian clay was a pale yellow and tended to feature painted scenes based on nature, while the Athenian potters decorated their vessels with a rich red and preferred geometric designs. Vessels The most popular types of vessels included kraters —large, open-mouth jars to mix wine and water—pitchers, and stirrup jars, which are so named for the handles that came above the top of the vessel. Mycenaean vessels usually had a pale, off-white background and were painted in a single color, either red, brown, or black. Popular motifs include abstract geometric designs, animals, marine life, or narrative scenes. The presence of nature scenes, especially of marine life and of bulls, seems to suggest a Minoan influence on the style and motifs painted on the Mycenaean pots. Vessels served the purposes of storage, processing, and transfer. There are a few different classes of pottery, generally separated into two main sections: utilitarian and elite. - Utilitarian pottery is sometimes decorated, made for functional domestic use, and constitutes the bulk of the pottery made. - Elite pottery is finely made and elaborately decorated with great regard for detail. This form of pottery is generally made for holding precious liquids and for decoration. Stirrup Jars Stirrup jars, mainly used for storing liquids such as oil and wine, could have been economically valuable in Mycenaean households. The arrangement of common features suggests that a stopper is used to secure the contents and the contents are what make the jar a valuable household item. The disc holes and third handle may have been used to secure a tag to the vessel, suggesting it had commercial importance and resale value . The locations where stirrup jars have been found reflect the fact that the popularity of this vessel type spread quickly throughout the Aegean, and the use of the stirrup jar to identify a specific commodity became important. Warrior Vase The Warrior Vase (c. 12oo BCE) is a bell krater that depicts a woman bidding farewell to a group of warriors. The scene is simple and lacks a background. The men all carry round shields and spears and wear helmets. Attached to their spears are knapsacks, which suggest that they must travel long distances to battle. On one side, the soldiers wear helmets ornamented with horns. The soldiers on the other side wear hedgehog-style helmets. A single woman stands to the left with her arm raised and a group of identically dressed and heavily armed men is marching off to the right. There is no way to tell which woman is waving goodbye, as all the figures are generic and none specifically interacts with her, nor do they interact with each other. The figures are stocky and lack the sinuous lines of the painted Minoan figures. Furthermore, while the men all face right with wide stances and appear to move in that direction, their flat feet and twisted perspective bodies inhibit any potential for movement. Instead the figures remain static and upright. The imagery depicts a simple narrative that in the warrior culture of the Mycenaeans must have often been reenacted. Many scholars observe that the style of the figures and the handles of this thirteenth century BCE vase are very similar to eighth century BCE pottery. Similar spearmen are also depicted in eighth century BCE pottery which introduces a curious 500 year gap in styles. Figurines Small terra cotta figurines and statuettes are found throughout Mycenaean grave sites and cities. The purpose of these figures is unknown, although they may carry a votive or cult association. Some figurines found in children’s tombs may be toys. The most common style depicts female figures and are from the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries BCE. The figures are small and are divided into two categories: - Those that look like the Greek letter phi (phi-types), with a rounded upper body shape. - Those that look like the Greek letter psi (psi-types), which have outstretched arms. Both figures have heads that are narrow and pinched into a triangle. Details such as the eyes, mouth, and nose are painted on. The bases of the figures are cylindrical and their legs seem to be painted as a visual afterthought. These figures are painted simply with stripes and zigzags, often on the upper body, and details such as eyes are also added in with paint, while breasts are portrayed with clay protrusions. There are few examples of large-scale, freestanding sculptures from the Mycenaeans. A painted plaster head of a female—perhaps depicting a priestess, goddess, or sphinx —is one of the few examples of large-scale sculpture. The head is painted white, suggesting that it depicts a female. A red band wraps around her head with bits of hair underneath. The eyes and eyebrows are outlined in blue, the lips are red, and red circles surrounded by small red dots are on her checks and chin. Rhytons Rhytons are elaborate, decorative drinking cups that often take the shape of animals. They are usually made of precious materials, such as gold or silver, but they may also be made of terra cotta. Several Mycenaean rhytons have been excavated, and include one in the shape of a boar’s head and another in the shape of a bull’s head. The bull-headed rhyton may have been influenced by or intended for trade with the Minoans. Both of these rhytons are conically shaped, painted in a single color with abstract shapes, and have defining features, such as ears and eyes. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lions-Gate-Mycenae. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lions-Gate-Mycenae.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Treasury of Atreus Mycenae. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Treasury_of_Atreus_Mycenae.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - BurchtTiryns2. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BurchtTiryns2.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Pilo001.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30186132. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 292px-Tiryns.Castle.02.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=183373. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ashlar. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashlar. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tiryns. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiryns. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Citadel. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Citadel. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Definition of Post-and-Lintel in Art History. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com/art-history/definition/post-and-lintel. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mycenae. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenae. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Corbelled vault. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbelled_vault%23Ancient_Greece. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Megaron. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaron. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cyclopean masonry. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopean_masonry. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Beehive tomb. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Beehive_tomb. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lion Gate. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lion_Gate. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mycenaean Greece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - megaron. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/megaron. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - corbel. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/corbel. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Definition of Cyclopean Masonry in Art History. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com/art-history/definition/cyclopean-masonry. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mycenae4. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mycenae4.JPG. License : CC BY: Attribution - 360px-Exhibit_Archaeologycal_Museum_Athens.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2614730. License : CC BY: Attribution - 640px-Gold_in_NAMA_02.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4269002. License : CC BY: Attribution - Nestorbecher Mykene (Nationalmuseum Athen). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nestorbecher_Mykene_(Nationalmuseum_Athen).JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - MaskOfAgamemnon. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MaskOfAgamemnon.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hunting Mycenaean Dagger. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hunting_Mycenaean_Dagger.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mycenaean Greece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece%23Funerary_practices. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nestor's Cup. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestor's_Cup. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Grave Circle A, Mycenae. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Grave_Circle_A,_Mycenae. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Silver Siege Rhyton. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Siege_Rhyton. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Niello. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/niello. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Repoussu00e9. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/repousse. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Rhyton. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rhyton. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mycenaean psi figure. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Psi-figurine_Tiryns_Louvre_CA589.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - NAMA Mycenes portrait feminin. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NAMA_Mycenes_portrait_feminin.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Greek pottery in the National Archaeological Museum in Athens 14. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_Greek_pottery_in_the_National_Archaeological_Museum_in_Athens_14.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 430px-Stirrup_vase_Louvre_MNC321.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=484734. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Phi figurines Louvre MNE 1007. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phi_figurines_Louvre_MNE_1007.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bull-rhyton BM A971. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bull-rhyton_BM_A971.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mycenaean Greece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece%23Vessels. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Stirrup jar. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirrup_jar. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Warrior Vase. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Warrior_Vase. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mycenaean pottery. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_pottery. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - figurine. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/figurine. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - krater. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/krater. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - rhyton. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rhyton. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:25.285502	2020-05-01T17:30:56	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/05%3A_Art_of_the_Aegean_Civilizations/5.03%3A_Mycenaean_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "5.3: Mycenaean Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece	6: Ancient Greece Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52949 Boundless Boundless 6.1: Introduction to Ancient Greece 6.2: The Geometric Period 6.3: The Orientalizing Period 6.4: The Archaic Period 6.5: The Early Classical Period 6.6: The High Classical Period 6.7: The Hellenistic Period	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:25.372628	2020-05-01T17:29:51	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "6: Ancient Greece", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.01%3A_Introduction_to_Ancient_Greece	6.1: Introduction to Ancient Greece Introduction to Ancient Greece Ancient Greek culture spans over a thousand years, from the earliest civilizations to the cultures that became the Ancient Greeks. Illustrate a timeline of ancient Greece from the Bronze Age to the Hellenistic period Key Points - Ancient Greek culture is noted for its government, art, architecture, philosophy, and sports, all of which became foundations for modern western society. It was admired and adopted by others, including Alexander the Great and the Romans, who helped spread Greek culture around the world. Before Greek culture took root in Greece, early civilizations thrived on the Greek mainland and the Aegean Islands. The fall of these cultures and the aftermath, known as the Dark Age, is believed to be the time when the Homeric epics were first recited. - Greek culture began to develop during the Geometric, Orientalizing, and Archaic periods, which lasted from 900 to 480 BCE. During this time the population of city-states began to grow, Panhellenic traditions were established, and art and architecture began to reflect Greek values . - The Early, High, and Late Classical periods in Greece occurred from 480 to 323 BCE. During these periods, Greece flourished and the polis of Athens saw its Golden Age under the leadership of Pericles . However, city-state rivalries lead to wars, and Greece was never truly stable until conquered. - The Hellenistic period in Greece is the last period before Greek culture becomes a subset of Roman hegemony . This period occurs from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, to the Greek defeat at the Battle of Actium in 30 BCE. It marks the spread of Greek culture across the Mediterranean. Key Terms - polis : A city, or a city-state. Its plural is poleis. Ancient Greek Culture Ancient Greek culture covers over a thousand years of history, from the earliest civilizations in the area to the cultures that became the Ancient Greeks. Following a Greek Dark Age, Greece once more flourished and developed into the ancient culture that we recognize today . Greek culture is based on a series of shared values that connected independent city-states throughout the region, and expanded as far north as Mount Olympus. Greek society was insular, and loyalties were focused around one’s polis (city-state). Greeks considered themselves civilized and considered outsiders to be barbaric. While Greek daily life and loyalty was centered on one’s polis, the Greeks did create leagues, which vied for control of the peninsula, and were able to unite together against a common threat (such as the Persians). Greek culture is focused on their government, art, architecture, philosophy, and sport. Athens was intensely proud of its creation of democracy, and citizens from all poleis (city-states) took part in civic duties. Cities commissioned artists and architects to honor their gods and beautify their cities. Greek philosophers, mathematicians, and thinkers are still honored in society today. As a religious people, the Greeks worshipped a number of gods through sacrifices, rituals, and festivals. Bronze Age and Proto-Greek Civilizations Cycladic Civilization During the Bronze Age, several distinct cultures developed around the Aegean. The Cycladic civilization, around the Cyclades Islands, thrived from 3,000 to 2,000 BCE. Little is known about the Cycladic civilization because they left no written records. Their material culture is mainly excavated from grave sites, which reveal that the people produced unique, geometric marble figures. Minoan Civilization The Minoan civilization stretches from 3700 BCE until 1200 BCE, and thrived during their Neopalatial period (from 1700 to 1400 BCE), with the large-scale building of communal palaces. Numerous archives have been discovered at Minoan sites; however their language, Linear A , has yet to be deciphered. The culture was centered on trade and production, and the Minoans were great seafarers on the Mediterranean Sea. Mycenaean Civilization A proto-Greek culture known as the Mycenaeans developed and flourished on the mainland, eventually conquering the Aegean Islands and Crete, where the Minoan civilization was centered. The Mycenaeans developed a fractious, war-like culture that was centered on the authority of a single ruler. Their culture eventually collapsed, but many of their citadel sites were occupied through the Greek Dark Age and rebuilt into Greek city-states. The Dark Age From around 1200 BCE, the palace centers and outlying settlements of the Mycenaeans’ culture began to be abandoned or destroyed. By 1050 BCE, the recognizable features of Mycenaean culture had disappeared. Many explanations attribute the fall of the Mycenaean civilization and the collapse of the Bronze Age to climatic or environmental catastrophe, combined with an invasion by the Dorians or by the Sea Peoples, or to the widespread availability of edged weapons of iron, but no single explanation fits the available archaeological evidence. This two- to three-century span of history is also known as the Homeric Age. It is believed that the Homeric epics The Iliad and The Odyssey were first recited around this time. The Geometric and Orientalizing Periods The Geometric period (c. 900–700 BCE), which derives its name from the proliferation of geometric designs and rendering of figures in art, witnessed the emergence of a new culture on the Greek mainland. The culture’s change in language, its adaptation of the Phoenician alphabet, and its new funerary practices and material culture suggest the ethnic population changed from the mainland’s previous inhabitants, the Mycenaeans. During this time, the new culture was centered on the people and independent poleis, which divided the land into regional populations. This period witnessed a growth in population and the revival of trade. The Orientalizing period (c. 700–600 BCE) is named for the cultural exchanges the Greeks had with Eastern, or Oriental civilizations. During this time, international trade began to flourish. Art from this period reflects contact with locations such as Egypt, Syria, Assyria, Phoenicia, and Israel. Archaic Greece Greece’s Archaic period lasted from 600 to 480 BCE, in which the Greek culture expanded. The population in Greece began to rise and the Greeks began to colonize along the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The poleis at this time were typically ruled by a single ruler who commanded the city by force. For the city of Athens, this led to the creation of democracy. Several city-states emerged as major powers, including Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes. These poleis were often warring with each other, and formed coalitions to gain power and allies. The Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BCE marked the end of the Archaic period. Classical Greece The era of Classical Greece began in 480 BCE with the sacking of Athens by the Persians. The Persian invasion of Greece, first lead by Darius I and then by his son Xerxes, united Greece against a common enemy. With the defeat of the Persian threat, Athens became the most powerful polis until the start of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE. These wars continued on and off until 400 BCE. While marred by war, the Classical period saw the height of Greek culture and the creation of some of Greece’s most famous art and architecture. However, peace and stability in Greece was not achieved until it was conquered and united by Macedonia under the leadership of Philip II and Alexander the Great in the mid-third century BCE. Hellenistic Greece The Hellenistic period began with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, and ended with the Roman victory at the Battle of Actium in 30 BCE. Greece poleis spent this time under the hegemony of foreign rulers, first the Macedons and then the Romans, starting in 146 BCE. New centers of Hellenic culture flourished through Greece and on foreign soil, including the cities of Pergamon, Antioch, and Alexandria—the capitals of the Attalids, Seleucids, and Ptolemies. The Ancient Greek Gods and Their Temples Greek religion played a central and daily role in the life of ancient Greeks, and group worship was centered on the temple and cult sites. Describe the ways in which Greek life and art was influenced by the gods Key Points - The history of the Greek pantheon begins with the primordial deities Gaia and Uranus and their children, the Titans. The pantheon of Greek gods consisted of twelve Olympian gods plus a variety of additional principal and minor gods and goddesses. The gods had human characteristics and personalities, and their lives were detailed by the mythologies told about them. - The gods played a central role in Greek daily life. They were consulted, blamed, and honored for a variety of reasons, including natural occurrences (from earthquakes to rain), as well as for the public and private affairs of the polis and its people. - The mythologies and cult worship of heroes also played an important role in Greek religion and ritual . Heroes—especially Perseus, Hercules , Theseus, and those involved in the Trojan War—were often depicted in art, and the location of their feats became cult sites. - The temple was considered the home of the god and was often an expensive and lavishly decorated building. The temple included a naos , the main room that held the cult statue. Offerings and dedications were left for the gods, and sacrifices took place outdoors. Key Terms - primordial : Existing at or before the beginning of time. - demigod : A half-god or hero; the offspring of a deity and a mortal. - libation : The act of pouring a liquid or liquor, usually wine, either on the ground or on a victim in sacrifice, in honor of some deity. - naos : The central room in the god’s temple, where a cult statue of the god is erected. - polytheistic : A religious system whose members worship many deities. - votive : A small religious offering deposited at a temple without the purpose of display or retrieval. Greek religious traditions encompassed a large pantheon of gods, complex mythologies, rituals, and cult practices. Greece was a polytheistic society, and looked to its gods and mythology to explain natural mysteries as well as current events. Religious festivals and ceremonies were held throughout the year, and animal sacrifice and votive offerings were popular ways to appease and worship the gods. Religious life, rituals, and practices were one of the unifying aspects of Greece across regions and poleis (cities, or city-states , such as Athens and Sparta). Greek Gods Greek gods were immortal beings who possessed human-like qualities and were represented as completely human in visual art. They were moral and immoral, petty and just, and often vain. The gods were invoked to intervene and assist in matters large, small, private and public. City-states claimed individual gods and goddess as their patrons . Temples and sanctuaries to the gods were built in every city. Many cities became cult sites due to their connection with a god or goddess and specific myths. For instance, the city of Delphi was known for its oracle and sanctuary of Apollo, because Apollo was believed to have killed a dragon that inhabited Delphi. The history of the Greek pantheon begins with the primordial deities Gaia (Mother Earth) and Uranus (Father Sky), who were the parents of the first of twelve giants known as Titans. Among these Titans were six males and six females. - The males were named Oceanus, Hyperion, Coeus, Crius, Iapetus, and Kronos. - The females were named Themis, Mnemosyne, Tethys, Theia, Phoebe, and Rhea. Kronos eventually overthrew Uranus and ruled during a mythological Golden Age. Over time, he and Rhea had twelve children who would become the Olympian gods. However, Kronos heard a prophecy that his son would overthrow him, as he did to Uranus. In an effort to avert fate, he ordered Rhea to allow him to devour each of the children upon their birth. The Olympian Gods Best known among the pantheon are the twelve Olympian gods and goddesses who resided on Mt. Olympus in northern Greece. Zeus, the youngest son of Rhea and Kronos, was hidden from his father, instead of being swallowed. Once he became a man, he challenged his father’s rule, forcing Kronos to regurgitate the rest of his swallowed children. These children were Zeus’s siblings, and together they overthrew Kronos, making Zeus the father of gods and men. Violence and power struggles were common in Greek mythology, and the Greeks used their mythologies to explain their lives around them, from the change in seasons to why the Persians were able to sack Athens. The traditional pantheon of Greek gods includes - Zeus, the king of gods and the ruler of the sky, - Zeus’ two brothers, Poseidon (who ruled over the sea) and Hades (who ruled the underworld). - Zeus’s sister and wife, Hera, the goddess of marriage, who is frequently jealous and vindictive of Zeus’s other lovers. - Their sisters Hestia, the goddess of the hearth, and Demeter, the goddess of grain and culture . - Zeus’s children: - Athena (goddess of warfare and wisdom). - Hermes (a messenger god and god of commerce). - the twins Apollo (god of the sun, music, and prophecy) and Artemis (goddess of the hunt and of wild animals). - Dionysos (god of wine and theatre). - Aphrodite (goddess of beauty and love), who was married to Hephaestus (deformed god of the forge). - Ares (god of war and lover of Aphrodite) are also part of the traditional pantheon. - Hephaestus was in some mythologies the son of Zeus while in others the fatherless son of Hera. Heroes Heroes, who were often demigods , were also important characters in Greek mythology. The two most important heroes are Perseus and Hercules. Perseus Perseus is known for defeating the Gorgon, Medusa. He slew her with help from the gods: Athena gave him armor and a reflective shield, and Hermes provided Perseus with winged sandals so he could fly. Hercules Hercules was a strong but unkind man, a drunkard who conducted huge misdeeds and social faux pas. Hercules was sent on twelve labors to atone for his sins as punishment for his misdeeds. These deeds, and several other stories, were often depicted in art, on ceramic pots, or on temple metopes . The most famous of his deeds include slaying both the Nemean Lion and the Hydra, capturing Cerberus (the dog of the underworld), and obtaining the apples of the Hesperides. Theseus A third hero, Theseus, was an Athenian hero known for slaying King Minos’s Minotaur . Other major heros in Greek mythology include the warriors and participants of the Trojan War, such as Achilles, Ajax, Odysseus, Agamemnon, Paris, Hector, and Helen. Hero cults were another popular form of Greek worship that involved the honoring of the dead, specifically the dead heroes of the Trojan War. The sites of hero worship were usually old Bronze Age sites or tombs that the ancient Greeks recognized as important or sacred, which they then connected to their own legends and stories. Sacred Spaces Greek worship was centered on the temple. The temple was considered the home of the god, and a cult statue of the god would be erected in the central room, or the naos. Temples generally followed the same basic rectangular plan, although a round temple, known as a tholos , were used at some sites in starting in the Classical period. Temples were oriented east to face the rising sun. Patrons would leave offerings for the gods, such as small votives, large statues, libations or costly goods. Due to the wealth dedicated to the gods, the temples often became treasuries that held and preserved the wealth of the city. Greek temples would be extensively decorated, and their construction was a long and costly endeavor. Rituals and animal sacrifices in honor of the god or goddess would take place outside, in front of the temple. Rituals often included a large number of people, and sacrifice was a messy business that was best done outdoors. The development and decoration of temples is a primary focus in the study of Greek art and culture. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Map of Ancient Greece.. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Greecemap.gif. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Greek Dark Ages. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pottery in the Greek Geometric Period. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com/atoms/10748. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Orientalizing Period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientalizing_period . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Archaic Greece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_Greece . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Greece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece%23Culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of Greece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Greece. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - polis. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/polis. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - File:Map greek sanctuaries-en.svg - Wikimedia Commons. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_greek_sanctuaries-en.svg&page=1. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bell-krater sacrifice Pothos Painter Louvre G496. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bell-krater_sacrifice_Pothos_Painter_Louvre_G496.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Herakles Kerberos Eurystheus Louvre E701. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Herakles_Kerberos_Eurystheus_Louvre_E701.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 281px-Hermes_di_Prassitele,_at_Olimpia,_front_2.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=29107624. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 257px-0029MAN-Themis.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2935418. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hellenistic religion. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_religion. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Greek temple. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Greek hero cult. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_hero_cult. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Religion in ancient Greece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Greece. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Greece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece%23Religion_and_mythology. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - libation. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/libation. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - demigod. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/demigod. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Titan (Mythology). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(mythology). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Themis. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Themis. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:25.480462	2020-05-01T17:31:04	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.01%3A_Introduction_to_Ancient_Greece", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "6.1: Introduction to Ancient Greece", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.02%3A_The_Geometric_Period	6.2: The Geometric Period Pottery in the Greek Geometric Period The Geometric period in Greek art is distinguished by a reliance on geometric shapes to create human and animal figures as well as abstract décor. Identify the key characteristics of the pottery produced during the Geometric period Key Points - The Geometric period marked the end of Greece’s Dark Age and lasted from 900 to 700 BCE. - The Geometric period derives its name from the dominance of geometric motifs in vase painting. Monumental kraters and amphorae were made and decorated as grave markers. These vessels are characteristic of Geometric vase painting during this period. - The most famous vessels from this period uses a technique called horror vacui , in which every space of the surface is filled with imagery . Key Terms - horror vacui : From the Latin, fear of empty space, it is a style of painting where the entire surface of a space is filled with patterns and figures. - amphora : A two-handled jar with a narrow neck that was used in ancient times to store or carry wine or oils. - krater : An ancient Greek vessel for mixing water and wine. Geometric Pottery In the eleventh century BCE, the citadel centers of the Mycenaeans were abandoned and Greece fell into a period with little cultural or social progression. Signs of civilization including literacy, writing, and trade were lost and the population on mainland Greece plummeted. During the Proto-Geometric period (1050–900 BCE), painting on ceramics began to re-emerge. These vessels were only decorated with abstract geometric shapes adopted from Mycenaean pottery. Ceramicists began using the fast wheel to create vessels, which allowed for new monumental heights. In the Geometric period that followed, figures once more became present on the vessel. The period lasted from 900 to 700 BCE and marked the end of the Greek Dark Ages. A new Greek culture emerged during this time. The population grew, trade began once more, and the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet for writing. Unlike the Mycenaeans, this culture was more focused on the people of the polis , which is reflected in the art of this period. The period gets its name from the reliance on geometric shapes and patterns in its art, and even their use in depicting both human and animal figures. Athens The city of Athens became the center for pottery production. A potter’s quarter in the section of the city known as the Kerameikos was located on either side of the Dipylon Gate, one of the city’s west gates. The potters lived and work inside the gate in the city, while outside the gate, along the road, was a large cemetery. In the Geometric period, monumental-sized kraters and amphorae up to six feet tall were used as grave markers for the burials just outside the gate. Kraters marked male graves, while amphorae marked female graves. The Dipylon Master, an unknown painter whose hand is recognized on many different vessels, displays the great expertise required for decorating these funerary markers. The vessels were first thrown a wheel, an important technological development at the time, before painting began. Both the Diplyon Krater and Dipylon Amphora demonstrate the main characteristics of painting during this time. For one, the entire vessel is decorated in a style known as horror vacui, a style in which the entire surface of the medium is filled with imagery. A decorative meander is on the lip of the krater and on many registers of the amphora. This geometric motif is constructed from a single, continuous line in a repeated shape or motif. The main scene is depicted on the widest part of the pot’s body. These scenes relate to the funerary aspect of the pot and may depict mourners, a prothesis (a ritual of laying the body out and mourning), or even funerary games and processions. On the Dipylon Krater, two registers depict a processional scene, an ekphora, (the transportation of the body to the cemetery) and the prothesis. The dead man of the prothesis scene is seen on the upper register. He is laid out on a bier and mourners, distinguished by their hands tearing at their hair, surround the body. Above the body is a shroud, which the artist depicts above and not over the body in order to allow the viewer to see the entirety of the scene. On the register below, chariots and soldiers form a funerary procession. The soldiers are identified by their uniquely shaped shields. The Dipylon Amphora depicts just a prothesis in a wide a register around the pot. In both vessels, men and women are distinguished by protruding triangles on their chest or waist to represent breasts or a penis. Every empty space in these scenes is filled with geometric shapes—M’s, diamonds, starbursts—demonstrating the Geometric painter’s horror vacui. Sculpture in the Greek Geometric Period Although derived from geometric shapes, the Ancient Greek sculptures of the Geometric period show some artistic observation of nature. Identify the key characteristics of the sculptures produced during the Geometric period Key Points - Geometric sculptures are primarily small scale and made of bronze , terra cotta , or ivory . The bronze figures were produced using the lost-wax method of casting . - The human and animal figures produced during this period have geometric features, although the legs on humans appear relatively naturalistic. - Geometric bronzes were typically left as votive offerings at shrines and sanctuaries , such as those at Delphi and Olympia. - Horses came to symbolize wealth due to the high costs of their upkeep. Key Terms - votive : An type of offering deposited within a religious site without the purpose of display or retrieval. The ancient Greek sculptures of the Geometric period , although derived from geometric shapes, bear evidence of an artistic observation of nature in some circumstances. Small-scale sculptures, usually made of bronze, terra cotta, or ivory, were commonly produced during this time. Bronzes were made using the lost-wax technique, probably introduced from Syria, and were often left as votive offerings at sanctuaries such as Delphi and Olympia. Human Figures The human figures are made of a triangle as a torso that supports a bulbous head with a triangular chin and nose. Their arms are cylindrical, and only their legs have a slightly more naturalistic shape. These attributes can be seen in a small sculpture of a seated man drinking from a cup that displays the typical modeling figures as simple, linear forms that enclose open space . Especially noteworthy are his elongated arms that mirror the dimensions of his legs. A relatively naturalistic rendering of human legs is also evident in Man and Centaur, also known as Heracles and Nessos (c. 750–730 BCE). Without the equine back and hind legs, the centaur portion of the sculpture is a shorter man with human legs. Like the seated man above, the two figures feature elongated arms, with the right arm of the centaur forming one continuous line with the left arm of the man. While the seated man appears to be clean shaven, the figures in Man and Centaur wear beards, which usually symbolized maturity. The hollow eye sockets of the figure of the man probably once held inlay for a more realistic appearance. Animal Figures Animals, including bulls, deer, horses, and birds, were also based in geometry. Horse figurines were commonly used as offerings to the gods. The animals themselves became symbols of wealth and status due to the high cost of keeping them. Equine bodies may be described as rectangles pinched in the middle with rectangular legs and tail and are similar in shape to deer or bulls. The heads of these mammals are more distinctive, as the horse’s neck arches , while the bull and deer have cylindrical faces distinguished by horns or ears. While the animals and people are based in basic geometric shapes, the artists clearly observed their subjects in order to highlight these distinguishing characters. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - NAMA Atticc grave-amphora by Dipylon Painter. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NAMA_Atticc_grave-amphora_by_Dipylon_Painter_.JPG . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Protogeometric amphora BM A1124. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Protogeometric_amphora_BM_A1124.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - NAMA Hirschfeld painter. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NAMA_Hirschfeld_painter.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Meander (art). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Meander_(art). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Greek art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Horror vacui. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Horror_vacui. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kerameikos. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerameikos. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Geometric art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of Greece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Greece%23Early_Iron_Age. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Protogeometric art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Protogeometric_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pottery of ancient Greece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - krater. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/krater. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - amphora. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/amphora. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Definition of Horror Vacui in Art History. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com/art-history/definition/horror-vacui/. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 353px-Greek_-_Seated_Male_Figure_-_Walters_54789_-_View_A.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18792877. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Geometric-Man+Centaur_750-730BCE.jpg. Provided by : Wikispaces. Located at : greeksculpture.wikispaces.com/Geometric+Period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 372px-Greek_-_Geometric_Horse_Statuette_-_Walters_542378.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18843678. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Ancient Greek Sculpture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Statuette of a Horse. Provided by : The J. Paul Getty Museum. Located at : http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/objects/29638/unknown-maker-statuette-of-a-horse-greek-750-700-bc/ . License : CC BY: Attribution - Geometric Period 900 - 700 BCE. Provided by : Wikispaces. Located at : bowersarthistory.wikispaces.com/Geometric+Period?showComments=1. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Geometric Period. Provided by : Wikispaces. Located at : greeksculpture.wikispaces.com/Geometric+Period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:25.567928	2020-05-01T17:31:06	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.02%3A_The_Geometric_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "6.2: The Geometric Period", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.03%3A_The_Orientalizing_Period	6.3: The Orientalizing Period Vase Painting in the Orientalizing Period During the Orientalizing period, Greek art evolved to feature a blend of Near Eastern and Egyptian stylistic conventions. Examine Greek vase painting during this period Key Points - The Orientalizing period lasted from 700 to 600 BCE in Greece. During this time, trade with foreign cultures from Asia Minor, Egypt, and the Ancient Near East allowed for new artistic conventions to influence and be incorporated into Greek art. - The Corinthians developed the technique of black-figure painting. Corinthian black-figure vases in the Orientalizing period are distinguishable by the inclusion of exotic and mythical animals. This style quickly spread throughout Greece, and artists later developed uniquely Greek images. - Proto-Attic pottery refers to vases produced in Athens and the surrounding areas. This style is distinguished by the use of orange clay, the presence of simple human forms , and the first depictions of mythological scenes in vase painting. Key Terms - black figure painting : A style of antique Greek vase painting where the figures are painted onto the pot with a slip that, when fired, turns black. The outlines and details of the figures are incised before firing. Additional red and white pigments may also be added to the pot. - Proto-Attic : A term applied to Orientalizing pottery from Athens and its environs. The Orientalizing Period The Orientalizing Period followed the Geometric period and lasted for about a century, from 700 to 600 BCE. This period was distinguished by international influences—from the Ancient Near East, Egypt, and Asia Minor—each of which contributed a distinctive Eastern style to Greek art. The close contact between cultures developed from increasing trade and even colonization. Motifs , creatures, and styles were borrowed from other cultures by the Greeks, who transformed them into a unique Greek–Eastern mix of style and motifs. Corinthian Pottery During the Orientalizing period in Corinth human figures were rarely seen on vases. Animals such as lions, griffins, sphinxes , and sirens were depicted instead. Palmettes and lotus blossoms were used instead of geometric patterns to fill empty space , although on some vessels negative space became more prominent. This oriental black figure style originated in the city of Corinth, spread to Athens, and was exported throughout Greece. Black Figure Painting The Corinthians developed the technique of black figure painting during this period. Black figure pottery was carefully constructed and fired three different times to produce the unique red and black colors on each vase. The black color came from a slip painted onto the vessel, after which incised lines were drawn on to outline and detail the figures. Additionally, red and white pigments could be added for more color or to differentiate details. The unpainted portions of the vase would remain the original red-orange color of the pot. The full effect of this style of painting would not have been seen until after the vase emerged from its firings in the kiln . As the style spread, the subject matter changed from strictly Near Eastern animals to scenes from Greek mythology and everyday life. Proto-Attic Pottery Pottery produced during the Orientalizing period across the Isthmus of Corinth in Athens is known as Proto-Attic. In this region, floral and animal motifs are common, but the human figure appears in the work of the most prominent painters such as the Analatos Painter, the Mesogeia Painter, and the Polyphemos Painter. The Proto-Attic style marked the first depictions of discernibly Greek religious and mythological themes in vase painting. The bodies of men and animals were depicted in silhouette, though their heads were drawn in outline. Women were drawn completely in outline. Proto-Attic vases are usually distinguished by their orange clay, which is available in the Athens area. Sculpture in the Greek Orientalizing Period Sculpture produced during the Orientalizing period shares stylistic attributes with sculpture produced in Egypt and the Near East. Discuss Greek sculpture during the Orientalizing period Key Points - Sculpture during this time was influenced by Egyptian and Near Eastern artistic conventions. Rigid, plank-like bodies, as well as its reliance on pattern to depict texture , characterized Greek sculpture in the Orientalizing period. - The Daedalic style , named for the mythical inventor Daedalus, refers the use of patterning and geometric shapes (reminiscent of the Geometric period ) during the seventh century BCE. - The differences between the Lady of Auxerre and the Mantiklos Apollo demonstrate the early establishment of traditional social expectations of the sexes in ancient Greek culture . Key Terms - kore : A sculpture of a young woman from pre-Classical Greece. - Daedalic : A style of sculpture during the Greek Orientalizing period noted for its use of patterns to create texture, as well as its reliance on geometric shapes and stiff, rigid bodily postures. The Orientalizing Period lasted for about a century, from 700 to 600 BCE. This period was distinguished by international influences, from the Ancient Near East, Egypt, and Asia Minor, each of which contributed a distinctive Eastern style to Greek art. The close contact between cultures developed from increasing trade and even colonization. Styles were borrowed from other cultures by the Greeks who transformed them into a unique Greek-Eastern mix of style and motifs . Male and female sculptures produced during this time share interesting similarities, but also bear differences that inform the viewer about society’s expectations of men and women. The Lady of Auxerre A small limestone statue of a kore (maiden), known as the Lady of Auxerre (650–625 BCE), from Crete demonstrates the style of early Greek figural sculptures. This style is known as Daedalic sculpture, named for the mythical creator of King Minos’s labyrinth , Daedalus. The style combines Ancient Near Eastern and Egyptian motifs. The Lady of Auxerre is stocky and plank-like. Her waist is narrow and cinched, like the waists seen in Minoan art. She is disproportionate, with long rigid legs and a short torso. A dress encompasses nearly her entire body—it tethers her legs together and restricts her potential for movement. The rigidity of the body recalls pharaonic portraiture from Ancient Egypt . Her head is distinguished with large facial features, a low brow, and stylized hair. The hair appears to be braided, and falls down in rigid rows divided by horizontal bands. This style recalls a Near Eastern use of patterns to depict texture and decoration. Her face and hair are reminiscent of the Geometric period. The face forms an inverted triangle wedged between the triangles formed be the hair that frames her face. Traces of paint tell us that this statue would have originally be painted with black hair and a dress of red and blue with a yellow belt. The Mantiklos Apollo There are no inscriptions on sculpture before the appearance of the bronze Mantiklos Apollo (early seventh century BCE) found in Thebes. The figure, named for the individual who left it as an offering , is that of a standing man with a rigid and somewhat Daedalic form. His legs bear the inscription, “Mantiklos offered me as a tithe to Apollo of the silver bow; do you, Phoibos [Apollo], give some pleasing favor in return.” The inscription is a declaration of the statuette to Apollo, followed by a request for favors in return. Apart from the novelty of recording its own purpose, this sculpture adapts the formulae of later Orientalized sculptures, as seen in the shorter more triangular face and slightly advancing left leg. This is sometimes seen as anticipating the greater expressive freedom of the later seventh century BCE. As such, the Mantiklos figure is referred to in some quarters as proto-Daedalic. Similarities of the Statues Despite the separation of several decades and over 200 miles, the Mantiklos Apollo and the Lady of Auxerre share interesting similarities, including their long plaited hair, cinched waist, stylized smile, and hand raised to the chest—all of which recall ancient Egyptian sculpture. Although the right arm of the Mantiklos Apollo is missing, the position of its shoulder implies a possible position similar to that of the left arm of the Lady of Auxerre, straight at its side. However, we can already see striking differences that will remain the standard in Greek art for centuries. The male body, as a public entity entitled to citizenship, is depicted nude and free to move. This freedom of movement is seen not only in the legs of the Apollo figure but also in the separation of his hand from his chest. On the other hand, the female body, as a private entity without individual rights, is clothed and denied movement. While the Mantiklos Apollo holds his hand parallel to his chest, the Lady of Auxerre places her hand directly on hers, maintaining the closed form expected of a respectable woman. Temple Architecture in the Greek Orientalizing Period The temples of the Greek Orientalizing period had simple plans and sculpture that were influenced by styles from Egypt and the Near East. Identify some of the outside influences on Greek temples Key Points - The earliest stone temples in ancient Greece derive their structure from Minoan and Mycenaean designs. - Temple A at Prinias, Crete is the earliest known Greek temple decorated with sculpture . It consisted of a single chamber and a portico with three simple columns . - The remains of friezes from Temple A share stylistic attributes with Egyptian, Near Eastern, and contemporaneous free-standing Greek Orientalizing sculptures. Key Terms - entablature : The lintel area of a temple portico. - anta : The simplest form of an ancient Greek temple, it consists of a pronaos (portico) with two columns and a naos, or cella. - lamassu : A mythical winged creature with the head of a human and the body of a lion or bull. - capital : The topmost part of a column. - base : The bottommost part of a column. - cella : Also known as a naos, the central chamber of a temple, usually where the cult statue was housed. Greek Temple Architecture The basic principles for the development of Greek temple architecture have their roots between the tenth and seventh centuries BCE. In its simplest form as a naos or cella , the temple was a simple rectangular shrine with protruding side walls (antae) that formed a small porch. By adding columns to this small basic structure, the Greeks triggered the development and variety of their temple architecture. The building of stone temples first began during the Orientalizing period. Earlier temples were made from wood and other perishable materials and used terra cotta revetments in the form of rectangular and circular panels. With the introduction of stone as a building material, revetments became unnecessary and were replaced by sculptural ornamentation. These temples derive their structure from Minoan and Mycenaean architectural designs. Minoan shrines, as seen at Knossos, were tripartite shrines fronted by three columns, while the plan of the Mycenaean king’s chamber (or megaron) was appropriated for use by the gods. Oriental Greek stone temples were fronted by three columns and one entrance which lead into a single room chamber (cella), where the cult statue would be placed. The temple cella was reserved for the cult statue, while cult rituals (often sacrifices) took place outside in front of the temple and usually around an altar. Temple A at Prinias Temple A at Prinias (c. 650–600 BCE) on the island of Crete is the oldest known Greek temple decorated with sculpture. Its plan was similar to the anta design with a third column in the center in front of the doorway. One step spanning the width of the facade led to the pronaos . The columns were very simple, rectangular (as opposed to cylindrical) blocks with very thin bases and capitals . Unlike Minoan columns, the shafts of the columns of Temple A did not taper; rather, their width remained constant for the entire length. On the entablature , the frieze of the facade consisted of a series of reliefs depicting a procession of riders on horseback with little variation. The scale of the horses dwarfs that of their riders. Each horse stands in profile, while each rider faces the viewer with his sword raised and his shield seemingly connecting his head to his legs. Although their shields cover most of their bodies, the seemingly bare state of their legs implies that the riders might be nude, as was typical for the male body in art. Each rider has a stylized nose, eyes, and eyebrows and wears a helmet. Like free-standing sculptures of the time, the hairstyle of the riders is plaited in a somewhat Egyptian style . A meander runs atop the reliefs. The current cracked condition of the frieze is a likely indicator that it was assembled in a piecemeal fashion, as opposed to being carved as a singular entablature. Atop the entablature sat sculptures of two winged female creatures resembling the sphinx or the lamassu of the ancient Assyrian and Babylonian cultures . Behind the facade of Temple A sat a doorway with an intricately designed lintel . Its frieze consisted of six stylized panthers standing in high relief . This motif is typical of northern Syria. Unlike the horses on the façade frieze, each group of three panthers face each other with their heads turned toward the viewer. Between each group sits a plain rectangular recess, probably to mark the location of the central column that supported the lintel. Atop the frieze sit two stylized female sculptures in the round who face each other. One figure places her hands flatly on her lap, while the other holds her hands in a position to accommodate a cup or similar object. It is believed that these figures represent goddesses, although the identities of those goddesses remain disputed. Each sits in profile on a plain backless bench. The face of each figure has almond-shaped eyes and stylized eyebrows similar to those on Egyptian sculptures. Their hair is plaited and falls to either side of their shoulders. Like the free-standing sculptures of the Orientalizing period, each figure on the lintel of Temple A wears Egyptian-style headgear with geometric patterns and cloaks atop their geometrically patterned dresses, which are cinched at the waist. While their feet protrude from beneath their long skirts, the blocks that define the lower parts of their bodies provide no acknowledgement of the body beneath the clothing. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Corinthian jug animal frieze 580 BC Staatliche Antikensammlungen. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Corinthian_jug_animal_frieze_580_BC_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 511px-Polyphemus_Eleusis_2630.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1353019. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pottery of ancient Greece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece%23Orientalizing_style. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Orientalizing period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientalizing_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Black-figure pottery. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-figure_pottery. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - black figure painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/black%20figure%20painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Analatos Painter. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Analatos_Painter. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Polyphemos Painter. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphemos_Painter. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mesogeia Painter. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesogeia_Painter. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mantiklos-Apollo.jpg. Provided by : Flickr. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/47357563@N06/7953461862 . License : CC BY: Attribution - f-auxerre-louvre-ma3098-n1.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lady_of_Auxerre_Louvre_Ma3098_n1.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lady of Auxerre reconstruction.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lady_of_Auxerre_University_of_Cambridge.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Greek Sculpture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Definition of Daedalic in Art History. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com/art-history/definition/daedalic/. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lady of Auxerre. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_of_Auxerre. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Temple A frieze.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26230280. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Daedalic_lintel_from_Prinias,_650-600_BC,_AMH,_NM_231,_145380.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=40467692. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Anta.png. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7664645. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Megaron. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaron. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Greek Architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Prinias. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Prinias. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cella. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/cella. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Greek Temple: Origins. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple%23Origins. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:25.672940	2020-05-01T17:31:07	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.03%3A_The_Orientalizing_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "6.3: The Orientalizing Period", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.04%3A_The_Archaic_Period	6.4: The Archaic Period Delphi and Greek Treasuries Delphi was an important cult site for Apollo and was home to many treasuries that housed the community’s offerings to the god. Describe the treasuries built during the Archaic period in Delphi, with attention to both their style and function Key Points - Delphi was an essential city and sanctuary site for the Greeks. Not only was the city the main cult site for Apollo, it was also the home of the Delphic Oracle and the Panhellenic games, known as the Python Games, which honored Apollo’s slaying of the Python. - The site is known for its numerous treasuries . These treasuries were built by various poleis to house their city-states ‘ offerings and votives to Apollo. The treasuries were small, single-room structures that were decorated to commemorate the deeds of the city. - The Siphian Treasury was built in an Ionic style in 530 BCE with caryatids instead of columns . The continuous frieze and pediments are high reliefs carved in the Archaic style. The figures on the pediment appear more stiff and rigid than the figures on the frieze, who are engaged in battle. - The Athenian Treasury was built between 510 and 490 BCE to honor Athenian military power against the Persians. The structure is Doric and while only fragments of the metopes survive, these fragments display the emergence of the naturalism that is found in Archaic sculpture. Key Terms - peristyle : An external colonnade surrounding the perimeter of a temple. - stylobate : The level of a temple platform on which its columns stand. - triglyph : Three vertically channeled tablets of the Doric frieze in classical architecture, so called because of the angular channels in them. - tripod : A three-legged stand or mount. - treasury : A place where state or royal money and valuables are stored. - gigantomachy : The battle fought between the Titans and the Olympian gods for supremacy of the cosmos. - columns in antis : The upright posts located between two pillars or piers on either side of a doorway or entrance to a Greek temple. - metope : A rectangular architectural element that fills the space between two triglyphs in a Doric frieze. - Panhellenic : Relating to all of Greece or all of the Greeks. Delphi The ancient site of Delphi, located in central Greece on the slope of Mt. Parnassus, was known for its Sanctuary of Apollo, the Delphic Oracle, and the Pythian Games. Delphi was home to the dragon Python who protected the navel of the earth. Apollo slew the Python, establishing his presence at the site. The Panhellenic Pythian games that were held every four years, along with musical compositions , commemorated Apollo’s victory over the beast. Not only was the site the main place of worship for the god Apollo, it was also the home of an oracle. The oracle was a sibyl or priestess known as a Pythia. According to myth, when Apollo slew the Python, the creature’s body fell into a fissure and began decomposing. The oracle would place her tripod seat over the fissure, inhale the fumes, and then would be possessed by Apollo, allowing him to speak through her. The Delphic Oracle was an essential part of Greek life and was consulted for matters public and private, small and large, and so had commanding power over the lives of the Greeks. The oracle’s prophecies were usually unintelligible and would be translated into poetic meter by priests. Temple of Apollo The site of Delphi is dominated by a central Temple of Apollo, a fourth-century BCE replacement of the Archaic sixth-century temple. One peristyle of Doric columns (the order used in Archaic architecture) surrounded the perimeter of the stylobate that rested atop two steps. Inside the Temple of Apollo was the seat of the Pythia, in a small restricted room in the back of the naos , known as an adyton , which translates to English as not to be entered. There was also a large theater built into the hillside located just above the Temple of Apollo. The theater was first built in the fourth century BCE and renovated multiple times in the following centuries. It could seat 5,000 spectators and offered a view of the entire sanctuary site and the valley. Treasuries The road leading up to the sanctuary site of Apollo was lined with votive statues and treasuries. The treasuries were built by different poleis to honor the oracle, thank her for her advice, and commemorate military victories. These small, temple-like structures held the votives and offerings made to Apollo as well as a small proportion of the spoils won from battle from each polis . Because the buildings held a wealth of materials and goods, they are known as treasuries. These buildings were single-room naosoi (plural of naos) fronted by two columns in antis and decorated in either the Doric or Ionic style. Siphnian Treasury The Siphnian Treasury was built for the polis of Siphnos, a city-state that occupied a Cycladic island. The Siphnians had large gold and silver mines, from which they profited enormously, and they used the profits to erect their treasury at Delphi. The treasury housed their gold and silver gifts to the gods. The Siphian Treasury was the first structure built entirely from marble when it was erected in 530 BCE and was elaborately decorated. The two columns in the antis were not typical columns but caryatids, support columns that took the shape of women. A continuous Ionic frieze that wrapped around the top of the treasury beneath the pediment depicted scenes from Greek mythology, including a gigantomachy on the north side, the Judgment of Paris on the west side, and gods watching the sack of Troy by the Greeks on the south and east sides. The east pediment recounts the story of Herakles stealing Apollo’s tripod, which visually connects the pediment and the treasury to the oracle site at the Temple of Apollo. The figures are carved in an Archaic style and in high relief, and they are almost, but not entirely, freed from the wall of the frieze. While the figures appear to be in motion, with wide stances and arms open wide for battle, the majority of them stand with both feet flat on ground . This inhibits the sense of motion given by the rest of their bodies. The pedimental figures are especially rigid and linear, although the figures are no longer scaled to fit into the small corners of the pediment. When looking at these figures, from the front they appear to appropriately model the body, while from the side the figures appear block-like, emphasizing the fact that they were carved from stone. Athenian Treasury The Athenian treasury at Delphi was built between 510 and 480 BCE to commemorate the Athenian victory over the Persians during the Battle of Marathon. Like the Siphnian Treasury, the Athenian Treasury was constructed entirely of marble. The treasury has Doric columns and a frieze of triglyphs and thirty metopes that depict scenes from the life of Theseus, an Athenian mythological hero, and Herakles. The metopes also display the development of Archaic relief and temple decoration. The figures do not feel forced into their frame but instead begin to fill out the scene. Most of the scenes consist of only two characters and few scenes, such as Herakles fighting the Ceryean Hind (an enormous deer), display a new sense of ingenuity. The figure of Herakles breaks out of the frame as he leans on the hind’s back, trying to catch it. Furthermore, the figures, unlike those on the Siphnian pediment, appear modeled from all sides, as opposed to just frontally. Temple Architecture in the Greek Archaic Period The temples of the Archaic period are the first stone temples built in Greece. They demonstrate a developing knowledge of stone building through their use of decorative spaces on buildings. Explain the sculptural design choices on different areas of the temples: identify the naos, pronaos, prostyle, antae, and opisthodomos, and indicate the specific features that were characteristic of the Doric order Key Points - The design of Greek stone temples was influenced by Mycenaean megarons (a porch with columns in antis and a central room) and their earlier wooden temples. Many decorative elements, such as the triglyphs , replicated the visual design of wooden temples in stone. - During the Archaic period, the Greeks began to develop the ideal temple design. It included a central naos surrounded on two ends by an opisthodomos and a pronaos , but accessed only through the pronaos. These rooms were surrounded by a peripteral colonnade on a raised platform with two or three steps. - The Doric order is the oldest Greek classification of architecture. It is identified by its columns and its frieze . The columns had no base, a bulge in the middle of their shaft , and squashed, flared capitals . The frieze was divided by triglyphs and metopes. - Designers utilized the spaces on the metopes to depict individual mythological events on earlier temples, and then as a collective series of moments in an event, such as the Twelve Labors of Herakles on the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. The pedimental spaces were also used to depict heroic or mythological events at either end of the temples. The Temple of Hera I and the Temple of Hera II at Paestum, Italy demonstrated the development of the Doric style from its earliest stage through various refinements as the Greeks became more comfortable with building in stone. - The Temple of Aphaia at Aegina is one of the last temples whose design did not conform to the architectural standards of the time. Key Terms - peripteral : Surrounded by a single row of columns. - naos : The inner chamber of a temple that housed the cult statue. Also known as a cella. - megaron : The rectangular great hall in a Mycenaean building, usually supported with pillars. - pediment : The triangular space left above the frieze by the shape of the roof at the narrowest ends of the temple. - entasis : A slight convex curvature introduced into the shaft of a column for aesthetic reasons, or to compensate for the illusion of concavity. - stylobate : A raised stone platform on which temples are erected. - pronaos : The front porch of a temple. - anta : The post or pillar on either side of a doorway or entrance of a Greek temple. - opisthodomos : The rear room of a Greek temple. - votives : Objects displayed or deposited at a sacred place without the intent of recovery or use. - echinus : A convex molding that commonly bears the egg-and-dart motif. - entablature : The area of a temple facade that lies horizontally atop the columns. - triglyph : A decorative panel with three grooves. - tholos : A circular, colonnaded building, usually a temple. - metope : A rectangular architectural element that fills the space between two triglyphs in a Doric frieze. - prostyle : Free-standing columns across the front of a building. Temples of the Archaic Period Stone temples were first built during the Archaic period in ancient Greece. Before this, they were constructed out of mud-brick and wood—simple structures that were rectangular or semi-circular in shape—that may have been enhanced with a few columns and a porch. The Archaic stone temples took their essential shape and structure from these wooden temples and the shape of a Mycenaean megaron. Temple Design The standard form of a Greek temple was established and then refined through the Archaic and Classical period. Most temples were rectilinear in shape and stood on a raised stone platform, known as the stylobates , which usually had two or three stairs. The main portion of the temple was the naos. To the front of the naos was the pronaos, or front porch. A door between the naos and pronaos provided access to the cult statue. Columns, known as prostyle , often stood in front of the pronaos. These were often aligned with molded projections to the end of the pronaos’s wall, called the anta (plural antae). Such aligned columns were referred to as columns in antis. A rear room, called the opisthodomos, was on the other side of the temple and naos. A wall separated the naos and opisthodomos completely. The opisthodomos was used as a treasury and held the votives and offerings left at the temple for the god or goddess. It also had a set of prostyle columns in antis that completed the symmetrical appearance of the temple. Other Temple Plans While this describes the standard design of Greek temples, it is not the most common form found. One notable exception to this standard was the circular tholos , dedicated to Apollo at Delphi. Columns were placed on the edge of the stylobate in a line or colonnade, which was peripteral and ran around the naos (an inner chamber that holds a cult statue) and its porches. The first stone temples varied significantly as architects and engineers were forced to determine how to properly support a roof with such a wide span. Later architects, such as Iktinos and Kallikrates who designed the Parthenon, tweaked aspects of basic temple structure to better accommodate the cult statue. Mathematical Scale All temples, however, were built on a mathematical scale and every aspect of them is related to one another through ratios. For instance, most Greek temples (except the earliest) followed the equation 2x + 1 = y when determining the number of columns used in the peripteral colonnade. In this equation, x stands for the number of columns across the front, the shorter end, while y designates the columns down the sides. The number of columns used along the length of the temple was twice the number plus one the number of columns across the front. Due to these mathematical ratios, we are able to accurately reconstruct temples from small fragments. Doric Order The style of Greek temples is divided into three different and distinct orders, the earliest of which is the Doric order. These temples had columns that rested directly on the stylobate without a base. Their shafts were fluted with twenty parallel grooves that tapered to a sharp point. The capitals of Doric columns had a simple, unadorned square abacus and a flared echinus that was often short and squashed. Doric columns are also noted for the presence of entasis , or bulges in the middle of the column shaft. This was perhaps a way to create an optical illusion or to emphasize the weight of the entablature above, held up by the columns. The Doric entablature was also unique to this style of temples. The frieze was decorated with alternating panels of triglyphs and metopes. The triglyphs were decorative panels with three grooves or glyphs that gave the panel its name. The stone triglyphs mimicked the head of wooden beams used in earlier temples. Between the triglyphs were the metopes. Decorative Spaces Sculptors used the metope spaces to depict mythological occurrences, often with historical or cultural links to the site on which the temple stood. On the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (constructed between 470BC and 456BC), the choice to sculpt the Twelve Labors of Herakles was in direct correlation with the site’s Olympic Games and the spirit of triumph in physical challenge. Most sculptors attempted to use the limited and angular space of metopes to show distinct moments that filled the shape, but not all were successful in doing so. Another space used for decoration was the pediment at each end of the temple. Due to the larger space afforded by these sections, the sculptors often chose to depict larger and more eventful scenes. The shape of the pediment made it difficult to arrange figures in a coherent and cohesive scene, so the sculptors placed the most prominent ones in the apex ( the highest point of the triangle). All of these decorative sculptures would be painted in bright colors and recognizable to onlookers. Paestum, Italy The Greek colony at Poseidonia (now Paestum) in Italy, built two Archaic Doric temples that are still standing today . The first, the Temple of Hera I, was built in 550 BCE and differs from the standard Greek temple model dramatically. It is peripteral, with nine columns across its short ends and 18 columns along each side. The opisthodomos is accessed through the naos by two doors. There are three columns in antis across the pronaos. Inside the naos is a row of central columns, built to support the roof. The cult statue is placed at the back, in the center, and is blocked from view by the row of columns. When examining the columns, they are large and heavy, and spaced very close together. This further denotes the Greeks unease with building in stone and the need to properly support a stone entablature and heavy roof. The capitals of the columns are round, flat, and pancake-like. The Temple of Hera II, built almost a century later in 460 BCE, began to show the structural changes that demonstrated the Greek’s comfort and developing understanding of building in stone, as well as the beginnings of a Classical temple style. In this example, the temple was fronted by six columns, with 14 columns along its length. The opisthodomos was separated from the naos and had its own entrance and set of columns in antis. A central flight of stairs led from the pronaos to the naos and the doors opened to look upon a central cult statue. There were still interior columns; however they were moved to the side, permitting prominent display of the cult statue. Aegina The temple of Aphaia on the island of Aegina is an example of Archaic Greek temple design as well as of the shift in sculptural style between the Archaic and Classical periods. Aegina is a small island in the Saronic Gulf within view of Athens; in fact, Aegina and Athens were rivals. While the temple was dedicated to the local god Aphaia, the temple’s pediments depicted scenes of the Trojan War to promote the greatness of the island. These scenes involve the Greek heroes who fought at Troy—Telamon and Peleus , the fathers of Ajax and Achilles. In an antagonistic move, the battle scenes on the pediments are overseen by Athena, and the temple’s dedicated deity , Aphaia, does not appear on the pediment at all. While very little paint remains now, the entire pediment scene, triglyphs and metopes, and other parts of the temple would have been painted in bright colors. Temple Design The Temple of Aphaia is one of the last temples with a design that did not conform to standards of the time. Its colonnade has six columns across its width and twelve columns down its length. The columns have become more widely spaced and also more slender. Both the pronaos and opisthodomos have two prostyle (free-standing) columns in antis and exterior access, although both lead into the temple’s naos. Despite the connection between the opisthodomos and the naos, the doorway between them is much smaller than the doorway between the naos and the pronaos. As in the Temple of Hera II, there are two rows of columns on either side of the temple’s interior. In this case there are five on each side, and each colonnade has two stories. A small ramp interrupts the stylobate at the center of the temple’s main entrance. Sculpture in the Greek Archaic Period Sculpture during the Archaic period became increasing naturalistic, although this varies depending on the gender of the subject. Compare and contrast the kouroi and korai sculptures of the Archaic period, and recognize the increasing naturalism seen in both free-standing and pedimental sculptures of the Archaic period Key Points - Dedicatory male kouroi figures were originally based on Egyptian statues and over the Archaic period these figures developed more naturalistic nude bodies. The athletic body was an ideal form for a young Greek male and is comparable to the ideal body of the god Apollo. - Instead of focusing on the body, female korai statues were clothed and throughout the Archaic period artists spent more time elaborating on the detailed folds and drapery of a woman’s clothing. This reflected the Greek ideals for women, who were supposed to be fully clothed, modest, and demure. - To add an additional naturalistic element to the body, the typical Archaic smile was added to both male and female statues. While today the smile seems false, to the ancient Greeks it added a level of realism. - Pedimental sculpture in the Archaic period was often scaled to fit into the space of the pediment and served an apotropaic instead of a decorative function. - Pedimental sculptures from the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina show a gradual move toward the naturalism of the Classical style that followed the Archaic. Key Terms - Archaic smile : A stylized expression used in sculpture from 600 to 480 BCE to suggest a sense of lifelikeness in the subject. - peplos : An Ancient Greek garment, worn by women, made of a tubular piece of cloth that is folded back upon itself halfway down, until the top of the tube is worn around the waist, and the bottom covers the legs down to the ankles; the open top is then worn over the shoulders, and draped, in folds, down to the waist. - apotropaic : Intended to ward off evil. - kouros : A sculpture of a naked youth in Ancient Greece; the male equivalent of a kore. - kore : An Ancient Greek statue of a woman, portrayed standing, usually clothed, painted in bright colors, and having an elaborate hairstyle. - chiton : A loose, woolen tunic, worn by both men and women in Ancient Greece. Sculpture in the Archaic Period Sculpture in the Archaic Period developed rapidly from its early influences, becoming more natural and showing a developing understanding of the body, specifically the musculature and the skin. Close examination of the style’s development allows for precise dating. Most statues were commissioned as memorials and votive offerings or as grave markers, replacing the vast amphora (two-handled, narrow-necked jars used for wine and oils) and kraters (wide-mouthed vessels) of the previous periods, yet still typically painted in vivid colors. Kouroi Kouroi statues (singular, kouros ), depicting idealized, nude male youths, were first seen during this period. Carved in the round , often from marble, kouroi are thought to be associated with Apollo; many were found at his shrines and some even depict him. Emulating the statues of Egyptian pharaohs, the figure strides forward on flat feet, arms held stiffly at its side with fists clenched. However, there are some importance differences: kouroi are nude, mostly without identifying attributes and are free-standing. Early kouroi figures share similarities with Geometric and Orientalizing sculpture, despite their larger scale. For instance, their hair is stylized and patterned, either held back with a headband or under a cap. The New York Kouros strikes a rigid stance and his facial features are blank and expressionless. The body is slightly molded and the musculature is reliant on incised lines . As kouroi figures developed, they began to lose their Egyptian rigidity and became increasingly naturalistic. The kouros figure of Kroisos, an Athenian youth killed in battle, still depicts a young man with an idealized body. This time though, the body’s form shows realistic modeling. The muscles of the legs, abdomen, chest and arms appear to actually exist and seem to function and work together. Kroisos’s hair, while still stylized, falls naturally over his neck and onto his back, unlike that of the New York Kouros, which falls down stiffly and in a single sheet. The reddish appearance of his hair reminds the viewer that these sculptures were once painted. Archaic Smile Kroisos’s face also appears more naturalistic when compared to the earlier New York Kouros. His cheeks are round and his chin bulbous; however, his smile seems out of place. This is typical of this period and is known as the Archaic smile. It appears to have been added to infuse the sculpture with a sense of being alive and to add a sense of realism. Kore A kore (plural korai) sculpture depicts a female youth. Whereas kouroi depict athletic, nude young men, the female korai are fully-clothed, in the idealized image of decorous women. Unlike men—whose bodies were perceived as public, belonging to the state—women’s bodies were deemed private and belonged to their fathers (if unmarried) or husbands. However, they also have Archaic smiles, with arms either at their sides or with an arm extended, holding an offering. The figures are stiff and retain more block-like characteristics than their male counterparts. Their hair is also stylized, depicted in long strands or braids that cascade down the back or over the shoulder. The Peplos Kore (c. 530 BCE) depicts a young woman wearing a peplos, a heavy wool garment that drapes over the whole body, obscuring most of it. A slight indentation between the legs, a division between her torso and legs, and the protrusion of her breasts merely hint at the form of the body underneath. Remnants of paint on her dress tell us that it was painted yellow with details in blue and red that may have included images of animals. The presence of animals on her dress may indicate that she is the image of a goddess, perhaps Artemis, but she may also just be a nameless maiden. Later korai figures also show stylistic development, although the bodies are still overshadowed by their clothing. The example of a Kore (520–510 BCE) from the Athenian Acropolis shows a bit more shape in the body, such as defined hips instead of a dramatic belted waistline, although the primary focus of the kore is on the clothing and the drapery. This kore figure wears a chiton (a woolen tunic), a himation (a lightweight undergarment), and a mantle (a cloak). Her facial features are still generic and blank, and she has an Archaic smile. Even with the finer clothes and additional adornments such as jewelry, the figure depicts the idealized Greek female, fully clothed and demure. Pedimental Sculpture: The Temple of Artemis at Corfu This sculpture, initially designed to fit into the space of the pediment, underwent dramatic changes during the Archaic period, seen later at Aegina. The west pediment at the Temple of Artemis at Corfu depicts not the goddess of the hunt, but the Gorgon Medusa with her children; Pegasus, a winged horse; and Chrysaor, a giant wielding a golden sword surrounded by heraldic lions. Medusa faces outwards in a challenging position, believed to be apotropaic (warding off evil). Additional scenes include Zeus fighting a Titan, and the slaying of Priam, the king of Troy, by Neoptolemos. These figures are scaled down in order to fit into the shrinking space provided in the pediment. Pedimental Sculpture: The Temple of Aphaia at Aegina Sculpted approximately one century later, the pedimental sculptures on the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina gradually grew more naturalistic than their predecessors at Corfu. The dying warrior on the west pediment (c. 490 BCE) is a prime example of Archaic sculpture. The male warrior is depicted nude, with a muscular body that shows the Greeks’ understanding of the musculature of the human body. His hair remains stylized with round, geometric curls and textured patterns. However, despite the naturalistic characteristics of the body, the body does not seem to react to its environment or circumstances. The warrior props himself up with an arm, and his whole body is tense, despite the fact that he has been struck by an arrow in his chest. His face, with its Archaic smile, and his posture conflict with the reality that he is dying. Aegina: Transition between Styles The dying warrior on the east pediment (c. 480 BCE) marks a transition to the new Classical style. Although he bears a slight Archaic smile, this warrior actually reacts to his circumstances. Nearly every part of him appears to be dying. Instead of propping himself up on an arm, his body responds to the gravity pulling on his dying body, hanging from his shield and attempting to support himself with his other arm. He also attempts to hold himself up with his legs, but one leg has fallen over the pediment’s edge and protrudes into the viewer’s space. His muscles are contracted and limp, depending on which ones they are, and they seem to strain under the weight of the man as he dies. Ceramics in the Greek Archaic Period Archaic black- and red-figure painting began to depict more naturalistic bodies by conveying form and movement. Describe the similarities and differences between black- and red-figure painting during Greece’s Archaic Period Key Points - Black-figure painting was used throughout the Archaic period before diminishing under the popularity of red-figure painting. - Exekias is considered one of the most talented and influential black-figure painters due to his ability to convey emotion, use intricate lines , and create scenes that trusted the viewer to comprehend the scene. - Red-figure painting was developed in 530 BCE by the Andokides Painter, a style that allows for more naturalism in the body due to the use of a brush. - The first red-figure paintings were produced on bilingual vases, depicting one scene on each side, one in black figure and the other in red figure. - The painters Euthyides and Euphronios were two of the most talented Archaic red-figure painters, with their vessels depict space , movement, and naturalism. Key Terms - burin : A chisel with a sharp point, used for engraving; an engraver. - slip : A thin, slippery mix of clay and water. - red-figure : One of the most important styles of figural Greek vase painting, based on the figural depictions in red color on a black background. - black-figure : A style of Greek vase painting that is distinguished by silhouette-like figures on a red background. Pottery Decoration Overview The Archaic period saw a shift in styles of pottery decoration, from the repeating patterns of the Geometric period , through the Eastern-influenced Orientalizing style, to the more naturalistic black- and red-figure techniques. During this time, figures became more dynamic and defined by more organic—as opposed to geometric—elements. Black-Figure Painting Black-figure painting, which derives its name from the black figures painted on red backgrounds, was developed by the Corinthians in the seventh century BCE and became popular throughout the Greek world during the Archaic period. As painters became more confident working in the medium , human figures began to appear on vases and painters and potters began signing their creations. The François Vase One of the most famous early Athenian black-figure pots is a large volute krater by the potter Ergotimos and the painter Kleitias, known as the François Vase. The krater, named for the man who discovered it in the nineteenth century, depicts 270 figures on the six registers that wrap around the krater. Unlike the monumental vases of the Geometric period, this krater stands at 66 cm (2.17 feet) tall. The surface depicts various mythological scenes with many figures labeled by name. On one side of the krater’s neck are scenes from the Calydonian Boar hunt, in which several men and a powerful woman named Atalanta hunted and killed a monstrous boar sent by Artemis to terrorize the region of Calydon after the king offended her. The other side depicts Theseus, who slayed the Minotaur , with Athenian youths and his wife Ariadne. Other registers depict scenes of the Trojan War and Peleus with his son Achilles. The detail and skill demonstrate new styles of Archaic vase painting, shifting away from past centuries’ animal motifs and geometric patterns. Instead of filling negative space with patterns and geometric designs, Kleitias leaves areas empty. The people and horses are depicted differently than Oriental and Geometric prototypes. Bodies are more accurately rendered and less dependent on geometric shapes, although profile views dominate, and sharp lines provide texture for musculature and clothing. While many figures still stand flat-footed, the limbs of people, horses, and centaurs show movement and are dramatic compositions within the confines of the style. Exekias Exekias, considered the most prominent black-figure painter of his time, worked between 545 and 530 BCE in Athens. He is regarded by art historians as an artistic visionary whose masterful use of incision and psychologically sensitive compositions mark him as one of the greatest of all Attic vase painters. His vessels display attention to detail and precise, intricate lines. Exekias is also well-known for reinterpreting mythologies. Instead of providing the entire story, as Kleitias did on the François Vase, he paints single scenes and relies on the viewer to interpret and understand the narrative. One example is an amphora that depicts the Greek warriors Achilles and Ajax playing dice. Both men are decorated with fine incised details, showing elaborate textile patterns and almost every hair in place. As they wait for the next battle with the Trojans, their game foreshadows their fates. Inscribed text allows the two figures to speak: “Achilles has rolled a four, while Ajax rolled a three.” Both men will die during the the Trojan War, but Achilles dies a hero while Ajax is consistently considered second best, eventually committing suicide. Red-Figure Painting Red-figure painting developed in Athens in 530 BCE and remained popular into the Classical period. The technique is similar to black-figure painting but with key differences. Instead of painting a figure with black slip and using a burin to scrape away the slip to create details, red-figure painting has the background painted black and the figures left the red color of the terra cotta . Black slip was painted with a brush to add detail. Brushes could achieve more fluid lines than a burin, so details were better rendered and figures became livelier than the black-figure silhouettes. The black slip could also be diluted with water to create shades for modeling bodies or clothing. Overall, the technique allowed vase painters to create compositions that rendered the body more naturally. Bilingual Painting Bilingual vase painting became popular with the advent of red-figure painting. Bilingual vases were painted with a single scene on each side of the vessel, usually the same scene rendered twice. One side depicts the scene in black-figure and the other side depicts the scene in red-figure. The Andokides Painter is credited as the inventor of red-figure style and its early production on bilingual vases. Several of his bilingual amphorae mimic some of Exekias’s most famous subjects, such as Achilles and Ajax playing dice. These similarities lead many scholars to conclude that he was Exekias’s student. A score of vases with black figures, whose attribution is disputed by some researchers, show that the Andokides painter gradually attained greater control and virtuosity in the technique. Earlier examples appear a little stiff. Later, the artist exploits the benefits inherent in the technique and utilizes a range of colors from red to dark brown. The Andokides painter marked the arrival of the red-figure style that was later used by many artists. The painter’s most favored subject matter was a wide range of mythological scenes that depicted the gods and heroes. Heracles was his favorite character. Additional Red-Figure Painters Additional red-figure painting can be seen in the work of the rivals Euthymides and Euphronios. Euthymides is known as a pioneer of red-figure painting. His vessels depict people in movement and he attempted perspective by showing figures with foreshortened limbs. The Revelers Vase is an amphora that depicts three drunk men dancing. While the figures do not overlap, the bodies are in shown in profile, three-quarter view, and from behind. Breaking the traditional rigidity of contemporary Archaic statues and paintings, the revelers are in dynamic postures. The two outer figures stand in active stances, with their legs and hands in motion. The middle figure is in a twisted position, with his back to the viewer and his head looking over his left shoulder. The use of foreshortening , although rudimentary, gives the entire composition a more natural and believable feel. It is perhaps the use of this relatively untried technique that led Euthymides to write on his vase, “As never Euphronios [could do!]” as a taunt to his contemporary and rival. The painter Euphronios is also recognized for his dramatic and complex compositions. He used diluted clay slip to create a range of shades to color his figures, making them appear energetic and present in three-dimensional space. A scene of Herakles and Antaios wrestling conveys the bodies of both men with previously unseen naturalism. The men’s bodies bend and twist and their limbs overlap, disappear and reappear, which helps achieve both naturalism as well as a sense of space. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Treasury of Athens at Delphi. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Treasury_of_Athens_at_Delphi.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - The dispute between Herakles and Apollo-Delphi. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_dispute_between_Herakles_and_Apollo-Delphi.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-The_Temple_of_Apollo_at_Delphi.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8846608. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Heracles and the Ceryean Hind. Provided by : Wikimedia. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:25.849409	2020-05-01T17:31:08	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.04%3A_The_Archaic_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "6.4: The Archaic Period", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.05%3A_The_Early_Classical_Period	6.5: The Early Classical Period Marble Sculpture and Architecture in the Greek Early Classical Period Early Classical Greek marble sculptures and temple decorations display new conventions to depict the body and severe style facial expressions. Describe the characteristics of the Kritios Boy, Spear Bearer, and the Temple of Zeus Key Points - The sculpture found on the pediment and metopes at the Temple of Zeus at Olympia represent the style of relief and pedimental sculptural during the Early Classical period. - The Severe style is an Early Classical style of sculpting where the body is depicted naturalistically and the face remains blank and expressionless. This style notes the artist’s understanding of the body’s musculature, while maintaining a screen between art and reality with the stoic face. - Contrapposto is a weight shift depicted in the body that rotates the waist, hips, chest, shoulders, and sometimes even the neck and head of the figure. It increases that naturalism in the body since it correctly mimics the inner workings of human musculature. - Kritios Boy is an early example of contrapposto and Severe style. This marble statue depicts a nude male youth, muscular and well built, with an air of naturalism that dissolves when examining his Severe style face. - Polykleitos, an artist and art theorist, developed a canon for the creation of the perfect male body based on mathematical proportions. His Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) is believed to be a sculptural representation of his treatise. The figure stands in contrapposto, with a Severe-style face. Key Terms - Severe style : The dominant idiom of Greek sculpture in the period from 490 to 450 BCE. It marks the breakdown of the canonical forms of Archaic art and the transition to the greatly expanded vocabulary and expression of the classical movement of the late 5th century. - Perserchutt : A German term meaning Persian debris or rubble, that refers to the location of ritually buried architectural and votive sculptures that were destroyed following the sack of Athens by the Persians. The area was first excavated by the Germans in the late 19th century. - hexastyle : Describes a building with six columns in the front and back and 13 down each side. Temple of Zeus at Olympia The Temple of Zeus at Olympia is a colossal ruined temple in the center of the Greek capital Athens that was dedicated to Zeus, king of the Olympian gods. Its plan is similar to that of the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina. It is hexastyle , with six columns across the front and back and 13 down each side. It has two columns directly connected to the walls of the temple, known as in antis, in front of both the entranceway ( pronaos ) and the inner shrine ( opisthodomos ). Like the Temple of Aphaia, there are two, two-story colonnades of seven columns on each side of the inner sanctuary (naos). The pedimental figures are depicted in the developing Classical style with naturalistic yet overly muscular bodies. Most of the figures are shown with the expressionless faces of the Severe style. The figures on the east pediment await the start of a chariot race, and the whole composition is still and static . A seer, however, watches it in horror as he foresees the death of Oenomaus. This level of emotion would never be present in Archaic statues and it breaks the Early Classical Severe style, allowing the viewer to sense the forbidding events about to happen. Unlike the static composition of the eastern pediment, the Centauromachy on the western pediment depicts movement that radiates out from its center. The centaurs, fighting men, and abducted women struggle and fight against each other, creating tension in another example of an early portrayal of emotion. Most figures are depicted in the Severe style. However, some, including a centaur, have facial features that reflect their wrath and anger. The twelve metopes over the pronaos and opisthodomos depict scenes from the twelve labors of Herakles. Like the development in pedimental sculpture, the reliefs on the metopes display the Early Classical understanding of the body. Herakles’ body is strong and idealized, yet it has a level of naturalism and plasticity that increases the liveliness of the reliefs. The scenes depict varying types of compositions. Some are static with two or three figures standing rigidly, while others, such as Herakles and the Cretan Bull, convey a sense of liveliness through their diagonal composition and overlapping bodies. Kritios Boy A slightly smaller-than-life statue known as the Kritios Boy was dedicated to Athena by an athlete and found in the Perserchutt of the Athenian Acropolis. Its title derives from a famous artist to whom the sculpture was once attributed. The marble statue is a prime example of the Early Classical sculptural style and demonstrates the shift away from the stiff style seen in Archaic kouroi. The torso depicts an understanding of the body and plasticity of the muscles and skin that allows the statue to come to life. Part of this illusion is created by a stance known as contrapposto. This describes a person with his or her weight shifted onto one leg, which creates a shift in the hips, chest, and shoulders to create a stance that is more dramatic and naturalistic than a stiff, frontal pose. This contrapposto position animates the figure through the relationship of tense and relaxed limbs. However, the face of the Kritios Boy is expressionless, which contradicts the naturalism seen in his body. This is known as the Severe style. The blank expressions allow the sculpture to appear less naturalistic, which creates a screen between the art and the viewer. This differs from the use of the Archaic smile (now gone), which was added to sculpture to increase their naturalism. However, the now empty eye sockets once held inlaid stone to give the sculpture a lifelike appearance. Polykleitos Polykleitos was a well-known Greek sculptor and art theorist during the early- to mid-fifth century BCE. He is most renowned for his treatise on the male nude, known as the Canon, which describes the ideal, aesthetic body based on mathematical proportions and Classical conventions such as contrapposto. His Doryphoros, or Spear Bearer, is believed to be his representation of the Canon in sculpted form . The statue depicts a young, well-built soldier holding a spear in his left hand with a shield attached to his left wrist. Both military implements are now lost. The figure has a Severe-style face and a contrapposto stance. In another development away from the stiff and seemingly immobile Archaic style, the Doryphoros’ left heel is raised off the ground , implying an ability to walk. This sculpture demonstrates how the use of contrapposto creates an S-shaped composition. The juxtaposition of a tension leg and tense arm and relaxed leg and relaxed arm, both across the body from each other, creates an S through the body. The dynamic power of this composition shape places elements—in this case the figure’s limbs—in opposition to each other and emphasizes the tension this creates. The statue, as a visualization of Polykletios’ canon, also depicts the Greek sense of symmetria, the harmony of parts, seen here in the body’s proportions. Bronze Sculpture in the Greek Early Classical Period Surviving Greek bronze sculptures from the Early Classical period showcase the skill of Greek artists in representing the body and expressing motion. Discuss characteristics and examples of Greek Bronze sculpture during the Early Classical Period Key Points - While bronze was a popular material for Greek sculptors, few Greek bronzes exist today. We know a majority of famous sculptors and sculptures only through marble Roman copies and the few bronzes that survived, often from shipwrecks. - Early Classical bronzes are sculpted in the lost wax method of casting . The figures are created in the Severe style with naturalistic bodies and blank, expressionless faces. The sculptures’ lightweight appearance is due to their hollowness and contributes to their implied potential energy and movement. - The Charioteer of Delphi, the Riace Warriors, and the Artemision Bronze all display the sculpting characteristics of the Early Classical Severe style while also demonstrating the characteristics of bronze sculpting, including the lightness of the material and liveliness that could be achieved. Key Terms - strut : A support rod. - contrapposto : The position of a figure whose hips and legs are twisted away from the direction of the head and shoulders. - lost wax : A method of casting in which a model of the sculpture is made from wax. The model is used to make a mold. When the mold has set, the wax is made to melt and is poured away, leaving the mold ready to be used to cast the sculpture. Greek Bronze Sculpture Bronze was a popular sculpting material for the Greeks. Composed of a metal alloy of copper and tin, it provides a strong and lightweight material for use in the ancient world, especially in the creation of weapons and art. The Greeks used bronze throughout their history. Because bronze is a valuable material, throughout history bronze sculptures were melted down to forge weapons and ammunition or to create new sculptures. The Greek bronzes that we have today mainly survived because of shipwrecks, which kept the material from being reused, and the sculptures have since been recovered from the sea and restored. The Greeks used bronze as a primary means of sculpting, but much of our knowledge of Greek sculpture comes from Roman copies. The Romans were very fond of Greek art, and collecting marble replicas of them was a sign of status, wealth, and intelligence in the Roman world. Roman copies worked in marble had a few differences from the original bronze. Struts , or supports, were added to help buttress the weight of the marble as well as the hanging limbs that did not need support when the statue was originally made in the lighter and hollow bronze. The struts appeared either as rectangular blocks that connect an arm to the torso or as tree stumps against the leg, which supports the weight of the sculpture, as in this Roman copy of the Diadoumenos Atenas. Lost Wax Technique The lost wax technique, which is also known by its French name, cire perdue, is the process that ancient Greeks used to create their bronze statues. The first step of the process involves creating a full-scale clay model of the intended work of art. This would be the core of the model. Once completed, a mold is made of the clay core and an additional wax mold is also created. The wax mold is then be placed between the clay core and the clay mold, creating a pocket, and the wax is melted out of the mold, after which the gap is filled with bronze. Once cooled, the exterior clay mold and interior clay coreis are carefully removed and the bronze statue is finished. The multiple pieces are welded together, imperfections smoothed, and any additional elements, such as inlaid eyes and eyelashes, are then added. Because the clay mold must be broken when removing the figure, the lost wax method can be used only for making one-of-a-kind sculptures. Charioteer of Delphi The Charioteer of Delphi is an Early Classical bronze sculpture of a life-sized chariot driver. An inscription at the base tells us that the statues were originally dedicated by a man, named Polyzalus of Gela, to Apollo at the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. Polyzalus commissioned and dedicated the work in commemoration of his victorious chariot race during the Pythian Games. The Charioteer is the only remaining part of a large statue group that included the chariot, grooms, and horses. While the commissioner was a tyrant of the Greek colonial city of Gela on Sicily, the statue is believed to have been made in Athens. It was made by the lost wax technique in multiple sections and then assembled. The Charioteer stands tall, his right arm stretched out to grasp reins; his left arm is missing. He has a high waist, which probably looked more natural when he stood on his chariot. However, despite the high waist, the figure has a high degree of naturalism , on par with the marble sculptural developments of the Early Classical style. The arms, face, and feet are rendered with high plasticity, and the inlaid eyes and added copper of his lips and eyelashes all add a degree of naturalism. When compared to Archaic sculptures, it appears very natural. However, as an Early Classical sculpture, the Charioteer has yet to achieve the full Classical style. The Archaic smile is gone, but his appears almost blank and expressionless, on par with other sculptures produced in the Severe stye of the Early Classical period. Riace Warriors The Riace Warriors are a set of two nude, bronze sculptures of male warriors that were recovered off the coast of Riace, Italy. They are a prime example of Early Classical sculpture and the transition between Archaic to Classical sculpting styles. The figures are nude, unlike the Charioteer. Their bodies are idealized and appear dynamic, with freed limbs, a contrapposto shift in weight, and turned heads that imply movement. The muscles are modeled with a high degree of plasticity, which the bronze material amplifies through natural reflections of light. Additional elements, such as copper for the lips and nipples, silver teeth, and eyes inlaid with glass and bone, were added to the figures to increase their naturalism. Both figures originally held a shield and spear, which are now lost. Warrior B wears a helmet, and it appears that Warrior A once wore a wreath around his head. Artemision Bronze The Artemision Bronze represents either Zeus or Poseidon. Both gods were represented with full beards to signify maturity. However, it is impossible to identify the sculpture as one god or the other because it can either be a lightning bolt (symbolic of Zeus) or a trident (symbolic of Poseidon) in his raised right hand. The figure stands in heroic nude, as would be expected with a god, with his arms outstretched, preparing to strike. The bronze is in the Severe style with an idealized, muscular body and an expressionless face. Like the Charioteer and the Riace Warriors, the Artemision Bronze once held inlaid glass or stone in its now-vacant eye sockets to heighten its lifelikeness. The right heel of the figure rises off the ground , which anticipates the motion the figure is about to undertake. The full potential of the god’s motion and energy, as well as the grace of the body, is reflected in the modeling of the bronze. Ceramics in the Greek Early Classical Period The ceramic art from Early Classical Greece displays important compositional developments and increased naturalism in the figures. Examine the developments in ceramic art during the Early Classical period, including naturalism and white-ground painting Key Points - Red-figure painting continued during the Early Classical period. The changes in the depiction of the body and in the drapery of the figures began to change, reflecting the stylistic changes and increased naturalism seen in Classical sculpture . - The style of red-figure painting also diversified as painters began to depict figures on multiple ground lines , show characters from a variety of perspectives (including three-quarter view), and utilize more naturalism (as seen by the work of the Niobid Painter). - White-ground painting, developed in 500 BCE, became popular during the Classical period. White-ground pottery was coated in a white slip before being fired and painted, allowing for the use of polychromy . - Early white-ground painting (Type I) resembled black-figure painting until it was supplanted by the more familiar outline paintings. White-ground painting became the primary style for lekythoi, vessels used to hold oils that had a funerary context. Due to this context, many of the scenes painted on lekythoi depicted scenes of funerary rites and rituals , or scenes that alluded to impending death. Key Terms - lekythos : A type of ancient Greek pottery used for storing oil and previous liquids. The body is narrow and has a single handle attached to the neck of the vessel. They typically stood 10 to 20 inches tall, but when used as grave markers could be much larger. - polychromy : The art or practice of combining different colors, especially brilliant ones, in an artistic way. - white-ground : A style of ancient Greek vase painting in which figures appear on a white background. Classical Period Ceramics The Classical period witnessed the continuation of red- and black-figure painting techniques on ceramic objects. While artists continued to produce black-figure paintings into the second century BCE, the technique became increasingly rare, overtaken around 520 BCE by red-figure painting. Attic red-figure vases were exported throughout Greece and beyond, and for a long time dominated the market for fine ceramics. Only a few centers of pottery production could compete with Athens in terms of its innovation, quality, and production capacity. Red-Figure Painting Red-figure painting continued to flourish during the Early, High, and Late Classical periods. The naturalism of the figures in Early Classical vase painting continued to increase, as the figures became less stocky and less linear. Both the figures and their drapery began to appear more plastic, and the scenes often depicted a single moment within a mythical story or event. Furthermore, vase painting began to be influenced by the changes occurring in both sculpture and the large-scale painting of walls and panels. The Mannerists The Mannerists were a group of Attic red-figure painters known for their affected (emotive) subject matter. They were active from about 480 BCE until near the end of the fifth century BCE. Their main characteristic is that they maintained features of black-figure vase painting in the red-figure technique. Their figures seem elongated and have small heads, the garment folds fall stiff and resemble stairs, and the images are framed with black-figure style ornamentations. The range of motifs is also influenced by previous periods. The figures gesticulate as if using a form of sign language—the hands often appear stiff and theatrical. We can see typical Mannerist small heads and affected gestures in the Pan Painter’s Herakles Fighting Busiris (c. 470 BCE). The Niobid Painter’s red-figure krater of Artemis and Apollo slaying the children of Niobe, from 460 BCE, is believed to be a composition inspired by a panel painting. The side of the vessel depicting Artemis and Apollo relates to the myth of the twin god and goddess who slew Niobe’s fourteen children after she boasted that her ability to birth children exceeded Leto, the mother of Apollo and Artemis. This story alludes to ancient Greek admonitions against hubris, or extreme pride. The scene is one of the first vase painting scenes to show the figures on different ground lines. Apollo and Artemis stand in the center of the vessel as Niobe’s children fall to ground around them. One child has even fallen behind a rock in the landscape. On the other side of the vase is an image of gods and heroes, with Herakles at the center. All the figures stand and sit on various ground lines. The figures on both sides are depicted from multiple angles, including three-quarter view, and a profile eye is used for the figures in profile, a first in Greek vase painting. The Berlin Painter is another well-known Early Classical vase painter. His unique style depicts figures, isolated from context, on a small ground line against a glossy black background. His figures also start in the middle of the vase and extend onto the vessel’s shoulder, stopping at the neck. He pays particular attention to the details of the body and the drapery of each figure, and allows both figure and drapery to express emotion, space , and movement. His painting entitled Ganymede with a Hoop and Cock conveys a sense of dynamism by arranging the body through a series of diagonal outlines, using contour lines to mark the locations of muscles and tendons beneath the skin. White-Ground Painting White-ground painting developed around 500 BCE and gained popularity during the following century. The technique is based on the use of paints, instead of slip, to create polychrome vessels. The vessels were first coated in a white slip before various colors of paint were added. The white background and firing techniques allowed for various colors to be used, including blue, yellow, red, brown, and green. Because the style is less durable than black- and red-figure painting, it was often used for votives and as grave offerings . The common outline paintings of the white-ground technique would not dominate the style until approximately the mid-fifth century BCE. For the first 50 years of white-ground painting, known as Type I, the imagery resembled conventional black-figure painting, with the color of the background as the only difference. This depiction of Herakles fighting Geryon provides an example of Type I white-ground painting. White-ground painting is often seen on a lekythos , a vessel used to hold oils, which were sometimes used for anointing the dead. Due to this funerary function, lekythoi were also used as grave offerings. As such, many of the scenes painted on white-ground lekythoi depict or allude to funerary scenes (such as funerary rites and rituals) or images of warriors departing their wives for battle and death. While the scene of Herakles fighting Geryon depicts a rather violent prelude to death, the imagery on later lekythoi is somewhat more sedate. The Achilles Painter, a pupil of the Berlin Painter and creator of both red-figure and white-ground vessels, is one of the most well-known white ground painters. The scenes he painted on his white-ground lekythoi are filled with pathos and sorrow, often depicting women sitting in front of grave stelae or bidding their battle-bound husbands farewell. Overall, in both white-ground and red-figure painting during the Early Classical period, the form of the body was perfected by the artisans. Painted vessels were now depicting figures on a two-dimensional plane, with the illusion of three-dimensional space. These figures were rendered in that space naturally, in terms of their movement and form. Black-figure painting nearly disappeared in the Early Classical period and was primarily reserved for objects made to seem old or to recall antique styles, such as victory amphorae for the Panhellenic Games. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - GR 08-04-23 Olympia Museum Zeustempel Ostgiebel2. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:GR_08-04-23_Olympia_Museum_Zeustempel_Ostgiebel2.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 623px-Centaure_i_lu00e0pita,_frontu00f3_occidental_del_temple_de_Zeus_d'Olu00edmpia,_(Museu_Arqueolu00f2gic_d'Olu00edmpia).jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19863856. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 455px-Mu00e8topa_del_temple_de_Zeus_d'Olu00edmpia_amb_representaciu00f3_del_bou_de_Creta_(Museu_Arqueolu00f2gic_d'Olu00edmpia).jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19852244%20. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 009MA Kritios. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:009MA_Kritios.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Olympia-ZeusTempelRestoration.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=866537. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 436px-Metopa-templo-zeus2_crop.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15582867%20. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Doryphoros MAN Napoli Inv6011-2. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Doryphoros_MAN_Napoli_Inv6011-2.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hexastyle. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Portico#Hexastyle. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kritios Boy. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritios_Boy. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Polykleitos. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Polykleitos. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Contrapposto. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrapposto. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Temple of Zeus, Olympia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus,_Olympia. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Doryphoros. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Doryphoros. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Severe Style. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe%20style. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Perserchutt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Perserchutt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 359px-Diadoumenos-Atenas.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2892511. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Reggio calabria museo nazionale bronzi di riace. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reggio_calabria_museo_nazionale_bronzi_di_riace.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Netuno16b. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Netuno16b.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Delphi charioteer front DSC06255. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Delphi_charioteer_front_DSC06255.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bronze Sculpture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_sculpture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Greek Sculpture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Riace Bronzes. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Riace_bronzes. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Charioteer of Delphi. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Charioteer_of_Delphi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Artemision Bronze. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemision_Bronze. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lost Wax Method. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_wax_method. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Strut. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/strut. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Contrapposto. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/contrapposto. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pittore dei niobidi, calice del louvre, 460 a.c.. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pittore_dei_niobidi,_calice_del_louvre,_460_a.c..jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 600px-Herakles_Geryon_MAR_Palermo.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4724536. License : CC BY: Attribution - Mousai_Helikon_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_Schoen80_full 2.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mousai_Helikon_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_Schoen80_full.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Thanatos Painter - White-Ground Lekythos - Walters 482012. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thanatos_Painter_-_White-Ground_Lekythos_-_Walters_482012.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Berlin Painter Ganymedes Louvre G175. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Berlin_Painter_Ganymedes_Louvre_G175.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 347px-NAMA_Hu00e9raclu00e8s_&_Busiris.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=473287. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Krater Niobid Painter A Louvre G341. Provided by : Wikimedia. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:25.983959	2020-05-01T17:31:10	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.05%3A_The_Early_Classical_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "6.5: The Early Classical Period", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.06%3A_The_High_Classical_Period	6.6: The High Classical Period Architecture in the Greek High Classical Period High and Late Classical architecture is distinguished by its adherence to proportion, optical refinements, and its early exploration of monumentality. Identify the departures from traditional Classical Greek architecture in the Temple of Apollo Epicurius, the Tholos of Athena Pronaia, and the Theatre at Epidauros Key Points - Architecture during the Early and High Classical periods was refined and the optical illusions corrected to create the most aesthetically pleasing proportions. The High and Late Classical periods begin to tweak these principles and experiment with monumentality and space . - Temples during the Late Classical period began to experiment with new architectural designs and decoration. The Tholos of Athena Pronaia at Delphi is a circular shrine with two rings of columns , the outer Doric and the inner Corinthian. - The Temple of Epicurious at Bassae is noted for its unique ground plan and the use of architectural elements from all three Classical orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The temple’s use of architectural decoration and a ground plan demonstrate changing aesthetics . - The theater in the city of Epidauros is a prime example of advanced engineering skills during this period. The theater is built with refined acoustics that could amplify the sounds on the stage to every one of the theater’s 14,000 spectators. Key Terms - skênê : The structure at the back of a theatre stage. - aniconic : Of, or pertaining to, representations without human or animal form. - tholos : A circular structure, often a temple. Classical Greek Architecture Overview During the Classical period, Greek architecture underwent several significant changes. The columns became more slender, and the entablature lighter during this period. In the mid-fifth century BCE, the Corinthian column is believed to have made its debut. Gradually, the Corinthian order became more common as the Classical period came to a close, appearing in conjunction with older orders, such as the Doric. Additionally, architects began to examine proportion and the chromatic effects of Pentelic marble more closely. In the construction of theaters, architects perfected the effects of acoustics through the design and materials used in the seating area. The architectural refinements perfected during the Late Classical period opened the doors of experimentation with how architecture could define space, an aspect that became the forefront of Hellenistic architecture. Temples Throughout the Archaic period, the Greeks experimented with building in stone and slowly developed their concept of the ideal temple. It was decided that the ideal number of columns would be determined by a formula in which twice the number of columns across the front of the temple plus one was the number of columns down each side (2x + 1 = y). Many temples during the Classical period followed this formula for their peripteral colonnade , although not all. Furthermore, many temples in the Classical period and beyond are noted for the curvature given to the stylobate of the temple that compensated for optical distortions. Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae The Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae is a hexastyle temple with fifteen columns down its length. The temple was built by Iktinos, known for his work on the Parthenon, in the second half of the fifth century BCE. The temple’s plan is unusual in many respects. - The temple is aligned north to south instead of east to west, which accommodates the landscape of the site. - The temple has a door on the naos that provides access and light to the inner chamber. - It shares some attributes with the Parthenon, such as a colonnade in the naos . However, in this case the colonnade is a single story, and only the columns of the temple (not the stylobate) have entasis . - The temple has elements of all three architectural orders and has the earliest known example of a Corinthian capital . Interestingly, the temple has only one Corinthian column, located in the center of the naos. Experts hypothesize that it was placed in that location to replace the cult statue as an aniconic representation of Apollo. Tholos of Athena Pronaia The Tholos of Athena Pronaia at Delphi (380–360 BCE) was built as a sanctuary by Theodoros of Phoenicia. Externally, 20 Doric columns supported a frieze with triglyphs and metopes . The circular wall of the cella was also crowned by a similar frieze, metopes, and triglyphs to a lesser extent. Inside, a stone bench supported 10 Corinthian style pilasters , all of them attached to the concave surface of the wall. The Corinthian capital was developed in the middle of the fifth century and used minimally until the Hellenistic era; it was later popular with the Romans. The manifold combination and blending of various architectural styles in the same building was completed through a natural polychromatic effect that resulted from the use of different materials. The materials used included thin slabs of Pentelic marble in the superstructure and limestone at the platform. When exposed to the air, Pentelic marble acquires a tan color that sets it apart from whiter forms of marble. The building’s roof was also constructed of marble and housed eight female statues carved in sharp and lively motion. Theater at Epidauros The large theater located at Epidauros provides an example of the advanced engineering at that time. The theater was designed by Polykleitos the Younger, the son of the sculptor Polykleitos, in the mid-fourth century BCE. The theater seats up to 14,000 people. Like all Greek theaters, this theatre was built into the hillside, which supports the stadium seating, and the theater overlooks a lush valley and mountainous landscape. The original 34 rows were extended in Roman times by another 21 rows. As is usual for Greek theatres, the view on a lush landscape behind the skênê is an integral part of the theatre itself and is not to be obscured. The theater is especially well known for its acoustics. A 2007 study indicates that the astonishing acoustic properties may be the result of its advanced design. The rows of limestone seats filter out low-frequency sounds, such as the murmur of the crowd, and amplify high-frequency sounds from the stage. The Acropolis The Athenian Acropolis is an ancient citadel in Athens containing the remains of several ancient buildings, including the Parthenon. Summarize the history and structure of the Acropolis of Athens Key Points - The Acropolis, dedicated to the goddess Athena, has played a significant role in the city from the time that the area was first inhabited during the Neolithic era. In recent centuries, its architecture has influenced the design of many public buildings in the Western hemisphere. - Immediately following the Persian war in the mid-fifth century BCE, the Athenian general and statesman Pericles coordinated the construction of the site’s most important buildings including the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the Erechtheion, and the temple of Athena Nike. - The structures on the Acropolis incorporated the Cyclopean foundations of older Mycenaean-era structures. - In its heyday, the Parthenon featured a Doric facade and Ionic frieze interior, while the Doric Propylaea—the gateway to the Acropolis and an art gallery in the Classical era—lacked friezes and pedimental sculptures. The Ionic Erechtheion, believed to have been dedicated to the legendary King Erechtheus, features a porch supported by columnar caryatids . The Temple of Athena Nike, which celebrates Athenian war victories, was built in the Ionic order. - The sculptures from each of these buildings depict scenes specific to their historical and mythological significance to Athens. Key Terms - peripteral : Surrounded by a single row of columns. - prostyle : Free-standing columns across the front of a building. - entablature : The area of a temple facade that lies horizontally atop the columns. - elevation : A geometric projection of a building, or other object, on a plane perpendicular to the horizon. - Geometric period : An era of abstract and stylized motifs in ancient Greek vase painting and sculpture. The period was centered in Athens and flourished from 900 to 700 BCE. - Pericles : A prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator, and the general of Athens during the city’s Golden Age—specifically, the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. - capital : The topmost part of a column. The Athenian Acropolis The study of Classical-era architecture is dominated by the study of the construction of the Athenian Acropolis and the development of the Athenian agora . The Acropolis is an ancient citadel located on a high, rocky outcrop above and at the center of the city of Athens. It contains the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and historic significance . The word acropolis comes from the Greek words ἄ (akron, meaning edge or extremity) and π (polis, meaning city). Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as The Acropolis without qualification. The Acropolis has played a significant role in the city from the time that the area was first inhabited during the Neolithic era. While there is evidence that the hill was inhabited as far back as the fourth millennium BCE, in the High Classical Period it was Pericles (c. 495–429 BCE) who coordinated the construction of the site’s most important buildings, including the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the Erechtheion, and the temple of Athena Nike. The buildings on the Acropolis were constructed in the Doric and Ionic orders, with dramatic reliefs adorning many of their pediments , friezes, and metopes . In recent centuries, its architecture has influenced the design of many public buildings in the Western hemisphere. Early History Archaeological evidence shows that the acropolis was once home to a Mycenaean citadel. The citadel’s Cyclopean walls defended the Acropolis for centuries, and still remains today. The Acropolis was continually inhabited, even through the Greek Dark Ages when Mycenaean civilization fell. It is during the Geometric period that the Acropolis shifted from being the home of a king to being a sanctuary site dedicated to the goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their patron . The Archaic -era Acropolis saw the first stone temple dedicated to Athena, known as the Hekatompedon (Greek for hundred-footed). This building was built from limestone around 570 to 550 BCE and was a hundred feet long. It has the original home of the olive-wood statue of Athena Polias , known as the Palladium, that was believed to have come from Troy. In the early fifth century the Persians invaded Greece, and the city of Athens—along with the Acropolis—was destroyed, looted, and burnt to the ground in 480 BCE. Later the Athenians, before the final battle at Plataea, swore an oath that if they won the battle—that if Athena once more protected her city—then the Athenian citizens would leave the Acropolis as it is, destroyed, as a monument to the war. The Athenians did indeed win the war, and the Acropolis was left in ruins for thirty years. Periclean Revival It was immediately following the Persian war that the Athenian general and statesman Pericles funded an extensive building program on the Athenian Acropolis. Despite the vow to leave the Acropolis in a state of ruin, the site was rebuilt, incorporating all the remaining old materials into the spaces of the new site. The building program began in 447 BCE and was completed by 415 BCE. It employed the most famous architects and artists of the age and its sculpture and buildings were designed to complement and be in dialog with one another. The Parthenon The Parthenon represents a culmination of style in Greek temple architecture. The optical refinements found in the Parthenon—the slight curve given to the whole building and the ideal placement of the metopes and triglyphs over the column capitals —represent the Greek desire to achieve a perfect and harmonious design known as symmetria . While the artist Phidias was in charge of the overall plan of the Acropolis, the architects Iktinos and Kallikrates designed and oversaw the construction of the Parthenon (447–438 BCE), the temple dedicated to Athena. The Parthenon is built completely from Pentalic marble, although parts of its foundations are limestone from a pre-480 BCE temple that was never completed. The design of the Parthenon varies slightly from the basic temple ground plan . The temple is peripteral , and so is surrounded by a row of columns. In front of both the pronaos (porch) and opisthodomos is a single row of prostyle columns. The opisthodomos is large, accounting for the size of the treasury of the Delian League, which Pericles moved from Delos to the Parthenon. The pronaos is so small it is almost non-existent. Inside the naos is a two-story row of columns around the interior, and set in front of the columns is the cult statue of Athena. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece. The Parthenon’s elevation has been streamlined and shows a mix of Doric and Ionic elements. The exterior Doric columns are more slender and their capitals are rigid and cone-like. The entablature also appears smaller and less weighty then earlier Doric temples. The exterior of the temple has a Doric frieze consisting of metopes and triglyphs. Inside the temple are Ionic columns and an Ionic frieze that wraps around the exterior of the interior building. Finally, instead of the columns, the whole building has an entasis , a slight curve to compensate for the human eye. If the building was built perfectly at right angles and with straight eyes, the human eye would see the lines as curved. In order for the Parthenon to appear straight to the eye, Iktinos and Kallikrates added curvature to the building that the eye would interpret as straight. The sculpted reliefs on the Parthenon’s metopes are both decorative and symbolic, and relate stories of the Greeks against the others. Each side depicts a different set of battles. - Over the entrance on the east side is a Gigantomachy , depicting the battle between the giants and the Olympian gods. - The west side depicts an Amazonomachy, showing a battle between the Athenians and the Amazons. - The north side depicts scenes of the Greek sack of Troy at the end of the Trojan War. - The south side depicts a Centauromachy, or a battle with centaurs. The Centauromachy depicts the mythical battle between the Greek Lapiths and the Centaurs that occurred during a Lapith wedding. These scenes are the most preserved of the metopes and demonstrate how Phidias mastered fitting episodic narrative into square spaces. The interior Ionic processional frieze wraps around the exterior walls of the naos. While the frieze may depict a mythical or historical procession, many scholars believe that it depicts a Panatheniac procession. The Panathenaic procession occurred yearly through the city, leading from the Dipylon Gate to the Acropolis and culminating in a ritual changing of the peplos worn by the ancient olive-wood statue of Athena. The processional scene begins in the southwest corner and wraps around the building in both directions before culminating in the middle of the of the west wall. It begins with images of horsemen preparing their mounts, followed by riders and chariots, Athenian youth with sacrificial animals, elders and maidens, then the gods before culminating at the central event. The central image depicts Athenian maidens with textiles, replacing the old peplos with a new one. The east and west pediments depict scenes from the life of Athena and the east pediment is better preserved than the west; fortunately, both were described by ancient writers. The west pediment depicted the contest between Athena and Poseidon for the patronage of Athens. At the center of the pediment stood Athena and Poseidon, pulling away from each to create a strongly charged, dynamic composition . The east pediment depicted the birth of Athena. While the central image of Zeus, Athena, and Haphaestus has been lost, the surrounding gods, in various states of reaction, have survived. The Propylaea Mnesicles designed the Propylaea (437–432 BCE), the monumental gateway to the Acropolis. It funneled all traffic to the Acropolis onto one gently sloped ramp. The Propylaea created a massive screen wall that was impressive and protective as well as welcoming. It was designed to appear symmetrical but, in reality, was not. This illusion was created by a colonnade of paired columns that wrapped around the gateway. The southern wing incorporated the original Cyclopean walls from the Mycenaean citadel. This space was truncated but served as dining area for feasting after a sacrifice . The northern wing was much larger. It was a pinacoteca , where large panel paintings were hung for public viewing. The order of the Propylaea and its columns are Doric, and its decoration is simple—there are no reliefs in the metopes and pediment. Upon entering the Acropolis from the Propylaea, visitors were greeted by a colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachos (c. 456 BCE), designed by Phidias. Accounts and a few coins minted with images of the statue allow us to conclude that the bronze statue portrayed a fearsome image of a helmeted Athena striding forward, with her shield at her side and her spear raised high, ready to strike. The Erechtheion The Erechtheion (421–406 BCE), designed by Mnesicles, is an ancient Greek temple on the north side of the Acropolis. Scholars believe the temple was built in honor of the legendary king Erechtheus. It was built on the site of the Hekatompedon and over the megaron of the Mycenaean citadel. The odd design of the temple results from the site’s topography and the temple’s incorporation of numerous ancient sites. The temple housed the Palladium, the ancient olive-wood statue of Athena. It was also believed to be the site of the contest between Athena and Poseidon, and so displayed an olive tree, a salt-water well, and the marks from Poseidon’s trident to the faithful. Shrines to the mythical kings of Athens, Cecrops and Erechteus—who gives the temple its name—were also found within the Erechtheion. Because of its mythic significance and its religious relics , the Erechtheion was the ending site of the Panathenaic festival, when the peplos on the olive-wood statue of Athena was annually replaced with new clothing with due pomp and ritual. A porch on the south side of the Erechtheion is known as the Porch of the Caryatids, or the Porch of the Maidens. Six, towering, sculpted women (caryatids) support the entablature. The women replace the columns, yet look columnar themselves. Their drapery, especially over their weight-bearing leg, is long and linear, creating a parallel to the fluting on an Ionic column. While they stand in similar poses, each statue has its own stance, facial features, hair, and drapery. They carry egg-and-dart capitals on their heads, much as women throughout history have carried baskets. Between their heads and this capital is a sculpted cushion, which gives the appearance of softening the load of the weight of the building. The sculpted columnar form of the caryatids is named after the women of the town of Kayrai, a small town near and allied to Sparta. At one point during the Persian Wars the town betrayed Athens to the Persians. In retaliation, the Athenians sacked their city, killing the men and enslaving the women and children. Thus, the caryatids depicted on the Acropolis are symbolic representations of the full power of Athenian authority over Greece and the punishment of traitors. The Temple of Athena Nike The Temple of Athena Nike (427–425 BCE), designed by Kallikrates in honor of the goddess of victory, stands on the parapet of the Acropolis, to the southwest and to the right of the Propylaea. The temple is a small Ionic temple that consists of a single naos, where a cult statue stood fronted by four piers . The four piers aligned to the four Ionic prostyle columns of the pronaos. Both the pronaos and opisthodomos are very small, nearly non-existent, and are defined by their four prostyle columns. The continuous frieze around the temple depicts battle scenes from Greek history. These representations include battles from the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars, including a cavalry scene from the Battle at Marathon and the Greek victory over the Persians at the Battle of Plataea. The scenes on the Temple of Athena Nike are similar to the battle scenes on the Parthenon, which represented Greek dominance over non-Greeks and foreigners in mythical allegory . The scenes depicted on the frieze of the Temple of Athena Nike frieze display Greek and Athenian dominance and military power throughout historical events. A parapet was added on the balustrade to protect visitors from falling down the steep hillside. Images of Nike, such as Nike Adjusting Her Sandal, are carved in relief. In this scene Nike is portrayed standing on one leg as she bends over a raised foot and knee to adjust her sandal. Her body is depicted in the new High Classical style. Unlike Archaic sculpture, this scene actually depicts Nike’s body. Her body and muscles are clearly distinguished underneath her transparent yet heavy clothing. This style, known as wet drapery , allows sculptors to depict the body of a woman while still preserving the modesty of the female figure. Although Nike’s body is visible, she remains fully clothed. This style is found elsewhere on the Acropolis, such as on the caryatids and on the women in the Parthenon’s pediment. Urban Planning in the Greek High Classical Period Hippodamus of Miletus is considered the father of rational city planning, and the city of Priene is a prime example of his grid-planned cities. Describe the role of Hipposamus of Miletus in the development of grid-planned cities in Classical Greece Key Points - As an architect and city planner, Hippodamus of Miletus (fifth century BCE) developed an urban plan based on streets that intersect at right angles, known as the Hippodamian Plan. - The Hippodamian Plan is based on a grid of right angles and the allocation of public and private space . The center of the city is the home of the city’s most important civic public spaces, including the agora , the bouleuterion , theaters, and temples. Private rooms surround the city’s public areas. - Since the Hippodamian Plan is based on angles and measurements, it can be laid out uniformly over any kind of terrain. In the city of Priene, the plan is laid out over a sloping hillside, and the terrain is terraced to fit into the rational network of houses, streets, and public buildings. Key Terms - Ionia : An ancient Greek settlement on the west coast of Asia Minor inhabited by one of the four, main Hellenic tribes. - bouleuterion : A building that housed the council of citizens in Ancient Greece; an assembly hall. - grid plan : A type of city plan in which streets run at right angles to each other. Hippodamus of Miletus Although the idea of the grid was present in early Greek city planning, it was not pervasive prior to the fifth century BCE. Following the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars, many cities were left decimated and in need of rebuilding. Before rational city planning, cities grew organically and often radiated out from a central point, such as the Acropolis and Agora at the center of Athens. Hippodamus of Miletus on the Ionian coast (the western coast of modern Turkey) was an architect and urban planner who lived between 498 and 408 BCE. He is considered the father of urban planning, and his name is given to the grid layout of city planning, known as the Hippodamian plan. His plans of Greek cities were characterized by order and regularity in contrast to the intricacy and confusion common to cities of that period. He is seen as the originator of the idea that a town plan might formally embody and clarify a rational social order. The Hippodamian plan is now known as a grid plan formed by streets intersecting at right angles. Hippodamus helped rebuild many Greek cities using this plan, and the construction was exported to newly settled Greek colonies. It was later adopted by Alexander the Great for the cities he founded and was eventually used extensively by the Romans for their colonies. The plan not only encompassed the grid pattern for the streets but also designated a standard size for city blocks and allocated public and private space. Typically the public spaces of the Greeks’ agorae and theaters were located at the center of the city. Additional space would be cleared for gymnasiums and stadiums. The acropolis, the highest part of the city, was always reserved for the city’s most important temples. Priene and Miletus The city of Priene, located near Miletus on the Ionian coast, is a prime example of the Hippodamian plan. The city is located on a hillside, and the urban plan forces structure onto the natural landscape. The city’s grid-planned streets divide the sloping hillside into blocks, which are further divided into lots for private housing. In the middle of the city were many public buildings. The agora was the central component of the city. Its colonnaded stoa bounded the public space to the north. The agora stretched the length of six city blocks and was flanked on its southern side by the Temple of Zeus. North of the stoa was the bouleuterion, the assembly hall, and a small theatre. A Temple of Athena was located just northwest of the agora. Blocks of housing surrounded the agora. Down the slope from them on level ground were the gymnasium and stadium. Above the city, high on a hillside, was the city’s acropolis. The plan of Priene follows the rational grid plan established by Hippodamus and demonstrates its function, even when laid over the rocky and hilly terrain. The city’s location on a hillside did not constrict its uniformity or the allocation of public and private space. Instead, the rational plan of Priene allowed for access to multiple sites of the city and easy navigation through the city. In Hippodamus’ home city of Miletus, the grid plan would become the model of urban planning followed by the Romans. What is most impressive is its wide central area, which is kept unsettled according to his macro-scale urban estimation and in time evolved to the Agora, the center of both the city and society. Stelae in the Greek High Classical Period Large, relief-carved stelae became the new funerary markers in Greece during the High Classical period. Describe the function of stelae in High Classical Greek sculpture Key Points - Funerary stelae were large and rectangular. They were often topped by pediments that were often, although not always, supported by columns . Stelae were originally painted and in some cases adorned with metal props such as spears. - The funerary stelae of Classical Greece are idealized portraits that attempt to relate the character and social position of the dead through attributes depicted on the grave marker. Examples include a warrior depicted in battle or a woman adorning herself in jewelry. - The reliefs on funerary stelae followed the stylistic characteristics of the Classical period. The bodies of the men are well modeled and, if standing, they often stand with contrapposto . Drapery is often portrayed in the wet-drapery style , which allows for the form of the body to be shown. - The funerary stelae of children often depict companion animals, such as doves and other birds, which might have had symbolic connections with the afterlife. Key Terms - naiskos : A small temple made in the Classical order with columns or pillars and pediment. - Kerameikos : An area of Ancient Athens located northwest of the Acropolis on either side of the Dipylon Gate. The location is known as the potter’s quarter. - stele : A tall, slender stone monument, often with writing carved into its surface Funerary Stelae A stele (plural: stelae) is a large slab of stone or wood erected for commemorative and funerary purposes. The stelae of ancient Greece replaced the funerary markers of the Geometric kraters and amphorae, and the Archaic kouroi and korai of the Classical period. The stelae were wide and tall and were Classical-style portraits. While the figures were still idealized, they were meant to represent specific individuals. Stelae were inscribed with the name of the dead and often the names of the relatives. Most stelae are rectangular and often topped with a pediment. Columns often, but not always appear on each side, seemingly to support the pediment. Stelae in this faux-architectural style assume the form of a funerary temple called a naiskos . An inscription would be located on the pediment or below the image, in which case the pediment was painted, plain, or decorated simply with geometric designs. The figures depicted on Classical-era stelae are in the same style and manner seen in Classical sculpture and on sculptural decoration of architecture, such as a temple’s pediments and frieze . Stelae as grave markers became popular around 430 BCE, coinciding with the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. Each stele is unique for its attempts to individualize and characterize the attributes and personality of the dead. Grave Stele of Hegeso The Grave Stele of Hegeso from the Kerameikos Cemetery outside of Athens depicts a seated woman. The stele dates to 400 BCE, and the woman fits the stylistic representation of women at this time. Hegeso sits on a chair with her feet resting on a footstool. She is elegantly dressed in long, flowing drapery. A female attendant in simple dress stands before her holding a small box, from which Hegeso chooses jewelry. The jewelry is now absent because it was only a painted detail, as opposed to carved in relief. Both women wear transparent clothing that clings to their body to relieve their feminine form, although the clothing is more revealing on Hegeso than her servant. This style, known as wet drapery , also appears on the Temple of Athena Nike in Athens. Both figures are expressionless and emotionless. Grave Stele of an Athlete The Grave Stele of an Athlete (early fourth century BCE), from the island of Delos, depicts a male athlete receiving lekythos of oil from a male youth. The athlete’s body is reminiscent of Polykleitos’s Doryphoros. It is athletic, and the muscles are defined through modeling instead of lines . He stands in a contrapposto pose with a cocked head, reaching for the flask held by the young attendant. The youth’s age is defined not by his well-built body (which is very similar to that of the athlete) but by his diminutive size. Grave Stele of Dexileos The Grave Stele of Dexileos (390 BCE) in the Kerameikos Cemetery of Athens is another demonstration of how stele reliefs reflect the sculpture style and motifs of the period. This stele recalls the carved relief of Athenian horsemen from the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon. Dexileos rides astride a rearing horse, charging down an enemy. The inscription refers to his early death in a battle against the Corinthians. He probably originally held a metal spear in his raised hand. The two figures, Dexileos and the Corinthian, are dressed differently. The Corinthian’s nudity signifies his difference from the civilized Athenian who is properly clothed. Dexileos’s flying cape and rearing horse add drama to scene, which despite its content, is oddly expressionless due to emotionless faces of the characters. Grave Stele of a Little Girl While the above stelae commemorate adults, grave stelae also commemorate children. The Grave Stele of a Little Girl (450–440 BCE), which lacks a pediment and allows the deceased to assume most of the space , depicts a young child holding two doves, presumably her pets. One bird perches in her hands, while the other seems to cuddle next to her and affectionately peck at her mouth. She bows her head toward both doves, wearing a solemn facial expression, as if bidding the animals farewell. Such images of children and companion animals are common subject matter on grave stelae of the Classical era. The doves’ ability to fly connected them to death and the afterlife. Some experts theorize that doves were believed to be able to communicate with those in the afterlife. Like the women on the Grave Stele of Hegeso, the child’s clothing assumes the wet-drapery style to accentuate the contours of her body while allowing her to maintain feminine modesty. Painting in the Greek High Classical Period Panel and tomb paintings from the High Classical Period depict natural figures with high plasticity and dynamic compositions. Describe the styles of painting that developed through the High Classical period as seen in panel and tomb paintings Key Points - Few examples of panel, fresco , and wall painting survive due to their organic materials. However, the examples that do survive from the Archaic , Classical , and Late Classical periods demonstrate the same development of the figure—from stiff, rigid images to dynamic scenes of natural figures. - The painter Apollodorus was considered one of the most talented painters in the Classical period. He developed a technique to depict shadows and depth known to the Greeks as skiagraphia, which is similar to the Renaissance use of chiaroscuro . - The Roman Alexander Mosaic is believed to be a copy of a large-scale Greek fresco or panel painting from the late fourth century BCE. Its remarkable detail and identifiable characteristics of Alexander the Great amidst a dynamic battle point to the skill of Greek painters at the end of the Classical era. Key Terms - symposium : A drinking party, especially one with intellectual discussion, in ancient Greece. - chiaroscuro : An artistic technique popularized during the Renaissance, referring to the use of exaggerated light contrasts in order to create the illusion of volume. Classical Greece was a 200-year period in Greek culture that lasted from the fifth through fourth centuries BCE. This Classical period, following the Archaic period and succeeded by the Hellenistic period, had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire and greatly influenced the foundations of the Western Civilization . Much of modern Western politics and artistic thought, such as architecture, scientific thought, literature, and philosophy, derives from this period of Greek history. Panel Painting Panel painting is the painting on flat panels of wood, either a large single piece or several joined together. Because of their organic nature many panel paintings no longer exist. Panel paintings were usually done in encaustic or tempera and were displayed in the interior of public buildings, such as in the pinacoteca of the Propylaea of the Athenian Acropolis. The earliest known panel paintings are the Pitsa Panels that date to the Archaic period between 540 and 530 BCE; however, panel painting continued throughout the Classical Period. The painter Apollodorus was considered by the Greeks and Romans to be one of the best painters of the Early Classical period, although none of his work survived. He is credited for the use of creating shadows by a technique known as skiagraphia. The technique layers crosshatching and contour liners to add perspective to the scene and is similar to the Renaissance technique of chiaroscuro. Tomb Painting Tomb painting was another popular method of painting, which due to its fragile nature has often not survived. However, a few examples do remain, including the 480 BCE Tomb of the Diver and the wall paintings from the royal Macedonian tombs in Vergina that date to the mid-fourth century BCE. A comparison between the paintings demonstrate how painting followed sculptural development in regards to the rendering of the human body. The Tomb of the Diver is from a small necropolis in Paestum, Italy, which was then the Greek colony of Poseidonia, and dates from the beginning of the Classical period. The tomb depicts a symposium scene on its walls and an image of diver on the inside of the covering slab. The images are painted in true fresco with a limestone mortar. The scene of the diver is simple image with a small landscape of trees, water, and the diver’s platform. The diver is nude and his body is simply defined through the use of line and color. The bodies of the men at the symposium more accurately demonstrate an Archaic reliance on line to model the form of the body and the draping of their clothing. Compared to the wall paintings from the tombs at Vergina, the Early Classical tomb painting is static and rather Archaic. The frescos from Vergina depict figures in a full-painted version of the High Classical style . For example, there is an image believed to depict King Philip II on a chariot pulled by two horses. The fresco is poorly preserved but one is able to see on Philip’s horse the modeling of the animals produced by the color shading and a suggestion of perspective when looking at the chariot. The artist relies on the shades and hues of his paints to create depth and a life-like feeling in the painting. One of the quintessential wall paintings at Vergina is Hades Abducting Persephone. The painted scene appears similar to the Late Classical sculptural style and the dynamic, emotion-filled composition seems to predict the style of Hellenistic sculpture. The scene depicts Hades on his chariot, grasping on to Persephone’s nude torso as the pair ride away. The colors are faded and faint, but the bright red drapery worn by Persephone is still easily identifiable. Lines and shading emphasize its folds. The style appears almost impressionistic, especially when examining Persephone’s face and hair. Persephone and Hades create a tension filled chiastic composition, as Hades races to the left, against the pull of Persephone’s outward, desperate reach to the right. Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedonia (356–323 BCE), better known as Alexander the Great, very carefully controlled and crafted his portraiture. In order to maintain control and stability in his empire, he had to ensure that his people recognized him and his authority. Because of this, Alexander’s portrait was set when he was very young, most likely in his teens, and it never varied throughout his life. To further control his portrait types, Alexander hired artists in different media such as painting, sculpture, and gem cutting to design and promote the portrait style of the medium. In this way, Alexander used art and artisans for their propagandistic value to support and provide a face and legitimacy to his rule. Alexander Mosaic The Alexander Mosaic is a Roman floor mosaic from approximately 100 BCE that was excavated from the House of the Faun in Pompeii. The mosaic depicts the Battle of Issus that occurred between the troops of Alexander the Great and King Darius III of Persia. The mosaic is believed to be a copy of a large-scale panel painting by Aristides of Thebes, or a fresco by the Philoxenos of Eretria from the late fourth century BCE. The mosaic is remarkable. It depicts a keen sense of detail, dramatically unfolds the drama of the battle, and demonstrates the use of perspective and foreshortening . The two main characters of the battle are easily distinguishable and this portrait of Alexander may be one of his most recognizable. He wears a breastplate and an aegis , and his hair is characteristically tousled. He rides into battle on his horse, Bucephalo, leading his troops. Alexander’s gaze remains focused on Darius and he appears calm and in control, despite the hectic battle happening around him. Darius III, on the other hand, commands the battle in desperation from his chariot, as his charioteer removes them from battle. His horses flee under the whip of the charioteer and Darius leans outward, stretching out a hand having just thrown a spear. His body position contradicts the motion of his chariot, creating tension between himself and his flight. Other details in the mosaic include the expressions of the soldiers and the horses, such as a collapsed horse and his rider in the center of the battle, to a terrified fallen Persian, whose expression is reflected on his shield. The shading and play of light in the mosaic, reflects the use of light and shadow in the original painting to create a realistic, three-dimensional space . Horses and soldiers are shown in multiple perspectives from profile, to three quarter, to frontal, and one horse even faces the audience with his rump. The careful shading within the mosaic tesserae models the characters to give the figures mass and volume . Sculpture in the Greek High Classical Period High Classical sculpture demonstrates the shifting style in Greek sculptural work as figures became more dynamic and less static. Compare and contrast the styles of Polykleitos, Phidias, and Myron during the High Classical period Key Points - After mastering the portrayal of naturalistic bodies from stone, Greek sculptors began to experiment with new poses that expanded the repertoire of Greek art. The sculptures of this later period are moving away from the Classical characteristics they still maintain: idealism and the Severe style . - Polykleitos is most well known for his Canon, depicted in the Doryphoros, but is also known for his Diadumenos and Discophoros. These two, sculpted athletes are also done in accordance to his canon and are depicted in contrapposto with chiastic poses. - Phidias was one of the most renowned sculptors his time. He oversaw the sculptural program for the Athenian Acropolis and is also known for his giant chryselephantine cult statues of Zeus and Athena Parthenos. - Myron is a bronze sculptor of the High Classical period. His statues are known for being imbued with potential energy. His Discobolos is poised to spring, preparing to throw a discus. While still idealized, the figure appears to be frozen in an action of intense movement. Key Terms - chryselephantine : Made of gold and ivory. - aegis : An attribute of Zeus or Athena, usually represented as a goatskin shield. Polykleitos Polykleitos was a famous Greek sculptor who worked in bronze. He was also an art theorist who developed a canon of proportion (called the Canon) that is demonstrated in his statue of Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) Many of Polykleitos’s bronze statues from the Classical period, including the Doryphoros, survive only as Roman copies executed in marble. Polykleitos, along with Phidias, is thought to have created the style recognized as Classical Greek sculpture. Another example of the Canon at work is seen in Polykleitos’s statue of Diadumenos, a youth trying on a headband, and his statue Discophoros, a discus bearer. Both Roman marble copies depict athletic, nude, male figures. The bodies of the two figures are idealized. The nudity allows the harmony of parts, or symmetria, to easily be seen and illustrates the principles discussed in the Canon. The Canon focused on the proportion of parts of the body in relationship to each other to create the ideal male form . Both statues demonstrate fine proportion, ideal balance, and the definable parts of the body. The athletes are shown in contrapposto stances. The Discophoros shifts his weight to his left leg. His hips and the slightly forward lean toward his right leg exaggerate the weight shift. The figure is balanced on his left leg, which is drawn back, and the rest of his body appropriately responds to this stance. The Diadumenos also stands in contrapposto, although his movement seems more forward and stable than that of the Discophoros. He ties on a band that identifies him as a winner in an athletic contest. His raised arms add a new dynamic component to the composition . The Discophoros and Diadumenos, along with the Doryphoros, demonstrate the flexibility of composition based on the Canon and the innate liveliness produced by contrapposto postures. Despite the lively aspects and unique poses of the figures, all three still retain the Severe style and expressionless face of early Greek sculpture. Polykleitos not only worked in bronze but is also known for his chryselephantine cult statue of Hera at Argos, which in ancient times was compared to Phidias’ colossal chryselephantine cult statues. Phidias Phidias was the sculptor and artistic director of the Athenian Acropolis and oversaw the sculptural program of all the Acropolis’ buildings. He was considered one of the greatest sculptors of his time and he created monumental cult statues of gold and ivory for city-states across Greece. Phidias is well known for the Athena Parthenos, the colossal cult statue in the naos of the Parthenon. While the statue has been lost, written accounts and reproductions (miniatures and representations on coins and gems) provide us with an idea of how the sculpture appeared. It was made out of ivory, silver, and gold and had a wooden core support. Athena stood crowned, wearing her helmet and aegis . Her shield stood upright at her left side and her left hand rested on it while in her right hand she held a statue of Nike. An artist’s reconstruction is housed in the Parthenon in Nashville. Before he created the statue of Athena Parthenos for Athens, Phidias was best known for his chryselephantine statue of Zeus at Olympia, which was considered one of the wonders of the world. The statue of Zeus at Olympia is said to have been 39 feet tall chryselephantine statue. As with Athena Parthenos, not much is known for sure about how the statue looked, although written accounts and marble and coinage copies provide possible ideas. Besides being built on a colossal scale, reports indicate that the figure of Zeus was seated and held a scepter and a statue of Nike. An eagle was perched either at his side or on his scepter. Besides being decorated with gold and ivory, the sculpture was further embellished with ebony and previous stones. An artist’s conception of the colossal sculpture resides in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, Russia. Myron The Athenian artist Myron also produced bronze sculptures during the mid-fifth century BCE. His most famous work is of the Diskobolos, or discus thrower (not to be confused with Polykletios’ discus bearer, Discophoros). The Diskobolos shows a young, athletic male nude with a Severe-style face. His body holds a contrapposto pose; one leg bears his weight, while the other is relaxed. A relaxed arm balances his body and the other arm tenses, preparing to let go of the disc. The Diskobols demonstrates a dynamic, chiastic composition that relies on diagonal lines to move the eye about the sculpture. This figure represents another new element in Classical sculpture—the illustration of the potential for energy. His energy appears wound up, waiting for the figure to release it. The statue depicts a swift and transitory moment and that is frozen at a precise moment to exhibit the harmony, balance, and rhythm perfected by both the athlete and the artist. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - File:Bassai Temple of Apollo Plan.svg - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bassai_Temple_of_Apollo_Plan.svg&page=1 . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Epidaure theatre paysage 2009. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Epidaure_theatre_paysage_2009.jpg. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:26.180237	2020-05-01T17:31:19	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.06%3A_The_High_Classical_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "6.6: The High Classical Period", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.07%3A_The_Hellenistic_Period	6.7: The Hellenistic Period Architecture in the Hellenistic Period Architecture during the Hellenistic period focused on theatricality and drama; the period also saw an increased popularity of the Corinthian order. Describe the characteristics of Hellenistic architecture, including stoas, the Corinthian order, and the use of theatricality Key Points - Hellenistic architecture, in a manner similar to Hellenistic sculpture, focuses on theatricality, drama, and the experience of the viewer . Public spaces and temples were created with the people in mind, and so were built on a new, monumental scale. - Stoas are colonnaded porticos used to define public space and protect patrons from the elements. Stoas are often found around a city’s agora , and turn the city’s central place for civic, administrative, and market elements into a grand space. - The Temple of Apollo at Didyma was an oracle site with an ambitious building plan that was never completed. Its plan consisted of a double colonnade of massively tall columns that engulfed the viewer in dark corridors before opening into a bright courtyard and the shrine to the god. - The Corinthian order, developed during the Classical period, witnessed increased popularity during the Hellenistic period. The columnar style of the order is similar in many ways to the Ionic order except for the column’s capital , which is vegetal and lush. A double layer of acanthus leaves line the basket from which stylized tendrils and volutes emerge. Key Terms - abacus : A flat slab that forms the uppermost member or division of the capital of a column. - volute : The spiral curve on an Ionic capital. - acanthus : An ornament that resembles the foliage or leaves of Acanthus spinosus that is used in the capitals of the Corinthian and composite orders. - orthogonal : In linear perspective drawing, the diagonal line pointing to the vanishing point; sometimes referred to as vanishing or convergence line. - stoa : In Ancient Greece, a walkway with a roof supported by colonnades, often with a wall on one side; a portico. - dipteral : Having a double row of columns on each flank, as well as in the front and rear; often said of a temple. - colonnade : A series of columns at regular intervals. Architecture in the Greek world during the Hellenistic period developed theatrical tendencies, as had Hellenistic sculpture. The conquests of Alexander the Great caused power to shift from the city-states of Greece to the ruling dynasties . Dynastic families patronized large complexes and dramatic urban plans within their cities. These urban plans often focused on the natural setting, and were intended to enhance views and create dramatic civic, judicial, and market spaces that differed from the orthogonal plans of the houses that surrounded them. Architecture in the Hellenistic period is most commonly associated with the growing popularity of the Corinthian order. However, the Doric and Ionic orders underwent notable changes. Examples include the slender and unfluted Doric columns and the four-fronted capitals on Ionic columns, the latter of which helped to solve design problems concerning symmetry on the temple porticos. Stoa A stoa, or a covered walkway or portico, was used to bind agorae and other public spaces. Highlighting the edge of open areas with such decorative architecture created a theatrical effect for the public space and also provided citizens with a basic daily form of protection from the elements. Both the stoa and the agora were used by merchants, artists, religious festivals, judicial courts, and civic administrations. The Stoa of Attalos (c. 150 BCE) in Athens was built in the Agora, under the patronage of King Attalos II of Pergamon. This portico consists of a double colonnade. It was two stories tall, and had a row of rooms on the ground floor. The exterior colonnade on the ground level was built in the Doric order, and the interior was Ionic. On the second level, Ionic columns lined the exterior, and columns with a simple, stylized capital lined the interior. Temple of Apollo at Didyma Other examples of grand and monumental architecture can be found in Ionia , modern day Turkey in Pergamon, and Didyma. The Temple of Apollo at Didyma was both a temple and an oracle site. The temple was designed by the architects Paionios of Ephesus and Daphnis of Miletus. Its construction began in 313 BCE but was never completed, although work continued until the second century CE. This temple’s site is vast. The interior court was 71 feet wide by 175 feet long and contained a small shrine. The court was also dipteral in form, edged with a double row of 108 columns, each 65 feet tall, that surrounded the temple. The structure creates a series of imposing spaces, from the exterior colonnade to the oracle rooms, and the interior courtyard inside of which the shrine to Apollo stood. The building plan also played with theatricality and drama, forcing its visitors through a dark interior and then opening up into a bright and open courtyard that did not have a roof. The building is dramatically different from the perfected Classical plan of temples. Instead of focusing on symmetry and harmony, the building focuses on the experience of the viewer. Corinthian Order The Corinthian order is considered the third order of Classical architecture. The order’s columns are slender and fluted and sit atop a base . The capital consists of a double layer of acanthus leaves and stylized plant tendrils that curl up towards the abacus in the shape of a scroll or volute. The decorative Corinthian order was not widely adopted in Greece, although it was popular in tholoi. It was, however, used substantially throughout the Roman period. The ruined Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens (also known as the Olympieion) contains one of the best-known examples of the Corinthian column in Hellenistic architecture. Originally designed in the Doric order in the sixth century BCE, the temple was redesigned in the second century BCE in the Corinthian order on a colossal platform measuring 134.5 feet by 353.5 feet. It was to be flanked by a double colonnade of eight columns across the front and back and twenty-one on the flanks, surrounding the cella . The design was eventually changed to have three rows of eight columns across the front and back of the temple and a double row of twenty on the flanks, for a total of 104 columns. The columns stand 55.5 feet high and 6.5 feet in diameter. In 164 BCE, the death of Antiochus IV (who had presented himself as the earthly embodiment of Zeus) brought the project to a halt, and the temple would remain incomplete. Pergamon Pergamon rose as a power under the Attalids and provides examples of the drama and theatrics found in Hellenistic art and architecture. Illustrate the dramatic and theatrical nature of the Pergamon, as seen in the Altar of Zeus, the Gigantomachy, and the Dying Gauls Key Points - Pergamon was the capital city of the Kingdom of Pergamon, which was ruled by the Attalids in the centuries following the death of Alexander the Great . - The Acropolis of Pergamon is famous for its monumental architecture. Most of the buildings command a great view of the surrounding countryside and together create a dramatic public space . - The Altar of Zeus at Pergamon was a monumental u-shaped Ionic building that stood on a high platform and was accessed by a wide set of stairs. Besides its dramatic architecture, the altar is known for its Gigantomachy frieze and sculptures of defeated Gauls . - The Gigantomachy frieze represents the full blossoming of Hellenistic sculpture. The figures are dramatic, and the scenes are full of tension. They are carved in high relief with deep drilling that allows for a play of light and shadows that increases the naturalism of the figures. - The statue group of the Dying Gauls depicts a defeated trumpeter and a Gallic chief killing himself and his wife. The figures, while enemies of Pergamon, are depicted with incredible pathos and heroics to demonstrate their worthiness as adversaries and empower the Attalid victors. Key Terms - chiastic : Referring to a figure that repeats concepts in reverse order, in the same or modified form. - Gaul : An ancient person from the region that roughly corresponds to modern France and Belgium. - torc : A large, rigid—or at least stiff—neck ring in metal, made either as a single piece or from strands twisted together. The ancient city of Pergamon, now modern day Bergama in Turkey, was the capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon following the death of Alexander the Great and was ruled under the Attalid dynasty . The Acropolis of Pergamon is a prime example of Hellenistic architecture and the convergence of nature and architectural design to create dramatic and theatrical sites. The acropolis was built into and on top a steep hill that commands great views of the surrounding countryside. Both the upper and lower portions of the acropolis were home to many important structures of urban life, including gymnasiums, agorae, baths, libraries, a theater, shrines, temples, and altars. The theater at Pergamon could seat 10,000 people and was one of the steepest theaters in the ancient world. Like all Hellenic theaters, it was built into the hillside, which supported the structure and provided stadium seating that would have overlooked the ancient city and its surrounding countryside. The theater is one example of the creation and use of dramatic and theatrical architecture. Altar of Zeus Another element found at Pergamon is the great Altar of Zeus (now housed in Germany). The altar was commissioned in the first half of the second century BCE during the reign of King Eumenes II to commemorate his victory over the Gauls, who were migrating into Asia Minor. The altar is a U-shaped Ionic building built on a high platform with central steps leading to the top. It faced east, was located near the theater of Pergamon, and commanded an outstanding view of the region. The altar is known for its grand design and for its frieze depicting the Gigantomachy—it wraps 370 feet around the base of the altar. The Gigantomachy The Gigantomachy depicts the Olympian gods fighting against their predecessors the Giants (Titans), the children of the goddess Gaia. The frieze is known for its incredibly high relief, in which the figures are barely restrained by the wall, and for its deep drilling of lines with details to create dramatic shadows. The high relief and deep drilling of the figures also increases the liveliness and naturalism of the scene. The figures are rendered with high plasticity. The texture of their skin, drapery, and scales add another level of naturalism. Furthermore, as the frieze follows the stairs, the limbs of the figures begin to spill out of their frame and onto the stairs, physically breaking into the space of the viewer . The style and high drama of the scenes is often referred to as the Hellenistic Baroque for its exaggerated motion, emphasis on details, and the liveliness of the characters. The most famous scene on the frieze depicts Athena fighting the giant Alkyoneus. She grabs his head and pulls it back while Gaia emerges from the ground to plead for her son’s life and a winged Nike reaches over to crown Athena. Athena’s drapery swirls around her with deep folds and her whole body is nearly removed from the frieze. The figures are depicted with the heightened emotion commonly found on Hellenistic statues. Alkyoneus’s face strains in pain and Gaia’s eyes, which are all that remain of her face, are full of terror and sorrow at the death of her son. The entire composition is depicted in a chiastic shape. Athena stretches out to grasps Alkoyneus’s head, the two figures pull at each other in opposite directions. Meanwhile, the figure of Nike moves diagonally towards Athena, showing their convergence in a moment of victory. The diagonal line created by Gaia mimics the shape of her son, connecting the two figures through line and pathos. The scene is filled with the tension and emotion that are key features in Hellenistic sculpture. The Dying Gauls A group of statues depicting dying Gauls, the defeated enemies of the Attalids, were situated inside the Altar of Zeus. The original set of statues is believed to have been cast in bronze by the court sculptor Epigonus in 230–220 BCE. Now only marble Roman copies of the figures remain. Like the figures on the frieze and other Hellenistic sculptures, the figures are depicted with lifelike details and a high level of naturalism. They are also depicted in the common motif of barbarians. The men are nude and wear Celtic torcs . Their hair is shaggy and disheveled. The figures are positioned in dramatic compositions and are shown dying heroically, which turns them into worthy adversaries, increasing the perception of power of the Attalid dynasty. All three figures in the group are depicted in a Hellenistic manner. To fully appreciate the statues, it is best to walk around them. Their pain, nobility, and death are evident from all angles. One Gaul is depicted lying down, supporting himself over his shield and a discarded trumpet. He furrows his brow as he looks downward at his bleeding chest wound as he prepares himself for death. His muscles are large and strong, signifying his strength as a warrior and implying the strength of the one who struck him down. Two other figures complete the group. One figure depicts a Gallic chief committing suicide after he has killed his own wife. Also known as the Ludovisi Gaul, this sculpture group displays another heroic and noble deed of the foes, for typically women and children of the defeated would be murdered to avoid them from being captured and sold as slaves by the victors. The chief holds his fallen wife by the arm as he plunges his sword into his chest, where blood is already exiting the wound. Sculpture in the Hellenistic Period A key component of Hellenistic sculpture is the expression of a sculpture’s face and body to elicit an emotional response from the viewer. Contrast the new Hellenistic style of sculpture from the previous Classical era, and discuss the significance of Roman patronage in the second century BCE Key Points - Hellenistic sculpture takes the naturalism of the body’s form and expression to level of hyper-realism where the expression of the sculpture’s face and body elicit an emotional response. - Drama and pathos are new factors in Hellenistic sculpture. The style of the sculpting is no longer idealized. Rather, they are often exaggerated, and details are emphasized to add a new, heightened level of motion and pathos. - New compositions and states of mind are explored in Hellenistic sculptures including old age, drunkenness, sleep, agony, and despair. - Portraiture became popular in this period. The subjects are depicted with a sense of naturalism that displays their imperfections. - Hellenistic sculpture was in especially high demand after the Greek peninsula fell to the Romans in 146 BCE. Notable sculptures produced for Roman patrons include Laocoön and His Sons and the Farnese Bull. Key Terms - satyr : A male companion of Pan or Dionysus with the tail of a horse and a perpetual erection. Also known as a faun. - patrician : An aristocrat or other elite member of society; it may also be used as an adjective. - pathos : That quality or property of anything that touches the feelings or excites emotions and passions, especially that which awakens tender emotions, such as pity, sorrow, and the like; a contagious warmth of feeling, action, or expression; a pathetic quality. Hellenistic sculpture continues the trend of increasing naturalism seen in the stylistic development of Greek art. During this time, the rules of Classical art were pushed and abandoned in favor of new themes, genres , drama, and pathos that were never explored by previous Greek artists. Furthermore, the Greek artists added a new level of naturalism to their figures by adding an elasticity to their form and expressions, both facial and physical. These figures interact with their audience in a new theatrical manner by eliciting an emotional reaction from their view—this is known as pathos. Nike of Samothrace One of the most iconic statues of the period, the Nike of Samothrace, also known as the Winged Victory (c. 190 BCE), commemorates a naval victory. This Parian marble statue depicts Nike, now armless and headless, alighting onto the prow of the ship. The prow is visible beneath her feet, and the scene is filled with theatricality and naturalism as the statue reacts to her surroundings. Nike’s feet, legs, and body thrust forward in contradiction to her drapery and wings that stream backwards. Her clothing whips around her from the wind and her wings lift upwards. This depiction provides the impression that she has just landed and that this is the precise moment that she is settling onto the ship’s prow. In addition to the sculpting, the figure was most likely set within a fountain, creating a theatrical setting where both the imagery and the auditory effect of the fountain would create a striking image of action and triumph. Venus de Milo Also known as the Aphrodite of Melos (c. 130–100 BCE), this sculpture by Alexandros of Antioch, is another well-known icon of the Hellenistic period. Today the goddess’s arms are missing. It has been suggested that one arm clutched at her slipping drapery while the other arm held out an apple, an allusion to the Judgment of Paris and the abduction of Helen. Originally, like all Greek sculptures, the statue would have been painted and adorned with metal jewelry, which is evident from the attachment holes. This image is in some ways similar to Praxitiles’ Late Classical sculpture Aphrodite of Knidos (fourth century BCE), but it is considered to be more erotic than its earlier counterpart. For instance, while she is covered below the waist, Aphrodite makes little attempt to cover herself. She appears to be teasing and ignoring her viewer , instead of accosting him and making eye contact. Altered States While the Nike of Samothrace exudes a sense of drama and the Venus de Milo a new level of feminine sexuality, other Greek sculptors explored new states of being. Instead of reproducing images of the ideal Greek male or female, as was favored during the Classical period, sculptors began to depict images of the old, tired, sleeping, and drunk—none of which are ideal representations of a man or woman. The Barberini Faun The Barberini Faun, also known as the Sleeping Satyr (c. 220 BCE), depicts an effeminate figure, most likely a satyr, drunk and passed out on a rock. His body splays across the rock face without regard to modesty. He appears to have fallen to sleep in the midst of a drunken revelry and he sleeps restlessly, his brow is knotted, face worried, and his limbs are tense and stiff. Unlike earlier depicts of nude men, but in a similar manner to the Venus de Milo, the Barberini Faun seems to exude sexuality. Drunken Old Woman Images of drunkenness were also created of women, which can be seen in a statue attributed to the Hellenistic artist Myron of a drunken beggar woman. This woman sits on the floor with her arms and legs wrapped around a large jug and a hand gripping the jug’s neck. Grape vines decorating the top of the jug make it clear that it holds wine. The woman’s face, instead of being expressionless, is turned upward and she appears to be calling out, possibly to passersby. Not only is she intoxicated, but she is old: deep wrinkles line her face, her eyes are sunken, and her bones stick out through her skin. Seated Boxer Another image of the old and weary is a bronze statue of a seated boxer. While the image of an athlete is a common theme in Greek art, this bronze presents a Hellenistic twist. He is old and tired, much like the Late Classical image of a Weary Herakles. However, unlike Herakles, the boxer is depicted beaten and exhausted from his pursuit. His face is swollen, lip spilt, and ears cauliflowered. This is not an image of a heroic, young athlete but rather an old, defeated man many years past his prime. Portraiture Individual portraits, instead of idealization, also became popular during the Hellenistic period. A portrait of Demosthenes by Polyeuktos (280 BCE) is not an idealization of the Athenian statesman and orator. Instead, the statue takes notes of Demosthenes’s characteristic features, including his overbite, furrowed brow, stooped shoulders, and old, loose skin. Even portrait busts, often copied from Polyeuktos’ famed statue, depict the weariness and sorrow of a man despairing the conquest of Philip II and end of Athenian democracy. Roman Patronage The Greek peninsula fell to Roman power in 146 BCE. Greece was a key province of the Roman Empire, and the Roman’s interest in Greek culture helped to circulate Greek art around the empire, especially in Italy, during the Hellenistic period and into the Imperial period of Roman hegemony . Greek sculptors were in high demand throughout the remaining territories of the Alexander’s empire and then throughout the Roman Empire. Famous Greek statues were copied and replicated for wealthy Roman patricians and Greek artists were commissioned for large-scale sculptures in the Hellenistic style. Originally cast in bronze, many Greek sculptures that we have today survive only as marble Roman copies. Some of the most famous colossal marble groups were sculpted in the Hellenistic style for wealthy Roman patrons and for the imperial court. Despite their Roman audience, these were purposely created in the Greek style and continued to display the drama, tension, and pathos of Hellenistic art. Laocoön and His Sons Laocoön was a Trojan priest of Poseidon who warned the Trojans, “Beware of Greeks bearing gifts,” when the Greeks left a large wooden horse at the gates of Troy. Athena or Poseidon (depending on the story’s version), upset by his vain warning to his people, sent two sea serpents to torture and kill the priest and his two sons. Laocoön and His Sons, a Hellenistic marble sculpture group (attributed by the Roman historian Pliny the Elder to the sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus from the island of Rhodes) was created in the early first century CE to depict this scene from Virgil’s epic, The Aeneid. Similar to other examples of Hellenistic sculpture, Laocoön and His Sons depicts a chiastic scene filled with drama, tension, and pathos. The figures writhe as they are caught in the coils of the serpents. The faces of the three men are filled with agony and toil, which is reflected in the tension and strain of their muscles. Laocoön stretches out in a long diagonal from his right arm to his left as he attempts to free himself. His sons are also entangled by the serpents, and their faces react to their doom with confusion and despair. The carving and detail, the attention to the musculature of the body, and the deep drilling, seen in Laocoön’s hair and beard, are all characteristic elements of the Hellenistic style. Farnese Bull The Farnese Bull (c. 200–180 BCE), named for the patrician Roman family who owned the statue in the Italian Renaissance , is believed to have been created for the collection of Asinius Pollio, a Roman patrician. Pliny the Elder attributes the statue to the artists and brothers Apolllonius and Tauriscus of Trallles, Rhodes. The colossal marble statue, carved from a single block of marble, depicts the myth of Dirce, the wife of the King of Thebes, who was tied to a bull by the sons of Antiope to punish her for mistreating their mother. The composition is large and dramatic, and demands the viewer to encircle it in order to view and appreciate the narrative and pathos from all angles. The various angles reveal different expressions, from the terror of Dirce, to the determination of Antiope’s sons, to the savagery of the bull. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Didyma. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Didyma.JPG . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Stoa in Athens. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stoa_in_Athens.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 545px-Zevs-tempelet_med_Akropolis_bak.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6733532 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Corinthian Capital Agora. Provided by : Wikimedia. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:26.322395	2020-05-01T17:31:25	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/06%3A_Ancient_Greece/6.07%3A_The_Hellenistic_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "6.7: The Hellenistic Period", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/07%3A_The_Etruscans	7: The Etruscans Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52950 Boundless Boundless 7.1: Early Etruscan Art 7.2: Later Etruscan Art	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:26.403761	2020-05-01T17:29:52	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/07%3A_The_Etruscans", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "7: The Etruscans", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/07%3A_The_Etruscans/7.01%3A_Early_Etruscan_Art	7.1: Early Etruscan Art The Etruscan Culture Etruscan society developed in central Italy. The Orientalizing period connected Etruscan arts with eastern Mediterranean culture. Discuss the Orientalizing period of Etruscan culture and their use of gold and ivory Key Points - Etruscan civilization flourished in central Italy and expanded as far north as the Po River and as far south as the Tiber River and northern Campania. - Despite having a distinct artistic style , due to Greek influence, Etruscan art follows the artistic and stylistic developments of the Greeks, and is divided into similar artistic periods, including the Orientalizing (700–600 BCE), Archaic (600–480 BCE), and Classical (480–200 BCE) periods. - Etruscan art during the Orientalizing period demonstrates oriental influences, similar to those seen in Greek art, including the use of intricate designs, patterning, and the depiction of animals—including lions, leopards, and composite animals like sphinxes and griffins. - The Etruscans are known for their metalwork , and especially for their skill in crafting gold. Gold jewelry was popular among the Etruscans and often buried with its owners. The fibulas, earrings, bracelets, and other pieces of jewelry and decoration demonstrate Etruscan skill with repoussé and granulation . Key Terms - pyxis : A shape of vessel from the classical world, usually a cylindrical box with a separate lid. - granulation : The attachment of granules of precious metal to the underlying metal of jewelry. - repoussé : A metalworking technique in which a thin sheet of malleable metal is shaped by hammering from the reverse side to create a design in low relief. Etruscan Civilization The Etruscan civilization thrived in central Italy during the first millennium BCE. Occupying the approximate area of present-day Tuscany, the region derives its name from the word Etruscan. During the eighth and seventh centuries BCE, the Etruscans became sea traders and actively participated in Mediterranean trade. The civilization also began to expand, and the Etruscans eventually settled as far north as the Po River and as far south as the Tiber River and the northern parts of Campania. Aside from trade, a large part of Etruscan wealth came from the rich natural resources of the territories they lived in. The soil was fertile for agriculture and the land was rich with minerals and metals, which were mined. Etruscan cities and regions appear to have been ruled over by a king, and Etruscan kings are accounted for as the early rulers of Rome . While the Romans proudly remember overthrowing their Etruscan rulers, many aspects of Etruscan society were adopted by the Romans. Very little is known about the Etruscans through written records. The Etruscans did not leave any written historical accounts, and what is known today about their culture and history is from written records by the Greeks and Romans that have survived. These records, while providing information, view Etruscan culture from an outside, foreign eye and so can be deceptive in their accounts of Etruscan society. Because of this, most of what is known about the Etruscans comes from archaeological records. Since many Etruscan cities have been continually occupied since their foundation—first by the Etruscans, then the Romans, up to today—a majority of Etruscan archaeological sites are tombs and necropoleis. Archaeologists and historians rely on Etruscan funerary culture to derive ideas about the society’s culture, customs, and history. Orientalizing Art Despite the distinctive character of Etruscan art, the history and stylistic divisions generally follows the divisions seen within Greek art history and stylistic developments. The Etruscans established contact with Eastern cultures, including Greeks, Phoenicians, and Egyptians, around 700 BCE, and this marks the beginning of the Orientalizing period of their culture. As is similar with the Greek Orientalizing period, the art of this period in Etruria reflects Eastern themes and motifs . The patterning and depictions of animals were common— especially lions, leopards, and mythological composite creatures such as sphinxes and griffins . Gold and Ivory The Etruscans were master metal smiths and mined various ores including iron, tin, copper, silver, and gold; they even smelted bronze to work with. Artists who worked with metal were extremely talented and developed unique skills and specialized techniques, including granulation and repoussé. Gold ornaments and jewelry depict both of these techniques, demonstrating the Etruscans’ precision when working with gold to create intricate designs and patterns in incredibly fine detail. The gold jewelry that came from a wealthy Etruscan family’s tomb (the Regolini-Galassi tomb), including an enormous gold fibula and golden bracelets that date from 650–600 BCE, displays these techniques. The elaborate and intricate metal work was not isolated to the Orientalizing period but continued to be created by the Etruscans through the next several centuries. A gold reel, possibly an earring stud, from the early fourth century BCE represents the combination of both the hammered relief of repoussé as well as the careful and precise fusing of tiny gold granules. The work also shows lingering, oriental-inspired designs that depict repetitive images of Pegasus and the chimera. Another earring from the Archaic period combines repoussé and granulation with glass beads and intricate, patterned designs. Other objects besides the gold jewelry found in the Regolini-Galassi tomb demonstrate the Orientalizing influences on Etruscan art. An ivory pyxis , which appears to imitate a Phoenican style, has a clearly Etruscan origin. The ivory was imported into the region, likely from an Eastern source. The reliefs are carved in an Etruscan style, with egg-shaped human heads and distinctly thin, straight noses and oval eyes. The sphinxes on the lid and on the bottom register , as well as the frieze of animals at the op, reflect the Eastern theme. The middle register depicts a procession of horses and chariots. Etruscan Ceramics The Etruscans are known for their impasto and bucchero pottery, as well as local versions of black- and red-figure vase painting. Evaluate the ceramic works of the Etruscan culture Key Points - The Etruscans are known for their impasto and bucchero pottery. Their contact with Greek settlements also influenced their production of black- and red-figure vase painting. - Impasto is a coarse, unrefined clay used in the production of funerary vases and storage vessels . Its popularity spread beyond the Etruscan civilization , becoming a major exported good to Greek colonies in southern Italy. - Bucchero is a fine, often thin, black pottery that is fired and burnished to create a rich, lustrous shine. It was developed to imitate metal and became a luxury good in its own right. - Etruscan black-figure painting initially imitated the Corinthian and Attic styles before adopting a manneristic silhouette technique towards the end of its existence. - Etruscan red-figure painting began as pseudo-red-figure, involving lighter figures painted on a black slip . Subject matter grew increasingly minimalistic during the second half of the fourth century BCE. Key Terms - hydria : A three-handled ceramic vessel used for carrying water. - symposium : In ancient Graeco-Roman culture, a drinking party. - bucchero : A type of dark grey Etruscan terra cotta pottery. The Etruscans were well known for their pottery, which was typically made from two materials: impasto and bucchero. Impasto Impasto is a coarse form of pottery made from a clay that contains chips of mica, a silicate, or stone. In its soft form, impasto clay can range from red to brown. After it is fired, its surface becomes black and glossy. It was first used by the Villanovan civilization, which preceded the Etruscans, around the tenth century BCE. Between the eighth and seventh centuries BCE, the Greek colonies to the south of Etruria began importing impasto vessels, a testament to their intercultural popularity. The Etruscans used impasto for basic, utilitarian pottery, such as storage jars and cooking pots, as well as for funerary urns during the Orientalizing period. Artists incised the vessels with geometric designs, as well as stylized images of humans and animals. The amphora in the image below depicts a spiral and a stylized bird, among other designs. Spiral motifs appear frequently in the art of numerous European cultures beginning in the Neolithic era. While their meanings are still a matter of debate, scholars hypothesize that spirals could symbolize astronomical phenomena or specific religious references. The bird, on the other hand, could be a reference to love or fertility. Turan (the Etruscan goddess of love, fertility, and vitality) was commonly associated with a variety of avian species. Similarly the lynx, a bird-like creature in Etruscan mythology, also symbolizes love. Bucchero Bucchero pottery, developed around 675 BCE, was an Etruscan invention. It was created from a fine clay fired to produce a glossy black surface and burnished to shine. A finished bucchero surface imitated the appearance of metal. The Etruscans produced a variety of objects—such as plates, chalices, vases, and pitchers—from bucchero, demonstrating the versatility of the material. While less expensive than metal, it was still considered a luxury item and was exported around the Mediterranean. Bucchero goods have been found as far east as Egypt and Syria. During the Orientalizing period, objects could be as little as less than two millimeters. This is type of bucchero ware is known today as bucchero sottile, or delicate bucchero, and the thin delicate walls further reinforced the material’s imitation of metal. Decoration on bucchero was often limited to abstract designs and did not usually include figures. Bucchero was often simply decorated with incised lines that formed geometric and abstract patterns. Some patterns were incised with a stylus and others with a toothed wheel or comb-like instruments to create consistent rows of dots or patterns of dots in the shape of fans. While bucchero thrived during the Orientalizing and Archaic periods, its production began to decline during the Classical period as painted Greek pottery became more available and popular in Etruscan culture, and as goods for funerary deposits. Vase Painting Vase painting in the Etruscan culture thrived from the seventh to the fourth century BCE. It was strongly influenced by Greek vase painting and followed the main trends in style over the period. Besides being producers in their own right, the Etruscans were the main export market for Greek pottery outside Greece. Among the Etruscans, richly decorated vases were often interred with the dead. Black-Figure Painting Initially, Etruscan vases followed the examples of black-figure vase painting from Corinth and East Greece. It is assumed that in the earliest phase, vases were produced mainly by immigrants from Greece. They mainly produced amphorae, hydriai and jugs. Depictions included revelers, symposia , and animal friezes . Mythological motifs occur more rarely, but are already created with great care. By this time, Etruscan vase painting began to take its main influence from Attic vase painting. The black-figure style ended about 480 BCE. In its final phase, it developed a tendency toward a manneristic style of silhouette drawing. Pseudo-Red-Figure Painting The Etruscans developed an imitative adoption of the red-figure technique (known as pseudo-red-figure) around 490 BCE, nearly half a century after that style had been invented in Greece. As on some early Attic vases, this was achieved by covering the whole vase body in black shiny slip, then adding figures on top, using paints that would oxidize into red or white during firing . In true red-figure painting, the red areas were left free of slip. In pseudo-red-figure painting, internal details were marked by incisions, similar to the usual practice in black-figure vase painting, rather than painted on, as is true in red-figure painting. Even after true red-figure painting became the dominant style, some workshops continued to specialize in pseudo-red-figure painting into the fourth century BCE. Red-Figure Painting Only by the end of the fifth century BCE was the true red-figure technique introduced to Etruria. In the second half of the fourth century BCE, mythological themes disappeared from the repertoire of the Etruscan vase painters. Instead, the vase bodies were mostly covered with ornamental and floral motifs, and larger compositions only occurred in exceptional cases. Etruscan Sculpture Archaic Etruscan art often includes terra cotta statues that are stylistically and aesthetically Etruscan but influenced by Greek art. Describe the stylistic influences on Etruscan sculpture during the Archaic period Key Points - During the Archaic period (600–480 BCE), the Etruscans began to build large wood and terra cotta temples, create underground burial chambers, and produce large-scale stone and terra cotta sculptures . - The stylistic influences from the Greeks on Etruscan Archaic sculpture include the Archaic smile and the stylized patterning of hair and clothing. However, Etruscan sculpture was distinct. The figures had egg-shaped heads and almond eyes, were clothed, and their bodies had a higher degree of plasticity. - The Centaur of Vulci is a subtractive sculpture straddling the Orientalizing and Archaic periods. It uses some Greek attributes but modifies them in a way to make the object uniquely Etruscan.The Apulu of Veii is an example of Etruscan Archaic sculpture. The figure, believed to have been made by the Etruscan artist Vulca from Veii, depicts Apulu in mid-stride, with an outstretched arm. The figure is more dynamic than Greek Archaic examples. - The Sarcophagus of the Spouses depicts a couple reclining together on a dining couch. The figures are distinctly Etruscan, animated through their gestures, with faces made from the same mold and distinguished by feminine or masculine characteristics. Key Terms - Archaic smile : A technique used by Greek Archaic sculptors, especially in the second quarter of the 6th century BCE, possibly to suggest that their subject was alive and infused with a sense of well-being. - subtractive : A sculptural process in which the artist begins with more material than he or she needs and gradually takes away material until the desired form is achieved. - terra cotta : Earthenware clay after it has been fired in a kiln. - akroteria : Architectural ornaments placed on a flat base and mounted at the apex of the pediment of a building in the classical style. - additive : A sculptural process in which the artist begins with little to no material and gradually attaches more material until the desired form is achieved. - sarcophagus : A stone coffin, often inscribed or decorated with sculpture. Etruscan Sculpture During the Archaic period (600–480 BCE), the Etruscan culture flourished. The Etruscans began building stone and wood temples and creating subterranean tombs. Etruscan trade flourished, and the civilization expanded to its furthest boundaries. The period and style of art is named for its Greek counterpart. Although there are similarities between Etruscan and Greek Archaic art, significant differences mark specific sculptures as uniquely Etruscan. The Centaur of Vulci The area of Italy that was home to the etruscan civilization is rich in volcanic rocks such as tufa and nenfro. Such materials provide ample media for sculptures that are made through subtractive processes like carving and chiseling. The Centaur of Vulci (c. 590–580 BCE), a nenfro statue discovered in a tomb in the necropolis of Poggio Maremma in Vulci Archaeological Park, appears to mark a transition between the Orientalizing and Archaic styles. Similar to Greek centaur sculptures of this period, the body appears to depict a standing human with a stylized cylindrical equine body emerging from the back. Unlike the Greek Orientalizing and Archaic centaurs, this sculpture was produced without a tail. Its arms and legs below the knees are missing. Its hands are visible on the hips, suggesting a stiff pose like early Greek kouroi. Its eyes are large and almond-shaped, and it might have worn an Archaic smile before it was damaged. The centaur’s hair falls in stylized plaits like its Greek counterparts. The style of braids, however, appears less like beads, as seen in the Greek kouros , and more like twisted plies of a rope. On the back of the centaur’s head, three braids and several ringlets run in a horizontal pattern to connect with the braids on the left and right. Evidence of drill work can be seen in the curls that fall across the centaur’s forehead. Terra Cotta Few examples of large-scale or monumental Etruscan sculptures survive. Very few Etruscan bronzes escaped being melted down for reuse, and the Etruscans did not often work in marble or other hard stones. Instead, many surviving examples of Etruscan sculpture are in terra cotta, or earthenware clay that has been fired in a kiln . Working with terra cotta was a means for additive sculpture. Unlike the subtractive sculptural techniques employed in the carving of rock or stone, this allowed for subtle modeling and more expressive and dynamic features. A pair of winged horses from the Altar of the Queen, an Etruscan sanctuary located in Tarquinia, are examples of the Etruscans’ skill and modeling with terra cotta. The horses are muscular, with strong chests, fine legs, and elongated bodies. They appear to prance as they wait to pull a chariot. Their necks arch , with manes blowing in the wind, and their heads are drawn in, as if pulled back by a pair of unseen reins. Apulu of Veii The Apulu of Veii is a prime example of Etruscan sculpture during the Archaic period. Apulu, the Etruscan equivalent of Apollo, is a slightly larger than life-size terra cotta akroteria figure in the Portonaccio Temple at Veii, an Etruscan city just north of Rome . The figure was part of a group of akroteria that stood on the ridgepole of the temple and depicted the myth of Heracles and the Ceryneaian hind . The figure of Apulu confronts the hero, Heracles, who is attempting to capture a deer sacred to Apulu’s sister, Artumes (Artemis). Apulu is the most intact surviving statue of the akroteria figures from this temple. The figure of Apulu has several Greek characteristics. The face is similar to the faces of Archaic Greek kouroi figures. The face is simply carved and an archaic smile provides a notion of emotion and realism . The hair of Apulu is stylized and falls across his shoulders and down his neck and back in stylized, geometric twists that seem to represent braids. The figure, like Greek figures, was painted in bright colors, and the edge of his toga appears to be lined in blue. Unlike Archaic Greek statues and kouroi, the figure of Apulu is full of movement and presents the viewer with an entirely different aesthetic from the Greek style. The figure of Apulu is dynamic and flexible. He strides forward with an arm stretched out. He leans on his front foot, and his back foot is slightly raised. The body is more faithfully modeled (comparable to later Greek kouroi), and instead of being nude, he wears a toga that is draped over one shoulder. The garment’s folds are patterned and stylized but cling to the body, allowing the viewer to clearly distinguish the god’s chest and thigh muscles. While the Etruscan artist applied an Archaic smile to Apulu, the figure’s lips are full and his head is more egg-shaped than round—both characteristics of Etruscan art and sculpture. The Apulu of Veii is believed to have been made by the Etruscan artist Vulca of Veii. Besides this sculpture, Vulca is credited by Roman historians with the creation of the cult statue for the Temple of Jupiter Optiumus Maximus, the most important temple in Rome. Vulca created this statue when the last Etruscan king Tarquinius Superbus ruled Rome. The Sarcophagus of the Spouses A late sixth century sarcophagus excavated from a tomb in Cerveteri is a terra cotta sarcophagus that depicts a couple reclining together on a dining couch. The sarcophagus displays not only the Etruscan Archaic style but also Etruscan skill in working with terra cotta. The figures’ torsos are modeled, and their heads are in a typical Etruscan egg-shape with almond shaped eyes, long noses, and full lips. Their hair is stylized, and their gestures are animated. The use of gesture is seen throughout Etruscan art, both in sculpture and painting. The woman might have originally held a small vessel , and the couple appears to be intimate and loving due to the fact that man has his arm around the woman. A close look at the figures reveals some peculiarities. First, their faces are the same and in fact were most likely created from the same mold, a technique common in Etruscan terra cotta sculpture. The identical faces are differentiated by the addition of female and male hairstyles, including the man’s beard. Furthermore, despite the modeling of their upper bodies, the legs of the figures are flat and rather lifeless, an odd comparison to the liveliness of the figures’ upper halves. Etruscan Temples Etruscan temples derive from Greek models but are distinguished by a high podium, deep porch, prostyle columns, and frontality. Compare and contrast Etruscan temples with their Greek counterparts Key Points - The superstructures of Etruscan temples were built from wood and mud brick that was often covered in stucco , plaster, or painted for decoration. The temple had a stone or tufa foundation, and the roof was covered in protective terra cotta tiles. - Despite their Greek origins, Etruscan temples are unique. They are frontal and axial and often have more than one cella . Etruscan temples stand on high podia with a single central staircase located at the front. Prostyle Tuscan columns stand on a deep porch and support the roof. - The temple’s wide eaves, low pitch roof, and terra cotta tiles protect the building’s organic materials. Antefixes further protect the building from the elements and animals by concealing the wood beams. - Akroteria , life-sized terra cotta sculptures , were placed along the ridgepole and on the cornice and peaks to decorate the temple. These figures were often tied together thematically or through myths. Key Terms - antefix : The vertical blocks that terminate the covering tiles of the roof of a Roman, Etruscan, or Greek temple. - hind : A female deer, especially a red deer at least two years old. - cella : The inner chamber of a temple where the cult image or statue is kept. Etruscan Temples Etruscan temples were adapted from Greek- style temples to create a new Etruscan style, which, in turn would later influence Roman temple design. The temple was only one part of the templum, the defined sacred space that includes the building, altar and other sacred ground , springs, and buildings. As in Greece and Rome , the altar used for sacrifice and ritual ceremonies was located outside the temple. Today only the foundations and terra cotta decorations of Etruscan temples remain, since the temples themselves were primarily built of wood and mud brick that eroded and degraded over time. The Etruscans used stone or tufa as the foundation of their temples. Tufa is a local volcanic stone that is soft, easy to carve, and hardens when exposed to air. The superstructure of the temple was built from wood and mud brick. Stucco or plaster covered the walls and was either burnished to a shine or painted. Terra cotta roof tiles protected the organic material and increased the longevity and integrity of the building. The Basic Temple Structure Archaeology and a written account by the Roman architect Vitruvius during the late first century BCE allow us to reconstruct a basic model of a typical Etruscan temple. Etruscan temples were usually frontal, axial, and built on a high podium with a single central staircase that allowed access to the cella (or cellas). Two rows of prostyle columns stood on the front of the temple’s portico . The columns were of the Tuscan order, a derivative of the Doric order consisting of a simple shaft on a base with a simple capital . A scale model of the Portonaccio Sanctuary of Minerva suggests that the bases and capitals of its columns were painted with alternating dark- and light-valued hues . While most portico columns were made of wood, there is evidence that some were made of stone, as at Veii. They were tall and widely spaced across a deep porch, aligning with the walls of the cellas. Etruscans often, although not always, worshiped multiple gods in a single temple. In such cases, each god received its own cella that housed its cult statue. Often the three-cella temple would be dedicated to the principal gods of the Etruscan pantheon —Tinia, Uni, and Menrva (comparable to the Roman gods Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva). The wooden roof had a low pitch and was covered by a protective layer of terra cotta tiles. Eaves with wide overhangs helped to protect the organic material from rain. Many aspects of Vitruvius’ description fit what archaeologists can demonstrate. However deviations did exist. It is clear that Etruscan temples could take a number of forms and also varied over the 400-year period during which they were being made. Nevertheless, Vitruvius remains the inevitable starting point for a description and a contrast of Etruscan temples with their Greek and Roman equivalents. Antefix To further protect the roof beams from rain, insects, and birds, the end of each row of roof tiles was capped by an ornament known as an antefix. Antefixes also lined the area of the façade that corresponds to the top of the frieze and bottom of the pediment on a Greek temple. These flat ornaments were usually made of terra cotta from a mold, and were sometimes made of stone. The antefixes were brightly painted and often depicted images female and male faces or simple geometric designs. The male faces were often representations of the Etruscan equivalent to Dionysus or his followers, including Silenus or fauns. Although some antefixes depicted women, many of the female figures were representations of Gorgons, such as Medusa. The Gorgon-faced antefixes often showed a wide-eyed, circular face surrounded by either wings or snakes. The Gorgon and Dionysiac antefixes served apotropaic functions, intended to ward off evil and protect the temple site. Akroteria For much of their history, the Etruscans did not decorate their temples in the Greek manner with friezes or pedimental sculptures. Instead, they placed terra cotta statues called akroteria along the roof’s ridge pool and on the peaks and edges of the pediment. These akroteria figures were generally built slightly larger than life-sized and were connected thematically. The Apulu of Veii is one example of an akroteria and is part of a sculptural group that depicts the story of Herakles and the Ceryneaian Hind . Etruscan Tombs Etruscan tombs, grave goods, and necropoleis provide invaluable evidence for the study of Etruscan society and culture. Discuss the tombs, funerary practices, and grave goods of the early Etruscans Key Points - Etruscan burial methods include both cremation and inhumation. The funerary practices of the Etruscans changed from their use of cinerary urns in the shape of huts in the 9th and 8th century to subterranean tombs carved from tufa and living rock that was richly decorated. - The Banditaccia Necropolis at Cervetri is known for its tufa tombs craved into tumuli. These tombs often took the shape of Etruscan homes and included roof beams and thatching carved into the ceilings. The tombs hold beds or niches or sarcophagi for the remains of the deceased. - The Tomb of the Reliefs is a richly decorated, multi-generation tomb. The walls and pillars of the tomb are carved with a variety of objects that would be used by the dead in the afterlife, from everyday to specialty objects, including dining utensils, helmets, and swords. - The Monterozzi Necropolis outside of Tarquinia was used from the 9th century to the 2nd century BCE. It is most well known for its frescoed tombs that include painted scenes of symposia , dancing, hunting, fishing, and ritual . - The so-called Tomb of the Augurs was the first tomb in Tarquinia to depict Etruscan funerary customs in addition to the already established mythological scenes. The Tomb of Hunting and Fishing and the Tomb of the Leopards depict typical Etruscan funerary imagery in a common Etruscan painting style . The scenes relate to Etruscan culture and society, and show the inclusion of women in a symposium and a close connection to nature. Key Terms - cippus : A low, round, or rectangular pedestal used as a funerary boundary post by the Etruscans. The Romans would later use it for military purposes. - dromos : A long, narrow passage to a tomb. - necropolis : A large cemetery, especially one of elaborate construction in an ancient city. - augur : A seer who bases his or her prophecies on interpretations derived from the behavior of birds. - tumulus : A mound of earth, especially one placed over a prehistoric tomb; a barrow. - apotropaic : Intended to ward off evil. Etruscan Tombs Tombs and necropoleis are among the most excavated and studied parts of Etruscan culture. Scholars learn about Etruscan society and culture from the study of Etruscan funerary practice. Burial urns and sarcophagi, both large and small, were used to hold the cremated remains of the dead. Early forms of burial include the burial of ashes with grave goods in funerary urns and small ceramic huts. Later, in the seventh century BCE, the Etruscans began burying their dead in subterranean family tombs. The necropoleis at Cerveteri and Tarquinia are the most well known for their tumuli and frescoed tombs. The grave goods found in these tombs point to the Etruscan belief in an afterlife that required the same types of goods and materials as in the world of the living. Many examples of Greek pottery have been recovered from Etruscan tombs. These vessels , along with other foreign goods, demonstrate the extent of the Etruscan trade network. Painted scenes of frivolity, celebration, hunting, and religious practice tell the viewer about Etruscan daily life, rituals, their belief about the afterlife, and their social norms. The imagery and grave goods found in Etruscan tombs help inform the modern-day viewer about the nature of Etruscan society. Banditaccia Necropolis at Cerveteri The tombs of the Banditaccia Necropolis outside Cerveteri were carved into large, circular mounds known as tumuli. Each tumulus was the burial site for a single family, and one to four underground tombs were cut into the round tumulus. Each tomb often represented a separate generation. The tombs were carved with a long, narrow entranceway known as a dromos that opened into a single or multi-room chamber. The decorative style of each chamber and tomb varied with the period and the family’s wealth—the wealthier the family, the more intricately carved and decorated the tomb. Most tombs assumed the shape and style of Etruscan homes. The ceilings were often carved to represent wood roof beams. Thatching and decorative columns were often added to a room. The entrances and the individual rooms inside were often framed by doorways carved in a typical design. Piers are topped with capitals carved in a stylized motif that resembles those from Corinthian columns. Each room contained beds or niches, sometimes with a carved tufa pillow, for the deposition of the body. The most recent tombs in Banditaccia date from the third century BCE. Some of are marked by external boundary posts called cippi (singular cippus). Cylindrical cippi outside a tomb indicate that its occupants are male, while those in the form of small houses indicate female occupants. The Tomb of the Reliefs The Tomb of the Reliefs is one of the most well known, largest, and richly decorated tombs from the Banditaccia Necropolis. This tomb is named for the numerous tufa reliefs of everyday objects inside. The walls and piers are covered in carved and painted reliefs of everyday objects including rope, drinking cups, pitches, mirrors, knives, helmets, and shields. Not even companion animals were forgotten in the afterlife. A stretching cat adorns the base of the column on the left, while one in mid-motion (stalking prey?) adorns the base of the column on the right. Elsewhere in the tomb, mythological subject matter appears. In the center is a depiction of the three-headed dog, Cerberus, the guardian to the underworld. Monterozzi Necropolis at Tarquinia The tombs of the Monterozzi Necropolis outside of Tarquinia are also subterranean burial chambers. The graves from the necropolis date from the seventh century BCE until the first century BCE. The tombs here are similar to the underground, tufa cut tombs of Cerveteri that were accessed through a dromos. The Tomb of the Augurs The Tomb of the Augurs (530–520 BCE) was one of the first in Tarquinia to have figurative decorations on all four walls of its main or only chamber. Its name derives from a possible misinterpretation of two figures on the rear wall. This tomb is also the first to depict Etruscan funerary rites and funerary games in addition to mythological scenes, which were already established in traditional funerary art . A fresco depicting a door flanked by two men appears on the rear wall of the Tomb of the Augurs. Scholars have come to different conclusions as to the significance of the door. Some interpret it as a representational illustration of the door to the tomb. Others argue that it is a symbolic door or portal to the underworld that acts as a barrier between the kingdom of the living and the kingdom of the dead. The two men each extend one arm toward the door and places the other hand places the hand against his forehead in a gesture of salutation and mourning. Past interpretations identify the men as augurs. However, the word Apastanasar, which appears on the wall next to the man on the right, contains the root of apa, which means father. This leads scholars to conclude that they two men are more likely relatives of the deceased. The Tomb of the Leopards The Tomb of the Leopards (early fifth century BCE) consists of a single room and is one of the best-known tombs of Tarquinia. The Banqueting Scene, the most famous mural in the tomb, is divided into two panels: the pediment and the frieze . The pediment depicts two white leopards in a heraldic composition . This depiction is reminiscent of the leopards from the pediment of the Temple of Artemis at Corfu. The felines are used for their protective features. Below the pediment is the main scene depicted on a central frieze that wraps around the room. This image depicts men and women with servants at a symposium. The scenes are festive and joyous. The men and women are distinguished respectively with dark and light skin tones . The mere presence of women in the Banqueting Scene is unique for its time, suggesting a gender-inclusive culture. However, the women’s assumption of the same positions as their male counterparts and their apparently active participation in the festivities suggest a level of gender equality unseen among the Greeks or, later, the Romans. The Tomb of Hunting and Fishing The Tomb of Hunting and Fishing consists of two rooms. The frescos in the first room are badly damaged but appear to depict Etruscans dancing outside. Two trees frame the doorway into the second room. This room gives the tomb its name, as it depicts a scene of men hunting and fishing. Men in boats are fishing in a sea populated by fish and dolphins. On a rock outcropping in the water, one man prepares to dive, while another climbs to the top. Meanwhile, another man aims a slingshot at the birds that flock overhead. This scene depicts the Etruscans’ relationship with nature and the importance of hunting and fishing in Etruscan society. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 395px-Etruscan_civilization_map.png. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=241378 . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ear-stud BM GR1881.5-28.2. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ear-stud_BM_GR1881.5-28.2.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Etruscan - Pyxis and lid with sphinx-shaped handle - Walters 71489 - Three Quarter. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Etruscan_-_Pyxis_and_lid_with_sphinx-shaped_handle_-_Walters_71489_-_Three_Quarter.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pegasus reel Louvre Bj1887. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pegasus_reel_Louvre_Bj1887.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Etruscan Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Etruscan Jewelry. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_jewelry. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pyxis (Vessel). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyxis_(vessel). 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Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Italic_-_Urn_in_the_Shape_of_a_Hut_and_a_Door_-_Walters_482312.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tomba dei Rilievi (Banditaccia). Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tomba_dei_Rilievi_(Banditaccia).jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Img022Cerveteri Necropoli della Banditaccia. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Img022Cerveteri_Necropoli_della_Banditaccia.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Tomba dei Leopardi Tarquinia c. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tomba_dei_Leopardi_Tarquinia_c.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Tomba_degli_Auguri.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=45843512. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Monterozzi Necropolis. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Monterozzi_necropolis. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tomb of the Augurs. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Augurs. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tomb of the Reliefs . Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Reliefs. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tomb of the Leopards. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Leopards. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tarquinia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : it.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarquinia%23Necropoli. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tumulus. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumulus%23Italy. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Etruscan Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_art%23Etruscan_funerary_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tarquinia. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:26.646520	2020-05-01T17:31:41	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/07%3A_The_Etruscans/7.01%3A_Early_Etruscan_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "7.1: Early Etruscan Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/07%3A_The_Etruscans/7.02%3A_Later_Etruscan_Art	7.2: Later Etruscan Art Etruscan Bronze Sculpture Etruscan bronze classical art demonstrates the range and skill of artists who crafted large votive offerings and small, personal trinkets. Discuss the different forms of bronze objects produced by the Etruscans Key Points - Few examples remain of any large-scale Etruscan bronze statues from the Classical era. - The Chimera of Arezzo is a unique bronze votive offering to the god Tinia. The bronze sculpture demonstrates the Etruscans’ skill in bronze casting through the beast’s tense and plastic musculature, stylized mane, and fierce expression. - The bronze Ombra della sera depicts the human body in an elongated fashion that is unusual for its time, while the Mars of Todi depicts a much more naturalistic representation. Small objects such as mirrors and cistae, small boxes, were also made of bronze during the Classical period. These objects were decorated with engravings or low relief casts that depict mythological scenes and were popular grave goods . - While distinctly different from large-scale bronze, the small bronze objects demonstrate the variety and skill of Etruscan metal smiths that was first seen in the Orientalizing period with Etruscan jewelry and granulation techniques. Key Terms - engrave : To carve text or symbols into (something), usually for the purposes of identification or art. - cista : A Latin word for a small box that used to hold unguents, jewels, or toiletries. They are generally used and related to women and domestic functions. - pyxis : A small box. Etruscan Bronze Sculptures During its Classical period, from 480 to 300 BCE, Etruscan art was known for its hollow cast bronze sculptures and smaller utilitarian objects. Objects such as mirrors and cistae were engraved or incised with rich imagery that was made noticeable by a white substance inserted into the outlines and contour lines . The Etruscan sculptures of human subjects range from naturalistic to exaggerated, almost modernist, forms , and the mythical creatures from the Greek and Eastern traditions found their way into their subject matter. In total, Etruscan sculpture incorporates a variety of cultural styles and motifs , including Orientalizing, Archaic , and Classical. Very few Etruscan bronze sculptures survived because they were melted down in the following centuries to be used for other purposes. Lost-Wax Casting Also known by its French name cire perdue, lost-wax casting is the oldest method of producing metal sculptures. Although any material that can be liquified and subsequently solidified can be cast, metal is the most common. Of all metals, bronze is the most commonly cast. In lost-wax casting, the sculptor begins by making a clay mold of the intended sculpture, coats it in wax, and applies an outer layer of plaster to it, fastening metal rods to hold the shell in place and wax rods to vent the mold. Intense heat is then applied, causing the wax to melt and flow out of the mold. This step leaves open channels into which molten metal is poured. When the metal has cooled and hardened, the mold is broken, the sculpture is removed, and the holes left from the pins and rods are filled and smoothed. Finally, the sculpture is polished and ready for display. Because the mold must be destroyed, sculptors use the lost-wax method to produce one-of-a-kind sculptures. Chimera of Arezzo The bronze statue of the Chimera , discovered in the city of Arezzo in 1553, has recently been judged as a forgery. The reasoning rests more on the fact that there are no comparable existing Etruscan sculptures than on scientific testing. An inscription on the right foreleg marks the bronze as a votive offering to the supreme Etruscan god, Tinia (comparable to Roman Jupiter). The sculpture depicts the Chimera, a mythical beast with the body and head of a lion, a serpent for a tail, and with a goat’s head in the middle of its back. The beast plagued the area of Lycia until it was slain by the hero Bellerophon. The serpent tail was not discovered with the statue; the current tail is an eighteenth century restoration. The bronze statue demonstrates Etruscan artistic techniques and how the liveliness seen in Etruscan terra cotta sculpture is transmitted into the bronze medium . The figure is well modeled and expressive—from its tense muscles, ready pose, and roaring face of the lion and goat. The beast’s ribs are clearly visible and a wound on its rump bleeds. The lion’s posture—he crouches and looks up—suggests that there may have been an additional figure of Bellerophon to create a votive group. The figure’s face and mane is stylized and the patterning is reminiscent of Near Eastern depictions of lions. Ombra della sera Produced in the metal-rich town of Velathri (later Volterra), the Ombra della sera (Italian for Evening Shadow) represents a male nude that is nearly two feet high. Archaeologists estimate its date of production to the third century BCE. In ancient times, Volterra bronze workers were known for their ability to fuse copper ores with tin to form bronze. The body of the sculpture is very elongated, while the scale of its head is naturalistic. The title Ombra della sera was applied to the sculpture centuries later by a poet who likened its exaggerated form to shadows cast by the setting sun. These unusual proportions lead some experts to believe that the sculpture was intended as a votive offering. Mars of Todi The so-called Mars of Todi (late fifth-early fourth century BCE) is a nearly life-size bronze warrior produced as a votive offering, possibly to Laran, the Etrucscan god of war. The figure probably held a patera (libation bowl) in his extended right hand, and a spear in the left. His helmet is missing, but his body armor is one of the best surviving examples that shows how plate armor from the period appeared. Unlike the Ombra della sera, the Mars of Todi is very naturalistic, complete with a dynamic contrapposto pose and inlaid eyes. A dedication that combines the Etruscan alphabet and Latin dialect from Umbria (central Italy) is inscribed on the skirt of the breastplate. It translates as, “Ahal Trutitis gave [this as a] gift.” Interestingly, the name of the donor was Celtic in origin, denoting the cosmopolitan nature of the region in ancient times. Bronze Objects The Etruscans also used bronze to create small objects, including storage jars, or cistae, and mirrors. Etruscan bronze mirrors were used by women and often deposited as grave goods. These mirrors were highly burnished on one side to reflect an image, and on the other side were decorated with engraved or low-relief casted scenes. The images depicted were often scenes from Greek mythology, that demonstrate the importation of Greek culture and mythology. Many of these mirrors were inscribed with the deceased’s name, and ritual blessings. Cistae were also often inscribed and were also decorated with engravings and added bronze elements, such as feet, chains, and decorative handle lids. The cistae were small boxes with lids, much like a pyxis , that was made from bronze and was usually cylindrical. The handles of the lids were often figures, such as a man or a sphinx , or figural groups. Like the mirrors, the engraved scenes represented images from mythology, but some images also depict scenes from Etruscan history. Etruscan Art under the Influence of the Romans As the Etruscan territories fell under Roman dominance, Etruscan culture and art changed to reflect Roman influence and new cultural values. Describe the changes that appeared in Etruscan art during the Roman period Key Points - Funerary imagery changed in Etruscan society as the Etruscans began to encounter violence and conquest by their Roman neighbors. The figures of the underworld demons Charun and Vanth, as well as apotropaic figures, are depicted in tomb paintings and and on sarcophagi during the Etrusco-Roman period. - The Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena not only depicts the figures of Charun and Vanth, the lid also depicts the deceased as a prosperous and wealthy Etruscan, complete with a scroll listing his accomplishments. The sarcophagus demonstrates the shifting values in Etruscan society. - The life-size bronze statue of Aule Metele depicts an Etruscan man dressed and behaving as a Roman. The man wears a toga and Roman sandals and is posed in a position of oration, as would be common for a Roman magistrate. The sculpture demonstrates the mixing of Etruscan and Roman styles and culture . - Temple sculpture also changed during the Roman period, with terra cotta pedimental sculptures adorning at least two temples during the second century BCE. Both sculpture groups display Graeco-Roman naturalism in the depiction of the body. One group wears Roman-style military attire. Key Terms - veristic : Realistic; true to life. - cinerary urn : A vessel used to hold the ash remains of the cremated deceased. Etruscan Art under Rome In 509 BCE, the Etruscan kings of Rome were expelled from the city, and the Roman Republic was established. By the fourth century BCE, Rome was beginning to expand across the Italian peninsula, and the first Etruscan city to fall was Veii in 396 BCE. Over the following centuries, Etruria was involved in Roman wars, and Etruscan territory was fully conquered by the Romans by the beginning of the first century BCE. While Roman culture drew from its Etruscan roots, borrowing and adapting Etruscan customs, Etruscan society was also influenced by Roman culture. During this period, art begin to adopt a Roman style and display the permeation of Roman culture and values into Etruscan society. The threat of invasion also led to the common presence of violence, especially in funerary images. Funerary Art and Sarcophagi Funerary art , both in tomb paintings and on carved sarcophagi, underwent a noticeable change in subject matter during the Roman period. The figures of Charun and Vanth, demons of the underworld, were depicted with increasing regularity. Both figures are often depicted with wings, while Charun is often depicted with blue skin to signify putrefying flesh. They also carry torches, used to light the way to the underworld, or sometimes keys to open the door to the underworld, which underline the figures’ role as guides between the world of the living and the world of the dead. In the tomb paintings in Tarquinia, the figures of Charun and Vanth can be seen painted in front of or around doorways. While Charun’s name is likely a derivative of the Greek underworld ferryman Charon, Vanth appears to be uniquely Etruscan. Due to Charun’s menacing associations, theories have attempted to associate Vanth with the avenging Greek Furies. However, her role as a benevolent guide conflicts with this suggestion. Regardless of Vanth’s exact role and origins, the appearance of a less-than-joyous afterlife and menacing figures in Etruscan funerary art does not emerge until after the beginning of the Roman incursions into Etruscan territory. Perhaps Vanth is a gentler apotropaic figure, offering the reassurance of an ally in the afterlife to counteract the trials faced in the face of impending cultural collapse and absorption. The Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena Charun and Vanth also appear on stone and terra cotta sarcophagi. Charun is also sometimes depicted with a hammer. On the Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena, two figures of Charun (with hammers but without wings) are depicted on either side of a central figure, most likely Lars Pulena, swinging their hammers at his head. The violent image might have been used as an apotropaic device to ward off evil. However, in comparison to earlier funerary images, the level of violence seems to mimic the new level of violence in Etruscan society from Roman forces and influence. Two winged representations of Vanth also appear on the sarcophagus, at either end of the frieze . The lid of the sarcophagus depicts a portrait of the deceased. The man lies alone, wearing a somber expression, unlike the earlier terra cotta Sacophagus of the Spouses. His face is wrinkled and reflects a Roman republican portrait style, which equates age with wisdom and leadership capabilities. He has a pot belly, signifying his wealth, good life, and robust eating, and he holds a scroll across his lap that is inscribed with a list of his accomplishments. Smaller cinerary urns assumed the shapes of sarcophagi during this period. These urns are topped with images of the deceased lying across the lid, often in Roman dress, with relief-carved scenes of battle, violence, or Charun and Vanth. The woman who reclines atop the urn wears attire more akin to that of a Roman matron than to the woman on the Sarcophagus of the Spouses. Unlike the Etruscans, who buried their dead in tombs designed to mimic the appearance and comforts of private homes, the Romans practiced cremation and stored the ashes of their deceased in cinerary urns. This shift in Etruscan culture demonstrates the adoption of Roman funerary practices. Aule Metele Aule Metele, also known as The Orator, is a life-size bronze sculpture of an Etrusco-Roman man. The figure is depicted wearing a Roman toga and Roman sandals. He stands in a pose of an orator, with his hand raised to address a crowd. To further emphasize this gesture, the hand is slightly enlarged. He is clearly depicted as an individual, and an inscription on the hem of his toga in Etruscan names him as Aule Metele. Aule Metele dresses as a Roman magistrate, and his face is a cross between Hellenistic and Roman veristic portraiture. The sculpture shows a level of individuality through the gaunt cheeks, thin lips, and wrinkled forehead. As with the sculpture on the Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena, these attributes of age align with the respect afforded to elders in Roman society. While the inscription marks him as an Etruscan, his attire and pose demonstrate the absorption of Roman culture into Etruscan society and the adoption—especially by the ruling class of Etruscans—of Roman civic practices. Late Temple Sculpture By the second century BCE, at least two Etruscan temples began to show evidence of the absorption of the Roman culture. Unlike early temples, whose pediments were largely unadorned, the temples in the cities of Luna and Talamone incorporated pedimental sculptures in the style of the Greeks. Although Roman pediments remained free of sculpture groups, the Roman influence is clearly visible in these terra cotta figures. Whereas pre-Roman temple sculptures were largely stylized like the Apulu of Veii, the pedimental figures from the temples at Luna and Talamone possess the naturalism of Classical and Hellenistic sculpture, both of which were adopted by the Romans. Unlike Greek pedimental sculpture that depicted male nudes, the figures from the pediment from Talamone, which depicts the fate of the Seven against Thebes, wear Roman battle gear, including short-sleeved skirted armor. By the time the sculpture groups from both temples were produced, their cities were under Roman control. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 360px-Museo_guarnacci,_ombra_della_sera_01.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5320392%20. License : CC BY: Attribution - Etruscan - Cista with Cover Depicting the Conflict of the Gauls and Etruscans - Walters 54133. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Etruscan_-_Cista_with_Cover_Depicting_the_Conflict_of_the_Gauls_and_Etruscans_-_Walters_54133.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mirror Judgement of Paris Louvre Bj1734. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mirror_Judgement_of_Paris_Louvre_Bj1734.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chimera d'arezzo, fi, 04. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chimera_d'arezzo,_fi,_04.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 320px-0_Mars_de_Todi_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Etruscano_(1).jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18381501. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Etruscan History. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_history. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Etruscan Language. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_language%23Specula. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mars of Todi. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_of_Todi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lost-Wax Casting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost-wax_casting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ombra della Sera. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : fr.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ombra_della_sera. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ombra della Sera. Provided by : Enhanced Wiki. Located at : http://enhancedwiki.altervista.org/?title=Ombra_della_sera . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bronze Mirror. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_mirror. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Etruscan Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chimera of Arezzo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimera_of_Arezzo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cista. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/cista. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pyxis. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pyxis. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Engrave. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/engrave. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Museo_archeologico_di_Firenze,_frontone_di_Talamone_1.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1464441. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - MMA etruscan urn 01. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MMA_etruscan_urn_01.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 632px-Frontone_A_del_grande_tempio_di_luni_con_concilio_degli_dei,_175-150_ac._ca._01.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=40178069. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sarcophagus of the magistrate. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sarcophagus_of_the_magistrate.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Amazon Web Services. Located at : s3.amazonaws.com/figures.boundless.com/50a94216e4b0e5a61a9275c5/tarqunia---charun-and-vanth.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - L'Arringatore. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:L'Arringatore.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Talamone. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Talamone. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Luna (Etruria). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_(Etruria). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Roman Sculpture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_sculpture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Roman Funerary Practices. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_funerary_practices#Disposal_of_the_body. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Etruscan Architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Roman sarcophagi. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_sarcophagi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Orator. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Orator. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Clothing in Ancient Rome. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome#Women.27s_clothing. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Charun. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Charun. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Vanth. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanth. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Etruscan Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Aule Metele. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:26.758297	2020-05-01T17:31:42	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/07%3A_The_Etruscans/7.02%3A_Later_Etruscan_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "7.2: Later Etruscan Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/08%3A_The_Romans	8: The Romans Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52951 Boundless Boundless 8.1: The Romans 8.2: The Republic 8.3: The Early Empire 8.4: The Nervan-Antonines 8.5: The Decline of the Roman Empire 8.6: Early Jewish and Christian Art	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:26.843018	2020-05-01T17:29:52	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/08%3A_The_Romans", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "8: The Romans", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/08%3A_The_Romans/8.01%3A_The_Romans	8.1: The Romans The Romans Rome was founded in the mid-eighth century BCE by eight tribes who settled in Etruria and on the famous Seven Hills. Describe the rise of the Roman civilization and the people who made up its population Key Points - The foundation myths of Romulus and Aeneas are the most common means of recounting the founding of Rome , and ancient historians used them to justify their bloody culture . However, the historical record provides a more reliable story. April 21, 753 BCE, is the date given by ancient Roman historians to the founding of Rome. Archaeological research supports this assertion, confirming that the site of Rome was inhabited by the mid-eighth century BCE. - The Romans were descended from the Italic tribes, mainly the Latins (originally from the Alban Hills to the southeast) and the Sabines (originally from the Apennines to the northeast). - What was to become Rome originally existed as a collection of autonomous villages atop each of the city’s famous Seven Hills. The Palatine Hill, located at the city center, marked the original settlement of the Romans, as well as significant temples and religious festivals. The Quirinal Hill became the home of the Sabines until the sixth century BCE, as well as the sites of significant temples and sanctuaries . Key Terms - Septimontium : A festival celebrating the first federation of the Seven Hills of Rome. - Latial : Describing a cultural element that deviates from the mainstream Latin culture. - wattle-and-daub : A composite building material used for making walls, in which a woven lattice of wooden strips are coated with a sticky material usually made of some combination of wet soil, clay, sand, animal dung and straw. Foundation Myths The Romans relied on two sets of myths to explain their origins: the first story tells the tale of Romulus and Remus, while the second tells the story of Aeneas and the Trojans, who survived the sack of Troy by the Greeks. Oddly, both stories relate the founding of Rome and the origins of its people to brutal murders. Romulus killed his twin brother, Remus, in a fit of rage, and Aeneas slaughtered his rival Turnus in combat. Roman historians used these mythical episodes as the reason for Rome’s own bloody history and periods of civil war. While foundation myths are the most common vehicle through which we learn about the origins of Rome and the Roman people, the actual history is often overlooked. The Historical Record Archaeological evidence shows that the area that eventually became Rome has been inhabited continuously for the past 14,000 years. The historical record provides evidence of habitation on and fortification of the Palatine Hill during the eighth century BCE, which supports the date of April 21, 753 BCE, as the date that ancient historians applied to the founding of Rome in association with a festival to Pales, the goddess of shepherds. Given the importance of agriculture to pre-Roman tribes, as well as most ancestors of civilization , it is logical that the Romans would link the celebration of their founding as a city to an agrarian goddess. Romulus, whose name is believed to be the namesake of Rome, is credited for Rome’s founding. He is also credited with establishing the period of monarchical rule. Six kings ruled after him until 509 BCE, when the people rebelled against the last king, Tarquinius Superbus, and established the Republic. Throughout its history, the people—including plebeians , patricians , and senators—were wary of giving one person too much power and feared the tyranny of a king. Pre-Roman Tribes The villages that would eventually merge to become Rome were descended from the Italic tribes. The Italic tribes spread throughout the present-day countries of Italy and Sicily. Archaeological evidence and ancient writings provide very little information on how—or whether—pre-Roman tribes across the Italian peninsula interacted. What is known is that they all belonged to the Indo-European linguistic family, which gave rise to the Romance (Latin-derived) and Germanic languages. What follows is a brief history of two of the eight main tribes that contributed to the founding of Rome: the Latins and the Sabines. Information about a third culture, the Etruscans, is found in Chapter 7. The Latins The Latins inhabited the Alban Hills since the second millennium BCE. According to archaeological remains, the Latins were primarily farmers and pastoralists . Approximately at the end of the first millennium BCE, they moved into the valleys and along the Tiber River, which provided better land for agriculture. Although divided from an early stage into communities that mutated into several independent, and often warring, city-states , the Latins and their neighbors maintained close culturo-religious relations until they were definitively united politically under Rome. These included common festivals and religious sanctuaries. The Latins appear to have become culturally differentiated from the surrounding Italic tribes from about 1000 BCE onward. From this time, the Latins’ material culture shares more in common with the Iron Age Villanovan culture found in Etruria and the Po valley than with their former Osco-Umbrian neighbors. The Latins thus shared a similar material culture as the Etruscans. However, archaeologists have discerned among the Latins a variant of Villanovan, dubbed the Latial culture. The most distinctive feature of Latial culture were cinerary urns in the shape of huts . They represent the typical, single-room abodes of the area’s peasants, which were made from simple, readily available materials: wattle-and-daub walls and straw roofs supported by wooden posts. The huts remained the main form of Latin housing until the mid-seventh century BCE. The Sabines The Sabines originally inhabited the Apennines and eventually relocated to Latium before the founding of Rome. The Sabines divided into two populations just after the founding of Rome. The division, however it came about, is not legendary. The population closer to Rome transplanted itself to the new city and united with the pre-existing citizenry to start a new heritage that descended from the Sabines but was also Latinized. The second population remained a mountain tribal state, finally fighting against Rome for its independence along with all the other Italic tribes. After losing, it became assimilated into the Roman Republic. There is little record of the Sabine language. However, there are some glosses by ancient commentators, and one or two inscriptions have been tentatively identified as Sabine. There are also personal names in use on Latin inscriptions from the Sabine territories, but these are given in Latin form. The existing scholarship classifies Sabine as a member of the Umbrian group of Italic languages and identifies approximately 100 words that are either likely Sabine or that possess Sabine origin. The Seven Hills Before Rome was founded as a city, its people existed in separate settlements atop its famous Seven Hills: - The Aventine Hill - The Caelian Hill - The Capitoline Hill - The Esquiline Hill - The Palatine Hill - The Quirinal Hill - The Viminal Hill Over time, each tribe either united with or was absorbed into the Roman culture. The Quirinal Hill Recent studies suggest that the Quirinal Hill was very important to the ancient Romans and their immediate ancestors. It was here that the Sabines originally resided. Its three peaks were united with the three peaks of the Esquiline, as well as villages on the Caelian Hill and Suburra. Tombs from the eighth to the seventh century BCE that confirm a likely presence of a Sabine settlement area were discovered on the Quirinal Hill. Some authors consider it possible that the cult of the Capitoline Triad (Jove, Minerva, Juno) could have been celebrated here well before it became associated with the Capitoline Hill. The sanctuary of Flora, an Osco-Sabine goddess, was also at this location. Titus Livius (better known as Livy) writes that the Quirinal Hill, along with the Viminal Hill, became part of Rome in the sixth century BCE. The Palatine Hill According to Livy, the Palatine Hill, located at the center of the ancient city, became the home of the original Romans after the Sabines and the Albans moved into the Roman lowlands. Due to its historical and legendary significance, the Palatine Hill became the home of many Roman elites during the Republic and emperors during the Empire. It was also the site of a temple to Apollo built by Emperor Augustus and the pastoral (and possibly pre-Roman) festival of Lupercalia, which was observed on February 13 through 15 to avert evil spirits, purify the city, and release health and fertility. Festivals for the Septimontium (meaning of the Seven Hills) on December 11 were previously considered to be related to the foundation of Rome. However, because April 21 is the agreed-upon date of the city’s founding, it has recently been argued that Septimontium celebrated the first federations among the Seven Hills. A similar federation was celebrated by the Latins at Cave or Monte Cavo. Roman Society Ancient Roman society was based on class-based and political structures, as well as by religious practices. Describe the characteristics of Roman society Key Points - Roman society consisted of several divisions of social classes that held varying degrees of power and prestige. This structure was echoed on a familial level under the power of the father, or pater familias . - In matters of government, the Senate remained a fixture from the founding of Rome to the collapse of the Empire, although its power and influence grew and weakened over time. - As Rome became a global power, its government consisted of levels on the colonial and municipal levels, as well as on the central level in the imperial capital . - The Roman pantheon of gods is comparable to its Greek counterparts, who Romans worshiped and sent prayers to throughout their lives. The Romans were flexible in their worship and absorbed foreign gods into their pantheon. - In the Imperial period, an imperial cult developed to worship the emperors who were deified upon their death. Key Terms - Pontifex Maximus : The official head, or chief priest, of the Roman state’s religion. In Imperial Rome this title and office was given to the Emperor. - plebeian : A free Roman citizen who was not a patrician. - equite : The lower of the two aristocratic classes of ancient Rome, ranking below the patricians. - pater familias : The father, or (male) head of household. - insula : An apartment building that housed most of the urban citizen population of ancient Rome, including ordinary people of lower- or middle-class status (the plebians) and all but the wealthiest from the upper-middle class (the equites). - patrician : A member of a hereditary ruling-class family. Social Structure Life in ancient Rome centered around the capital city with its fora, temples, theaters, baths, gymnasia, brothels, and other forms of culture and entertainment. Private housing ranged from elegant urban palaces and country villas for the social elites to crowded insulae (apartment buildings) for the majority of the population. The large urban population required an endless supply of food, which was a complex logistical task. Area farms provided produce, while animal-derived products were considered luxuries. The aqueducts brought water to urban centers, and wine and oil were imported from Hispania (Spain and Portugal), Gaul (France and Belgium), and Africa. Highly efficient technology allowed for frequent commerce among the provinces. While the population within the city of Rome might have exceeded one million, most Romans lived in rural areas, each with an average population of 10,000 inhabitants. Roman society consisted of patricians , equites (equestrians, or knights), plebeians , and slaves. All categories except slaves enjoyed the status of citizenship. In the beginning of the Roman republic, plebeians could neither intermarry with patricians or hold elite status, but this changed by the Late Republic, when the plebeian-born Octavian rose to elite status and eventually became the first emperor. Over time, legislation was passed to protect the lives and health of slaves. Although many prostitutes were slaves, for instance, the bill of sale for some slaves stipulated that they could not be used for commercial prostitution. Slaves could become freedmen—and thus citizens—if their owners freed them or if they purchased their freedom by paying their owners. Free-born women were considered citizens, although they could neither vote nor hold political office. Pater Familias Within the household, the pater familias was the seat of authority, possessing power over his wife, the other women who bore his sons, his children, his nephews, his slaves, and the freedmen to whom he granted freedom. His power extended to the point of disposing of his dependents and their good, as well as having them put to death if he chose. In private and public life, Romans were guided by the mos maiorum, an unwritten code from which the ancient Romans derived their social norms that affected all aspects of life in ancient Rome. Government Over the course of its history, Rome existed as a kingdom (hereditary monarchy), a republic (in which leaders were elected), and an empire (a kingdom encompassing a wider swath of territory). From the establishment of the city in 753 BCE to the fall of the empire in 476 CE, the Senate was a fixture in the political culture of Rome, although the power it exerted did not remain constant. During the days of the kingdom, it was little more than an advisory council to the king. Over the course of the Republic, the Senate reached the height of its power, with old-age becoming a symbol of prestige, as only elders could serve as senators. However the late Republic witnessed the beginning of its decline. After Augustus ended the Republic to form the Empire, the Senate lost much of its power, and with the reforms of Diocletian in the third century CE, it became irrelevant. As Rome grew as a global power, its government was subdivided into colonial and municipal levels. Colonies were modeled closely on the Roman constitution, with roles being defined for magistrates, council, and assemblies. Colonists enjoyed full Roman citizenship and were thus extensions of Rome itself. The second most prestigious class of cities was the municipium (a town or city). Municipia were originally communities of non-citizens among Rome’s Italic allies. Later,Roman citizenship was awarded to all Italy, with the result that a municipium was effectively now a community of citizens. The category was also used in the provinces to describe cities that used Roman law but were not colonies. Religion The Roman people considered themselves to be very religious. Religious beliefs and practices helped establish stability and social order among the Romans during the reign of Romulus and the period of the legendary kings. Some of the highest religious offices, such as the Pontifex Maximus , the head of the state’s religion—which eventually became one of the titles of the emperor—were sought-after political positions. Women who became Vestal Virgins served the goddess of the hearth, Vesta, and received a high degree of autonomy within the state, including rights that other women would never receive. The Roman pantheon corresponded to the Etruscan and Greek deities . Jupiter was considered the most powerful and important of all the Gods. In nearly every Roman city, a central temple known as the Capitolia that was dedicated to the supreme triad of deities: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva (Zeus, Hera, and Athena). Small household gods, known as Lares, were also popular. Each family claimed their own set of personal gods and laraium, or shines to the Lares, are found not only in houses but also at street corners, on roads, or for a city neighborhood. Roman religious practice often centered around prayers, vows, oaths, and sacrifice . Many Romans looked to the gods for protection and would complete a promise sacrifice or offering as thanks when their wishes were fulfilled. The Romans were not exclusive in their religious practices and easily participated in numerous rituals for different gods. Furthermore, the Romans readily absorbed foreign gods and cults into their pantheon. With the rise of imperial rule, the emperors were considered gods, and temples were built to many emperors upon their death. Their family members could also be deified, and the household gods of the emperor’s family were also incorporated into Roman worship. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. 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Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pontifex Maximus. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/pontifex%20maximus. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:26.950578	2020-05-01T17:31:49	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/08%3A_The_Romans/8.01%3A_The_Romans", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "8.1: The Romans", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/08%3A_The_Romans/8.02%3A_The_Republic	8.2: The Republic Roman Sculpture under the Republic During the Roman Republic, members of all social classes used a variety of sculptural techniques to promote their distinguished social statuses. Describe the defining characteristics of sculpture during the Roman Republic Key Points - Continuous narration arose during the Republic as a means of telling a story from beginning to end in a visual form . Art patrons used it on public monuments to celebrate their status in society. - The patronage of public sculpture extended to freedmen, as seen in the massive and uniquely decorated tomb of Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces the Baker. - Veristic portraiture depicts the subject in hyper- realism , wrinkles and individual facial characteristics are carefully formed in these images. - Portraits of Pompey the Great and Julius Caesar set precedents for future imperial portraiture by quoting iconographic characteristics and introducing a likeness of the living imperator on coins. - Death masks provided a means for a family to remember their ancestors as well as to remind others of the illustriousness of their ancestry. Key Terms - verism : The style of portraiture favored during the Roman Republic in which the subjects were portrayed in a super-realistic likeness; from the Latin word for true. - continuous narration : A visual art technique that illustrates multiple scenes of a story within a single frame and without any separation between scenes and actions. - Imperator : A Latin word meaning general or ruler; a title given to triumphant generals during the Republic. Roman Art in the Republic Early Roman art was influenced by the art of Greece and that of the neighboring Etruscans, themselves greatly influenced by their Greek trading partners. As the expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek territory, its official sculpture became largely an extension of the Hellenistic style , with its departure from the idealized body and flair for the dramatic. This is partly due to the large number of Greek sculptors working within Roman territory. However, Roman sculpture during the Republic departed from the Greek traditions in several ways. - It was the first to feature a new technique called continuous narration. - Commoners, including freedmen, could commission public art and use it to cast their professions in a positive light. - Portraiture throughout the Republic celebrated old age with its verism . - In the closing decades of the Republic, Julius Caesar counteracted traditional propriety by becoming the first living person to place his own portrait on a coin. In the examples that follow, the patrons use these techniques to promote their status in society. The Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus Despite its most common title, the Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus (late second century BCE) was more likely a base intended to support cult statues in the cella of a Temple of Neptune (Poseidon) located in Rome on the Field of Mars. The frieze is the second oldest Roman bas- relief currently known. Domitius Ahenobarbus, a naval general, likely commissioned the altar and the temple in gratitude of a naval victory between 129 and 128 BCE. The reliefs combine mythology and contemporary civic life. One panel of the altar depicts the census, a uniquely Roman event of contemporary civic life. It is one of the earliest reliefs sculpted in continuous narration, in which the viewer reads from left to right the recording of the census, the purification of the army before the altar of Mars, and the levy of the soldiers. The other three panels depict the mythological wedding of Neptune and Amphitrite. At the center of his scene, Neptune and Amphitrite are seated in a chariot drawn by two Tritons (messengers of the sea) who dance to music. They are accompanied by a multitude of fantastic creatures, Tritons, and Nereides (sea nymphs) who form a retinue for the wedding couple, which, like the census scene, can be read from left to right. At the left, a Nereid riding on a sea-bull carries a present. Next, Amphitrite’s mother Doris advances towards the couple, mounted on a hippocampus (literally, a sea horse) and holding wedding torches in each hand to light the procession’s way. Eros hovers behind her. Behind the wedding couple, a Nereid riding a hippocampus carries another present. Tomb of Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces the Baker The patronage of public sculpture was not limited to the ruling classes during the Republic. The tomb of Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces the Baker (c. 50–20 BCE) is one of the largest and best-preserved freedman funerary monuments in Rome. Its sculpted frieze is a classic example of the plebeian style in Roman sculpture. The deceased built the tomb for himself and perhaps his wife Atistia in the final decades of the Republic. While the tomb’s inscription lacks an L to denote the status of a freedman, the tripartite name of the deceased follows the pattern of names given to and adopted by former slaves. The tomb, approximately 33 feet tall, commemorates the deceased and his profession. It three main components are a frieze at the top and the cylindrical niches (probably symbolic of a kneading machine or grain measuring vessels) below it. The surviving text of the inscription translates as “This is the monument of Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces, baker, contractor, public servant.” The frieze represents various stages in the baking of bread in continuous narration. Although time-worn, the naturalistic depiction of human and animal bodies in a variety of poses is still evident. This record of each stage in a mundane process demonstrates the sense of pride the deceased must have had in his profession. Because the wearing of togas was not conducive to manual labor, the simple clothing on the figures marks them as plebeians, or commoners. Portraiture Roman portraiture during the Republic is identified by its considerable realism, known as veristic portraiture. Verism refers to a hyper-realistic portrayal of the subject’s facial characteristics. The style originated from Hellenistic Greece; however, its use in the Roman Republic is due to Roman values , customs, and political life. As with other forms of Roman art, portraiture borrowed certain details from Greek art but adapted these to their own needs. Veristic images often show their male subjects with receding hairlines, deep winkles, and even with warts. While the faces of the portraits often display incredible detail and likeness, the subjects’ bodies are idealized and do not correspond to the age shown in the face. The popularity and usefulness of verism appears to derive from the need to have a recognizable image. Veristic portrait busts provided a means of reminding people of distinguished ancestors or of displaying one’s power, wisdom, experience, and authority. Statues were often erected of generals and elected officials in public forums—and a veristic image ensured that a passerby would recognize the person when they actually saw them. The Late Republic The use of veristic portraiture began to diminish in the first century BCE. During this time, civil wars threatened the empire, and individual men began to gain more power. The portraits of Pompey the Great and Julius Caesar, two political rivals who were also the most powerful generals in the Republic, began to change the style of the portraits and their use. The portraits of Pompey are not fully idealized, nor were they created in the same veristic style of Republican senators. Pompey borrowed a specific parting and curl of his hair from Alexander the Great . This similarity served to link Pompey visually with the likeness of Alexander and to remind people that he possessed similar characteristics and qualities. The portraits of Julius Caesar are more veristic than those of Pompey. Despite staying closer to stylistic convention, Caesar was the first man to mint coins with his own likeness printed on them. In the decades prior to this, it had become increasingly common to place an illustrious ancestor on a coin, but putting a living person—especially oneself—on a coin departed from Roman propriety. By circulating coins issued with his image, Caesar directly showed the people that they were indebted to him for their own prosperity and therefore should support his political pursuits. Death Masks The creation and use of death masks demonstrate Romans’ veneration of their ancestors. These masks were created from molds taken of a person at the time of his or her death. Made of wax, bronze , marble, and terra cotta , death masks were kept by families and displayed in the atrium of their homes. Visitors and clients who entered the home would have been reminded of the family’s ancestry and the honorable qualities of their ancestors. Such displays served to bolster the reputation and credibility of the family. Death masks were also worn and paraded through the streets during funeral procession. Again, this served not only a memorial for the dead, but also to link the living members of a family to their illustrious ancestors in the eyes of the spectator. Roman Architecture under the Republic Roman architecture relies heavily on the use of concrete and the arch to create unique interior spaces and architectural forms. Explain the importance of both concrete and the arch in Roman architecture. Key Points - Roman architecture began as an imitation of the Classical Greek style but eventually grew into its own style with technological advances and modifications on traditional Greek elements. Roman temple design is based on a mixed use of Etruscan and Greek models. They are typically strictly frontal, on a high podium with a flight of stairs, and have a deep, colonnaded portico in front of the cella . - Concrete is an essential building material in Roman architecture. It is lightweight, strong, and durable and could even be used underwater. - Most Roman buildings were constructed with concrete and brick and then faced in stucco , expensive stone, or marble. - The arch is a highly significant architectural shape in Roman architecture, often employed to allow for wider openings in structures. Arches can be used together to create vaults (barrel and groin) and domes , as well as to create unique interior spaces . Key Terms - pozzolana : A type of volcanic ash used for mortar or for cement that sets under water. - psuedoperipteral : A building with free standing columns in the front and engaged columns along the peripheral walls; this style is often used on Roman temples. - barrel vault : A simple roof having a curved, often semicircular, cross section used to span large distances in railway stations, churches, etc., and usually supported on columns. - exedra : A semicircular recess, with stone benches, used as a place for discussion. - cella : The inner chamber of a temple where the cult image or statue is kept. Roman Architecture Roman architecture began as an imitation of Classical Greek architecture but eventually evolved into a new style. Unfortunately, almost no early Republican buildings remain intact. The earliest substantial remains date to approximately 100 BCE. Innovations such as improvements to the round arch and barrel vault , as well as the inventions of concrete and the true hemispherical dome, allowed Roman architecture to become more versatile than its Greek predecessors. While the Romans were reluctant to abandon classical motifs , they modified their temple designs by abandoning pedimental sculptures, altering the traditional Greek peripteral colonnades , and opting for central exterior stairways. Likewise, although Roman architects did not abandon traditional column orders, they did modify them with the Tuscan, Roman Ionic, and Composite orders. This diagram shows the Greek orders on the left and their Roman modifications on the right. Roman Temples Most Roman temples derived from Etruscan prototypes. Like Etruscan temples, Roman temples are frontal with stairs that lead up to a podium, and a deep portico filled with columns. They are also usually rectilinear , and the interiors consist of at least one cella that contained a cult statue. If multiple gods were worshiped in one temple, each god would have its own cella and cult image. For example, Capitolia—the temples dedicated to the Capitoline Triad—would always be built with three cellae, one for each god of the triad: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Roman temples were typically made of brick and concrete and then faced in either marble or stucco. Engaged columns (columns that protrude from walls like reliefs) adorn the exteriors of the temples. This creates an effect of columns completely surrounding a cella, an effect known as psuedoperipteral . The altar, used for sacrifices and offerings , always stood outside in front of the temple. While most Roman temples followed this typical plan, some were dramatically different. At times, the Romans erected round temples that imitated the Greek tholos . Examples can be found in the Temple of Hercules Victor (late second century BCE), in the Forum Boarium in Rome . The temple consists a circular cella within a concentric ring of 20 Corinthian columns. Like its Etruscan predecessors, the temple rests on a tufa foundation. Its original roof and architrave are now lost. Concrete The Romans perfected the recipe for concrete during the third century BCE by mixing together water, lime, and pozzolana , volcanic ash mined from the countryside surrounding Mt. Vesuvius. Concrete became the primary building material for the Romans, and it is largely the reason that they were such successful builders. Most Roman buildings were built with concrete and brick that was then covered in façade of stucco, expensive stone, or marble. Concrete was a cheaper and lighter material than most other stones used for construction. This helped the Romans build structures that were taller, more complicated, and quicker to build than any previous ones. Once dried, concrete was also extremely strong, yet flexible enough to remain standing during moderate seismic activity. The Romans were even able to use concrete underwater, allowing them build harbors and breakers for their ports. The ruins of a tomb on the Via Appia (the most famous thoroughfare through ancient Rome) expose the stones and aggregate that the Romans used to mix concrete. Arches, Vaults, and Domes The Romans effectively combined concrete and the structural shape of the arch. These two elements became the foundations for most Roman structures. Arches can bear immense weight, as they are designed to redistribute weight from the top, to its sides, and down into the ground . While the Romans did not invent the arch, they were the first culture to manipulate it and rely on its shape. An arch is a pure compression form . It can span a large area by resolving forces into compressive stresses (pushing downward) that, in turn, eliminate tensile stresses (pushing outward). As the forces in the arch are carried to the ground, the arch will push outward at the base (called thrust). As the height of the arch decreases, the outward thrust increases. In order to maintain arch action and prevent the arch from collapsing, the thrust needs to be restrained, either with internal ties or external bracing, such as abutments (labeled 8 on the diagram below). The arch is a shape that can be manipulated into a variety of forms that create unique architectural spaces. Multiple arches can be used together to create a vault. The simplest type is known as a barrel vault. Barrel vaults consist of a line of arches in a row that create the shape of a tunnel. When two barrel vaults intersect at right angles, they create a groin vault . These are easily identified by the x-shape they create in the ceiling of the vault. Furthermore, because of the direction, the thrust is concentrated along this x-shape, so only the corners of a groin vault need to be grounded. This allows an architect or engineer to manipulate the space below the groin vault in a variety of ways. Arches and vaults can be stacked and intersected with each other in a multitude of ways. One of the most important forms that they can create is the dome. This is essentially an arch that is rotated around a single point to create a large hemispherical vault. The largest dome constructed during the Republic was on the Temple of Echo at Baiae, named for its remarkable acoustic properties. Arches and concrete are found in many iconic Roman structures. The Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia (c. 120 BCE) at Palestrina, Italy is a massive temple structure built into the hillside in a series of terraces, exedras , and porticoes. Concrete was used as the primary building material and barrel vaults provide structural support, both as a terracing method for the hill and in creating interesting architectural spaces for the sanctuary. Roman aqueducts are another iconic use of the arch. The arches that make up an aqueduct provided support without requiring the amount of building material necessary for arches supported by solid walls. The Aqua Marcia (144–140 BCE) was the longest of the eleven aqueducts that served the city of Rome during the Republic. It supplied water to the Viminal Hill in the north of Rome, and from there to the Caelian, Aventine, Palatine, and Capitoline Hills. Where the Aqua Marcia had contact with water, it was coated with a waterproof mortar. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Iulius Caesar denarius 44 BC 851830. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iulius_Caesar_denarius_44_BC_851830.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pompejus. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pompejus.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Old man vatican pushkin01. Provided by : Wikimedia. 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Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=50377899. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 596px-OpusCaementiciumViaAppiaAntica.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=268284. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 360px-Temple_of_echo_Baiae.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2505461. License : CC BY: Attribution - 640px-Tivoli_Acquedotto_Arci_0511-03.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=502305. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Arch illustration. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arch_illustration.svg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Roma-tempio di portunus. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roma-tempio_di_portunus.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-PalestrinaMuseoPlasticoSantuario.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15661592. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 305px-Classical_orders_from_the_Encyclopedie.png. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=47982. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Temple of Hercules Victor. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Hercules_Victor. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Aqua Marcia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqua_Marcia. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Baiae. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Baiae#Ruins. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sanctuaire de la Fortuna Primigenia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : fr.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanctuaire_de_la_Fortuna_Primigenia. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Exedra. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/exedra. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Psuedoperipteral. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/psuedoperipteral. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:27.072129	2020-05-01T17:31:54	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/08%3A_The_Romans/8.02%3A_The_Republic", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "8.2: The Republic", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/08%3A_The_Romans/8.03%3A_The_Early_Empire	8.3: The Early Empire Imperial Sculpture in the Early Roman Empire Augustan art served a vital visual means to promote the legitimacy of Augustus’ power, and the techniques he employed were incorporated into the propaganda of later emperors. Describe the elements of propaganda in Augustan art and in the art commissioned by later emperors Key Points - The intricate and deliberate iconography of Ara Pacis Augustae promotes religious piety, fertility, and the flourishing of the empire under Augustus. - Augustus abandoned the veristic portraiture of the Roman Republic in favor of creating an image of a forever-youthful emperor. His imperial portraits often promoted his piety and military accomplishments. - Augustus’s successor, Tiberius, and the penultimate Julio-Claudian emperor Claudius, employed the attributes of eternal youthfulness and prowess in their political portraiture as a measure of political promotion. Key Terms - meander : A decorative border constructed from a continuous line, shaped into a repeated motif. - lictors : The bodyguards for a magistrate in the Republican Rome and emperors during Imperial Rome. They carried fasces, a bundle of wooden rods with an axe, which symbolized the power of the magistrate or emperor. - cuirass : A metal breastplate that serves as armor. - pomerium : The sacred boundary around a city that marked the city’s urban, legal, and religious limits. No armies were allowed within this boundary. - register : A vertical level in a work that consists of several levels, especially where the levels are clearly separated by lines. Augustus During his reign, Augustus enacted an effective propaganda campaign to promote the legitimacy of his rule as well as to encourage moral and civic ideals among the Roman populace. Augustan sculpture contains the rich iconography of Augustus’s reign with its strong themes of legitimacy, stability, fertility, prosperity, and religious piety. The visual motifs employed within this iconography became the standards for imperial art. Ara Pacis Augustae The Ara Pacis Augustae, or Altar of Augustan Peace, is one of the best examples of Augustan artistic propaganda. Not only does it demonstrate a new moral code promoted by Augustus, it also established imperial iconography. It was commissioned by the Senate in 13 BCE to honor the peace and bounty established by Augustus following his return from Hispania (Spain) and Gaul; it was consecrated on January 30, 9 BCE. The marble altar was erected just outside the boundary of the pomerium to the north of the city along the Via Flaminia on the Campus Martius. The actual u-shaped altar sits atop a podium inside a square wall that demarcates the precinct’s sacred space . The north and south walls depict a procession of life-sized figures on the upper register . These figures include men, women, children, priests, lictors , and identifiable members of the political elite during the Augustan age. The elite include Augustus, his wife Livia, his son-in-law Marcus Agrippa (who died in 12 BCE), and Tiberius, Augustus’s adopted son and successor who would marry the emperor’s widowed daughter in 11 BCE. While the altar as a whole celebrates the Augustus as a peacemaker, this scene promotes him as a pious family man. Imperial Portraiture Augustus very carefully controlled his imperial portrait. Abandoning the veristic style of the Republican period, his portraits always showed him as an idealized young man. These portraits linked him to divinities and heroes, both mythical and historical. He is often shown with an identifiable cowlick that was originally shown on the portraits of Alexander the Great . His lack of shoes signifies his supposed humbleness despite the great power he possessed. Two portraits of him, one as Pontifex Maximus and the other as Imperator , depict two different personae of the emperor. Augustus’s portrait as Pontifex Maximus shows him attired with a toga over his ever-youthful head, an attribute that serves to remind viewers of his own extreme piety to the gods. The Augustus of Primaporta shows the influence of both Roman and Classical Greek works, including the Spear Bearer by Polykleitos and the Etruscan bronze Aule Metele. Assuming the role of imperator, Augustus wears military grab in a pose known as adlucotio, addressing his troops. Despite his poor health, which left him with a frail body, he appears healthy and muscular. Cupid rides a dolphin at Augustus’ feet, a symbol of his divine ancestry. Cupid is the son of Venus, as was Aeneas, the legendary ancestor of the Roman people. The Julian family traced their ancestry back to Aeneas and, therefore, consider themselves descendants of Venus. As Caesar’s nephew and adopted son, this use of iconography allows Augustus to remind viewers of his divine lineage. In addition to adopting the body language and attire of a general, the relief on the cuirass shows one of Augustus’ greatest victories—the return of the Parthian standards. During the civil wars, a legion’s standards were lost when the legion was defeated by the Parthians . In a great feat of diplomacy, and curiously not military action, Augustus was able to negotiate the return of the standards to the legion and to Rome . Additional figures on the cuirass personify Roman gods and the arrival of Augustan peace. The Legacy of Augustan Sculpture Upon the death of Augustus, Tiberius (14–37 CE) assumed the title of emperor and Pontifex Maximus of Rome. Like his father-in-law, Tiberius maintained a youthful appearance in his portraiture in sculpture. A general in his pre-imperial career, Tiberius appears in a sculpture very similar to the Augustus of Primaporta. He wears military attire and stands erect in a dynamic contrapposto pose with his arm raised. Although he wears boots, which would appear to contradict the suggestion of humbleness seen in full-length sculptures of Augustus, his plain cuirass and the absence of religious iconography suggest a competent leader who does not promote his accomplishments or divine ancestry. Like Augustus, who suffered from poor health, Claudius, who succeeded Caligula in 41 CE, was also infirm. In addition to health issues, Claudius lacked experience as a leader but quickly overcame this shortcoming as emperor. During his reign, Rome annexed the province of Britannia (present-day England and Wales) and witnessed the construction of new roads and aqueducts . Despite these achievements, Claudius’s opponents still saw him as vulnerable, a situation that forced him to shore up his position almost constantly, resulting in the deaths of many senators. Perhaps this need to prove his competency in his role prompted him to commission a sculpture of himself as Jupiter, a sculpture that also bears striking similarities to the Augustus of Primaporta. He continues the standard of the eternally youthful and healthy emperor begun by Augustus. His face and body are idealized. Like his predecessor, Claudius appears barefoot in a gesture of humility balanced with a symbol of divinity, in this case, an eagle to symbolize Jupiter. He wears a laurel crown as a metaphor of victory. While the positions of his arms and hand are similar to those of Augustus, Claudius holds a bowl (an offering to signify his piety) in one hand and a scepter-like object (to signify his power) in the other. Architecture of the Early Roman Empire The Julio-Claudian and Flavian dynasties of the early Roman Empire oversaw some of the best-known building projects of the era. Identify the prominent architectural accomplishments of the early Roman Empire Key Points - The first Roman emperor, Augustus, was said to have transformed Rome from a city of brick to one of marble. One of the projects of his reign was the rebuilding of the Basilica Julia, named in honor of his adopted father Julius Caesar. Elements of its design would later appear on the Colosseum. - Nero built the Domus Aurea on appropriated land following the devastating fire in 64 CE. The palatial structure was lavishly decorated and the Octagonal Hall demonstrates the architectural innovations that are available to architects and engineers when working with concrete. - Titus, Vespasian’s eldest son, is best known for suppressing the Jewish rebellion and his conquest over Judea in 70 CE. This is celebrated in the Arch of Titus that was erected by his brother after Titus’ death. Titus ruled from 79—81 CE. - The Flavian Amphitheatre , also known as the Colosseum, was constructed under the Flavians on land in Rome owned by Nero. This shrewd political act not only returned Roman land back to the people but also provided a means of entertaining the masses of the city for centuries to come. Key Terms - menorah : A holy candelabrum with seven branches used in the Temple of Jerusalem; or a candelabrum with nine branches used in Jewish worship on Hanukkah. - damnatio memoriae : A phrase from Latin meaning the condemnation of one’s memory, a dishonor given by the Roman Senate to particularly hated Emperors. It attempted to erase all memory and history of the person by removing their name from all documents and destroying all their portraits. - spandrel : The space (often triangular) between the outer curve of an arch (the extrados) and a straight-sided figure that bounds it, or the space between two contiguous arches and a straight feature above them. - grotesque : Originating from the Italian word for cave, this is an extravagant style of ancient Roman painting found on the walls of basements in ancient ruins. - basilica : A public building where courts and other official and public functions were held. Essentially, a Roman town hall. - apotheosis : The fact or action of becoming or making into a god; deification. Early Roman Empire Architecture The early Roman Empire consisted of two dynasties : the Julio-Claudians (Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero) and the Flavians (Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian). Each dynasty made significant contributions to the architecture of the capital city and the Empire. The first Roman emperor, Augustus, enacted a program of extensive building and restoration throughout the city of Rome. He famously noted that he “found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble.” This building program served the people of Rome by expanding public space , allocating places for trade and politics, and providing and improving the temples so the people could the serve the gods. As with his artistic iconography , this too became the standard that later emperors modeled their own building programs on. Basilica Julia The basilica is a form of building that dates to the Roman Republic. Essentially it is the town hall in ancient Roman life, and many senators and emperors commissioned basilicas to commemorate their contributions to society. In 46 BCE, Julius Caesar began the construction of the Basilica Julia, funded by spoils from the Gallic War, in the Roman forum . The basilica burned shortly after its completion, but Augustus oversaw its reconstruction and rededicated the building in 12 CE, naming the building after his great uncle and adoptive father. The Basilica Julia housed the civil law courts and tabernae (shops), and provided space for government offices and banking. In the first century, it also housed the Court of the Hundred, which oversaw matters of inheritance. It was a large and ornate structure with two levels of arcades . On both levels, an engaged column stood between each pair of arches. Tuscan columns adorned the ground level, while Roman Ionic columns adorned the second level. Full-length sculptures of men, possibly senators or other significant historical or political figures, stood under each arch on the second level and lined the roof above each engaged Ionic column. A similar pattern would appear on the Colosseum under the Flavians in the late first century CE. The Domus Aurea In 64 CE, a fire erupted in Rome and burned ten of the fourteen districts in the city. Nero appropriated some of the newly cleared land for his own use. This land, located on the hills east of the Forum Romanum, became home to his new palatial structure known as the Domus Aurea, or the Golden House. Nero’s complex included a private lake, landscaped gardens and porticoes, a colossal golden statue of himself, and rooms for entertaining that were lavishly decorated with mosaics , frescoes , and gold leaf . The surviving frescoes provide excellent examples of Pompeiian fourth- style painting, a fantastical style that inspired Renaissance grotesque when portions of the palace were discovered at the end of the 1400s. Nero’s architects and engineers, Severus and Celer, designed the Domus Aurea and demonstrated some of the unique architectural shapes made possible through concrete construction. An octagonal hall testifies to the architects’ ingenuity. The octagonal room stands between multiple rooms, possibly for dining, and is delineated by eight piers that support a domed roof with an oculus that lit not only the hall but also the surrounding rooms. The octagonal hall emphasizes the role of concrete in shaping interior space, and the use of natural light to create drama. Following Nero’s forced suicide in 68 CE, Rome plunged into a year of civil war as four generals vied against each other for power and Vespasian emerged victorious. After the year of warfare, Vespasian sought to establish stability both in Rome and throughout the empire. He and the sons who succeeded him ruled Rome for twenty-seven years. Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus, whose reign was short. Domitian, Titus’s younger brother, became the next emperor and reigned until his assassination in 96 CE. Despite being a relatively popular emperor with the people, Domitian had few friends in the Senate. His memory was condemned formally through damnatio memoriae —an edict that erased all memory and history of the person by removing their name from all documents and destroying all their portraits. Flavian Amphitheater Upon his succession, Vespasian began a vast building program in Rome that was continued by Titus and Domitian. It was a cunning political scheme to garner support from the people of Rome. Vespasian transformed land from Nero’s Domus Aurea into public buildings for leisure and entertainment, such as the Baths of Titus and the Flavian Amphitheatre. Nero’s private lake was drained and became the foundations for the amphitheater, the first permanent amphitheater built in the city of Rome. Before this time, gladiatorial contests in the city were held in temporary wooden arenas. The amphitheater became known as the Colosseum for its size, but in also in reference to a colossal golden statue of Nero that stood nearby. Vespasian had the colossus reworked into an image of the sun god, Sol. The building of the amphitheater began under Vespasian in 72 CE, and was completed under Titus in 80 CE. Titus inaugurated the amphitheater with a series of gladiatorial games and events that lasted for 100 days. During his reign, Domitian remodeled parts of the amphitheater to enlarge the seating capacity to hold 50,000 spectators and added a hypogeum beneath the arena, for storage and to transport animals and people to the arena floor. The Colosseum was home not just to gladiatorial events—because it was built over Nero’s private lake, it was flooded to stage mock naval battles. Like all Roman amphitheaters, the Colosseum is a free-standing structure, whose shape comes from the combination of two semi-spherical theaters. The Colosseum exists in part as a result of improvements in concrete and the strength and stability of Roman engineering, especially their use of the repetitive form of the arch. The concrete structure is faced in travertine and marble. The exterior of the Colosseum is divided into four bands that represent four interior arcades. The arcades are carefully designed to allow tens of thousands of spectators to enter and exit within minutes. Attached to the uppermost band are over two hundred corbels which supported the velarium —a retractable awning to protect spectators from sun and rain. The top band is also pierced by a number of small windows, between which are engaged composite pilasters . The three bands below are notable for the series of arches that visually break up the massive façade. The arches on the ground level served as numbered entrances, while those of the two middle levels framed statues of gods, goddesses, and mythical and historical heroes. Columns in each of the three Greek orders stand between the arches. The Doric order is located on the ground level, Ionic on the second level, and Corinthian on the third. The order follows a standard sequence where the sturdiest and strongest order is shown on bottom level, since it appears to support the weight of the structure, and the lightest order at the top. However, despite this illusion the engaged columns and pilasters were merely decorative. Arch of Titus Following his brother’s death, Domitian erected a triumphal arch over the Via Sacra, on a rise as the road enters the Republican Forum. The Arch of Titus honors the deified Titus and celebrates his victory over Judea in 70 CE. The arch follows the standard forms for a triumphal arch, with an honorific inscription in the attic, winged Victories in the spandrels , engaged columns, and more sculpture which is now lost. Inside the archway at the center of the ceiling is a relief panel of the apotheosis of Titus. Two remarkable relief panels decorate the interior sides of the archway and commemorate Titus’s victory in Judea. The southern panel inside the arch depicts the sacking of Jerusalem. The scene shows Roman soldiers carrying the menorah (the sacred candelabrum) and other spoils from the Temple of Jerusalem. The opposite northern panel depicts Titus’s triumphal procession in Rome, awarded in 71 CE. In this panel, Titus rides through Rome on a chariot pulled by four horses. Behind him a winged Victory figure crowns Titus with a laurel wreath. He is accompanied by personifications of Honor and Valor. This is one of the first examples in Roman art of humans and divinities mingling together in one scene; indeed, Titus was deified upon his death. These panels were originally painted and decorated with metal attachments and gilding. The panels are depicted in high relief and show a change in technical style from the lower relief seen on the Ara Pacis Augustae . Painting in the Early Roman Empire Roman frescoes were the primary method of interior decoration and their development is generally categorized into four different styles. Compare and contrast the Pompeian First, Second, Third, and Fourth Styles of painting Key Points - The development of fresco -painting styles is a visual example of the changing tastes from the third century BCE through the first century CE. The change in styles reflects the changes that occurred in Roman society. - Pompeiian First Style, which originated from the Greeks, is also known as masonry style. It mimics marble and colored stone to create the illusion of an expensive veneer. It was popular from 200 to 80 BCE. - Pompeiian Second Style is known for its dissolution of the wall into an architectural vista that makes logical sense. This style was typically used from 80 to 20 BCE. Examples of this style adorn the walls of the Villa of Livia and the Villa of the Mysteries. - Pompeiian Third Style is a whimsical style full of fanciful architecture and Egyptian motifs that focuses more on creating an ornate rather than realistic space . It also includes painted scenes floating on a monochromatic backdrop. This style became popular in 20 BCE until about 60 CE. Examples of this style can be found at the Villa of Agrippa Postumus. - Pompeiian Fourth Style is a less ornamented but more complex reaction to Third Style. It borrows elements from the three preceding styles, including faux masonry, architectural vistas, ornamental decorations, and panels of painted scenes. Fourth-Style painting was popular during the first century CE. Examples of this style are found at the House of the Vettii and the House of the Tragic Poet, as well as in a contemporary scene of a riot at a local amphitheater. Key Terms - triclinium : Formal dining room. - buon fresco : A painting that involves applying wet paint to wet lime plaster. As both components dry, a chemical reaction causes them to fuse together, literally making the painting part of the wall. - encaustic : A wax-based paint that is fixed in place by heating; a painting produced using this paint. - fresco : In painting, the technique of applying water-based pigment to lime mortar or plaster. - Egyptomania : Roman fascination with all things related to Egypt following the death of Cleopatra in 31 BCE and the annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. - trompe l’oeil : A genre of still-life painting that exploits human vision to create the illusion that the subject of the painting is real. Roman Painting Roman painters often painted frescoes, specifically buon fresco , a technique that involved painting pigment on wet plaster. When the painting dried, the image became an integral part of the wall. Fresco painting was the primary method of decorating an interior space. However, few examples survive, and the majority of them are from the remains of Roman houses and villas around Mt. Vesuvius. Other examples of frescoes come from locations that were buried (burial protected and preserved the frescoes), such as parts of Nero’s Domus Aurea and at the Villa of Livia. These frescoes demonstrate a wide variety of styles. Popular subjects include mythology, portraiture, still-life painting, and historical accounts. The surviving Roman paintings reveal a high degree of sophistication. They employ visual techniques that include atmospheric and near one-point linear perspective to properly convey the idea of space. Furthermore, portraiture and still-life images demonstrate artistic talent when conveying real-life objects and likenesses. The attention to detail seen in still-life paintings include minute shadows and an attention to light to properly depict the material of the object, whether it be glass, food, ceramics , or animals. Roman portraiture further exhibits the talent of Roman painters and often shows careful study on the artist’s part in the techniques used to portray individual faces and people. Some of the most interesting portraits come from Egypt, from late first century BCE to early third century CE, when Egypt was a province of Rome . These encaustic on wood panel images from the Fayum necropolis were laid over the mummified body. They show remarkable realism , while conveying the ideals and changing fashions of the Egypto-Roman people. Classification At the end of the nineteenth century, August Mau, a German art historian, studied and classified the Roman styles of painting at Pompeii. These styles, known simply as Pompeian First, Second, Third, and Fourth Style, demonstrate the period fashions of interior decoration preferences and changes in taste and style from the Republic through the early Empire. First Style Also known as masonry style, Pompeian First Style painting was most commonly used from 200 to 80 BCE. The style is known for its deceptive painting of a faux surface; the painters often tried to mimic the richly veneered surfaces of marble, alabaster , and other expensive types of stone veneer. This is a Hellenistic (Greek) style adopted by the Romans. While creating an illusion of expensive decor, First-Style painting reinforces the idea of a wall. The style is often found in the fauces (entrance hall) and atrium (large open-air room) of a Roman domus (house). A vivid example is preserved in the fauces of the Samnite House at Herculaneum. Second Style Pompeiian Second Style was first used around 80 BCE and was especially fashionable from 40 BCE onward, until its popularity waned in the final decades of the first century BCE. The style is noted for its visual illusions . These trompe l’oeil images are intended to trick the eye into believing that the walls of a building have dissolved into the depicted three-dimensional space. Wall frescoes were usually divided into three registers , with the bottom register depicting false masonry painted in the manner of the First Style, while a simple border was painted in the uppermost register. The central register, where the main scene unfolds, is the largest and the focal point of the painting. This space was an architectural zone that became the main component of Second-Style painting. Typically, paintings that relied on near-perfect linear perspective to depict architectural expanses and landscapes that were painted on a human scale. The desired effect was to make the viewer feel as if, while in the room, he or she was physically transported to these spaces. Villa of Livia As the style evolved, the top and bottom registers became less important. Architectural scenes grew to incorporate the entire room, such as at the Villa of the Mysteries and the Villa of Livia. In the case of the Villa of Livia, architectural vistas are replaced with a natural landscape that completely surrounds the room. The painting mimics the natural landscape outside the villa, depicting identifiable trees, flowers, and birds. Light filters naturally through the trees, which appear to bend in a slight breeze. Naturalistic elements like this, along with the flight of the birds and other details, help transport the occupant in the room into an outdoor setting. Villa of the Mysteries At the Villa of the Mysteries, just outside of Pompeii, there is a fantastic scene filled with life-size figures that depicts a ritual element from a Dionysian mystery cult. In this Second-Style example, architectural elements play a small role in creating the illusion of ritual space. The people and activity in the scene are the main focus . The architecture present is mainly piers or wall panels that divide the main scene into separate segments. The figures appear life-size, which brings them into the space of the room. The scene wraps around the room, depicting what may be a rite of marriage. A woman is seen preparing her hair. She is surrounded by other women and cherubs while a figure, identified as Dionysus , waits. The ritual may reenact the marriage between Dionysus and Ariadne, the daughter of King Minos. All the figures, except for Dionysus and one small boy, are female. The figures also appear to interact with one other from across the room. On the two walls in one corner, a woman reacts in terror to Dionysus and the mask over his head. On the opposite corner, a cherub appears to be whipping a woman on the adjoining wall. While the cult aspects of the ritual are unknown, the fresco demonstrates the ingenuity and inventiveness of Roman painters. Third Style Third-Style Pompeiian painting developed during the last decades of the first century BCE. It was popular from 20 BCE until the middle of the first century CE. During this period, wall painting began to develop a more fantastical personality. Instead of attempting to dissolve the wall, the Third Style acknowledges the wall through flat, monochromatic expanses painted with small central motifs that look like a hung painting. The architecture painted in Third-Style scenes is often logically impossible. The wall is frequently divided into three to five vertical zones by narrow, spindly columns and decorated with painted foliage, candelabra, birds, animals, and figurines . Often these creatures and people were derived from Egyptian motifs, resulting from a contemporary Roman fascination with Egypt known as Egyptomania , following the defeat of Cleopatra at Actium and the annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. Fourth Style The Pompeian Fourth Style became popular around the middle of the first century CE. While considered less ornate than the Third Style, the Fourth Style is more complex and draws on elements from each of the three previous styles. In this style, masonry details of the First Style reappear on the bottom registers, and the architectural vistas of the Second Style are once more fashionable, although infinitely more complex than their Second-Style predecessors. Fantastical details, Egyptian motifs, and ornamental garlands from the Third Style continued into the Fourth Style. Large pictures, connected to each other by a program or theme, dominated each wall, such as those in the House of the Vettii. House of the Vettii Many rooms in the House of the Vettii are lavishly painted. Each triclinium is themed and painted in the Fourth Style. Each panel in the room follows the room’s theme, providing visual entertainment and a narrative during dining. The Ixion Room, for instance, is a model of Fourth-Style wall painting. Within each red panel is a scene that depicts myths where the main character commits a major slight. One panel is dedicated to Ixion, who refused to pay a dowry and murdered his father-in-law. He also lusted after Zeus’s wife, betraying the relationship between guest and host. Another panel depicts Daedalus presenting a wooden cow to Pasiphaë, the wife of King Minos, so she could relieve her lust for a white bull. From this union, Pasiphaë birthed the Minotaur , a half-man, half-bull monster. Another Fourth-Style triclinium depicts scenes from the lives of Hercules and Theseus. House of the Tragic Poet The atrium of the House of the Tragic Poet includes a series of paintings that depict scenes from the Trojan War. The panels on the walls depict scenes that appear to be interrelated. As in the panels that decorate the House of the Vettii, the subject matter in the paintings in the House of the Tragic Poet are interrelated based on a common theme. Scholars believe these themes were carefully crafted not only to relate stories, but also to depict the virtues of the house’s owner. Two panels on the south wall relate the beginnings of the Trojan War. One panel is of Zeus and Hera on Mount Ida. Another, badly damaged, appears to be a scene of the Judgment of Paris. These panels relate the beginnings of the Trojan War while portraying womanly ideals. Two pairs of scenes, set across from each other, depict different, interrelated themes. The abduction of women is one theme visible in one image of Helen with Paris leaving for Troy. Another image portrays the abduction of Amphitrite by Poseidon. In both cases, a man abducts a woman. The other two scenes deal with the argument between Achilles and Agamemnon, which begins the story of the Illiad. Of these two scenes, one depicts Achilles with Agamemnon, while the other depicts Achilles returning Briseis, his lover and captive, to his commander, Agamemnon. A final image, found in the peristyle , depicts the Sacrifice of Iphigenia. All of these paintings are related to one another through themes such as marriage, womanly virtue, and the Trojan War. Riot at the Amphitheatre While the above examples of Fourth-Style painting depict scenes from mythology, at least one contemporary scene is represented in a surviving fresco. In 59 CE, a riot broke out between the citizens of Pompeii and the citizens of nearby Nuceria during a gladiatorial event. The brawl in the amphitheater resulted in serious injuries between both parties and the banning of all gladiatorial events for ten years. A fresco from Pompeii that depicts the event has also survived. The fresco depicts the Pompeiian amphitheater, with its distinctive exterior staircase, as well as an awning, the velarium . It also depicts the riot occurring both inside the arena and on the grounds surrounding the amphitheater. Architecture at Pompeii The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE preserved many structures in the city of Pompeii, allowing scholars a rare glimpse into Roman life. Describe the physical layout of the domus, or house, and describe the significances of the Amphitheater of Pompeii, the Temple of Isis, and the Suburban Baths Key Points - The main public part of the domus included the fauces, an entryway, the atrium , and the tablinum, a space for conducting business. The main private portions included the peristyle and garden and the triclinium or dining room. All components contained intricate decoration. Additional parts included a cubiculum, a kitchen, and open spaces known as alae. - Pompeiian houses deviated greatly from the standard model created by historians. Examples demonstrate how the standard elements could be rearranged to fit almost any footprint and the wealth of the patron . - The Amphitheater of Pompeii was the first stone amphitheater in the Roman world and the largest before the construction of the Colosseum. Its design foresees the construction of the Colosseum one century later, while simultaneously looking back to Greek theaters for its seating. - The Temple of Isis exhibits elements of Greek, Roman, and Egyptian architecture. Its presence in a Roman city demonstrates religious tolerance and a willingness to incorporate foreign deities into the Roman pantheon . - The Suburban Baths, while containing the standard tepidarium and caldarium of all Roman bath houses, has a single dressing room that archaeologists believe was used by both men and women. Key Terms - atrium : A square hall lit by daylight from above, into which rooms open at one or more levels. - peristyle : A colonnade that surrounds a courtyard, temple, etc. - patrician : Originally, a member of any of the families constituting the populus Romanus, or body of Roman citizens, before the development of the plebeian order; later, one who, by right of birth or by special privilege conferred, belonged to the senior class of Romans, who, with certain property, had by right a seat in the Roman Senate. Mount Vesuvius and the Preservation of Pompeiian Architecture During the Roman Republic and into the early Empire, the area today known as the Bay of Naples was developed as a resort-type area for elite Romans to escape the pressure and politics of Rome . The region was dominated by Mt. Vesuvius, which famously erupted in August 79 CE, burying and preserving the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, along with the region’s villas and farms. When Vesuvius erupted on August 25, a cloud of ash spewed south, burying the cities of Pompeii, Nuceria, and Stabiae. While not everyone left prior to the eruption, archaeological evidence shows that people did leave the city. Some houses give the impression of having been packed up and in some cases furniture and objects were excavated jumbled together. Other objects of value appear to have been buried or hidden. There is evidence of people returning after the eruption to dig through the remains—either recovering lost goods or looting for valuables. In Pompeii, an ash flow suffocated the remaining population and allowed all organic matter to decompose. However, where bodies and other organic objects (from bodies to wooden architectural frames) once lay or stood, empty cavities within the ash remained and preserved their outer forms . A pyroclastic flow of superheated gas and rock went west to the coast and the city of Herculaneum. Unlike the ash blanket of Pompeii, the pyroclastic flow in Herculaneum petrified organic material, ensuring the preservation of human remains and wood, including the preservation of wooden screens, beds, and shelving. Many of the frescoes , mosaics , and other non-organic materials in both the ash and pyroclastic flows were preserved until their excavation in the modern period. The Roman Domus The Roman domus, or house, played two important roles in Roman society: as a home and as a place of business for patricians and wealthy Romans. To facilitate this dual functionality, the domus had a distinct set of rooms that could be used as either public or private spaces. While no modern domus adheres to the standard model of a domus, many Roman houses, both small and large, have nearly all of these different rooms. The design of the domus reflects the Roman patronage where a client is protected by a wealthy patron, and in return supports the actions and estate of the patron. Many of a patron’s clients would be freedmen or other plebeians and lesser patricians. The domus is often set back from the main street, and tabernae (shops) line the streets on either side of the house’s main entrance. Clients entered the house through the fauces (Latin for jaw), which was a narrow entryway into an atrium. The atrium was the most important part of the house since it was the spot where clients and guests were greeted. It often included an impluvium, or basin that collected rain water. The roof did not cover the impluvium. The open space above the basin was called the compluvium. The atrium was often richly decorated with thematic frescos and images of the patron’s ancestors. Cubicula , or rooms, lined the atrium, and at the far end was the tablinum. The tablinum functioned as the office of the patron and was where he met with his clients during the morning ritual of salutatio. The tablinum often provided a glimpse into the private sphere of the house, which was set behind the office. Typically, the front half of the house served as public space, while the back of the domus was reserved for the more private functions of the family. In the back of the house, beyond the tablinum, would be one or more triclinium (plural: triclinia), or dining rooms. The dining rooms were lavishly decorated and typically furnished with dining couches and a low table. A peristyle—a colonnaded courtyard—was usually the main feature of the back of the house. It could contain gardens and even a pool and provided light as well as shade and breeze for hot summer days. Other features of the domus, include alae (open rooms) with an unknown function, kitchens (culina), and additional rooms for work, sleeping, and servants. Domus at Pompeii Each domus throughout Pompeii represents the various ways the standard components of a domus were used to create unique floor plans that showcase the status and wealth of the owner. The large complex of the House of the Faun encompasses an entire city block. This domus has two atria, each with its own fauces, although with two peristyles of different sizes. In essence, the House of the Faun was a private villa despite its urban setting. Two houses, the House of the Vettii and the House of the Tragic Poet—both previously discussed for their wall paintings—are simpler constructions than the House of the Faun, but both house plans still readily depict the wealth of the household. Visitors entering the House of the Vettii were greeted by a frescoed image of Priapus, an image that portrayed the wealth and luck of the two bachelors who lived inside. The main attributes of their house were the atrium and the large garden peristyle, surrounded by decorated triclinium and a garden complete with fountains, statues, and flowers. While this house had fewer public-private access restrictions than the standard domus, it did include the main attributes of a traditional Roman house. The House of the Tragic Poet was small but maintained the public-private access characteristic of the traditional domus. The fauces was especially noted for its mosaic image of a dog, complete with the warning “Cave canem,” or, roughly, “Beware of dog.” The fauces led the guest into the atrium and the tablinum, which divided the public front of the house from the private back of the house, where a small peristyle and a frescoed triclinium were located. Public Architecture The ash cloud that blanketed Pompeii in 79 CE preserved public buildings, as well as domi. Among the best preserved are the amphitheater, the Temple of Isis, and the Suburban Baths. Amphitheater of Pompeii The Amphitheater of Pompeii is the oldest surviving Roman amphitheater. Built around 70 BCE, the current amphitheater is the earliest Roman amphitheater known to have been built of stone. Previous amphitheaters were constructed of wood. The design is seen by some modern crowd control specialists as near optimal. Similar to the Colosseum, but constructed over a century later, its arcaded exterior appears to have been conducive to efficient evacuation. Its washroom, located in the neighboring wrestling school, has also been cited as an inspiration for better bathroom design in modern stadiums. Derived from the Greek words amphi (on both sides) and theatron (a place for viewing), an amphitheater combines two theaters into a circular or ovoid form. The interior of the amphitheater at Pompeii resembles two Greek theaters, with its tiered seating overlooking a central staging area. Still structurally and acoustically sound, the amphitheater was the site of notable rock concerts in 1971 and 2016. Temple of Isis Roman culture was accommodating of most of the religious beliefs of its conquered peoples, and often built temples and sanctuaries to non-Roman deities and incorporated them into their own pantheon. One such example is the Temple of Isis, dedicated to the Egyptian mother goddess. The principal devotees of this temple are assumed to be women, freedmen, and slaves. Initiates of the Isis mystery cult worshiped a compassionate goddess who promised eventual salvation and a perpetual relationship throughout life and after death. The temple’s design combines Roman, Greek, and Egyptian architectural elements. It is surrounded by brick columns faced with plaster in a stylized reed motif often found on Egyptian columns. Their general shape recalls both the Doric and Tuscan orders. Like typical Roman temples, the portico and cella rest on a raised platform connected to the ground by a central stairway. The columns on the portico appear to have been Tuscan. To either side of the cella is an arched niche flanked by either Corinthian or Composite pillasters. Suburban Baths The Suburban Baths (c. late first century BCE), built against the city walls, served as a public bath house for the residents of Pompeii. The entrance to the Baths is through a long corridor that leads into the dressing room. Excavation of the Baths revealed only one set of dressing rooms and has led archaeologists to believe that both men and women shared this facility. The dressing room then led to the tepidarium (lukewarm room), followed by the caldarium (hot room), both of which were standard in public baths throughout the empire. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - August Labicana Massimo Inv56230. Provided by : Wikimedia. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:27.255827	2020-05-01T17:31:57	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/08%3A_The_Romans/8.03%3A_The_Early_Empire", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "8.3: The Early Empire", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/08%3A_The_Romans/8.04%3A_The_Nervan-Antonines	8.4: The Nervan-Antonines Architecture under the Nervan-Antonines The emperors Trajan and Hadrian were the two most prolific emperors who constructed buildings during the Nervan-Antonine dynasty. Discuss Trajan’s Forum, Trajan’s Markets, Hadrian’s Pantheon, and Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli Key Points - Trajan’s Forum was built from 106 to 113 CE from the spoils of the conquest of Dacia , and it celebrates Trajan’s military power. The forum provided much-needed public space for law courts and other political and administrative meetings. - The Markets of Trajan were built into the Quirinal Hill. The vaulted halls provided rooms for administrative offices, shops, and perhaps even apartments. - Apollodorus of Damascus was Trajan’s court architect who designed and built many of Trajan’s architectural projects. He was dismissed by Hadrian, because he did not appreciate Hadrian’s architectural inspirations. - Hadrian rebuilt the Pantheon of Agrippa in 118–125 CE. The Pantheon is an architectural innovation with a magnificent unreinforced concrete dome . - Hadrian’s villa at Tivoli demonstrates his interest in the eclectic cultural styles he saw during his travels around the empire, as well as his own innovative spirit toward architecture. Key Terms - coffered : Having an ornamental sunken panel in a ceiling or dome. - quadriga : A Roman chariot drawn by four horses abreast. - exedra : A semicircular recess, with stone benches, used as a place for discussion. - forum : A public square in an ancient Roman city. - oculus : A window or other opening that has an oval or circular shape (as of an eye). Public Building Programs Public building programs were prevalent under the emperors of the Nervan-Antonine dynasty . During this period of peace, stability, and an expansion of the empire’s borders, many of the emperors sought to cast themselves in the image of the first imperial builder, Augustus. The projects these emperors conducted around the empire included the building and restoration of roads, bridges, and aqueducts . In Rome , these imperial building projects strengthened the image of the emperor and directly addressed the needs of the citizens of the city. Trajan’s Forum Trajan’s Forum was the last of the imperial fora to be built in the city. The forum’s main entrance was accessed from the south, near to the Forum of Augustus as well as the Forum of Caesar (which Trajan also renovated). The Forum of Augustus might have been the model for the Forum of Trajan, even though the latter was much larger. Both fora were rectangular in shape with a temple at one end. Both appear to have a set of exedra on either side. Trajan built his forum with the spoils from his conquest of Dacia. The visual elements within the forum speak of his military prowess and Rome’s victory. A triumphal arch mounted with an image of the emperor in a six-horse chariot greeted patrons at the southern entrance. In the center of the large courtyard stood an equestrian statue of Trajan, and additional bronze statues of him in a quadriga lined the roof of the Basilica Ulpia, which transected the forum in the northern end. This large civic building served as a meeting place for the commerce and law courts. It was lavishly furnished with marble floors, facades , and the hall was filled with tall marble columns . The Basilica Ulpia also separated the arcaded courtyard from two libraries (one for Greek texts, the other for Latin), the Column of Trajan, and a temple dedicated to the Divine Trajan. Trajan’s Markets Trajan’s markets were an additional public building that the emperor built at the same time as his forum. The markets were built on top of and into the Quirinal Hill. They consisted of a series of multi-leveled halls lined with rooms for either shops, administrative offices, or apartments. The markets follow the shape of the Trajan’s forum. A portion of them are shaped into a large exedra, framing one of the exedra of the forum. Like Trajan’s forum, the markets were elaborately decorated with marble floors and revetment, as well as decorative columns to frame the doorways. Apollodorus of Damascus Many of Trajan’s architectural achievements were designed by his architect, Apollodorus of Damascus. Apollodorus was a Greek engineer from Damascus, Syria. He designed Trajan’s forums and markets, the Arch of Trajan at Benevento, and an important bridge across the Danube during the campaigns against the Dacians. Unfortunately for Apollodorus, Trajan’s heir Hadrian also took an interest in architecture. According to Roman biographers, Apollodorus did not appreciate Hadrian’s interests or architectural drawings and often discredited them. Upon the succession of the new emperor, Apollodorus was dismissed from court. Hadrian’s Pantheon Hadrian’s most famous contribution to the city of Rome was his rebuilding of the Pantheon, a temple to all the gods, that was first built by Agrippa during the reign of Augustus. Agrippa’s Pantheon burned down in the 80s CE, was rebuilt by Domitian, and burned down again in 110 CE. Hadrian’s Pantheon still remains standing today, a great testament of Roman engineering and ingenuity. The Pantheon was consecrated as a church during the medieval period and was later used a burial site. The most unusual aspect of the Pantheon is its magnificent coffered dome, which was originally gilded in bronze. The concrete dome, which provided inspiration to numerous Renaissance and Neoclassical architects, spans over 142 feet and remains the largest unreinforced dome today. It stands due to a series of relieving arches and because the supportive base of the building is nearly twenty feet thick. The cylindrical drum on which the dome rests consists of hollowed-out brick filled with concrete for extra reinforcement. At the center of the dome is a large oculus that lets in light, fresh air, and even rain. Both the oculus and the coffered ceiling lighten the weight of the dome, allowing it to stand without additional supports. The Pantheon takes its shape from Greek circular temples, however it is faced by a Roman rectangular portico and a triangular pediment supported by monolithic granite columns imported from Egypt. The portico, which originally included a flight of stairs to a podium, acts as a visual trick, preparing viewers to enter a typical rectangular temple when they would instead be walking into a circular one. A dedicatory inscription is carved in the entablature under the pediment. The inscription reads as the original inscription would have read when the Pantheon was first built by Agrippa. Hadrian’s decision to use the original inscription links him to the original imperial builders of Rome. Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli Hadrian traveled extensively during his reign and was frequently exposed to a variety of local architectural styles. His villa at Tivoli (built during the second and third decades of the second century CE) reflects the influence of styles found in locations such as Greece and Egypt. Among the designs he borrowed are caryatids and statues beside them that depict the Egyptian dwarf and fertility god Bes. A Greek Maritime Theater exhibits classical Ionic style, whereas the domes of the main buildings, as well as the Corinthian arches of the Canopus (a pool) and Serapeum (an artificial grotto), clearly show the influence of Roman architecture. One structure in the villa is the so-called Maritime Theater. It consists of a round portico with a barrel vault supported by pillars . Inside the portico was a ring-shaped pool with a central island. Inside the outer wall and surrounding the moat are a ring of unfluted Ionic columns. The Maritime Theater includes a lounge, a library, heated baths, three suites with heated floors, washbasin, an art gallery, and a large fountain. During the ancient times, the island was connected to the portico by two wooden drawbridges. On the island sits a small Roman house complete with an atrium , a library, a triclinium , and small baths. The area was probably used by the emperor as a retreat from the busy life at the court. The villa utilizes numerous architectural styles and innovations. The domes of the steam baths have circular holes on the apex to allow steam to escape. This is reminiscent of the Pantheon. The area has a network of underground tunnels. The tunnels were mostly used to transport servants and goods from one area to another. In total, the villa’s structures demonstrate the emperor’s innovative spirit in the field of architecture. Imperial Sculpture under the Nervan-Antonines The imperial portraiture of men and women in the early- to mid-second century reflects an increasing austerity and interest in the Greeks. Contrast male and female imperial portraiture during this time period from that of the Flavian dynasty Key Points - The portraiture of Nerva and Trajan display a militaristic look. - Hadrian changed the Roman portrait style to reflect the Greek style and he mimicked the hair and beard style of ancient Greek politicians. Antoninus Pius continued this style, while Marcus Aurelius modeled his appearance after Greek philosophers. - Commodus believed himself to be the reincarnation of Hercules and commissioned portraits of himself as Hercules, complete with attributes associated with the hero and his deeds. - Imperial women set the style and fashion for elite hair styles. The styles of Trajan’s wife Pompeia Plotina and his niece Matidia demonstrate a simplified abstract vertical form based on the earlier curly, extravagant Flavian style. - Both Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius’s wives chose to follow their respective husband’s choice of style, and are depicted with hairstyles that derive from Greece, though they are notably more subdued than the styles of their predecessors. Key Terms - Hercules : The son of Jupiter and Alcmene, he is a celebrated hero who possessed exceptional strength. Most famous for his 12 labors performed to redeem himself after killing his family. - Pericles : A prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator, and a general of Athens during the city’s Golden Age—specifically, the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. Imperial Portraiture Imperial portraiture under the Flavians first depicted the emperors as mature, older men. Nerva, who only reigned for two years before his natural death in 98 CE, was declared emperor by the Senate following Domitian’s assassination. Since he had no natural sons of his own, Nerva adopted a young and popular general, Trajan, to be his successor. Nerva’s portraiture followed the style of imperial portraiture during the Flavian era. The few portraits that remain from the two years of his rule depict a man with a receding hairline and small mouth. The portraiture of Nerva and later of Trajan display an increasing militaristic look. Nerva’s successor and adopted son Trajan was a much more successful emperor who was well liked by both the Senate and the people of Rome . He reigned for nearly twenty years (98–117 CE), and expanded the empire’s borders while implementing extensive public building and social welfare programs. Trajan’s portraits depict him as aging, but always with a full head of hair and a typical Roman hairstyle that is reminiscent of, although not identical to, those of Augustus and Alexander the Great . Hadrian, Trajan’s adopted son and heir, peacefully became emperor in 117 CE. He was a great lover of Greek culture and wore a closely trimmed beard in the style of Classical Greek statesmen, such as the Athenian Pericles . Hadrian set a fashion for beards among Romans, and most emperors after him also wore a beard. Prior to Hadrian nearly all Roman men were clean shaven. Antoninus Pius, Hadrian’s adopted heir and successor, mimics his predecessor’s appearance in his official portraits—thick curly hair and a curly, closely-trimmed beard. By having his own portraits copy those of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius forged a visual link between himself and his predecessor. Antonius Pius’s adoptive sons Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius are also identified by the beards they wore. Both men are depicted with heads of thick, curly hair and a long, curly beards. Unlike the closely trimmed beard style of Greek statesmen, this style was more akin to the preferred style of the Greek philosophers. Marcus Aurelius admired the Greeks and was himself a philosopher. This style matched his personality and interests. Unlike the rest of the emperors of the Nervan-Antonine line , Marcus Aurelius fathered a son who became his heir. Commodus’s portrait style followed that of his father and of preceding emperors. Commodus was egotistical and even had the head of the Colossus of Nero (now an image of the god Sol) recast in his own likeness. Commodus also believed he was the reincarnation of Hercules and claimed power from Hercules’s father, Jupiter. He even commissioned portraits of himself as Hercules. These portraits show him with the now-traditional imperial style of thick, curly hair and a curly beard. Hercules’s lion skin is draped over his head and around his shoulders and he often carries a club and sometimes the apples of the Hesperides. Imperial Female Portraiture The women of imperial families set the standards of fashion and beauty during the reigns of their husbands or other male family members. These women also established the hairstyles of the period, which are so distinctive that busts and statues are easily dated to specific decades in accordance with the hairstyle of the woman depicted. During the Nervan-Antonine period, the portraits of imperial women and their hairstyles kept some Flavian flavor but were simpler than they had been. The fashionable style among women during the reign of the Flavians involved hairpieces and wigs to create a stack of curls on the crown of the head. Trajan’s wife Pompeia Plotina and his niece Matidia established a new style that was almost an abstraction of the Flavian style. Their hairstyles still involved a vertical element, but the curls were simplified on the crown of the head. Matidia’s natural hair was gathered above nape of the neck, while Pompeia Plotina wore a braid at the back of her head. Just as Hadrian chose to wear his hair and beard in a Greek style, his wife Sabina also chose a Greek hair style, helping to promote Hadrian’s Panhellenic agenda. Sabina is depicted with simplified facial features, and her style is comparable that worn by Praxitiles’s sculpture Aphrodite of Knidos. Her hair is held back by a band and carefully woven around the back of the head. A similar style was promoted by Marcus Aurelius’s wife, Faustina the Younger, who is depicted with carefully crimped hair worn close the head. Victory Columns under the Nervan-Antonines The monuments dedicated to the reigns of Trajan, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius emphasize their military achievements, divinity, and public works. Describe the monuments dedicated to the reigns of Trajan, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius and what they emphasized Key Points - The Emperor Trajan continued an era of peace and stability that saw the fullest expansion of the empire, as well as the execution of numerous public works, ranging from building programs to social welfare. - The Column of Trajan is an artistic feat that depicts Trajan’s military conquest over the Dacians (101 CE–102 CE and 105 CE–16 CE), through a series of more than 150 episodes that show over 2,500 figures . - The Antonine dynasty consists of four emperors, who ruled from 132 to 192 CE. Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius are considered the last two of the Five Good Emperors who reigned consecutively during the second century CE. - The pedestal for the Column of Antoninus Pius, erected by his adopted sons and heirs, depict both a conservative Classical artistic style as well as a new artistic style that was previously only seen in plebeian art. - Despite sharing several attributes with the Column of Trajan, the Column of Marcus Aurelius features higher reliefs , stockier figures, distorted proportions, and emphasis on military strength. These new elements point to the changing priorities and social-political attitudes of the period. Key Terms - apotheosis : The fact or action of becoming or making into a god; deification. - decursio : A Roman military exercise that involves the cavalry riding in a circle. - Dacia : An ancient kingdom located in the area now known as Romania. The Dacian kingdom was conquered by the Romans and later named Romania after them. - frieze : Any sculptured or richly ornamented band in a building or, by extension, in rich pieces of furniture. Imperial Memorial Trajan was born in Spain and rose to prominence in the Roman army during the reign of Domitian. He was a popular general who was adopted by the Emperor Nerva as his son and heir after Nerva realized he needed chose a successor who was liked by the people. During Trajan’s reign of nearly twenty years, from 98 CE to 117 CE, the Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial range. Trajan established large building programs both in Rome and throughout the empire. Column of Trajan Trajan and his architect Apollodorus of Damascus designed and built a large forum complex in the center of Rome. Standing between the libraries of the Forum of Trajan is a 128 foot tall victory column, known as the Column of Trajan. It stands on top of a large pedestal carved with a relief of the spoils of war. The pedestal later served as a tomb for Trajan’s ashes upon his death and deification. He is the first emperor to be buried inside the pomerium , the religious boundary around the city of Rome. A 625-foot frieze that depicts Trajan’s two military campaigns against the Dacians is sculpted in a spiral relief that wraps around the column, from its bottom to its top. The frieze depicts over 150 episodes with more than 2,500 figures. The scenes show the Roman army preparing for war, including scenes of moving the army, building fortifications, Emperor Trajan addressing the troops, battles, and the eventual surrender by the Dacians. Only one quarter of the narration depicts battles, while the remaining panels depict scenes of preparation and other activities. The heavy emphasis on preparation, instead of battle, emphasizes the Romans’ organization and the power behind the army. The visual narration is depicted in low relief (bas relief) and relies little on naturalistic detail, preferring to show some scenes in multiple perspectives and with figures on different ground lines . Important characters, such as Trajan, reappear throughout the frieze and are easily identified. Trajan himself appears 59 times, leading his troops as the head of the army and the empire. With the exception of the appearance of a few Victory figures and a river god, the Romans and Trajan are shown conquering the Dacians under their own power, through their own superiority over their enemy, without the help of divine intervention. Trajan’s victory column was originally topped by an eagle and later with a statue of Trajan. The statue of Trajan eventually disappeared and was replaced in the sixteenth century by a bronze statue of St. Peter. Scholars have recently called the legibility of the figures into question. Because of the column’s location, nestled between the libraries and the basilica of the Trajan’s Forum, the scenes, which are carved in low relief, are small and hard to read. It is uncertain how much of the column’s relief Romans would have been able to see. There is some speculation whether knowledge of the idea of the narrative was more important than being physically able to read the narrative. The Column of Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161 CE), the first of the Antonine emperors, was the adopted son of Hadrian. His heirs, Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius, had a column erected to him on the Campus Martius, the base of which survives today. On two of its sides is an identical scene of a military decursio depicting cavalry men parading around soldiers, two of whom hold standards. The relief carvings are high enough to protrude from the sides and be visible when viewing the non-decursio side of the pedestal. It depicts each figure from a ground-level perspective while showing the circular parade from a bird’s eye view. On one of the other two sides is a dedicatory inscription. On the opposite panel is a scene of the apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina. The scene depicts a large winged figure named Aion (Eternity) carrying the couple, surrounded by two eagles, to heaven. Two figures look on from the ground. One is a personification of the Campus Martius, lounging on the ground with an arm around Augustus’ sundial obelisk , the location where the ritual of deification occurred. The other is a personification of Rome, who appears as a woman wearing armor. She salutes the emperor and empress during their apotheosis, while leaning on a shield depicting the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus. The Column of Marcus Aurelius A victory column was also erected for Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 CE). This column is modeled on Trajan’s column and was originally erected on the Campus Martius between the Temple of Divine Hadrian and the Temple of Divine Marcus Aurelius. A relief frieze encircles the column and depicts Marcus Aurelius’s military campaigns at the end of his life in Germania. Despite the similar military scenes, the artistic style of the Column of Marcus Aurelius differs greatly from the Column of Trajan. The figures in this column are stockier and their proportions are distorted. The extra-large heads and deep relief carving were utilized so that the figures were easier to see from the ground than those on Trajan’s column. The military strength of the empire is emphasized more so than on the Column of Trajan, where the majority of the scenes depict the preparation for battle, instead of the battles themselves. The new style, high relief , and military emphasis demonstrates the changing priorities and social-political attitudes of the period. Architecture under Hadrian Hadrian was a great lover of architecture and the buildings he designed reflect attributes of his character. Name the defining characteristics of Hadrian’s building projects Key Points - Hadrian reigned from 117 to 138 CE. Under his reign, the port city of Ostia grew significantly, with its population inhabiting apartment blocks called insulae . - Hadrian’s general religious tolerance is reflected in the diversity of religious temples and even a Jewish synagogue in Ostia. - The Arch of Trajan at Benevento depicts scenes often seen on triumphal arches , including scenes of military conquest, imperial piety and divinity, as well programs of building and social works that Trajan implemented. - Hadrian built a mausoleum for himself and his family that became an imperial mausoleum over the next several generations. Key Terms - cardo : A north-south street in Ancient Roman cities. - insula : The Latin term for Roman apartment-style housing. - triumphal arch : A monumental arch that commemorates a victory. - decumanus : An east–west-oriented road in a Roman city. - engaged column : A column embedded in a wall and partly projecting from the surface of the wall, sometimes defined as semi- or three-quarter detached. - mausoleum : A large, stately tomb or a building that houses such a tomb or several tombs. Hadrian’s Reign Like Trajan before him, the emperor Hadrian had a long and successful career as an emperor of Rome , reigning from 117 to 138 CE. Hadrian’s time as emperor was marked with peace and relative stability throughout the empire. He was an active general in the military, both before and after becoming emperor, despite a lull in military conflicts during his reign. He worked to strengthen Rome’s borders by building fortifications, outposts, and walls. The most famous of these is Hadrian’s Wall in Britainnia that marked the northern boundary of the empire on the isle. Hadrian also traveled extensively, enjoying new cultures , inspecting troops, and promoting military readiness. Ostia During Hadrian’s reign, the port city of Ostia grew significantly, reaching over 75,000 inhabitants by the third century CE. Located at the mouth of the Tiber on the Tyrrhenian Sea, Ostia was the main port city of Rome. The city was first founded during the third century BCE, as one of Rome’s earliest colonies. The ruins of Ostia are from the city’s imperial period when it was at the height of its prosperity. Since Rome was settled inland, Ostia was always an important component to the capital city, especially as the empire expanded and relied on its provinces for survival. Merchant vessels and large ships filled with grains, building materials, and other goods to sell in Rome docked at Ostia, where the goods were eventually transferred upriver. Insulae Ostia was a typical of a Roman city, including a large central forum , bath houses, temples, a theatre, barracks for firemen, and apartment buildings. The two central streets of the city, the cardo and decumanus , ran north–south and east–west through the city, intersecting at the forum—the center of the city’s civic and religious activities. The citizens of Ostia lived in apartment houses or insulae, which stood six or seven stories high. The insulae of Ostia demonstrate the cramped and noisy living style that was common in Roman cities. Shops, known as tabernae, occupied the ground level of the insulae, while the upper stories housed apartments. Roman apartments varied in size from larger homes located on the lower floors with private dining and cooking areas, as well as private toilets, to small, cramped rooms with communal cooking areas and toilets on the upper floors. Religion Excavations at Ostia reveal a variety of temples and meeting sites for cults and rituals . This reflects the relative religious diversity within the Roman Empire. Common features throughout the Empire include the Capitolium, the temple dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, in the forum at the center of the city. Across from the Capitolium in the forum stands a temple dedicated to Augustus and Roma. Within close proximity is the Temple to Hercules , and throughout the city are temples dedicated to gods related to shipping and commerce, as well temples built by guilds , such as the ship builders or the rope makers, for their patron gods. On the city’s outskirts, there is also a large sanctuary to the goddess Cybele or Magna Mater, attesting to her popularity in the city. The god Mithras was also popular among the Ostians and worshiped solely by men in the form of a mystery cult. Over 15 mithraea have been discovered in the city. These mithraea are nearly all built underground to replicate the cave central to the myths of Mithras. Hadrian’s general religious tolerance is reflected in this religious diversity, including the presence of a Jewish synagogue. The Arch of Trajan at Benevento The Arch of Trajan in Benevento draws visual cues from the Arch of Titus at Rome. This arch, built between 114 and 117 CE, was erected over the Via Appia, one of Rome’s most ancient roads through southern Italy, as the road entered Beneventum. Like the Arch of Titus, the Arch of Trajan is ornately decorated with scenes of conquest and the deeds completed by Trajan. On both sides of the arch is a dedicatory inscription. The exterior is decorated with engaged columns and reliefs of Trajan’s military conquest of Dacia , the extent of the Roman empire, and allegorical scenes of imperial power, as well as Trajan’s good deeds as both a builder of public works and as the founder of a charitable institution for children in Roman Italy. The two interior relief panels depict the religious activity of Trajan. One shows him making a sacrifice in one of Rome’s oldest fora, the Forum Boarium, which was home of some of the city’s oldest temples. The other panel depicts Trajan being welcomed after his apotheosis by the Capitoline Triad. These two scenes depict Trajan’s piety as well as the approval given him by the three most important gods in the Roman pantheon . Hadrian’s Mausoleum Hadrian also built a large mausoleum for himself and his family on the right bank of the Tiber River in Rome. Its original design seems to have purposely recalled the Mausoleum of Augustus, located across the river on the Campus Martius. The Mausoleum of Hadrian was a large cylinder topped by a garden and quadriga statue. A central room housed the ashes of Hadrian and his family, as well as several of the emperors who succeeded him. While Hadrian’s Mausoleum still stands today, it was later converted into a residence and fortress under the Roman popes and now serves as a museum. - Curation and Revision. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:27.426821	2020-05-01T17:32:02	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/08%3A_The_Romans/8.04%3A_The_Nervan-Antonines", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "8.4: The Nervan-Antonines", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/08%3A_The_Romans/8.05%3A_The_Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire	8.5: The Decline of the Roman Empire Architecture during the Severan Dynasty The Severan Dynasty was the last stable period of imperial reign over the Roman Empire until that of Constantine. Describe the Triumphal Arches of Septimius Severus, the Baths of Caracalla, and Caracalla’s Serapeum on the Quirinal Hill Key Points - Septimius Severus established the Severan dynasty and declared himself a son of Marcus Aurelius to legitimize his reign and depicted himself in the fashion of the last good emperor. - The Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome visually relates to the triumphal arches of the city, especially the triple arch of Augustus, not only by commemorating a victory over the Parthians but by also using similar narrative conventions to establish Severan authority. - The Arch of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna, the emperor’s hometown, is a unique four-sided arch that demonstrates both the new style of the Late Antique as well as the triumphal events of Septimius Severus’s victory over the Parthians that occurred in Rome. - The Baths of Caracalla were his major building program in Rome as a gift to the Roman people. The baths demonstrate the impressive and expansive use of Roman concrete, vaults , and architectural design. - Caracalla’s commission of a Serapeum , dedicated to an Egyptian god with Greek attributes, on the Quirinal Hill highlights the diversity reached in the Roman pantheon by the third century. Key Terms - Serapeum : A temple or sanctuary dedicated to the Egypto-Hellenic god Serapis. - mithraeum : The place of worship for followers of Mirthras. It was often in a cave-like space that was underground, narrow, and lined with benches. Mithraea is plural for mirthraeum. The assassination of Commodus in 192 CE once again plunged the Roman Empire into a year of civil war. Five generals succeeded one another until the fifth, Septimius Severus, consolidated power and managed to reign over Rome until his death from illness, 19 years later in 211 CE. He established the Severan Dynasty that reigned until 235 CE, overseen by five different emperors. Unfortunately for Rome, the economy and the bureaucratic and administrative power of the Emperor and the Senate were declining during this time. The five Severan emperors faced great difficulties maintaining control over the empire. Their troubles demonstrate the importance of this pivotal period that ultimately led to Rome’s decline. Septimius Severus To strengthen his claim as emperor, Septimius Severus declared himself to be the secret son of Marcus Aurelius and even had his portrait fashioned in a similar manner to him. Like Marcus Aurelius, Septimius Severus wore his beard thick and curly in the style of Greek philosophers. His portraits show him as old, but fit and without the winkles of wisdom seen in Republican veristic portraiture. Triumphal Arches of Septimius Severus Two triumphal arches commissioned by Septimius Severus still stand today: the first at the northwest entrance to the Roman forum , and the second on the main road leading into the city of Leptis Magna, the Roman colony in modern Libya where Septimius Severus was born. Both were erected in 203 CE and commemorate the emperor’s victory over the Parthians. The Roman Arch of Septimius Severus recalls the triumphal arch of Augustus, also erected to honor his own victory over the Parthians. Like Augustus’ arch, that of Septimius is a triple arch—the only surviving one in Rome. Decorative panels depict scenes of conquest echoing the military scenes on the Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. These, however, depart from the Classical style, stylistically resembling more the figures on the Column of Marcus Aurelius. The figures on the panels are carved in high relief , and each shows multiple scenes. Small friezes recounting the triumphal procession also frame the panels. Other decorative elements include winged victories in the spandrels and two sets of four columns, one on each side, that frame the archways. The columns are free-standing, decorative additions to the arch. On the pedestal of each are reliefs of Romans leading captive Parthians away. This arch visually recalls the triumphal arches of the past that stood in the Roman Forum and expresses the continuity of Septimius Severus’ imperial rule and the momentum of the empire. The Arch of Septimius Severus at Leptis Magna is architecturally distinct and unique in comparison to the triumphal arches of Rome. This arch is four-sided and acts as a gateway into the city. Corinthian columns, eight in total, stand at each corner and support a broken pediment , a common architectural feature in the North African and Eastern provinces. Despite its very different design, the arch’s components are in dialogue with the triumphal arch in Rome. Depictions of war spoils and captive barbarians line the interior of the arches and a frieze wraps around them, depicting the triumphal procession that occurred in Rome. This frieze is both a portrayal of the actual triumph that Septimius Severus enjoyed as well as a mythical presentation, as gods and personifications are also present in the procession and at the sacrifice that followed. Most importantly, the arch at Leptis Magnus demonstrates the emerging artistic style of the second century CE and Late Antiquity . The figures in the frieze are squat and square. The limbs are thick, and their clothing is stylistically rendered with incised lines that give no indication of the body underneath. It is a complete displacement of the Classical style that dominated Roman art during the previous three centuries Baths of Caracalla Caracalla was one of the last emperors of the century who had the time, resources, and power to build in the city of Rome. His longest-lasting contribution is a large bath complex that stands to the southeast of Rome’s center. It covered over 33 acres and could hold over 1,600 bathers at a time. Bathing was an important part of Roman daily life, and the baths were a place for leisure, business, socializing, exercising, learning, and illicit affairs. These baths not only held the traditional bathing pools but also exercise courts, changing rooms, and Greek and Latin libraries. A mithraeum has also been found on the site. Architecturally, the Baths of Caracalla demonstrate the impressive mastery of Roman building and the importance of concrete and the vaulting systems developed by the Romans to create large and impressive buildings with ceilings that span great distances. The building was lavishly decorated with marble veneer, fanciful mosaics , and monumental Greek marble statues. Quirinal Hill Serapeum In 212, Caracalla erected a temple (called a Serapeum) on Quirinal Hill dedicated to the Egyptian god Serapis, a human-headed deity who shared Greek and Egyptian attributes. This Serapeum was, by most surviving accounts, the most sumptuous and architectonically ambitious of those built on the hill. The temple covered over three acres. It was composed by a long courtyard (surrounded by a colonnade) and by the ritual area, where statues and obelisks were erected. Designed to impress its visitors, the temple boasted columns nearly 70 feet tall and over six feet in diameter, sitting atop a marble stairway that connected the base of the hill to the sanctuary . The ruins of the Serapeum show a mixture of brick and concrete with a regular use of the round arch. Symbolically, the temple signified the diversity that the Roman pantheon had reached by the third century. Sculpture during the Decline of the Roman Empire The Dominate Period, when warring generals controlled Rome, was a time marked by insecurity, anxiety, and a rapid succession of emperors. Contrast the Late Antique style with earlier Classical conventions Key Points - Portraits of the soldier emperors reflect the anxiety and fear the men probably felt with their lives in peril. The need to depict oneself as heroic, strong, and firm is also evident. - The Crisis of the Third Century saw over twenty-five men claim the title of emperor and assume power over the empire. - Sculpture during this time fully develops into the Late Antique style , which derives from second century CE plebeian art. An early instance of its use is seen on the Arches of Septimius Severus. - The Late Antique style becomes simple, less realistic, and rejects Classical conventions that focused on naturalism and the proper rendering of the body and clothing in favor of simplicity and heavy, angular lines , squat bodies, and incised details. Key Terms - Praetorian Guard : The force of body guards used by Roman emperors. - adlocutio : An address by a general (usually the emperor) to his massed army and a general salute from the army to their leader. - late antique : The style of art that covers the transition from the Classical world and the civilizations of Greece and Rome into the Middle Ages. In terms of artistic style, it covers the transition from Roman to Medieval and Byzantine art. - Parthians : An ancient Persian empire based in the northeast of modern day Iran. After Caracalla Emperor Caracalla was assassinated while campaigning against the Parthians in 217 CE. He was quickly succeeded by a member of his personal guard, Macrinus, who ruled for less than a year before his own death. Elagabalus, the grandson of Julia Domna’s sister, and his cousin Alexander Severus were the last in the Severan line. Both men managed to maintain control of Rome , and Alexander Severus was even able to improve the economic condition of the empire. Following Alexander’s death at the hands of his own soldiers, Rome plunged into a long period of uneasy, rapid successions referred to as the Crisis of the Third Century, a crisis that lasted for fifty years. Soldier Emperors The first 26 emperors of this period were generals who either proclaimed themselves or were officially acknowledged as the emperor. Their reigns lasted from a couple of months to a couple of years. The fact that they were all generals in the Roman army underscores the military insecurity of the empire at this time. Instead of protecting the border or trade routes, legions of soldiers were often fighting each other in support of one emperor or another. Since Roman power was still centered in Rome, the only building project that succeeded through this period was the building and maintaining of the city’s Aurelian Wall, under the emperor Aurelian (r. 270–275 CE). The portraits of Trajan Decius (r. 249–251 CE) and Trebonianus Gallus (r. 252–253 CE) serve to illustrate the instability of the period and the need for soldier-emperors to assert power to maintain some semblance of control. Trajan Decius Trajan D’s portrait at first seems to take its artistic style from Republican veristic portraiture, but a closer look reveals something else. Instead of depicting a hyper-realistic portrait of an old and wise man, this portrait reveals the anxiety and nervousness of the emperor. His brow is furrowed with worry and wrinkles, and his eyes and mouth impart a feeling of fear and anguish. Trebonianus Gallus The portrait of his successor, Trebonianus Gallus takes a different style, relying on old sculpture and narrative conventions to depict the emperor as a contemporary hero. This larger-than-life bronze statue depicts a muscled, nude man with his right arm raised in a gesture of speech. He seems to be in adlocutio pose, addressing the troops or perhaps the people of Rome. His head is notably smaller than his torso and disproportional to his body. This places emphasis on his bulk and reminds the viewer of the emperor’s power and the stability he hoped to create. Late Antique Art: The Ludovisi Sarcophagus Sculpture during this period demonstrates the style and design of Late Antique art that was initially developed during the late second century CE from plebeian models. The emergence of the style corresponds with the social, political, and economic upheaval of the empire that began during the reign of Commodus. This style removes Classical conventions of realism . It pushes its characters into the foreground and almost entirely removes the background. In the scenes shown on the Ludovisi Sarcophagus, the undercutting of the deep relief exhibits virtuosic and very time-consuming drill work that conveys chaos and a sense of weary, open-ended victory. It differs from earlier battle scenes on sarcophagi in which more shallowly carved figures are less convoluted and intertwined. Unlike earlier Roman depictions of warfare, this scene does not differentiate the general by his attire or engagement in battle. Rather, he is only slightly larger than the figures around him. From the late second century, Roman art increasingly depicted battles as chaotic, packed, single-plane scenes that emphasize dehumanized barbarians who are subjected mercilessly to Roman military might, at a time when in fact the Roman Empire was undergoing constant invasions from external threats that led to the fall of the empire in the West. Although armed, the barbarian warriors, usually identified as Goths, are depicted as helpless to defend themselves. After the Soldier Emperors The Crisis of the Third Century continued after the reign of the Soldier Emperors as the title of emperor was auctioned off to the highest bidder by the Praetorian Guard and various men, not always generals, from around the empire seized power for brief periods of time. This process continued until the reign of Diocletian, beginning in 284 CE. Imperial Sculpture under the Tetrarchy Emperor Diocletian institutionalized the Tetrarchy, a co-rule that re-established stability in the empire for the period of Diocletian’s reign. Define the Tetrarchy as seen during Diocletian’s rule Key Points - Diocletian reigned from 284 to 305 CE as an individual emperor and as a member of the Tetrarchy . - The Tetrarchy, or rule of four, was established by Diocletian as a means to administrate the empire more effectively. The four chosen men were given the title of Augustus for the senior emperor, or Caesar to designate the junior emperor. - Portraits of the Tetrarchs depict four nearly identical men standing with their arms around each other to represent their solidarity, authority, and the stability that their reign brought to the empire. - A portrait bust of the Tetrarch Galerius demonstrates the increasingly abstract direction in which portraiture was moving in the Late Antique period. Key Terms - tetrarchy : Historically, an empire that was ruled by four rulers. - porphyry : A hard, igneous rock that consists of large crystals in a fine-grained matrix. The Tetrarchy Diocletian , a military general from the cavalry, was declared emperor by his legion in 284 CE. He re-established stability in the empire and paved the way for fourth-century political and social developments. Diocletian achieved stability by establishing the Tetrarchy, Greek for rule by four. The Tetrarchy consisted of four emperors who reigned over two halves of the empire. Each pair of emperors was given control over either the eastern or western portion of the empire. Of the pair, one was given the title Caesar (a junior emperor) and the other Augustus (the senior emperor). This allowed Diocletian and his fellow emperors to organize the administration of the provinces, separate military and civic command, and restore authority throughout the realm. They further solidified their commitment to each other and communal rule by marrying into each other’s families. Portraits of the Tetrarchs Imperial portraiture of the Tetrarchs depicts the four emperors together and looking nearly identical. The portraiture symbolizes the concept of co-rule and cohesiveness instead of the power of the individual. The idea of the Tetrarchy, which is apparent in their portraits, is based on the ideal of four men working together to establish peace and stability throughout the empire. The medium of the famous porphyry sculpture of the Tetrarchs, originally from the city of Constantinople, represents the permanence of the emperors. Furthermore, the two pairs of rulers—a Caesar and an Augustus with arms around each other— form a solid, stable block that reinforces the stability the Tetrarchy brought to the Roman Empire. Stylistically, this portrait of the Tetrarchs is done in Late Antique style , which uses a distinct squat, formless bodies, square heads, and stylized clothing clearly seen in all four men. The Tetrarchs have almost no body. As opposed to Classical sculptures, which acknowledge the body beneath the attire, the clothes of the Tetrarchs form their bodies into chunky rectangles. Details such as the cuirass (breastplate), skirt, armor, and cloak are highly stylized and based on simple shapes and the repetition of lines . Despite the culmination of this artistic style, the rendering of the Tetrarchs in this manner seems to fit the connotations of Tetrarch rule and need for stability throughout the empire. Portrait of Galerius Galerius served in the Tetrarchy from 293 to 311 CE, beginning his career as the Caesar of the West (293–305) under Diocletian, and eventually rising to Augustus of the West (305–311) after Diocletian’s retirement. During his reign he campaigned, aided by Diocletian, against the Sassanid (Neo-Persian) Empire, and sacked their capital in 299. He also campaigned across the Danube against the Carpi (in present-day eastern Romania), and defeated them in 297 and 300. He opposed Christianity and oversaw the carrying out of the Diocletianic Persecution, which rescinded the rights of Christians and ordered that they comply with traditional Roman religious practices. However, toward the end of his reign in 311, he issued an edict of toleration. A porphyry bust of Galerius (c. 300 CE) shows the direction that portraiture was taking in the fourth century. This bust from the emperor’s palace features a face that is largely naturalistic with large expressive eyes and eyebrows, similar to those on the group portrait of the Tetrarchs, that lean toward abstraction. These attributes follow those of other sculptures of the Late Antique style and foreshadow the increasingly geometric form that facial features would assume in imperial portraiture and sculpture in general. Diocletian’s Palace Despite increasing abstraction in Late Antique sculpture, Diocletian’s Palace maintains the tradition of Classicism in Roman architecture. Evaluate the significance of Diocletian’s Palace and its contribution to Roman architecture Key Points - Diocletian abdicated from power and retired to his palace, an imperial villa built in the model of a military encampment known as a castrum . - Diocletian’s palace features numerous traditional attributes of Roman architecture, including Composite columns , round arches , and a domed ceiling with an oculus . - The arcuated pediment in the Peristyle is a rare attribute in Roman architecture. - The northern half of the palace was not as well preserved as the rest of the structure. Scholars can only form educated guesses as to its purpose. - The presence of Egyptian sphinxes points to the former emperor’s eclectic taste in decoration. Key Terms - arcuated : Describing a form containing a curve that makes it concave. - revetment : A sloping structure placed on a bank or cliff in such a way as to absorb the energy of incoming water. - castrum : Latin for camp or fortress; a military encampment planned in a square or rectangle with two main roads in each direction. - cardo : A street that runs north to south in an ancient Roman city. Diocletian’s Palace Diocletian abdicated power in 305 CE and left the Tetrarchy to his co-emperors and Severus, the newly inaugurated general. Diocletian then retired to his boyhood palace in Dalmatia. The palace’s remains became the center of the modern city of Spilt in Croatia. Diocletian’s palace was built as a fortress, demonstrating that despite Diocletian’s success as emperor, he still required security living in a hostile Roman environment. Despite the stylistic changes in sculpture , Diocletian’s palace serves as a reminder that the style of Roman architecture continued to be based on Classical models and forms. In addition to its numerous round arches and Classical columns, the palace also contains a vestibule with a domed ceiling that has an oculus somewhat reminiscent of the Pantheon in Rome . The palace was set up in a similar fashion to a castrum and contained courts, libraries, and other features found in imperial villas. It was constructed from local materials including limestone , marble, and brick. Some material for decoration was imported: Egyptian granite columns, fine marble for revetments , and some capitals produced in workshops in the Proconnesos (present-day Marmara Island off the coast of Turkey). The southern wall, which was the only unfortified part of the palace, was practically built on the waterfront and appeared to rise out of the Adriatic Sea. Diocletian’s palace demonstrates the Roman use of vaults in the substructure and the use of columns, peristyles, and entablatures to create monumental spaces . For example, the central court of the palace, known as the Peristyle, demonstrates the stylistic and monumental use of these architectural elements. Furthermore, the central court was sunken and a flight of stairs enclosed the court and led up to the decorative Peristyle and surrounding rooms. This increased the feeling of monumentality while emphasizing Diocletian’s imperial power, as members of the court had to stand several steps below the entrances to the temples, mausoleum , and court rooms. A main feature of the Peristyle is the portico that marks the entrance to Diocletian’s private apartments. Following the format of a traditional Roman temple to a degree, the portico rests atop a raised platform. Behind it rests a marble-faced brick wall with three entrances: an archway flanked by a rectangular portal on each side. Perhaps its most unique feature is the arcuated pediment that sits atop the temple facade. Resting on four Composite columns, the pediment contains a round arch that rises into its base toward its apex . An arcade supported by Composite columns stands to either side of the facade. The northern half of the palace, divided in two parts by the cardo leading from the northern gate to the Peristyle, is not as well preserved as the rest of the palace. Scholars posit that each part was a residential complex that housed soldiers, servants, and possibly some other facilities. Both parts were apparently surrounded by streets. Leading to the perimeter walls there were rectangular buildings that were possibly storage magazines. While the architectural aspects of the palace follow Roman traditions, several decorative choices hail from Egypt. Diocletian adorned his new home with numerous 3500-year-old granite sphinxes, originating from the site of Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III. Only three have survived the centuries. One is still on the Peristyle, the second sits headless in front of Jupiter’s temple, and a third is in the city museum. Architecture under Constantine Constantine seized sole power over Rome to establish authority and stability, and then moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople. Identify the actions and works of art that Constantine is most noted for Key Points - Constantine reigned from 306 to 337 CE. He managed to re-establish stability in the empire and rule as a single emperor, legalize Christianity, and move the imperial capital to the newly-formed city of Constantinople. - The Arch of Constantine, a triumphal arch commemorating Constantine’s victory over Maxentius, makes use of spolia from monuments dedicated to Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius. - Constantine completed the Basilica Nova, the construction of which was begun by his rival, Maxentius. This massive concrete building displayed the impressive power and authority of Constantine. - At one end of the Basilica Nova sat the Colossus of Constantine: over 40 feet tall and made of marble, brick, wood frames, and bronze gilding. The Colossus further emphasized the sole authority, control, and power held by Constantine. - After Constantine relocated, the city of Rome became vulnerable to barbarian hoards who pillaged local monuments and buildings. Outside Rome, Constantine oversaw the construction of the imperial district of Constantinople and the Aula Palatina in Trier (present-day Germany). Key Terms - nave : The central area of a basilica. - apse : A semicircular recess covered with a hemispherical vault, also known as an exedra. - colossus : A statue of gigantic proportions. The name was especially applied to certain famous statues in antiquity, such as the Colossus of Nero in Rome, and the Colossus of Rhodes, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. - basilica : A building having a nave with a semicircular apse, side aisles, a narthex, and a clerestory. The Roman design of the basilica became the model for Christian churches. - spolia : The reuse of building material or decorative sculpture for new buildings or monuments. Latin for spoils. Constantine Diocletian and his co-emperor Maximian abdicated power on May 1, 305 CE. However, over the course of the next five years, Maximian made several attempts to regain his title, and then committed suicide in 310. In the meantime, power passed to Maximian’s son Maxentius and Constantine, the son of a third co-emperor, Constantius. Unfortunately for Diocletian’s legacy and the stability created by the Tetrarchy , a power struggle between the two heirs erupted a year after the former Augustus’ abdication. When Constantius died on July 25, 306, his father’s troops proclaimed Constantine as Augustus in Eboracum (York, England). In Rome, the favorite was Maxentius, who seized the title of emperor on October 28, 306. Galerius, ruler of the Eastern provinces and the senior emperor in the Empire, recognized Constantine’s claim and treated Maxentius as a usurper. Galerius, however, recognized Constantine as holding only the lesser imperial rank of Caesar. Despite a mutiny against Galerius’ co-emperor Severus in 307, and Galerius’s subsequent failure to take Rome, Constantine managed to avoid conflict for most of this period. However, by 312, Constantine and Maxentius were engaged in open hostilities, culminating in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, in which Constantine emerged victorious. Although he attributed this victory to the aid of the Christian god, he did not convert to Christianity until he was on his deathbed. The following year, however, he enacted the Edict of Milan, which legalized Christianity and allowed its followers to begin building churches. With the Christian community growing in number and in influence, legalizing Christianity was, for Constantine, a pragmatic move. Following a rebellion from Licinius, his own co-emperor in 324 CE, Constantine eventually had his former colleague executed and consolidated power under a single ruler. As the sole emperor of an empire with new-found stability, Constantine was able to patronize large building projects in Rome. However, despite his attention to that city, he moved the capital of the empire east to the newly founded city of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). Arch of Constantine The Arch of Constantine demonstrates the continuance of the newly-adopted artistic style for imperial sculpture . This arch was erected between the Colosseum and Palatine Hill, the home of the imperial palace. It stands over the triumphal route before it enters the Republican Forum . This forms a dialog with the Arch of Titus at the top, overlooking the Forum, and the Arch of Septimius Severus, which, in turn, stands at the other end of the Forum before the Via Sacra heads uphill to the Capitolium. The Senate commissioned the triumphal arch in honor of Constantine’s victory over Maxentius. It is a triple arch and its iconography represents Constantine’s supreme power and the stability and peace his reign brought to Rome. The Arch of Constantine is especially noted for its use of spolia: architectural and decorative elements removed from one monument for use on another. Those from the monuments of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius—all considered good emperors of the Pax Romana—were reused as decoration. Trajanic panels that depict the emperor on horseback defeating barbarian soldiers adorn the interior of the central arch. The original face was reworked to take the likeness of Constantine. Eight roundels, or relief discs, adorn the space just above the two smaller side arches. These are Hadrianic and depict images of hunting and sacrifice . The final set of spolia includes eight panel reliefs on the arch’s attic, from the era of Marcus Aurelius, depicting the dual identities of the emperor, as both a military and a civic leader. The incorporation of these elements symbolize Constantine’s legitimacy and his status as one of the good emperors. The rest of the arch is decorated using Late Antique styles. The proximity of different artistic styles, under four different emperors, highlights the stylistic variations and artistic developments that occurred, both in the second century CE, as well as their differences to the Late Antique style. Besides the decorative elements in the spandrels , a Constantinian frieze runs around the arch, between the tops of the small arches and the bottoms of the roundels. This frieze highlights the artistic style of the period and chronologically depicts Constantine’s rise to power. Unlike previous examples of Late Antique art, the bodies in this frieze are completely schematic and defined only by stiff, rigid clothes. In one scene, featuring Constantine distributing gifts, the emperor is centrally depicted and raised above his supporters on a throne . Basilica Nova and the Colossus of Constantine When Constantine and Maxentius clashed at the Milvian Bridge, Maxentius was in the middle of building a grand basilica. It was eventually renamed the Basilica Nova, and was located near the Roman Forum. The basilica consisted of one side aisle on either side of a central nave . When Constantine took over and completed the grand building, it was 300 feet long, 215 feet wide, and stood 115 feet tall down the nave. Concrete walls 15 feet thick supported the basilica’s massive scale and expansive vaults . It was lavishly decorated with marble veneer and stucco . The southern end of the basilica was flanked by a porch, with an apse at the northern end. The apse of the Basilica Nova was the location of the Colossus of Constantine. This colossus was built from many parts. The head, arms, hands, legs, and feet were carved from marble, while the body was built with a brick core and wooden framework and then gilded. Only parts of the Colossus remain, including the head that is over eight feet tall and 6.5 feet long. It shows a portrait of an individual with clearly defined features: a hooked nose, prominent jaw, and large eyes that look upwards. Like the porphyry bust of Galerius, Constantine’s portrait combines naturalism in his nose, mouth, and chin with a growing sense of abstraction in his eyes and geometric hairstyle. He also held an orb and, possibly, a scepter, and one hand points upwards towards the heavens. Both the immensity of the scale and his depiction as Jupiter (seated, heroic, and semi-nude) inspire a feeling of awe and overwhelming power and authority. The basilica was a common Roman building and functioned as a multipurpose space for law courts, senate meetings, and business transactions. The form was appropriated for Christian worship and most churches, even today, still maintain this basic shape. Rome after Constantine Following Constantine’s founding of a New Rome at Constantinople, the prominence and importance of the city of Rome diminished. The empire was then divided into east and west. The more prosperous eastern half of the empire continued to thrive, mainly due to its connection to important trade routes, while the western half of the empire fell apart. While Byzantium controlled Italy and the city Rome at times over the next several centuries, for the most part the Western Roman Empire, due to being less urban and less prosperous, was difficult to protect. Indeed, the city of Rome was sacked multiple times by invading armies, including the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, over the next century. The multiple sackings of Rome resulted in the raiding of the marble, facades, décor, and columns from the monuments and buildings of the city. Parts of ancient Rome, especially the Republican Forum, returned once again to the cow pastures that they originally were at the time of the city’s founding, as floods from the Tiber washed them over in debris and sediment. Constantinople Constantine laid out a new square at the center of old Byzantium, naming it the Augustaeum. The new senate-house was housed in a basilica on the east side. On the south side of the great square was erected the Great Palace of the Emperor with its imposing entrance and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne. Nearby was the vast Hippodrome for chariot races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the famed Baths of Zeuxippus. At the western entrance to the Augustaeum was the Milion, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across the Eastern Roman Empire. The Mese, a great street lined with colonnades , led from the Augustaeum. As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed the Praetorium or law-court. Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second Senate house and a high column with a statue of Constantine in the guise of Helios, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking toward the rising sun. From there the Mese passed on and through the Forum Tauri and then the Forum Bovis, and finally up the Seventh Hill (or Xerolophus) and through to the Golden Gate in the Constantinian Wall. The Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany Constantine built the Aula Palatina (c. 310 CE) as a part of the palace complex. Originally it was attached to smaller buildings (such as an antehall, a vestibule, and service buildings) attached to it. The Aula Palatina has a simplified Roman basilica plan, consisting of a wide nave that ends in a north-facing apse. Although round arches repeat throughout the interior and exterior, the building deviates from the traditional basilica with the flat ceiling that covers the nave and the flat roof that tops the apse. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Caracalla-Grundriss. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caracalla-Grundriss.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 320px-Tempio_di_Serapide_Gregoriana_6.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1433625. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Luk Septymiusza Sewera Detal 1DSCF0006. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Luk_Septymiusza_Sewera_Detal_1DSCF0006.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Leptis Magna Arch of Septimus Severus. 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https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/08%3A_The_Romans/8.06%3A_Early_Jewish_and_Christian_Art	8.6: Early Jewish and Christian Art Early Jewish Art Early Jewish art forms included frescoes, illuminated manuscripts and elaborate floor mosaics. Discuss how the prohibition of graven images influenced the production of Jewish art Key Points - Jews, like other early religious communities, were wary of art being used for idolatrous purposes. Over time, official interpretations of the Second Commandment began to disassociate religious art with graven images . - The zodiac, generally associated with paganism , was the subject of multiple early Jewish mosaics . - An ancient synagogue in Gaza provides a rare example of the use of graven images in mosaics, depicting King David as Orpheus. - Dura-Europos is the site of an early synagogue, dating from 244 CE. Key Terms - Haggadah : A text that sets forth the order of the Passover seder. - syncretic : Describing imagery or other creative expression that blends two or more religions or cultures. - Tanakh : The body of Jewish scripture comprising the Torah, the Neviim (prophets), and the Ketuvim (writings), which correspond roughly to the Christian Old Testament. - rabbinical : Referring to rabbis, their writings, or their work. The Second Commandment and Its Interpretations The Second Commandment, as noted in the Old Testament, warns all followers of the Hebrew god Yahweh, “Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image.” As most Rabbinical authorities interpreted this commandment as the prohibition of visual art, Jewish artists were relatively rare until they lived in assimilated European communities beginning in the late eighteenth century. Although no single biblical passage contains a complete definition of idolatry , the subject is addressed in numerous passages, so that idolatry may be summarized as the worship of idols or images; the worship of polytheistic gods by use of idols or images; the worship of trees, rocks, animals, astronomical bodies, or another human being; and the use of idols in the worship of God. In Judaism, God chooses to reveal his identity, not as an idol or image, but by his words, by his actions in history, and by his working in and through humankind. By the time the Talmud was written, the acceptance or rejection of idolatry was a litmus test for Jewish identity. An entire tractate, the Avodah Zarah (strange worship) details practical guidelines for interacting with surrounding peoples so as to avoid practicing or even indirectly supporting such worship. Attitudes towards the interpretation of the Second Commandment changed through the centuries. Jewish sacred art is recorded in the Tanakh and extends throughout Jewish Antiquity and the Middle Ages . The Tabernacle and the two Temples in Jerusalem form the first known examples of Jewish art. While first-century rabbis in Judea objected violently to the depiction of human figures and the placement of statues in temples, third-century Babylonian Jews had different views. While no figural art from first-century Roman Judea exists, the art on the Dura-Europos synagogue walls developed with no objection from the rabbis. Illuminated Manuscripts and Mosaics The Jewish tradition of illuminated manuscripts during Late Antiquity can be deduced from borrowings in Early Medieval Christian art. Middle Age Rabbinical and Kabbalistic literature also contain textual and graphic art, most famously the illuminated Haggadahs like the Sarajevo Haggadah , and manuscripts like the Nuremberg Mahzor. Some of these were illustrated by Jewish artists and some by Christians. Equally, some Jewish artists and craftsmen in various media worked on Christian commissions. Byzantine synagogues also frequently featured elaborate mosaic floor tiles. The remains of a sixth-century synagogue were uncovered in Sepphoris, an important center of Jewish culture between the third and seventh centuries. The mosaic reflects an interesting fusion of Jewish and pagan beliefs. In the center of the floor the zodiac wheel was depicted. The sun god Helios sits in the middle in his chariot, and each zodiac is matched with a Jewish month. Along the sides of the mosaic are strips that depict the binding of Isaac and other Biblical scenes. The floor of the Beth Alpha synagogue, built during the reign of Justinian I (518–527 CE), also features elaborate nave mosaics. Each of its three panels depicts a different scene: the Holy Ark, the zodiac and the story Isaac’s sacrifice . Once again, Helios stands in the center of the zodiac. The four women in the corners of the mosaic represent the four seasons. As interpretations of the Second Commandment liberalized, any perceived ban on figurative depiction was not taken very seriously by the Jews living in Byzantine Gaza. In 1966, remains of a synagogue were found in the region’s ancient harbor area. Its mosaic floor depicts a syncretic image of King David as Orpheus, identified by his name in Hebrew letters. Near him are lion cubs, a giraffe and a snake listening to him playing a lyre . A further portion of the floor was divided by medallions formed by vine leaves, each of which contains an animal: a lioness suckling her cub, a giraffe, peacocks, panthers, bears, a zebra, and so on. The floor was completed between 508 and 509 CE. Dura-Europos Dura-Europos, a border city between the Romans and the Parthians , was the site of an early Jewish synagogue dated by an Aramaic inscription to 244 CE. It is also the site of Christian churches and mithraea, this city’s location between empires made it an optimal spot for cultural and religious diversity. The synagogue is the best preserved of the many imperial Roman-era synagogues that have been uncovered by archaeologists. It contains a forecourt and house of assembly with frescoed walls depicting people and animals, as well as a Torah shrine in the western wall facing Jerusalem. The synagogue paintings, the earliest continuous surviving biblical narrative cycle, are conserved at Damascus, together with the complete Roman horse armor. Because of the paintings adorning the walls, the synagogue was at first mistaken for a Greek temple. The synagogue was preserved, ironically, when it was filled with earth to strengthen the city’s fortifications against a Sassanian assault in 256 CE. The preserved frescoes include scenes such as the Sacrifice of Isaac and other Genesis stories, Moses receiving the Tablets of the Law, Moses leading the Hebrews out of Egypt, scenes from the Book of Esther, and many others. The Hand of God motif is used to represent divine intervention or approval in several paintings. Scholars cannot agree on the subjects of some scenes, because of damage, or the lack of comparative examples; some think the paintings were used as an instructional display to educate and teach the history and laws of the religion. Others think that this synagogue was painted in order to compete with the many other religions being practiced in Dura-Europos. The new (and considerably smaller) Christian church (Dura-Europos church) appears to have opened shortly before the surviving paintings were begun in the synagogue. The discovery of the synagogue helps to dispel narrow interpretations of Judaism’s historical prohibition of visual images. Early Christian Art Early Christian, or Paleochristian, art was created by Christians or under Christian patronage throughout the second and third centuries. Describe the influence of Greco-Roman culture on the development of early Christian art Key Points - Early Christian, or Paleochristian, art was produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from the earliest period of Christianity to between 260 and 525. - The lack of surviving Christian art from the first century could be due to a lack of artists in the community, a lack of funds, or a small audience. - Early Christians used the same artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture . These media included frescos , mosaics , sculptures, and illuminated manuscripts . - Early Christians used the Late Classical style and adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Because the religion was illegal until 313, Christian artists felt compelled to disguise their subject matter. - House churches were private homes that were converted into Christian churches to protect the secrecy of Christianity. The house church at Dura-Europos is the earliest house church that has been discovered. Key Terms - syncretism : The conveyance of more than one religion or culture, particularly in visual art. - Catacombs : Human-made subterranean passageways used as burial locations. - domus ecclesiae : A term that has been applied to the earliest Christian places of worship, namely churches that existed in private homes. - sarcophagus : A stone coffin, often inscribed or decorated with sculpture. - canonical : According to recognized or orthodox rules. - graven image : A carved idol or representation of a god used as an object of worship. - cubicula : Small rooms carved out of the wall of a catacomb, used as mortuary chapels, and in Roman times, for Christian worship. Early Christianity By the early years of Christianity (first century), Judaism had been legalized through a compromise with the Roman state over two centuries. Christians were initially identified with the Jewish religion by the Romans, but as they became more distinct, Christianity became a problem for Roman rulers. Around the year 98, Nerva decreed that Christians did not have to pay the annual tax upon the Jews, effectively recognizing them as a distinct religion. This opened the way to the persecutions of Christians for disobedience to the emperor, as they refused to worship the state pantheon . The oppression of Christians was only periodic until the middle of the first century. However, large-scale persecutions began in the year 64 when Nero blamed them for the Great Fire of Rome earlier that year. Early Christians continued to suffer sporadic persecutions. Because of their refusal to honor the Roman pantheon, which many believed brought misfortune upon the community, the local pagan populations put pressure on the imperial authorities to take action against their Christians neighbors. The last and most severe persecution organized by the imperial authorities was the Diocletianic Persecution from 303 to 311. Early Christian Art Early Christian, or Paleochristian, art was produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from the earliest period of Christianity to, depending on the definition used, between 260 and 525. In practice, identifiably Christian art only survives from the second century onwards. After 550, Christian art is classified as Byzantine , or of some other regional type. It is difficult to know when distinctly Christian art began. Prior to 100, Christians may have been constrained by their position as a persecuted group from producing durable works of art. Since Christianity was largely a religion of the lower classes in this period, the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds for patronage or a small numbers of followers. The Old Testament restrictions against the production of graven images (an idol or fetish carved in wood or stone) might have also constrained Christians from producing art. Christians could have made or purchased art with pagan iconography but given it Christian meanings. If this happened, “Christian” art would not be immediately recognizable as such. Early Christians used the same artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture. These media included frescos, mosaics, sculptures, and illuminated manuscripts. Early Christian art not only used Roman forms , it also used Roman styles. Late Classical art included a proportional portrayal of the human body and impressionistic presentation of space . The Late Classical style is seen in early Christian frescos, such as those in the Catacombs of Rome, which include most examples of the earliest Christian art. Early Christian art is generally divided into two periods by scholars: before and after the Edict of Milan of 313, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. The end of the period of Early Christian art, which is typically defined by art historians as being in the fifth through seventh centuries, is thus a good deal later than the end of the period of Early Christianity as typically defined by theologians and church historians, which is more often considered to end under Constantine, between 313 and 325. Early Christian Painting In a move of strategic syncretism , the Early Christians adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted were the peacock, grapevines, and the “Good Shepherd.” Early Christians also developed their own iconography. Such symbols as the fish ( ikhthus) , were not borrowed from pagan iconography. During the persecution of Christians under the Roman Empire, Christian art was necessarily and deliberately furtive and ambiguous, using imagery that was shared with pagan culture but had a special meaning for Christians. The earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late second to early fourth centuries on the walls of Christian tombs in the catacombs of Rome. From literary evidence, there might have been panel icons which have disappeared. Depictions of Jesus Initially, Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the ichthys, the peacock, the Lamb of God, or an anchor. Later, personified symbols were used, including Daniel in the lion’s den, Orpheus charming the animals, or Jonah, whose three days in the belly of the whale prefigured the interval between the death and resurrection of Jesus. However, the depiction of Jesus was well-developed by the end of the pre-Constantinian period. He was typically shown in narrative scenes, with a preference for New Testament miracles, and few of scenes from his Passion. A variety of different types of appearance were used, including the thin, long-faced figure with long, centrally-parted hair that was later to become the norm. But in the earliest images as many show a stocky and short-haired beardless figure in a short tunic , who can only be identified by his context. In many images of miracles Jesus carries a stick or wand, which he points at the subject of the miracle rather like a modern stage magician (though the wand is significantly larger). The image of The Good Shepherd, a beardless youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the most common of these images and was probably not understood as a portrait of the historical Jesus. These images bear some resemblance to depictions of kouroi figures in Greco-Roman art. The almost total absence from Christian paintings during the persecution period of the cross, except in the disguised form of the anchor, is notable. The cross, symbolizing Jesus’s crucifixion, was not represented explicitly for several centuries, possibly because crucifixion was a punishment meted out to common criminals, but also because literary sources noted that it was a symbol recognized as specifically Christian, as the sign of the cross was made by Christians from the earliest days of the religion. House Church at Dura-Europos The house church at Dura-Europos is the oldest known house church. One of the walls within the structure was inscribed with a date that was interpreted as 231. It was preserved when it was filled with earth to strengthen the city’s fortifications against an attack by the Sassanians in 256 CE. Despite the larger atmosphere of persecution, the artifacts found in the house church provide evidence of localized Roman tolerance for a Christian presence. This location housed frescos of biblical scenes including a figure of Jesus healing the sick. When Christianity emerged in the Late Antique world, Christian ceremony and worship were secretive. Before Christianity was legalized in the fourth century, Christians suffered intermittent periods of persecution at the hands of the Romans. Therefore, Christian worship was purposefully kept as inconspicuous as possible. Rather than building prominent new structures for express religious use, Christians in the Late Antique world took advantage of pre-existing, private structures—houses. The house church in general was known as the domus ecclesiae , Latin for house and assembly. Domi ecclesiae emerged in third-century Rome and are closely tied to domestic Roman architecture of this period, specifically to the peristyle house in which the rooms were arranged around a central courtyard. These rooms were often adjoined to create a larger gathering space that could accommodate small crowds of around fifty people. Other rooms were used for different religious and ceremonial purpose, including education, the celebration of the Eucharist, the baptism of Christian converts, storage of charitable items, and private prayer and mass . The plan of the house church at Dura-Europos illustrates how house churches elsewhere were designed. When Christianity was legalized in the fourth century, Christians were no longer forced to use pre-existing homes for their churches and meeting houses. Instead, they began to build churches of their own. Even then, Christian churches often purposefully featured unassuming—even plain—exteriors. They tended to be much larger as the rise in the popularity of the Christian faith meant that churches needed to accommodate an increasing volume of people. Architecture of the Early Christian Church After their persecution ended, Christians began to build larger buildings for worship than the meeting places they had been using. Explain what replaced the Classical temple in Early Christian architecture and why Key Points - Architectural formulas for temples were unsuitable, so the Christians used the model of the basilica , which had a central nave with one aisle at each side and an apse at one end. The transept was added to give the building a cruciform shape. - A Christian basilica of the fourth or fifth century that stood behind an entirely enclosed forecourt that was ringed with a colonnade or arcade . This forecourt was entered from the outside through a range of buildings that ran along the public street. - In the Eastern ( Byzantine ) Empire, churches tended to be centrally planned, with a central dome surrounded by at least one ambulatory . - The church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy is a prime example of an Eastern, centrally planned church. Key Terms - lunette : A half-moon shaped space, usually above a door or window, either filled with recessed masonry or void. - presbytery : A section of the church reserved for the clergy. - theophany : A manifestation of a deity to a human. - prothesis : The place in the sanctuary in which the Liturgy of Preparation takes place in the Eastern Orthodox churches. - fascia : A wide band of material that covers the ends of roof rafters, and sometimes supports a gutter in steep-slope roofing; typically it is a border or trim in low-slope roofing. - basilica : A Christian church building that has a nave with a semicircular apse, side aisles, a narthex and a clerestory. - cloister : A covered walk, especially in a monastery, with an open colonnade on one side that runs along the walls of the buildings that face a quadrangle. - mullion : A vertical element that forms a division between the units of a window, door, or screen, or that is used decoratively. - triforium : A shallow, arched gallery within the thickness of an inner wall, above the nave of a church or cathedral. - diaconicon : In Eastern Orthodox churches, the name given to a chamber on the south side of the central apse of the church, where the vestments, books, and so on that are used in the Divine Services of the church are kept. - clerestory : The upper part of a wall that contains windows that let in natural light to a building, especially in the nave, transept, and choir of a church or cathedral. Early Christian Architecture After their persecution ended in the fourth century, Christians began to erect buildings that were larger and more elaborate than the house churches where they used to worship. However, what emerged was an architectural style distinct from classical pagan forms . Architectural formulas for temples were deemed unsuitable. This was not simply for their pagan associations, but because pagan cult and sacrifices occurred outdoors under the open sky in the sight of the gods. The temple, housing the cult figures and the treasury , served as a backdrop. Therefore, Christians began using the model of the basilica, which had a central nave with one aisle at each side and an apse at one end. Old St. Peter’s and the Western Basilica The basilica model was adopted in the construction of Old St. Peter’s church in Rome . What stands today is New St. Peter’s church, which replaced the original during the Italian Renaissance. Whereas the original Roman basilica was rectangular with at least one apse, usually facing North, the Christian builders made several symbolic modifications. Between the nave and the apse, they added a transept, which ran perpendicular to the nave. This addition gave the building a cruciform shape to memorialize the Crucifixion. The apse, which held the altar and the Eucharist, now faced East, in the direction of the rising sun. However, the apse of Old St. Peter’s faced West to commemorate the church’s namesake, who, according to the popular narrative, was crucified upside down. A Christian basilica of the fourth or fifth century stood behind its entirely enclosed forecourt. It was ringed with a colonnade or arcade, like the stoa or peristyle that was its ancestor, or like the cloister that was its descendant. This forecourt was entered from outside through a range of buildings along the public street. In basilicas of the former Western Roman Empire, the central nave is taller than the aisles and forms a row of windows called a clerestory . In the Eastern Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire, which continued until the fifteenth century), churches were centrally planned. The Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy is prime example of an Eastern church. San Vitale The church of San Vitale is highly significant in Byzantine art, as it is the only major church from the period of the Eastern Emperor Justinian I to survive virtually intact to the present day. While much of Italy was under the rule of the Western Emperor, Ravenna came under the rule of Justinian I in 540. The church was begun by Bishop Ecclesius in 527, when Ravenna was under the rule of the Ostrogoths, and completed by the twenty-seventh Bishop of Ravenna, Maximian, in 546 during the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna. The architect or architects of the church is unknown. The construction of the church was sponsored by a Greek banker, Julius Argentarius, and the final cost amounted to 26,000 solidi (gold pieces). The church has an octagonal plan and combines Roman elements (the dome, shape of doorways, and stepped towers) with Byzantine elements (a polygonal apse, capitals , and narrow bricks). The church is most famous for its wealth of Byzantine mosaics —they are the largest and best preserved mosaics outside of Constantinople. The central section is surrounded by two superposed ambulatories, or covered passages around a cloister. The upper one, the matrimoneum, was reserved for married women. A series of mosaics in the lunettes above the triforia depict sacrifices from the Old Testament. On the side walls, the corners, next to the mullioned windows, are mosaics of the Four Evangelists, who are dressed in white under their symbols (angel, lion, ox and eagle). The cross-ribbed vault in the presbytery is richly ornamented with mosaic festoons of leaves, fruit, and flowers that converge on a crown that encircles the Lamb of God. The crown is supported by four angels, and every surface is covered with a profusion of flowers, stars, birds, and animals, specifically many peacocks. Above the arch , on both sides, two angels hold a disc. Beside them are representations of the cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. These two cities symbolize the human race. Sculpture of the Early Christian Church Despite an early opposition to monumental sculpture, artists for the early Christian church in the West eventually began producing life-sized sculptures. Differentiate Early Christian sculpture from earlier Roman sculptural traditions Key Points - Early Christians continued the ancient Roman traditions in portrait busts and sarcophagus reliefs , as well as in smaller objects such as the consular diptych . - Such objects, often in valuable materials, were also the main sculptural traditions of the barbaric civilizations of the Migration period. This may be seen in the hybrid Christian and animal- style productions of Insular art . - The Carolingian and Ottonian eras witnessed a return to the production of monumental sculpture. By the tenth and eleventh centuries, there are records of several apparently life-size sculptures in Anglo-Saxon churches. - Monumental crosses sculpted from wood and stone became popular during the ninth and tenth centuries in Germany, Italy, and the British Isles. Key Terms - diptych : A pair of linked panels, generally in ivory, wood, or metal and decorated with rich sculpted decoration. - sculpture in the round : Free-standing sculpture, such as a statue, that is not attached (except possibly at the base) to any other surface. The Early Christians were opposed to monumental religious sculpture. Nevertheless, they continued the ancient Roman sculptural traditions in portrait busts and sarcophagus reliefs. Smaller objects, such as consular diptychs, were also part of the Roman traditions that the Early Christians continued. Small Ivory Reliefs Consular diptychs were commissioned by consuls elected at the beginning of the year to mark his entry to that post, and were distributed as a commemorative reward to those who supported his candidature or might support him in future. The oldest consular diptych depicts the consul Probus (406 CE) dressed in the traditional garb of a Roman soldier. Despite showing signs of the growing stylization and abstraction of Late Antiquity , Probus maintains a contraposto pose. Although Christianity had been the state religion of the Roman Empire for over 25 years, a small winged Victory with a laurel wreath poses on a globe that Probus holds in his left hand. However, the standard he holds in his right hand translates as, “In the name of Christ, you always conquer.” Carolingian art revived ivory carving, often in panels for the treasure bindings of grand illuminated manuscripts , as well as in crozier heads and other small fittings. The subjects were often narrative religious scenes in vertical sections, largely derived from Late Antique paintings and carvings, as were those with more hieratic images derived from consular diptychs and other imperial art. One surviving example from Reims, France depicts two scenes from the life of Saint Rémy and the Baptism of the Frankish king Clovis. Unlike classical relief figures before Late Antiquity, these figures seem to float rather than stand flatly on the ground . However, we can also see the Carolingian attempt to recapture classical naturalism with a variety of poses, gestures, and facial expressions among the figures. Interacting in a life-like manner, all the figures are turned to some degree. No one stands in a completely frontal position. The Revival of Monumental Sculpture However, a production of monumental statues in the courts and major churches in the West began during the Carolingian and Ottonian periods. Charlemagne revived large-scale bronze casting when he created a foundry at Aachen that cast the doors for his palace chapel, which were an imitation of Roman designs. This gradually spread throughout Europe. There are records of several apparently life-size sculptures in Anglo-Saxon churches by the tenth and eleventh centuries. These sculptures are probably of precious metal around a wooden frame. One example is the Golden Madonna of Essen (c. 980), a sculpture of the Virgin Mary and the infant Jesus that consistes of a wooden core covered with sheets of thin gold leaf . It is both the oldest known sculpture of the Madonna and the oldest free-standing, medieval sculpture north of the Alps. It is also the only full-length survivor from what appears to have been a common form of statuary among the wealthiest churches and abbeys of tenth and eleventh century Northern Europe, as well as one of very few sculptures from the Ottonian era. In the Golden Madonna of Essen, the naturalism of the Graeco-Roman era has all but disappeared. The head of the Madonna is very large in proportion the remainder of her body. Her eyes open widely and dominate her nose and mouth, which seem to dissolve into her face. In an additional departure from classical naturalism, the Baby Jesus appears not so much as an infant but rather as a small adult with an adult facial expression and hand gesture. Sculpted Crosses Monumental crosses such as the Gero Crucifix (c. 965–970) were evidently common in the ninth and tenth centuries. The figure appears to be the finest of a number of life-size, German, wood-sculpted crucifixions that appeared in the late Ottonian or early Romanesque period, and later spread to much of Europe. Charlemagne had a similar crucifix installed in the Palatine Chapel in Aachen around 800 CE. Monumental crucifixes continued to grow in popularity, especially in Germany and Italy. The Gero Crucifix appears to capture a degree of Hellenistic pathos in the twisted body and frowning face of the dead Christ. Engraved stones were northern traditions that bridged the period of early Christian sculpture. Some examples are Nordic tradition rune stones, the Pictish stones of Scotland, and the high cross reliefs of Christian Great Britain. Large, stone Celtic crosses, usually erected outside monasteries or churches, first appeared in eighth-century Ireland. The later insular carvings found throughout Britain and Ireland were almost entirely geometrical, as was the decoration on the earliest crosses. By the ninth century, reliefs of human figures were added to the crosses. The largest crosses have many figures in scenes on all surfaces, often from the Old Testament on the east side, and the New Testament on the west, with a Crucifixion at the center of the cross. Muiredach’s High Cross (tenth century) at Monasterboice is usually regarded as the peak of the Irish crosses. Whereas the Carolingian treasure binding and the Gero Crucifix attempt to recapture the attributes of classical sculptures, the figures on Muiredach’s High Cross lack a sense of naturalism. Some have large heads that dwarf their bodies, and others stand in fully frontal poses. This departure from the classical paradigm reflects a growing belief that the body was merely a temporary shell for—and therefore inferior to—the soul. - Curation and Revision. 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https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/09%3A_The_Byzantines/9.01%3A_Early_Byzantine_Art	9.1: Early Byzantine Art The Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire began as a continuation of the Roman Empire but gradually became distinct through cultural changes. Explain the rise and duration of the Byzantine Empire Key Points - The Byzantine Empire, so-called for the former name of Constantinople, was the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire. After the Western Empire fell in 476, the Byzantine Empire would continue for another millennium. - Those living within the borders of the empire called themselves Romans, as opposed to Byzantines. Cultural shifts between them emerged with the change of the official language in the early seventh century, and the Byzantine split with the Roman Catholic Church in the eleventh century. - The surviving Byzantine art is predominantly religious and follow traditional models that translate their carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms. - Byzantine churches began in the style of many Western Roman churches but gradually shifted to centrally planned and then to Greek-cross structures over the course of the empire’s history. Key Terms - Greek-cross : The dominant architectural form of middle- and late-period Byzantine churches, featuring a square center with an internal structure shaped like a cross, topped by a dome. - centrally planned : Having a central nave with an aisle on either side separated by a colonnade, and an apse at one end. The East–West Schism After the death of Theodosius I in 395, the Roman Empire was divided into an Eastern half, based in Constantinople, and a Western, half based in Rome . Less than a century later, in 476, the last Western emperor Romulus Augustulus abdicated to a Germanic warlord who placed his own rule under that of the Eastern emperor. This act effectively ended the line of Western emperors and marked the end of the Western Empire. However, the Eastern portion (what historians call the Byzantine Empire) would continue for approximately another millennium. The word Byzantine derives from Byzantium , the original name of Constantinople before Constantine moved the Roman imperial capital there in the fourth century. Despite this present-day appellation, those living within the borders of the Byzantine Empire did not call themselves Byzantine. They continued to call themselves Romans and, until the early seventh century, continued to speak Latin. Even Roman Catholicism remained the official religion of the Byzantine Empire until the eleventh century. In an effort to recreate a unified Roman Empire, Justinian I (r. 527–565) was able to reconquer most of the Mediterranean coast, including North Africa, Rome, and southern Spain. This swath of territory remained in the Byzantine Empire for two centuries. A significant cultural shift occurred in the early seventh century when Heraclius (r. 610–641) replaced Latin with Greek as the official language of the Empire. This caused religious tensions with the church in Rome that began in the fourth century, and resulted in seven Ecumenical Councils over six hundred years. Finally, in 1054, the East–West Schism officially made the Eastern Orthodox Church, centered in Constantinople, its own separate entity from the Roman Catholic Church. From the tenth century to the fifteenth, the empire experienced periods of peace and prosperity, as well as war and economic downturns. In the late eleventh century, the empire lost much of Asia Minor to the Turks, a temporary setback that foreshadowed the eventual weakening of Constantinople and the further loss of territory to the growing Ottoman Empire . In 1453, the Ottoman Turks invaded and captured Constantinople, bringing the Byzantine Empire to an end. Byzantine Art and Architecture Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious and, for the most part, highly conventionalized, following traditional models that translate their carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms. Painting in frescos , mosaics , and illuminated manuscripts , and on wood panels were the main, two-dimensional media . Manuscript painting preserved some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works. Figurative sculpture was very rare except for small, carved ivories . Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe, where it maintained a continuous influence on medieval art until near the end of the period. This was especially true in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the twelfth century. However, few incoming influences affected Byzantine style. By means of the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms and styles spread throughout the Orthodox world and beyond. Early Byzantine architecture drew upon the earlier elements of Roman architecture. After the fall of the Western Empire, several churches, including the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and San Vitale in Ravenna, were built as centrally planned structures. However, stylistic drift, technological advancement, and political and territorial changes gradually resulted in the Greek-cross plan in church architecture. Buildings increased in geometric complexity. Brick and plaster were used in addition to stone for the decoration of important public structures. Classical orders were used more freely. Mosaics replaced carved decoration. Complex domes rested upon massive piers , and windows filtered light through thin sheets of alabaster to softly illuminate interiors. Influences from Byzantine architecture, particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania. Most of the surviving structures are sacred in nature; secular buildings are mostly known through contemporaneous descriptions. Architecture in the Early Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Emperor Justinian I launched an ambitious building program to develop holy sites to restore the glory of the Roman Empire. Describe the characteristics of Byzantine architecture Key Points - Christian architecture was a significant component of Justinian’s project of imperial renovation. - The church-building program of Justinian was intended to assist the Emperor in his mission of religious unification. - Justinian hoped to recreate the glory of the Roman Empire, partly through his building projects in Constantinople. - The Hagia Sophia was the most notable of Justinian’s projects, intriguing scholars and architects for centuries and influencing the designs of religious architecture, particularly mosques . - Justinian also ordered the construction of the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, and the reconstruction of the Church of the Holy Apostles. Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, who also designed the Hagia Sophia, designed both structures. Key Terms - pendentive : A constructive device that permits the placing of a circular dome over a square room or an elliptical dome over a rectangular space. - buttress : An architectural structure built against or projecting from a wall that serves to support or reinforce the wall. - narthex : An architectural element typical of early Christian and Byzantine basilicas and churches consisting of the entrance or lobby area, located at the west end of the nave. Justinian I devoted much of his reign (527–565 CE) to reconquering Italy, North Africa, and Spain. During his reign, he sought to revive the empire’s greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the historical Roman Empire. This attempt at restoration included an ambitious building program in Constantinople and elsewhere in the empire, and is the most substantial architectural achievement by one person in history. Hagia Sophia One notable structure for which Justinian was responsible is the Hagia Sophia, or Church of Holy Wisdom, built by Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, both of whom would oversee most building projects that Justinian ordered within Constantinople. Like most Byzantine churches of this time, the Hagia Sophia is centrally planned , with the dome serving as its focal point. The vast interior has a complex structure. The nave is covered by a central dome that at its maximum is over 180 feet from floor level and rests on an arcade of 40 arched windows. Although the dome appears circular at first glance, repairs to its structure have left it somewhat elliptical, with its diameter varying between 101 and nearly 103 feet. The dome of Hagia Sophia has spurred particular interest for many art historians, architects, and engineers because of the innovative way the original architects envisioned it. The cupola is carried on four, spherical, triangular pendentives , an element that was first fully realized in this building. The pendentives implement the transition from the circular base of the dome to the rectangular base below to restrain the lateral forces of the dome and allow its weight to flow downwards. They were later reinforced with buttresses . At the western entrance side and the eastern liturgical side are arched openings that are extended by half domes of identical diameter to the central dome, and carried on smaller semi-domed exedras . A hierarchy of dome-headed elements creates a vast, oblong interior crowned by the central dome, with a span of 250 feet. The Imperial Gate, reserved only for the emperor, was the main entrance of the cathedral . A long ramp from the northern part of the outer narthex leads up to the upper gallery, which was traditionally reserved for the empress and her entourage. It is laid out in a horseshoe shape that encloses the nave until it reaches the apse . After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, the plan of the Hagia Sophia would significantly influence the construction and design of the Süleymaniye Mosque (1550–1557). The Church of the Holy Apostles The Church of the Holy Apostles, originally built under the purview of Constantine in 330, was no longer considered grand enough when Justinian ascended the throne. Because of this, the architects Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles designed and built a new church on the same site in the late 540s (consecrated in 550). Like the original church, Justinian’s replacement had a cruciform plan and and was surmounted by five domes: one above each arm of the cross and one above the central bay where the arms intersected. The western arm of the cross extended farther than the others to form an atrium . Because blueprints did not exist yet, and because the church was demolished shortly after the Ottoman conquest, the design details of the building are a matter of dispute. The Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus The Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus (527–536), known today as Little Hagia Sophia, was probably a model for the actual Hagia Sophia. It was recognized at the time as an adornment to all of Constantinople. During the reign of Justinian’s uncle Justin I, the future emperor faced accusations of conspiring against the current emperor and was killed for it. However, the Saints Sergius and Bacchus were said to intervene and vouched to Justin that his nephew was innocent. After the restoration of his title, Justinian commissioned Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles to construct the church as a gesture of thanksgiving. When the church was built, it shared its narthex, atrium and propylaea with another church. It became one of the most important religious structures in Constantinople. Painting in the Early Byzantine Empire The Early Byzantine period witnessed the establishment of strict guidelines for the production of icons. Contrast Early Byzantine representations of religious figures to those of earlier Christian art Key Points - As Christians were able to practice their religion openly, paintings depicting the stories of martyrs became popular. - Byzantine icons follow a strict code of symbolism based on color and imagery . - Early Byzantine icons were wooden panels covered with encaustic paint. Icons from the sixth century and earlier were incredibly lifelike and sometimes caused veneration of the objects, as opposed to who the objects represented. This led to a fifth-century ban on the representation of secular imagery. Key Terms - iconoclastic : Pertaining to the belief in, participation in, or sanction of destroying religious icons and other symbols or monuments, usually with religious or political motives. - icon : An image, symbol, picture, or other representation that is usually an object of religious devotion. - pagan : A person not adhering to any major or recognized religion; a follower of a pantheistic or nature-worshipping religion. - hagiography : The study of saints. Icon Painting Icon painting, as distinct from other forms of painting, emerged in the Early Byzantine period as an aid to religious devotion. In contrast , earlier Christian art had relied more on allegory and symbolism. For example, earlier art might have featured a lamb or a fish rather than Christ in human form. Before long, religious figures were being depicted in their human form to emphasize their humanity as well as their spirituality. While this issue would be debated and challenged during the later Iconoclastic period, for a time, images of the saints in icon paintings flourished. After the adoption of Christianity as the only permissible Roman state religion under Theodosius I, Christian art began to change not only in quality and sophistication but also in nature. Paintings of martyrs and their feats began to appear, and early writers commented on their lifelike effect. Statues in the round were avoided as being too close to the principal artistic focus of pagan cult practices, as they have continued to be (with some small-scale exceptions) throughout the history of Eastern Christianity. Icons were more religious than aesthetic in nature. They were understood to manifest the unique presence of the figure depicted by means of a likeness to that figure maintained through carefully maintained canons of representation. Therefore, very little room is made for artistic license. Almost every aspect of the subject matter has a symbolic aspect. Christ, the saints, and the angels all have halos. Angels, as well as some depictions of the Holy Trinity, have wings because they are messengers. Figures have consistent facial appearances, hold attributes personal to them, and use a few conventional poses. Use of Color Color plays an important role, as well. Gold represents the radiance of Heaven. Red signifies divine life, while blue is the color of human life. White is the Uncreated Light of God, only used for scenes depicting the resurrection and transfiguration of Christ. In icons of Jesus and Mary, Jesus wears a red undergarment with a blue outer garment (God as Human), and Mary wears a blue undergarment with a red outer garment (humanity granted divine gifts). Thus, the doctrine of deification is conveyed by icons. Most icons incorporate some calligraphic text naming the person or event depicted. Because letters also carry symbolic significance, writing is often presented in a stylized manner. Early Byzantine icons were painted in encaustic on wooden panel and, like Egyptian funerary portraits produced in the same media , they appeared very lifelike. Nilus of Sinai, in his fifth-century Letter to Heliodorus Silentiarius, recounts a miracle in which St. Plato of Ankyra appeared to a Christian in a dream. The Saint was recognized because the young man had often seen his portrait. Veneration of Icons This recognition of a religious apparition from its likeness to an image was also a characteristic of pagan, pious accounts of appearances of gods to humans and was a common theme in hagiography . During this period, the church began to discourage all non-religious human images, with the Emperor and donor figures counting as religious. By the second half of the sixth century, there were isolated cases of direct veneration of the icons themselves, as opposed to the figures represented on them, due to continued claims of icon-associated miracles. This perceived misuse, in part, justified the banning and destruction of icons in the eighth century. Documentation exists to prove the use of icons as early as the fourth century. However, there are no surviving examples produced before the sixth century, primarily due to the period of Iconoclasm that ended the Early Byzantine period. The surviving evidence of the earliest depictions of Christ, Mary, and the saints therefore comes from wall paintings, mosaics , and some carvings. Because Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) argued that no one knew the appearance of Jesus or that of Mary, the earliest depictions of Jesus were generic, rather than portrait images, and generally represented him as a beardless young man. Such an example can be seen in a mosaic in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, which houses the remains of the daughter of Theodosius I. Mosaics in the Early Byzantine Empire In the Byzantine period, a building’s interior decoration often took the form of mosaic paintings, but with an added sense of spiritual drama that ordinary paintings could not convey. Explain how the Byzantines used mosaics to convey a sense of spirituality in their architecture Key Points - Mosaic tiles were more costly than the materials for traditional painting, and demonstrate the wealth of the Byzantine empire. The use of mosaics in Greek and Roman design was reserved for placement in the floor. Byzantine artists continued this precedent but also went further and adorned walls and ceilings with dramatic scenes. - Mosaics in Middle Eastern locations like Mount Nebo and Mount Sinai provide examples of both dramatically spiritual and seemingly mundane imagery . - The Italian city of Ravenna is the site of many of the great Byzantine structures that incorporated mosaic. The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia and the Arian Baptistery are prime examples of the powerful impact and spiritual effect of the Byzantine-mosaic style . Key Terms - tesserae : Small square pieces of stone, wood, ivory, or glass used for making a mosaic. - mandorla : A luminous cloud that surrounds the figures of Christ and the Virgin Mary in traditional Christian art. - mosaic : A piece of artwork created by placing colored squares (usually tiles) in a pattern to create a picture. - mausoleum : A large, stately tomb or a building housing such a tomb or several tombs. Mosaic Art Mosaic art flourished in the Byzantine Empire from the sixth to the fifteenth centuries. Whereas in Antiquity , walls were usually decorated with less-expensive painted scenes, the Byzantine aesthetic favored the more sumptuous, glittering effect of mosaic decoration. Some of the finest surviving Byzantine mosaics are preserved in the Middle East and in the Italian city of Ravenna. Mosaics were not a Byzantine invention. In fact, some of the most famous surviving mosaics are from ancient Greece and Rome . The artists of the Early Byzantine period expanded upon precedent by celebrating the possibilities of the mosaic technique. They began to use it on wall surfaces as a type of painting technique in stone. Unlike traditional wall paintings, however, mosaics could create a glittering, shimmering effect that lent itself to a heightened sense of spirituality. The imagery befit the Byzantine culture that emphasized the authority of one, true religion. The mosaic technique was more expensive than traditional wall painting, but its effects were so desirable as to make it worth the cost. Further, technological advances (lighter-weight tesserae and a new cement recipe) made wall mosaics easier than they had been in the preceding centuries, when floor mosaics were favored. The mosaic technique involved fitting together small pieces of stone and glass (tesserae). When set together, the tesserae create a paint-like effect in which different colors meld into one another to create shadows and a sense of depth. Moreover, Byzantine artists often placed gold backing behind the clear glass tesserae, such that the mosaics would appear to emit a mysterious light of their own. This play of light added a sense of drama and spiritualism to the images that suited the symbolism and magic inherent in the Byzantine religious ceremony . Mount Nebo, Jordan Most often, however, mosaic decoration in the classical world was reserved for floor surfaces. Byzantine churches continued this tradition in locations such as Mount Nebo in Jordan, a medieval pilgrimage site where Moses is believed to have died. The Church of Saints Lot and Procopius (founded 567 CE) has a richly tiled floor that depicts activities like grape harvesting. Seemingly mundane, the grape harvest could be symbolic of the wine component of the Eucharist. The mosaic is located in the baptistery, where infants were initiated into the Christian faith and, according to biblical teachings, be cleansed of Original Sin. Thus, a symbolic depiction of the next sacrament in the religion would help to underscore the theme of salvation. Another Mount Nebo floor mosaic (c. 530) depicts four registers of men and animals. The first two registers are hunting scenes in which the men hunt big cats and wild boars with the help of domesticated dogs. On the bottom two registers, the animals appear more domesticated, peacefully eating fruit from trees as a shepherd observes them at the left; they wear leashes pulled by their human masters. Among the domesticated animals are a camel and what appear to be a zebra and an emu. As in the Church of Saints Lot and Procopius, this mosaic likely has a religious message beneath its seemingly mundane subject matter. Monastery of Saint Catherine on Mount Sinai Important Justinian-era mosaics (c. 548–565) decorate Saint Catherine’s Monastery on Mount Sinai. In the apse is a depiction of the Transfiguration on a golden background, that denotes the otherworldliness of the event. Christ, standing in the center as the focal point, is crowned with a halo and surrounded by a mandorla as his awestruck apostles observe the event. The apse is surrounded with bands containing the medallions of Biblical apostles and prophets, and two contemporary figures who are identified as Abbot Longinos and John the Deacon. Ravenna Arian Baptistery Inside the Arian Baptistery in Ravenna are four niches and a dome with mosaics that depict the baptism of Jesus by Saint John the Baptist. Although the mosaics were produced before Justinian I annexed Italy to the Byzantine Empire, their overall design is very similar to those produced under Byzantine rule. Jesus is shown as a beardless, half-submerged youth in the Jordan River. John the Baptist, wearing a leopard skin, stands on the right, while the personification of the Jordan River stands to the left. Above, the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove sprays holy water from its beak. Below, a procession of the Apostles, led in separate directions by Saint Peter and Saint Paul circle the dome, meeting at a throne with a bejeweled crucifix resting on a purple cushion. It took the artists several years to complete these mosaics, as can be clearly seen from the different colors of the stones used to depict the grass at the feet of the apostles. The designs are quite simple, but the use of a gold background should be noted, as it was typically used in this era to infuse these simple scenes with an ethereal glow. Mausoleum of Galla Placidia The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia is one of the earliest Byzantine buildings in Ravenna. While the exterior is plain, the interior is extensively decorated in elaborate mosaics. These mosaics create a truly spiritual space–a world removed from the ordinary. The vaulting is covered with floral motifs (possibly symbolic of the Garden of Eden) and the stars that stand out against a blue background seem to sparkle with their own mystical light. Mosaics cover the walls of the vault , the lunettes , and the bell tower. The iconographic themes developed in the decorations represent the victory of eternal life over death. The inside contains two famous mosaic lunettes, and the rest of the interior is filled with mosaics of Christian symbols. The central bay ‘s upper walls are decorated with four pairs of apostles, including Saints Peter and Paul, who acclaim a giant gold cross in the center of the dome against a blue sky of stars. Symbols of the four evangelists float among the clouds. The other four apostles appear in the barrel vaults of the transepts . Ivory Carving in the Early Byzantine Empire Carved, ivory relief sculptures were central features of Early Byzantine art. Describe the ivory miniature sculptures of the early Byzantine period Key Points - Ivory carving has a special importance to the Byzantine Empire because it has no bullion value and cannot be melted down or otherwise recycled. Elaborate ivory diptychs were central to the art of this period. Early Christians valued the small scale of these relief sculptures that contrasted with the monumental sculpture favored by pagans . - The Barberini Diptych and the Archangel Ivory are two significant examples of ivory carving from the first half of the sixth century. - Ivory panels were used as book covers, usually as a centerpiece that was surrounded by metalwork and gems. They were assembled from up to five smaller panels because of the limited width of the tusk. Carved ivory covers were used for treasure bindings on the most precious illuminated manuscripts . - Western art gradually began to focus on monumental sculpture and ivory carving declined in importance. However, in the Eastern Orthodox tradition, it remained significant. Key Terms - diptych : A picture or series of pictures painted on two tablets, usually connected by hinges. - relief : A type of artwork in which shapes or figures protrude from a flat background. The Appeal of the Miniature Ivory carving is the manual or mechanical carving of either animal tooth or tusk, wherein very fine detail can be achieved, and the surviving works often demonstrate intricate and complicated designs. This art form has a special importance to the history of Byzantine art because it has no bullion value and is not easily recycled like precious metals or jewels. Because of this, many ivory carvings from the Early Byzantine period still survive. Ivory diptychs, often elaborately decorated, were issued as gifts by newly appointed consuls. In the Early Christian period, Christians avoided monumental sculpture, which was associated with the old pagan Roman religion and sculpted almost exclusively in relief. During the persecution of Christians, such reliefs were typically kept small in scale, no larger than the reliefs on sarcophagi. Objects that were small-scale and lightweight are more easily carried and hidden, attributes that a persecuted class worshiping in secret would have found necessary. When Christianity was legalized and later became the official religion of the Empire these attitudes remained. As a result, small-scale sculpture—for which ivory was in many ways the best material—was central to art in a way that it rarely was at other times. Consuls—civil officers who played an important administrative role until 541—gave Roman consular diptychs as presents. The form was later adopted for Christian use, with images of Christ, the Theotokos (the Virgin Mary), and saints. Such ivory panels were used as treasure bindings (elaborate book covers) from the sixth century, usually as centerpieces, and surrounded by metalwork and gems. These book covers were sometimes assembled from up to five smaller panels due to the limited width of the tusk. Carved ivory covers were used as treasure bindings on the most precious illuminated manuscripts. The Barberini Diptych The Barberini Diptych (c. 500–550 CE) is a Byzantine ivory leaf from an imperial diptych dating from Late Antiquity . It is carved in the style known as Late Theodosian, representing the emperor as triumphant victor . The Barberini Diptych is attributed to an imperial workshop in Constantinople. The emperor depicted in it is usually identified as Justinian, or possibly Anastasius I or Zeno. Although it is not a consular diptych, it shares many features of their decorative schemes. The emperor is accompanied in the main panel by a conquered barbarian in trousers to the left, and a crouching allegorical figure on the right that probably represents territory conquered or reconquered, and who holds his foot in gratitude or submission. An angel or Victory crowning the emperor with the traditional palm of victory, which is now lost. The spear that partially conceals the barbarian does not wound him. He seems more astonished and overawed than combative. Above, Christ, with a fashionable, curled hairstyle, is flanked by two more angels in the style of pagan victory figures. He reigns above, while the emperor represents him below on Earth. In the bottom panel barbarians from the West (left, in trousers) and East (right, with ivory tusks, a tiger and a small elephant) bring tribute, which includes wild animals. The figure in the left panel, apparently representing not a saint but a soldier, carries a statuette of Victory; his counterpart on the right is lost. The Archangel Ivory Dating to approximately the same period as the Barberini Diptych is the Archangel Ivory (c. 525–550 CE), the largest surviving half of an ivory diptych from the Early Byzantine period. The subject matter is an archangel, possibly Michael, who holds a scepter in his left hand and an orb capped with a cross in his right hand, which he extends in a gesture of offering . This is the insignia of imperial power. Above the angel hovers a Greek cross surrounded by a laurel wreath, possibly signifying victory. Its missing half might have depicted Justinian I, to whom the archangel would be offering the insignia. It and the Barberini Diptych are the two most important surviving sixth-century Byzantine ivories attributed to the imperial workshops of Constantinople under Justinian. The figure is depicted in a highly classical style, wearing Greek or Roman garb, and with a youthful face and proportions that conform to the ideals of classical sculpture. Although the architectural elements consist of a classical round arch supported by Composite columns , the space is more typically Byzantine in its bending of spatial logic. The archangel’s feet are at the top of a staircase that recedes from the base of the columns, but his arms and wings are in front of the columns. His feet are also not firmly planted on the steps. The top of the ivory bears a Greek inscription that translates as, “Receive this suppliant, despite his sinfulness;” it is possibly an expression of humility on the part of Justinian. In the Byzantine and Eastern Orthodox world, the disapproval of large religious sculpture was to remain unchanged to the present day. However, in the West it was overcome, probably beginning with the court of Charlemagne in the ninth century. As large monumental sculpture in other materials became more important, the centrality of ivory carving slowly lessened. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 513px-Pelekete_monastery2.png. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=27701114. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:28.050948	2020-05-01T17:32:27	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/09%3A_The_Byzantines/9.01%3A_Early_Byzantine_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "9.1: Early Byzantine Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/09%3A_The_Byzantines/9.02%3A_Middle_Byzantine_Art	9.2: Middle Byzantine Art Architecture and Mosaics in the Middle Byzantine Empire Architecture and mosaic decoration thrived during the Middle Byzantine period that followed Iconoclasm’s stifling of the arts. Describe the characteristics and innovations of Byzantine religious art that followed the end of the Iconoclasm controversy Key Points - Two periods of state-sanctioned iconoclasm in the eighth and ninth centuries ended the Early Byzantine period that led to the prohibition and destruction of religious images. Iconoclasm ended in 843, leading to the renewal of churches through decorative and figurative mosaics and frescos . New elements and styles began to emerge during the Middle Byzantine period under the rule of the Macedonian emperors. - The Theotokos mosaic of the Virgin and Child, in the central apse of the Hagia Sophia, is believed to reconstruct an earlier sixth century mosaic destroyed during Iconoclasm. It combines the Early Byzantine style with the new development of softer folds, increased modeling, and the addition of perspective . - At the Hosios Loukas monastery in Greece are two connected churches that combine the older use of pendentives and the newer use of squinches beneath their domes . The monastery’s mosaics depict figures in a more schematic manner and on flat, gold backgrounds with little hints about the setting. - Saint Mark’s Basilica in Venice , Italy, is a Greek cross-plan church richly decorated in marble revetment , pattern stone floors, and a detailed and extensive program of mosaics. Key Terms - squinch : A structure constructed between two adjacent walls to aid in the transition from a polygonal to a circular structure; as when a dome is constructed on top of a square room. - aniconic : Opposed to the use and veneration of images, especially religious images. - pendentive : The concave triangular section of vaulting that provides transition between a dome and the square base on which it is set, and transfers the weight of the dome. - Katholikon : The major temple or church building of a monastery or diocese in an Eastern Orthodox Church. - Pantocrator : The ruler of everything, especially as an epithet for Jesus Christ; an artistic depiction of Jesus in this aspect. - iconoclasm : The belief in, participation in, or sanction of destroying religious icons and other symbols or monuments, usually with religious or political motives. The First and Second Iconoclasms Broadly defined, iconoclasm is defined as the destruction of images. In Christianity, iconoclasm has generally been motivated by people who adopt a literal interpretation of the Ten Commandments, which forbid the making and worshipping of graven images . The period after the reign of Justinian I (527–565) witnessed a significant increase in the use and veneration of images, which helped to trigger a religious and political crisis in the empire. As a result, aniconic sentiment grew, culminating in two periods of iconoclasm—the First Iconoclasm (726–87) and the Second Iconoclasm (814–42)—which brought the Early Byzantine period to an end. Byzantine Iconoclasm constituted a ban on religious images by Emperor Leo III and continued under his successors. It was accompanied by the widespread destruction of images and persecution of supporters of the veneration of images. The goal of the iconoclasts was to restore the church to a strict opposition to images in worship that they believed characterized at the least some parts of the early church. The Feast of Orthodoxy After the death of the last Iconoclast emperor Theophilos, his young son Michael III, with his mother the regent Theodora and Patriarch Methodios, summoned the Synod of Constantinople in 843 to bring peace to the Church. At the end of the first session, on the first day of Lent, all made a triumphal procession from the Church of Blachernae to Hagia Sophiato to restore the icons to the church in an event called the Feast of Orthodoxy. Imagery , it was decided, is an integral part of faith and devotion, making present to the believer the person or event depicted on them. However, the Orthodox makes a clear doctrinal distinction between the veneration paid to icons and the worship which is due to God alone. Since Iconoclasm was the last of the great Christological controversies to trouble the Church, its defeat is considered to be the final triumph of the Church over heresy. When the Iconoclasm controversy came to an end in 843, Byzantine religious art underwent a renewal. A series of naturalistic innovations can be seen in examples from the Hagia Sophia, the monastery of Hosios Loukas, and Saint Mark’s Basilica. This revival of a classical style of art was partly due to a renewed interest in classical culture , which accompanied a period of military successes, during the Macedonian Renaissance (867–1056). Theotokos Mosaic at the Hagia Sophia The Hagia Sophia is a former Greek Orthodox patriarchal basilica (church), constructed from 537 until 1453. A combination of a centrally planned and basilican building, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture. After the end of iconoclasm, a new mosaic was dedicated in the Hagia Sophia under the Patriarch Photius and the Macedonian emperors Michael III and Basil I. The mosaic is located in the apse over the main alter and depicts the Theotokos, or the Mother of God. The image, in which the Virgin Mary sits on a throne with the Christ child on her lap, is believed to be a reconstruction of a sixth-century mosaic that was destroyed during the Iconoclasm. An inscription reads: “The images which the impostors had cast down here, pious emperors (Michael and Basil) have again set up.” This inscription refers to the recent past and the renewal of Byzantine art under the Macedonian emperors. The image of the Virgin and Child is a common Christian image, and the mosaic depicts Byzantine innovations and the standard style of the period. The Virgin’s lap is large. Christ sits nestled between her two legs. The figures’ faces are depicted with gradual shading and modeling that provides a sense of realism that contradicts the schematic folding of their drapery. Their drapery is defined by thick, harsh folds delineated by contrasting colors: the Virgin in blue and Christ in gold. The two frontal figures sit on an embellished gold throne that is tilted to imply perspective. This attempt is a new addition in Byzantine art during this period. The space given to the chair contradicts the frontality of the figures, but it provides a sense of realism previously unseen in Byzantine mosaics. Hosios Loukas, Greece The monastery of Hosios Loukas (St. Luke) in Greece was founded in the early tenth century to host the relics of St. Luke. Located on the slope of Mount Helicon, the monastery is known for its two churches, the Church of the Theotokos (tenth century) and the main building called the Katholikon (eleventh century). The churches were decorated in mosaics, frescoes , and marble revetment. The two churches are connected together by the narthex of the Theotokos and an arm of the Katholikon. The churches demonstrate two different styles of architecture. Church of the Theotokos and the Katholikon The Church of the Theokotos represents a Greek cross-plan style church. It has a large central dome that rests on a series of pendentives. The Katholikon is also a Greek cross-plan style church but instead of the dome resting on pendentives, the dome of the Katholikon rests on squinches, which create an octagonal transition between the square plan of the church and the circular plan of the dome. The difference in style between the pendentives and the squinches allow for different relationships between the architecture and the decoration and different play of light and darkness in the shapes the squinches provided. The mosaics found in the Katholikon were created in an early Byzantine style commonly seen in the centuries before Iconoclasm. The scenes depicted are flat with little architecture or props to provide a setting. Instead, the background is covered in brilliant gold mosaics. The figures in the scenes, such as those seen in the apse mosaic of Christ washing the feet of his disciples, are depicted with naturalistic faces that are modeled with long, narrow noses and small mouths. The clothing of the figures is represented through schematic folds and contrasting colors. While the folds of the drapery represent a body underneath, there appears to be no actual mass to the body. These characteristics of Byzantine mosaics began to change in the following century, partially through the addition of perspective in the Theokotos of the Hagia Sophia. Saint Mark’s Basilica, Venice Saint Mark’s Basilica in Venice, Italy, was first built in the ninth century and rebuilt in the eleventh century in its current form following a fire. The basilica is a grand building, built next to the Doge’s Palace. It initially functioned as the doge’s private chapel, then a state church, and in 1806 became the city’s cathedral . The basilica houses the remains of Saint Mark, which the Venetians looted from Alexandria in 828 and prompted the building of the basilica. Saint Mark’s Basilica was built in the Byzantine Greek-cross plan. Each arm is divided into three naves and topped by a dome. At the crossing is a large central dome. The main apse is flanked by two smaller chapels. The narthex of the basilica is U-shaped and wraps around the western transept . It is decorated with scenes from the lives of Old Testament prophets. The entirety of the basilica is richly decorated. The floor is covered in geometric patterns and designs that use the Roman decoration techniques known as opus sectile and opus tessellatum. The lower walls and pillars are covered in marble polychromatic panels, and the upper walls and the domes are decorated with twelfth- and thirteenth-century mosaics. The central dome depicts an image of Christ Pantocrator , and the overall decorative program depicts scenes from the life of Christ and images of salvation from both the Old and New Testament. Objects of Worship in the Middle Byzantine Empire Personal objects (psalters and triptychs), reliquaries, and icons were popular objects of worship during the Middle Byzantine period. Identify the principal objects of worships in Byzantine art Key Points - The triptych is a small, personal object made from three panels (either painted or carved from wood or ivory ) that was used by an individual to guide their devotion and prayers to God. The Harbaville Triptych and the Borradaile Triptych are prime examples. - Psalters were another form of personal devotion. These books contained the Books of Psalms and were often richly decorated, or illuminated, with scenes and miniatures . - The reliquary was a protective container for a relic —a body part of a saint or a sacred object—that was preserved for veneration. While they could be simple, these containers were often decorated with or made from expensive materials such as gold, silver, and precious stones. - The icon is an image of a saint that was also a considered sacred and was venerated by the public. These images, which vary in size and subject, were often painted panels. Key Terms - reliquary : A container to hold or display sacred objects. - triptych : A picture or series of pictures painted on three tablets connected by hinges. - Deesis : A traditional iconic representation of Christ in Majesty enthroned, carrying a book, and flanked by the Virgin Mary and St. John the Baptist, and sometimes other saints and angels. - psalter : The Book of Psalms, often applied to a book containing the Psalms separately printed. - cloisonne : A decorative technique for metalwork, especially brass, whereby colored enamel is baked between the raised ridges of the metal. - icon : An image, symbol, picture, or other representation that is usually as an object of religious devotion. Triptych Triptychs are a type of panel painting or relief carving for devotional objects that are created on three panels. The panels could also be divided in two, known as diptychs, or sometimes had more than three panels, known as a polyptych . The use of triptychs began in the Byzantine period, and they were originally made to be small and portable. Later during the Gothic period, multi-panel devotional paintings were enlarged as altarpieces . However, the small, portable triptychs of the Byzantine period were used as personal objects of worship. They were designed to guide their owner in prayer and direct their thoughts towards Christ. The triptych was designed with one central panel and two wings that folded over the main image and allowed the object to be portable, when closed, and to stand, when the wings were open. The wings are typically carved with portrayals of saints, while the main image often depicted Christ, although the imagery varied. The Harbaville Triptych depicts a scene of Deesis with Christ as the Pantocrator, while the Borradaile Triptych depicts an image of the Crucifixion. Harbaville Triptych The Harbaville Triptych is an early example from the mid-tenth century of the new ivory triptychs that replaced diptychs during the Middle Byzantine period. The main scene depicts the figures of Christ Pantocrator flanked by John the Baptist and the Virgin Mary, in a supplication scene known as a Deesis. John the Baptist and the Virgin Mary are depicted as intercessors, praying on behalf of the triptych’s owner to Christ. On the register below them are the apostles James, John, Peter, Paul, and Andrew. The two side panels depict two registers with two characters each, all of which are identifiable saints. The figures are carved in a recognizably Byzantine style . Their bodies are elongated and narrow, and they seem to float or hover just above the ground instead of stand with weight. This illusion is furthered by the fact that nearly each character stands on a small platform. The saints are elegantly draped, and their bodies are distinguished by the folds of their drapery and not any type of modeling. The figures’ facial expressions are solemn, and their facial features are deeply carved. The saints each face outward, except for John the Baptist and the Virgin Mary, who are each slightly turned and bowing to an enthroned Christ. Christ sits on an elaborate throne as the Pantocrator, with a book of Gospels in one arm and his hand gesturing in a motion of blessing. Borradaile Triptych The Borradaile Triptych’s main image depicts the Crucifixion of Christ instead of a Deesis. The central image takes up the entirety of the main frame and the two wings are divided into three registers. The figures on the wings are images of saints, similar to the Harbaville Triptych. The central scene is dominated by the image of Christ on the cross. Two angels flank him above his arms. Below are the figures of the Virgin Mary and St. John. St. John gestures and averts his eyes, while Mary lifts a veil to her face, which bears a distraught expression. The figures, like those of the Harbaville Triptych, are elongated, although less narrow and more rigid. They also are less deeply carved and appear more insubstantial. Except for Christ’s upper body, which is unclothed, the bodies of the figures are defined by their rigid drapery. The saints stand in straight, upright positions that further provide a sense of solemnity to the scene. Christ is seen on the cross in a stance that focuses on his divine qualities and not his human suffering. The only emotion from the scene derives from his mother, the Virgin Mary, who stands weeping beneath him. Reliquaries A reliquary is a protective container used for the storage and display of sacred objects called relics. Relics were a part of the body of a dead saint that was preserved for veneration. Some relics are believed to be endowed with miraculous powers, and other relics have come to play key roles in certain church festivals. The veneration of relics and use of reliquaries became popular during the Byzantine period when the bodies of saints were often moved and divided between Churches. While many relics were honored and venerated, the church never considered this form of devotion as a form of worship—that was an act reserved for God. Reliquaries take many forms and shapes and are made out of a variety of materials. However, many reliquaries were made from or decorated with expensive material, such as gold and precious stones. A reliquary from the early ninth century depicts a scene of the Crucifixion with fourteen saints around the border. The reliquary is very small and probably contained a piece of the True Cross, the cross on which Christ was crucified. This reliquary is made from cloisonné, a metalworking technique in which metal was soldered into compartments and was then filled with enamel, glass, gems, or other materials. This reliquary is made with green, white, blue, and red enamel and gold and is only four inches high by nearly three inches wide. Psalters Like triptychs, psalters were small, private objects used for private devotion and worship. A psalter is a book that contains the Book of Psalms and other liturgical material such as calendars. They were often commissioned and were richly decorated and illuminated. The surviving psalters contain many fine examples of the painting styles and techniques from the Middle Byzantine period. The Paris Psalter is a mid-tenth century manuscript with fourteen, full-page, miniature paintings created in a classical style. As with most of the art produced under the Macedonian Dynasty , the figures and subject matter were influenced by a revived interest in classical culture . The figures painted in these scenes have bodies with mass and drapery that conforms, not shapes, their bodies. The image depicts David, a psalmist, in an idyllic country setting outside a city (seen in the distance) composing psalms on his harp. He sits with a sheep, goats, dogs, and an angel, representing Melody, while a personification of Echo peers around a column . A male figure, representing the mountain of Bethlehem, lounges on the ground. The image is reminiscent of a Greco-Roman wall painting of the musician Orpheus charming people and animals with his music. While the figures appear modeled and are reminiscent of classical art, the psalter has a Byzantine style to it. The clothing is still rendered with bright, contrasting colors and the folds of the drapery are stylized and dark. The slightly skewed perspective given to the vase on top the column and the city in the background are additional elements that provide the scene with a Byzantine artistic style. Icons Icons remained popular devotional objects during the Byzantine period. These objects, which varied in size, depicted the image of a saint, or a sacred person such as Christ or Mary, who was considered sacred and was venerated. The images were often painted panels and the display of icons surged following the end of Iconoclasm in the ninth century. Many icons, once reaching this status, would be furthered objectified and protected through the addition of custom gilded frames, or gold or silver cases that covered the entirety of the image except for the face of the subject. Other icons, such as a ninth-century depiction of the Crucifixion, contained imagery on both sides. Painting in the Middle Byzantine Empire Paintings were popular materials for representing stories and to guide devotion during the Middle Byzantine period. Relate the progression and stylistic changes of painting during the Middle Byzantine period Key Points - Emotional elements begin to be seen in Middle Byzantine painting, as one can see in the Lamentation wall painting from the Church of St. Pantaleimon. The figures of the scene are rendered with humanity and sorrow as they grieve over the dead body of Christ. - Naturalism and schematics combine in the Death of St. Onesimus. The folds of the figures’ clothing follow the contours of their bodies. However, the folds are defined by thick lines , and the title figure seems to hover over the landscape. - The Theotokos of Vladimir is a late 11th to early 12th century icon of the Virgin and Child. The icon is considered a protective icon of Russia and depicts a compassionate and emotionally charged Virgin and Child. Key Terms - Lamentation of Christ : The scene depicts the body of Christ being mourned after the removal of his body from the cross by his family, friends, and followers. Painting in the Middle Byzantine Painting during the Middle Byzantine period began to progress and change stylistically. Artists approached common scenes with an ingenuity based on a mix of naturalism in the conveyance of emotional reaction, and schematics in specific renderings of the body. This can be seen in the fresco of the Lamentation found in the Church of Saint Pantaleimon in the city of Nerezi, Macedonia, an illumination of the Death of St. Onesimus, and an icon of the Virgin and Child. Lamentation from Saint Pantaleimon, Nerezi, Macedonia The Lamentation of Christ is an iconic scene that depicts the Virgin Mary holding and mourning her dead son, just after Christ has been removed from the cross. She wraps an arm around his shoulders and presses her face against his. St. John grasps Christ’s right hand while Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus kneel at Christ’s feet. A fifth follower enters the scene with arms outstretched from the right and a group of angels fly above the scene in the deep blue sky. The Macedonian painters created a scene filled with emotional tension that was unprecedented in Byzantine art. The figures faces are neither solemn nor formal but instead are emotionally charged with grief and sorrow. Mary’s face especially denotes the emotion and pain that a mother feels when grieving a lost child. The figures are also bent over Christ’s body, which further emphasizes the emotions in the scene—no longer stiff or static , these figures feel and cause the viewer to be filled with emotion. Despite these elements of naturalism, there are some elements of Byzantine style in the fresco. For one, the figures’ clothing is still schematically rendered, even though most of the figures appear to have bodies and mass under their garments. For another, the seminude body of Christ is rendered in a style similar to the drapery. The muscles are defined through schematic lines that denote parts of his body, such as his knees and abdominal muscles. Another oddity is that Christ’s body is not on the ground but instead hovers unnaturally off the ground. This is hardly noticed at first, since the placement of his torso and feet make sense in their individual context, but as a whole it requires Christ’s body to float instead of lay naturally on the ground. The Death of St. Onesimus A similar mixture of naturalism and stylization is evident in a painting that depicts the martyrdom of Saint Onesimus (c. 985 CE). The image is part of the Menologion of Basil II, an illuminated manuscript compiled circa 1000 CE as a church calendar. The Epistle to Philemon, written by Paul the Apostle to the slave-master Philemon, concerns a runaway slave called Onesimus. This slave found his way to the site of Paul’s imprisonment to escape punishment for a theft of which he was accused. After hearing the Gospel from Paul, Onesimus converted to Christianity. Paul, having earlier converted Philemon to Christianity, sought to reconcile the two by writing the letter to Philemon which today exists in the New Testament. During the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian and the persecution of Trajan, Onesimus was imprisoned in Rome and might have been martyred by stoning, although some sources claim that he was beheaded. As in the Lamentation scene above, the Death of St. Onesimus combines the naturalistic and the schematic. The two men who beat Onesimus to death convey a sense of dynamism as they bend at the waists and knees. The folds of their clothing and of Onesimus’s loincloth follows the contours of their bodies as they assume their poses. Although the painting is damaged, Onesimus’s furrowed brow, possibly suggesting anger or frustration, is still visible. Despite these realistic elements, the folds of the figures’ clothing appears more linear than natural, defined by deep, noticeable lines. Like the figure of Christ in the Lamentation, Onesimus seems to hover over the landscape and rest the top half of his body on the leg of one of his attackers. Furthermore, the blood pours from his legs in a linear manner, appearing more like strings than liquid. Theotokos of Vladimir The Theotokos of Vladimir, an icon of the Virgin and Child, represents the new style of icons that were created in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. These icons depict emotion, compassion, and the growing trend in spirituality. The mother and child are depicted with serene faces in the Byzantine style. Mary’s nose is long and narrow and her mouth small. She looks out and confronts the viewer with compassionate, knowing eyes that remind the viewer of Christ’s future sacrifice . The Christ child is small, although his face is adult-like and he is drawn to his mother and embraces her. His drapery shines as if it was golden rays, and the Virgin is dressed in rich, dark fabric with gold embellishments. The compassion and humanity between the characters prefigures the emotional Late Byzantine style of the next two centuries. The image was given as a gift to the Grand Duke of Kiev in 1131 by the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople and is an important and protective icon of the Russian cities of Vladimir and Moscow and the country of Russia itself. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 367px-1911_Britannica-Architecture-St_Marku2019s.png. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23106698. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 373px-Osios_lukas.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6429572. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Veneza118. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Veneza118.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hagia Sophia Interior Virgin 2007. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Virgin_2007.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hosios Loukas Katholikon 20091116-44. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hosios_Loukas_Katholikon_20091116-44.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Osios Loukas 1. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Osios_Loukas_1.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Iconoclasm. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclasm#Byzantine_era. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Byzantine Iconoclasm. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 335px-1988_-_Byzantine_Museum,_Athens_-_Crucifixion_-_9th-13th_century_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall'Orto,_Nov_12_2.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16605336 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 576px-Borradaile_triptych_BM_1923_1205_1.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Borradaile_triptych_BM_1923_1205_1.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Reliquary True Cross c800 Byzantine. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reliquary_True_Cross_c800_Byzantine.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - aville-louvre-oa3247-recto.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triptych_Harbaville_Louvre_OA3247_recto.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Macedonian Art (Byzantine). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonian_art_(Byzantine). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Deesis. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Deesis. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Borradaile Triptych. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Borradaile_Triptych. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Harbaville Triptych. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbaville_Triptych. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ivory Carving. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory_carving#Antiquity_and_the_Early_Medieval_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Psalter. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psalter. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Reliquary. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliquary. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Theotokos of Vladimir. Provided by : Wikipedia. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:28.187926	2020-05-01T17:32:31	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/09%3A_The_Byzantines/9.02%3A_Middle_Byzantine_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "9.2: Middle Byzantine Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/09%3A_The_Byzantines/9.03%3A_Late_Byzantine_Art	9.3: Late Byzantine Art Late Byzantine Art Late Byzantine Art began after the sack of Constantinople in 1204 and continued until the fall of Byzantium in 1453. Explain how art during the Late Byzantine period departed from the standards and styles seen in its early and middle periods Key Points - The French and Italian armies sacked Constantinople during the Fourth Crusades in 1204 and divided the Byzantium empire into smaller kingdoms. The Byzantines eventually re-conquered Constantinople in 1261 and the Byzantine Empire continued to reign until falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. - Art during the final centuries of the Byzantine Empire is known as Late Byzantine art and the styles and conventions of the Early and Middle Byzantine periods begin to change to reflect emerging dynamics and tastes. - Mosaics and frescoes were still used for church decoration, although frescoed wall paintings became more popular. The change in favored medium also changed the types of imagery; wall paintings more heavily favor narrative scenes and cycles instead of standard single images. - During this period landscapes and settings began to emerge in two-dimensional art. Furthermore, a new method of depicting the body, with softer modeling and shading was used. Robes and drapery are still schematically rendered, but the figures now have mass and tangible bodies. Key Terms - Ottoman : Of the Islamic empire of Turkey. Late Byzantine Art The period of Late Byzantium saw the decline of the Byzantine Empire during the thirteenth through fifteenth centuries. Although the capital city of Constantinople and the empire as a whole prospered as a connection between east and west traders, Byzantium continually dealt with threats from the Ottoman Turks to the east and the Latin Empire to the west. During the Fourth Crusades, the Crusaders attacked Constantinople, took the city under siege in 1203, and eventually overcame its defenses to sack the city in 1204. Constantinople became the capital city of the Latin Empire, one of the new kingdoms of a divided Byzantium, until the Byzantines retook it in 1261. Once more, Constantinople became a prosperous Byzantine city until falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The sack of Constantinople in 1204 marks the starting point of Late Byzantine Art, which lasted until the fifteenth century and spread beyond the borders of Byzantium. Art during this period began to change from the standards and styles seen in the Early and Middle periods of Byzantium rule. A renewed interest in landscapes and earthly settings arose in mosaics, frescoes, and psalters . This development eventually led to the demise of the gold background. The settings are often simple, perhaps a hill or a chair at first, and are often pastoral. Architecture began to be depicted more often, which renewed the use of perspective . At first buildings were rendered slightly skewed, but eventually artists refined the combination of material (mosaic and painting) with architecture and perspective . Chora Church Mosaic work was still popular in the Late Byzantine period, but frescoes and the depiction of narrative cycles began to increase in popularity to become the primary decoration in churches. This transition is seen in the Chora Church, which was initially decorated in mosaic, with the final wing decorated with wall paintings. The shift in media changed the subjects depicted. Mosaics of single scenes and figures were replaced in favor of frescoed narrative cycles and biblical stories. The rendering of the figures also began to change. Artists now relied less on sharp, schematic folds and patterns and instead use softer, more subtle modeling and shading. While sharp folds in the drapery can still be found in images from this period, these folds are rendered in similar, not complimentary, colors and shades. Furthermore the bodies appear to have mass and weight. The figures no longer float or hover on their toes but stand on their feet. This allows for the addition of movement and energy in the painted figures and an overall increase of drama and emotion. Pammakaristos Church Although sculpture and column design are largely absent from discussions of Late Byzantine art, some notable fourteenth-century examples can be found in the Pammakaristos Church in Constantinople. Although the church was converted to a mosque in the fifteenth century, and all representations of humans and animals were either destroyed or covered, at least two fragments of a column capital depicting the busts of apostles in high relief survives in the collection. While the heads of the men are somewhat large in proportion to their bodies, their bodies have assumed more naturalistic positions than their predecessors. They direct their gazes to either subtle or sharp angles. The two hands that are visible hold books, possibly the Gospels, to their chests. In sum, their poses anticipate the return to classicism that would define the Renaissance in the West. The Chora Church in Constantinople The Chora Church is decorated with iconic murals and mosaics from the fourteenth century that represent the Late Byzantine artistic styles. Describe the ways in which the Chora Church in Constantinople represents Late Byzantine artistic styles Key Points - The Chora Church’s architecture, mosaics , and frescoes are exceptional examples of Late Byzantine artistic developments and style . The church that stands today consists of two narthices, a parecclesion , and a mortuary chapel. - The mosaics demonstrate the new weightiness and smoothness that is seen in Late Byzantine art. As is seen of the Koimesis Mosaic, the bodies are more modeled, delicately shaded, and have mass —the figures appear to stand on the ground instead of float. - Frescoed wall painting is the primary means of decoration in the paracclesion. The program of images relate to Christ and the Virgin Mary by depicting scenes from their lives, their ancestors, and themes of salvation, which culminate in scenes from the Last Judgment. - The apse fresco of the Anastasis depicts Christ redeeming Old Testament souls from Hell. The scene is full of energy and is centered on Christ who grabs the wrists of Adam and Eve. The figures are depicted with grace and a smooth modeling of mass and drapery. - Throughout the mosaics and frescoes, Christ is depicted as a bearded (mature and wise) savior and ruler. This evolution from clean-shaven youth to bearded adult coincides with Christianity’s evolution from illegal religion to state religion. Key Terms - dado : The lower portion of an interior wall that is decorated differently from the upper portion. - koimesis : Also known as the Dormition of the Virgin, this is a depiction of the Virgin Mary in her last sleep, at death, before ascending into Heaven. - mandorla : An almond-shaped cloud or radiance that surrounds sacred figures, such as Christ or the Virgin Mary, in traditional Christian art. - parecclesion : A side chapel found in Byzantine architecture. - narthex : A western vestibule leading to the nave in some (especially Orthodox) Christian churches. The Chora Church The Chora Church’s full name is the Church of the Holy Savior in Chora. The church was first built in Constantinople during the early fifth century. Its name references its location outside the city’s fourth-century walls. Even when the walls were expanded in the early fifth century by Theodosius II, the church maintained its name. Inside the church is a set of frescoes and mosaics that survived the church’s conversion into a mosque in the sixteenth century when its Christian imagery was plastered over. In 1948 the church became a museum after undergoing extensive restoration to uncover and restore its fourteenth-century decoration. It is now known as the Kariye Museum or Kariye Camii. Architecture The Chora Church that stands today is the result of its third stage of construction. This building and the interior decoration were completed between 1315 and 1321 under the Byzantine statesman Theodore Metochites. Metochites’ additions and reconstruction in the fourteenth century enlarged the ground plan from the original small, symmetrical church into a large, asymmetrical square that consists of three main areas: - An inner and outer narthex or entrance hall. - The naos or main chapel. - The side chapel, known as the parecclesion. The parecclesion serves as a mortuary chapel and held eight tombs that were added after the area was initially decorated. There are six domes in the church, three over the naos (one over the main space and two over smaller chapels), two in the inner narthex, and one in the side chapel. The domes are pumpkin-shaped, with concave bands radiating from their centers, and richly decorated with frescoes and mosaics that depict images of Christ and the Virgin at the center, with angels or ancestors surrounding them in the bands. Mosaics Mosaics extensively decorate the narthices of the Chora Church. The artists first decorated the church in the naos and then completed the work in the inner and outer narthices, which results in differences in the mosaics’ execution as the style progressed to show more liveliness and subtlety. The surviving mosaics in the naos depict the Virgin and Child and the Dormition of the Virgin, a koimesis scene depicting the Virgin after death before she ascends to Heaven. This scene, located above the west door, depicts the Virgin in blue lying on a sarcophagus draped in purple and gold. Christ, in gold, stands behind the Virgin surrounded by a mandorla and holds an infant, representing the Virgin’s soul. The figures in the scene all have a certain weightiness that helps to ground them, adding an element of naturalism . The mosaics found in the narthices of the Chora Church also depict scenes of the lives of the Virgin and Christ, while other scenes depict Old Testament stories that prefigure the Salvation. In the outer narthex, above the doorway to the inner narthex is a mosaic depicting Christ as the Pantocrator , the ruler or judge of all, in the center of a dome. The mosaic depicts a stern-faced Christ against a gold backdrop holding the gospels in one hand while gesturing with the other. An inscription in the mosaic reads, “Jesus Christ, Land of the Living.” In another important scene above the entrance to the naos, Christ Enthroned is depicted receiving the donor of the church. The scene follows the Byzantine convention of depicting an architectural donation with an image of Christ in the center and the donor kneeling beside him, holding a model of his donation. Here, Christ sits on a throne in a position similar to the Pantocrater, holding a book of gospels while his other hand gestures. The donor Theodore Metochites, wearing the clothing of his office, kneels on Christ’s right. He offers Christ a representation of the Chora Church in his hands. An inscription gives his titles. Frescoes The walls and ceilings of the parecclesion are decorated with scenes from the life of Christ and the Virgin, and themes of salvation befitting for a mortuary chapel. Like the mosaics, the scenes are painted in the upper levels of the building. The lower levels are reserved for painted images of saints and prophets and a decorative dado that mimics marble revetment . The entirety of the parecclesion is covered in fresco scenes and painted images, creating an overwhelming sense of splendor and glory that ultimately brings the viewer to the final scenes of salvation and judgment. Anastasis The most important of these frescoes is the Anastasis, a representation of the Last Judgment, in the apse of the eastern bay . This image depicts Christ in Hell, saving the souls of the Old Testament. Christ stands in the center grasping the wrists of Adam and Eve, whom he raises from their sarcophagi. Saints, prophets, martyrs and other righteous souls, including John the Baptist, King David, and King Solomon, from the Old Testament stand on either side of Christ. Christ, standing over a bound Satan, wears a white robe and is framed by a white and light blue mandorla. The image is the culmination of the parecclesion’s fresco cycle and one of the most impressive Late Byzantine paintings. Christ stands in an active, chiastic position. His arms reach out to Adam and Eve and his feet are positioned on uneven ground, providing the sensation of imbalance as he retrieves righteous souls. The figures themselves are rendered in a softer, subtler mode. The harsh, jagged drapery has softened slightly with fluid and delineated folds. The expression of Christ and the others are dignified and stern. The Old Testament figures on either side gesture towards the scene, signaling the future of the faithful, as they wait for Christ to bring them into Heaven. Changing Representations of Christ The depictions of Christ in the Chora Church differ greatly from those of the third and fourth centuries. Recalling Early Christian art, Christ often appears clean shaven and youthful, sometimes cast as the Good Shepherd who tends and rescues his flock from danger. At a time when Christianity was illegal, Christians would have found such imagery of a protector reassuring. By the fourteenth century, when Theodore Metochites funded the interior decoration, Christianity was no longer a fledgling faith; it was a state religion in which even the emperor recognized Christ as the ultimate authority. The images of Christ in the frescoes and mosaics of the Chora Church depict an authoritative, bearded man who occupies the role of both savior and judge. As an archetypal symbol of authority and wisdom through the ages, the beard would have been a logical choice for the face of the most supreme leader. Icon Painting in Byzantine Russia Andrei Rublev is considered the foremost fifteenth century Russian icon painter and the master behind the Old Testament Trinity. Explain the evolution of Russian icon painting from the tenth century to the modern era Key Points - The tradition of Russian icon production began when the Kievian Rus’ converted to Orthodox Christianity in the tenth century. As time passed, the technique took on uniquely Russian attributes. - Russian icon artists saw themselves as servants of God who transcribed the Gospels in visual form . Since they did not seek individual glory they did not sign their work, so the names of most Russian icon artists are unknown to Western scholars. - The painted icons of Andrei Rublev, who worked in the fifteenth century, are considered to be the pinnacle of Russian icon painting, demonstrating the combination of Byzantine and Russian styles . - The Old Testament Trinity that depicts the three angels hosted by Abraham and Sarah as described in Genesis 18, is an icon that is ascribed solely to Rublev’s hand. The icon is painted with brilliant colors and a delicate hand to depict subtle lines , modeling, and humanity in the scene. - Exposure to Western styles and the dawn of the modern age changed the appearance of icons and the media in which they were produced: subject matter assumed a more realistic appearance by the seventeenth century and, by the early twentieth century, the mechanized printing press sparked the popularity of paper icons. Key Terms - tempera : A painting medium with either a casein or egg-yolk binder. - prefiguration : A vague advance representation or suggestion of something. Russian Icons In 988 CE, the Slavic confederation known as Kievan Rus’ (a precursor to present-day Russia) adopted Orthodox Christianity as its official religion. Shortly thereafter, those living within its borders began producing icons. As a general rule, these icons strictly followed the traditional models and formulas of Byzantine art. Nevertheless, as time passed, Russian artists widened the vocabulary of types and styles far beyond anything found elsewhere in the Orthodox world. Like Byzantine icons, Russian icons were usually small-scale paintings on wood. However, some icons produced for churches and monasteries were, at times, much larger. Russian artists also used alternative media, such as copper, for their work. Russians sometimes speak of an icon as having been written because, in the Russian language, the same word means both to paint and to write. Icons are considered to be visual versions of the Gospels, and therefore, careful attention is paid to ensure that each Gospel is faithfully and accurately conveyed. Because of these strict standards, artists saw themselves as God’s servants and did not strive for individual glory, as would become the norm in the West. For this reason, they did not sign their creations, and very few artists’ names are known to scholars outside of Russia. Andrei Rublev is one rare example. Andrei Rublev Russian icon painters flourished throughout the Byzantine period. Russian icons were known for their strict adhesion to Byzantine-style painting including the use of patterns, strong lines, and contrasting colors. Most Byzantine Russian icons were painted in egg tempera on wood panels. Gold leaf was often used for halos and background colors and bronze , silver, and tin were also used to embellish the icons. The work of Andrei Rublev, a Russian icon painter in the fifteenth century, is considered to be the pinnacle of Byzantine Russian icon painting. Not much is known about his life. He was born in the 1360s and died in either 1427 or 1430. What is known about Rublev comes from monastic chronicles, which account for his work as a painter and do not discuss his life. He is believed to have lived at the Trinity-St. Serguis Lavra, a monastery outside of Moscow in the town of Sergiyev Posad. Rublev is first recorded to have painted icons and frescos for the Cathedral of the Annunciation in Moscow in 1405. He worked at the Cathedral of the Annunciation under Theopanes the Greek, a Byzantine master, who moved to Russia and is believed to have been Rublev’s teacher. Rublev also often worked with Daniil Cherni, another monastic artist. The two painted icons for the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir in 1408 and the Church of the Trinity in the Trinity-St.Sergius Lavra monastery from 1425-1427. The Old Testament Trinity The icon known as the Old Testament Trinity (1411–1427) is the only work to be attributed solely to Rublev’s hand. It is considered to represent the brilliance of his work and the greatest achievement of Byzantine Russian icons. The egg tempera icon was made for the Church of the Trinity in the Trinity-St. Sergius Lavra and stands just less than five feet tall and is nearly four feet wide. The icon depicts three angels around a table and is an illustration of Genesis 18, the Hospitality of Abraham, in which Abraham and his wife Sarah host three angels at their table. The scene focuses on the three angels and is full of symbolism that focuses on the mystery of the Holy Trinity and the prefiguration of salvation. The image today is poorly preserved, but it demonstrates Rublev’s style and skill. The three angels sit around a table with a single chalice. The figures are delicately rendered. Their faces and hands are shaded to create volume , and their expressions are calm and serene. Each angel has a halo and wings, and holds a thin scepter. Despite having nearly identical faces, their vividly painted garments help to distinguish them. Their garments are painted in rich, saturated colors. Each angel wears a robe in brilliant blue coupled with a second color including a orange, a deep red, and a green. The linearity of the robes highlights Byzantine methods of modeling that are based on the use of solid lines and complimentary colors to create contrasting folds and replicate the body’s mass and height. While the figures appear weighty and naturalistic, the scenery and landscape around them are non-naturalistic. The table and chairs are painted in a skewed perspective and a small architectural detail in the upper left of the panel and a central tree create the basis of the setting. Into the Modern Era Until the seventeenth century, innovation was largely absent from icon production in Russia. When Roman Catholic and Protestant styles from Western Europe triggered new developments, the result was a split in the Russian Orthodox Church. The traditionalists—the persecuted Old Ritualists or Old Believers—continued the traditional stylization of icons, while the State Church modified its practice. While some artists continued to produce figures in the traditional stylized manner, others opted for a mixture of Russian stylization and Western European realism very much like that of Catholic religious art of the time. The Westernization of Russian icons likely escalated under the reign of Tsar Peter the Great, whose cultural revolution brought Western values and the Enlightenment to Russia. Tradition and the new style converge in an icon of Saint Nicolas and the Venerable Gerasimus of Boldino holding the much venerated Theotokos of Kazan. The Theotokos of Kazan was an icon of the highest stature within the Russian Orthodox Church. According to legend, it was acquired from Constantinople, lost in 1438, and miraculously recovered in pristine state in 1579. The icon was stolen and likely destroyed in 1904. In the icon of Nicolas and Geasimus, the two saints, the icon, and the background are realistically rendered. The divine light source in the center causes naturalistic shadows to fall on the the hands of the two saints and the sides of their faces. Color and visual texture also mimic the natural world, while the tiles floor betrays a sense of realistic one-point perspective. Earth tones dominate the picture plane , pointing to possible Dutch Baroque (Protestant) influence. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, icon painting in Russia went into a great decline with the arrival of machine lithography on paper and tin. This new technology could produce icons in great quantity and much more cheaply than the workshops of painters. Today, Russian Orthodox worshippers purchase much larger numbers of paper icons than the more expensive painted panels. Painting in the Late Byzantine Empire As Late Byzantine painting became more naturalistic—bodies gained mass and figures portrayed humanity with emotion and movement—and these developments and traditions continued into the Post-Byzantine age. Describe the form and content of icons and murals found in Late Byzantine painting and its immediate successors Key Points - Painters in the Late Byzantine period painted scenes with a new sense of naturalism by portraying figures with mass and naturalistic bodies under their clothing; drapery became a garment through which the body was rendered. Landscapes and settings were used more often, and figures were given increased movement and emotion to lend them an additional level of humanity. - The Ohrid Icons are a series of icons produced in Constantinople that were later moved to Ohrid Macedonia. The Annunciation from one of the icons is a delicately painted scene filled with emotion and tension. - The Crucifixion scene painted behind the altar of the Katholikon of the Monastery of the Virgin at Studenica is Serbia is another scene that depicts figures in the Byzantine style —they are infused with emotion and humanity, represented through their figure’s expressions and the sway of Christ’s body. - During this time the iconostasis was fully developed and became a popular method of dividing the nave from the altar in Byzantine churches, especially in Russia. This screen was often large and covered in icons of saints and Christ in the general pattern of a Deesis . - Even as the Byzantine Empire lost territory, its artistic traditions continued, most notably in the Cretan School. In this final phase of Byzantine art, figures and illusionistic space continued to assume greater degrees of naturalism, while the gold background remained in most icons. Key Terms - Katholikon : The major temple or church building of a monastery or diocese in an Eastern Orthodox Church. - iconostasis : A wall of icons between the sanctuary and the nave in an Eastern Orthodox church. - Deesis : An iconic representation, common in the Byzantine period, of Christ enthroned, Christ Pantocrator, surrounded by the Virgin Mary and St. John the Baptist, often in supplication. Late Byzantine Painting The paintings in the Church of Christ in Chora are representative of the style of painting produced in the last centuries of the Byzantine Empire. Large murals were painted over expanses of architecture. Many icons at this time were panels painted on both sides. Icons were painted this way since they were used in processions, and therefore seen from two directions. In churches, they were often displayed in special stands to allow for the viewing of both sides. Even after the Byzantine shrank and eventually fell, its artistic traditions continued in many former territories. The most famous example is the Cretan School. Iconostasis During the Late Byzantine period the iconostasis was fully developed. It was a screen or wall that stood in the nave, separating the space from the sanctuary and altar of the church. This wall was covered in icons and usually had three doors that allowed access into the sanctuary and viewing of the altar. Icons were placed on the iconostasis following a general guideline that included the presence of a Deesis, Christ enthroned surrounded by John the Baptist and the Theotokos. Other icons included images of angels, saints, Old Testament prophets, the Apostles, and the patron saints of the church and city. The presence of the icons and the iconostasis was not to separate but to provide a bridge or a connection between the earthly and heavenly realms. Ohrid Icons The Ohrid Icons (early fourteenth century) were produced in Constantinople and were later moved to Ohrid in Macedonia. One icon depicts the Virgin Mary on one side and the Annunciation on the other side. The Annunciation portrays the Virgin Mary seated on a throne as the angel Gabriel approaches her to deliver the news of her conception of the son of God. The background is typically Byzantine: gold leaf background that mimics the golden backgrounds of mosaics . The architecture is rendered in a later Byzantine style. The buildings are painted with an attempt at perspective that is more skewed than correct but that still provides a suggestion of space. This was also seen in the Theotokos of the Hagia Sophia, but in this case the architecture provides more of a place setting, as in the landscape of the Lamentation from Nerezi. The figures themselves are rendered with Byzantine faces—small mouths and long, narrow noses. The faces, hands, and feet are carefully shaded and modeled. The clothing is also follows the Byzantine style with dramatic, deep folds and a schematic patterning that renders the body underneath. The bodies, however, differ from their earlier Byzantine predecessors. They have weight and appear to exist underneath their clothing. The scene also takes cues from Late Byzantine styles, since it is dramatically depicted. The Virgin’s rigid pose and single gesture signify her unease at the angel’s approach. Gabriel, meanwhile, appears to have just landed. He strides forward, with an arm outstretched. He places his weight completely on his left foot, while he prepares to plant his right foot on the ground . We are witness to the moment of his arrival. The momentum of his arrival is further emphasized by the placement of his wings. One wing has settled down onto his back while the other reaches upwards to balance his flight. The movement and emotion in the scene can be related to the Anastasias scene of the Chora Church. Both images have a single, central figure full of motion that provides energy to the different scenes depicted. Monastery of the Virgin at Studenica, Serbia The Serbian Monastery of the Virgin was built in the twelfth century outside the city of Kraljevo. While the monastery’s churches do not appear from the outside to follow Byzantine architectural styles, the interior painting of the Katholikon, the Church of the Virgin, is painted in the Late Byzantine manner. The Crucifixion, painted on the western wall overlooking the altar, represents the mastery of Serbian art and the development and spread of the Late Byzantine style from the center of Byzantium in Constantinople. The figures are less elongated than their earlier counterparts, and the background is painted in a brilliant blue with golden stars. The central image of Christ on the cross is surrounded by mourners, including his mother. The figures in this calm scene have mass. While the Virgin Mary still appears to be a mass of robes, her drapery is more subtly rendered. The bodies of the other figures are more easily denoted by the modeling of their robes. The drapery is still reliant on deep folds, but the folds are no longer contorted and are less schematic. While less dramatic and more serene, there is an underlying emotion of sadness that is subtly depicted by the sway of Christ’s body. The Cretan School Over the course of the thirteenth through fifteenth centuries, the Byzantine Empire lost much of its territory. However, its artistic traditions continued for centuries in areas such as Crete. Established, in the fifteenth century, the Cretan School is known for its distinct style of icon painting that was influenced by both Western and Eastern traditions. Even before the fall of Constantinople, the leading Byzantine artists were leaving the capital to settle in Crete. This migration continued in the following years and reached its peak after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The early icons produced by the Cretan School follow many of the earlier Byzantine traditions. Over the course of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as the styles of Italian and Northern Renaissance artists grew in popularity, the rendering of the human body and illusionistic space became increasingly realistic. However, many icons retained the traditional gold backgrounds. The influence of the Renaissance, in which the notion of the artistic genius arose, can also be seen in the increasing attachment of artists’ names to their creations. In the following examples by El Greco (1541–1614) and Emmanuel Tzanes (1610–1690), we can see the transition from the Late Byzantine style (in which the contours of the body were acknowledged beneath the drapery and attempts at realistic perspective were still evolving) to the Post-Byzantine style, which depicts a realistic recession of space and dynamic bodily poses. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pammakaristos_Church_fragments.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3867227. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Sant Salvador de Khora - Interior. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sant_Salvador_de_Khora_-_Interior.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - LatinEmpire2. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LatinEmpire2.png. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Christ healing a paralitic in Caphernaum. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Christ_healing_a_paralitic_in_Caphernaum.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Byzantine Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chora Church. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chora_Church. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pammakaristos Church. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pammakaristos_Church. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Fourth Crusade. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Crusade. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ottoman. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Ottoman. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kariye camii innen2. Provided by : Wikimedia. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - GerBold_StNicolay.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17104237. License : CC BY: Attribution - 410px-Feodorovskaya_u0441ast_copper_icon.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8359660. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Angelsatmamre-trinity-rublev-1410. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Angelsatmamre-trinity-rublev-1410.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kievan Rus'. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Our Lady of Kazan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Kazan. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Peter the Great. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Great. 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Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ohrid_annunciation_icon.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Iconostasis in Moscow. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iconostasis_in_Moscow.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Studenica Christi. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Studenica_Christi.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 384px-Tzanes_Emmanuel_-_St_Mark_the_Evangelist_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23718141. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 408px-Dormition_El_Greco.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17951018. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Emmanuel Tzanes. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Tzanes. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Eastern Orthodox Church Architecture. 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Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconostasis. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Deesis. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Deesis. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Iconostasis. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/iconostasis. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Katholikon. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Katholikon. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:28.339844	2020-05-01T17:32:36	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/09%3A_The_Byzantines/9.03%3A_Late_Byzantine_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "9.3: Late Byzantine Art", "author": "Boundless" }
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https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/10%3A_Islamic_Art/10.01%3A_Introduction_to_Islamic_Art	10.1: Introduction to Islamic Art Islamic Art Islamic art encompasses visual arts produced from the seventh century onwards by culturally Islamic populations. Identify the influences and the specific attributes of Islamic art Key Points - Islamic art is not art of a specific religion, time, place, or of a single medium . Instead it spans some 1400 years, covers many lands and populations, and includes a range of artistic fields including architecture, calligraphy , painting, glass, ceramics , and textiles, among others. - Islamic religious art differs from Christian religious art in that it is non-figural because many Muslims believe that the depiction of the human form is idolatry , and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in the Qur’an. Calligraphy and architectural elements are given important religious significance in Islamic art. - Islamic art developed from many sources: Roman, early Christian art, and Byzantine styles ; Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia; Central Asian styles brought by various nomadic incursions, and Chinese influences appear on Islamic painting, pottery , and textiles. Key Terms - Qu’ran : The central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: Allah). It is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language. - arabesque : A repetitive, stylized pattern based on a geometrical floral or vegetal design. - idolatry : The worship of idols. - monotheistic : Believing in a single god, deity, spirit, etc., especially for an organized religion, faith, or creed. Islam Islam is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a book considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Allah) and the teachings of Muhammad , who is considered to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim. Most Muslims are of two denominations: Sunni (75–90%),[7] or Shia (10–20%). Its essential religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship, and the following of Islamic law, which touches on every aspect of life and society. The five pillars are: - Shahadah (belief or confession of faith) - Salat (worship in the form of prayer) - Sawm Ramadan (fasting during the month of Ramadan) - Zakat (alms or charitable giving) - Hajj (the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime) Islamic Art Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the seventh century onward by both Muslims and non-Muslims who lived within the territory that was inhabited by, or ruled by, culturally Islamic populations. It is thus a very difficult art to define because it spans some 1400 years, covering many lands and populations. This art is also not of a specific religion, time, place, or single medium. Instead Islamic art covers a range of artistic fields including architecture, calligraphy, painting, glass, ceramics, and textiles, among others. Islamic art is not restricted to religious art, but instead includes all of the art of the rich and varied cultures of Islamic societies. It frequently includes secular elements and elements that are forbidden by some Islamic theologians. Islamic religious art differs greatly from Christian religious art traditions. Because figural representations are generally considered to be forbidden in Islam, the word takes on religious meaning in art as seen in the tradition of calligraphic inscriptions. Calligraphy and the decoration of manuscript Qu’rans is an important aspect of Islamic art as the word takes on religious and artistic significance. Islamic architecture, such as mosques and palatial gardens of paradise, are also embedded with religious significance. While examples of Islamic figurative painting do exist, and may cover religious scenes, these examples are typically from secular contexts, such as the walls of palaces or illuminated books of poetry. Other religious art, such as glass mosque lamps, Girih tiles, woodwork, and carpets usually demonstrate the same style and motifs as contemporary secular art, although they exhibit more prominent religious inscriptions. Islamic art was influenced by Greek, Roman, early Christian, and Byzantine art styles, as well as the Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia. Central Asian styles were brought in with various nomadic incursions; and Chinese influences had a formative effect on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles. Themes of Islamic Art There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of stylized , geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the arabesque . The arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of God. Some scholars believe that mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only God can produce perfection. Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than human or animal figures, because it is believed by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry and thereby a sin against God that is forbidden in the Qur’an. However, depictions of the human form and animals can be found in all eras of Islamic secular art. Depictions of the human form in art intended for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry and is forbidden in Islamic law, known as Sharia law. Islamic Architecture Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of styles and the principal example is the mosque. Describe the development of mosques, and their different features during different periods and dynasties Key Points - A specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad’s time that incorporated Roman building traditions with the addition of localized adaptations of the former Sassanid and Byzantine models. - The Islamic mosque has historically been both a place of prayer and a community meeting space . The early mosques are believed to be inspired by Muhammad’s home in Medina, which was the first mosque. Key Terms - mosque : A place of worship for Muslims, corresponding to a church or synagogue in other religions, often having at least one minaret. In Arabic: masjid. - mihrab : A semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque, that indicates the qibla (direction of Mecca), and into which the imam prays. - minaret : The tall slender tower of an Islamic mosque, from which the muezzin recites the adhan (call to prayer). Islamic Architecture Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles. The principal Islamic architectural example is the mosque. A specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad’s time that incorporated Roman building traditions with the addition of localized adaptations of the former Sassanid and Byzantine models. Early Mosques The Islamic mosque has historically been both a place of prayer and a community meeting space. The early mosques are believed to be inspired by Muhammad’s home in Medina, which was the first mosque. The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) is one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques. Founded in 670, it contains all of the architectural features that distinguish early mosques: a minaret , a large courtyard surrounded by porticos , and a hypostyle prayer hall. Ottoman Mosques Ottoman mosques and other architecture first emerged in the cities of Bursa and Edirne in the 14th and 15th centuries, developing from earlier Seljuk Turk architecture, with additional influences from Byzantine, Persian, and Islamic Mamluk traditions. Sultan Mehmed II would later fuse European traditions in his rebuilding programs at Istanbul in the 19th century. Byzantine styles as seen in the Hagia Sophia served as particularly important models for Ottoman mosques, such as the mosque constructed by Sinan. Building reached its peak in the 16th century when Ottoman architects mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces surmounted by seemingly weightless yet incredibly massive domes , and achieved perfect harmony between inner and outer spaces, as well as articulated light and shadow. They incorporated vaults , domes, square dome plans, slender corner minarets, and columns into their mosques, which became sanctuaries of transcendently aesthetic and technical balance, as may be observed in the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey. Architecture flourished in the Safavid Dynasty , attaining a high point with the building program of Shah Abbas in Isfahan, which included numerous gardens, palaces (such as Ali Qapu), an immense bazaar, and a large imperial mosque. Isfahan, the capital of both the Seljuk and Safavid dynasties, bears the most prominent samples of the Safavid architecture, such as the the Imperial Mosque, which was constructed in the years after Shah Abbas I permanently moved the capital there in 1598. Islamic Glass Making Glassmaking was the most important Islamic luxury art of the early Middle Ages. Describe the art of Islamic glass Key Points - Between the 8th and early 11th centuries, the emphasis in luxury glass was on effects achieved by manipulating the surface of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief . - Lustre painting uses techniques similar to lustreware in pottery and dates back to the 8th century in Egypt; it became widespread in the 12th century. Key Terms - luxury arts : Highly decorative goods made of precious materials for the wealthy classes. - glassmaking : The craft or industry of producing glass. Islamic Glass For most of the Middle Ages , Islamic luxury glass was the most sophisticated in Eurasia , exported to both Europe and China. Islam took over much of the traditional glass-producing territory of Sassanian and Ancient Roman glass. Since figurative decoration played a small part in pre-Islamic glass, the change in style was not abrupt—except that the whole area initially formed a political whole, and, for example, Persian innovations were now almost immediately taken up in Egypt. For this reason it is often impossible to distinguish between the various centers of production (of which Egypt, Syria, and Persia were the most important), except by scientific analysis of the material, which itself has difficulties. From various documentary references, glassmaking and glass-trading seems to have been a specialty of the Jewish minority. Between the 8th and early 11th centuries, the emphasis in luxury glass was on effects achieved by manipulating the surface of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief. The very massive Hedwig glasses, only found in Europe, but normally considered Islamic (or possibly from Muslim craftsmen in Norman Sicily), are an example of this, though they are puzzlingly late in date. These and other glass pieces probably represented cheaper versions of vessels of carved rock crystal (clear quartz)—themselves influenced by earlier glass vessels—and there is some evidence that at this period glass and hard-stone cutting were regarded as the same craft. From the 12th century, the glass industry in Persia and Mesopotamia declined, and the main production of luxury glass shifted to Egypt and Syria. Throughout this period, local centers made simpler wares, such as Hebron glass in Palestine. Lustre painting Lustre painting, by techniques similar to lustreware in pottery, dates back to the 8th century in Egypt, and involves the application of metallic pigments during the glass-making process. Another technique used by artisans was decoration with threads of glass of a different color, worked into the main surface, and sometimes manipulated by combing and other effects. Gilded, painted, and enameled glass were added to the repertoire, as were shapes and motifs borrowed from other media , such as pottery and metalwork . Some of the finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man. As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it often exhibited bubbles and a brownish-yellow tinge. Aleppo ceased to be a major center after the Mongol invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the Syrian glass industry around 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to Samarkand. By about 1500, the Venetians were receiving large orders for mosque lamps. Some of the finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man. As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it often exhibited bubbles and a brownish-yellow tinge. Aleppo ceased to be a major center after the Mongol invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the Syrian industry around 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to Samarkand. By about 1500, the Venetians were receiving large orders for mosque lamps. Islamic Calligraphy Calligraphic design was omnipresent in Islamic art in the Middle Ages, and is seen in all types of art including architecture and the decorative arts. Explain the purpose and characteristics of Islamic calligraphy Key Points - In a religion where figural representations are considered an act of idolatry , it is no surprise that the word and its artistic representation became an important aspect in Islamic art. - The earliest form of Arabic calligraphy is Kufic script . - Besides Quranic verses, other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or donation. Key Terms - Kufic script : The earliest form of Arabic calligraphy, noted for its angular form. - calligraphy : The art of writing letters and words with decorative strokes. In a religion where figural representations are considered an act of idolatry, it is no surprise that the word and its artistic representation became an important aspect in Islamic art. The most important religious text in Islam is the Quran, which is believed to be the word of God. There are many examples of calligraphy and calligraphic inscriptions pertaining to verses from the Quran in Islamic arts. The earliest form of Arabic calligraphy is Kufic script, which is noted for its angular form. Arabic is read from right to left and only the consonants are written. The black ink in the image above from a 9th century Quran marks the consonants for the reader. The red dots that are visible on the page note the vowels. However, calligraphic design is not limited to the book in Islamic art. Calligraphy is found in several different types of art, such as architecture. The interior of the Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem, circa 691), for example, features calligraphic inscriptions of verses from the Quran as well as from additional sources. As in Europe in the Middle Ages , religious exhortations such as Quranic verses may be included in secular objects, especially coins, tiles, and metalwork . Calligraphic inscriptions were not exclusive to the Quran, but also included verses of poetry or recorded ownership or donation. Calligraphers were highly regarded in Islam, which reinforces the importance of the word and its religious and artistic significance. Islamic Book Painting Manuscript painting in the late medieval Islamic world reached its height in Persia, Syria, Iraq, and the Ottoman Empire. Discuss the origin and development of Islamic manuscript painting Key Points - The art of the Persian book was born under the Ilkhanid dynasty and encouraged by the patronage of aristocrats for large illuminated manuscripts . - Islamic manuscript painting witnessed its first golden age in the 13th century when it was influenced by the Byzantine visual vocabulary and combined with Mongol facial types from 12th-century book frontispieces. - Under the rule of the Safavids in Iran (1501 to 1786), the art of manuscript illumination achieves new heights, in particular in the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp, an immense copy of Ferdowsi’s epic poem that contains more than 250 paintings. - The medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat were some of the earliest coffee-table books and among the first Islamic art to mirror daily life. - Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two books of festivals, one from the end of the 16th century and the other from the era of Sultan Murad III. Key Terms - Mongols : An umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan in the 13th century. - illuminated manuscripts : A book in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia), and miniature illustrations. - miniature : An illustration in an ancient or medieval illuminated manuscript. - muraqqa : An album in book form containing Islamic miniature paintings and specimens of Islamic calligraphy, normally from several different sources, and perhaps other matter. - Maqamat : The plural for Maqāma, an Arabic literary genre of rhymed prose with intervals of poetry that often ruminates on spiritual topics. Islamic Book Painting Book painting in the late medieval Islamic world reached its height in Persia, Syria, Iraq, and the Ottoman Empire . The art form blossomed across the different regions and was inspired by a range of cultural reference points. The evolution of book painting first began in the 13th century, when the Mongols, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, swept through the Islamic world. Upon the death of Genghis Khan, his empire was divided among his sons and dynasties formed: the Yuan in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran, and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and southern Russia. The Ilkhanids The Ilkhanids were a rich civilization that developed under the little khans in Iran. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary yet retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north–south orientation of buildings. Persian, Islamic, and East Asian traditions melded together during this period and a process of Iranization took place, in which construction according to previously established types, such as the Iranian-plan mosques , was resumed. The art of the Persian book was born under the Ilkhanid dynasty and encouraged by the patronage of aristocrats for large illuminated manuscripts, such as the Jami’ al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani. Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the 13th century, mostly within Syria and Iraq. Miniatures The tradition of the Persian miniature (a small painting on paper) developed during this period, and it strongly influenced the Ottoman miniature of Turkey and the Mughal miniature in India. Because illuminated manuscripts were an art of the court, and not seen in public, constraints on the depiction of the human figure were much more relaxed and the human form is represented with frequency within this medium. Influence from the Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic and victorious motifs, symbology of drapery) was combined with Mongol facial types seen in 12th-century book frontispieces. Chinese influences in Islamic book painting include the early adoption of the vertical format natural to a book. Motifs such as peonies, clouds, dragons, and phoenixes were adapted from China as well, and incorporated into manuscript illumination. The largest commissions of illustrated books were usually classics of Persian poetry, such as the Shahnameh. Under the rule of the Safavids in Iran (1501 to 1786), the art of manuscript illumination achieved new heights. The most noteworthy example of this is the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp, an immense copy of Ferdowsi’s epic poem that contains more than 250 paintings. Maqamat and Albums The medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat that were copied and illustrated by Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti, were some of the earliest coffee-table books. They were among the first texts in Islamic art to hold a mirror to daily life, portraying humorous stories and showing little adherence to prior pictorial traditions. In the 17th century a new type of painting developed based around the album (muraqqa). The albums were the creations of connoisseurs who bound together single sheets of paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists; they were sometimes excised from earlier books and other times created as independent works. The paintings of Reza Abbasi figure largely in this new form of book art. The form depicts one or two larger figures, typically idealized beauties in a garden setting, and often use the grisaille techniques previously used for background border paintings . Mughal and Ottoman Manuscripts The Mughals and Ottomans both produced lavish manuscripts of more recent history with the autobiographies of the Mughal emperors and purely military chronicles of Turkish conquests. Portraits of rulers developed in the 16th century, and later in Persia, where they became very popular. Mughal portraits, normally in profile, are very finely drawn in a realist style , while the best Ottoman ones are vigorously stylized . Album miniatures typically featured picnic scenes, portraits of individuals, or (in India especially) animals, or idealized youthful beauties of either sex. Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two books of festivals, one from the end of the 16th century and the other from the era of Sultan Murad III. These books contain numerous illustrations and exhibit a strong Safavid influence, perhaps inspired by books captured in the course of the Ottoman–Safavid wars of the 16th century. Islamic Ceramics Islamic art has notable achievements in ceramics that reached heights unmatched by other cultures. Discuss how developments such as tin-opacified glazing and stonepaste ceramics made Islamic ceramics some of the most advanced of its time Key Points - The first Islamic opaque glazes date to around the 8th century, and another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics in 9th century Iraq. - Lusterwares with iridescent colors were either invented or considerably developed in Persia and Syria from the 9th century onward. - The techniques, shapes, and decorative motifs of Chinese ceramics were admired and emulated by Islamic potters, especially after the Mongol and Timurid invasions. - The Hispano–Moresque style emerged in the 8th century, with more refined production happening later, presumably by Muslim potters working in areas reconquered by Christian kingdoms. Key Terms - Hispano–Moresque style : A style of Islamic pottery created in Al-Andaluz, or Muslim Spain, which continued to be produced under Christian rule in styles that blended Islamic and European elements. - lusterware : A type of pottery or porcelain having an iridescent metallic glaze. - glaze : The vitreous coating of pottery or porcelain, or a transparent or semi-transparent layer of paint. - ceramics : Inorganic, nonmetallic solids created by the action of heat and their subsequent cooling. Most common ceramics are crystalline and the earliest uses of ceramics were in pottery. Islamic Ceramics Islamic art has notable achievements in ceramics, both in pottery and tiles for buildings, which reached heights unmatched by other cultures . Early pottery had usually been unglazed, but a tin-opacified glazing technique was developed by Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics, originating from 9th century Iraq. The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, in the 8th century. Other centers for innovative pottery in the Islamic world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600), and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550). Lusterware Lusterware is a type of pottery or porcelain that has an iridescent metallic glaze. Luster first began as a painting technique in glassmaking , which was then translated to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century. The techniques, shapes, and decorative motifs of Chinese ceramics were admired and emulated by Islamic potters, especially after the Mongol and Timurid invasions. Until the Early Modern period, Western ceramics had little influence, but Islamic pottery was highly sought after in Europe, and was often copied. An example of this is the albarello, a type of earthenware jar originally designed to hold apothecary ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. Hispano–Moresque examples were exported to Italy, inspiring the earliest Italian examples, from 15th century Florence. Hispano–Moresque Style The Hispano–Moresque style emerged in Al-Andaluz, or Muslim Spain, in the 8th century, under Egyptian influence. More refined production happened much later, presumably by Muslim potters who worked in the areas reconquered by the Christian kingdoms. The Hispano–Moresque style mixed Islamic and European elements in its designs and was exported to neighboring European countries. The style introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: - Glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze. - Painting in metallic lusters. Ottoman Iznik pottery produced most of the finest ceramics of the 16th century—tiles and large vessels boldly decorated with floral motifs that were influenced by Chinese Yuan and Ming ceramics. These were still in earthenware, since porcelain was not made in Islamic countries until modern times. The medieval Islamic world also painted pottery with animal and human imagery . Examples are found throughout the medieval Islamic world, particularly in Persia and Egypt. Islamic Textiles The most important textile produced in the Medieval and Early Modern Islamic Empires was the carpet. Discuss the making and designs of Islamic textiles Key Points - The production and trade of textiles pre-dates Islam , and had long been important to Middle Eastern cultures and cities, many of which flourished due to the Silk Road . - When the Islamic dynasties formed and grew more powerful they gained control over textile production in the region, which was arguably the most important craft of the era. Key Terms - textile arts : The production of arts and crafts that use plant, animal, or synthetic fibers to create objects. Islam and the Textile Arts The textile arts refer to the production of arts and crafts that use plant, animal, or synthetic fibers to create objects. These objects can be for everyday use, or they can be decorative and luxury items. The production and trade of textiles pre-dates Islam, and had long been important to Middle Eastern cultures and cities, many of which flourished due to the Silk Road. When the Islamic dynasties formed and grew more powerful they gained control over textile production in the region, which was arguably the most important craft of the era. The most important textile produced in Medieval and Early Modern Islamic Empires was the carpet. The Ottoman Empire and Carpet Production The art of carpet weaving was particularly important in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman state was founded by Turkish tribes in northwestern Anatolia in 1299 and became an empire in 1453 after the momentous conquest of Constantinople. Stretching across Asia, Europe, and Africa, the Empire was vast and long lived, lasting until 1922 when the monarchy was abolished in Turkey. Within the Ottoman Empire, carpets were immensely valued as decorative furnishings and for their practical value . They were used not just on floors but also as wall and door hangings, where they provided additional insulation. These intricately knotted carpets were made of silk, or a combination of silk and cotton, and were often rich in religious and other symbolism. Hereke silk carpets, which were made in the coastal town of Hereke, were the most valued of the Ottoman carpets because of their fine weave. The Hereke carpets were typically used to furnish royal palaces. Persian Carpets The Iranian Safavid Empire (1501–1786) is distinguished from the Mughal and Ottoman dynasties by the Shia faith of its shahs, which was the majority Islamic denomination in Persia. Safavid art is contributed to several aesthetic traditions, particularly to the textile arts. In the sixteenth century, carpet weaving evolved from a nomadic and peasant craft to a well-executed industry that used specialized design and manufacturing techniques on quality fibers such as silk. The carpets of Ardabil, for example, were commissioned to commemorate the Safavid dynasty and are now considered to be the best examples of classical Persian weaving, particularly for their use of graphical perspective. Textiles became a large export, and Persian weaving became one of the most popular imported goods of Europe. Islamic carpets were a luxury item in Europe and there are several examples of European Renaissance paintings that document the presence of Islamic textiles in European homes during that time. Indonesian Batik Islamic textile production, however, was not limited to the carpet. Royal factories were founded for the purpose of textile production that also included cloth and garments. The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam. The Islamic prohibition on certain images encouraged batik design to become more abstract and intricate. Realistic depictions of animals and humans are rare on traditional batik, but serpents, puppet-shaped humans, and the Garuda of pre-Islamic mythology are all commonplace. Although its existence in Indonesia pre-dates Islam, batik reached its high point in the royal Muslim courts, such as Mataram and Yogyakarta, whose Muslim rulers encouraged and patronized batik production. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Textile Arts. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_arts. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ottoman Empire. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : www.boundless.com/users/212217/textbooks/world-art-history/islamic-art-8/the-ottom-safavid-and-mughai-dynasties-72/ottoman-empire-368-7111/. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:28.578982	2020-05-01T17:32:39	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/10%3A_Islamic_Art/10.01%3A_Introduction_to_Islamic_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "10.1: Introduction to Islamic Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/11%3A_Art_of_South_and_Southeast_Asia_Before_1200_CE	11: Art of South and Southeast Asia Before 1200 CE Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52954 Boundless Boundless 11.1: Early Indus Valley Civilizations 11.2: Buddhist Art 11.3: Java and Cambodia 11.4: Art of Southeast Asia	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:28.662841	2020-05-01T17:29:52	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/11%3A_Art_of_South_and_Southeast_Asia_Before_1200_CE", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "11: Art of South and Southeast Asia Before 1200 CE", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/11%3A_Art_of_South_and_Southeast_Asia_Before_1200_CE/11.01%3A_Early_Indus_Valley_Civilizations	11.1: Early Indus Valley Civilizations Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization was an urban civilization from 3300–1300 BCE that covered most of present-day Pakistan and northwest India. Draw a timeline of the Early, Mature, and Late Harappan Phases of the Indus Civilization, noting the cultural accomplishments of each Key Points - The Indus Valley civilization is often separated into three phases: Early Harappan Phase (3300 BCE–2600 BCE), Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BCE–1900 BCE), and Late Harappan Phase (1900 BCE–1300 BCE). - Cities of the ancient Indus Valley had multistory brick buildings, employed an advanced sanitation system, and used a unified system of weight and measurement. - Most inhabitants of Indus Valley cities were artisans, and many artifacts —such as sculptures , seals, pottery, gold, jewelry, elaborate beadwork, and anatomically detailed figurines —have been excavated. - There is evidence of an extensive trade network used to import raw materials, such as lapis lazuli and steatite , to the Indus Valley from distant regions. - Between 400 and 600 distinct Indus symbols indicate a language found on ceramics , seals, and tablets, though the language remains entirely unknown to this day. Key Terms - lapis lazuli : A relatively rare, intensely blue, semi-precious stone. - steatite : A stone that contains a large amount of the mineral talc and is easily malleable; also known as soapstone. - Bronze Age : A period in a civilization’s development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and allows it to be cast in bronze. Overview: The Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age urban civilization that existed from 3300–1300 BCE and covered most of present-day Pakistan and northwest India. Situated around the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River, the Indus Valley civilization is also known as the Harappan civilization, named after Harappa, the first city to be excavated in the 1920s. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus Valley developed new and notable techniques in handicraft, metallurgy , trade and transportation, systems of measurement, and urban planning. The civilization is often separated into three phases: - Early Harappan Phase (3300 BCE–2600 BCE). - Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BCE–1900 BCE). - Late Harappan Phase (1900 BCE–1300 BCE). The Mature Harappan phase was the cultural high point, a time by which communities had grown into well-functioning, enormous urban centers. Many more artistic artifacts—such as ceramics, sculptures, seals, and jewelry—have been excavated from this time than from some civilizations that began centuries after its decline. Numerous architectural remains have been found as well, including multistory buildings, baths, and dockyards. To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found in the general area of the rivers and their tributaries, with the major ones being Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Rupar, Lothal, and Kalibangan. Indus Valley Cities The cities of the ancient Indus Valley consisted of highly functional, multistory buildings and structures constructed with uniform, kiln-burnt bricks. There is evidence of urban planning due to the uniformity of size and the style of the brickwork, as well as the organization of streets and neighborhoods into grid patterns, much like many current cities. The first-known sanitation system, whereby waste-water was directed into covered drains that lined major streets and where clean water was obtained from wells in a designated room in the home, was employed in the ancient Indus Valley. This system of sewage and drainage is quite remarkable and was more advanced than some seen even today. The Indus Valley Civilization is also known for developing a unified system of weight and measurement, as well as a decimal system and the first known use of negative numbers. In 2001, it was discovered that people from the early Harappan period had knowledge of proto-dentistry with the excavation of the first evidence of drilled human teeth. Art in the Indus Valley The Indus Valley period is well documented through the wealth of artifacts that were excavated from its magnificent cities. It is widely believed that most of the inhabitants of Indus Valley cities were tradespeople and artisans. Archaeologists have excavated sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, elaborate beadwork, and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta , ceramic, bronze, lead, tin, and steatite from the ancient Indus Valley area. A number of bronze, gold, stone, and terracotta figures of girls in dance poses reveal the presence of some dance forms from the time, and a harp-like instrument depicted on a seal indicates the use of stringed musical instruments. Similarities in the iconography and construction of excavated artifacts suggest the considerable mobility and trade networks of the Indus Valley inhabitants. Raw materials found only in distant regions, such as lapis lazuli and steatite, were imported for artistic use. It is believed that the trade networks of the Indus Valley reached as far as Afghanistan, coastal Persia, northern and western India, Mesopotamia , and Egypt. The iconography of the artifacts from the Indus Valley region often depict quite anatomically correct animals and human figures. Similar to other civilizations of the same time period, such as Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, there are many depictions of female figures, or possibly fertility goddesses. One motif shows a horned figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the lotus position and surrounded by animals; this was named Pashaputi (lord of cattle) by excavators. Between 400 and 600 distinct Indus symbols that indicate a language have been found on ceramics, seals, and tablets, though the language remains entirely unknown to this day. Indus Valley Society Socially, the Indus Civilization appears to have been relatively egalitarian in nature. All homes within its various cities had access to water and drainage facilities and were generally equal in size. The evidence for planned settlements and the uniformity of Harappan artifacts suggests a strong organizational or governing force in the Indus Valley Civilization, though archaeological records provide no immediate answers. Around 1800 BCE, signs of decline began to emerge in the Indus River Valley. By 1700 BCE, many of the cities had been abandoned. The reason for the decline of the civilization is unknown, but it is theorized to be due to enemy invasion throughout the area, a change in climate to significantly cooler and drier conditions, or the disappearance of the Ghaggar-Hakra River. After the collapse, regional cultures emerged that continued to show the influence of the Indus Valley Civilization to varying degrees. Vedic and Upanishadic Periods The Vedic period in India (c. 1700–500 BCE) is marked by the composition of the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. Evaluate the crafts and texts found during the Vedic Period in India Key Points - The Vedic civilization is thought to have been centered in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. - The transmission of stories in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, and a literary tradition began only in post-Vedic times. - Crafts within Vedic culture included chariot-making, cart-making, carpentry, metal-working, tanning, bow-making, sewing, weaving, leather work, pottery, jewelry, dying, and vintnery. - Pottery in the Vedic period is divided into black- and red-ware culture (BRW, c. 12th to 9th centuries BCE) and painted grey-ware culture (PGW, c. 1200 BCE to 600 BCE). - The Vedas are a large body of texts that originate in the Vedic period. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit , the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and are the oldest scriptures of Hinduism . The Upanishads are a collection of philosophical texts that form the theoretical basis for the Hindu religion. All Upanishads are associated with one of the four Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda—and have been passed down in oral tradition. Key Terms - Sanskrit : A classical language of India (Latin would be its English equivalent), it is a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. - Vedic Period : A period in Indian history during which the the oldest scriptures of Hinduism were composed; the time span of the period is uncertain, though is thought to span from 1700 BCE to about 500 BCE. - Upanishad : An authorless, Hindu, religious and philosophical text considered to be an early source of the religion, it is found mostly as the concluding part of the Brahmanas and in the Aranyakas. Overview: India’s Vedic Period The Vedic period (or Vedic age) in India was a period in history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. The time span of the period is uncertain, though it is thought to span from 1700 BCE to about 500 BCE, with 150 BCE suggested as a terminus ante quem (the latest possible time) for all Vedic Sanskrit literature. The transmission of stories in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, and a literary tradition began only in post-Vedic times. The associated culture, sometimes referred to as the Vedic civilization, was probably centered in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent, but it has now spread and constitutes the basis of contemporary Indian culture. In the 11th century BCE, the Vedic society transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture. This transition led to an increase in trade and increased competition and conflicts over resources, such as land and water. However, after 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs enabled the clearing of jungles, and the Vedic kingdoms were able to expand along the Gangetic plains, ushering in the later Vedic age. By the 6th century BCE, various political units consolidated into large kingdoms called Mahajanapadas. The process of urbanization began in these kingdoms, and commerce and travel—even over regions separated by large distances—became easy. Sanskrit Literature The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural, and political changes. The grammar of Pāini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts and, at the same time, the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence that continued in the kingdoms of the Indo–Greeks. After the end of the Vedic period, the Mahajanapadas period in turn gave way to the Maurya Empire (from c. 320 BCE), which is considered to be the golden age of classical Sanskrit literature. Crafts in the Vedic Period Crafts within Vedic culture include that of chariot-making, cart-making, carpentry, metal-working (creating instruments such as razors, bangles, and axes), tanning, bow-making, sewing, weaving, and making mats from grass and reeds. Many of these might have required full-time specialists. The use of iron implements (krishna-ayas or shyama-ayas, literally meaning black metal or dark metal) increased in the later Vedic age, as did new crafts and occupations such as leather work, pottery, astrology, jewelry, dying, and vintnery. Apart from copper, bronze , and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver. The black- and red-ware culture (BRW) is an early, Iron Age culture associated with the post-Rigvedic Vedic civilization that dates roughly from the 12th to 9th centuries BCE. It was succeeded by the painted grey-ware culture (PGW), an Iron Age culture that corresponds to the later Vedic period and that lasted from roughly 1200 BCE to 600 BCE. Vedic Literature The Vedas are a large body of texts that originated in the Vedic period. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata: - The Rigvedic text: The oldest of the Vedas, thought to have been composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE . - The Mantra language texts: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita, and the mantras of the Yajurveda. This is the time of the early Iron Age in northwestern India and corresponds to the black- and red-ware (BRW) culture. - The Samhita prose texts: This period includes the Brahmana part (commentary on mantras and ritual) of the Black Yajurveda and corresponds with the painted grey-ware (PGW) culture from c. 900 BCE. - The Brahmana prose texts: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the Aranyakas, the oldest of the Upanishads, and the oldest Shrautasutras. - The Sutra language texts: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE, and is comprised of the bulk of the Śrauta and Grhya Sutras, as well as some Upanishads. The Upanishads are a collection of philosophical texts that form the theoretical basis for the Hindu religion. The Sanskrit term upanishad means sitting down near, implying sitting near a teacher to receive instruction. Also known as Vedanta, they are considered by orthodox Hindus to contain the revealed truths (Sruti) concerning the nature of ultimate reality (brahman), and describe the character and form of human salvation (moksha). All Upanishads are associated with one of the four Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda—and have been passed down in oral tradition. More than 200 Upanishads are known, and with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra, the Mukhya Upanishads provide a foundation for several later schools of Indian philosophy. Maurya Dynasty The Maurya Dynasty was an extensive empire that occupied all of northwestern India from 321–185 BCE. Describe the Barabar Caves, the Pillars of Ashoka, and other examples of architecture and art of the Maurya dynasty Key Points - The Maurya Dynasty represents the first time in history that the Indian subcontinent was united under a single government. - The most renowned emperor of the dynasty, Emperor Ashoka, is famous for propagating the Buddhist religion and preaching non-violence throughout India. - Emperor Ashoka is responsible for the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as building more than 80,000 stupas . - The Barabar Caves, the Mahabodhi Temple, and the Great Stupas at Sanchi are examples of the architecture from the Maurya period. Key Terms - dynasty : A series of rulers from one family. - stupa : A dome-shaped Buddhist monument, used to house Buddhist relics. Overview: The Maurya Dynasty The Maurya Empire was a powerful Iron Age empire in ancient India ruled by the Maurya Dynasty from 321 to 185 BCE. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who overthrew the previous Nanda Dynasty, the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India by 320 BCE. With an area of 5 million square kilometers and a population of 50 to 60 million, it was the first time in history that the subcontinent was united under a single government. The second emperor of the Maurya Dynasty was the son of Chandragupta, who expanded the empire further but never achieved the same level of notoriety as his own son, Ashoka. By far the most famous emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, Ahsoka is considered one of the most famous rulers in all of Indian history as well as one of the great Buddhist kings. The decline of the Maurya Dynasty took place somewhat rapidly following the death of Ashoka. Historical theories for this include a succession of weak kings and the division of the Empire in two. From Hinduism to Buddhism After the Kalinga war (262–261 BCE), Ashoka converted from Hinduism to Buddhism. He preached non-violence and religious acceptance, and he laid a foundation for social harmony and religious transformation across all of India. Ashoka also sponsored the propagation of the Buddhist religion into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Mediterranean Europe. The conversion of Emperor Ashoka to Buddhism legitimized and popularized the religion much like the conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity did. The Pillars of Ashoka He is famous for ordering that his edicts be carved into stones and caves around the empire and, later, for ordering that his edicts be carved into large sandstone pillars topped with statues of lions, known as the Pillars of Ashoka. These pillars, often exquisitely decorated, are the most widespread example of Mauryan architecture that exists today, with more than 40 spread throughout the Indian subcontinent. The works from this empire represent the earliest surviving remnants of monumental sculpture . The Barabar Caves and Other Temples The Barabar Caves are the earliest example of Buddhist rock-cut architecture and were built during the Mauryan period. Attributed to Emperor Ashoka, the caves consist of temples, stupas, and monasteries that are carved elaborately out of granite. The decorated facade of the Lomas Rishi grotto, an offering to the Buddhist sect of the Ajivikas, is a good example of the high degree of craftsmanship. In addition, Ashoka was responsible for erecting several thousand Buddhist temples and stupas across India, such as the Mahabodhi temple. Another famous example includes the Great Stupas at Sanchi, whose gates are lavishly decorated with lions, elephants, figures of fertility, and images from the Jakata tales. Ashoka’s patronage of the Buddhist religion greatly influenced the visual iconography of time. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Civiltu00e0ValleIndoMappa. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Civilt%C3%A0ValleIndoMappa.png . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Shiva Pashupati. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shiva_Pashupati.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/New Civilization in the Indus Valley: Harappa. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Saylor.org's_Ancient_Civilizations_of_the_World/New_Civilization_in_the_Indus_Valley:_Harappa. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Category:Indus Valley Civilization. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Indus_Valley_Civilization. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient History/Indian subcontinent/Indus Valley Civilization. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ancient_History/Indian_subcontinent/Indus_Valley_Civilization. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Indus Valley Civilization. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/The Indus River Valley. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Saylor.org's_Ancient_Civilizations_of_the_World/The_Indus_River_Valley. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/lapis-lazuli. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/steatite. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bronze Age. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Bronze_Age. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Rigveda MS2097. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rigveda_MS2097.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Map of Vedic India. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Vedic_India.png. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - NavdatoliGoblet1300BCE. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NavdatoliGoblet1300BCE.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Painted Grey Ware. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Black and Red Ware. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_and_Red_Ware. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Vedic period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Upanishad. Provided by : Wikipedia. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:28.773824	2020-05-01T17:32:46	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/11%3A_Art_of_South_and_Southeast_Asia_Before_1200_CE/11.01%3A_Early_Indus_Valley_Civilizations", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "11.1: Early Indus Valley Civilizations", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/11%3A_Art_of_South_and_Southeast_Asia_Before_1200_CE/11.02%3A_Buddhist_Art	11.2: Buddhist Art Buddhist Stupas A stupa is a traditional Buddhist monument that houses holy relics associated with the Buddha. Describe the common features, as well as stylistic variations, found in Buddhist stupas Key Points - Stupas evolved over time from simple funerary monuments to elaborately decorated objects of veneration. - Emperor Ashoka, who ruled from 274–236 BCE during the Maurya Dynasty , is said to have redistributed the relics housed in the original stupas of the Buddha into thousands of stupas throughout India. - All stupas contain a treasury , a Tree of Life, and small offerings known as Tsa-Tsas. It is believed that the more objects placed into the treasury, the stronger the stupa’s energy. - There are five types of stupas: Relic stupas, Object stupas, Commemorative stupas, Symbolic stupas and Votive stupas. A stupa is thought to bring enlightenment to the one who builds and owns it; it is also considered a placed of worship for many Buddhists. Key Terms - relic : A part of the body of a saint, or an ancient religious object, kept for veneration. - mantra : A phrase repeated to assist concentration during meditation. History of Stupas A stupa, literally meaning heap, is a mound-like structure designed to encase Buddhist relics and other holy objects. Stupas exist all over the world and are the oldest Buddhist religious monuments. Originally a simple mound of clay or mud, stupas evolved from simple funerary monuments to become elaborately decorated objects of veneration. Legend has it that following the cremation of Buddha, his ashes were divided into eight parts and distributed among various rulers to be enshrined at special burial mounds. Emperor Ashoka, who ruled from 274–236 BCE during the Maurya Empire, is said to have redistributed the relics housed in the original stupas into thousands of stupas throughout India. Ashoka is also credited with the construction of numerous stupas that remain to this day, including those at Sanchi and Sarnath. Structure and Style While they can vary visually, all stupas have a few features in common. Every stupa contains a treasury filled with various objects—small offerings, or Tsa-Tsas, fill the majority of the treasury, while jewelry and other precious objects are also placed within. It is believed that the more objects placed into the treasury, the stronger the stupa’s energy. The Tree of Life, a wooden pole covered with gems and mantras , is an important element of every stupa and is placed in the stupa’s central channel during an initiation ceremony , where participants’ most powerful wishes are stored. There are five types of stupas: - Relic stupas, in which the relics of Buddha and other religious persons are buried. - Object stupas, in which the objects belonging to Buddha or his disciples are buried. - Commemorative stupas, built to commemorate events in the life of Buddha and his disciples. - Symbolic stupas, built to symbolize various aspects of Buddhist theology. - Votive stupas, constructed to commemorate visits or gain spiritual benefits. In the Buddhist religion, it is believed that a stupa brings enlightenment to the one who builds and owns it. In addition, the stupa is considered a place of worship, and many Buddhists complete pilgrimages to significant stupas. Buddhist Architecture and Sculpture Sri Lankan art and architecture were deeply influenced by Buddhism, which was introduced to the island in the third century BCE. Discuss the evolution of Buddhist art in Sri Lanka, from early cave temples to the art and architecture of the kingdom of Anuradhapura Key Points - Three types of structures are typically associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism : monasteries (viharas), places to venerate relics ( stupas ), and shrines or prayer halls (chaityas or chaitya grihas). The earliest examples of Buddhist architecture found in Sri Lanka are cave temples. The most famous of these, the Dambulla temple complex, dates to the 1st century BCE. - The kingdom of Anuradhapura (377 BCE–1017 CE), named for its capital city, produced some the finest ancient Sri Lankan art and architecture. - Sri Lankan stupas were among the largest brick structures known to the premodern world. Intended to enshrine relics of the Buddha, they were built in various shapes and often accompanied by a vahalkada, or decorative frontispiece. - Another architectural creation associated with stupas and unique to ancient Sri Lankan architecture was the vatadage , a circular Buddhist structure built around small stupas. - The rock fortress and palace complex of Sigiriya is particularly renowned for its ancient frescoes of female figures bearing flowers; it dates from the fifth century and is painted in a very distinctive style . - Sculpture was also a notable art form , and many fine statues of the Buddha were produced during the Anuradhapura period. The fourth-century Samadhi statue in Anuradhapura is considered one of the finest examples of ancient Sri Lankan sculpture. Key Terms - vatadage : A decorative circular frontispiece near the entrance of a Sri Lankan stupa. - stupa : A dome-shaped Buddhist monument, used to house Buddhist relics. Overview: Buddhist Architecture Buddhist religious architecture developed in the Indian Subcontinent in the third century BCE. Three types of structures are typically associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism: - Monasteries (viharas). - Places to venerate relics (stupas). - Shrines or prayer halls (chaityas or chaitya grihas), which later came to be called temples in some places. Viharas were initially only temporary shelters used by wandering monks during the rainy season, but they later developed to accommodate the growing trend towards Buddhist monasticism. A distinctive type of fortress architecture found in the former and present Buddhist kingdoms of the Himalayas is known as dzongs. The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of the Buddha. The earliest surviving example of a stupa is in Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas. These reached their high point in the 1st century BCE, exemplified by the cave complexes of Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra). The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar is another well-known example. Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka Sri Lankan art and architecture was deeply influenced by Buddhism, which was introduced to the island in the third century BCE by the son of Ashoka, Mahinda. Ashoka, the great Buddhist emperor of the Maurya Dynasty , dedicated himself to the propagation of the religion across Asia. Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any Buddhist nation, and its culture reflects its religious tradition. Cave Temples The earliest examples of Buddhist architecture found in Sri Lanka are cave temples. The most famous of these, the Dambulla temple complex, dates back to the first century BCE. This complex consists of five caves and is decorated inside with statues and frescoes of the Buddha and various gods and goddesses from the Buddhist pantheon . Sri Lankan Stupas The kingdom of Anuradhapura (377 BCE to 1017 CE), named for its capital city, produced some of the finest ancient Sri Lankan art and architecture. Some of the most distinctive and famous Sri Lankan monuments were built during this period, including a large number of dagobas or stupas, for which the island is renowned. Sri Lankan stupas were among the largest brick structures known to the premodern world. Intended to enshrine relics of the Buddha, they were built in various shapes, including the bubble, the pot, and the bell. The Sri Lankan stupa is characterized by its vahalkada , or frontispiece. It is a structure, often ornately carved, that joins the stupa and often uses cardinal directions as a decorative flourish. One of the most famous stupas in Sri Lanka is the Jetavanaramaya stupa, which was built during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE in the sacred city of Anuradhapura; it is believed to house a part of a sash of the Buddha. Built from baked bricks bound with limestone , sand, and clay and coated with lime plaster, this stupa stands at 400 feet and was the tallest stupa in the ancient world. The Vatadage Another architectural creation associated with stupas and unique to ancient Sri Lankan architecture was the Vatadage, a circular Buddhist structure built around small stupas. These were usually made of stone and brick and elaborately carved. They may have also had wooden roofs that were supported by stone columns arranged in concentric rows. Sigiriya Another famous monument erected under the patronage of Anuradhapura was the rock fortress and palace complex of Sigiriya. Sigirya is particularly renowned for its ancient frescoes, which date from the 5th century and were painted in a very distinctive style. The lines are painted in a manner that enhances the sense of volume of the figures, and the paint is applied in sweeping strokes, using more pressure on one side than the other and giving the effect of a deeper tone toward the edges. The frescoes all depict beautiful female figures who are carrying flowers and are hypothesized to be apsaras (celestial nymphs), ladies of the king’s court, or women taking part in religious rituals . Buddhist Sculpture Sculpture was also a notable art form, and many fine statues of the Buddha were produced during the Anuradhapura period in Sri Lanka. The Samadhi statue in Anuradhapura is considered one of the finest examples of ancient Sri Lankan sculpture. Sculpted from dolomite marble, it dates to the 4th century CE and shows the Buddha seated in a position of deep meditation. Buddhist Rock-Cut Architecture Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. Distinguish the features of the Ajanta, Barabar, and Ellora caves of India Key Points - Buddhist rock-cut temples and structures were often located near trade routes and became stopovers and lodging houses for traders. Their interiors became more and more elaborate as their endowments grew. - A notable trait of rock-cut architecture is the crafting of rock to imitate timbered and carved wood. - Cave temples have been well-preserved due to their hidden locations and the fact that they are constructed from stone, a far more durable material than wood, clay, or metal. - The Barabar caves in Bihar, built in the third century BCE and credited to Emperor Ashoka, are the oldest example of Buddhist rock-cut architecture. - The Ajanta caves contain some very well-preserved tempera wall paintings that illustrate the Jataka and date from the second century BCE. - The Ellora caves are made up of twelve Buddhist, seventeen Hindu, and five Jain rock-cut temples, excavated out of the Charanandri hills. Similar to the Barabar and Ajanta caves, they contain many frescoes , reliefs , and shrines. Key Terms - cornice : The topmost architectural element of a building that projects forward from the main walls and was originally used to direct rainwater away from the building’s walls. - tempera : A medium used to bind pigments in painting, as well as the associated artistic techniques. - pilaster : A rectangular column that projects partially from the wall to which it is attached, giving the appearance of a support but used only for decoration. Overview: Rock-Cut Architecture Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. In India, the term cave is often applied in reference to rock-cut architecture; however, it must be distinguished from a naturally occurring cave, as rock-cut architecture is a highly engineered and elaborately decorated structure. There are more than 1,500 rock-cut temples in India, most of which are religious in nature, adorned with decorative paintings and exquisite stone carvings that reflect a very high level of craftsmanship. Buddhist rock-cut temples and monasteries were often located near trade routes and these spaces became stopovers and lodging houses for traders. As their endowments grew, the interiors of rock-cut temples became more and more elaborate and decorated. While many temples, monasteries, and stupas have been destroyed, cave temples are better preserved due to their hidden locations and the fact that they are constructed from stone, a far more durable material than wood, clay, or metal. India’s Rock-Cut Architecture The Barabar Caves In India, caves have long been regarded as sacred spaces and were enlarged or entirely man-made for use as temples and monasteries by Buddhist monks and ascetics. The Barabar caves in Bihar, built in the third century BCE during the Mauryan period, are the oldest examples of Buddhist rock-cut architecture. Credited to Emperor Ashoka, these caves mostly consist of two rooms carved entirely out of granite. The first room, a large rectangular hall, was meant to be a space for worshipers to congregate, while the second room was a small, domed chamber for worship. This second chamber is thought to have contained small, stupa-like structures, though it is empty now. The Ajanta Caves The Ajanta caves in Maharashtra are a group of 30 rock-cut Buddhist temples that span six centuries, beginning in the first century BCE. They are carved into the vertical side of a gorge located in the hills of the Sahyadri mountains. The Ajanta caves are considered masterpieces of Buddhist architecture and contain living and sleeping quarters, kitchens, monastic spaces, shrines, and stupas. Made of brick or excavated from stone, the residences of monks are called viharas, while the cave shrines used for worship are called chaitya grihas. Similar to the Barabar caves, the Ajanta caves are situated close to main trade routes. A great deal of decorative sculpture—intricately carved columns and reliefs, including cornices and pilaster—are found here. A notable trait of rock-cut architecture is the crafting of rock to imitate timbered and carved wood. The Ajanta caves are home to some very early and well-preserved wall paintings that decorate the walls and ceilings and date from the second century BCE. Executed using tempera technique on smooth surfaces and prepared by the application of plaster, the themes of the paintings are Buddhist and gracefully illustrate the major events of Buddha’s life, the Jataka tales , and the various divinities of the Buddhist pantheon . The Ellora Caves The Ellora caves were built between the fifth and tenth centuries. These caves are made up of twelve Buddhist, seventeen Hindu, and five Jain rock-cut temples, excavated out of the Charanandri hills. The proximity of the temples that belong to different religions demonstrates the religious harmony of the time. Similar to the Barabar and Ajanta caves, the Ellora caves contain many frescoes, reliefs, and shrines, including carvings of the Buddha, bodhisattvas , and saints. In many cases the stone is intricately carved to look like wood. Buddhist Wall Paintings Buddhist wall paintings can be traced back to the Gupta period and are one of the dominant art forms of the early medieval period in India. Describe the cave murals, rock-cut monasteries, and miniature paintings created during India’s early Medieval period Key Points - The period of Gupta rule is known as the Golden Age of India, as it was a time marked by peace, prosperity, and the flourishing of the arts, as seen in the cave paintings at Ajanta. - Medieval India was a time marked by the appearance of a multitude of states and dynasties that were often in conflict with one another. The Islamic invasions began as early as the 8th century, and by the early 12th century, almost all of northern India was conquered. - The dynasties of Medieval India were predominantly Hindu, though some were Jaina and only a very few were Buddhist. - Murals continued to flourish during the early medieval period, mainly in caves or rock-cut temples and monasteries, such as the caves of Ellora, Bagh, and Sittanavasal. - Miniature painting began in the early medieval period as illustrations on palm-leaf manuscripts, painted on the leaves (about 2.25 by 3 inches) and wooden covers of Hindu, Jaina, and Buddhist texts. Key Terms - fresco : In painting, the technique of applying water-based pigment to wet or fresh lime mortar or plaster. - album leaves : Types of paintings that were popular among the gentry and scholar-officials of the Southern Song Dynasty. The Gupta Empire The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire that covered much of the Indian subcontinent and was run by the Gupta Dynasty from approximately 320 to 550 CE. After the fall of the Mauryan Empire in the 2nd century BCE, India remained divided in a number of disparate kingdoms. During the late 3rd century CE, the Gupta family gained control of the kingship of Magadha (modern-day eastern India and Bengal). The period of Gupta rule is known as the Golden Age of India, as it was a time marked by unprecedented prosperity and the flourishing of the arts and sciences in India. Art in the Gupta Empire The rulers of the Gupta Empire were staunch supporters of the arts, science, literature, and architecture. In addition to patronizing the art of the Hindu religion, which the majority of the rulers subscribed to, the Guptas were known also for their support of Buddhist and Jain art and culture . In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was quite influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. The Ajanta caves are a Buddhist rock-cut structure dating from the 2nd century BCE to 600 CE that contain wall paintings created during the Gupta period. The paintings depict the Jataka tales and are considered to be masterpieces of Buddhist religious art . In addition, the Gupta Empire supported the Buddhist Universities of Nalanda and Vikramasila. Medieval India The Gupta Empire quickly declined under the successors of Chandragupta II. In the year 480 CE, the Huns—nomadic-pastoralist warriors from the Eurasian steppe—launched an invasion of India, and by the year 500 CE, they overran the Gupta Empire. Though the Huns were eventually driven out of India, the Gupta Empire would never recover. The disintegration of the Gupta Empire towards the end of the 5th and 6th centuries triggered what is known as the medieval period in India (c. 8th–13th centuries CE). This period was marked by the appearance of a multitude of states and dynasties that were often in conflict with one another. The dynasties of Medieval India were predominantly Hindu, though some were Jain, and a very few were Buddhist. The Islamic invasions of India began as early as the 8th century, and by the early 12th century almost all of northern India was conquered. The Hindu kingdoms of medieval India fell easily to the Islamic invaders, and soon the majority of India was under varying degrees of Islamic control. The impact of Islam on Indian art was initially quite destructive, but it eventually resulted in a synthesis of styles and the development of new and important works of art. Cave Murals The Ellora caves consist of 34 rock-cut temples and monasteries belonging to the Buddhist, Hindu, and Jaina faiths, built between the 5th and 10th centuries. The majority of the earlier caves were Buddhist, while caves constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries were Hindu and Jain. The caves contain many different elaborately carved rooms as well as figures of gods, stupas , and decorative work that are all carved in stone. Frescoes on the walls and ceilings of both the Ajanta and Ellora caves are believed to date from the early medieval period, between the 8th and 10th centuries, and illustrate various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain themes. Sittanavasal Sittanavasal dates from the 2nd century and is the most famous of the Jain rock-cut monasteries. It contains remnants of beautiful frescoes believed to be from the 7th to 9th centuries. Again, the themes of the frescoes are religious and generally employ a palette consisting of black, green, yellow, orange, blue, and white. In addition to wall murals, there are paintings on the ceiling of Sittanavasal from the 9th century that depict elephants, buffalo, fish, geese, dancing girls, and lotus flowers. These frescoes, along with those of the Ajanta caves and Bagh, are considered to be the high point of Medieval Indian art. Miniature Painting Miniature painting is believed to have started in the eastern part of medieval India, as exemplified by illustrations on palm-leaf religious manuscripts that are painted on the leaves and wooden covers of the manuscripts. Some of the most common Buddhist illustrated manuscripts include the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita, the Pancharaksa, the Karandavyuha, and the Kalachakrayanatantra. Miniature painting is thought to have developed slightly later in western India, somewhere between the 10th and 12th centuries, and it generally exists with Hindu and Jain texts. Human figures are seen predominantly from a profile view, with large eyes, pointy noses, and slim waists. The color palette often employs black, red, white, brown, blue, and yellow. While it is believed that miniature painting came into existence during the medieval period, it was to flourish extensively from the 16th to 19th centuries during the Mughal empire . Greco-Buddhist Art The art styles of Gandhāra and Mathura are noted for their distinctive style of Buddhist art influenced by Greek culture. Give examples of the Greek influence on the Buddhist Gadhara style of art Key Points - Gandhāra is the name of an ancient kingdom located in parts of modern-day northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan that lasted from the early first millennium BCE to the 11th century CE. - The Gandhāran art style flourished and achieved its peak during the Kushan period, from the 1st to the 5th century. It declined and suffered destruction after the invasion of the White Huns in the 5th century. - Gandhāra is noted for its distinctive style of Buddhist art, which developed out of a merger of Greek, Syrian, Persian, and Indian artistic influences. Gandhāran Buddhist sculpture displays a Greek artistic influence that contributes to depictions of wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes, and sandals. - Stucco was widely used by sculptors in Gandhāra for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings; it provided the artist with a medium of great plasticity and enabled a high degree of expressiveness to be given to the sculpture. - Although based on a strong Indian tradition, the art of Mathura also incorporated elements of the Hellenistic tradition, such as a general idealistic realism , and key design elements, such as curly hair and folded garments. - The Mathura and Gandhāra art styles strongly influenced each other, and it is still a matter of debate whether the anthropomorphic representations of Buddha were essentially a result of a local evolution of Buddhist art at Mathura or a consequence of Greek cultural influence in Gandhāra. Key Terms - stucco : A plaster that is used to coat interior or exterior walls or used for moldings. Overview: Gandhāra and Mathura In ancient art, anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha started to emerge from the 1st century CE in Northern India. The two main centers of creation have been identified as Gandhāra in today’s North West Frontier Province in Pakistan, and the region of Mathura in central northern India. Gandhāran Art Introduction Gandhāra is the name of an ancient kingdom located in parts of modern-day northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan, mainly in the Peshawar Valley, the Pothohar Plateau, and the Kabul River Valley. The Kingdom of Gandhāra lasted from the early first millennium BCE to the 11th century CE. The art style of the Kingdom flourished and achieved its peak during the Kushan period, from the 1st to the 5th centuries; it then declined and suffered destruction after the invasion of the White Huns in the 5th century. Style Gandhāra is noted for its distinctive style of Buddhist art, which developed out of a merger of Greek, Syrian, Persian, and Indian artistic influences. This development began during the Parthian Period (50 BCE–CE 75). The art of Gandhāra benefited from centuries of interaction with Greek culture after the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE and the subsequent establishment of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Kingdoms, which led to the development of Greco-Buddhist art. In Gandhāran art, the Buddha is often shown under the protection of the Greek god Herakles, standing with his club (and later a diamond rod) resting over his arm. This unusual representation of Herakles is the same as the one seen only on the back of of Demetrius’s coins, and it is exclusively associated to him (and his son Euthydemus II). Gandhāran Buddhist sculpture displays Greek artistic influence, and it has been suggested that the concept of the man-god was essentially inspired by Greek mythological culture. Artistically, the Gandhāran School of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes, sandals, and acanthus leaf decorations. Stone was widely used by sculptors in Gandhāra for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings, and stucco provided the artist with a medium of great plasticity, enabling a high degree of expressiveness to be given to the sculpture. Sculpting in stucco was popular wherever Buddhism spread from Gandhāra: India, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China. Mathura Style Introduction Mathura is a city in the North Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The art of Mathura tends to be based on a strong Indian tradition, exemplified by the anthropomorphic representation of divinities such as the Yaksas, although in a style rather archaic compared to the later representations of the Buddha. The Mathuran school contributed to many new styles in art such as clothes of thin muslin that only cover the left shoulder, the wheel on the palm, and the lotus seat. Art of Mathura The representations of the Buddha in Mathura are generally dated slightly later than those of Gandhāra (although not without debate) and are also much less numerous. Mathura sculptures incorporate many Hellenistic elements, such as a general idealistic realism, and key design elements, such as curly hair and folded garments. Specific Mathuran adaptations tend to reflect warmer climatic conditions, as they consist in a higher fluidity of the clothing, which progressively tends to cover only one shoulder instead of both. The art of Mathura also features frequent sexual imagery: female images with bare breasts or nude below the waist, displaying labia and female genitalia, are common, making these images more sexually explicit than those of earlier or later periods. Relationship to Gandhāra Style The Mathura and Gandhāra styles strongly influenced each other. During their artistic florescence, the two regions were united politically under the Kushans, both being capitals of the empire. It is still a matter of debate whether the anthropomorphic representations of Buddha were essentially a result of a local evolution of Buddhist art at Mathura, or a consequence of Greek cultural influence in Gandhāra through the Greco-Buddhist syncretism . This iconic art was characterized from the start by a realistic idealism that combined realistic human features, proportions, attitudes, and attributes, together with a sense of perfection and serenity reaching to the divine. This expression of the Buddha as both man and God became the iconographic canon for subsequent Buddhist art. Influences and Legacy Hindu art began to develop from the 1st to the 2nd century CE and found its first inspiration in the Buddhist art of Mathura. It progressively incorporated a profusion of original Hindu stylistic and symbolic elements, in contrast with the general balance and simplicity of Buddhist art. The art of Mathura acquired progressively more Indian elements and reached a very high sophistication during the Gupta Empire between the 4th and the 6th century CE. The art of the Gupta Period is considered the pinnacle of Indian Buddhist art. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sanchi stupa. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sanchi_stupa.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Stupa. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupa. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - relic. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/relic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - mantra. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mantra. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - SamadhiStatue. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SamadhiStatue.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Sigiri Frescos. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sigiri_Frescos.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Vatadage. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vatadage.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Buddhist Architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Architecture of Sri Lanka. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Sri_Lanka. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Dances of Sri Lanka. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Dances_of_Sri_Lanka. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Architecture of ancient Sri Lanka. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_ancient_Sri_Lanka. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Music of Sri Lanka. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Sri_Lanka. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Culture of Sri Lanka. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Sri_Lanka. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sigiriya. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigiriya. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - vatadage. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/vatadage. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - stupa. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stupa. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - AJANTA CAVES - C.SHELARE (1). Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AJANTA_CAVES_-_C.SHELARE_(1).jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ellora Caves, Picture 4. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ellora_Caves,_Picture_4.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Rock-cut architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock-cut_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ellora Caves. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellora_Caves. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - List of rock-cut temples in India. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock-cut_temples_in_India. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Vihara. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Indian rock-cut architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rock-cut_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Barabar Caves. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Barabar_Caves. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - cornice. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cornice. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - pilaster. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pilaster. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - tempera. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tempera. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ajanta Cave Painting. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ajanta_Cave_Painting.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva Nalanda. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Avalokitesvara_Bodhisattva_Nalanda.jpeg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - er-des-6.-jahrhunderts-001.%402x.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indischer_Maler_des_6._Jahrhunderts_001.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Samanar Padukkai. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Samanar_Padukkai.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/album-leaves. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Gupta and Post-Gupta. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : www.boundless.com/users/307859/textbooks/painting-1-8adf00aa-c11d-45a0-864a-1de2e11ad1f5/art-of-south-and-southeast-asia-before-1200-south-and-southeast-asia-after-1200-17/the-shungas-and-early-andhras-156/gupta-and-post-gupta-621-10499/. License : CC BY: Attribution - Perfection of Wisdom. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfection_of_Wisdom. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sittanavasal. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sittanavasal. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cave paintings in India. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_paintings_in_India. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Indian painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_painting%23Malwa.2C_Deccan_and_Jaunpur_schools_of_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Visual Arts Of The Indian Subcontinent. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Visual_Arts_Of_The_Indian_Subcontinent. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - fresco. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fresco. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Buddha-Herakles. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buddha-Herakles.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 315px-guptabuddha.%402x.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GuptaBuddha.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 296px-mathurabuddha.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MathuraBuddha.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Mathura Style. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : www.boundless.com/users/307859/textbooks/painting-1-8adf00aa-c11d-45a0-864a-1de2e11ad1f5/art-of-south-and-southeast-asia-before-1200-south-and-southeast-asia-after-1200-17/kushan-and-later-andhra-periods-157/mathura-style-624-5351/. License : CC BY: Attribution - Greco-Buddhist art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Gandhara. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhara%23Art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Buddhist art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - gandhara. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/gandhara. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - stucco. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stucco. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Style (visual arts). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Style_(visual_arts). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:28.925974	2020-05-01T17:32:49	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/11%3A_Art_of_South_and_Southeast_Asia_Before_1200_CE/11.02%3A_Buddhist_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "11.2: Buddhist Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/11%3A_Art_of_South_and_Southeast_Asia_Before_1200_CE/11.03%3A_Java_and_Cambodia	11.3: Java and Cambodia The Java Culture The art of Java is the result of a complex cultural mixture that is very different from the original indigenous cultures. Describe the Wayang puppet shows, gamelan music, and silat martial art of Java Key Points - The culture of Indonesia has been shaped by its long interactions between original indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. - Wayang is a Javanese word for particular kinds of shadow puppet theater. Performances of shadow puppet theater are accompanied by a gamelan orchestra in Java. - Gamelan is a traditional musical ensemble from Indonesia featuring a variety of instruments such as metallophones, xylophones, kendang (drums), gongs, bamboo flutes, and bowed and plucked strings. - The martial art of silat was created and first developed in the islands of Java and Sumatra; it is an art for survival and practiced throughout Indonesian archipelago . - Java culture is known for its advances in blacksmithing and wood carving for both tools and cultural objects. - Architecture in Java is notable for its trapezoidal roof patterns and pendopo, or pavilions with open sides and four large pillars . Key Terms - wayang : An Indonesian puppet or shadow puppet, or the theater of such puppetry. - gamelan : A genre of music of Indonesian origin that typically features metallophones, xylophones, drums, gongs, and bamboo flute. Introduction: The Culture of Java The culture of the Javanese ethnic group in Indonesia is entered in the Central Java, Yogyakarta, and East Java provinces. Due to various migrations, it can also be found in other parts of the world, such as Suriname (where 15% of the population are of Javanese descent), the broader Indonesian archipelago region, Cape Malay, Malaysia, Singapore, Netherlands, and other countries. The culture of Java has been shaped by its long interactions between original indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. Indonesia is centrally located along ancient trading routes between the Far East and the Middle East; as a result, many cultural practices are strongly influenced by a multitude of local religions. These include Hinduism , Buddhism , Confucianism , Islam , and Christianity, all of which are strong in the major trading cities. The result is a complex cultural mixture that is very different from the original indigenous cultures. A cultural mingling occurred in the southwestern part of Central Java and brought together Javanese culture and Sundanese culture to create the Banyumasan culture. This area was also named the Banyumasan region. In the central Javanese court cities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta, contemporary kings trace their lineages back to the pre-colonial Islamic kingdoms that ruled the region, making those places especially strong repositories of classical Javanese culture. The classic arts of Java include wayang puppet shows, gamelan music, and the martial art silat. Java Art Wayang Theater Wayang is a Javanese word for a theatrical performance with puppets or human dancers. The term wayang is the Javanese word for shadow; in modern daily Javanese and Indonesian vocabulary, wayang is most often associated with the puppet itself or the whole puppet theater performance. Performances of shadow puppet theatre are accompanied by a gamelan orchestra in Java (a musical ensemble made up of mostly percussion instruments). Wayang kulit, or shadow puppets, are without a doubt the best known of the Indonesian wayang. Kulit means skin and refers to the leather construction of the puppets that are carefully chiseled with very fine tools and supported with carefully shaped buffalo horn handles and control rods. The handwork involved in making a wayang kulit figure that is suitable for a performance takes several weeks, with the artists working together in groups. The stories are usually drawn from the Hindu epics, such as the Ramayana or the Mahabharata, or from the Serat Menak (a story about the heroism of Amir Hamza). Historically, the performance consisted of shadows cast on a cotton screen and an oil lamp. Today, the source of light used in wayang performance in Java is most often a halogen electric light. Music A gamelan is a traditional musical ensemble from Indonesia, typically from the islands of Java and Bali, that features a variety of instruments such as metallophones, xylophones, kendang (drums), gongs, bamboo flutes, and bowed and plucked strings. Vocalists may also be included. For most Indonesians, gamelan music is an integral part of Indonesian culture. The term refers more to the set of instruments rather than to the players of those instruments. A gamelan is a set of instruments as a distinct entity, built and tuned to stay together, and instruments from different gamelan are generally not interchangeable. In Javanese mythology, the gamelan was created by Sang Hyang Guru in the Saka era 167 (c. CE 230). He is considered the god who ruled as king of all Java from a palace on the Maendra mountain in Medang Kamulan (now Mount Lawu). He needed a signal to summon the gods and thus invented the gong. For more complex messages, he invented two other gongs, thus forming the original gamelan set. Variations of gamelan ensembles are distinguished by their collection of instruments and their use of voice, tunings, repertoire, style , and cultural context. In general, no two gamelan ensembles are the same, and those that arose in prestigious courts are often considered to have their own style. Certain styles may also be shared by nearby ensembles, leading to a regional style. Silat Silat is a class of indigenous martial arts from the area of Southeast Asia encompassing most of the Nusantara, the Indonesian Archipelago, the Malay Archipelago, and the entirety of the Malay Peninsula. The art of silat was created and first developed in the islands of Java and Sumatra. It is an art for survival shaped by centuries of tribal wars in Indonesian history. Silat was used to determine rank and social position in old Indonesian kingdoms; it was also used by Indonesian freedom fighters during their struggle against Dutch colonists. Unfortunately, after Indonesia achieved its independence, silat became less popular among Indonesian youth compared to foreign martial arts like karate and tae kwon do. Blacksmithing and Wood Carving For the Javanese, blacksmiths are traditionally valued. Javanese blacksmiths provide a range of tools, such as farming equipment and fire-arms, and cultural items, such as gamelan instruments. The kris is an asymmetrical dagger with a distinctive blade pattern achieved through alternating laminations of iron and nickelous iron; many heirloom kris made by master blacksmiths in Java hold significant historical value . The Javanese art of wood carving is traditionally applied to various cultural attributes such as statues, wayang dolls, and masks. Architecture Throughout their long history, the Javanese have produced many important buildings, ranging from Hindu monuments, Buddhist stupa , mortuary temples, palace complexes, and mosques . The paragon of religious monuments are the Hindu temple of Prambanan and the Buddhist temple of Borobudur, both were built in the 9th century near the city of Yogyakarta. An example of secular architecture can be seen in ruins of the former capital city of the Majapahit Kingdom (which ruled from the 14th to 16th century CE) in Trowulan, East Java. The complex consists of various brick buildings, purification pools, temples, and iconic split gates. Traditional Javanese buildings can be identified by their trapezoidal roofs that are supported by wooden pillars. Another common feature in Javanese buildings is the pendopo, a pavilion with open sides and four large pillars. The pillars and other parts of the buildings are often richly carved. Traditional mosques in Java maintain a distinctive Javanese style with both the pendopo and a trapezoidal roof, rather than the more typical dome and minarets . The roofs are often multitiered and tiled. The split gate from an earlier Hindu-Buddhist period is still used in many mosques and public buildings in Java. Some notable examples of mosques that use traditional Javanese architecture include the mosques at Agung Demak, Menara Kudus, and Banten. Cambodian Art Throughout Cambodia’s long history, religion has been a major source of cultural inspiration for art, dance, and music. Describe the Hindu and Buddhist influences on Cambodian dance and music Key Points - Over nearly two millennia, Cambodians have developed a unique Khmer belief system from the syncreticism of indigenous animistic beliefs and the Indian religions of Buddhism and Hinduism . - The history of Cambodian art stretches back centuries to ancient times, but the most famous period is undoubtedly the Khmer art of the Khmer Empire (802–1431). - The 12th century temple complex of Angkor Wat , located amidst other sites in the area around Angkor, is perhaps the most famous example of Cambodian architecture. - Traditional Cambodian arts and crafts include textiles, non-textile weaving, silversmithing, stone carving, lacquerware , ceramics , wat murals, and kite-making. - Dance in Cambodia consists of three main categories: classical dance of the royal court used for invocation, for entertainment, and to pay homage; folk dance portraying cultural traditions; and social dances performed in social gatherings. - Cambodian music is highly influenced by ancient forms as well as Hindu forms. Key Terms - Khmer : The predominant ethnic group in Cambodia, accounting for approximately 90% of the 15.2 million people in the country. Introduction: Cambodia Throughout Cambodia’s long history, religion has been a major source of cultural inspiration. Over nearly two thousand years, Cambodians have developed a unique Khmer belief from the syncreticism of indigenous animistic beliefs and the Indian religions of Buddhism and Hinduism. Indian culture and civilization , including its languages and arts, reached mainland Southeast Asia around the first century CE; it is generally believed that seafaring merchants brought Indian customs and culture to the ports along the Gulf of Thailand and the Pacific en route to trade with China. The Kingdom of Funan was most probably the first Khmer state to benefit from this influx of Indian ideas. Art in Cambodia Architecture The history of Cambodian art stretches back centuries to ancient times, but the most famous period is undoubtedly the Khmer art of the Khmer Empire (802–1431). The 12th century temple complex of Angkor Wat, located amidst other sites in the area around Angkor, it perhaps the most famous example of Cambodian architecture. After the collapse of the Khmer Empire, this and other sites were abandoned and overgrown, allowing much of the era’s stone carving and architecture to survive to the present day. Angkor Wat was originally constructed as a Hindu temple of the god Vishnu for the Khmer Empire, and gradually transformed into a Buddhist temple toward the end of the 12th century. The temple combines the two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology. There are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next, within a moat and an outer wall 2.2 miles long. At the center of the temple stands a group of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of its architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs , and the numerous devatas, or Hindu deities , adorning its walls. Traditional Arts In pre-colonial Cambodia, arts and crafts were generally produced either by rural non-specialists for practical use or by skilled artists producing works for the Royal Palace. Cambodia’s best-known stone carving adorns the temples of Angkor. Silk weaving has a long history—the practice dates back as early as the 1st century, and textiles were often used in trade during Angkorian times. Many Cambodian farmers would weave baskets out of thinly cut bamboo for household use or to sell as a supplemental source of income. Lacquerware The height of Cambodian traditional lacquerware was between the 12th and 16th centuries; some examples of work from this era, including gilded Buddha images and betel boxes, have survived to the present day. Lacquerware was traditionally colored black using burnt wood to represent the underworld; red using mercury to represent the earth; and yellow using arsenic to represent the heavens. Lacquer on Angkorian stone dates to the 15th or 16th century. Silversmithing Silversmithing in Cambodia also dates back centuries, and the Royal Palace traditionally patronized silversmiths’ workshops. Silver was made into a variety of items, including weaponry, coins, ceremonial objects used in funerary and religious rituals , and betel boxes. During Cambodia’s colonial period, artisans at the School of Fine Art produced celebrated silverwork, and by the late 1930s there were more than 600 silversmiths. Pottery Cambodian pottery traditions date to 5000 BCE. Ceramics were mostly used for domestic purposes, such as holding food and water, and for figures such as birds, elephants, rabbits, and other animals that were popular between the 11th and 13th centuries. Cambodia’s kite-making and kite-flying tradition, which dates back many centuries, was revived in the early 1990s and is now extremely popular throughout the country. Kites are generally flown at night during the northeast monsoon season; a bow attached to the kites resonates in the wind, producing a musical sound. Beginning in the mid-20th century, a tradition of modern art began in Cambodia, though in the later 20th century both traditional and modern arts declined for several reasons, including the killing of artists by the brutal Khmer Rouge regime. The country has experienced a recent artistic revival due to increased support from governments, NGOs, and foreign tourists. Dance Dance in Cambodia consists of three main categories: - Classical dance of the royal court used for invocation, for entertainment, and to pay homage. - Folk dance that portrays cultural traditions. - Social dances performed in social gatherings. Cambodia’s premiere performing art form is the Khmer classical dance, or Robam Preah Reach Trop. It is a highly stylized dance form originating from the royal courts. Performances of classical dance consist of elaborately costumed dancers and music played by a pinpeat ensemble . It is performed for invocation of deities and spirits as well as to pay homage to royalty and guests. In the mid-20th century, it was introduced to the general public and became widely celebrated as iconic of Cambodian culture. It was often performed during public events, holidays, and for tourists visiting Cambodia. Two of the most performed classical dances are the Robam Chun Por (Wishing dance) and the Robam Tep Apsara (Apsara dance). Music Modern music in Cambodia is derived from traditions that date back to the ancient Khmer Empire and from the rapid Westernization of its popular music scene in modern times. Cambodian pop music, or modern music, is divided into two categories: - Ramvong, a slow dance music. - Ramkbach, which is closely related to Thai folk music. In the Siem Reap province, a form of music called kantrum has become popular; it originated among the Khmer Surin in Thailand. Kantrum is famous for Thai and Cambodian stars like Darkie. Cambodian Art music is highly influenced by its ancient forms as well as Hindu forms. Religious dances, many of which depict stories and ancient myths, are common. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Javanese Gamelan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Javanese_Gamelan.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Kris_met_schede_TMnr_A-1448.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris#/media/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Kris_met_schede_TMnr_A-1448.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Silat Minangkabaut. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silat_Minangkabaut.png. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Wayang Performance. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wayang_Performance.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Javanese Culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kris. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Gamelan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamelan. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Wayang. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayang. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Culture of Indonesia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Indonesia. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - gamelan. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gamelan. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - silat. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/silat. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - wayang. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wayang. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 1280px-Angkor_Wat.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkor_Wat#/media/File:Angkor_Wat.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Khmerladydancer. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Khmerladydancer.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Royal Ballet Camboda Apsara Mera. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Royal_Ballet_Camboda_Apsara_Mera.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Angkor Wat. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkor_Wat. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cambodian Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodian_art . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Culture of Cambodia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Cambodia. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Dance in Cambodia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance_in_Cambodia. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Music of Cambodia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Cambodia. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Dance in Cambodia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance%20in%20Cambodia. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:29.105036	2020-05-01T17:32:53	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/11%3A_Art_of_South_and_Southeast_Asia_Before_1200_CE/11.03%3A_Java_and_Cambodia", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "11.3: Java and Cambodia", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/11%3A_Art_of_South_and_Southeast_Asia_Before_1200_CE/11.04%3A_Art_of_Southeast_Asia	11.4: Art of Southeast Asia Sculpture in Southeast Asia The sculpture of Southeast Asia was heavily influenced by Indian religions and artistic styles. Describe the Buddhist and Indian influences on Southeast Asian sculpture from 300–600 CE Key Points - The communities and cultures of Southeast Asia were in direct contact with India through trade routes. Several Indic kingdoms competed for dominance in the region between the 1st and 8th centuries CE, particularly the Cambodian Funan and the Burmese Mon . - Most of the Southeast Asian sculpture of the period 300–600 CE was heavily influenced by the style of the Gupta Empire in India, which patronized Buddhist art in the Greco–Buddhist style. - Southeast Asian Buddha statues of this period were characterized by a purity of statuary and a delicacy in portraying the folds of clothing. Somewhat less attention was paid to the realism of artistic details, and symbolic, shell-like curls were used to render the hair of the Buddha. - The Indic civilization of Champa flourished along the coasts of what is now central and southern Vietnam from 500 CE onward and left an impressive artistic legacy of sandstone sculptures, both in the round and in relief . - In later periods, Chinese influences predominated in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Key Terms - Indic : Pertaining to India or its people or culture; Indian. - Mon : A people living primarily in Myanmar (also known as Burma) and Thailand; one of the earliest peoples to reside in Southeast Asia, they are responsible for the spread of Buddhism in Burma and Thailand. Overview: Influences on Southeast Asia The communities and cultures of Southeast Asia were in direct contact with India through trade routes and were heavily influenced by Indian religion and art. The Pali and Sanskrit languages, Indian script, and Hindu epic literature—such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata—were transmitted to Southeast Asia during this period. Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the region and became the main religions practiced from about the 1st century BCE to the 13th century CE. These influences played a considerable role in shaping the art and sculpture of Southeast Asia. Sculpture in Southeast Asia Between the 1st and 8th centuries CE, several Indic kingdoms competed for dominance in Southeast Asia, particularly the Cambodian Funan and the Burmese Mon. Most of the Southeast Asian sculpture of the period 300–600 CE was heavily influenced by the style of the Gupta Empire in India, which patronized Buddhist art in the Greco–Buddhist style. Buddhist art in Thailand was shaped both by direct contact with Indian traders and the expansion of the Mon kingdom. In later periods, Chinese influences predominated in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, and more wooden sculpture survives from across the region. Buddhist Sculptures Southeast Asian Buddha statues of this period were characterized by a purity of statuary and a delicacy in portraying the folds of clothing. Symbolic, shell-like curls were used to render the hair of the Buddha. Somewhat less attention was paid to the realism of artistic details. A number of votive tablets and Sanskrit inscriptions are also found in the region. Champa The Indic civilization of Champa flourished along the coasts of what is now central and southern Vietnam from 500 CE onward. This civilization left an impressive artistic legacy of sandstone sculptures, both in the round and in relief. These sculptures expressed religious themes and synthesized elements of Hinduism, Buddhism, and indigenous cults. They depicted common themes, such as Hindu and Buddhist deities and icons , as well as scenes from daily life. The Cham created freestanding sandstone sculptures in the round, as well as high and bas-relief carvings of sandstone. In general, they appear to have preferred sculpting in relief, and they excelled at sculpture in high relief . Cham sculpture went through a marked succession of historical styles, the foremost of which produced some of the best works of Southeast Asian art. The subject-matter of Cham sculpture is drawn mostly from the legends and religion of Indian civilization. Many of the sculptures are representations of particular Hindu and Buddhist deities, most prominently Siva but also Lokesvara, Visnu, Brahma, Devi, and Shakti. Such sculptures may have served a religious purpose rather than being purely decorative. Painting in Southeast Asia Southeast Asian painting from 300–600 CE mostly took the form of frescoes and reflected Hindu and Buddhist themes. Compare and contrast the Hindu and Buddhist art of Southeast Asia from 300–600 CE. Key Points - Very little Southeast Asian painting from 300–600 CE has survived to the present day, owing to the heat and humidity of tropical and subtropical weather. - Artists worked in many perishable mediums, painting mostly on wood, cloth, and palm leaf . Frescoes , usually executed on cave temple or monastery walls, are the most common form of Southeast Asian painting to have survived. - Hinduism and Buddhism were introduced to Southeast Asia during the 1st century BCE. There were also several powerful Indic kingdoms in the region, which practiced Hinduism and Buddhism and produced art that reflected their religious beliefs. - Hindu art commonly depicted figures from the Hindu pantheon that includes Shiva, Vishnu, and Shakti. Buddhist art depicted images of the Buddha, the Bodhisattvas or enlightened beings, apsaras or celestial dancers, and tales and parables from Buddhist lore, including the Jataka tales . - The most famous surviving examples of Southeast Asian- style frescoes are found in the rock fortress and palace ruins of Sigiriya in Sri Lanka. These date from about the 5th–6th centuries CE and depict graceful female figures bearing flowers. Key Terms - pantheon : All the gods of a particular people or religion, considered as a group. Southeast Asian Painting from 300–500 CE Very little Southeast Asian painting from 300–600 CE has survived to the present day, owing to the heat and humidity of tropical and subtropical weather. One can only hypothesize the styles and techniques that painters would have used based on evidence gleaned from sculptures (which are far more durable and have survived), contemporary painting styles in India (which played a large role in influencing Southeast Asian art), and literary texts that talk about painting. The few examples of painting that do survive are frescoes on cave or temple walls. Approaches Artists worked in perishable mediums, painting mostly on wood, cloth, and palm leaf, none of which have withstood the rigors of the Southeast Asian climate. The most durable forms of Southeast Asian art are sculpture and architecture in stone. It is likely that stone sculptures, both in relief and in the round , were originally painted in bright colors, but these have worn away over the course of time, leaving the underlying stone exposed. Frescoes, usually executed on cave temple or monastery walls, were the most common form of Southeast Asian painting. Themes The themes most commonly depicted would probably mimic those found in contemporary Southeast Asian sculpture—primarily religious themes from Hindu and Buddhist mythology. Hinduism and Buddhism, both of which originated in the Indian subcontinent, were introduced to Southeast Asia from the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE. Southeast Asia subsequently came under the influence of several powerful Indic dynasties , which established kingdoms, practiced and spread Hinduism and Buddhism through the region, and patronized art that reflected their religious beliefs. Hindu art commonly depicts figures from the Hindu pantheon, including the gods Shiva and Vishnu and the divine female creative principle or Shakti. Buddhist art depicted images of the Buddha, the Bodhisattvas or enlightened beings, apsaras or celestial dancers, and tales and parables from Buddhist lore, including the Jataka tales—stories about the previous incarnations of the Buddha, both in human and in animal form. It is also possible that Southeast Asian painting would have depicted court and battle scenes, animals both real and mythical, and scenes from daily life. In Thai art, the most frequent narrative subjects for paintings included the Jataka stories, episodes from the life of the Buddha, the Buddhist heavens and hells, and scenes of daily life. Some of the scenes are influenced by Thai folklore instead of following strict Buddhist iconography . Frescoes in Sigiriya The most famous surviving examples of Southeast Asian-style frescoes are to be found in the rock fortress and palace ruin of Sigiriya in Sri Lanka. These date from about the 5th–6th centuries CE and depict graceful female figures bearing flowers. These figures are hypothesized to be apsaras , or women of the king’s court. The paint is applied in sweeping strokes, using more pressure on one side than the other and results in deep colors toward the edge. These frescoes are reminiscent of the contemporary frescoes in the Ajanta caves in India, which are masterpieces of Buddhist religious art and depict figures from the Buddhist pantheon and scenes from the Jataka tales. Northern-Style Temples in Southeast Asia North Indian temples are often simpler and less orthodox than those in South, and all people are permitted to worship within them. Distinguish the simplicity of northern-style Nagara temple from the complexity of the southern Dravida temple Key Points - India’s temple architecture is developed from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of whom belong to the larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma . - A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum; the garbha graha or womb-chamber in which the idol or deity is housed; a congregation hall; and sometimes an antechamber and porch. - In contrast to the elaborate appearance of South Indian temples, most temples in North India are very simple in design. This is thought to be due, at least in part, to the attacks that Hindus have historically suffered from Muslims in this region. - Darśana is a Sanskrit term meaning sight, vision, apparition, or glimpse; North Indian temples have a specific hall where devotees can receive this blessing. - Śikhara, a Sanskrit word that means mountain peak, refers to the tallest tower in Northern Hindu temple architecture. - The Somnath Mandir, a temple in Gujarat, is considered to be one of the twelve jyotirlinga shrines of Lord Shiva and has a history dating as far back as the beginning of the common area. Key Terms - circumambulation : The act of walking around something in a circle, especially for a ritual purpose. - Vishwakarma : A group that is sometimes referred to as a caste and which comprises five sub-groups (carpenters, blacksmiths, bell metalworkers, goldsmiths, and stonemasons) who describe themselves as descendants of the Hindu god by the same name. - sikhara : A Sanskrit word that means mountain peak, refers to the rising tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India. Introduction India’s temple architecture was developed from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of whom belong to the larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma. A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum; the garbha graha or womb-chamber in which the idol or deity is housed; a congregation hall; and sometimes an antechamber and porch. The garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikara. At the turn of the first millennium CE, two major types of temples existed: - The northern or Nagara style . - The southern or Dravida type of temple. The Northern Style In contrast to the elaborate appearance of South Indian temples, most temples in North India are very simple in design. This is thought to be due, at least in part, to the constant attacks Hindus have suffered from Muslims historically in this region. North Indian temples also tend to be less orthodox than those in the south. In many cases, all castes and categories of people are permitted to enter the innermost sanctum of these temples and worship the deity personally. However, in such cases, the deities are not adorned with valuable jewelry. The innermost heart of this type of temple is a sanctum where a deity (usually cast in fixed stone) is present, followed by a large hall where lay worshipers can stand and obtain darśana, or divine audience. Darśana is a Sanskrit term meaning sight, vision, apparition, or glimpse, and is most commonly used for visions of the divine in Hindu worship. These visions are either of a deity, a very holy person, or an artifact . An individual can receive darśana, or the blessing of a particular deity, within the temple, or from a saintly person, such as a great guru. In this type of temple, there may or may not be a number of additional corridors and halls, in addition to these aforementioned worship rooms. However, in all cases, there will be space for devotees to circulate the temple in a clockwise fashion. In Hindu culture , this kind of circumambulation is a mark of respect. Many of these temples were destroyed during the Islamic rule of India during the Mughal Empire . Śikhara, a Sanskrit word that means mountain peak, refers to the tallest tower in Northern Hindu temple architecture. Because the sikhara tower is always situated over the sanctum sanctorum, where the presiding deity is enshrined, it is the most prominent and visible part of this temple’s architecture. Originally, the sikharas were homogeneous in design but, over time, secondary sikharas, which are smaller and narrower, have been plated on to the sides of many of these main sikharas. Notable Northern Temples The Somnath Mandir, a temple in Gujarat, is considered to be one of the twelve jyotirlinga shrines of Lord Shiva and has a history dating as far back as the beginning of the common area. Delhi’s Chhatarpur Temple, notable for its size, is one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in India. Southern-Style Temples in Southeast Asia South India gave rise to the Dravida style of architecture and is where most of the largest Hindu temples are found. Identify the primary temple styles of the various regions of India and southeast Asia Key Points - The main architectural styles of Indian temples are the Dravida style of South India and the Nagara style of North India. - The Dravida style of architecture consists primarily of temples with pyramid-shaped towers constructed of sandstone, soapstone, or granite. - Most of the largest Hindu temples are found in South India, and specifically in Tamil Nadu. Many large bannabs (grand stone temples) still stand in South India. - Temple ritual tends to be orthodox and elaborate, especially in the large vedic brahmincal temples, which follow the pan-Indian Sanskrit agama scriptural traditions. - Apart from the main fixed stone deities , processional deities made of panchaloha (an alloy of gold, silver, copper, zinc, and tin) are bathed, dressed, and decorated with valuables and then taken out in processions for festivals throughout the year. - The richer the temple, the more elaborate the festivals. However, many ancient temples in small villages with great architectural and historical heritage value languish for lack of funds for maintenance. Key Terms - murtis : Images that express a divine spirit. - dravida : The main architectural style in South India. Introduction A Hindu temple is a place of worship for followers of Hinduism . A characteristic of most temples is the presence of murtis (statues) of the Hindu deity to whom the temple is dedicated. They are usually dedicated to one primary deity, the presiding deity, and other deities associated with the main deity. However, some temples are dedicated to several deities, and others are dedicated to murtis in an iconic form . Many temples are in key geographical points, such as on a hilltop or near waterfalls, caves, and rivers. The main architectural styles in India are the Nagara style of North India and the Dravida style of South India. The Dravidian Style Dravidian architecture was an architectural idiom that emerged in the Southern part of the Indian subcontinent, or South India. This style of architecture consists primarily of temples with pyramid-shaped towers constructed of sandstone, soapstone, or granite. Dravidian-style temples consist almost invariably of the three following parts, arranged in differing manners according to the age in which they were executed. - The porches, or mantapas, which always cover and precede the door leading to the cell. - Gate-pyramids, or gopuras, which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples. - Pillared halls (chaultris or chawadis), which are used for many purposes and are the invariable accompaniments of these temples. In addition to these, a South Indian temple usually has a tank, called the kalyani or pushkarni, to be used for sacred purposes or for the convenience of the priests. Dwellings for the priesthood are typically attached to this kalyani. Rituals within these temples tend to be orthodox and elaborate, especially in the large vedic brahminical temples that follow the pan-Indian Sanskrit agama scriptural traditions. Apart from the main fixed stone deities, processional deities made of panchaloha (an alloy of gold, silver, copper, zinc, and tin) are bathed, dressed, decorated with valuables, and taken out in processions for festivals throughout the year. The richer the temple, the more elaborate the festivals. However, many ancient temples in small villages with great architectural and historical heritage value languish for lack of funds for maintenance. Notable Temples in South India Most of the largest Hindu Temples are found in South India, and specifically in Tamil Nadu. Many large bannabs (grand stone temples) still stand in South India. Famous South Indian temples include the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in Andhra Pradesh, the Guruvayur temple in Kerala, the Chettikulangara Devi temple in Kerala, among others. Monumental Reliefs in Southeast Asia Sculpture and architecture were intimately connected in Southeast Asia, and monumental reliefs were used to decorate the walls of buildings. Discuss the techniques, themes, and common subjects of the monumental reliefs of Borobudur and the Khmer temples Key Points - Relief is a sculptural technique that gives the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane . - Relief sculptures were used to decorate the walls of buildings, particularly Hindu and Buddhist temples, and were very large. - In Southeast Asia, this style of sculpture was greatly influenced by Indian techniques and generally portrayed religious themes with high iconographic precision. Other themes included court and battle scenes, scenes depicting daily life and the customs of the people, and animals both real and mythical. - Most ancient Southeast Asian relief sculpture was done in bas-relief , where the projecting images have shallow overall depth; however, the kingdom of Champa in southern and central Vietnam excelled in haut-relief sculpture, which was marked by much greater depth and undercut areas. - The most famous examples of monumental relief sculptures in Southeast Asia are to be found in the 9th-century Buddhist temple of Borobudur in Java, Indonesia. - The Khmer of Cambodia were also renowned for their monumental bas-reliefs, which usually took narrative form to depict stories from history and mythology. The most famous example of Khmer sculpture is the 12th-century Hindu temple of Angkor Wat . Key Terms - iconographic : Related to the branch of art history that studies the identification, description, and interpretation of the content of images, including the subjects depicted, the particular compositions and details used to do so, and other elements that are distinct from artistic style. - bas-relief : A low or mostly flat sculpture that is carved into a wall or is in the form of a tile mounted flat to a wall, rather than a fully three-dimensional, free-standing figure. - sunken relief : A type of sculpture largely restricted to the art of Ancient Egypt, in which the image is made by cutting the sculpture itself into a flat surface. Overview: Relief Sculpture Relief is a sculptural technique that gives the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane. This is accomplished by cutting into a flat surface of stone or wood, thereby lowering the field and leaving the unsculpted parts seemingly raised. Reliefs depicting figures that are at least life-size or bigger or are attached to monuments of some sort are termed monumental reliefs by art historians, thus distinguishing them from small metal or ivory reliefs, portable sculptures, and diptychs. Monumental Reliefs in Southeast Asia Monumental reliefs represent an important facet of ancient Southeast Asian art, where sculpture and architecture were intimately connected with one another. As a result, relief sculpture was generally used to decorate the walls of buildings—particularly Hindu and Buddhist temples—and was accomplished on a very large scale. It was greatly influenced by Indian styles and techniques, and it generally portrayed religious themes with high iconographic precision. Court and battle scenes, scenes depicting daily life and the customs of the people, and animals (both real and mythical) were other common subjects. Most of ancient Southeast Asian relief sculpture was done in bas-relief, where the projecting images have shallow overall depth, although the kingdom of Champa in southern and central Vietnam excelled in haut-relief sculpture, which was marked by much greater depth and undercut areas. Notable examples of monumental reliefs include Borobodur in Java, Angkor Wat in Cambodia, the Sanchi case in India, and many South Indian temples, including the Unakoti group of sculptures at Kailashahar, Tripura, India. Borobudur The most famous examples of monumental relief sculptures in Southeast Asia are to be found in the 9th-century Buddhist temple of Borobudur in Java, Indonesia. Built during the rein of the Indic Sailendra Dynasty , the temple is constructed to reveal many different levels of terraces, many of which are heavily ornamented with intricate bas-reliefs. In total, there are 2,672 individual bas-reliefs, 1,460 of which depict narratives from Buddhist lore, including the birth and life of the Buddha. The remaining 1,212 are solely decorative. Khmer Temples The Khmer of Cambodia were also renowned for their monumental bas-reliefs, which usually took narrative form to depict stories from history and mythology. They decorated the tympana (semi-circular arched spaces above a doorway), walls, and ceilings with complex scenes. The earliest surviving example of Khmer narrative bas-relief sculpture comes from the 10th-century Hindu temple of Banteay Srei, which has carved tympana and towers that depict scenes from the great Hindu epics—the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The most famous example of Khmer bas-relief sculpture is undoubtedly at the 12th-century Hindu temple of Angkor Wat, which has 13,000 square meters of narrative bas-reliefs on the walls of its outer gallery. Themes The reliefs have a diverse range of themes. They depict mythical, spiritual beings from the Buddhist pantheon such as bodhisattvas , apsaras (celestial dancers or musicians), gandharvas (male nature spirits), and asuras (demons). They also depict images of people, such as the king and queen, princes, priests, courtiers, soldiers, servants, and commoners. Many of these reliefs provide glimpses of scenes of daily life; for example, the relief sculptures from Borobudur depict scenes from 8th-century Java, including courtly palace life, a hermit in the forest, commoners in the village, temple and marketplace scenes, native vernacular architecture , and flora and fauna. These bas-relief sculptures have served as a reference for historians in the study of ancient Javanese architecture, weaponry, fashion, and transportation. In addition, a group of 160 panels of monumental relief sculpture provides a complete illustration of the law of karma or the principles of cause and effect. There are depictions of both praiseworthy activities (including charity and pilgrimage) and blameworthy activities (ranging from gossip to murder), with their corresponding rewards and punishments. These panels provide particularly complex scenes of daily life, depicting the full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death). - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bronze standing Buddha, Thailand, Mon Dvaravati style, 7th-8th century, HAA. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bronze_standing_Buddha,_Thailand,_Mon_Dvaravati_style,_7th-8th_century,_HAA.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Vishnu Brahma My Son E1. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vishnu_Brahma_My_Son_E1.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Art of Champa. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_Champa. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:29.242802	2020-05-01T17:32:57	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/11%3A_Art_of_South_and_Southeast_Asia_Before_1200_CE/11.04%3A_Art_of_Southeast_Asia", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "11.4: Art of Southeast Asia", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE	12: China and Korea After 1279 CE Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52966 Boundless Boundless 12.1: The Mongols 12.2: The Yuan Dynasty 12.3: The Ming Dynasty 12.4: The Qing Dynasty 12.5: Modern Chinese Painting 12.6: Korea- The Joseon Dynasty 12.7: Modern Korean Art	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:29.330070	2020-05-01T17:29:54	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "12: China and Korea After 1279 CE", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.01%3A_The_Mongols	12.1: The Mongols Influence of the Mongols The Mongol Empire emerged in Central Asia during the 13th and 14th centuries. Describe the governmental code, extensive trade routes, and artistic accomplisments of the powerful Mongol Empire Key Points - During his reign, Genghis Khan began a series of invasions known as the Mongol invasions, often accompanied by the large scale massacre of civilian populations and resulting in the conquest of most of Eurasia . - The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law instituted by Genghis termed “Yassa,” which means “order.” The Empire is also notable for its extensive trade routes as well as its postal system, called “yam.” - The trade routes known as the Silk Road consisted of well-traveled and well-maintained roads that linked the land from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing trade throughout the area. - The Mongols enjoyed various art forms , and their art work was highly influential on the dynasties that followed; many paintings, illuminated manuscripts , and epics exist from the empire. - The oldest surviving Mongolian work is “The Secret History of the Mongols,” which was written sometime after Genghis Khan’s death in 1227 and is the most significant native account of Genghis’ life and genealogy. - The “Shahnama,” or “Book of Kings,” is an illuminated manuscript noted for its innovative compositions that blended elements of Persian, Chinese, and European painting traditions through lavish illustrations. Key Terms - Silk Road : An extensive interconnected network of trade routes across Asia, North and Northeast Africa, and Europe, historically used by silk traders. Background: The Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire emerged in Central Asia during the 13th and 14th centuries as the largest land empire in history. A result of the unification of Mongol and Turkic tribes, the empire took form under the leadership of the legendary Genghis Khan, also known as the Great Khan, meaning emperor. During his reign, Genghis Khan began a series of invasions known as the Mongol invasions, often accompanied by the large scale massacre of civilian populations and resulting in the conquest of most of Eurasia. After Genghis Khan’s death, the empire began to split as a result of wars between succession heirs. The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law instituted by Genghis and termed “Yassa,” meaning “order.” Those of rank shared many of the same hardships as common people, resulting in an empire that was generally disciplined and well-run. Any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive and collective punishment. The society practiced religious tolerance, and many religions found homes in the empire. The Mongol Empire is notable for its extensive trade routes as well as its postal system, which was called “yam.” This postal system was very advanced and was later replicated in the United States, where it was known as the Pony Express. The trade routes known as the Silk Road consisted of well-traveled and well-maintained roads that linked the land from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing trade throughout the area. Genghis Khan encouraged trade during his reign as merchants provided both information about neighboring cultures and necessary goods that the Mongols didn’t produce. Art in the Mongol Empire The Mongols enjoyed various art forms, and their art work was highly influential on the dynasties that followed. The ruling classes were active patrons , and many paintings, illuminated manuscripts, and epics exist from the empire. The oldest surviving Mongolian work is “The Secret History of the Mongols,” which was written for the royal family sometime after Genghis Khan’s death in 1227. It is the most significant native account of Genghis’ life and genealogy, covering his origins and childhood through to the establishment of the Mongol Empire and the reign of his son, Ögedei. Another important work from the empire, the “Shahnama,” is an illuminated manuscript noted for its innovative compositions blending elements of Persian, Chinese, and European painting traditions in its lavish illustrations. The Jami’ al-tawarikh, or “Universal History,” was commissioned in the early 14th century by the Ilkhan Abaqa Khan as a way of documenting the entire world’s history in order to establish the Mongols’ own cultural legacy. Other pieces of literature have long been orally traded and typically consist of alliterative verses; these are known as Üligers, which literally means ‘tales.’ They include the proverbs attributed to Genghis Khan and the epics around the Khan’s life. Already at the time of the Mongol empire, samples of Buddhist and Indian literature became known in Mongolia. Another wave of translations of Indian/Tibetan texts came with Mongolia’s conversion to Tibetan Buddhism in the late 16th/early 17th centuries. Mongol scribes in the 14th century used a mixture of resin and vegetable pigments as a primitive form of correction fluid; this is arguably its first known usage. The Mongols also appreciated the visual arts, though their portraiture tended to focus on portraits of their horses rather than of people. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Baysonghori Shahnameh 1. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baysonghori_Shahnameh_1.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Culture of Mongolia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Mongolia . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mongol Empire. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Shahnameh. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Silk Road. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Silk_Road. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:29.398056	2020-05-01T17:35:24	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.01%3A_The_Mongols", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "12.1: The Mongols", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.02%3A_The_Yuan_Dynasty	12.2: The Yuan Dynasty Painting under the Yuan Dynasty The Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) saw the consolidation of poetry, painting, and calligraphy into a unified canon of classical Chinese art. Discuss the fusion of styles in painting during the Yuan Dynasty, as well as the influencial artists who returned to the “blue and green” landscape style Key Points - The Yuan Dynasty was a time of important developments in the areas of painting, calligraphy , poetry, and theater, with many great artists practicing more than one medium . - With the Yuan Dynasty, many artists retreated from social life and returned to nature through landscape paintings. - Wang Meng was a leading painter of the Yuan Dynasty, and one of his most famous works is the Forest Grotto. - Zhao Mengfu was a Chinese scholar, painter, and calligrapher who rejected the refined, gentle brushwork of his era in favor of the cruder style of the 8th century; he is considered to have brought about a revolution that created the modern Chinese landscape painting. - Among the Yuan Dynasty artists, there were also the vivid and detailed works by Qian Xuan, who was famous for reviving and reproducing a more Tang Dynasty style of painting. - The later Yuan Dynasty is characterized by the work of the so-called “Four Great Masters,” including Huang Gongwang, whose cool and restrained landscapes were admired by contemporaries and by the Chinese literati painters of later centuries. Key Terms - Wang Meng : (c. 1308–1385) A Chinese painter of the Yuan Dynasty who famously refused to serve the Mongolian rulers of their country. - Yuan Dynasty : The empire established by Kublai Khan, the leader of the Mongolian Borjigin clan, after the Mongols conquered the Jin and Southern Song Dynasty in China; lasting from 1271 to 1368. - Zhao Mengfu : (1254–1322) A Chinese prince and descendant of the Song Dynasty’s imperial family, and a scholar, painter, and calligrapher during the Yuan Dynasty. Overview: The Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) With the fall of the Song Dynasty in 1279 and the subsequent dislocation caused by the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty by the Mongol conquerors, many court and literary artists retreated from social life. This was a time of important developments in the areas of painting, calligraphy, poetry, and theater, with many great artists practicing more than one medium. A great deal of artwork of the Yuan Dynasty has survived in China, relative to works from the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasties, which have often been better preserved in places such as the Shōsōin in Japan. Painting, Calligraphy, Poetry, and Theatre One of the important cultural developments during the Yuan era was the consolidation of poetry, painting, and calligraphy into a unified piece that tends to come to mind when people think of classical Chinese art. The Song Dynasty and the Yuan Dynasty are linked together through the development of landscape painting, as well as the classical joining of calligraphy and poetry. In Yuan poetry, qu was the main development, which was used among other poetic forms by most of the famous Yuan poets. The qu form of poetry consists of words written in one of a number of certain, set tone patterns, based upon the tunes of various songs. Many of the poets were also involved in the major developments in the theater during this time. Zazu was a form of Chinese drama or opera that provided entertainment through a synthesis of recitations of prose and poetry, dance, singing, and mime, with a certain emphasis on comedy or happy endings. One of the key factors in the common zaju variety shows was the incorporation of poetry both classical and of the newer qu form. Influential Artists Wang Meng was a famous painter of the Yuan Dynasty, and one of his most famous works is the Forest Grotto . Zhao Mengfu was a Chinese scholar, painter, and calligrapher, whose rejection of the refined, gentle brushwork of his era in favor of the cruder style of the 8th century is considered to have brought about a revolution that created the modern Chinese landscape painting. There was also the vivid and detailed works of art by Qian Xuan (1235–1305), who had served the Song court and out of patriotism refused to serve the Mongols. Instead, Qian Xuan turned to painting and became famous for his return to nature through landscape painting and his renewal of the “blue and green” style of the Tang Dynasty. The later Yuan Dynasty is characterized by the work of the so-called “Four Great Masters.” The most notable of these was Huang Gongwang (1269–1354), whose cool and restrained landscapes were admired by contemporaries and by the Chinese literati painters of later centuries. Another man of great influence was Ni Zan (1301–1374), who frequently arranged his compositions with a strong and distinct foreground and background, leaving the middle ground as an empty expanse. This scheme was frequently adopted by later Ming and Qing Dynasty painters. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Wang Meng.nForest Grotto in Juqu.n1378.n68,8x42,5 National Palace Museum Taipei. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wang_Meng._Forest_Grotto_in_Juqu._1378._68,8x42,5_National_Palace_Museum_Taipei.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - DwellingInTheFuchun. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DwellingInTheFuchun.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Chinese art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_art%23Yuan_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Yuan Dynasty. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Dynasty%23Culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Yuan Dynasty. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Dynasty%23Culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Zhao Mengfu. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhao%20Mengfu. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Yuan Dynasty. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan%20Dynasty. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Wang Meng. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang%20Meng. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:29.470014	2020-05-01T17:35:25	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.02%3A_The_Yuan_Dynasty", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "12.2: The Yuan Dynasty", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.03%3A_The_Ming_Dynasty	12.3: The Ming Dynasty Painting under the Ming Dynasty During the Ming Dynasty, Chinese painting developed from the achievements of the earlier Song and Yuan Dynasties. Identify the time period and innovations of the Zhe, Yuanti, Wu, Wongjang, and Huating Schools of painting during the Ming dynasty Key Points - Compared to earlier styles , the Ming Dynasty saw the use of more colors, the development of new painting skills and techniques, and the advancement of calligraphy within paintings. - The first dominant Ming style was called the Zhe School ; however, later conditions led to the rise of the Wu School, a somewhat subversive style that revived the ideal of the inspired scholar-painters in Ming China. - The Zhe School and Yuanti School began to prosper during the early Ming period, while the painting schools of the Yuan dynasty began to decline. - Both the Zhe and Yuanti Schools declined during the mid-Ming period while the Wu School prospered, inheriting and further developing the Yuan scholar-artist style of painting. - The Wu School painters Tang Yin, Wen Zhengming, Shen Zhou, and Qiu Ying were regarded as the “Four Masters” of the Ming period. - The late Ming period witnessed the rise of the Songjiang School and Huating School, both of which contributed to the development of the Shanghai School in the late 19th century. Key Terms - Songjiang School : A school during the late Ming Dynasty that rivaled Wumen, particularly in generating new theories of painting. - Yuanti School : A school that was organized and supported by the Ming central government, and served for Ming royal court. - Zhe School : A school of painters that was part of the Southern School, which thrived during the Ming Dynasty and was known for its formal, academic, and conservative outlook. Background: The Ming Dynasty Under the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), painters had practiced with relative freedom, cultivating a more “individualist” and innovative approach to art that deviated noticeably from the more superficial style of the Song masters who preceded them. However, at the outset of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the Hongwu emperor (1368–1398) decided to import the existing master painters to his court in Nanjing, where he had the ability to cultivate their styles to conform to the paintings of the Song masters. Hongwu was notorious for his attempts to marginalize and persecute the scholar class, and this was seen as an attempt to banish the gentry’s influence from the arts. The dominant style of the Ming court painters was called the Zhe School. However, following the ascension of the Yongle emperor (1403–1424), the capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing, putting a large distance between imperial influence and the city of Suzhou. These new conditions led to the rise of the Wu School of painting, a somewhat subversive style that revived the ideal of the inspired scholar-painters in Ming China. Painting Styles During the Ming Dynasty, Chinese painting developed greatly from the achievements of the earlier Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty. The painting techniques that were invented and developed before the Ming period became classical during this period. More colors were used in painting during the Ming Dynasty; seal brown, for example, became much more widely used, and sometimes even over-used. Many new painting skills and techniques were innovated and developed, and calligraphy was much more closely and perfectly combined with the art of painting. Chinese painting reached another climax in the mid- to late-Ming Dynasty, when many new schools were born and many outstanding masters emerged. Development Early Ming Period (1368–1505) The painting schools of the Yuan Dynasty still heavily influenced early Ming painting, but new schools of painting were also growing. In particular, the Zhe School and the Yuanti School were the dominant schools during the early Ming period. The painters of the Zhe School did not formulate a new distinctive style, preferring instead to further the style of the Southern Song and specializing in large and decorative paintings, most often of landscapes. The school was identified by a formal, academic, and conservative outlook. The Yuanti School was organized and supported by the Ming central government to serve the Ming royal court. Both of these new schools were heavily influenced by the traditions of both the Southern Song painting academy and the Yuan scholar-artists. Middle Ming Period (1465–1566) The classical Zhe School and Yuanti School began to decline during the mid-Ming period. Meanwhile, the Wu School (sometimes referred to as Wumen) became the most dominant school nationwide. Its formation is credited to painter Shen Zhou, who is known for using brushstrokes in the tradition of Yuan Dynasty masters. Suzhou, the activity center for Wu School painters, became the biggest center for Chinese painting during this period. The Wumen painters mainly inherited the Yuan scholar-artist style of painting and further developed this style into its peak. The painters Tang Yin, Wen Zhengming, Shen Zhou, and Qiu Ying were regarded as the “Four Masters” of the Ming period. Often classified as Literati , scholars, or amateur painters (as opposed to professionals), members of the Wu School idealized the concepts of personalizing works and integrating the artists into the art. A Wu School painting is characterized by inscriptions describing the painting, the date, method, and/or reason for the work, which is usually seen as a vehicle for personal expression. Late Ming Period (1567–1644) The Songjiang School and Huating School were born and developed toward the end of the Ming Dynasty. The Songjiang School grew to rival the Wu School, particularly in generating new theories of painting. Both the Songjiang and Huating Schools formed the basis for the later Shanghai School in the late 19th century. The Decorative Arts under the Ming Dynasty As with many art forms, the Ming Dynasty saw advancement in the realm of decorative arts such as porcelain and lacquerware. Discuss the advancements in Chinese porcelain during the Ming dynasty Key Points - In Ming China, carved designs in lacquerwares and designs glazed onto porcelain wares displayed intricate scenes similar in complexity to those in painting. - Elaborate decorative items could be found in the homes of the wealthy alongside embroidered silks, rosewood furniture, feathery latticework, and wares of jade , ivory , and cloisonné. The major production centers for porcelain items in the Ming Dynasty were Jingdezhen in the Jiangxi province and Dehua in the Fujian province. - The Dehua porcelain factories catered to European tastes by creating Chinese export porcelain by the 16th century. - Connoisseurship in the late Ming period centered around these items of refined artistic taste, which provided work for art dealers and even underground scam artists who made fake imitations of originals. Key Terms - Ming Dynasty : The ruling dynasty of China for 276 years (1368–1644), following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty; the last dynasty in China ruled by the ethnic Han Chinese. - cloisonne : A decorative technique for metalwork, especially brass, whereby colored enamel is baked between raised ridges of the metal. - lacquerwares : Objects (including boxes, tablewares, buttons, etc.) decoratively covered with a clear or colored wood finish that dries by solvent evaporation or a curing process and produces a hard, durable finish; the finish is sometimes inlaid or carved. - porcelain : A hard, white, translucent ceramic that is made by firing kaolin and other materials. Overview: Decorative Arts in China The art form that the post-Renaissance West calls the decorative arts is extremely important in Chinese art. Most of the finest decorative arts were produced in large workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists, especially in the field of Chinese porcelain. Much of the best work in ceramics , textiles, and other techniques was produced over a long period by the various Imperial factories or workshops. In addition to being used by the court, these works were distributed internally and abroad on a huge scale to demonstrate the wealth and power of the Emperors. In contrast , the tradition of ink wash painting, practiced primarily by scholar-officials, developed aesthetic values similar to those of the West while long pre-dating their development there. The Ming Dynasty As in earlier dynasties, the Ming Dynasty saw a flourishing in the arts, whether it was painting, poetry, music, literature, or dramatic theater. In the decorative arts, carved designs in lacquerwares and designs glazed onto porcelain wares displayed intricate scenes similar in complexity to those in painting. These items could be found in the homes of the wealthy alongside embroidered silks and wares of jade, ivory, and cloisonné. The houses of the rich were also furnished with rosewood furniture and feathery latticework. The writing materials in a scholar’s private study, including elaborately carved brush holders made of stone or wood, were all designed and arranged ritually to give an aesthetic appeal. The major production centers for porcelain items in the Ming Dynasty were Jingdezhen in the Jiangxi province and Dehua in the Fujian province. By the 16th century, the Dehua porcelain factories catered to European tastes by creating Chinese export porcelain. Individual potters also became known, such as He Chaozong, who became famous in the early 17th century for his style of white porcelain sculpture . Scholars estimate that about 16% of late Ming era Chinese ceramic exports were sent to Europe, while the rest were destined for Japan and South East Asia. Beginning in the Ming Dynasty, ivory began to be used for small statuettes of the gods and others. Connoisseurship in the late Ming period centered around these items of refined artistic taste, which provided work for art dealers and even underground scam artists who made fake imitations of originals and false attributions to works of art. However, there were guides to help the wary new connoisseur; in Liu Tong’s book printed in 1635, he told his readers various ways to differentiate between fake and authentic pieces of art. He revealed that a Xuande era (1426–1435) bronzework could be authenticated if one knew how to judge its sheen; porcelain wares from the Yongle era (1402–1424) could be similarly judged by their thickness. Architecture and Urban Planning under the Ming Dynasty Chinese urban planning and architecture under the Ming Dynasty are based on fengshui geomancy and numerology, as seen in the Forbidden City. Describe how fengshui and numerology influenced the architecture and urban planning of the Ming Dynasty, as seen in the capital of Beijing Key Points - Chinese urban planning is based on fengshui geomancy and the well-field system of land division. - Fengshui geomancy is a way of orienting buildings in an auspicious manner based on a number of elements; an auspicious site could be determined by reference to local features such as bodies of water, stars, or a compass. - In the well-field system of land division, a square area of land is divided into nine identically-sized sections; the eight outer sections were privately cultivated by serfs, while the center section was communally cultivated on behalf of the landowning aristocrat. - Numerology heavily influenced Imperial architecture, hence the use of nine in much of construction (nine being the greatest single digit number). - The Forbidden City was the Chinese imperial palace from 1420 to 1912. It is located in the center of Beijing and served as the home of emperors and their households as well as the ceremonial and political center of Chinese government. - The palace complex exemplifies traditional Chinese palatial architecture and has influenced cultural and architectural developments in East Asia and elsewhere. Key Terms - numerology : The study of the purported mystical relationship between numbers and the character or action of physical objects and living things. - Forbidden City : The palace of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is now preserved as a museum in Beijing, China. - fengshui : A Chinese philosophical system of harmonizing with the surrounding environment; it is closely linked to Daoism. Chinese Architecture and Urban Planning After 1279 Fengshui Geomancy Chinese urban planning is based on fengshui geomancy and the well-field system of land division, both used since the Neolithic age. Fengshui geomancy is a way of orienting buildings in an auspicious manner based on a number of elements. Depending on the particular style of fengshui being used, an auspicious site could be determined by reference to local features such as bodies of water, stars, or a compass. The importance of the East (the direction of the rising sun) in orienting and siting Imperial buildings is a form of solar worship found in many ancient cultures , where there is the notion of Ruler being affiliated with the Sun. The Well-field System and Numerology The well-field system of land division is a system in which a square area of land is divided into nine identically-sized sections; the eight outer sections were privately cultivated by serfs, while the center section was communally cultivated on behalf of the landowning aristocrat. The basic well-field diagram is overlaid with the luoshu, a magic square divided into 9 sub-squares and linked with Chinese numerology. Numerology heavily influenced Imperial architecture, as seen in the use of nine in much of construction (nine being the greatest single digit number). It is a common myth, for example, that there are 9,999 rooms and antechambers in the Forbidden City in Beijing—just short of the mythical 10,000 rooms in Heaven; however, this is based on oral tradition and is not supported by survey evidence. Beijing and the Forbidden City Beijing became the capital of China after the Mongol invasion of the 13th century, completing the easterly migration of the Chinese capital begun in the earlier Jin dynasty . The Ming uprising in 1368 reasserted Chinese authority and fixed Beijing as the seat of imperial power for the next five centuries. The Forbidden City was the Chinese imperial palace from the Ming Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty—the years 1420 to 1912. It is located in the center of Beijing and served as the home of emperors and their households as well as the ceremonial and political center of Chinese government for almost 500 years. Constructed from 1406 to 1420, the complex consists of 980 buildings and covers 180 acres. The palace complex exemplifies traditional Chinese palatial architecture and has influenced cultural and architectural developments in East Asia and elsewhere. Traditionally, the Emperor and Empress lived in palaces on the central axis of the Forbidden City, while the Crown Prince lived at the eastern side and the concubines lived toward the back (leading to the reference of the numerous imperial concubines as the “Back Palace Three Thousand”). Later, during the mid-Qing Dynasty, the Emperor’s residence was moved to the western side of the complex. The Forbidden City is a rectangle, measuring 961 meters from north to south and 753 meters from east to west. It consists of 980 surviving buildings with 8,886 bays of rooms. The Forbidden City remains important in the civic scheme of Beijing, with its central north-south axis remaining the central axis of the entire city. The Forbidden City is located within the larger Imperial City in Beijing, which is in turn encompassed by the Inner City. Its axis extends to the south through Tiananmen gate to Tiananmen Square, the ceremonial center of the People’s Republic of China, and on to Yongdingmen. To the north, it extends through Jingshan Hill to the Bell and Drum Towers. This axis is not exactly aligned north-south but is instead tilted by slightly more than two degrees. Researchers now believe the axis was designed in the Yuan Dynasty to be aligned with Xanadu, the other capital of their empire. Symbolic Design The design of the Forbidden City, from its overall layout to the smallest detail, was meticulously planned to reflect philosophical and religious principles and the majesty of Imperial power. Some noted examples of symbolic designs include: - The use of yellow, the color of the Emperor. Almost all roofs in the Forbidden City bear yellow glazed tiles, with only two exceptions. The library at the Pavilion of Literary Profundity has black tiles because black was associated with water, and thus fire prevention; similarly, the Crown Prince’s residences have green tiles because green was associated with wood, and thus growth. - The use of numerology. The main halls of the Outer and Inner courts, for example, are all arranged in groups of three in the shape of the Qian triagram, representing Heaven. The residences of the Inner Court, on the other hand, are arranged in groups of six in the shape of the Kun triagram, representing the Earth. - The use of statuettes to indicate importance. The sloping ridges of building roofs are decorated with a line of statuettes led by a man riding a phoenix and followed by an imperial dragon. The number of statuettes represents the status of the building; for example, a minor building might have only 3 or 5, while the Hall of Supreme Harmony is the only building to have 10. - The layout of buildings. The layout follows ancient customs laid down in the Classic of Rites (a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the earlier Zhou dynasty). Thus, ancestral temples are in front of the palace, storage areas are placed in the front part of the palace complex, and residences are placed in the back. Chinese Literati Expressionism under the Ming Dynasty Literati Expressionism in Chinese painting was produced by scholar-bureaucrats of the Southern School, rather than by professional painters. Differentiate the literati Southern School of Chinese painting from its professional counterpart in the North Key Points - Under the Ming Dynasty , Chinese culture bloomed. Narrative painting, with a wider color range and a much busier composition than the Song paintings, was immensely popular during the time. - The Southern School of Chinese painting, often known as ” literati painting,” is a term used to denote art and artists that stand in opposition to the formal Northern School of painting. Southern School painters generally worked in monochrome ink, focused on expressive brushstrokes, and used a more impressionistic approach than the Northern School’s formal attention to detail, use of color, and highly refined traditional modes and methods. - Literati paintings are most commonly of landscapes featuring men in retirement or travelers admiring the scenery or immersed in culture. Figures are often depicted residing in isolated mountain hermitages . - Calligraphic inscriptions, either of classical poems or ones composed by a contemporary literati (typically the painter or a friend), are also quite common in these paintings. Key Terms - Southern School : A style of Chinese literati painting formed during the Ming Dynasty in opposition to the formal Northern School of painting; led by scholar-bureaucrats, who had either retired from the professional world or had never been a part of it. - Confucianism : A Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucious. Overview: The Southern School and Literati Painting Under the Ming Dynasty, Chinese culture bloomed. Narrative painting, with a wider color range and a much busier composition than the previous paintings of the Song Dynasty, was immensely popular during the time. The Southern School of Chinese painting, often known as “literati painting,” is a term used to denote art and artists that stand in opposition to the formal Northern School of painting. Where formal and professional painters were classified as Northern School, scholar-bureaucrats, who had either retired from the professional world or who had never been a part of it, constituted the Southern School. History Never a formal school of art in the sense of artists training under a single master in a single studio, the Southern School is more of an umbrella term spanning a great breadth across both geography and chronology. The literati lifestyle and attitude, as well as the associated style of painting, can be said to go back to early periods of Chinese history. However, the coining of the term “Southern School” is said to have been made by the scholar-artist Dong Qichang (1555–1636), who borrowed the concept from Ch’an (Zen) Buddhism , which also has Northern and Southern Schools. The Literati Style and Artists Generally, Southern School painters worked in monochrome ink, focused on expressive brushstrokes, and used a somewhat more impressionistic approach than the Northern School’s formal attention to detail, use of color, and highly refined traditional modes and methods. The stereotypical literati painter lived in retirement either in the mountains or other rural areas, not entirely isolated but immersed in natural beauty and far from mundane concerns. These artists tended to be lovers of culture, enjoying and taking part in all Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar (painting, calligraphy , music, and games of skill and strategy) as touted by Confucianism . Many artists would combine these elements into their work and would gather with one another to share their interests. Literati paintings are most commonly of landscapes, often of the shanshui (“mountain water”) genre . Many feature scholars in retirement or travelers admiring the scenery or immersed in culture. Figures are often depicted carrying or playing guqin (a plucked seven-string Chinese musical instrument of the zither family) and residing in quite isolated mountain hermitages. Calligraphic inscriptions, either of classical poems or ones composed by a contemporary literati (typically the painter or a friend), are also quite common. While this sort of landscape with certain features and elements is the standard stereotypical Southern School painting, the genre actually varied quite widely in rejecting the formal strictures of the Northern School. The painters sought the freedom to experiment with subjects and styles. Like other traditions in Chinese art, the early Southern style soon acquired a classic status and was often copied and imitated, with later painters sometimes producing sets of paintings each in the style of a different classic artist. Though greatly affected by the confrontation with Western painting from the 18th century on, the style continued to be practiced until at least the 20th century. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Dai Jin-Landscape in the Style of Yan Wengui. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dai_Jin-Landscape_in_the_Style_of_Yan_Wengui.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Zhe school (painting). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhe_school_(painting). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Shen Zhou. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Shen_Zhou. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ming Dynasty painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_Dynasty_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Zhe School. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhe%20School. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Yuanti School. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuanti%20School. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Songjiang School. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Songjiang%20School. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Wu School. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_School. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - B-ChinesischeLackdose. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:B-ChinesischeLackdose.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - China ming blue dragons. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China_ming_blue_dragons.JPG. License : CC BY: Attribution - Ming Dynasty. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_Dynasty%23Urban_and_rural_life. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chinese art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - porcelain. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/porcelain. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - lacquerwares. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/lacquerwares. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ming Dynasty. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming%20Dynasty. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - cloisonne. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cloisonne. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Beijing-forbidden7. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beijing-forbidden7.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - HighStatusRoofDeco.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbidden_City#/media/File:HighStatusRoofDeco.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Gugun panorama-2005-1. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gugun_panorama-2005-1.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 591px-Beijing_city_wall_map_vectorized.svg.png. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbidden_City#/media/File:Beijing_city_wall_map_vectorized.svg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Forbidden City. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Forbidden_City. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ancient Chinese urban planning. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_urban_planning. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chinese architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Fengshui. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Fengshui. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Luoshu. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Luoshu. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - numerology. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/numerology. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Wen Zhengming painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wen_Zhengming_painting.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Lofty Mt.Lu by Shen Zhou. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Wanluan Thatched Hall by Dong Qichang. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wanluan_Thatched_Hall_by_Dong_Qichang.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Chinese art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_art%23Yuan_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Southern School. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_School. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Wu School. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_School. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Dong Qichang. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Dong_Qichang. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Southern School. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern%20School. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Confucianism. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:29.591190	2020-05-01T17:35:26	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.03%3A_The_Ming_Dynasty", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "12.3: The Ming Dynasty", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.04%3A_The_Qing_Dynasty	12.4: The Qing Dynasty Orthodox Confucian Painting under the Qing Dynasty The early Qing Dynasty developed in two main strands, one of which was the Orthodox school of Confucian paintings. Differentiate the work of the Six Orthodox Masters of the Qing Dynasty from that of their individualist contemporaries Key Points - Under the Qing Dynasty , traditional forms of art flourished and innovations were made at many levels and in many types. High levels of literacy, prosperous cities, a successful publishing industry, and the Confucian emphasis on cultivation all fed a lively and creative set of cultural fields. - The early Qing dynasty developed in two main strands: the Orthodox School and the Individualist painters. Both approaches followed the theories of Dong Qichang but stressed different aspects. - The Six Masters of the early Qing period were a group of major Orthodox artists whose art was generally conservative, cautious, subtle, and complex, in contrast to the vigorous and vivid painting of their individualist contemporaries.The Four Wangs—Wang Jian, Wang Shimin, Wang Yuanqi, and Wang Hui—were particularly renowned in the Orthodox School and sought inspiration in recreating the past styles , especially the technical skills in brushstrokes and calligraphy of ancient masters. Key Terms - “Four Wangs” : A group of Chinese painters of the Qing Dynasty, particularly renowned in the ç, who sought inspiration in recreating the past styles, especially the technical skills in brushstrokes and calligraphy of ancient masters. Overview: Qing Dynasty Painting The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the territorial base for the modern Chinese state. Under the Qing Dynasty, traditional forms of art flourished and many types of innovations were made at many levels. High levels of literacy, prosperous cities, a successful publishing industry, and the Confucian emphasis on cultivation all fed a lively and creative set of cultural fields. The early Qing dynasty developed in two main strands of painting: the Orthodox School and the Individualist painters. Both schools followed the theories of Dong Qichang, though emphasizing very different aspects. Orthodox Painting The Qing emperors were often skilled in painting and offered their patronage to Confucian culture . The Kangxi and Qianlong Emperors, for instance, embraced Chinese traditions both to control them and to proclaim their own legitimacy. Under the Orthodox School, court painters made new versions of the Song masterpiece, Zhang Zeduan ‘s Along the River During the Qingming Festival, whose depiction of a prosperous and happy realm demonstrated the beneficence of the emperor. The most impressive aesthetic works during this period were done among the scholars and urban elite. Calligraphy and painting remained a central interest to both court painters and scholar-gentry who considered the Four Arts (music, strategy games, calligraphy, and painting) part of their cultural identity and social standing. The painting of the early years of the dynasty included such painters as the orthodox Six Masters, including the Four Wangs. The 19th century saw such innovations as the Shanghai School and the Lingnan School, which used the technical skills of tradition to set the stage for modern painting. The Six Masters The Six Masters of the early Qing period were a group of major Chinese artists who worked in the 17th and early 18th centuries. Also known as Orthodox masters, they continued the tradition of the scholar-painter, following the injunctions of the artist-critic Dong Qichang late in the Ming Dynasty. The works of the Six Masters are generally conservative, cautious, subtle, and complex in contrast to the vigorous and vivid painting of their individualist contemporaries. The Six Masters include the flower painter Yun Shouping, the landscape painter Wu Li, and the Four Wangs: Wang Shimin, Wang Jian, Wang Yuanqi, and Wang Hui. The Four Wangs were particularly renowned in the Orthodox School and sought inspiration in recreating the past styles, especially the technical skills in brushstrokes and calligraphy of ancient masters. The younger Wang Yuanqi (1642–1715) ritualized the approach of engaging with, and drawing inspiration from, the work of an ancient master. His own works were often annotated with his theories of how his paintings relate to the master’s model. Individualist Painting under the Qing Dynasty During the Qing Dynasty, painters known as Individualists rebelled against many of the traditional rules of painting through free brushwork. Explain how the work of Individualists of the Qing Dynasty, such as Shitao, deviated from the traditional rules of painting. Key Points - During the early Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), two main strands of painting developed: the Orthodox School and the Individualist painters. - While Orthodox painters such as the Six Masters focused on a style that was conservative, cautious, subtle, and complex, Individualist painters tended to produce more vigorous and vivid works of art. - The Individualist painters included Bada Shanren and Shitao , who drew more from the revolutionary ideas of transcending the tradition to achieve an original, individualistic style. - The art created by Shitao was revolutionary in its transgressions of the rigidly codified techniques and styles that dictated what was considered beautiful. Key Terms - Qing Dynasty : The last dynasty of China, lasting from 1644 to 1912. - Bada Shanren : (1626-1705) A Chinese painter of shuimohua and a calligrapher. - Shitao : (1641-1707) A Chinese landscape painter and poet during the early Qing Dynasty. Breaking From Orthodox Traditions During the early Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), painters known as Individualists rebelled against many of the traditional rules of painting and found ways to express themselves more directly through free brushwork. While Orthodox painters such as the Six Masters focused on a style that was conservative, cautious, subtle, and complex, Individualist painters tended to produce more vigorous and vivid works of art. The Individualist painters included Bada Shanren (1626–1705) and Shitao (1641–1707), who both drew from the revolutionary ideas of transcending tradition to achieve an original style. In this way, they were more faithfully following the way of Dong Qichang than the Orthodox School, who were considered his official direct followers. Painting Styles The paintings of Bada Shanren feature sharp brush strokes, which are attributed to the sideways manner by which he held his brush. The art created by Shitao was revolutionary in its transgressions of the rigidly codified techniques and styles that dictated what was considered beautiful. In his time, imitation was valued over innovation, and although Shitao was clearly influenced by his predecessors (namely Ni Zan and Li Yong), his art breaks with theirs in several new and fascinating ways. Shitao’s formal innovations in depiction include drawing attention to the act of painting itself through his use of washes and bold, impressionistic brushstrokes, as well as an interest in subjective perspective and the use of negative or white space to suggest distance. The poetry and calligraphy that accompany his landscapes are just as vivid and irreverent as the paintings they complement. His paintings exemplify the internal contradictions and tensions of the literati or scholar-amateur artist, and they have been interpreted as an invective against art-historical canonization. Reminiscences of Qin-Huai is one of Shitao’s unique paintings. Like many paintings from the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, it deals with man’s place in nature. Upon first viewing, the craggy peak in this painting seems somewhat distorted. What makes this painting so unique is that, upon closer inspection, it appears to depict the mountain bowing. A monk stands placidly on a boat that floats along the Qin-Huai river, staring up in admiration at the stone giant. The economy of respect that circulates between man and nature is explored here in a sophisticated style reminiscent of surrealism or magical realism and bordering on the absurd. Shitao himself had visited the river and the surrounding region in the 1680s, but it is unknown whether the album that contains this painting depicts specific places. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Peonies by Yun Shouping. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peonies_by_Yun_Shouping.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Wang Hui10. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wang_Hui10.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Chinese art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_art%23Early_Qing_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Qing Dynasty. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty%23Arts_and_Culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Six Masters of the early Qing period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Masters_of_the_early_Qing_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/four-wangs. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chu Ta 003. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chu_Ta_003.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - ShiTao-Pine Pavilion Near A Spring. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ShiTao-Pine_Pavilion_Near_A_Spring.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Shitao-Qinhuai. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shitao-Qinhuai.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Shitao. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Shitao. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chinese painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_painting%23Late_imperial_China_.281368.E2.80.931895.29. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chinese art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_art%23Early_Qing_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bada Shanren. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bada%20Shanren. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Shitao. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Shitao. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Qing Dynasty. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Qing+Dynasty. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:29.677266	2020-05-01T17:35:27	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.04%3A_The_Qing_Dynasty", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "12.4: The Qing Dynasty", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.05%3A_Modern_Chinese_Painting	12.5: Modern Chinese Painting Modern Chinese Painting Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Chinese painting evolved under the influence of the People’s Republic and exposure to the West. Describe the adoption of Western techniques in the New Culture Movement, the subsequent revival of traditional Chinese painting, and the closing of art schools during the Cultural Revolution Key Points - Traditional painting involves the same techniques as calligraphy and is done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink. As with calligraphy, the most popular materials for paintings are paper and silk. - Beginning with the New Culture Movement of the mid-1910s and 1920s, Chinese artists started to adopt Western techniques. - By the early years of the People’s Republic of China (formed in 1949), artists were encouraged to employ socialist realism modeled on the Soviet Union. - This regimen was considerably relaxed in 1953, and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign of 1956–57, traditional Chinese painting experienced a significant revival. - During the Cultural Revolution in 1966, art schools were closed, and the publication of art journals and major art exhibitions ceased. Following the Revolution, many art schools and professional organizations were reinstated. Key Terms - New Culture Movement : A movement during the 1910s and 1920s in China that sprang from the disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture following the failure of the Chinese Republic. - Hundred Flowers Campaign : A period in 1956 in the People’s Republic of China during which the Communist Party of China encouraged its citizens to openly express their opinions of the communist regime. - Cultural Revolution : A social-political movement that took place in the People’s Republic of China from 1966, with the goal of enforcing Communism in the country by removing capitalist, traditional, and cultural elements from Chinese society. The Evolution of Chinese Painting Chinese painting is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. Painting in the traditional style is known today in Chinese as guó huà, meaning national or native painting, as opposed to Western styles of art that became popular in China in the 20th century. Traditional painting involves essentially the same techniques as calligraphy and is done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink (oils are not typically used). As with calligraphy, the most popular materials for paintings are paper and silk. The finished work can be mounted on scrolls, such as hanging scrolls or handscrolls . Traditional painting can also be done on album sheets, walls, lacquerware , folding screens, and other media . In the late 19th and 20th centuries, Chinese painters were increasingly exposed to Western art. Some artists who studied in Europe rejected traditional forms of Chinese painting; others tried to combine the two traditions. Among the most celebrated modern painters is Qi Baishi, who began life as a poor peasant and became a great master. His best known works depict flowers and small animals. Chinese Painting in the Republic Socialist Realism Beginning with the New Culture Movement of the mid-1910s and 1920s, Chinese artists started to adopt Western techniques. By the early years of the People’s Republic of China (formed in 1949), however, artists were encouraged to employ socialist realism. Some Soviet Union socialist realism techniques were imported without modification, and painters were assigned subjects and expected to mass -produce paintings that depicted social issues. At the same time, they were ordered to cease traditional Chinese painting. The Hundred Flowers Campaign This regimen was considerably relaxed in 1953 and during the Hundred Flowers Campaign of 1956–57. The Hundred Flowers Campaign was a period in the People’s Republic of China during which the Communist Party of China encouraged its citizens to openly express their opinions of the communist regime. Following this campaign, traditional Chinese painting experienced a significant revival. Along with these developments in professional art circles, there was a proliferation of peasant art depicting everyday life in the rural areas on wall murals and in open-air painting exhibitions. The Cultural Revolution of 1966 The Cultural Revolution was a sociopolitical movement that took place in the People’s Republic of China from 1966 until 1976. Set into motion by Mao Zedong, then Chairman of the Communist Party of China, its stated goal was to preserve “true” Communist ideology in the country by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society During the Cultural Revolution in 1966. During this Revolution, art schools were closed and the publication of art journals and major art exhibitions ceased. One of the stated goals of the Cultural Revolution was to bring an end to the Four Olds—Old Customs, Old Culture, Old Habits, and Old Ideas. Traditional themes in art were sidelined the Cultural Revolution, and artists such as Feng Zikai, Shi Lu, and Pan Tianshou were persecuted. Some of the most enduring images of Cultural Revolution come from the poster art. Propaganda art in posters was used as a campaigning tool and mass communication device, produced in large number and widely disseminated. Such artwork often served as the main source of information for the people, used by the government to educate the public to the ideological values of the Communist state. There were many types of posters, the two main genres being the dazibao (a big character poster) and commercial propaganda poster. Post-1978 Following the Cultural Revolution, many art schools and professional organizations were reinstated. Exchanges were set up with groups of foreign artists, and Chinese artists began to experiment with new subjects and techniques. One particular case of freehand style (xieyi hua) may be noted in the work of the child prodigy Wang Yani, born in 1975, who started painting at age 3 and has since considerably contributed to the exercise of the style in contemporary artwork. After Chinese economic reform, more and more artists boldly conducted innovations in Chinese Painting. New brush skills were developed, such as vertical direction splash water and ink as seen in the work of artist Tiancheng Xie. New styles were created by integrating traditional Chinese and Western painting techniques, such as Heaven Style Painting as exemplified by artist Shaoqiang Chen. According to points of view by artists, art institutes, publications, and media, the Heaven Style painting was derived based on painting techniques from the Song Dynasty (960–1279) and Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) and integrated techniques of perspective science and contemporary photography. New styles also expressed contemporary themes with typical nature scenes of certain regions, such as the Lijiang Painting Style and the work of artist Gesheng Huang. Until recently, art exhibitions deemed controversial have been routinely shut down by police, and performance artists in particular faced the threat of arrest in the early 1990s. More recently, there has been greater tolerance by the Chinese government, though many internationally acclaimed artists are still restricted from media exposure at home or have exhibitions ordered closed. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 1024px-Red_Guards.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_Revolution#/media/File:Red_Guards.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Ma Lin 010. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ma_Lin_010.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 1920px-Elegance_of_Lotus_Looking_from_Heaven.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven_Style_Painting#/media/File:Elegance_of_Lotus_Looking_from_Heaven.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chinese painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chinese painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_painting%23Late_imperial_China_.281368.E2.80.931895.29. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - New Culture Movement. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Culture%20Movement. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hundred Flowers Campaign. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred%20Flowers%20Campaign. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cultural Revolution. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural%20Revolution. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chinese Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Heaven Style Painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven_Style_Painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:29.753203	2020-05-01T17:35:32	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.05%3A_Modern_Chinese_Painting", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "12.5: Modern Chinese Painting", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.06%3A_Korea-_The_Joseon_Dynasty	12.6: Korea- The Joseon Dynasty Joseon Ceramics Korea’s Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) is considered the golden age of Korean pottery. Identify the Ming, Confucian, and Buddhist influences on pottery created during Korea’s Joseon Dynasty Key Points - During Korea’s Joseon Dynasty , ceramic wares were considered to represent the highest quality of achievement from imperial, city, and provincial kilns , the last of which were export-driven wares. - Wares evolved along Chinese lines in terms of color, shape, and technique, and the Ming influence in blue and white wares using cobalt blue glazes was evident in a great deal of Joseon pottery. - Buddhist designs such as lotus flowers and willow trees prevailed in celadon wares. The form most often seen was that of pear-shaped bottles; also notable were thinner glazes and colorless glazes for buncheong or stoneware. - The rise of white porcelain occurred as a result of Confucian influence and ideals, resulting in purer, less pretentious forms lacking artifice and complexity. Key Terms - Joseon Dynasty : Korean dynasty lasting from 1392 to 1910. Overview: The Joseon Dynasty During Korea’s Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910, often referred to as “Choson”), ceramic wares were considered to represent the highest quality of achievement from imperial, city, and provincial kilns, the last of which were export-driven wares. This era marked the golden age of Korean pottery, with a long period of growth in imperial and provincial kilns and much work of the highest quality still preserved today. Generally, the ceramics of this dynasty are divided into the early period (roughly 1300–1500), middle period (1500–1700), and late period (1700–1910). Early Period In the early period, wares were evolved alongside Chinese lines in terms of color, shape, and technique. Celadon, white porcelain, and storage pottery were similar but with slight variations in glazes, incision designs, florality, and weight. The influence of the Chinese Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) in blue and white wares using cobalt blue glazes could be seen in Joseon pottery, but Joseon work tended to lack the phthalo blue range and the three-dimensional glassine color depth of Ming Dynasty Chinese works. Ceramics from the Joseon period differed from other periods because artists felt that each piece of art deserved its own uniquely cultivated personality. Simplified designs emerged early on during the Joseon Dynasty. Buddhist designs such as lotus flowers and willow trees prevailed in celadon wares. The form most often seen was that of pear-shaped bottles; also notable were thinner glazes and colorless glazes for buncheong or stoneware. Middle Period The middle period was marked by the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592, during which entire villages of Korean potters were forcibly relocated to Japan. This had a permanent effect on the pottery industry in Korea, as craftsmen had to relearn techniques after the masters were gone. This era also saw the prolonged fall of the Chinese Ming Dynasty in 1644, after which immigration of some Chinese master potters occurred in southern coastal Korea. Qing coloring, brighter and almost Scythian in enamel imitation, was rejected by Korean potters in favor of simpler, less decorated wares in keeping with a new dynasty that built itself on military tradition. Late Period The late period was characterized by the establishment of government-subsidized kilns at Bunwon-ri, Gwangju near Seoul in 1751, as well as the privatization of Bunwon in 1884. Joseon white porcelains became especially popular during this time and are characterized by unpretentious forms, understated decoration, and subtle use of color, reflecting the ideals of the Korean Confucian state. Over time, the wares began to assume more traditional Korean glazes and more specific designs to meet regional needs. The rise of white porcelain occurred as a result of Confucian influence and ideals, resulting in purer, less pretentious forms lacking artifice and complexity. Joseon Painting The art of the Joseon period was influenced by both Confucianism and Buddhism and has left a substantial legacy on Korean art. Outline the evolution of Korean painting throughout the Joseon Dynasty Key Points - The influence of Confucianism superseded that of Buddhism in the Joseon period; however, Buddhist elements remained and Buddhist art continued. - Buddhist iconography (such as images of bamboo, orchids, plums, chrysanthemums, and the familiar knotted good luck symbols) continued to play a large role in genre paintings. - Mid-Joseon painting styles moved towards increased realism , and a national painting style of landscapes called “true view” emerged, evolving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to particular locations exactly rendered. - The mid-to-late Joseon Dynasty is considered the golden age of Korean painting. It coincides with the collapse of the Ming Dynasty , the accession of the Manchu emperors in China, and Korean artists being forced to build new artistic models based on an inner search for particular Korean subjects. Key Terms - Buddhism : The religion and philosophy founded by the Indian teacher Gautama Buddha. - Confucianism : A Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucious. Overview: Art of the Joseon Dynasty The Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) has left a substantial legacy on modern Korea. Much of modern Korean artwork—as well as etiquette, cultural norms, societal attitudes towards current issues, and the modern Korean language and its dialects—are derived from the culture and traditions of the Joseon era. During this period, the influence of Confucianism superseded that of Buddhism. Buddhist elements remained, however, and Buddhist art itself continued. Buddhist art was encouraged not by the imperial centers of art or the accepted taste of the Joseon Dynasty publicly, but in private homes and in the summer palaces of the Joseon Dynasty kings. The simplicity of Buddhist art was given great appreciation but was not seen as citified art. Early Period While the Joseon Dynasty began under military auspices, styles from the earlier Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392) were left to evolve, and Buddhist iconography (such as images of bamboo, orchids, plums, chrysanthemums, and the familiar knotted good luck symbols) continued to play a large role in genre paintings. Neither colors nor forms underwent real change, and Joseon rulers stood aside from making any edicts on art. Chinese Ming ideals and imported techniques continued to influence early Joseon Dynasty works. Middle Period Beginning in the mid-Joseon era, painting styles moved toward increased realism. A national painting style of landscapes called “true view” began, moving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to exactly rendered particular locations. While not photographic, the style was academic enough to become established and supported as a standardized style in Korean painting. Late Period The mid-to-late Joseon Dynasty is considered the golden age of Korean painting. It coincides with the shock from the collapse of the Chinese Ming Dynasty (1644), the accession of the Manchu emperors in China, and Korean artists being forced to build new artistic models based on an inner search for particular Korean subjects. At this time, China ceased to have a preeminent influence in Korean art, and painting in Korea took its own course , becoming increasingly distinctive from traditional Chinese painting. Paintings from this era also showed increasing influence from the West. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Baekja-White Ceramic. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baekja-White_Ceramic.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Joseon white porcelain jar. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseon_white_porcelain_jar.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Joseon_Blue_and_white_porcelain_jar_1.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_pottery_and_porcelain#/media/File:Joseon_Blue_and_white_porcelain_jar_1.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Joseon white porcelain. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon_white_porcelain. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Joseon dynasty. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon_dynasty%23Art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Korean ceramics. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_ceramics. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Joseon Dynasty. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon%20Dynasty. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 1280px-%EC%84%9C%EB%AC%B8%EB%B3%B4_%EC%82%B0%EC%88%98%EB%8F%84%28%E5%B1%B1%E6%B0%B4%E5%9C%96%29_15%EC%84%B8%EA%B8%B0.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_painting#/media/File:%EC%84%9C%EB%AC%B8%EB%B3%B4_%EC%82%B0%EC%88%98%EB%8F%84(%E5%B1%B1%E6%B0%B4%E5%9C%96)_15%EC%84%B8%EA%B8%B0.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - %EB%82%98%ED%95%9C%EB%8F%84%28%E7%BE%85%E6%BC%A2%E5%9C%96%29.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_painting#/media/File:%EB%82%98%ED%95%9C%EB%8F%84(%E7%BE%85%E6%BC%A2%E5%9C%96).jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Maenggyondo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maenggyondo.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Owoncat. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Owoncat.gif. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Korean painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Joseon. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Korean art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_art%23Painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Buddhism. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Buddhism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Confucianism. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:29.841550	2020-05-01T17:35:33	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.06%3A_Korea-_The_Joseon_Dynasty", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "12.6: Korea- The Joseon Dynasty", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.07%3A_Modern_Korean_Art	12.7: Modern Korean Art Modern Korean Art Modern Korean art is influenced by its historical roots, its recent tumultuous history, and various forms of Western art. Discuss the development of Korean art over the 20th and 21st centuries Key Points - From the 1880s onward, the Japanese invasion of Korea had a significant impact on Korean art. Works of art were looted and destroyed, schools of art were closed, and Korean styles were replaced with paintings of Japanese subjects in Japanese styles. - In modern Korea, works in metal, jade , bamboo, and textiles have had a limited resurgence, as seen in Korean fabric and paper arts. - Korean paper art includes all manner of handmade paper (hanji) used for architectural purposes, printing, artwork, and the Korean folded arts, and as well for Korean paper clothing, which has an annual fashion show in the city of Jeonju, attracting world attention. - Contemporary Korean painting often resembles the textures and glazes of pottery and emphasizes the importance of brushstrokes. - Manhwa , or Korean comics, were inspired by classic Asian arts and have been influenced by the dramatic modern history of Korea, resulting in a diversity of forms and genres . - Art in North Korea is influenced by the country’s political history and is characterized by patriotism and revolutionary images. Key Terms - Manhwa : The general Korean term for comics and print cartoons. - lithography : The process of etching an image onto a flat surface, then copying the etched surface by applying ink (or the equivalent) to it and pressing another material against it. - Suh Yongsun : A contemporary South Korean painter and sculptor. Overview Modern Korean art is influenced by its historical roots (including early Korean shamanist art, Korean Buddhist art, and Korean Confucian art) and its recent tumultuous history, as well as various forms of Western art in the 20th century. From the 1880s onward, the Japanese invasion of Korea had a significant impact on Korean art. Works of art were looted and destroyed, schools of art were closed, and Korean styles were replaced with paintings of Japanese subjects in Japanese styles. In 1945, Korea was freed from Japan, and new and contemporary styles of art have emerged since then. South Korea In modern Korea, works in metal, jade, bamboo, and textiles have had a limited resurgence. The South Korean government has tried to encourage the maintenance of cultural continuity through awards and scholarships for younger students in rarer Korean art forms. Fabric and Paper Arts Korean fabric arts have a long history and include many art forms such as embroidery (used in costumes and screenwork), knots (best represented in the work of Choe Eun-sun and used in costumes and as wall-decorations), and lesser-known weaving skills as indicated in rarer arts. Korean paper art includes all manner of handmade paper (hanji), which is used for architectural purposes (such as window screens and floor covering), printing, artwork, the Korean folded arts (such as paper fans and figures), and Korean paper clothing. Contemporary paper artists are very active, and the art of Korean paper clothing has an annual fashion show in the city of Jeonju, attracting world attention. Painting and Calligraphy Contemporary Korean painting demands an understanding of Korean ceramics and pottery. The glazes and textures of Korean paintings make them more similar to the tradition of ceramic art than of western painterly traditions, even if many of the subjects appear to be of Western origin. Brushstrokes are also far more important than they are to the Western artist; paintings are judged on brushstrokes more often than pure technique. Korean calligraphy is seen as an art where brushstrokes reveal the artist’s personality, enhancing the subject matter that is painted. Major 20th century Korean artists include Park Su-geun, Nam June Paik , Chang Ucchin, and Seund Ja Rhee. A new wave of Korean art includes the work of Lee Dong Youb and Suh Yongsun , while 21st century Korean artists include Amy Sol, David Choe, Seonna Hong, Tschoon Su Kim, and Junggeun Oh. Suh Yongsun was elected “Korea’s artist of the year 2009” and makes paintings with heavy brushstrokes of subjects from both Korean history and urban scenes of Western cities, such as New York and Berlin. His artwork is a good example of the combination of Korean and Western subjects and painting styles. Manhwa Manhwa is the general Korean term for comics and print cartoons . Outside of Korea, the term usually refers specifically to South Korean comics. The term, along with manga , is a cognate of the Chinese manhua. Manhwa were inspired by classic Asian arts, especially Chinese, and have been influenced by the dramatic modern history of Korea, resulting in a diversity of forms and genres. Distinctive manhwa can be found in editorial comic strips, artistically-oriented works, and webcomic serials. North Korea Art During Kim Il-sung’s rule in the north, painting was allowed only in the socialist realist genre, and propaganda posters were the stock of North Korean visual arts. Changing political systems from Communism merging with the old yangban class of Korean nationalistic leaders brought about a different kind of visual arts that is quite distinctive from the socialist realism common to other Communist art. This is particularly seen in the patriotic films that dominated the culture from 1949 to 1994, as well as the reawakened architecture, calligraphy, fabric work, and neo-traditional painting from 1994 to today. The impact of this influence can be seen on revolutionary posters, lithography and multiples, dramatic and documentary films, realistic paintings, and grand architecture; it can also been seen to a lesser extent in areas of domestic pottery, ceramics, exportable needlework, and the visual crafts. Sports art and politically-charged revolutionary posters have been the most sophisticated and are internationally collected by auction houses and specialty collectors. After Kim Il-sung’s death in 1994, directives on painting were relaxed and sometimes completely abolished under Kim Jong-il. New art forms, including a kind of impressionism specific to North Korea, rose to complement posters. The particularities of North Korean communism have reinvigorated old subjects and techniques with a nationalist dimension . - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Manhwa-Yu.Gil-jun-Yahak-01. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Manhwa-Yu.Gil-jun-Yahak-01.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Korean_paper-Hanji-01.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_paper#/media/File:Korean_paper-Hanji-01.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 1280px-Artist_at_Mansudae_Art_Studio%2C_Pyongyang_%2810104200854%29.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_art#/media/File:Artist_at_Mansudae_Art_Studio,_Pyongyang_(10104200854).jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Frankfurt Medien Denkmal. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frankfurt_Medien_Denkmal.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Korean painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Korean art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_art%23Painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Korean painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Korean comics. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_comics. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Korean art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_art%23Painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Suh Yongsun. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Suh%20Yongsun. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/lithography. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Manhwa. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhwa. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:29.918376	2020-05-01T17:35:34	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/12%3A_China_and_Korea_After_1279_CE/12.07%3A_Modern_Korean_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "12.7: Modern Korean Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/13%3A_Japan_Before_1333_CE	13: Japan Before 1333 CE Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52956 Boundless Boundless 13.1: Prehistoric Japan 13.2: Buddhist Art in Japan 13.3: The Heian Period 13.4: The Kamakura Period	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:30.001155	2020-05-01T17:29:53	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/13%3A_Japan_Before_1333_CE", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "13: Japan Before 1333 CE", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/13%3A_Japan_Before_1333_CE/13.01%3A_Prehistoric_Japan	13.1: Prehistoric Japan Ceramics in the Jomon Period Pottery from the prehistoric Jōmon period in Japan is thought by many scholars to be the oldest ever discovered. Describe the pottery of the Jomon people in prehistoric Japan Key Points - Prehistoric art of Japan begins with the Jōmon period (c. 10,000 BCE – 350 BCE), and the Jōmon people are thought to have been the first settlers of Japan. The Jōmon people are named for the “cord-markings,” or decorative impressions made with rope, found on pottery of this era. - Jōmon pottery is said by many scholars to be the oldest ever discovered. - In the Middle Jōmon period (3000-2000 BCE), simple decorations on the pottery gave way to highly elaborate designs; flame vessels and crown-formed vessels are among the most distinctive forms from this period. - Clay figurines called dogū , often described as “goggle-eyed,” featured elaborate geometrical designs and short, stubby limbs; they are believed to have a religious or ritual significance. Key Terms - cord-markings : Impressions made with rope, found as decorations on pottery of the Jōmon period. - dogū : Clay figurines crafted by the Jōmon people of ancient Japan. Overview: Prehistoric Japan Prehistoric art of Japan begins with the Jōmon period (c. 10,000 BCE – 350 BCE). The Jōmon people are thought to have been the first settlers of Japan. Nomadic hunter-gatherers who later practiced organized farming and built cities, the Jōmon people are named for the “cord-markings”—impressions made by pressing rope into the clay before it was heated to approximately 600-900 degrees Celsius—that were found as decorations on pottery of this time. The term Jōmon was first applied to the pottery and the culture by American Edward Sylvester Morse. Jōmon pottery is said by many scholars to be the oldest ever discovered. Jōmon People and Their Art The Jōmon communities consisted of hundreds or even thousands of people who dwelt in simple houses of wood and thatch set into shallow earthen pits to provide warmth from the soil. They crafted lavishly decorated pottery storage vessels, clay figurines called dogū , and crystal jewels. Pottery Vessels The oldest examples of Jōmon pottery have flat bottoms, though pointed bottoms (meant to be held in small pits in the earth) became common later. In the Middle Jōmon period (3000-2000 BCE), simple decorations on the pottery (created with cord or through scratching) gave way to highly elaborate designs. So-called flame vessels, along with the closely related crown-formed vessels, are among the most distinctive forms from this period. Dogū Representative forms such as clay figurines of people and animals also appeared around this time. These figurines, called dogū , are often described as “goggle-eyed” and feature elaborate geometrical designs and short, stubby limbs. They are believed to have borne a religious or ritual significance. Ceramics and Bronze in the Yayoi Period Artifacts brought to the Japanese islands by the Yayoi people bore Chinese and Korean influences and ushered Japan into the Iron Age. Discuss how Chinese expansion under the Qin and Han Dynasties contributed to migrations to the Japanese archipelago during the Yayoi period. Key Points - The Yayoi people arrived in Japan around 350-300 BCE, bringing knowledge of wetland rice cultivation, the manufacture of copper weapons and bronze bells, and wheel-thrown, kiln-fired ceramics . - Artifacts brought to the islands at this time had a powerful effect upon the development of Japanese art by presenting objects to imitate and copy, such as bronze mirrors and swords in the Chinese and Korean styles . - Yayoi period pottery tends to be smoother than that of the earlier Jōmon period and more frequently features decorations made with sticks or combs rather than rope. - Three major symbols of Yayoi culture include the bronze mirror, the bronze sword, and the royal seal stone. Yayoi craft specialists also made bronze ceremonial bells, known as dōtaku . Key Terms - Iron Age : A level of culture in which man used iron and the technology of iron production. - dōtaku : Ceremonial bronze bells of the Yayoi people in Japan. - Qin and Han : The name of respective Chinese dynasties: Qin (221-206 BCE) and Han (206-220 CE) Overview: The Yayoi People The Yayoi period is an Iron Age era in the history of Japan traditionally dated 300 BCE to 300 CE. It is named after the neighborhood of Tokyo where archaeologists first uncovered artifacts and features from that era. Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new Yayoi pottery styles, the start of intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields, and a hierarchical class structure. Techniques in metallurgy based on the use of bronze and iron were also introduced to Japan in this period. The Yayoi followed the Jōmon period (13,000–400 BCE), and Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern Kyūshū to northern Honshū. Archaeological evidence supports the idea that during this time, an influx of farmers from the Asian continent to Japan (known now as the Yayoi people) absorbed or overwhelmed the native hunter-gatherer population. Chinese expansion under the Qin (221-206 BCE) and Han (206-220 CE) Dynasties is said to have been a primary impetus for migration to the Japanese archipelago . Influence on Art The Yayoi brought their knowledge of wetland rice cultivation, the manufacture of copper weapons and bronze bells (dōtaku), and wheel-thrown, kiln-fired ceramics. Along with introducing bronze casting and other technologies into the islands, the Yayoi people brought cultural influences from China and Korea. Their artifacts had a powerful effect on the development of Japanese art by presenting objects to imitate and copy, such as bronze mirrors and swords in the Chinese and Korean styles. Yayoi pottery was simply decorated and is thought to have been produced on a potter’s wheel, as opposed to poetry from the earlier Jōmon period which was produced by hand. Pottery from the Yayoi period also tends to be smoother than that of the Jōmon period and more frequently features decorations made with sticks or combs rather than rope. Yayoi pottery, burial mounds, and food preservation have been discovered to be very similar to the pottery of southern Korea, suggesting the Yayoi people originated in the Korean peninsula; some pieces of Yayoi pottery also clearly show the influence of Jōmon ceramics. Chinese influence on the Yayoi culture can be seen in the bronze and copper weapons and other objects of the Yayoi people, as well as irrigated paddy rice cultivation. Three major symbols of Yayoi culture include the bronze mirror, the bronze sword, and the royal seal stone. Yayoi craft specialists also made bronze ceremonial bells known as dōtaku. By the 1st century CE, Yayoi farmers began using iron agricultural tools and weapons. Grave Goods in the Kofun Period The Kofun period is the oldest era of recorded history in Japan, characterized by its earthen burial mounds. Locate the Kofun Period within Japan’s history of contact with China and the introduction of Buddhism Key Points - The Kofun period from 250 to 538 CE is the oldest era of recorded history in Japan. It is characterized by the Shinto culture that existed prior to the introduction of Buddhism . - During the Kofun period, the leader of a powerful clan won control over much of west Honshū and the northern half of Kyūshū, eventually establishing the Imperial House of Japan. - The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating from this era, whose size reflected the power and influence of the ruling classes. - The mounds contained large stone burial chambers and some were surrounded by moats. Unglazed pottery figures called Haniwa were often buried under the circumference of the kofun. - Kofun come in many shapes, but round and square are most common. A distinct style is the keyhole-shaped kofun with its square front and round back. Kofun range in size from several meters to over 400 meters in length. Key Terms - Shinto : The indigenous spirituality of the people of Japan. - Buddhism : The religion and philosophy founded by the Indian teacher Gautama Buddha. - kofun : The name of the earliest recorded period in Japanese history, named for the type of burial mounds dating from this era. Overview: The Kofun Period The Kofun period is the oldest era of recorded history in Japan, dating from around 250 to 538 CE. It followed the Yayoi period in Japanese history; the Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes referred to collectively as the Yamato period. The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating to this era. The close of the Kofun period saw the introduction of the Chinese system of writing as well as the widespread adoption of Buddhism. Kofun Culture The Kofun period is distinguished from the following Asuka period by several cultural elements.The Kofun period is characterized by the Shinto culture that existed prior to the introduction of Buddhism. Politically, the leader of a powerful clan won control over much of west Honshū and the northern half of Kyūshū, d eventually establishing the Imperial House of Japan. Kofun burial mounds on Tanegashima and two very old Shinto shrines on Yakushima suggest that these islands were the southern boundaries of the Yamato state. Its northernmost extent was as far north as Tainai in the modern Niigata Prefecture, where mounds associated with a person linked to the Yamato kingdom have been located. Kofun Burial Mounds Kofun (from Middle Chinese kú, meaning “ancient”, and bjun, meaning “burial mound”) are the burial mounds built for the people of the ruling class during the 3rd to 7th centuries in Japan. The Kofun period takes its name from these distinctive earthen mounds, which contained large stone burial chambers. Some were surrounded by moats. Kofun come in many shapes, but most commonly round and square. A distinct style is the keyhole-shaped kofun, with its square front and round back. Kofun range in size from several meters to over 400 meters in length, and unglazed pottery figures called Haniwa were often buried under the circumference of the structures. The oldest Japanese kofun is Hokenoyama Kofun located in Sakurai, Nara , which dates to the late 3rd century. In the Makimuku district of Sakurai, later keyhole kofuns (including Hashihaka Kofun and Shibuya Mukaiyama Kofun) were built around the early 4th century. The trend of the keyhole kofun first spread from Yamato to Kawachi (where very large kofun such as Daisenryō Kofun exist) and then throughout the country (with the exception of the Tōhoku region) in the 5th century. Keyhole kofun disappeared later in the 6th century, probably because of the drastic reformation which took place in the Yamato court; records suggest the introduction of Buddhism at this time. The last two great kofun are the Imashirozuka Kofun of Osaka, which is believed by current scholars to be the tomb of Emperor Keitai, and the Ikatoyama Kofun of Fukuoka, recorded in Fudoki of Chikugo to be the tomb of Iwai, the political archrival of Keitai. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Oukangatadoki. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oukangatadoki.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Japanese Prehistoric Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Prehistoric_Art. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Japanese Prehistoric Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Prehistoric_Art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - cord-markings. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/cord-markings. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - dogu. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/dogu. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 800px-DotakuBronzeBellLateYayoi3rdCenturyCE.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Yayoi_period#/media/File:DotakuBronzeBellLateYayoi3rdCenturyCE.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - YayoiJar. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:YayoiJar.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Yayoi Period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Yayoi_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Japanese Prehistoric Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Prehistoric_Art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - dotaku. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/dotaku. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Qin and Han. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin%20and%20Han. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Iron Age. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Iron_Age. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Furuichi kofun group. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Furuichi_kofun_group.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - NintokuTomb. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NintokuTomb.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Kofun period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofun_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Shinto. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinto. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Buddhism. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Buddhism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - kofun. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/kofun. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:30.095627	2020-05-01T17:33:16	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/13%3A_Japan_Before_1333_CE/13.01%3A_Prehistoric_Japan", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "13.1: Prehistoric Japan", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/13%3A_Japan_Before_1333_CE/13.02%3A_Buddhist_Art_in_Japan	13.2: Buddhist Art in Japan Japanese Buddhism The introduction of Buddhism to Japan resulted in the creation of temples, monasteries, paintings, and sculptures of extraordinary artistic achievement. Create a timeline of the introduction of Buddhism and the development of Buddhist art in Japan from the 6th through the 16th centuries Key Points - Before the introduction of Buddhism , Japan was already the seat of various cultural and artistic influences. - The Japanese were introduced to Buddhism in the 6th century, when missionary monks traveled to the islands with numerous scriptures and works of art. The Buddhist religion was adopted by the state in the following century. - Countless paintings and sculptures were made, often under governmental sponsorship. Indian, Hellenistic , Chinese, and Korean artistic influences blended into an original style characterized by realism and grace. - Japan developed extremely rich figurative art for the pantheon of Buddhist deities , sometimes combined with Hindu and Shinto influences. - Zen art developed in the 12th and 13th centuries and reached its apogee in the Muromachi Period (1337 – 1573) following the introduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from China. Key Terms - Dōgen Zenji : (1200 – 1253) A Japanese Zen Buddhist teacher born in Kyōto who founded the Sōtō school of Zen in Japan after travelling to China. - Zen : A philosophy of calm associated with the Buddhist denomination. - Silk Road : An extensive interconnected network of trade routes across Asia, North and Northeast Africa, and Europe, historically used by silk traders. - Myōan Eisai : (1141 – 1215) A Japanese Buddhist priest credited with bringing the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism and green tea from China to Japan. - haniwa : Terracotta clay figures made for ritual use and buried with the dead during the Kofun period (3rd to 6th century CE) of Japanese history. Buddhism Reaches Japan Before the introduction of Buddhism, Japan was already the seat of various cultural and artistic influences, from the abstract linear decorative art of the indigenous Neolithic Jōmon (10500 BCE to 300 BCE), to the pottery and bronze of the Yayoi period and the Haniwa art (terracotta clay figures used as funereal objects) of the Kofun period. The Japanese were introduced to Buddhism in the 6 th century CE, when missionary monks traveled to the islands with numerous scriptures and works of art. The Buddhist religion was adopted by the state in the following century. Located geographically at the end of the network of trade routes through Asian, Africa, and Europe known as the Silk Road , Japan was able to preserve many aspects of Buddhism while it was simultaneously disappearing in India and being suppressed in Central Asia and China. Buddhist Art From 711 BCE, numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital city of Nara , including a five-story pagoda , the Golden Hall of the Horyuji, and the Kōfuku-ji temple. Countless paintings and sculptures were made, often under government sponsorship. Indian, Hellenistic, Chinese, and Korean artistic influences blended into an original style characterized by its realism and grace. The creation of Japanese Buddhist art was especially fertile between the 8 th and 13 th centuries during the periods of Nara, Heian, and Kamakura. Japan developed extremely rich figurative art for the pantheon of Buddhist deities, sometimes combined with Hindu and Shinto influences. This art tends to be very varied, creative, and bold. Zen Art From the 12 th and 13 th centuries, art in Japan further developed through the introduction of Zen art, which reached its apogee in the Muromachi Period (1337 – 1573) following the introduction of Zen Buddhism by Dōgen Zenji and Myōan Eisai upon their return from China. Zen art is primarily characterized by original paintings (such as sumi-e) and poetry (especially haiku) that strive to express the true essence of the world through impressionistic and unadorned representations. The search for enlightenment in the moment also led to the development of other important derivative arts in Japan, such as the Chanoyu tea ceremony and the Ikebana art of flower arrangement. This evolution considers almost any human activity with a strong spiritual and aesthetic content as art, including activities related to combat techniques such as martial arts. Horyuji Temple The Hōryū-ji Temple, one of the most celebrated Japanese temples, reflects the spread of Buddhism and Chinese culture in Japan. Describe the creation, function, and characteristics of Prince Shōtoku’s Hōryū-ji temple. Key Points - The Hōryū-ji Temple embraces architectural influences ranging from the Eastern Han to the Northern Wei of China, as well as from the Three Kingdoms of Korea, particularly those of Baekje. - The temple was originally commissioned by Prince Shōtoku of the Asuka Period (c. 538 to 710 CE) and was dedicated to Yakushi Nyorai, the Buddha of healing, in honor of the prince’s father. - The original temple is believed to have been completed by 607 CE; after it was destroyed in 670, the temple was reconstructed but slightly reoriented in a northwest position around the year 711. - The current temple is made up of two areas: the Sai-in in the west and the Tō-in in the east. - The western part of the temple contains the Kondō (sanctuary hall) and a five-story pagoda . The Tō-in area holds the octagonal Yumedono Hall (also known as the Hall of Dreams). Key Terms - Prince Shōtoku : (February 7, 574 – April 8, 622) A semi-legendary regent and politician of the Asuka period in Japan who served under Empress Suiko and commissioned the celebrated Hōryū-ji Temple. - Kondō : Usually the main hall of a Buddhist temple (literally “golden hall”), which started to be used during the Asuka and Nara periods. - pagoda : An Asian religious building, especially a multistory Buddhist tower, erected as a shrine or temple. Hōryū-ji is one of the most celebrated temples in Japan, originally commissioned by Prince Shōtoku of the Asuka Period (c. 538 to 710 CE). It was originally called Ikaruga-dera (斑), a name that is still sometimes used. This first temple was completed around 607 CE. Hōryū-ji was dedicated to Yakushi Nyorai, the Buddha of healing, in honor of the prince’s father. The original temple, named by modern historians and archaeologists Wakakusa-garan (若), was lost to fire after a lightning strike in 670. The temple was reconstructed but slightly reoriented in a northwest position around 711. Characteristics of Hōryū-ji Temple The reconstructed buildings embrace architectural influences ranging from the Eastern Han to the Northern Wei of China, as well as from the Three Kingdoms of Korea, particularly the Baekje Kingdom. With its origin dating back to early 7 th century, the reconstruction has allowed Hōryū-ji to absorb and feature early Asuka period elements along with distinct elements only seen in Hōryū-ji, which were absent from the architecture of the following Nara period. The current temple is made up of two areas: the Sai-in in the west and the Tō-in in the east. The western part of the temple contains the Kondō (sanctuary hall) and a five-story pagoda. The Tō-in area holds the octagonal Yumedono Hall (also known as the Hall of Dreams) and sits 122 meters east of the Sai-in area. The complex also contains monk’s quarters, lecture halls, libraries, and dining halls. Distinguishing Features Certain features distinguish the precinct of Hōryu-ji from similar temple architecture. While most Japanese temples of the period were arranged like their Chinese and Korean prototypes—with the main gate, a pagoda, the main hall, and the lecture hall all in a straight line—the reconstructed Hōryū-ji breaks from those patterns by arranging the Kondō (main hall) and pagoda side-by side in the courtyard. Excavations at Yamada-dera, a lost temple dating back to 643, revealed corridors with thick horizontal poles placed in the windows at narrow intervals. By contrast, those at Hōryū-ji are thinner and placed at larger intervals. Major Asuka- style characteristics seen in Hōryu-ji and resembling designs found in the Yungang Grottoes (from the Northern Wei in China) include the railings decorated with a swastika pattern and the cved reentasis columns . Another notable Asuka-style element found only in Japan and with the only surviving originals in Hōryu-ji is the cloud-shape hybrid bracket supporter. These Asuka characteristics are not seen in later Nara period temples. Five-Story Pagoda The five-story pagoda, located in the Sai-in area and standing at 32.45 meters (122 feet), is one of the oldest wooden buildings in the world. The wood used in the pagoda’s center pillar is estimated through a dendrochronological analysis to have been felled in 594. The central pillar rests three meters below the surface of the massive foundation stone, stretching into the ground . At its base is enshrined what is believed to be a fragment of one of Buddha’s bones. Around it, four sculpted scenes from the life of the Buddha face north, east, south, and west. Although the pagoda is five-storied, it is not designed for visitors to climb inside but rather is designed to inspire people with its external view. Kondō The kondō, located side-by-side to the pagoda in Sai-in, is another one of the oldest wood buildings in existence. The hall measures 18.5 meters by 15.2 meters and has two stories, with roofs curved in the corners. Only the first story has a double roof; this was added later in the Nara period, with extra posts to hold up original first roof because it extended more than four meters past the building. The hall holds the famous Shaka Triad, bronze Yakushi and Amida Nyorai statues, and other national treasures . Yumedono Yumedono, or the Hall of Dreams, is one of the main constructions in the Tō-in area, built on the ground which was once Prince Shōtoku’s private palace, Ikaruga no miya. The present incarnation of this hall was built in 739 with the purpose of assuaging the Prince’s spirit. The hall acquired its present-day common name in the later Heian period, after a legend that says a Buddha arrived as Prince Shōtoku and meditated in a hall that existed here. The Todaiji The Tōdaiji is the most ambitious Buddhist temple complex of the Nara period in Japan. Discuss the “golden age” of art during the Nara Period, including temple-building such as the Tōdai-ji. Key Points - The Nara period in Japan (710 – 784 CE) marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state and is often portrayed as a golden age for art. - The cultural flowering during the Nara period was spawned by the transmission of Buddhism from contact with China and Korea. - The Japanese recognized the facets of Chinese culture that could profitably be incorporated into their own, which for the arts meant new technologies, new building techniques, more advanced methods of casting in bronze , and new techniques and media for painting. - Temple-building in the 8th century was focused around the Tōdaiji temple in Nara. - Constructed as the headquarters for a network of temples in each of the provinces, the Tōdaiji is the most ambitious religious complex erected in the early centuries of Buddhist worship in Japan. Key Terms - Nara : Period of Japanese history lasting from 710 to 784 CE, during which Japan emerged as a strong state and witnessed an artistic golden age. - Tōdai-ji : A Buddhist temple complex located in the city of Nara, Japan; its Great Buddha Hall (Daibutsuden) houses the world’s largest bronze statue of the Buddha Vairocana. Background: The Nara period The Nara period of the 8 th century—so named because the seat of Japanese government was located in the city of Nara from 710 until 784—is often portrayed as a golden age in Japanese history. The period marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state and was characterized by a cultural flowering. The transmission of Buddhism provided the initial impetus for contact between China, Korea, and Japan, and the Japanese recognized facets of Chinese culture that could profitably be incorporated into their own. These included a system for converting ideas and sounds into writing; historiography; complex theories of government, such as an effective bureaucracy; and, most important for the arts, new technologies, new building techniques, more advanced methods of casting in bronze, and new techniques and media for painting. The Tōdaiji Temple Temple-building in the 8 th century was focused around the Tōdaiji in Nara. Constructed as the headquarters for a network of temples in each of the provinces, the Tōdaiji is the most ambitious religious complex erected in the early centuries of Buddhist worship in Japan. Appropriately, the main Buddha hall, or Daibutsuden , was enshrined with the Rushana Buddha, a 16.2-meter (53-foot) Buddha completed in 752 that represents the essence of Buddhahood, just as the Tōdaiji represented the center for imperially sponsored Buddhism and its dissemination throughout Japan. Only a few fragments of the original statue survive, and the present hall and central Buddha are reconstructions from the Edo period. Clustered around the Daibutsuden on a gently sloping hillside are a number of secondary halls: the Hokke-dō (Lotus Sutra Hall), with its principal image; the Fukukenjaku Kannon (the most popular bodhisattva), crafted of dry lacquer (cloth dipped in lacquer and shaped over a wooden armature); the Kaidanin (Ordination Hall) with its magnificent clay statues of the Four Guardian Kings; and the storehouse, called the Shōsōin. This last structure is of great importance to art history as it stored the utensils used in the temple’s dedication ceremony in 752 and the eye-opening ritual for the Rushana image, as well as government documents and many secular objects owned by the Imperial family. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - ASURA detail Kohfukuji. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ASURA_detail_Kohfukuji.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Kofukuji0411. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kofukuji0411.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Buddhist art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_art%23Japan. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Dogen and Eisai. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogen%20and%20Eisai. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Haniwa. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Haniwa. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Zen. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Zen. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Silk Road. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Silk_Road. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 1280px-Horyu-ji36s3200.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Dry%C5%AB-ji#/media/File:Horyu-ji36s3200.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Horyu-ji kondo02 2000b. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horyu-ji_kondo02_2000b.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Horyu-ji06s3200. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horyu-ji06s3200.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - History of Japan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Japan%23Asuka_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kondo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kondo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Prince Shotoku. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20Shotoku. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - pagoda. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pagoda. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 800px-NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%8Ddai-ji#/media/File:NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - NaraTodaiji0252. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NaraTodaiji0252.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Nara. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nara. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Japanese art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of Japan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Japan%23Nara_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Horyu-ji. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Horyu-ji. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Todai-ji. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Todai-ji. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:30.196537	2020-05-01T17:33:17	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/13%3A_Japan_Before_1333_CE/13.02%3A_Buddhist_Art_in_Japan", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "13.2: Buddhist Art in Japan", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/13%3A_Japan_Before_1333_CE/13.03%3A_The_Heian_Period	13.3: The Heian Period Influence of Buddhism in the Heian Period The Heian period in Japan witnessed a flowering of art and architecture influenced by Esoteric and Pure Land Buddhism. Describe the Amida hall and images of the Amida Buddha portrayed in the art of Pure Land Buddhism Key Points - The Heian Period (794 – 1185 CE) is considered Japan’s “Golden Age,” a high point in Japanese culture that greatly influenced art and architecture. - Early Heian period sculptures inherited and modified late Nara period sculptural forms while developing new depictions of Esoteric Buddhist deities . During this time, wood also replaced bronze as the most common material for making Buddhist sculptures. - The central role of ritual in Japanese Esoteric Buddhism led to a flourishing of the religious arts in the Heian period. Religious paintings, mandalas , and statues provided practitioners with ways to contemplate Buddhist deities and concepts. - Pure Land Buddhism, offering salvation through belief in the Buddha of the Western Paradise, also influenced Japanese art. - The Kyoto nobility created a new form of Buddha hall, known as the Amida hall, which blends the secular with the religious and houses one or more Buddha images within a structure resembling the mansions of the nobility. - The golden Amida sculpture inside the famous Phoenix Hall was executed by the influential sculptor Jōchō, who used a new canon of proportions and the new sculptural technique of yosegi. - Yamato-e , considered the classical Japanese style , was first developed during the late Heian period and inspired by the Tang Dynasty Chinese “blue and green style” of landscape painting. Key Terms - yamato-e : A classical Japanese style of painting, first developed during the late Heian period and inspired by Tang Dynasty paintings. - Esoteric Buddhism : A complex and multifaceted system of Buddhist thought and practice that evolved over several centuries. - Raigō : An appearance of the Amida Buddha on a purple cloud at the time of one’s death, which gave rise to a type of Japanese painting (a raigō-zu) of a Buddha accompanied by bodhisattvas. - mandala : Any ritualistic geometric design symbolic of the universe used as an aid to meditation, particularly in Hinduism and Buddhism. - Saichō : (767 – 822) A Japanese Buddhist monk credited with founding the Tendai school of Buddhism based on the Chinese Tiantai school he was exposed to during his trip to Tang China beginning in 804. - Kūkai : (774–835) A Japanese monk, civil servant, scholar, poet, and artist; founder of the Shingon or “True Word” school of Buddhism. - Fujiwara : A powerful family of regents in Japan that originated when the founder, Nakatomi no Kamatari (614-669), was rewarded by Emperor Tenji with the honorific name. Background: The Heian Period In 784, the Japanese Emperor Kammu, threatened by the growing secular power of the Buddhist institutions in the city of Nara, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (Kyōto), which remained the imperial capital for the next 1,000 years. The Heian Period, as it came to be called, refers to the years between 794 and 1185 when the Kamakura shogunate was established at the end of the Genpei War. It is considered Japan’s “Golden Age,” a high point in Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. The period is also noted for the rise of the samurai class, which would eventually take power and start the feudal period of Japan. Influence of Esoteric Buddhism The Late Nara period saw the introduction of Esoteric Buddhism to Japan from China by Kūkai and Saichō, who founded the Shingon and Tendai schools. The Heian period witnessed a flowering of Buddhist art and architecture and the introduction of Esoteric Buddhism to Japan. Early Heian period sculptures inherited and modified late Nara period sculptural forms while developing new images to depict wrathful Esoteric deities. During this time, wood also replaced bronze as the most common material for making Buddhist sculptures. Kūkai impressed the emperors who succeeded Emperor Kammu and generations of Japanese, not only with his religious practices but also with his poetry, calligraphy , painting, and sculpture. Shingon Buddhist practice is based on various rituals, including the chanting of mantras , hand gestures (mudras), and meditation through visualization of mandalas. The central role of these rituals in Japanese Esoteric Buddhism led to a flourishing of the religious arts in the Heian period. Religious paintings, mandalas, and statues provided practitioners with ways to contemplate Buddhist deities and concepts. A famous example of a Shingon mandala is the Taizokai (Womb World) mandala. Part of the Mandala of the Two Realms, the Womb World is composed of 12 zones representing different dimensions of Buddha nature. In the center sits the Vairocana Buddha within the lotus of compassion, surrounded by attendant Buddhas and Bodhisattvas . The Shingon sect believed that all beings have an innate Buddha nature. Pure Land Buddhism and the Fujiwara Regency Pure Land Buddhism offers salvation through belief in Amida Buddha (the Buddha of the Western Paradise). This branch of Buddhism became popular in Japan during the Fujiwara regency (794–1185), named for the powerful clan that dominated Japanese politics in the middle Heian period. The Fujiwara family, then the most powerful in the country, ruled as regents for the Emperor, effectively becoming hereditary civil dictators. Formal trade with China ended, allowing for the development of indigenous cultural forms. The Fujiwara period was a time of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy, and the Kyoto nobility developed a society devoted to elegant aesthetic pursuits. The Amida Hall New types of images were developed to satisfy the devotional needs of the increasingly important Pure Land sects in the 10th century. They created a new form of Buddha hall known as the Amida hall, which blends the secular with the religious and houses one or more Buddha images within a structure resembling the mansions of the nobility. The Hō-ō-dō (Phoenix Hall, completed in 1053) of the Byōdō-in, a temple in Uji to the southeast of Kyoto, is one of the finest examples of Fujiwara Amida halls. It consists of a main rectangular structure flanked by two L-shaped wing corridors and a tail corridor, set at the edge of a large artificial pond. Inside, a single golden image of Amida (c. 1053) is installed on a high platform. Raigō Other popular images include the Raigō, which depicts the appearance of the Amida Buddha on a floating cloud along with his attendant celestial Bodhisattvas, Kannon and Seishi, at the time of one’s death. A fine example of this type of image is found in the Phoenix Hall, whose walls are decorated with small relief carvings. These works depict the host believed to have accompanied Amida when he descended from his celestial realm to gather the souls of believers at the moment of death and transport them in lotus blossoms to the Western Paradise. A famous early example of Raigō imagery dating from 1053 is painted on the interior of the Phoenix Hall doors of the Hō-ō-dō. It depicts the descent of the Amida Buddha and is one of the first examples of Yamato-e, a classical style of Japanese painting inspired by Tang dynasty paintings and fully developed by the late Heian period. It contains landscape elements such as softly rolling hills that seem to reflect the actual appearance of the scenery around Kyoto. Stylistically, the painting is deeply influenced by the Tang Dynasty Chinese “blue and green style” of landscape painting traditions. Amida Sculpture A growing sense of grace, refinement, and softness emerged in Amida-style Buddhist sculptures, which culminated in the work of Jōchō (d. 1057), a Japanese sculptor of the Heian period. Jōchō’s workshop in Kyoto perfected the Wayō or “Japanese style” of sculpture. He used a new canon of proportions along with a new technique, yosegi , in which a single image is carved from multiple pieces of wood joined from the inside. While this technique limited the amount of surface detail an artist could carve into each piece, it forced the sculptor to convey his intended message within these preset limits. This resulted in finer and more ephemeral pieces. Most importantly, it allowed several assistants to work on the sculpture at once, greatly speeding up the process. Jōchō’s sculptures were remarkable for their intricately carved halos and the kindness and compassion of their elegant facial expressions. Painting and Calligraphy in the Heian Period In the Heian period, a style of calligraphy and painting emerged that was unique to Japan. Evaluate the reasons for the emergence of a uniquely Japanese style of calligraphy during the Heian period Key Points - Soukou Shujitsu is regarded as the first text with a unique style of Japanese calligraphy . - In the last century of the Heian period, the horizontal, illustrated narrative handscroll known as emaki came to the fore. - Dating from about 1130, the Genji Monogatari Emaki, a famous illustrated Tale of Genji, represents the earliest surviving yamato-e handscroll and is considered one of the high points of Japanese painting. - 12 th -century emaki artists devised a system of pictorial conventions that convey the emotional content of each scene. In the second half of the century, a livelier style of continuous narrative illustration became popular. - The central role of ritual in Japanese Esoteric Buddhism led to a flourishing of religious painting and mandalas , which provided practitioners ways to contemplate Buddhist deities and concepts. A famous example is the Taizokai (Womb World) mandala. Key Terms - mandala : Any ritualistic geometric design symbolic of the universe, used as an aid to meditation, particularly in Hinduism and Buddhism. - kana syllabary : Syllabic Japanese scripts, a part of the Japanese writing system, that contrast with the logographic Chinese characters known in Japan as kanji (漢). - yamato-e : A style of Japanese painting inspired by Tang dynasty paintings and fully developed by the late Heian period; it is considered the classical Japanese style. - hanging scroll : One of the many traditional ways to display and exhibit Chinese painting and calligraphy, in which the work is displayed for short periods of time then rolled up and secured for storage. - handscroll : A traditional Asian roll of papyrus, parchment, or paper that has been written, drawn or painted upon, which unfolds horizontally so that the reader can view one section at a time while holding it. Calligraphy in the Heian Period In the Heian period, a style of calligraphy emerged that was unique to Japan. Writing had been popularized, and the kana syllabary was devised to deal with elements of pronunciation that could not be written with the borrowed Chinese characters. At the time, Japanese calligraphers still fitted the basic characters, called kanji (漢), into the squares laid out centuries before. Soukou Shujitsu is regarded as the first text that shows a style unique to Japanese calligraphy. The Tanka (短) poem below was written in 749 CE and shows some differences from Chinese calligraphy. The authentically Japanese wayō (和) style, or wayō-shodō (和), is attributed to Ono no Michikaze (894-966 CE), one of the so-called sanseki (三, “Three Brush Traces”), along with Fujiwara no Sukemasa and Fujiwara no Yukinari. The “Cry for noble Saichō “, a poem written by Emperor Saga on the occasion of Saichō’s death, was one of the examples of this transformation. Ono no Michikaze served as an archetype for the Shōren-in school, which later became the Oie style of calligraphy. The Oie style was used for official documents in the Edo period and was the prevailing style taught in terakoya schools of that time. Emaki In the last century of the Heian period, the horizontal, illustrated narrative handscroll known as emaki came to the fore. Dating from about 1130, the Genji Monogatari Emaki, a famous illustrated Tale of Genji , represents the earliest surviving yamato-e handscroll and is considered one of the high points of Japanese painting. Written about the year 1000 by Murasaki Shikibu, a lady-in-waiting to the Empress Akiko, the novel deals with the life and loves of Genji and the world of the Heian court after his death. The 12 th -century artists of the emaki devised a system of pictorial conventions that convey the emotional content of each scene. In the second half of the century, a livelier style of continuous narrative illustration became popular. The Ban Dainagon Ekotoba (late 12 th century), a scroll that deals with an intrigue at court, emphasizes figures in active motion depicted in rapidly executed brush strokes and thin but vibrant colors. Emaki also serve as some of the earliest and greatest examples of the otoko-e (“men’s pictures”) and onna-e (“women’s pictures”) styles of painting. There are many fine differences in the two styles, appealing to the perceived aesthetic preferences of the genders. Perhaps most easily noticeable are the differences in subject matter. Onna-e, epitomized by the Tale of Genji handscroll, typically deals with court life, particularly the court ladies, and with romantic themes. Otoko-e, on the other hand, often recorded historical events, particularly battles. The Siege of the Sanjō Palace (1160), depicted in the “Night Attack on the Sanjō Palace” section of the Heiji Monogatari handscroll, is a famous example of this style. Mandalas The central role of ritual in Japanese Esoteric Buddhism led to a flourishing of religious painting and mandalas in the Heian period. These works provided practitioners with ways to contemplate Buddhist deities and concepts. A famous example of a mandala from the Shingon school of Buddhism is the Taizokai (Womb World) mandala. Part of the Mandala of the Two Realms, the Womb World is composed of 12 zones representing different dimensions of Buddha nature. The Shingon sect believed that all beings have an innate Buddha nature. In the center sits the Vairocana Buddha within the lotus of compassion, surrounded by attendant Buddhas and Bodhisattvas . - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - taizokai.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taizokai.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Byodo-in Uji01pbs2640. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Byodo-in_Uji01pbs2640.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - AmidaRaigo. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AmidaRaigo.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Art of Esoteric Buddhism. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : www.boundless.com/users/313504/textbooks/storia-arte/art-of-south-and-southeast-asia-before-1200-chinese-and-korean-art-before-1279-japan-before-1333-4/heian-period-56/art-of-esoteric-buddhism-310-8317/. License : CC BY: Attribution - Japanese art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_art%23Heian_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Fujiwara clan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujiwara_clan. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Buddhist art in Japan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_art_in_Japan%23Heian_period_.28794_-_1185.29. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Fujiwara. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujiwara. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Raigo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Raigo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - yamato-e. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/yamato-e. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - taizokai.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taizokai.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Soukou_Shujitsu.jpg. Provided by : Wiki Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Soukou_Shujitsu.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Genji emaki azumaya. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Genji_emaki_azumaya.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Japanese art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_art%23Heian_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Japanese calligraphy. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_calligraphy. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - kana syllabary. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/kana%20syllabary. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/handscroll. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/hanging-scroll. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:30.369095	2020-05-01T17:33:20	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/13%3A_Japan_Before_1333_CE/13.03%3A_The_Heian_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "13.3: The Heian Period", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/13%3A_Japan_Before_1333_CE/13.04%3A_The_Kamakura_Period	13.4: The Kamakura Period Art of Pure Land Buddhism The art of the Kamakura period reflected the introduction of the Pure Land School of Buddhism, which depicted the Amida Buddha. Compare and contrast the art of the Pure Land, Zen, and Kei schools of the Kamakura period. Key Points - The Kamakura period was a period of crises in which the control of the country moved from the imperial aristocracy to the samurai; it was also, however, a time when Buddhism greatly flourished. - The Kamakura period saw the introduction of the Amidist Pure Land schools of Buddhism, which emphasized salvation through faith in Amitabha . - The Kamakura period favored more realistic and naturalistic art, a style exemplified by the sculpture of the Kei School. - Among sculptors of the Kei school, Unkei is the most famous and accomplished; while his early works are fairly traditional, many show a flair for realism different from anything Japan had seen before. Some of the most popular paintings of the Kamakura period depict an ascending Amida Buddha. Key Terms - busshi : Japanese sculptor specializing in Buddha statues. - Lotus Sutra : A popular Sanskrit treatise that is the basis of the many forms of Buddhism worldwide. - Amitabha : The principal Buddha in the Pure Land sect, a branch of Buddhism practiced mainly in East Asia. Background: The Kamakura Period The Kamakura period in Japanese history (1185–1333 CE) was a period of crises in which control of the country moved from the imperial aristocracy to the samurai. The ascension of Minamoto Yoritomo to the title of Shogun following the Hōgen and Heiji rebellions and the victory of the Minamoto clan over the Taira marked the beginning of the Kamakura period. The era is sometimes called “the age of the warriors”; it is also, however, a time when exchanges with China’s Song dynasty continued and Buddhism greatly flourished. Schools of Buddhism This period saw the introduction of the two schools that had perhaps the greatest impact on the country: the Amidist Pure Land schools and the more philosophical Zen schools. The Amidist Pure Land schools, promulgated by evangelists such as Genshin and articulated by monks such as Hōnen, emphasized salvation through faith in Amitabha and remain the largest Buddhist sect today in Japan (and throughout Asia). The more philosophical Zen schools were promulgated by monks such as Eisai and Dogen and emphasized liberation through the insight of meditation. They were adopted equally by the upper classes and had a profound impact on Japanese culture . Pure Land Buddhism and Art Pure Land Buddhism had substantial influence over the art of the Kamakura period. The Kei School The Kamakura period favored more realistic and naturalistic art, a style exemplified by the sculpture of the Kei School. Based in Nara , the Kei School was dominant in Buddhist sculpture in Japan beginning around 1200 and into the 14th century, remaining influential until the 19th century. The Kei school was developed and led by the Buddhist sculptor Jōchō, his successor Kakujō, and Kakujō’s son Raijō, the leading sculptors of the preceding generations. Unkei Among sculptors of the Kei school, Unkei is the most famous and considered the most accomplished sculptor of the period. Unkei’s early works are fairly traditional, similar in style to pieces by his father, Kōkei. However, the sculptures he produced for the Tōdai-ji , a Buddhist temple complex in Nara, show a flair for realism different from anything Japan had seen before. Amida Buddha Sculptures Some of the most popular paintings of the Kamakura period depict an ascending Amida Buddha. The main tenet of Pure Land Buddhism is that chanting the name of Amida could lead to a reincarnation in the “pure land.” Thus, scrolls of Amida were hung in the rooms of people who were dying; it was believed they could be saved by chanting the Amida mantra . Japanese Painting and Sculpture in the Kamakura Period The Kamakura Period was marked by a continuation of Heian painting traditions and new innovations in sculpture. Describe the painting, sculpture, and calligraphy of Zen Buddhism during the Kamakura Period. Key Points - A deepening pessimism resulting from the civil wars of 12th century Japan increased the appeal of the search for salvation; as a result, various schools of Buddhism grew in popularity. - Zen Buddhism, which stresses a connection to the spiritual rather than the physical, was very influential in the art of Kamakura Japan. - Painting from the Kamakura Period largely continued the traditions of the previous Heian Period, including emaki handscrolls , the yamato-e style of painting, and painted mandalas . - Emaki or painted hand scrolls usually encompassed religious, historical, or illustrated novels, accomplished in the style of the earlier Heian period. - The Kamakura period is widely regarded as a renaissance era in Japanese sculpture, spearheaded by the sculptors of the Buddhist Kei school. - Among the sculptors of this era, the sculptor Unkei is the most famous and accomplished; his work exhibited a realism and humanism not seen in previous works. - The Kei school was responsible for the restoration of the temples of Nara and Kyoto, which were destroyed during warfare in 1180-1185. Key Terms - Nichiren Sect : A branch of Buddhism based on the Lotus Sutra, which teaches that all people have an innate Buddha nature and are therefore inherently capable of attaining enlightenment in their current form and present lifetime. - Rinzai : A school of Zen buddhism in Japan, based on sudden enlightenment though koans; for that reason, it’s also known as the “sudden school”. - Ji : A branch of Pure Land Buddhism stressing the importance of reciting the name of Amida, nembutsu (念). Japan suffered a series of civil wars in the late 12 th century between several rival families. These wars eventually led to the rise of the feudalistic Kamakura shogunate . In a time of disunity and violence, deepening pessimism increased the appeal of the search for salvation. Kamakura was the age of the great popularization of Buddhism, and the reestablishment of cultural ties with China spawned the growth of Zen Buddhism and Pure Land Buddhism (Jōdo shū Shinran) as the two major branches of Japanese Buddhism. These two new sects dominated the artwork produced during this period. The Rise of Buddhism During this time, a number of monks left the Tendai sect and founded separate Buddhist sects of their own. These included: - Hōnen, founder of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism - Shinran, disciple of Hōnen and founder of the Jōdo Shinshū sect - Ippen, founder of the Ji sect, which emphasized devotion to Amida Buddha through an ecstatic dance - Dōgen, founder of the Sōtō school of Zen - Eisai, founder of the Rinzai school of Zen - Nichiren, founder of the Nichiren Sect , which emphasized devotion to the Lotus Sutra , a manual of Buddhist aphorisms presented as a discourse from the Buddha The older Buddhist sects, such as Shingon, Tendai, and the early schools of the Nara period, continued to thrive through the Kamakura period and even experienced some measure of revival. However, the older schools were partially eclipsed as the newer Kamakura schools increased in popularity and found followers among the new Kamakura government and its samurai. Zen was not introduced as a separate school until the 12 th century, when Myōan Eisai traveled to China and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which eventually perished. Decades later, Nanpo Shōmyō (南) (1235–1308) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Otokan lineage, the most influential and only surviving lineage of Rinzai in Japan. In 1215 Dōgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai’s, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master Tiantong Rujing. After his return, Dōgen established the Sōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong. The Sōtō school was further expanded by Keizan. Sōtō priests say that if Dogen is the father of Japanese Sōtō Zen, Keizan Jokin (1268-1325) is its mother. Keizan’s Soji-ji temple was a rival to Dogen’s Eihei-ji. Others say that Dōgen gave Sōtō Zen “high religious ideals” while Keizan ensured Sōtō’s survival. Painting in the Kamakura Period Painting from the Kamakura Period largely continued the traditions of the previous Heian Period. As most of the paintings in both the Heian and Kamakura periods were religious in nature, the vast majority were by anonymous artists. Painted mandalas were common, and many were created as hanging scrolls and murals on the walls of temples. The classic yamato-e style of Japanese painting, which gained significance in the Heian period, was continued throughout this era. Stylistically, painting included landscape elements such as soft rolling hills that seem to reflect something of the actual appearance of the landscape of western Japan, and works continued to be informed by Tang Dynasty Chinese “blue and green style” landscape painting traditions. Paintings were used to decorate sliding doors (fusuma) and folding screens (byōbu). In addition, the emaki format of painting, consisting of long illustrated hand scrolls, remained popularity. The Kamakura Period witnessed the production of a large number of emaki, usually encompassing religious, historical, or illustrated novels accomplished in the style of the earlier Heian period. Kamakura Sculpture While painting continued to develop throughout the period, sculpture was by far the most popular art form. The Kamakura period is widely regarded as a renaissance era in Japanese sculpture, spearheaded by the sculptors of the Buddhist Kei school. Based in Nara, the Kei school was the dominant school in Japanese Buddhist sculpture into the 14 th century. Artist of the Kei school succeeded the technique “yosegi-zukuri” (woodblock construction) and developed a new sculptural style marked by realism, solidity, and representation of movement and emotion. These artists studied early Nara period masterpieces and Chinese Song dynasty sculptures and paintings to influence their work. Sculptors of the time often worked for the Kamakura shogunate and other military clans, producing Buddhist sculptures as well as portrait sculptures. The Kei school was responsible for the restoration of the temples of Nara and Kyoto, which had been destroyed during warfare in 1180-1185. Among the sculptors of this era, the sculptor Unkei is the most famous and accomplished. His most famous works include a pair of Kongō-rikishi colossal statues in the Tōdai-ji temple of Nara, along with the elaborate portraiture-like statues of Indian priests in Kōfuku-ji. Unkei had six sons who were also sculptors, and their work, like his, is imbued with the new kind of realism and humanism. Tankei, the eldest son and a brilliant sculptor, became the head of his father’s studio. Kōshō, the 4th son, produced a remarkable sculpture of the 10th-century Japanese Buddhist teacher Kuya (903-972). Kaikei was another famous sculptor of the time, a collaborator of Unkei, and a devout adherent of Pure Land sect of Buddhism. He worked closely with the priest Chōgen (1121–1206) on the reconstruction of the Tōdai-ji temple in Nara. Many of his figures are more idealized than those of Unkei and his sons and are characterized by a beautifully finished surface, richly decorated with pigments and gold. Perhaps his most important work is Amitabha Triad of Ono Jōdo-ji (1195). Japanese Calligraphy in the Kamakura Period Japanese calligraphy in the Kamakura Period was influenced by the principles of Zen Buddhism. Discuss the purposes of Japanese calligraphy Key Points - After the invention of Hiragana and Katakana , the unique Japanese syllabaries, a distinctive Japanese writing system developed, and calligraphers produced styles intrinsic to Japan. - Japanese calligraphy of the Kamakura Period both influenced and was influenced by Zen thought. With the rise of the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism , a less technical style of calligraphy appeared, representative of Zen attitudes. - Calligraphy of this era was exemplified in the works of Musō Soseki (in the sosho style), Shūhō Myōcho (the founder of Daitoku-ji in Kyoto), and Fujiwara no Shunzei and Fujiwara no Teika (in the wayō style). - Through Zen, Japanese calligraphy absorbed a distinctive aesthetic often symbolized by the ensō , or circle of enlightenment . Key Terms - Katakana : A Japanese syllabary originating from 800 CE and one component of the Japanese writing system along with hiragana, kanji, and in some cases the Latin script (known as romaji). - Hiragana : A Japanese syllabary originating from 800 CE and one component of the Japanese writing system, along with katakana, kanji, and in some cases rōmaji (the Latin-script alphabet). Japanese calligraphy is a form of artistic writing in the Japanese language. For many years, the most esteemed calligrapher in Japan was Wang Xizhi, a Chinese calligrapher dating to the 4th century; however, after the invention of Hiragana and Katakana, the Japanese unique syllabaries, a distinctive Japanese writing system developed, and calligraphers produced styles intrinsic to Japan. Calligraphy in the Kamakura Period Various cultural and religious influences contributed to the rise of Japanese calligraphy during the Kamakura period. Background: Culture and Politics in the Kamakura Period The ascension of Minamoto Yoritomo to the title of Shogun following the Hōgen and Heiji rebellions and the victory of the Minamoto clan over the Taira marked the beginning of the Kamakura period (1185–1333 CE). The era is sometimes referred to as “the age of the warriors,” with a broad transition of influence from court to the military establishment. However, it was also a time when exchanges with China of the Song dynasty continued and Buddhism flourished. Zen Calligraphy Japanese calligraphy of the Kamakura Period both influenced and was influenced by Zen thought. With the rise of the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism, a less technical style of calligraphy appeared, representative of Zen attitudes. This was exemplified in the works of Musō Soseki, who wrote in a refined sosho style, or Shūhō Myōcho (better known as Daito Kokushi), the founder of Daitoku-ji in Kyoto. In terms of wayō (和様) style of calligraphy, the works of Fujiwara no Shunzei and Fujiwara no Teika are considered outstanding examples of the late Heian and early Kamakura Periods. Zen monks such as Shunjo studied in China, and the copybooks that he brought with him were highly influential for the karayō tradition of calligraphy, expressing a clear kaisho style. Other monks were also influential during this era, including Rankei Doryū, who founded the Kenchō-ji temple in Kamakura where many of his works have been preserved. Technique In accordance with this school of Buddhist thought, for any particular piece of paper the calligrapher has but one chance to create with the brush. The brush strokes cannot be corrected, and lack of confidence will show up in the work. The calligrapher therefore must concentrate and be fluid in execution. The brush was believed to write a statement about the calligrapher at a certain moment in time. Through Zen, Japanese calligraphy absorbed a distinctive aesthetic often symbolized by the ensō, or circle of enlightenment. Zen calligraphy is practiced by Buddhist monks and most shodō practitioners. To write Zen calligraphy with mastery, the mind must be cleared and the letters allowed to flow naturally. This state of mind was known as the mushin (無 “no mind state”) by the Japanese philosopher Nishida Kitaro. It is based on the principles of Zen Buddhism, which stress a connection to the spiritual rather than the physical. Before Japanese tea ceremonies (which are connected to Zen Buddhism), one looks at a work of shodō to clear the mind as an essential preparatory step. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Unkei Rokuharamitsuji. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unkei_Rokuharamitsuji.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 800px-Kofukuji_Hokuendo_Muchaku_Unkei.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Unkei#/media/File:Kofukuji_Hokuendo_Muchaku_Unkei.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Unkei. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Unkei. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kei School. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kei_school. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Buddhist art in Japan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_art_in_Japan. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Japanese calligraphy. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_calligraphy. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Buddhism in Japan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - busshi. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/busshi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Amitabha. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Amitabha. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lotus Sutra. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Lotus_Sutra. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kaikei_ZIZO_BOSATSU_KSITIGARBHA.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaikei#/media/File:Kaikei_ZIZO_BOSATSU_KSITIGARBHA.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Nio guardians by Unkei in Nara. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nio_guardians_by_Unkei_in_Nara.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Nio. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nio. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Buddhist art in Japan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_art_in_Japan. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kamakura period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamakura_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Zen. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen%23Kamakura_.281185-1333.29. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Japanese calligraphy. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_calligraphy. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Japanese sculpture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_sculpture%23Kamakura_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Japanese calligraphy. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_calligraphy. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Rinzai. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Rinzai. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ji. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nichiren Sect. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nichiren%20Sect. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - [email protected] . Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muso_Soseki_3.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Enso.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ens%C5%8D#/media/File:Enso.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Enso. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ens%C5%8D. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kamakura Period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamakura_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Japanese calligraphy. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_calligraphy. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:30.477440	2020-05-01T17:33:23	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/13%3A_Japan_Before_1333_CE/13.04%3A_The_Kamakura_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "13.4: The Kamakura Period", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/14%3A_Native-American_Art_Before_1300_CE	14: Native-American Art Before 1300 CE Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52957 Boundless Boundless 14.1: The New World 14.2: Mesoamerica 14.3: South America 14.4: North America	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:30.560109	2020-05-01T17:29:53	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/14%3A_Native-American_Art_Before_1300_CE", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "14: Native-American Art Before 1300 CE", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/14%3A_Native-American_Art_Before_1300_CE/14.01%3A_The_New_World	14.1: The New World The New World Indigenous visual arts traditions in the Americas span thousands of years, representing cultures from Mesoamerica to the Arctic. Gain an appreciation for the breadth and diversity of indigenous peoples and cultures of the Americas Key Points - The New World refers to the western hemisphere, especially the Americas, after the European “age of discovery” beginning in the early 16th century. The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian (before European contact) inhabitants of North America, Mesoamerica , and South America as well as Greenland. - Scientists believe that the most recent migration of humans from Eurasia to the Americas took place around 12,000 years ago via a land bridge that connected the two continents. - Indigenous populations across the Americas created monumental architecture, large-scale cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. - Indigenous Americans also created pottery, paintings, jewelry, weaving and textiles, sculptures , basketry, carvings, beadwork, and other objects that comprise a major category in world art history. Key Terms - Mesoamerica : A region and cultural area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica, where pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries. - pre-Columbian : The inhabitants, societies, and culture of the Americas prior to European contact, colonization, and influence; literally “pre-(Christopher)Columbus.” - Paleo-Indians : The first people to inhabit the Americas from Eurasia more than 11,000 years ago. - New World : The term used by Europeans to describe the western hemisphere, specifically the Americas, during the “age of discovery” beginning in the early 16th century. - indigenous peoples : People defined in international or national legislation as having a set of specific rights based on their historical ties to a particular territory, and their cultural or historical distinctiveness from other populations that are often politically dominant. The New World refers to the western hemisphere, especially the Americas, which was almost entirely unknown to Europeans before the “age of discovery” beginning in the early 16th century. The Italian explorer Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was one of the earliest and most well-known of these European explorers; the first of his four famous voyages from Spain to the Americas began in 1492. The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North America, Mesoamerica, and South America as well as Greenland. There are almost as many terms for indigenous people in the Americas as there are geographic regions. For example, “pueblos indígenas” is a common term in Spanish-speaking countries such as Mexico, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. “Aborigen” is used in Argentina; “Amerindian” is used in Guyana. Indigenous peoples are commonly known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, which includes First Nations, Inuit , and Métis peoples. Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaskan Natives. Scientists believe that migrations of humans from Eurasia (the combined continental landmass of Europe and Asia) to the Americas first took place via Beringia, a land bridge which formerly connected the two continents across what is now the Bering Strait. The most recent migration probably took place around 12,000 years ago, but the earliest period remains somewhat of a mystery. These early Paleo-Indians soon spread throughout the continent, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. According to the oral histories of many indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living there since their genesis, represented in a wide range of traditional creation stories. Indigenous Cultures While some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers — and many, especially in Amazonia, still are — many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas. While some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions, the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale cities, chiefdoms (with hierarchies based on kinship), states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by indigenous Americans, and some countries have sizable populations, including Belize, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru. At least a thousand different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as Quechua languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, and Nahuatl, count their speakers in millions. Many indigenous people also maintain aspects of their traditional cultural practices, including religion, social organization, and subsistence economies. Some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western society. Cultural practices in the Americas seem to have been shared mostly within geographical zones where unrelated peoples adopted similar technologies and social organizations. An example of such a cultural area is Mesoamerica, where millennia of coexistence and shared development among the peoples of the region produced a fairly homogeneous culture with complex agricultural and social patterns. Another well-known example is the North American plains where until the 19th century, Native American groups such as Blackfoot, Crow,and Sioux existed as nomadic hunter-gatherers (primarily buffalo hunting). Indigenous visual arts traditions in the Americas span thousands of years, representing cultures from Mesoamerica to the Arctic. Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas comprise a major category in world art history. Their contributions include pottery, paintings, jewelry, weavings and textiles, sculptures, basketry, carvings, and beadwork. Much of this artwork provides insight into the values , beliefs, and ceremonial rituals of early cultures of the Americas. In the following chapter, we will examine in detail the artworks of indigenous groups throughout North and South America prior to 1300. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Map_of_America_by_Sebastian_Munster.JPG. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_America_by_Sebastian_Munster.JPG . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramics_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Mesoamerica. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerica . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of Mesoamerica (Paleo-Indian). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Mesoamerica_(Paleo-Indian) . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_arts_by_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramics_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas%23Culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - New World. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:30.632496	2020-05-01T17:33:24	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/14%3A_Native-American_Art_Before_1300_CE/14.01%3A_The_New_World", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "14.1: The New World", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/14%3A_Native-American_Art_Before_1300_CE/14.02%3A_Mesoamerica	14.2: Mesoamerica Cultures of Mesoamerica Mesoamerica was dominated by three cultures in the Pre-Classical (up to 200 CE) to Post-Classical periods (circa 1580 CE): the Olmec, Maya, and Aztec. Identify distinctive trends and materials in each of these civilization’s art production Key Points - The Olmec people are known for extraordinarily detailed jade figurines and colossal heads of rulers made of basalt. - Mayan culture achieved an advanced system of hieroglyphic writing, a sophisticated calendar, and a productive system of art patronage . - The Mayan civilization rose very quickly. Although much of its art was lost to the Spanish Conquest in the 16th century, many stone and wood sculptures that attest to the Mayan’s distinctive religious beliefs still survive. Key Terms - stelae : Upright stone slabs or columns typically bearing a commemorative inscription or relief design, often serving as gravestones. (singular: stela) - jade : An ornamental rock with green and blue properties. - Mesoamerica : A pre-Columbian cultural region extending from the southern part of Mexico to an area that comprises some parts of the countries of Central America. - hieroglyphic : A type of writing consisting of hieroglyphs, a largely pictorial character of the Ancient Egyptian writing system. Mesoamerica is a region in the Americas that extends from central Mexico to northern Costa Rica. Three cultures dominated the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica: the Olmec, Maya, and Aztec civilizations. Olmec Culture The Olmec civilization, which flourished from 1200–400 BCE, defines the Pre- Classical period; the Olmecs are generally considered the forerunner of all Mesoamerica cultures including the Maya and Aztecs. Primarily centered in the modern states of Tabasco and Veracruz in the Gulf of Mexico, the Olmec people are known for creating an abundance of small and extraordinarily detailed jade figurines. The figurines typically exhibit complex shapes such as human figures, human-animal composites of deities and gods, and animals like cats and birds. Although we don’t know the specific purpose of these jade objects, their presence in some Olmec graves suggests they served a religious purpose in addition to being signs of wealth and goods for trade. The Olmec are also known for building massive stone sculptures, many of which were discovered at La Venta in the modern Mexican state of Tabasco. Made from basalt rock from the Tuxtla mountains to the north, the Olmec used this rock to create altars, stelae , and colossal heads. Each head is rendered as a distinct individual and is thought to resemble an Olmec ruler. Each ruler’s personality is represented in the distinct headdresses that adorn the sculptures’ heads. Mayan Culture Mayan culture peaked during the Classical period (ca. 200–900 CE) and featured complex organization of large agricultural communities ruled by monarchs. They built imposing pyramids , temples, palaces, and administrative structures in densely populated cities in southern Mesoamerica. The Maya had the most advanced hieroglyphic writing in Mesoamerica and the most sophisticated calendrical system. In Mayan culture, we also see one of the earliest systems of art patronage. Kings and queens employed full-time artists in their courts, many of whom signed their work. It’s thus unsurprising that the most common motifs in Mayan art are mortal rulers and supernatural beings. In Palenque, Mexico (a prominent Mayan city in the Classical period), the ruler Lord Pakal commissioned a grouping of large structures that stand on high ground in the middle of the town. One of those buildings, the Temple of the Inscriptions, is a nine-level pyramid that is 75 feet high. The layers of the structure probably reflect the Mayan belief that the underworld had nine levels. Inscriptions line the back wall of the temple, giving the building its name. Aztec Culture Mayan civilization was in decline by the time of the Spanish Conquest in the early 16th century, and by then the Aztecs controlled much of Mexico. The rise of the Aztec was quick. Once a migratory people, they arrived in the Basin of Mexico in the 13th century where they eventually settled on an island in Lake Texcoco; they called their new home Tenochtitlan. In only a few centuries, the Aztecs aggressively expanded their territory and transformed Tenochtitlan into a capital so grand that the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes remarked on its beauty en route to invade the city in November 1519. Metalwork was a particular skill of the Aztecs. Unfortunately, very few examples of their characteristic small gold and silver objects survive. When the Spanish arrived, most were melted down for currency. Stone sculpture and wood figurines fared much better during the Conquest. Aztec sculpture, most of which took the form of human figures carved from stone and wood, were not religious idols as one might suspect. Instead of containing the spirit of a deity, monumental sculptures were made to “feed” the deities with blood and precious objects in order to keep the gods, who resided elsewhere in the temples, happy. These sculptures are the source of stories told by Spanish conquistadors of huge statues splattered with blood and encrusted with jewels and gold. Colossal Heads of the Olmec The Olmec culture of the Gulf Coast of Mexico produced the first major Mesoamerican art and is particularly known for the creation of colossal stone heads. Describe the colossal stone heads made by the Olmecs Key Points - The Olmec built large cities with ceremonial centers. They also made small sculptures and figurines from many types of material. Using huge basalt boulders transported from mountains in another region, the Olmec produced at least 17 sculptures of human heads. - The monuments are thought to represent Olmec rulers because of their distinct facial features and adornments. - The heads date from between 1500 and 400 BCE. - The only example of a colossal head found in a region outside the Olmec’s domain is at Takalik Abaj in Guatemala. Key Terms - Olmec : Ancient pre-Columbian people living in the tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in roughly the modern-day states of Veracruz and Tabasco. - earspools : Cylindrical earrings that pierce the earlobe. - Preclassic period : Also known as the Formative period, dating roughly from as early as 1500 BCE to about 400 BCE. The First Major Mesoamerican Art The art of the Olmec, which emerged during the preclassic period along the Gulf of Mexico, was the first major Mesoamerican art. Across the swampy coastal areas of the modern Mexican states of Veracruz and Tabasco, the Olmec constructed ceremonial centers on raised earth mounds. These centers were filled with objects made from materials including jade , clay, basalt, and greenstone. Most of these objects were figurines or sculptures that resembled both human and animal subjects. While Olmec figurines are found abundantly in sites throughout the Formative period, monumental works of basalt sculpture, including colossal heads, altars, and seated figures are the most recognizable feature of this culture . The huge basalt rocks for the large sculptures were quarried at distant sites and transported to Olmec centers such as San Lorenzo and La Venta. The colossal heads range in height from 5 to 12 feet and portray adult males wearing close-fitting caps with chin straps and large, round earspools . The fleshy faces have almond-shaped eyes, flat, broad noses, thick, protruding lips, and downturned mouths. Each face has a distinct personality, suggesting that they represent specific individuals. These massive basalt boulders were transported from the Sierra de los Tuxtlas Mountains of Veracruz. When originally displayed in Olmec centers, the heads were arranged in lines or groups; however, the method used to transport the stone to these sites remains unclear. Given the enormous weight of the stones and the manpower required to transport them over large distances, it is probable that the colossal portraits represent powerful Olmec rulers. The discovery of a colossal head at Tres Zapotes in the nineteenth century spurred the first archaeological investigations of Olmec culture by Matthew Stirling in 1938. Seventeen confirmed examples are traced to four sites within the Olmec heartland on the Gulf Coast of Mexico. Most colossal heads were sculpted from spherical boulders, but two from San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán were recarved from massive stone thrones. An additional monument at Takalik Abaj in Guatemala is a throne that may have been carved from a colossal head. This is the only known example from outside the Olmec heartland. Dating the monuments remains difficult because of the movement of many from their original contexts prior to archaeological investigation. Most have been dated to the Early Preclassic (or Formative) period (1500–1000 BCE) with some to the Middle Preclassic (1000–400 BCE) period. The smallest weighs six tons, while the largest is estimated to weigh 40 to 50 tons, although it was abandoned and left unfinished close to the source of its stone. Teotihuacan At its height, Teotihuacan was one of the largest cities in the world with a population of 200,000. It was a primary center of commerce and manufacturing. Understand the importance of Teotihuacan as a religious, commercial, and art historical center Key Points - The name Teotihuacan means Gathering Place of the Gods. Key Terms - taludtablero : A design characteristic of Mayan architecture at Teotihuacan in which a sloping talud at the base of a building supports a wall-like tablero, where ornamental painting and sculpture are usually placed. Located some 30 miles northeast of present-day Mexico City, Teotihuacan experienced a period of rapid growth early in the first millennium CE. By 200 CE, it emerged as a significant center of commerce and manufacturing, the first large city-state in the Americas. At its height between 350 and 650 CE, Teotihuacan covered nearly nine miles and had a population of about 200,000, making it one of the largest cities in the world. One reason for its dominance was its control of the market for high-quality obsidian. This volcanic stone, made into tools and vessels , was traded for luxury items such as the green feathers of the quetzal bird, used for priestly headdresses, and the spotted fur of the jaguar, used for ceremonial garments. The people of Teotihuacan worshipped deities that were recognizably similar to those worshipped by later Mesoamerican people, including the Aztecs, who dominated central Mexico at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Among these are the Rain or Storm God (god of fertility, war, and sacrifice), known to the Aztecs as Tlaloc, and the Feathered Serpent, known to the Maya as Kukulcan and to the Aztecs as Quetzalcoatl. Teotihuacan’s principal monuments include the Pyramid of the Sun, the Pyramid of the Moon, and the Ciudadela (Spanish for fortified city center), a vast sunken plaza surrounded by temple platforms. The city’s principal religious and political center, the Ciudadela could accommodate an assembly of more than 60,000 people. Its focal point was the pyramidal Temple of the Feathered Serpent. This seven-tiered structure exhibits the taludtablero construction that is a hallmark of the Teotihuacan architectural style . The sloping base, or talud , of each platform supports a vertical tablero , or entablature , which is surrounded by frame and filled with sculptural decoration . The Temple of the Feathered Serpent was enlarged several times, and as was characteristic of Mesoamerican pyramids, each enlargement completely enclosed the previous structure like the layers of an onion. Archaeological excavation of this temple’s earlier-phase tableros and a stairway balustrade have revealed painted heads of the Feathered Serpent, the goggle-eyed Rain or Storm God, and reliefs of aquatic shells and snails. The flat, angular, abstract style, typical of Teotihuacan art, is in marked contrast to the curvilinear style of Olmec art. The Decline Sometime in the middle of the seventh century disaster struck Teotihuacan. The ceremonial center burned and the city went into a permanent decline. Nevertheless, its influence continued as other centers throughout Mesoamerica and as far south as the highlands of Guatemala borrowed and transformed its imagery over the next several centuries. The site was never entirely abandoned as it remained a legendary pilgrimage center. The much later Aztec people (c. 1300-1525 CE) revered the site as the place where they believed the gods created the sun and the moon. In fact, the name “Teotihuacan” is actually an Aztec word meaning “Gathering Place of the Gods.” Art of the Maya Mayan art includes a wide variety of objects, commissioned by rulers, that depict scenes of both elite and everyday society. Identify the key features of Mayan art from the Classic Period Key Points - Maya blue was a distinctive color preserved for centuries due to its unique chemical composition; unfortunately, the technique involved in producing it has been lost. - The Maya carved stone portraits of their rulers as memorials. - There is an especially strong tradition of painting and sculpture in Mayan culture . Often sculpture was painted with distinctive dyes and techniques characteristic of the Maya. - Much Mayan art was commissioned by rulers to accompany them to the Underworld. Key Terms - Stele : As stone slab placed vertically and decorated with inscriptions or reliefs. Used as a grave marker or memorial. - Maya blue : A unique bright azure pigment manufactured by cultures of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, such as the Maya and Aztec. Made from a combination of a particular kind of clay, indigo, and vegetable dye. Mayan Portraiture Strong cultural influences stemming from the Olmec tradition and Teotihuacan contributed to the development of the Mayan city center and the culture’s Classic artistic tradition. The most sacred and majestic buildings of Mayan cities were built in enclosed, centrally located precincts. The Maya held dramatic rituals within these highly sculptured and painted environments. For example, the grand pyramids of Copan and Tikal are among the most imposing buildings the Maya erected; each contains sculpted portraits that glorified the city’s rulers. Stele H in the Great Plaza at Copan represents one of the city’s foremost leaders, 18-Rabbit, who reigned from 695-738 CE. During the ruler’s long reign, Copan reached its greatest physical extent and breadth of political influence. On Stele H, 18-Rabbit wears an elaborate headdress and ornamented kilt and sandals. He holds across his chest a double-headed serpent bar, symbol of the sky and of his absolute power. His features, although idealized, have the quality of a portrait likeness. The Mayan elite, like the Egyptian pharaohs, tended to have themselves portrayed as eternally youthful. The dense, deeply carved ornamental details that frame the face and figure stand almost clear of the main stone block and wrap around the sides of the stele. The stele was originally painted, with remnants of red paint visible on many stelae and buildings in Copan. Clay Sculpture Many small clay figures from the Classic Mayan period remain in existence. These free-standing objects illustrate aspects of everyday Mayan life. As a group, they are remarkably life-like, carefully descriptive, and even comic at times. They represent a wider range of human types and activities than commonly depicted on Mayan stelae. Ball players, women weaving, older men, dwarves, supernatural beings, and amorous couples, as well as elaborately attired rulers and warriors, comprise one of the largest groups of surviving Mayan art. Many of the hollow figurines are also whistles. They were made in ceramic workshops and painted with Maya Blue, a dye unique to Mayan and Aztec artists. Small clay figures found in burial sites were made to accompany the Mayan dead on their inevitable voyage to the Underworld. Painted Vases The Maya painted vivid narrative scenes on the surfaces of cylindrical vases. A typical vase design depicts a palace scene where an enthroned Mayan ruler sits surrounded by courtiers and attendants. The figures wear simple loincloths, turbans of wrapped cloth and feathers, and black body paint. These painted vases may have been used as drinking and food vessels for noble Maya, but their final destination was the tomb, where they accompanied the deceased to the Underworld. They likely were commissioned by the deceased before his death or by his survivors, and were occasionally sent from distant sites as funerary offerings . Architecture of the Maya The Maya had complex architectural programs. They built imposing pyramids, temples, palaces, and administrative structures in densely populated cities. Describe the characteristic style and functional elements of Maya architecture in the Classic and Postclassic periods Key Points - The Maya grouped large architectural structures at the centers of major cities. - Pyramids and temples were used for religious purposes and built by rulers as memorials to themselves. - Administrative structures such as the Palace demonstrate the sophistication of Maya architecture and technology. - Maya architecture is ornate and elaborate, incorporating bas- relief , sculpture , and painted murals on the interiors and exteriors of structures. - The Mesoamerican ball game was a central part of ancient Mesoamerican cultural, religious, and political life. - The cities of Palenque and Chichen Itza, both in Mexico, contain iconic examples of Mayan architecture from the Classical and Postclassical periods. Key Terms - roof comb : In a Mayan building, a masonry wall along the apex of a roof built above the level of the roof proper. Roof combs support the highly decorated false facades that rise above the height of the building at the front. - mansard roof : A roof with four sloping sides that become steeper halfway down. - aqueduct : An artificial channel for conveying water, typically in the form of a bridge supported by tall columns across a valley. - bas-relief : A kind of sculpture in which shapes are carved so that they are only slightly higher than the flat background. - balustrades : A kind of low wall placed at the sides of staircases, bridges, etc., made of a row of short posts topped by a long rail. The Mayan civilization emerged during the late Preclassic period (250 BCE-250 CE), reached its peak in the southern lowlands of Guatemala during the Classic period (250-900 CE), and shifted to northern Yucatan during the Postclassic period (900-1521 CE). Architecture in Palenque In Palenque, Mexico, a prominent city of the Classic period, the major buildings are grouped on high ground . The central group of structures includes the Palace (possibly an administrative and ceremonial center as well as a residential structure), the Temple of the Inscriptions, and two other temples. Most of the structures in the complex were commissioned by a powerful ruler, Lord Pakal, who reigned from 615 to 638 CE, and his two sons, who succeeded him. Temple of the Inscriptions The Temple of the Inscriptions is a nine-level pyramid that rises to a height of about 75 feet. The consecutive layers probably reflect the belief, current among the Aztec and Maya at the time of the Spanish conquest, that the underworld had nine levels. Priests would climb the steep stone staircase on the exterior to reach the temple on top, which recalls the kind of pole-and-thatch houses the Maya still build in parts of the Yucatan today. The roof of the temple was topped with a crest known as a roof comb , and its facade still retains much of its stucco sculpture. Inscriptions line the back wall of the outer chamber, giving the temple its name. The Palace Across from the Temple of Inscriptions is the Palace , a complex of several adjacent buildings and courtyards built on a wide artificial terrace. The Palace was used by the Mayan aristocracy for bureaucratic functions, entertainment, and ritual ceremonies . Numerous sculptures and bas-relief carvings within the Palace have been conserved. The Palace’s most unusual and recognizable feature is the four-story tower known as the Observation Tower. Like many other buildings at the site, the Observation Tower exhibits a mansard roof . The Palace was equipped with numerous large baths and saunas which were supplied with fresh water by an intricate water system. An aqueduct constructed of great stone blocks with a six-foot-high vault diverts the Otulum River to flow underneath the main plaza. Architecture in Chichen Itza As the focus of Maya civilization shifted northward in the Postclassic period, a northern Maya group called the Itza rose to prominence. Their principal center, Chichen Itza, (Yucatan State) Mexico, which means “at the mouth of the well of the Itza,” flourished from the 9th to 13th centuries CE, eventually covering about six square miles. El Castillo One of Chichen Itza’s most conspicuous structures is El Castillo (Spanish for the castle), a massive nine-level pyramid in the center of a large plaza with a stairway on each side leading to a square temple on the pyramid’s summit. At the spring and fall equinoxes, the setting sun casts an undulating, serpent-like shadow on the stairways, forming bodies for the serpent heads carved at the base of the balustrades . The Great Ball Court The Great Ball Court northwest of the Castillo is the largest and best preserved court for playing the Mesoamerican ball game, an important sport with ritual associations played by Mesoamericans since 1400 BCE. The parallel platforms flanking the main playing area are each 312 feet long. The walls of these platforms stand 26 feet high. Rings carved with intertwined feathered serpents are set high at the top of each wall at the center. At the base of the interior walls are slanted benches with sculpted panels of teams of ball players. In one panel, one of the players has been decapitated; the wound spews streams of blood in the form of wriggling snakes. At one end of the Great Ball Court is the North Temple, also known as the Temple of the Bearded Man (Templo del Hombre Barbado). This small masonry building has detailed bas-relief carving on the inner walls, including a center figure with decorative carvings that resemble facial hair. Built into the east wall are the Temples of the Jaguar. The Upper Temple of the Jaguar overlooks the ball court and has an entrance guarded by two large columns carved in the familiar feathered serpent motif . At the entrance to the Lower Temple of the Jaguar is another Jaguar throne similar to the one in the inner temple of El Castillo. Ceramics of the Veracruz Ceramic figurines are a hallmark of Classic Veracruz art. The Veracruz people produced a variety of small clay figures in multiple areas around the modern state of Veracruz, Mexico. Describe characteristics of ceramic figurines from two parts of Veracruz known for ceramic production in the Classic and Late Classic periods Key Points - The Classic Veracruz culture produced ceramic figurines in multiple distinctive styles and depicting many types of people. - There are strong stylistic differences between ceramic figures from the cities of Remojadas and Nopiloa. - The highly ritualized Mesoamerican ball game was of crucial importance to the Veracruz culture and was represented in their art. - Smiling figures from Remojadas called Sonrientes are the most recognizable ceramic figures produced by the Veracruz people. Key Terms - Mesoamerican ballgame : A sport with ritual associations played since 1,400 BC by the pre-Columbian peoples of Ancient Mesoamerica. The sport had different versions in different places during the millennia, and a more modern version of the game, ulama, is still played in a few places by the indigenous population. - Sonrientes : A type of ceramic figurine produced by the Veracruz culture. Literally translates to “smiling” in Spanish. - appliqués : In the context of ceramics, adding low-relief clay forms to hard surfaces for embellishment. The modern state of Veracruz lies along the Mexican Gulf Coast, north of the Maya lowlands and east of the highlands of central Mexico. Culturally diverse and environmentally rich, the people of Veracruz took part in dynamic interchanges between three regions that over the centuries included trade, warfare, and migration. During the middle centuries of the first millennium, the artistically gifted Veracruzanos created inventive ceramic sculpture in diverse yet related styles. Until the early 1950s, Classic Veracruz ceramics were few, little understood, and generally without provenance (known history). Since then, the recovery of thousands of figurines and pottery pieces from sites such as Remojadas and Nopiloa (some initially found by looters), has expanded our understanding and filled many museum shelves. Artist and art historian Miguel Covarrubias described Classic Veracruz ceramics as “powerful and expressive, endowed with a charm and sensibility unprecedented in other, more formal cultures.” Figurines from Remojadas and Nopiloa Remojadas-style figurines, perhaps the most easily recognizable from this culture, are usually hand-modeled and often adorned with appliqués . Of particular note are the Sonrientes (Smiling) Figurines, with triangular-shaped heads and outstretched arms. Figurines from Nopiloa are often molded and usually less ornate, without appliqués. The Sonrientes figure from Remojadas (below) provides scholars with an example of the clothing worn in ancient times, such as the loincloth and headdress. The flattened forehead on this smiling figure may represent the practice of intentional cranial deformation or may simply reflect an artistic convention. Many American cultures considered a flattened forehead desirable and used a variety of techniques to flatten the skulls of infants while they were still pliable. Another smiling figure from the Remojadas region is a hollow ceramic sculpture representing an individual celebrating with music and dance. This bare-chested figure with open mouth and filed teeth stands energetically with legs spread and arms lifted as if caught in mid-motion. He wears a woven cap with geometric patterns, an elaborate skirt, circular earrings, a beaded necklace, and a bracelet. His face and body contain patterns evocative of body paint, including slight lines emanating from his lower eyelids and onto his cheeks. This sculpture evokes a festive dance or ritual accompanied by the rhythmic reverberation of the hand-held rattle and celebratory sound escaping from the figure’s open mouth. In contrast to Smiling Figures from Remojadas, the mold-made ceramic figure from Nopiloa below depicts a bearded, mustachioed male wearing a ballgame yoke around his waist to protect him from the hard, solid rubber ball used in play. There are cylindrical ear ornaments in his ears and beneath his arm, a baton-like object perhaps related to the local incarnation of the game. The rules and manner in which the Mesoamerican ballgame was played varied among contemporary sites and evolved through time. Surviving evidence suggests human sacrifice was a frequent outcome, but the game may also have been played for other purposes such as sport. The people of ancient Veracruz interacted with people from other Mesoamerican cultures, and this Nopiloa figure displays motifs commonly found in Mayan art. Knotted ties like those around this player’s wrist and neck connote captured prisoners in Mayan pictorial language. A motif similar to the Maya mat, a symbol of rulership, appears on the flanged headdress of the ballplayer. Like Mayan figurines of this type, the body of this figure is a whistle, a musical instrument used in ritual and ceremony . Codices of the Mixtec Mixtec culture had a unique and complex writing system that used characters and pictures to represent complete words and ideas instead of syllables or sounds. They made codices to document important historical events in their society. Understand the uses and structure of Mixtec codices Key Points - Mixtec codices were made of deerskin and folded in an accordion pattern. Only eight Mixtec codices survive. - Mixtec codices allow us to trace Mixtec history from 1550 CE back to 940 CE, deeper in time than any other Mesoamerican culture except the Maya. - Codices represented historical events on both a micro and macro scale for Mixtec nobility. Key Terms - codices : Books constructed of sheets of paper, vellum, papyrus, or similar materials, with hand-written contents. Codex: singular - logographic : Type of written language in which the characters/pictures used represent complete words and ideas instead of syllables or sounds. - Mixtec : A Mesoamerican people who lived in southern Mexico before the rise of the Aztecs. About the Mixtec The Mixtecs were one of the most influential ethnic groups to emerge in Mesoamerica during the Post-Classic period. Never a united nation, the Mixtecs waged war and forged alliances among themselves as well as with other peoples in their vicinity. They also produced beautiful manuscripts and metal work and influenced the international artistic style used from Central Mexico to Yucatan. During the Classic period, the Mixtecs lived in hilltop settlements of northwestern Oaxaca, a fact reflected in their name in their own language, Ñuudzahui, meaning “People of the Rain.” During the Post-Classic period, the Mixtecs slowly moved into adjacent valleys and then into the great Valley of Oaxaca. This time of expansion is recorded in a large number of deerskin manuscripts called codices , only eight of which have survived. Nevertheless, these manuscripts allow us to trace Mixtec history from 1550 CE back to 940 CE, deeper in time than any other Mesoamerican culture except the Maya. Mixtec Codices Mixtec codices represent a type of writing classified as logographic , meaning the characters and pictures used represent complete words and ideas instead of syllables or sounds. In Mixtec, the relationships among pictorial elements denote the meaning of the text, whereas in other Mesoamerican writing the pictorial representations are not incorporated into the text. Common topics found in the codices are biographies of rulers and other influential figures, records of elite family trees, mythologies, and accounts of ceremonies . The above detail from the Codex Zouche-Nuttall depicts a group of warriors conquering a town (an event noted by the warriors’ drawn weapons and the arrow piercing the hill). Above each participant’s head is a glyph, or pictograph , with a dot. The glyphs below the warriors are calendrical day signs. They are also, however, the names of Mixtec nobles; among this group, a person’s name was often his or her birthday. Pre-Columbian Mixtec are mainly concerned with histories. They record events such as royal births, wars and battles, royal marriages, forging of alliances, pilgrimages , and death of rulers. In addition to the calendrical signs used for dating events and naming individuals, the Mixtecs used a combination of conventionalized pictures and glyphs to illustrate the type and nature of the event. One example is the wedding scene, usually shown as two individuals of opposite sex facing each other and sitting on jaguar-pelt chairs, as illustrated by a scene from the Codex Zouche-Nuttall which records the marriage of the legendary Mixtec King 8 Deer “Tiger Claw” of Tilantongo to Lady 12 Snake in 1051 CE. This arrangement of the bride and groom is a purely pictorial convention, with no connection to the language. This means that no idiom or phrase in the Mixtec language that describing two people sitting face-to-face is a metaphor for marriage. However, the cup of chocolate held by Lady 12 Snake may represent the expression ynodzehua , which means “dowry” in Mixtec, where the root dzehua means “chocolate.” Chocolate or cacao was one of the most expensive and luxurious products in Mesoamerica, and cacao beans were used as currency. It is no surprise the word for dowry would be based on chocolate. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - hb_02.18.309.jpg. Provided by : Metropolitan Museum of Art. Located at : http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jade2/hd_jade2.htm . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - display-2408.jpg. Provided by : Ancient History Encyclopedia. Located at : http://www.ancient.eu/image/2408/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pre-Columbian art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_art%23Mesoamerica_and_Central_America. License : CC BY: Attribution - display-1402.jpg. Provided by : Ancient.eu. 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Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmec_colossal_heads. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Olmec. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Olmec. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Teotihuacan-Temple_of_the_Feathered_Serpent-3035.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_the_Feathered_Serpent,_Teotihuacan#/media/File:Teotihuacan-Temple_of_the_Feathered_Serpent-3035.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Teotihuacan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Teotihuacan. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Teotihuacan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Teotihuacan%23Teotihuacan_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Teotihuacan. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Teotihuacan. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - download.jpeg. Provided by : National Gallery of Art. Located at : www.nga.gov/kids/mayakids.pdf. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - IMG_1729a.preview.jpg. Provided by : The Mayan Calendar Portal . Located at : www.maya-portal.net/media/gallery/copan. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - detail.jpg. Provided by : Smart History. Located at : http://smarthistory.org/politics-and-history-on-a-maya-vase/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/The Mayas. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Saylor.org's_Ancient_Civilizations_of_the_World/The_Mayas%23Art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Maya blue. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya%20blue. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The_Observation_Tower.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Palenque#/media/File:The_Observation_Tower.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Palenque_temple_1.jpg. 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Located at : www.textilemuseum.ca/cloth_clay/resources/veracruz_003.cfm. License : CC BY: Attribution - Museum Collections - Mesoamerica - Classic Veracruz - Artifact #4. Provided by : Textile Museum of Canada, Gardiner Museum. Located at : www.textilemuseum.ca/cloth_clay/resources/veracruz_004.cfm. License : CC BY: Attribution - Classic Veracruz culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Veracruz_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Maya-Codices.jpg. Provided by : Treasures of Mexico. Located at : http://www.ancient-origins.net/artifacts-ancient-writings/treasures-mexico-mixtec-aztec-maya-codices-survived-conquistadors-003245 . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Codex-Zouche-Nuttall-2.jpg. Provided by : Latin American Studies. Located at : http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/mixtec-codices.htm . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - mixtec_marriage.gif. Provided by : Ancient Scripts. Located at : www.ancientscripts.com/mixtec.html. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mixteca. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixteca%23Language.2C_codices.2C_and_artwork. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mesoamerican chronology. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology%23Postclassic_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mixtec Codices. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixtec%20Codices. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mixtec. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Mixtec. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - metallurgy. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/metallurgy. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:30.784226	2020-05-01T17:33:25	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/14%3A_Native-American_Art_Before_1300_CE/14.02%3A_Mesoamerica", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "14.2: Mesoamerica", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/14%3A_Native-American_Art_Before_1300_CE/14.03%3A_South_America	14.3: South America Ceramics in Early South America The ceramic objects of the Paracas, Nazca, and Moche communities of Peru vary in artistic forms and were important cultural artifacts. Like the Tiwanaku and Waki people of Bolivia and their contemporaries, the Wari people of Peru produced pottery that was multifaceted in both aesthetics and utility. Compare the aesthetic style, technique, and function of ceramics made by the Paracas, Nazcu, Moche, Tiwanaku, Waki, and Wari cultures Key Points - The Paracas culture (from 800 to 100 BCE) immediately preceded and heavily influenced the Nazca culture. - The art of the Paracas culture has mainly been preserved in tombs and on mummies . - The Nazca, like all Pre-Columbian societies in South America including the Inca , had no writing system, in contrast to the contemporary Maya of Mesoamerica . The iconography or symbols on their ceramics served as a means of communication. - As in other cultures, Moche ceramics were probably used for educational purposes and communication. - The Moche culture used mold technology to replicate ceramic forms . - Irrigation and the passage of fluids in the human body are important themes in Moche culture and artwork. - The realistic detail in Moche ceramics may have helped them serve as didactic models. - The Tiwanaku state was an important precursor to the Inca Empire. - Small decorative objects that held ritual religious meaning were used to spread the influence of the capital city of Tiwanaku to surrounding communities. - The Tiwanaku and Wari cultures must have interacted, given the similarities in the artifacts of each culture, but whether their relationship was amicable or antagonistic is unknown. Key Terms - slip painting : A type of pottery decoration in which a liquid mixture of clay and/or other materials suspended in water is applied to wet clay before it is fired in a kiln. - Huacas : In Quechua, a Native American language of South America, a huaca or waqa is an object that represents something revered, typically a monument of some kind. The term huaca can refer to natural locations, such as immense rocks. - Middle Horizon : Cultural period of Peru and the Andean region lasting from 600 to 1000 CE. - resin painting : A type of pottery decoration in which ceramics are painted after they are fired in a kiln with a sticky organic substance exuded by trees and other plants. - Wari : A Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about 500 to 1000 CE. - kero : A type of wooden drinking vessel produced by the Incas and earlier Andean cultures. - phytomorphic : Having the attributes of a plant. - Moche : A civilization that flourished in northern Peru from about 100 to 800 AD, particularly noted for their elaborately painted ceramics, gold work, monumental constructions (huacas), and irrigation systems. - Andean : Of or pertaining to the Andes mountains in South America. Paracas and Nazca Cultures The Paracas culture was an important Andean society between approximately 800 and 100 BCE, with an extensive knowledge of irrigation and water management. It developed in the Paracas Peninsula in the Ica Region of Peru. The Nazca culture flourished from 100 to 800 CE beside the dry southern coast of Peru in the river valleys of the Rio Grande de Nazca drainage and the Ica Valley. Heavily influenced by the preceding Paracas culture, the Nazca produced an array of beautiful crafts and technologies such as ceramics, textiles, and geoglyphs (most commonly known as the Nazca lines ). Paracas Ceramics Many ceramics of the Paracas have been found in tombs, particularly in the Paracas Cavernas. These are shaft tombs set into the top of Cerro Colorado, each containing multiple burial sites. The associated ceramics include incised polychrome (the surface has been incised with a sharp tool and painted multiple colors), “negative” resist decoration (pottery is covered in material, then painted and uncovered to reveal a pattern of negative and positive space), and other techniques of the Paracas tradition. Nazca Ceramics The Nazca culture is characterized by its beautiful polychrome pottery, painted with at least 15 distinct colors. The shift from post-fire resin painting to pre-fire slip painting marked the end of Paracas- style pottery and the beginning of Nazca-style pottery. Archaeologists have excavated highly valued polychrome pottery among all classes of Nazca society, illustrating that it was not just the elite that had access to these pieces. The Nazca pottery sequence has been divided into nine phases, progressing from realistic subject matter such as fruits, plants, people, and animals to motifs that included abstract elements as part of the design and geometric iconography. The Nazca, like all Pre-Columbian societies in South America including the Inca, had no writing system, in contrast to the contemporary Maya of Mesoamerica. The iconography or symbols on their ceramics served as a means of communication. Moche Ceramics From 100 to 800 CE, Moche civilization flourished in northern Peru with its capital, Huacas del Sol y de la Luna, located near present-day Trujillo. Traditional North Coast Peruvian ceramic art uses a limited palette , relying primarily on red and white, fine line painting, fully modeled clay, naturalistic figures, and stirrup spouts (in which the stirrup handle forms part of the spout, which emanates from the top of the stirrup). Moche ceramics created between 150 and 800 AD epitomize this style. These realistic pots have been found not only in major North Coast archaeological sites, such as Huaca de la luna, Huaca del Sol, and Sipan, but at small villages and unrecorded burial sites as well. The realistic detail in Moche ceramics may have helped them serve as didactic models. Older generations could pass down general knowledge about reciprocity and embodiment to younger generations through such portrayals. Important social activities are documented in Moche pottery, including war, sex, metalwork , and weaving. Moche ceramics vary widely in shape and theme and are not generally uniform, although the use of mold technology did enable for mass production. Because irrigation was the source of wealth and foundation of the empire, Moche culture emphasized the importance of circulation and flow. Expanding upon this, the Moche focused on the passage of fluids in their artwork, particularly life fluids through vulnerable human orifices. The coloration of Moche pottery is often simple and follows the Peruvian tradition with yellowish cream and rich red used almost exclusively on elite pieces and with white and black used rarely. Their adobe buildings have been mostly destroyed by looters and natural forces over the last 1300 years, but the huacas that remain show that their murals featured vibrant colors. Tiwanaku and Waki Cultures Tiwanaku is an important Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia, South America. Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important precursors to the Inca Empire, flourishing as the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately 500 years. The city and its inhabitants left no written history, and the modern locals know little about the ancient city and its activities. An archaeologically based theory asserts that around 400 CE, Tiwanaku went from a locally dominant force to a predatory state. Tiwanaku expanded its reaches into the Yungas and brought its culture and way of life to many other cultures in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. However, Tiwanaku was not exclusively a violent culture. To expand its reach, Tiwanaku used politics to create colonies, negotiate trade agreements (which made the other cultures rather dependent), and establish state cults. Many others were drawn into the Tiwanaku empire due to religious beliefs. Ceramics & Textiles Tiwanaku ceramics and textiles were composed of bright colors and stepped patterns. An important ceramic artifact is the kero , a drinking cup that was ritually smashed after ceremonies and placed in burials. Tapestries and tunics provide examples of textiles found at Tiwanaku. These decorative objects typically depicted herders, effigies , trophy heads, sacrificial victims, and felines. Religion and influence from the main site to the satellite centers were spread through small portable objects that held ritual religious meaning. They were created in wood, engraved bone, and cloth and depicted puma and jaguar effigies, incense burners, carved wooden hallucinogenic snuff tablets, and human portrait vessels . The Wari Throughout their imperial reign, the Tiwanaku shared domination of the Middle Horizon with the Wari, whose culture rose and fell around the same time and was centered 500 miles north in the southern highlands of Peru. It is unknown whether the relationship between the two empires was cooperative or antagonistic. Definite interaction between the two is proved by their shared iconography in art. Significant elements of both styles (the split eye, trophy heads, and staff-bearing profile figures, for example) seem to have been derived from the earlier Pukara culture in the northern Titicaca Basin. Textiles in Early South America The intricate, complex textiles of the Paracas and Nazca cultures were often associated with a burial ritual. Discuss the distinguishing characteristics of textiles in pre-Colombian Andean society Key Points - Both the Nazca and preceding Paracas culture created intricate textiles, most likely produced by women using a backstrap loom . - Like the two cultures’ ceramics , many of their textiles were associated with burial rituals . - Because of the dry climate in southern Peru, many Nazca and Paracas textiles have been well-preserved. - The so-called “Paracas Textile” tells modern scholars a great deal about the inhabitants of ancient Peru. For instance, they traded extensively with people who lived well outside their territory. Key Terms - Andean : Of or pertaining to the Andes mountains in South America. - backstrap loom : A simple loom with roots in ancient civilizations, consisting of two sticks or bars between which the warps are stretched. One bar is attached to a fixed object, and the other to the weaver through a strap around the back. Textiles of Andean Cultures The Paracas culture was an important Andean society between approximately 800 and 100 BCE, with an extensive knowledge of irrigation and water management. It developed in the Paracas Peninsula in the Ica Region of Peru. Many ceramics and textiles of the Paracas have been found in tombs, particularly in the Paracas Cavernas. These shaft tombs, set into the top of Cerro Colorado, each contain multiple burial sites. The associated ceramics include incised polychrome, “negative” resist decoration, and other wares of the Paracas tradition. The associated textiles include many complex weave structures and elaborate plaiting and knotting techniques. The later Nazca people also produced technically complex textiles. The Nazca flourished from 100 to 800 CE beside the dry southern coast of Peru in the river valleys of the Rio Grande de Nazca and the Ica Valley. Heavily influenced by the preceding Paracas culture, the Nazca produced an array of beautiful crafts and technologies such as ceramics, textiles, and geoglyphs (most commonly known as the Nazca lines). Nazca textiles were most likely woven from spun cotton and wool by women at habitation sites. The textiles would have been made using a backstrap loom, similar to the way textiles are made in the region today. Textiles were woven with the common motifs before these appeared on painted pottery. The dry desert has preserved the textiles of both the Nazca and Paracas cultures, which comprise most of what is known about early textiles in the region. Shawls, dresses, tunics , belts, and bags have been found through excavations at Cahuachi and elsewhere. Many textiles associated with the Nazca culture are garments that were included with grave goods found at burial sites. Mummy Bundles on the Paracas Peninsula One of the most extraordinary masterpieces of Andean textiles is a nearly 2,000-year-old cloth from the South Coast of Peru. Despite its small size (about two by five feet), it contains a vast amount of information about the people who lived in ancient Peru, and despite its great age and delicacy, its colors are brilliant and tiny details amazingly intact. The arid environment of southern Peru along the Pacific shore allows organic material buried in the sand to remain well-preserved for hundreds or even thousands of years. In the ancient cemeteries on the Paracas Peninsula, the dead were wrapped into “mummy bundles” with layers of cloth and clothing. The largest and richest mummy bundles contained hundreds of brightly embroidered textiles, feathered costumes, and fine jewelry, interspersed with food offerings such as beans. Early reports claimed that this cloth came from the Paracas peninsula, so it was called “THE Paracas textile,” to mark its excellence and uniqueness. Currently, scholars have revised this provenance and now attribute the cloth to the Nasca culture. Like other very fine cloths, the Paracas Textile is finished so carefully on both sides that it is almost impossible to distinguish which is the correct side. Although the central cloth and its framing border are created by different techniques, both display perfect reversibility—except for three border figures. These three appear in back view on one side of the cloth, thereby designating a “front” and “back” to the textile. Architecture in Early South America Chavín de Huántar and Tiwanaku were important ceremonial centers in pre-Inca South America. Discuss the multiple functions of architecture in early South America Key Points - During its heyday, Chavín de Huántar was used as a religious center for ceremonies and events or consultation with an oracle. - The temple at Chavín de Huántar is a massive flat-topped pyramid surrounded by lower platforms, along with a U-shaped plaza with a sunken circular court in the center. - Tiwanaku is recognized as one of the most important precursors to the Inca Empire. - Archaeologists still struggle to understand how the megaliths used to construct Tiwanaku were transported to the site. Key Terms - Chavin : A civilization that developed in the northern Andean highlands of Peru from 900 to 200 BCE. Their influence extended to other civilizations along the coast. - megalith : A gigantic stone, often weighing several tons. - trilithon : A megalithic post-and-lintel structure. Chavín de Huántar and Tiwanaku were important ceremonial centers in pre-Inca South America. Chavín de Huántar Chavín de Huántar is an archaeological site containing ruins and artifacts , constructed circa 1200 BCE and occupied until around 400-500 BCE by the Chavín, a major pre-Inca culture . The site is located 160 miles north of Lima, Peru at an elevation of 10,000 feet, on the edge of the Conchucos Valley. Occupation at Chavín de Huántar has been carbon dated to at least 3000 BCE, with ceremonial activity occurring primarily toward the end of the second millennium and through the middle of the first millennium BCE. While the fairly large population was based on an agricultural economy, the city’s location at the headwaters of the Marañn River, between the coast and the jungle, made it ideal for the dissemination and collection of both ideas and material goods. This archaeological site has revealed a great deal about the Chavín culture. The transformation of the center into a valley-dominating monument had a complex effect. Chavín de Huántar became a pan-regional place of importance. People used it to gather, attend and participate in rituals , and consult with oracles. Findings at Chavín de Huántar indicate that social instability and upheaval began between 500 and 300 BCE, at the same time the larger Chavín civilization began to decline. Large ceremonial sites were abandoned, some unfinished, and were replaced by villages and agricultural land. The temple at Chavín de Huántar was the religious center of the Chavín people and the capital of the Chavín culture. This massive flat-topped pyramid is surrounded by lower platforms and located in a U-shaped plaza with a sunken circular court in the center. The inside of the temple walls are decorated with sculptures and carvings. Chavín de Huántar was constructed over many stages, starting prior to 1200 BCE, with most major construction over by 750 BCE. The site continued as a ceremonial center until around 500 BCE. Tiwanaku Tiwanaku is an important Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia. It is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important precursors to the Inca Empire, flourishing as the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately 500 years. The city and its inhabitants left no written history, and the modern locals know little about the ancient city and its activities. However, the site might have been inhabited as early as 1500 BCE. An archaeological theory asserts that around 400 CE, Tiwanaku went from a locally dominant force to a predatory state. It expanded its reaches into the Yungas and brought its culture and way of life to many cultures in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. However, Tiwanaku was not exclusively a violent culture. To expand its reach, Tiwanaku used politics to create colonies, negotiate trade agreements (which made the other cultures rather dependent), and establish state cults. Many were drawn into the Tiwanaku empire by their religious beliefs. Architecture Tiwanaku monumental architecture is characterized by megaliths of exceptional workmanship. The main architectural appeal of the site comes from the carved images and designs on carved doorways and megalithic constructions such as the Gate of the Sun. Tiwanaku’s architecture and skill in stone-cutting reveals a knowledge of descriptive geometry. The Gate of the Sun is a trilithon that stands nearly 10 feet tall and 13 feet wide. Its weight is estimated at approximately 10 tons. Although there have been various modern interpretations of its mysterious inscriptions, the carvings that decorate the gate are believed to possess astronomical significance and may have served a calendrical purpose. The Gate of the Sun shares its location with the Kalasasaya, a temple in a megalithic courtyard more than 300 feet long. Since the late 20th century, researchers have theorized that this was not the gateway’s original location. The walls are covered with tenon heads of many styles , suggesting that the structure was reused for different purposes over time. What stands today is not the original configuration of the megaliths that comprise the Kalasasaya. Scholars believe it was originally constructed in a similar fashion as Stonehenge, with its stones spaced evenly apart and standing vertically. The quarries from which the stone blocks used in the construction of structures at Tiwanaku came lie at significant distances from this site, which has led scholars to speculate on how they could have been moved. One theory is that giant andesite stones weighing more than 40 tons were transported some 90 kilometers across Lake Titicaca on reed boats and then laboriously dragged another 10 kilometers to the city. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - aca-del-sol-ao-c3-bbt-2007.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Moche. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Erotic Moche Pot. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Moche. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Wari earthenware pot with painted design, 650-800 CE (Middle Horizon).. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Huari_-_Head_Pot_with_Painted_Design_-_Walters_482849_-_Three_Quarter_Right.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - zonnepoort-tiwanaku.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zonnepoort_tiwanaku.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Moche. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Moche. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nazca culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazca_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Paracas culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracas_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nazca culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazca_culture%23Arts_and_technology. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Andean. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Andean. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/phytomorphic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - geoglyph. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/geoglyph. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Paracas Textile. Provided by : Khan Academy. Located at : www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-americas/south-america-early/paracas-nasca/a/the-paracas-textile. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Backstrap Loom. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Loom#/media/File:Backstrap_loom.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Detail of Paracas Textile. Provided by : Khan Academy. Located at : www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-americas/south-america-early/paracas-nasca/a/the-paracas-textile. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Andean. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Andean. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Loom. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Loom. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nazca Culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazca_culture%23Arts_and_technology. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Paracas Culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracas_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - kalasasaya3.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiwanaku. License : CC BY: Attribution - zonnepoort-tiwanaku.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zonnepoort_tiwanaku.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Chavin circular plaza cyark. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chavin_circular_plaza_cyark.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chavin de Huantar. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chavin_de_Huantar.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Tiwanaku. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiwanaku. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tiwanaku and Wari. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com/atoms/7949. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chavin Culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chavin_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Gate of the Sun. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Gate_of_the_Sun. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chavin de Huantar. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chavin_de_Huantar. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chavin. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chavin. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:30.899652	2020-05-01T17:33:26	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/14%3A_Native-American_Art_Before_1300_CE/14.03%3A_South_America", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "14.3: South America", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/14%3A_Native-American_Art_Before_1300_CE/14.04%3A_North_America	14.4: North America The Southwest Southwestern indigenous cultures have produced a variety of architectural, artisanal, and ritual art forms for centuries. Describe the Anasazi, Hopi, Navajo, and Hohokam cultures of the American Southwest Key Points - The Anasazi, the ancestors of Pueblo Native American tribes, produced decorative pottery for storage purposes. - Chaco Canyon in New Mexico (c. 10th century) is one of the most impressive early examples of Southwestern Native American architecture. - The Navajo emigrated from Northern Canada to the Southwest sometime after 1000 CE. The sand paintings and weavings for which this culture is renowned are gender-specific. Men created sand paintings while women created weavings. - Mastery of acid etching allowed the Hohokam culture to create lasting designs in bone, shell, and stone. Key Terms - Anasazi : A Native American people who once lived in cliff dwellings in Utah and Colorado. - Pueblo : Modern and ancient communities of Native Americans in the Southwestern United States of America. - xeriscaping : Landscaping and gardening that reduces or eliminates the need for supplemental water from irrigation. - Navajo : Currently the largest Native American tribe in North America. The Anasazi (1000 BCE–700 CE) are the ancestors of today’s Pueblo tribes. Their culture formed in the American southwest after the cultivation of corn was introduced from Mexico around 1200 BCE. Additionally, the Navajo and Apache emigrated from Northern Canada to the Southwest sometime after 1000 CE. People of this region developed an agrarian lifestyle, cultivating food, storage gourds, and cotton with irrigation or xeriscaping techniques. They lived in sedentary towns, so pottery used to store water and grain was ubiquitous . For hundreds of years, the Anasazi created utilitarian grayware and black-on-white pottery as well as orange and red ceramics . Turquoise, jet, and spiny oyster shell were traditionally used by Ancestral Pueblo for jewelry and sophisticated inlay . Anasazi Architecture Southwest architecture includes cliff dwellings (multi-story settlements carved from living rock), pit houses, and adobe and sandstone pueblos. One of the most elaborate and largest ancient settlements is Chaco Canyon in New Mexico, which includes 15 major complexes of sandstone and timber connected by a network of roads. The largest of these settlements, Pueblo Bonito, contains over 800 rooms . Hopi Culture The Hopi culture emerged in the Southwest in the fourteenth century. Hopi communities created ceramic jars, dough bowls, and food bowls of different sizes for daily use, as well as more elaborate ceremonial mugs, jugs, ladles, seed jars and vessels for ritual use. These were usually finished with polished surfaces and decorated with black painted designs. Among Hopi ritual art is the kachina figure. This instructs young girls and new brides about katsinas or katsinam, the immortal beings that bring rain, control aspects of the natural world and society, and act as messengers between humans and the spirit world. Navajo Culture Art in the Navajo culture is traditionally gender-based. Men, seen as static in nature, create sand paintings for healing rituals. Because the pattern must be precise if the infirm person is to be cured, men were believed to be better suited for this work. Because sand paintings must be destroyed at the end of the ritual, tradition dictates that the designs not be photographed or otherwise documented. Women, on the other hand, were seen as more dynamic in nature and thus better suited for the creation of woven fabrics, such as blankets and rugs, whose patterns do not have to be exact. Unlike sand paintings, blankets and rugs are made to be long-lasting and therefore may be photographed. Hohokam Culture Around 200 CE, the Hohokam culture developed in Arizona as the ancestors of the Tohono O’odham and Akimel O’odham or Pima tribes. The Hohokam are credited as the first culture to master acid etching. Artisans produced jewelry from shell, stone, bone, and carved stone figures. Pottery and textile production also flourished. Inuit Art Inuit art is produced by the people of the Arctic, or Inuit people, who were previously known as Eskimos. Differentiate between the Pre-Dorset, Dorset, Ipiutak, and Thule cultures of North America Key Points - Around 4000 BCE, nomads known as the Pre-Dorset or the Arctic Small Tool tradition (ASTt) crossed over the Bering Strait from Siberia into Alaska, the Canadian Arctic, Greenland, and Newfoundland. The Dorset culture became culturally distinct around 600 BCE. - Walrus and narwhal ivory was historically the preferred material for carving sculptures, utensils, tools, and weapons among Pre-Dorset and Dorset artisans. - The Dorset and Ipiutak communities that inhabited Alaska, the Canadian Arctic, Greenland, and Newfoundland were displaced by the Thule population around 1000 CE. - The Thule carved small, delicate versions of non- utilitarian crafts and ceremonial objects that were easily transportable. They also constructed homes from bones harvested from bowhead whales and other materials. Key Terms - shaman : A holy person believed to mediate between the physical world and the spirit world. - Nomad : A member of a group of people who have no fixed home and move seasonally in search of food, water, and grazing. - Thule : The ancestors of the Canadian Inuit. - Inuit : Any of several Aboriginal peoples of coastal Arctic Canada, Alaska, and Greenland. Inuit art refers to artwork produced by the people of the Arctic, or Inuit people, previously known as Eskimos. Inuit culture begins with the Pre-Dorset cultures as far back as 4000 BCE and spans through the present day. Pre-Dorset and Dorset Cultures Around 4000 BCE, nomads known as the Pre-Dorset or the Arctic Small Tool tradition (ASTt) crossed over the Bering Strait from Siberia into Alaska, the Canadian Arctic, Greenland, and Newfoundland. Very little remains of this culture, and only a few preserved artifacts carved in ivory could be considered works of art. The Dorset culture, which became culturally distinct around 600 BCE, produced a significant amount of figurative art using walrus ivory, bone, caribou antler, and on rare occasions, stone. Ivory from walruses and narwhals was the preferred material for carving utensils, tools, and weapons among Pre-Dorset and Dorset artisans. Subjects included birds, bears, walruses, seals, and human figures, as well as remarkably small masks. These items had a magical or religious significance, and were either worn as amulets to ward off evil spirits or used in shamanic rituals . Archaeology has been critical to knowledge of the Dorset people, who were essentially extinct by 1500 due to difficulty adapting to the Medieval Warming Period. Ipiutak Culture The Ipiutak culture represents a classical period of Inuit development. The culture arose between 100 and 200 BCE and collapsed around 800 CE. The artwork is extremely elaborate, incorporating geometric, animal, and anthropomorphic designs. An Ipiutak archaeological site at Point Hope, Alaska, is renowned for its mortuary offerings , notably mask-like creations. One Point Hope Ipiutak mask represents a human face with a gaping mouth and blowfly larvae issuing from its nostrils, a symbol rife with shamanistic implications. The mask, which belonged to a child, contains a stylized mouth and eyebrows and a naturalistic nose, as if it had been modeled upon an actual face. Two pointed objects likely covered the eyes. Thule Culture Around 1000 CE, the people of the Thule culture, ancestors of today’s Inuit, migrated from northern Alaska and either displaced or slaughtered the earlier Dorset inhabitants. By the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the Thule occupied an area currently inhabited by the Central Inuit, and by the fifteenth century, the Thule had fully replaced the Dorset culture. Contact with Europeans began in the 16th century and intensified in the 18th century. Compounded by the already disruptive effects of the “Little Ice Age” (1650–1850), the Thule communities broke apart, and the people became known as the Eskimos, and later as the Inuit. Thule art had a definite Alaskan influence and included utilitarian objects such as combs, buttons, needle cases, cooking pots, ornate spears, and harpoons. The graphic decorations were purely ornamental, bearing no religious significance. All Thule objects were made by hand from natural materials, including stone, bone, ivory, antler, and animal hides. Nomadic people carried tools necessary for daily living and could take very little else with them. Non-utilitarian objects were also carved in miniature so that they could be carried or worn, such as dance masks, amulets, fetish figures, and intricate combs and figures used to objectify their mythology and oral history. The Classic Thule tradition (1100-1400) relied on the bowhead whale for survival since this species swims slowly and sleeps near the surface of the water. Bowhead whales served many purposes for the Thule people, including meat for food, blubber for oil (used in cooking, heating, and providing light), and bones for building structures and making tools. A Thule site in Resolute Bay , Nunavut, contains an example of a home with a whalebone frame. Woodlands in the East Eastern Woodland cultures are known for their production of a variety of art forms, from pottery to substantial earthen mounds for burial. Distinguish between the early, middle, and late Woodland periods of North America. Key Points - The Woodland Period is divided into early, middle, and late periods , and consisted of cultures that relied mostly on hunting and gathering for subsistence. - Pottery, stone carving and engraved shells are examples of the artwork of the shellfish-subsisting communities of the Early Woodland Period. - The Middle Woodland Period from 200 to 500 CE is known for its jewelry and sculpture. - The Late Woodland Period is traditionally framed as the decline for these hunter-gatherer communities, though many indigenous communities maintained similar lifestyles for several centuries. - The agrarian Mississippian Culture emerged in the Southeast following the Late Woodland Period and is known for creating elaborate mounds, as well as ceramic innovation and work with shells and copper. - Cahokia, a Mississippian site that extended from eastern Missouri to southern Illinois, is best known for its complex mound structure and the only copper workshop of the Woodland cultures. Key Terms - mound builder : Any of several Native American people who constructed large mounds for ceremonial or burial purposes. - long-nosed god maskette : Small shield-shaped face with a squared-off forehead, circular eyes, and large nose. - anneal : A technique that involves heating material until it glows, then slowly allowing to cool to room temperature in still air. - Mississippian : A mound-building, agrarian Native American culture that flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 to 1500 CE. - Southeastern Ceremonial Complex : The name given to the regional stylistic similarity of artifacts, iconography, ceremonies, and mythology of the Mississippian culture that coincided with their adoption of maize agriculture and chiefdom-level complex social organization from 1200 to 1650 CE. The Eastern Woodlands cultures inhabited the regions of North America east of the Mississippi River since at least 2500 BCE. Contact and trade were common among the many regionally distinct Woodlands cultures. They shared the practice of burying their dead in earthen mounds, which preserved many cultural artifacts . Burial mounds in North America are part of an archetypal tradition that includes the pyramids of ancient Egypt. These structures begin on the ground and extend upward toward the sky, acting as a connection between the earthly plane and the spiritual plane. Because of this trait, the cultures are collectively known as the Mound Builders. Early Woodland Period Clay for pottery was typically mixed with non-clay additives such as crushed rock or limestone . Traditional jars were conical, with rounded shoulders, slightly constricted necks, and flaring rims. Pottery was most often decorated with a variety of linear or paddle stamps that created dentate (tooth-like) impressions, wavy line impressions, checked surfaces, or fabric-impressed surfaces. Some pots were incised with geometric patterns or more rarely, pictorial imagery such as faces. Pots were coiled and paddled entirely by hand without the use of fast rotation such as a pottery wheel. Some were slipped or brushed with red ochre . Ceramics made by the Deptford culture (800 BCE-700 CE), inhabitants of the southern East Coast and Gulf Coast, are the earliest evidence of an artistic tradition in this region. The Adena culture is another well-known example. They carved stone tablets with zoomorphic designs, created pottery, and fashioned costumes from animal hides and antlers for ceremonial rituals . Shellfish was a mainstay of their diet, and engraved shells have been found in their burial mounds. Middle Woodland Period The Middle Woodland Period was dominated by cultures of the Hopewell tradition (200 to 500 BCE). Their artwork encompassed a wide variety of jewelry and sculpture in stone, wood, and even human bone. Mound City, located on Ohio Highway 104, is a group of 23 earthen mounds constructed by the Hopewell culture. Each mound within the group covered the remains of a charnel house. After the Hopewell people cremated the dead, they burned the charnel house and constructed a mound over the remains. They also placed artifacts such as copper figures, mica, projectile points, shells, and pipes in the mounds. Late Woodland Period The Late Woodland Period (500 to 1000 CE) saw a decline in trade and in the size of settlements, and the creation of art likewise declined. During this period, the nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle gradually gave way to an agrarian way of life. The Mississippian culture flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 to 1500 CE (following the Late Woodland Period). After adopting maize agriculture, the Mississippian culture became fully agrarian, as opposed to hunting and gathering supplemented by part-time agriculture practiced by preceding woodland cultures. They built larger and more complex platform mounds than those of their predecessors, and finished and developed more advanced ceramic techniques, commonly using ground mussel shell as a tempering agent. Many were involved with the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC), a pan-regional and pan-linguistic religious and trade network. Most known information about the SECC is derived from examination of the elaborate artworks left behind by its participants, including pottery, shell gorgets and cups, stone statuary, copper plates such as the Wulfing cache , and long-nosed god maskettes . Perhaps the most famous mound-building site from this period is Cahokia, which straddles the Mississippi River between the St. Louis, Missouri area and East St. Louis, Illinois. Cahokia was the largest and most influential urban settlement of the Mississippian culture and developed advanced societies across much of what is now the central and southeastern United States, beginning more than 1000 years before European contact. Cahokia’s population at its peak in the thirteenth century was approximately 40,000. Monks Mound is the largest structure and central focus of the city: a massive platform mound with four terraces, 10 stories tall, and the largest human-made earthen mound north of Mexico. The mound was built higher and wider over the course of several centuries through as many as ten separate construction episodes, and the terraces and apron were added. While many Woodland cultures produced copper sculptures, Cahokia was the only Mississippian location to contain a copper workshop. The area contains the remains of three tree stumps thought to have been used to hold anvil stones. Analysis of copper found during excavations showed that it had been annealed. Artisans produced religious items, such as long-nosed god maskettes, ceremonial earrings with a symbolic shape thought to have been used in fictive kinship rituals. By the time of European contact, the Mississippian societies were already experiencing severe social stress . With the social upsets and diseases introduced by Europeans, many of the societies collapsed and ceased to practice a Mississippian lifestyle, with the exception the Natchez people. Other tribes descended from Mississippian cultures include the Caddo, Choctaw, Muskogee Creek, Wichita, and many others. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 383px-Kachina_Doll_(Kokopol),_probably_late_19th_century,_04.297.5575.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=34008942. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-Probably_Bayeta-style_Blanket_with_Terrace_and_Stepped_Design,_1870-1880,_50.67.54.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=34154061. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_arts_by_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Chaco Culture National Historical Park. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaco_Culture_National_Historical_Park. License : CC BY: Attribution - Hopi Kachina Figures. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopi_Kachina_figures. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Xeriscaping. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeriscaping. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Visual Arts by Indigenous Peoples of the Americas. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_arts_by_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas%23Southwest. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hohokam. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohokam%23The_Hohokam_ceramic_tradition. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pueblo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Anasazi. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Anasazi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Navajo. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Navajo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ipiutak Site. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Ipiutak_Site.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Ancient_Thule_Home.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19171183. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Ours_nageant_(Musu00e9e_du_quai_Branly)_(3034045389).jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=24672985. License : CC BY: Attribution - 640px-Masque_funu00e9raire_(musu00e9e_du_quai_Branly)_(3035743812).jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=24672970. License : CC BY: Attribution - Dorset Culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorset_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Inuit Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Thule People. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Thule_people. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Inuit. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Inuit. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nomad. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomad. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Thule. Provided by : Wiktionary. 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Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mound_builder_(people). License : CC BY: Attribution - Hopewell Culture National Historical Park. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopewell_Culture_National_Historical_Park. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mound Builder. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mound_builder. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Deptford Culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Deptford_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Woodland Period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodland_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Annealing (Metallurgy). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cahokia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahokia. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Poverty Point Culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_Point_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Visual Arts by Indigenous Peoples of the Americas. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_arts_by_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas%23Eastern_Woodlands. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Long-Nosed God Maskette. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-nosed_god_maskette. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mississippian. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippian. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeastern%20Ceremonial%20Complex. 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https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/15%3A_Africa_Before_1800_CE	15: Africa Before 1800 CE Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52958 Boundless Boundless 15.1: Ancient Africa 15.2: Sculpture of the Sub-Saharan Civilizations 15.3: Architecture of the Sub-Saharan Civilizations	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:31.101840	2020-05-01T17:29:53	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/15%3A_Africa_Before_1800_CE", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "15: Africa Before 1800 CE", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/15%3A_Africa_Before_1800_CE/15.01%3A_Ancient_Africa	15.1: Ancient Africa Ancient Africa The origins of African art exist long before recorded history, beginning with the evolution of the human species. Over time, the continent became increasingly diverse in culture, politics, and religion. Discuss the cultures of Ancient Africa Key Points - The human species originated on the African continent, making it the oldest inhabited territory on Earth. It was here that cattle were first domesticated and metalworking invented. Climate change in the fifth millennium BCE triggered a migration to the western and tropical areas of the continent. - For much of prehistory , Africa had no nation-states. The Egyptian civilization arose by the late fourth millenium BCE, impacting the northern part of the continent for the next 3,000 years. The fourth century BCE ushered in European exploration and conquest with Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE and the Roman conquest in the late first century BCE. - The early seventh century CE witnessed the spread of Islam into North Africa and eventually into sub-Saharan Africa. - Between the ninth and 18th centuries, Africa contained as many as 10,000 separate nation-states, as well as polities governed by units as small as familial clans. Key Terms - Ife : The first of the Yoruba city-states or kingdoms, which established government under a priestly oba (“king”). - Nri Kingdom of the Ig : One of several independent kingdoms that developed in the forested regions of the West African coast. - San peopl : Familial groups of hunter-gatherers in Southern Africa between the ninth and 18th centuries. - Hausa states : The early dynastic states that had spread across Africa by the ninth century, including Ghana, Gao, and the Kanem-Bornu Empire. - Almoravids : A Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the 11th century. - Banu Hilal and Banu Ma’qil : A collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the 11th and 13th centuries. Africa is considered the oldest inhabited territory on Earth, where the human species originated. During the middle of the 20th century, anthropologists discovered evidence of human occupation as early as seven million years ago. Their findings included fossil remains of early hominid species thought to be ancestors of modern humans. Early Civilizations Throughout humanity’s prehistory, Africa had no nation-states and was instead inhabited by groups of hunter-gatherers such as the Khoi and San. The domestication of cattle preceded agriculture. It is speculated that by 6,000 BCE, cattle were already domesticated in North Africa. In 4,000 BCE, climate change led to increasing desertification, which contributed to migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of West Africa. By the first millennium BCE, ironworking began in Northern Africa and quickly spread across the Sahara into the northern parts of sub-Saharan Africa. By 500 BCE, metalworking was fully established in many areas of East and West Africa. Copper objects from Egypt, North Africa, Nubia, and Ethiopia dating from around 500 BCE have been excavated in West Africa, suggesting that trans-Saharan trade networks had been established by this date. At about 3300 BCE, the Pharaonic civilization of Ancient Egypt came to power, a reign that lasted until 343 BCE. Egyptian influence reached deeply into modern Libya, north to Crete and Canaan, and south to the kingdoms of Aksum and Nubia. European exploration of Africa began with Ancient Greeks and Romans. In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great founded Alexandria in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty after his death. Following the conquest of North Africa’s Mediterranean coastline by the Roman Empire, the area was integrated economically and culturally into the Roman system. Christianity soon spread across the region. In the early seventh century, the newly formed Arabian Islamic Caliphate expanded into Egypt and then into North Africa. Islamic North Africa became a diverse hub for mystics, scholars, jurists, and philosophers. Islam spread to sub-Saharan Africa, mainly through trade routes and migration. Ninth to Eighteenth Centuries Precolonial Africa possessed as many as 10,000 different states and polities characterized by many sorts of political organization and rule. These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers, such as the San people of southern Africa; larger, more structured groups, such as the family clan groupings of the Bantu-speaking people of central and southern Africa; heavily structured clan groups in the Horn of Africa; the large Sahelian kingdoms; autonomous city-states and kingdoms such as those of the Akan; Edo , Yoruba , and Igbo peoples in West Africa; and the Swahili coastal trading towns of East Africa. By the ninth century a string of dynastic states, including the earliest Hausa states, stretched across the sub-Saharan savanna from the western regions to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were Ghana, Gao, and the Kanem-Bornu Empire. Ghana declined in the 11th century and was succeeded by the Mali Empire, which consolidated much of western Sudan in the 13th century. Kanem accepted Islam in the 11th century. In the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms such as the Nri Kingdom of the Igbo grew up with little influence from the Muslim north. The Ife, historically the first of the Yoruba city-states or kingdoms, established government under a priestly oba (“king”). The Almoravids were a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the 11th century. The Banu Hilal and Banu Ma’qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the 11th and 13th centuries. Following the breakup of Mali, the Songhai Empire was founded in middle Niger and the western Sudan. Its leader Sonni Ali and his successor Askia Mohammad I (1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques , and brought scholars to Gao Muslim. Slavery had long been practiced in Africa. Between the seventh and 20th centuries, the Arab slave trade took 18 million slaves via the Trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean routes. Between the 15th and 19th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated seven to 12 million slaves to the New World . Art of Ancient Africa The art of ancient Africa is characterized by surviving sculptures, rock art, and architectural ruins. Provide an overview of sculpture, architecture, and rock art produced by cultures of ancient Africa Key Points - Africa is home to a rich history and diverse visual art. However, because most ancient art consisted of perishable materials, few works survive. - Human and animal forms are common in ancient African art, appearing in rock art imagery and sculptures in the round. Some cultures influenced the art of Europeans with whom they had contact. - While abstraction and stylization dominated the art of ancient Africa, some cultures produced strikingly naturalistic depictions of human heads, snail shells, and other organic forms. - Ancient architecture tended to be load-bearing and constructed from a variety of durable and perishable materials. - A rare surviving example of two-dimensional art, rock art provides a glimpse into a northern Africa that was a grassland as opposed to its modern desert. Key Terms - votive : Dedicated or given in fulfillment of a vow or pledge. African art constitutes one of the most diverse legacies on earth. Though many casual observers tend to generalize “traditional” African art, the continent consists of a breadth of people, societies, and civilizations , each with a unique visual culture. As the birthplace of the human species, Africa is the home of some of the oldest existing art forms. But because most were produced from wood and other highly perishable materials, few artworks produced before the 19th century survive. Examples include terra cotta sculptures, rock carvings, and architectural ruins. The art of ancient African was just as diverse as its cultures, languages, and political structures. Most cultures preferred abstract and stylized forms of humans, plants, and animals, but they had a range of distinct approaches and techniques. Some cultures preferred more naturalistic depictions of human faces and other organic forms. The Nubian Kingdom of Kush in modern Sudan was in close and often hostile contact with Egypt, and produced monumental sculpture mostly derivative of styles that did not spread to the north. In West Africa, the earliest known sculptures are from the Nok culture, which thrived between 500 BCE and 500 CE in modern Nigeria. These clay figures typically had elongated bodies and angular shapes. Human and Animal Forms The human figure has always been a primary subject of African art, and this emphasis even influenced certain European traditions. For example, in the 15th century, Portugal traded with the Sapi culture near Côte d’Ivoire in West Africa, whose residents created elaborate ivory saltcellars that were hybrids of African and European designs. This was most notable in the addition of the human figure, which typically did not appear in Portuguese saltcellars. European subjects can be distinguished by their clothing and hairstyles. The human figure might symbolize the living or the dead. Possible subjects include chiefs, dancers, drummers, or hunters. They might be anthropomorphic representations of gods or ancestors or even have votive functions. Even before contact with the Europeans, some African cultures opted for naturalistic depictions over the dominant preference for abstraction and stylization. This can be seen in the Yoruba portrait bronzes of Ile-Ife, which include indented and incised details that might represent ritual scarification . The bronzes of Igbo-Ukwu pay special attention to detail depicting birds, snails, chameleons, and other natural aspects of the world. The objects are so fine that small insects were included on some surfaces. Each bronzes was produced in one piece. Architecture and Saharan Rock Art Architectural ruins in locations such as Mali and Zimbabwe demonstrate the popularity of load-bearing architecture in such diverse materials as adobe and stone. In areas like Mali and Igbo-Ukwu, buildings constructed from perishable materials continue to be built or rebuilt in traditional styles that provide a window into the past. Painted and incised scenes on caves, boulders, and other rock formations in the Sahara provide a glimpse of life in this now-desert region when it was a grassland with ample water supplies over 10,000 years ago. Imagery includes scenes such as farming, hunting, and swimming. Rock Art in the Sahara Ancient rock art in the Sahara provides a window into the art and culture of the prehistoric peoples of Africa. Define rock art and locate examples such as the Cave of Swimmers, Tassili n’Ajjer, and Jebel Uweinat. Key Points - The Sahara, located in northern Africa, was the home of many complex human settlements dating from the Neolithic period. - Images carved and painted on natural rocks depict vibrant and vivid scenes from the Neolithic period, such as animals, hunting, and dancing. - Among the most famous sites are the Cave of Swimmers in Libya, Tassili n’Ajjer in Algeria, and Jebel Uweinat near the border of Libya, Egypt, and Sudan. Key Terms - pictograph : A painting or drawing on a rock face, typically made with mineral earths and other natural compounds. - pastoralist : A person involved in raising livestock. - petroglyph : An engraving or carving into a rock face, usually created with a hammerstone, chisel, or fine metal blade. Ancient rock and cave art can be found throughout the Sahara desert, providing a significant window into the art and culture of the prehistoric peoples of Africa. The Sahara, located in northern Africa, was the home of many complex human settlements dating from the Neolithic period. The region has a long history of climate change, and the desert area of today was once a savanna. Images carved and painted on natural rocks depict vibrant and vivid scenes from the Neolithic Subpluvial period. Most Saharan rock art dates to a period that climatologists call the Neolithic Subpluvial period. This was the most recent of a number of periods known as “Wet Sahara” or “Green Sahara,” during which the region was much less arid and supported a richer biota and human population than the modern desert. Most rock art depicts hunting scenes, but others include animals, dancing, and people involved in everyday life. With the help of these pictographs and petroglyphs , archaeologists and scientists can piece together information about the complex societies that once inhabited the region. The Cave of the Swimmers The Cave of Swimmers is among the most famous examples of rock art in the Sahara. Located in the mountainous Gilf Kebir plateau of the Libyan Desert, the cave and its art were discovered in 1933 by the Hungarian explorer László Almásy. It contains Neolithic pictographs of people swimming estimated to have been created between 6,000 and 10,000 years ago, when wet climatic conditions maintained bodies of water deep enough for swimming and diving. Tassili n’Ajjer Tassili n’Ajjer is a mountain range in the Algerian section of the Sahara Desert, noted for its prehistoric rock art depicting herds of cattle, large wild animals such as antelopes, and human activities such as hunting and dancing. The art has strong stylistic links to the pre-Nguni Art of South Africa, executed in caves by the San Peoples before the year 1200 BCE. First discovered in 1933, more than 15,000 petroglyphs have been identified at Tassili n’Ajjer. Jebel Uweinat Jebel Uweinat is a large mountain made of granite and sandstone located at the borders of Libya, Egypt, and Sudan. It harbors one of the richest concentrations of prehistoric rock art in the entire Sahara, mainly of the Neolithic cattle pastoralist cultures, but also a number of older paintings from hunter-gatherer societies. Other important regions of rock art include Tadrart Acacus, Libya; South Oran, Algeria; Tibesti, Chad; Mesak Settafet, Libya; Djelfa, Algeria; Ahaggar, Algeria; Draa River, Morocco; Figuig, Morocco; the Aïr Mountains, Niger, and throughout Mauritania. One petroglyph in Mauritania depicts pastoralists on horseback as they tend their livestock. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 515px-African-civilizations-map-pre-colonial.svg.png. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2660560 . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - African Empires. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/African_empires. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Africa. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Bronze_ceremonial_vessel_in_form_of_a_snail_shell,_9th_century,_Igbo-Ukwu,_Nigeria.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=29327236. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Yoruba-bronze-head.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4438424. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - A man ride a horse,Nok terracotta figurine. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_man_ride_a_horse,Nok_terracotta_figurine.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 480px-Lisboa-Museu_Nacional_de_Arte_Antiga-Saleiro-20140917.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=38165614%20. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Saharan Rock Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Saharan_rock_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kingdom of Nri. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nri#Art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Yoruba People. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_people#Traditional_art_and_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - African Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/African_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Votive. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/votive. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - WadiSuraHumans. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WadiSuraHumans.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Mauritania_Herders.jpg. Provided by : Flickr. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/gbaku/469184511 . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 478px-Rock_art_at_Balho.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=35163887. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Sleeping_Antelope_Tin_Taghirt.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=14842019. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - African_cave_paintings.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6006212. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Neolithic Subpluvial. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Subpluvial. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Jebel Uweinat. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Jebel_Uweinat. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Rock Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Saharan Rock Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Saharan_rock_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tassili n'Ajjer. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tassili_n'Ajjer. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cave of Swimmers. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_of_Swimmers. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pastoralist. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pastoralist. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pictograph. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/pictograph. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Petroglyph. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/petroglyph. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:31.206179	2020-05-01T17:33:32	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/15%3A_Africa_Before_1800_CE/15.01%3A_Ancient_Africa", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "15.1: Ancient Africa", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/15%3A_Africa_Before_1800_CE/15.02%3A_Sculpture_of_the_Sub-Saharan_Civilizations	15.2: Sculpture of the Sub-Saharan Civilizations Sculpture of the Nok Two of the best examples of ancient terra cotta sculptures are from the Nok culture in Nigeria and from an ancient culture who lived near modern Lydenburg, South Africa. Compare the ancient terra cotta sculptures from the Nok culture in Nigeria to those found near present-day Lydenburg, South Africa Key Points - The Nok culture , existing in Nigeria from around 1500 BCE to 200 CE, was the earliest sub-Saharan producer of life-sized terra cotta sculptures. - The large Nok sculptures are hollow, with detailed, stylized features. Striking similarities between terra cotta Nok sculptures and later wooden sculptures by Yoruba sculptors have led scholars to speculate whether the two cultures are related. - While the function of Nok sculptures is largely unknown, theories include use as grave markers, ancestral portrayal, or charms to protect against crop failure, infertility, or illness. - The Lydenburg Heads are human-shaped terra cotta sculptures discovered in Lydenburg, South Africa. Their image has since become associated with awards for achievement in the arts. Key Terms - terra cotta : A hard red-brown unglazed earthenware, used for pottery and building construction. - finial : Any decorative fitting at the peak of a flagpole, fence post or staircase newel post. The earliest identified Nigerian culture is the Nok culture, which thrived between 1500 BCE and 200 CE on the Jos Plateau in northeastern Nigeria. Information is lacking from the first millennium BCE following the Nok ascendancy. However, by the second millennium BCE, active trade routes had developed from Ancient Egypt via Nubia through the Sahara to the forest. Savanna peoples acted as intermediaries in exchanges of various goods. Reasons for the Nok’s sudden disappearance remains unknown. Nok and Lydenburg Terra Cotta Sculptures Ancient terra cotta sculptures in the form of human bodies or heads have been found in several areas of sub-Saharan Africa, providing glimpses into the cultures that existed in the region. Two of the best examples are from the Nok culture in present-day Nigeria and from an ancient culture living near the present-day town of Lydenburg, South Africa. Nok Similarities in artwork suggest the Nok culture evolved into the later Yoruba culture of Ife. One example is this sculpture of a woman, which bears a striking resemblance to an early 20th-century sculpture of a king and queen mother by the Yoruba artist Olowe of Ise. The Nok culture was the earliest sub-Saharan producer of life-sized terra cotta sculptures. The first scattered fragments were discovered on the Jos Plateau during a tin mining expedition in 1928. The terra cotta figures are hollow, and while some include plant and animal motifs , the most well-known are of human heads and bodies that often reach life-sized proportions. These human sculptures contain very detailed and stylized features, abundant jewelry, and varied postures. Some even illustrate physical ailments, disease, or facial paralysis. While their function is largely unknown, theories include use as ancestor portrayal, grave markers, finials for roofs of buildings, or charms to protect against crop failure, infertility, or illness. Researchers suggest that Nok ceramics were likely shaped by hand from coarse-grained clay and then sculpted with a technique similar to wood carving. After drying, the sculptures were covered with slip and polished to produce a smooth, glossy surface. The firing process probably resembled that used today in Nigeria, in which the sculptures are covered with grass, twigs, and leaves and burned for several hours. Lydenburg Lydenburg, a town in Mpumalanga, South Africa, is also known for the discovery of some of the earliest forms of African sculpture. The Lydenburg Heads (400-500 CE) are terra cotta sculptures similar to those of the Nok. Found in the area in the late 1950s, their function is still unknown, although they likely served a ritualistic purposes as masks, ornamentation, or part of ceremonial regalia. Since their discovery, these heads have come to symbolize African art and won multiple awards. The image of the Lydenburg head can be seen both on the badge given by the South African Order of Ikhamanga representing achievement in the arts and in the Golden Horn trophy of the South African Film and Television Awards, which signifies excellence in visual creative arts, performance, and drama. Sculpture of the Igbo-Ukwu The Nigerian town of Igbo-Ukwu is notable for archaeological sites where highly sophisticated bronze artifacts were discovered. Describe the discovery, production, and function of Igbo bronze art, masquerades, sculptures, and mbari Key Points - Excavations in Igbo-Ukwu have found highly sophisticated bronze artifacts from the earliest known age of bronze casting , dating to the ninth or tenth century CE. - The three sites were discovered from 1938-1959 and include Igbo Isaiah (a shrine), Igbo Richard (a burial chamber), and Igbo Jonah (a cache ). - These artifacts are likely from the burial of a highly important person. They include ritual vessels , pendants, crowns and breastplates, jewelry, ceramics , copper and iron objects, and thousands of glass beads. - The bronze castings, made in stages using the lost wax technique, illustrate the artisans’ high level of skill. - In addition to the artifacts at Igbo-Ukwu, the Igbo people are known for hammered jewelry, masks, Mbari houses, and mud sculptures. Key Terms - cache : A store of things that may be required in the future such as food, which can be retrieved rapidly but is protected or hidden in some way. Igbo-Ukwu, a town of the Igbo people in southeastern Nigeria, is notable for three archaeological sites where excavations have found bronze artifacts from a sophisticated metal-working culture dating to the ninth or tenth century. This is the earliest known example of a bronze-casting society in the region by hundreds of years. The first of the sites, Igbo Isaiah, is a shrine uncovered in 1938 by Isaiah Anozie, a local villager who stumbled upon the bronze works while digging beside his home. Subsequent excavations by Thurston Shaw in 1959 resulted in the discovery of two other sites: Igbo Richard, a burial chamber, and Igbo Jonah, thought to be a cache. Some metal objects were hammered into their current forms , including many pieces of jewelry. A woman’s anklet now housed in the British Museum consists of a central leg tube that extends over an inch beyond the center (approximately 2.75 inches in diameter). Its disk is incised with intricate abstract designs. Igbo Bronze Art Most bronze sculptures were made in stages using the lost wax technique, an ancient casting process commonly using wax. Many of the castings integrated small decorative items and designs, showing the artisans’ high level of skill. Some of the bronzes were likely part of the furniture in the burial chamber of a king or other noble. In addition to a variety of ritual vessels, bronze items include pendants, crowns and breastplates, staff ornaments , swords, and fly-whisk handles . Other artifacts discovered in the sites include jewelry, ceramics, a corpse adorned in what appears to be regalia, and many assorted copper and iron objects. Tens of thousands of glass beads were also discovered, suggesting a long-distance trading system with places as far away as Egypt, Venice , or India. Other Examples of Igbo Art Prior to British colonialism , the Igbo were a fragmented and diverse group, a quality reflected in its artistic styles . Besides the bronze artifacts discovered in the twentieth century, Igbo art is generally known for various types of masquerade masks and outfits symbolizing people, animals, or abstract images. The New Yam Festival is an annual cultural festival held at the end of the rainy season in early August to symbolize the conclusion of a harvest and the beginning of the next work cycle. The celebration ties individual Igbo communities together as essentially agrarian and dependent on yam. Igbo art is also famous for Mbari houses , large open-sided square planned shelters containing life-sized mud sculptures. These painted figures–sculpted in the form of deities , animals, legendary creatures, ancestors, officials, craftsmen, and foreigners–are made to appease the earth goddess. The process of building Mbari houses often takes years and is regarded as sacred. Therefore, new ones are regularly constructed, while old ones are left to decay. A unique structure of Igbo culture is the Nsude Pyramids , a group of ten pyramidal clay and mud structures built as temples for the goddess Ala/Uto , believed to reside at the top. Everyday houses were made of mud and thatched roofs and had bare earth floors with carved doors. Some houses had elaborate designs both in the interior and exterior, including Uli art designed by Igbo women. Ile-Ife and Benin Sculpture The Yoruba and Benin cultures produced bronze and ivory sculptures in modern Nigeria from the 13th through the 19th centuries. Describe the characteristics of Ile-Ife and Benin sculpture Key Points - Ife is home to the Yoruba people in southwestern Nigeria. The city was established near the ninth century CE, and reached its artistic peak between 1200 and 1400 CE. - Ife is most well-known for its bronze sculptures, typically in a naturalistic style . Stone and terra cotta artwork was also common, and leaders were often depicted with large heads to indicate their power. - The Benin Empire, which ruled Nigeria from the 11th to the late 19th century, produced sculptures in a wide variety of media for political, social, and religious purposes. - In the 15th century, contact with Portuguese traders and colonists resulted in the incorporation of European styles into Benin art. Key Terms - terra cotta : A hard red-brown unglazed earthenware used for pottery and building construction. - deities : Divine beings; gods or goddesses. Yoruba Ife is the home to the Yoruba people of southwestern Nigeria, located in the present-day Osun State. The Yoruba people comprise one of the largest ethnic groups in Sub-Saharan Africa, constituting close to 40 million people predominantly in Nigeria. Evidence of habitation at the site dates to as early as 600 BCE. Some evidence suggests the Yoruba developed from the Nok culture (1000 BCE–500 CE). The meaning of the word “ife” in Yoruba is “expansion.” According to Yoruba faith, the city of Ife is where all of humanity originated: Oduduwa created the world where Ife would be built, and his brother Obatala created the first humans out of clay. The city was a settlement of substantial size between the ninth and 12th centuries CE. Production of Yoruba artwork reached its peak between 1200 and 1400 CE, after which it declined as political and economic power shifted to the nearby kingdom of Benin. Artwork of Ife Ife is best known for its naturalistic bronze sculptures. Hollow-cast bronze art created by the Yoruba culture provides an example of realism in precolonial African art. Important people were often depicted with large heads, as the Yoruba believed that the Ase, or inner power and energy of a person, resided in the head. Their rulers were often depicted with their mouths covered so that the power of their speech would not be too great . Stone and terra cotta artwork were also common in Ife. More elaborate festivals organized to worship deities were also common. These would often extend over several days and involve theatrical dramatizations in the palace and kingdom. In his book “The Oral Traditions in Ile-Ife,” Yemi D. Prince referred to the terra cotta artists of 900 CE as the founders of art guilds , cultural schools of philosophy similar to Europe’s old institutions of learning. These guilds may be some of the oldest non-Abrahamic African centers of learning still in existence. Benin The Benin Empire was a precolonial African kingdom that ruled Nigeria from the eleventh century to 1897. Not to be confused with the present-day country of Benin, this empire dissolved into what is today the Edo State of Nigeria, marked by the capital , Benin City. At its height, the empire developed an advanced artistic culture and produced beautiful artifacts of bronze, iron and ivory . Art of Benin The Benin Empire was known for its many works of art, including religious objects, ceremonial weapons, masks, animal heads, figurines , busts, and plaques. Typically made from bronze, brass, clay, ivory, terra cotta, or wood, most pieces were produced at the court of the Oba (king) and used to illustrate achievements of the empire or narrate mythical stories. Iconic imagery depicted religious, social, and cultural issues central to their beliefs, and many bronze plaques featured representations of the Oba. Various works promoted theological and religious piety, while others narrated past events and achievements (actual or mythical). During the reign of the Kingdom of Benin, the characteristics of the artwork shifted from thin castings and careful treatment to thick, less defined castings and generalized features. One of the most common artifacts today is the ivory mask based on Queen Idia, the mother of Oba Esigie who ruled from 1504-1550. Now commonly known as the Festac mask, it was used in 1977 as the logo of the Nigeria-hosted Second Festival of Black & African Arts and Culture. Another object unique to Benin art is the Ikegobo (“altars to the hand”), a cylindrical votive object. Used as a cultural marker of an individual’s accomplishments, Ikegobo were dedicated to the hand, from which the Beninese considered all will for wealth and success to originate. These commemorative objects were made of brass, wood, terra cotta, or clay depending on the patron ‘s hierarchical ranking. Portuguese Influence The peak of the Benin art occurred in the fifteenth century with the arrival of the Portuguese missionaries and traders. By that point, Benin was already highly militarized and economically developed. However, the arrival of the Portuguese catalyzed a process of even greater political and artistic development. Because of Benin’s military strength, Portuguese missionaries were unable to enslave its people upon their arrival in the fifteenth century. Instead, a trade network was established in which the Benin Empire traded beautiful works of art for luxury items from Portugal, such as beads, cloth, and brass manillas for casting. The wealth of Benin’s art was credited with preventing the empire from becoming economically dependent on the Portuguese. As trade flourished, Benin art began to depict European influence through technique, imagery, and themes. Bronze work reached its height during this era, and today the Benin Bronzes are regarded as some of the finest works of that time. These depict a variety of scenes including animals, court life, Portuguese sailors, and relationships between the Benin Empire and the Portuguese. They were cast in matching pairs (although each was individually made), and may have originally been nailed to walls and pillars in the palace as decoration. In 1897, the British led the Punitive Expedition in which they ransacked the Benin kingdom and destroyed or confiscated much of their artwork. Over 3,000 brass plaques were seized and are now held in museums around the world. In 1936, Oba Akenzua II began a movement to return the art to its place of origin. Nigeria bought approximately 50 bronzes from the British Museum between the 1950s and 1970s and has repeatedly called for the return of the remainder. Sculpture of the Kingdom of Kongo The Kingdom of Kongo was a highly developed state in the 13th century, best known for its nkisi (power objects). Discuss the function of Kongolese nkisi and nkondi Key Points - The Kingdom of Kongo was first established in the 13th century and was a highly developed state by the time of European contact. - Kongo had an extensive trading network that included ivory , copperware, ferrous metal goods, cloth, and pottery. - Nkisi are containers such as ceramic vessels , gourds, animal horns, or shells designed to hold spiritually-charged substances. They were believed to aid in communication with the dead. - Nkisi made in the shape of humans or animals were often used in divination practices for healing or good fortune. - Nkondi , whose etymological root comes from the word meaning “to hunt,” are believed to protect the user from forces of evil. Key Terms - ferrous : Iron-based. - anthropomorphic : Having the form or attributes of a human. - zoomorphic : Having the shape, form, or likeness of an animal. The Kingdom of the Kongo was an African kingdom located in west central Africa in what is now northern Angola, Cabinda, the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the southernmost part of Gabon. At its greatest extent, it reached from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Kwango River in the east, and from the Congo River in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. The first king of the Kingdom was Lukeni lua Nimi (circa 1280-1320). By the time of the first recorded contact with the Europeans, the kingdom was a highly developed state at the center of an extensive trading network. Apart from natural resources and ivory, the country manufactured and traded copperware, ferrous metal goods, raffia cloth, and pottery. The eastern regions were particularly famous for cloth production. Artistically, the Kingdom of Kongo is perhaps best known for its nkisi (singular: minkisi ) , objects believed to be inhabited by spirits. Early travelers often called nkisi “fetishes” or “idols,” as some were made in human form . Modern anthropology has generally called them either “power objects” or “charms.” As in many African cultures , the Kongo religion placed great importance on communication with ancestors, believing that exceptional human powers could result from this communication. Nkisi were containers such as ceramic vessels, gourds, animal horns, or shells, designed to hold spiritually charged substances. Sometimes considered “portable graves,” elements like earth or relics from the grave of a powerful individual were often placed in the bellies of nkisi . The powers of the dead thus infused the object, placing it under control of the ngaga (healer, diviner, or mediator). Nkisi were often used in divination practices, for healing, or for good fortune in hunting, trade, or sex. Most famously, nkisi take the form of anthropomorphic or zoomorphic wooden carvings. Birds of prey, dogs (closely tied to the spiritual world in Kongo theology), lightning, weapons, and fire are all common themes. The substances chosen for inclusion in nkisi are frequently called “ bilongo ” or “ milongo ” (singular nlongo ) a word often translated as “medicine.” However, their operation was not primarily pharmaceutical, as they were not applied to or ingested by the infirm. Rather, they were frequently chosen for metaphoric reasons, such as correcting illicit behavior. Nkondi – often referred to as “nail fetishes” – are an aggressive type of nkisi that were thought to be activated by having nails driven into them. Each nail or metal piece represented a vow, a signed treaty, and efforts to abolish evil. Although nkisi nkondi have probably been made since at least the 16th century, the nailed figures were most likely made in the northern part of the Kongo in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The name nkondi derives from the verb -konda , meaning “to hunt” and thus nkondi means “hunter” because they can hunt down and attack evildoers or enemies. The object’s primary function is to house a spirit that can hunt down the source or sources of evil that threaten an individual or an entire village. While some nkondi figures appear relatively benign, like the example above, others assume more aggressive body language and facial expressions to demonstrate their ability to attack evildoers successfully. Some nkondi assume zoomorphic forms, such as this sculpture of a protective wild animal. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 360px-Iziko_Lydenburg_Heads_2.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=33704580. License : CC BY: Attribution - Order of Ikhamanga. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Order_of_Ikhamanga.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Nok sculpture Louvre 70-1998-11-1. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Nok_terracotta_figurine.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3290149. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Early History of Nigeria. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_history_of_Nigeria. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lyndenburg Heads. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydenburg_heads. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Olowe of Ise. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Olowe_of_Ise. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Terracotta. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/terracotta. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - South African Film and Television Awards. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Film_and_Television_Awards. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nok Culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nok_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lydenburg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydenburg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Order of Ikhamanga. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Ikhamanga. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Finial. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/finial. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Igbo_Mbari.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6441276. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 555px-Igbo_brass_anklet.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Igbo_brass_anklet.jpg#/media/File:Igbo_brass_anklet.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Igbo ukwu bronzes. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Igbo_ukwu_bronzes.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-NewYam-IgboFestival-Dublin.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5090508. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Igbo Ukwu vessel. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Igbo_Ukwu_vessel.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Igbo Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Igbo_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mbari (Art). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbari_(art). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nsude Pyramids. Provided by : Afropedea. Located at : http://www.afropedea.org/nsude-pyramids . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pyramid. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid#Nigeria. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ala (Odinani). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ala_(odinani). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - New Yam Festival of the Igbo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Yam_Festival_of_the_Igbo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Igbo people. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Igbo_people. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Igbo-Ukwu. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Igbo-Ukwu. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Igbo-Ukwu. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cache. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cache. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - nin-kingdom-louvre-a97-4-1.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Benin_kingdom_Louvre_A97-4-1.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 800px-benin-bronzes.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Benin_Bronzes.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 220px-edo-ivory-mask-18472.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edo_ivory_mask_18472.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ife Kings Head. Provided by : Wikipedia. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Statue_vili-Congo.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19637074. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 250px-Nkisi_Nkondi,_Congo,_c._1880-1920_-_IMG_1628.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11321400. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 515px-African-civilizations-map-pre-colonial.svg.png. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2660560. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 332px-Brooklyn_Museum_87.218.117_Figure_Nkisi.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=22509721. License : CC BY: Attribution - Female Power Figure (Nkisi Nkonde). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_Power_Figure_(Nkisi_Nkonde).jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bowl by the Kongo peoples. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bowl_by_the_Kongo_peoples.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nkondi. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nkondi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kongo People. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_people. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kingdom of Kongo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nkisi. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nkisi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Anthropomorphic. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anthropomorphic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Zoomorphic. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zoomorphic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:31.344758	2020-05-01T17:33:34	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/15%3A_Africa_Before_1800_CE/15.02%3A_Sculpture_of_the_Sub-Saharan_Civilizations", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "15.2: Sculpture of the Sub-Saharan Civilizations", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/15%3A_Africa_Before_1800_CE/15.03%3A_Architecture_of_the_Sub-Saharan_Civilizations	15.3: Architecture of the Sub-Saharan Civilizations Architecture of Djenne Djenné, once a thriving town in Mali, is known for its Great Mosque. This is the largest example of Sudanese-style mud-brick architecture. Locate Djenné in time and place, and describe its Sudanese-style mud-brick architecture Key Points - From the 11th to 13th centuries, Djenné was a leading commercial center in west Africa. After its decline during the rise of the Mali Empire, it continued to operate as an important trading post through the 17th century. - The town, designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988, is famous for its distinctive Sudanese- style mud-brick architecture. - The Great Mosque , originally built in the 13th or 14th century and then rebuilt in 1907, is the largest mud brick building in the world. It is considered by many architects the greatest achievement of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style, with clear Islamic influence. Key Terms - pilaster : A rectangular column that projects partially from the wall to which it is attached; it gives the appearance of support, but is only for decoration. - façade : The face of a building, especially the front. - load-bearing : Architectural structural system in which the walls form the main source of support for the building. - qibla : The direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during the Call to Prayer. - minaret : A tower outside a mosque from which a muezzin leads the Call to Prayer. - parapet : Part of a perimeter that extends above the roof. History Djenné is a town and an urban commune in the inland Niger Delta region of central Mali. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, Djenné was a leading commercial center in West Africa. As a major terminal in the gold, salt, and slave trade of the trans-Saharan trade route, it flourished for several centuries. Much of the trans-Saharan trade in and out of Timbuktu passed through Djenné. Djenné was also a chief center of Sudanese Islam in this period. Its Great Mosque was an important pillar of religious life. However, the rise of the Mali Empire in the 13th century contributed to the civilization’s steady decline, and its brief period of dominance ended when it was reduced to a tributary state. Between the 14th and 17th centuries, Djenné and Timbuktu were both important trading posts in a long-distance trade network. Both towns became centers of Islamic scholarship, and in the 17th century Djenné was a thriving center of learning. The town is famous for its distinctive Sudanese-style mud-brick architecture, most notably the Great Mosque. To the south of the town is Djenné-Jéno, the site of one of the oldest-known towns in sub-Saharan Africa. Djenné, together with Djenné-Jéno and the Great Mosque, was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988. Architecture Nearly all of the buildings in the town consist of load-bearing walls made from sun-baked mud bricks coated with mud plaster. Because the walls are load-bearing, doors and windows must be small and few, often resulting in dark interiors. In Djenné, the mud-brick buildings need to be replastered with mud at least every other year. Even then, the annual rains can cause serious damage. Older buildings are often entirely rebuilt. Traditional houses are two stories with flat roofs built around a small central courtyard. Constructed with imposing façades featuring pilaster-like buttresses , many have elaborate arrangements of pinnacles forming a parapet above the entrance door. The façades are decorated with bundles of rodier palm sticks called toron , that project away from the wall and serve as a type of scaffolding. Ceramic pipes extend from the roofline to protect the walls from rain water damage. Many houses built before 1900 are in the Toucouleur-style and have a massive covered porch set between two large buttresses. These houses generally have a single small window onto the street set above the entrance door. The Great Mosque The rise of Islam witnessed a steady construction of mosques in the region. Sudano-Sahelian architecture reproduces the sacred architecture of Mecca in mud-brick and other local materials. Similar styles are evident in mosques in Ghana and Tunisia. The Great Mosque of Djenné is the largest mud-brick or adobe building in the world, considered by many architects to be the greatest achievement of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style with definite Islamic influences. As well as being the center of religious and community life, it is one of the most famous landmarks in Africa. The actual date of construction of the original mosque is unknown, but dates as early as 1200 and as late as 1330 have been suggested. Falling into disrepair over the centuries, the French administration arranged for the original mosque to be rebuilt in 1907. The position of at least some of the outer walls appears follows those of the original mosque, but it is unclear as to whether the columns supporting the roof kept to the previous arrangement. What was almost certainly novel in the rebuilt mosque was the symmetric arrangement of three large towers in the qibla wall. There has been debate as to what extent the design of the rebuilt mosque was subject to French influence. The qibla , which faces the direction of Mecca, is dominated by three large, box-like minarets jutting out from the main wall, each topped with an ostrich egg. The central minaret is approximately 48 feet tall. The eastern wall is roughly three feet thick and strengthened on the exterior by 18 buttresses. The corners are formed by rectangular buttresses topped by pinnacles. The prayer hall, measuring about 85 by 164 feet, occupies the eastern half of the mosque behind the qibla wall. The mud-covered, rodier-palm roof is supported by nine interior walls running north-south and pierced by pointed arches that reach almost to the roof. In the prayer hall, each of the three towers in the qibla wall has a niche or mihrab . The imam conducts the prayers from the mihrab in the larger central tower. A narrow opening in the ceiling of the central mihrab connects with a small room situated above roof level in the tower. To the right of the mihrab in the central tower is a second niche, the pulpit or minbar , from which the imam preaches his Friday sermon. Architecture of Aksun and Lalibela Aksum and Lalibela were cities in northern Ethiopia that accomplished great feats of architecture. Identify the famous rock-cut churches of Lalibela and the stelae, obelisk, and Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion of Aksum. Key Points - Aksum was the original capital of the Kingdom of Aksum, a naval and trading power that ruled the region from about 400 BCE to the 10th century. - The stelae were large stone towers that served as grave markers and reached up to 33 meters high. - In 1937, the 24-meter tall, 1,700-year-old Obelisk of Aksum was discovered. Today it is widely regarded as one of the finest examples of engineering from the height of the Aksumite empire. - The Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion, believed to house the Ark of the Covenant, bears a design similar to that of Eastern Orthodox churches in Europe. Its most recent building, constructed in the 1950s, has a dome similar to the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul. - Lalibela is a holy town most famous for its churches carved from the living rock, which play an important part in the history of rock-cut architecture . Its buildings, built in the 11th and 12th centuries, are considered symbolic representations of Jerusalem. Key Terms - Obelisk : A tall, square, tapered stone monolith topped with a pyramidal point, frequently used as a monument. - rock-cut architecture : The creation of structures by excavating solid rock where it naturally occurs. Aksum Aksum (sometimes spelled Axum) is a city in northern Ethiopia that was the original capital of the Kingdom of Aksum. A naval and trading power, the kingdom ruled the region from about 400 BCE to the 10th century, reaching its height under King Ezana (baptized as Abreha) in the fourth century. The stelae are the most identifiable part of the Aksumite legacy. These stone towers marked graves and were often engraved with a pattern or emblem denoting the person’s rank. The largest number are in the Northern Stelae Park, ranging to the grand size of the Great Stele (33 meters high, 2.35 meters deep, and 520 tons), which is believed to have fallen and broken during construction. The stelae have most of their mass above- ground but are stabilized by massive underground counterweights. Aksum is best known for the 1937 discovery of the 24-meter tall, 1,700-year-old Obelisk of Axum. Broken into five parts, it was found on the ground and shipped by Italian soldiers to Rome to be erected. The obelisk is widely regarded as one of the finest examples of engineering from the height of the Aksumite empire, and in 2005 it was finally returned to Aksum. The Church of St. Mary of Zion, an Orthodox church built in 1665 and said to contain the Ark of the Covenant, is actually a reconstruction. The original church is believed to have been built during the reign of Ezana, the first Christian ruler of the Kingdom of Axum during the fourth century. It has been rebuilt several times since then. St. Mary of Zion was the traditional place where Ethiopian Emperors came to be crowned. In fact if an Emperor was not crowned at Axum or did not at least have his coronation ratified by a special service at St. Mary of Zion, he could not hold the official title. Like many Eastern European churches, the Church of St. Mary of Zion is a centrally-planned structure with a dome serving as its focal point. In the 1950s the Emperor Haile Selassie built a new modern cathedral , open to both men and women, next to the old cathedral. Its dome bears a striking resemblance to the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey. The old church remains accessible only to men, as Mary, symbolized by the Ark of the Covenant allegedly resting in its chapel, is the only woman allowed within its compound. Other points of interest include archaeological and ethnographic museums, the Ezana Stone monument documenting the conversion of King Ezana to Christianity, King Bazen’s megalith Tomb, Queen of Sheba’s Bath, the Ta’akha Maryam and Dungur palaces, the monasteries of Abba Pentalewon and Abba Liqanos, and the Lioness of Gobedra rock art. Lalibela Lalibela is a town in northern Ethiopia famous for its monolithic rock-cut churches. One of Ethiopia’s holiest cities second only to Aksum, Lalibela is a center of pilgrimage for much of the country. During the reign of Saint Gebre Mesqel Lalibela in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, the current town was known as Roha. St. Lalibela is said to have seen Jerusalem, then attempt to build a new Jerusalem as his capital in response to the capture of old Jerusalem by Muslims in 1187. As such, many features of the city have Biblical names—even the town’s river is known as the River Jordan. It remained the capital of Ethiopia from the late 12th century into the 13th century. The rural town is known around the world for its churches carved from living rock, which play an important part in the history of rock-cut architecture. There are thirteen churches, assembled in four groups: - The Northern Group includes Biete Medhane Alem (home to the Lalibela Cross and believed to be the largest monolithic church in the world), Biete Maryam, Biete Golgotha (known for its arts and said to contain the tomb of King Lalibela), the Selassie Chapel, and the Tomb of Adam. - The Western Group includes Biete Giyorgis, a cruciform structure, said to be the most finely executed and best-preserved church. - The Eastern Group includes Biete Amanuel (possibly the former royal chapel), Biete Merkorios (possibly a former prison), Biete Abba Libanos, and Biete Gabriel-Rufael (possibly a former royal palace), linked to a holy bakery. - The last group lies further afield. Located here are the monastery of Ashetan Maryam and the Yimrehane Kristos church (built in the eleventh century in the Aksumite fashion but within a cave). Architecture of Great Zimbabwe Perhaps the most famous site in southern Africa, Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city constructed by the Mwenemutapa. Distinguish the features of the Hill Complex, the Greate Enclosure, and the Valley Complex of Great Zimbabwe. Key Points - Small cattle-herding communities began to appear in the vicinity of what would become Great Zimbabwe from the fourth through seventh century CE. As the people began to exploit the nearby gold mines, their leaders became very rich and were able to form a centralized state. - Capable of sustaining up to 18,000 people, Great Zimbabwe was built between 1100 and 1400 as a massive capital city and home to the king. - Elaborate artifacts , including the famous soapstone Zimbabwe Birds, suggest that Great Zimbabwe was the hub of an extensive global trade network. - By 1500, Great Zimbabwe was abandoned, either because of changes in the environment or changes in trade networks. - Though European colonists long attempted to deny that Great Zimbabwe had been built by native Africans, it has become a major cultural landmark and source of pride in Africa. Key Terms - pastoralist : A person whose primary occupation is the raising of livestock. Perhaps the most famous site in southern Africa, Great Zimbabwe is a ruined civilization constructed by the Mwenemutapa. A monumental city built of stone, it is one of the oldest and largest structures in southern Africa. Located about 150 miles from the modern Zimbabwean capital of Harare, Great Zimbabwe was the capital of a medieval kingdom that occupied the region on the eastern edge of Kalahari Desert. Development of Great Zimbabwe As there are no written records from the people who inhabited Great Zimbabwe, knowledge of the culture is dependent on archaeology. Small farming and iron-mining communities began to appear in the area between the fourth and seventh centuries CE. Most were cattle pastoralists , but the discovery of gold and new mining techniques contributed to a rise in trade with caravan merchants to the north. As local leaders became rich from trade, they grew in power and created the centralized city-state of Great Zimbabwe. Monument Construction Construction of the monument began in the 11th century and continued through the fourteenth century, spanning an area of 1,780 acres and covering a radius of 100 to 200 miles. At its peak, it could have housed up to 18,000 people. The load-bearing walls of its structures were built using granite with no mortar, evidence of highly skilled masonry. The ruins form three distinct architectural groups known as the Hill Complex (occupied from the ninth through 13th centuries), the Great Enclosure (occupied from the 13th through 15th centuries), and the Valley Complex (occupied from the 14th through 16th centuries). One of the most prominent features of Great Zimbabwe was its walls, some of which reached 11 meters high and extended approximately 820 feet. There are stone structures linked by passageways and some parts of the site incorporate natural rock formations into the design, evident in at least one structure in the Hill Complex. Notable features of the Hill Complex include the Eastern Enclosure, a high balcony enclosure overlooking the Eastern Enclosure, and a huge boulder in a shape similar to that of the Zimbabwe Bird. The Great Enclosure is composed of an inner wall encircling a series of structures, and a younger outer wall. The most important artifacts recovered from the monument are the eight Zimbabwe Birds. These were carved from soapstone on the tops of monoliths the height of a person. Slots in a platform in the Eastern Enclosure of the Hill Complex appear designed to hold the monoliths with the Zimbabwe birds, but archaeologists cannot be sure that this is where the birds rested. The Conical Tower was constructed between the two walls. The Valley Complex is divided into the Upper and Lower Valley Ruins, with different periods of occupation. One theory suggests that the complexes were the work of successive kings. Perhaps the focus of power moved from the Hill Complex to the Great Enclosure in the 12th century, then to the Upper Valley, and finally to the Lower Valley in the early 16h century. A more structuralist interpretation holds that the different complexes had different functions. For example the Hill Complex was a temple, the Valley Complex was built for the citizens, and the Great Enclosure was used by the king. Cultural Aspects of Great Zimbabwe Great Zimbabwe shows a high degree of social stratification, characteristic for centralized states. For the elite, there seems to have been a great deal of wealth. Plentiful pottery, iron tools, copper and gold jewelry, elaborately worked ivory , bronze spearheads, gold beads and pendants, and soapstone sculptures have all been found at the site. Some of the artifacts, such as ceramics and glass vessels , appear to have come from Arabia, India, and even China, suggesting that Great Zimbabwe was a major trade center. Smaller stone settlements called zimbabwes can be found nearby. These are thought to be seats of authority for local governors acting under the king of Great Zimbabwe. These smaller settlements would have been supported by surrounding farmers. Great Zimbabwe was abandoned by 1500, possibly due to land exhaustion, drought, famine , or a decline in trade. Zimbabwean culture would continue in Mutapa, centered on the city of Sofala. The site of Great Zimbabwe is considered a source of pride in the region, and the modern nation of Zimbabwe derived its name from the site. Nonetheless, when European colonizers first found the ruins in the late 19th century, most did not believe that the site could have been built by indigenous Africans. In fact, political pressure was put on historians and architects to deny its construction by black people until Zimbabwe’s independence in the 1960s. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Djenne Fortier 407. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Djenne_Fortier_407.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Great Mosque of Djennu00e9 1. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9_1.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Djennu00e9-Djenno. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Djenne-Djenno. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Qibla. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Parapet. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/parapet. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Fau00e7ade. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/facade. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - African Architecture. Provided by : Afropedea. Located at : http://www.afropedea.org/african-architecture . 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Rock-Cut Architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock-cut_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kingdom of Aksum. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lalibela. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalibela. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Axum. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Axum. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Obelisk. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Obelisk. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Great Zimbabwe (Donjon). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Zimbabwe_(Donjon).jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 262px-Zim-bird.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3475104. License : CC BY: Attribution - 640px-Alloes-valley-great-zimbabwe.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8966650%20. License : CC BY: Attribution - 640px-Eastern-enclosure-great-zimbabwe.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8966638%20. License : CC BY: Attribution - Great_Zimbabwe_Ruins2.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3594362. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Great Zimbabwe Closeup. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Zimbabwe_Closeup.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Great Zimbabwe. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_zimbabwe. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Great Zimbabwe. Provided by : Saylor. Located at : http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/HIST101-7.2.1-GuptaDynasty-FINAL.pdf . License : CC BY: Attribution - Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/Mwenemutapa. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Saylor.org's_Ancient_Civilizations_of_the_World/Mwenemutapa. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pastoralist. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pastoralist. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:31.464181	2020-05-01T17:33:34	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/15%3A_Africa_Before_1800_CE/15.03%3A_Architecture_of_the_Sub-Saharan_Civilizations", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "15.3: Architecture of the Sub-Saharan Civilizations", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/16%3A_Early_Medieval_Europe	16: Early Medieval Europe Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52959 Boundless Boundless 16.1: The Early Middle Ages 16.2: The Vikings 16.3: The Carolingians 16.4: The Ottonians	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:31.547333	2020-05-01T17:29:53	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/16%3A_Early_Medieval_Europe", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "16: Early Medieval Europe", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/16%3A_Early_Medieval_Europe/16.01%3A_The_Early_Middle_Ages	16.1: The Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages began with the fall of the Roman Empire and ended in the early 11th century; its art encompasses vast and divergent forms of media. Identify the major periods and styles into which European art of the Early Middle Ages is classified, and artistic elements common to all of them Key Points - “Medieval art” applies to various media , including sculpture, illuminated manuscripts , tapestries , stained glass, metalwork , and mosaics . - Early medieval art in Europe is an amalgamation of the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire, the early Christian church, and the “barbarian” artistic culture of Northern Europe. - Despite the wide range of media, the use of valuable and precious materials is a constant in medieval art. Many artworks feature the lavish use of gold, jewels, expensive pigments , and other precious goods. - A rise in illiteracy during the Early Middle Ages resulted in the need for art to convey complex narratives and symbolism . As a result, art became more stylized , losing the classical naturalism of Graeco-Roman times, for much of the Middle Ages. - Few large stone buildings were constructed between the Constantinian basilicas of the fourth and eighth centuries. By the late eighth century, the Carolingian Empire revived the basilica form of architecture. The Middle Ages of the European world covers approximately 1,000 years of art history in Europe, and at times extended into the Middle East and North Africa. The Early Middle Ages is generally dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE) to approximately 1000, which marks the beginning of the Romanesque period. It includes major art movements and periods, national and regional art, genres , and revivals. Art historians attempt to classify medieval art into major periods and styles with some difficulty, as medieval regions frequently featured distinct artistic styles such as Anglo-Saxon or Norse . However, a generally accepted scheme includes Early Christian art, Migration Period art, Byzantine art, Insular art , Carolingian art, Ottonian art, Romanesque art , and Gothic art, as well as many other periods within these central aesthetic styles. Population decline, relocations to the countryside, invasion, and migration began in Late Antiquity and continued in the Early Middle Ages. The large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions. Monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianize pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty , briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later eighth and early ninth century. It covered much of Western Europe but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions—Vikings from the north, Hungarians from the east, and Saracens from the south. As literacy declined and printed material became available only to monks and nuns who copied illuminated manuscripts, art became the primary method of communicating narratives (usually of a Biblical nature) to the masses . Conveying complex stories took precedence over producing naturalistic imagery , leading to a shift toward stylized and abstracted figures for most of the Early Middle Ages. Abstraction and stylization also appeared in imagery accessible only to select communities, such as monks in remote monasteries like the complex at Lindisfarne off the coast of Northumberland, England. Early medieval art exists in many media. The works that remain in large numbers include sculpture, illuminated manuscripts, stained glass, metalwork, and mosaics, all of which have had a higher survival rate than fresco wall-paintings and works in precious metals or textiles such as tapestries. In the early medieval period, the decorative arts, including metalwork, ivory carving, and embroidery using precious metals, were probably more highly valued than paintings or sculptures. Metal and inlaid objects, such as armor and royal regalia (crowns, scepters, and the like) rank among the best-known early medieval works that survive to this day. Early medieval art in Europe grew out of the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and the iconographic traditions of the early Christian church. These sources were mixed with the vigorous “Barbarian” artistic culture of Northern Europe to produce a remarkable artistic legacy. The history of medieval art can be seen as an ongoing interplay between the elements of classical, early Christian, and “barbarian” art. Apart from the formal aspects of classicism, there was a continuous tradition of realistic depiction that survived in Byzantine art of Eastern Europe throughout the period. In the West realistic presentation appears intermittently, combining and sometimes competing with new expressionist possibilities. These expressionistic styles developed both in Western Europe and in the Northern aesthetic of energetic decorative elements. Monks and monasteries had a deep effect on the religious and political life of the Early Middle Ages, in various cases acting as land trusts for powerful families, centers of propaganda and royal support in newly conquered regions, and bases for missions and proselytizing. They were the main and sometimes only regional outposts of education and literacy. Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin classics were copied in monasteries in the Early Middle Ages. Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects written by authors such as Bede (died 735), a native of northern England who wrote in the late seventh and early eighth centuries. The use of valuable materials is a constant in medieval art. Most illuminated manuscripts of the Early Middle Ages had lavish book covers decked with precious metal, ivory, and jewels. One of the best examples of precious metalwork in medieval art is the jeweled cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram (c. 870). The Codex , whose origin is unknown, is decorated with gems and gold relief . Gold was also used to create sacred objects for churches and palaces, as a solid background for mosaics, and applied as gold leaf to miniatures in manuscripts and panel paintings. Named after Emmeram of Regensburg and lavishly illuminated, the Codex is an important example of Carolingian art, as well of one of very few surviving treasure bindings of the late ninth century. Few large stone buildings were constructed between the Constantinian basilicas of the fourth and eighth centuries, although many smaller ones were built during the sixth and seventh centuries. By the early eighth century, the Merovingian dynasty revived the basilica form of architecture. One feature of the basilica is the use of a transept , the “arms” of a cross-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long nave . Other new features of religious architecture include the crossing tower and a monumental entrance to the church, usually at the west end of the building. Architecture under the Merovingians Merovingian architecture emerged under the Merovingian Frankish dynasty and reflected a fusion of Western and Eurasian influences. Describe some basic elements of Merovingian architecture Key Points - Merovingian architecture often continued the Roman basilica tradition, but also adopted influences from as far away as Syria and Armenia. - Many Merovingian churches no longer exist. One surviving church is Saint-Pierre-aux-Nonnains at Metz, originally built as a Roman gymnasium in the late fourth century and reappropriated into a church in the mid-eighth century. - Some small Merovingian structures remain, especially baptisteries, which were spared rebuilding in later centuries. - The Baptistery at Saint-Leonce of Fréjus, highlights the influence of Syrian technique on Merovingian architecture, evidenced by its octagonal shape and a covered cupola on pillars . On the other hand, St. Jean at Poitiers is very different from the Baptistery at Saint-Leonce of Fréjus, as it has the form of a rectangle flanked by three apses . - Although mostly reconstructed, the interior of the baptistery of Saint-Sauveur reveals the influence of Roman architecture on Merovingian architects. Key Terms - the Baptistery at Saint-Leonce of Fréjus : A structure that highlights the influence of Syrian technique on Merovingian architecture. - the basilica of Saint Martin at Tours : One of the most famous examples of Merovingian church architecture, built at the beginning of the dynasty’s reign. - Merovingian dynasty : A Frankish family who ruled parts of present-day France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and parts of Germany from the mid-fifth century to the mid-eighth century. Merovingian architecture developed under the Merovingian dynasty , a Frankish family who ruled parts of present-day France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and parts of Germany from the mid-fifth century to the mid-eighth century. The advent of the Merovingian dynasty in Gaul led to important changes in architecture. The unification of the Frankish kingdom under Clovis I (465–511) and his successors corresponded with the need for new churches. Merovingian architecture often continued the Roman basilica tradition, but also adopted influences from as far away as Syria and Armenia. In the East, most structures were in timber , but stone was more common for significant buildings in the West and in the southern areas that later fell under Merovingian rule. Many Merovingian churches no longer exist. One famous example is the basilica of Saint Martin at Tours, at the beginning of Merovingian rule and at the time on the edge of Frankish territory. According to scholars, the church had 120 marble columns , towers at the east end, and several mosaics . A feature of the basilica of Saint-Martin that became a hallmark of Frankish church architecture was the sarcophagus or reliquary of the saint, raised to be visible and sited axially behind the altar, sometimes in the apse. There are no Roman precedents for this Frankish innovation. A number of other buildings now lost, including the Merovingian foundations of Saint-Denis, St. Gereonin Cologne, and the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés in Paris, are described as similarly ornate. One surviving church is Saint-Pierre-aux-Nonnains at Metz. The building was originally built in 380 CE as a gymnasium (a European type of school) for a Roman spa complex. In the seventh century, the structure was converted into a church, becoming the chapel of a Benedictine convent. The structure bears common hallmarks of a Roman basilica, including the round arches and tripartite division into nave (center) and aisles (left and right of the nave), a division visible from the exterior of the building. Apparently missing, however, is the apse. Other major churches have been rebuilt, usually more than once. However, some small Merovingian structures remain, especially baptisteries, which were spared rebuilding in later centuries. For instance, the Baptistery at Saint-Leonce of Fréjus, highlights the influence of Syrian technique on Merovingian architecture, evidenced by its octagonal shape and covered cupola on pillars. By contrast , St. Jean at Poitiers has the form of a rectangle flanked by three apses. The original building has probably had a number of alterations but preserves traces of Merovingian influence in its marble capitals . The baptistery of Saint-Sauveur at Aix-en-Provence was built at the beginning of the sixth century, at about the same time as similar baptisteries in Fréjus Cathedral and Riez Cathedral in Provence, in Albenga, Liguria, and in Djémila, Algeria. Only the octagonal baptismal pool and the lower part of the walls remain from that period. The other walls, Corinthian columns, arcade , and dome were rebuilt in the Renaissance . A viewing hole in the floor reveals the bases of the porticoes of the Roman forum under the baptistery. By the seventh century, Merovingian craftsmen were brought to England for their glass-making skills, and Merovingian stonemasons were used to build English churches, suggesting that the culture’s ornamental arts were highly regarded by neighboring peoples. Anglo-Saxon and Irish Art Celtic and Anglo-Saxon art display similar aesthetic qualities and media, including architecture and metalwork. Compare elements of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic art Key Points - Anglo-Saxon art emerged when the Anglo-Saxons migrated from the continent in the fifth century and ended in 1066 with the Norman Conquest. Anglo-Saxon art, which favored brightness and color, survives mostly in architecture and metalwork . - The Sutton Hoo burial site contains the best known examples of Anglo-Saxon metalwork, showing the masterful craftsmanship of items such as armor and ornamental objects. - The architectural character of Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical buildings range from influence from Celtic and Early Christian styles . Later Anglo-Saxon architecture is characterized by pilasters , blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular-headed openings. - Celtic art is ornamental, avoiding straight lines , only occasionally using symmetry , and often involving complex symbolism . Celtic art has used a variety of styles and as shown influences from other cultures in knotwork, spirals, key patterns, lettering, and human figures. - With the arrival of Christianity, Celtic art was influenced by both Mediterranean and Germanic traditions, creating the Insular style. The interlace patterns that are typical of Celtic art were in fact introduced to Insular art from the Mediterranean and Migration artistic traditions. Key Terms - Insular Art : Art produced in the post-Roman history of the British Isles, also known as Hiberno-Saxon art. The term derives from the Latin term for island. Britain and Ireland shared a common style that differed from that of the rest of Europe in this period. Anglo-Saxon art emerged when the Anglo-Saxons migrated from the continent in the fifth century and ended in 1066 with the Norman Conquest. Anglo-Saxon art, which favored brightness and color, survives mostly in architecture and metalwork. Anglo-Saxon Metalwork Anglo-Saxon metalwork consisted of Germanic-style jewelry and armor, which was commonly placed in burials. After the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity in the seventh century, the fusion of Germanic Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, and Early Christian techniques created the Hiberno-Saxon style (or Insular art) in the form of sculpted crosses and liturgical metalwork. Insular art is characterized by detailed geometric designs, interlace, and stylized animal decoration. Anglo-Saxon metalwork initially used the Germanic Animal Style decoration that would be expected from recent immigrants, but gradually developed a distinctive Anglo-Saxon character. For instance, round disk brooches were preferred for the grandest Anglo-Saxon pieces, over continental styles of fibulae and Romano-British penannular brooches. Decoration included cloisonné (“cellwork”) in gold and garnet for high-status pieces. Despite a considerable number of other finds, the discovery of the ship burial at Sutton Hoo transformed the history of Anglo-Saxon art, showing a level of sophistication and quality that was wholly unexpected at this date. Among the most famous finds from Sutton Hoo are a helmet and an ornamental purse lid. Anglo-Saxon Architecture Anglo-Saxon secular buildings in Britain were generally simple, constructed mainly using timber with thatch for roofing. No universally accepted example survives aboveground. There are, however, many remains of Anglo-Saxon church architecture. At least fifty churches of Anglo-Saxon origin display the culture’s major architectural features, although in some cases these aspects are small and significantly altered. The round-tower church and tower-nave church are distinctive Anglo-Saxon types. All surviving churches, except one timber church, are built of stone or brick, and in some cases show evidence of reused Roman work. The architectural character of Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical buildings range from influence from Celtic and Early Christian styles. Later Anglo-Saxon architecture is characterized by pilasters, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular-headed openings. In the final decades of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom a more general Romanesque style was introduced from the Continent, as in the additions to Westminster Abbey made from 1050 onwards. Celtic Art “Celtic art” refers to the art of people who spoke Celtic languages in Europe and those with uncertain language but cultural and stylistic similarities with Celtic speakers. Typically, Celtic art is ornamental, avoiding straight lines, only occasionally using symmetry, and often involving complex symbolism. Celtic art has used a variety of styles and has shown influences from other cultures in knotwork, spirals, key patterns, lettering, and human figures. Around 500 BCE, the La Tène style appeared rather suddenly, coinciding with some kind of societal upheaval that involved a shift of the major centers to the northwest. La Tène was especially prominent in northern France and western Germany, but over the next three centuries the style spread as far as Ireland, Italy, and modern Hungary. Early La Tène style adapted ornamental motifs from foreign cultures, including Scythian, Greek, and Etruscan arts. La Tène is a highly stylized curvilinear art based mainly on classical vegetable and foliage motifs such as leafy palmette forms, vines, tendrils, and lotus flowers together with spirals, S-scrolls, lyre , and trumpet shapes. It remains uncertain whether some of the most notable objects found from the La Tène period were made in Ireland or elsewhere (as far away as Egypt in some cases). But in Scotland and the western parts of Britain, versions of the La Tène style remained in use until it became an important component of the Insular style that developed to meet the needs of newly Christian populations. Celtic art in the medieval period was produced by the people of Ireland and parts of Britain over the course of 700 years. With the arrival of Christianity, Celtic art was influenced by both Mediterranean and Germanic traditions, primarily through Irish contact with Anglo-Saxons, which resulted in the Insular style. The interlace patterns that are regarded as typical of Celtic art were in fact introduced from the Mediterranean and Migration Period artistic traditions. Specific examples of Celtic Insular art include the Tara Brooch and the Ardagh Chalice. Catholic Celtic sculpture began to flourish in the form of the large stone crosses that held biblical scenes in carved relief . This art form reached its apex in the early 10th century, with Muiredach’s Cross at Monasterboice and the Ahenny High Cross. Illustrated Books in the Early Middle Ages Insular art is often characterized by detailed geometric designs, interlace, and stylized animal decorations in illuminated manuscripts. Describe the history and characteristics of illuminated manuscripts in Insular art Key Points - An illuminated manuscript features text supplemented by elaborate decoration. The term is mostly used to refer to any decorated or illustrated manuscript from the Western tradition. Illuminated manuscripts were written on vellum , and some feature the use of precious metals and pigments that were imported to northern Europe. - Insular art is characterized by detailed geometric designs, interlace, and stylized animal decoration spread boldly across illuminated manuscripts. Insular manuscripts sometimes take a whole page for a single initial or the first few words at beginnings of gospels. - The Book of Kells is considered a masterwork of Western calligraphy , with its illustrations and ornamentation surpassing that of other Insular Gospel books in complexity. The Kells manuscript’s decoration combines traditional Christian iconography with the ornate swirling Insular motifs . - Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscripts, such as the Stockholm Codex Aureus , combine Insular art with Italian styles such as classicism. - Mozarabic art refers to art of Mozarabs, Iberian Christians living in Al-Andalus who adopted Arab customs without converting to Islam during the Islamic invasion of the Iberian peninsula. It features a combination of (Hispano) Visigothic, and Islamic art styles, as in the Beatus manuscripts , which combine Insular art illumination forms with Arabic-influenced geometric designs. Key Terms - parchment : A material made from the polished skin of a calf, sheep, goat or other animal, used as writing paper. - Mozarabic : Art of Iberian Christians living in Al-Andalus, the Muslim-conquered territories, after the Arab invasion of the Iberian Peninsula (711 CE) to the end of the 11th century. These people adopted some Arab customs without converting to Islam, preserving their religion and some ecclesiastical and judicial autonomy. - Book of Kells : An illuminated manuscript in Latin containing the four Gospels of the New Testament together with various prefatory texts and tables. It was created by Celtic monks circa 800 or slightly earlier. - Insular Art : Art produced in the post-Roman history of the British Isles, also known as Hiberno-Saxon art. The term derives from the Latin term for island. Britain and Ireland shared a common style that differed from that of the rest of Europe. - illuminated manuscript : A book in which the text is supplemented by decoration, such as initials, borders (marginalia), and miniature illustrations. Background An illuminated manuscript contains text supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia), and miniature illustrations. In the strict definition of the term, an illuminated manuscript indicates only those manuscripts decorated with gold or silver. However, the term is now used to refer to any decorated manuscript from the Western tradition. The earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period 400 to 600 CE and were initially produced in Italy and the Eastern Roman Empire. The significance of these works lies not only in their inherent art historical value , but also in the maintenance of literacy offered by non-illuminated texts as well. Had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiquity who produced both illuminated and non-illuminated manuscripts, most literature of ancient Greece and Rome would have perished in Europe. The majority of surviving illuminated manuscripts are from the Middle Ages , and hence most are of a religious nature. Illuminated manuscripts were written on the best quality of parchment , called vellum. By the sixteenth century, the introduction of printing and paper rapidly led to the decline of illumination, although illuminated manuscripts continued to be produced in much smaller numbers for the very wealthy. Early medieval illuminated manuscripts are the best examples of medieval painting, and indeed, for many areas and time periods, they are the only surviving examples of pre-Renaissance painting. Insular Art in Illustrated Books Deriving from the Latin word for island ( insula ), Insular art is characterized by detailed geometric designs, interlace, and stylized animal decoration spread boldly across illuminated manuscripts. Insular manuscripts sometimes take a whole page for a single initial or the first few words at beginnings of gospels. The technique of allowing decoration the right to roam was later influential on Romanesque and Gothic art. From the seventh through ninth centuries, Celtic missionaries traveled to Britain and brought the Irish tradition of manuscript illumination, which came into contact with Anglo-Saxon metalworking. New techniques employed were filigree and chip-carving, while new motifs included interlace patterns and animal ornamentation. The Book of Kells (Irish: Leabhar Cheanannais), created by Celtic monks in 800, is an illustrated manuscript considered the pinnacle of Insular art. Also known as the Book of Columba , The Book of Kells is considered a masterwork of Western calligraphy, with its illustrations and ornamentation surpassing that of other Insular Gospel books in extravagance and complexity. The Book of Kells ‘s decoration combines traditional Christian iconography with the ornate swirling motifs typical of Insular art. Figures of humans, animals, and mythical beasts, together with Celtic knots and interlacing patterns in vibrant colors, enliven the manuscript’s pages. Many of these minor decorative elements are imbued with Christian symbolism . The manuscript comprises 340 folios made of high-quality vellum and unprecedentedly elaborate ornamentation including 10 full-page illustrations and text pages vibrant with decorated initials and interlinear miniatures. These mark the furthest extension of the anti- classical and energetic qualities of Insular art. The Insular majuscule script of the text itself in the Book of Kells appears to be the work of at least three different scribes. The lettering is in iron gall ink with colors derived from a wide range of substances, many of which were imported from distant lands. The text is accompanied by many full-page miniatures, while smaller painted decorations appear throughout the text in unprecedented quantities. The decoration of the book is famous for combining intricate detail with bold and energetic compositions . The illustrations feature a broad range of colors, most often purple, lilac, red, pink, green, and yellow. As typical with Insular work, there was neither gold nor silver leaf in the manuscript. However, the pigments for the illustrations, which included red and yellow ochre , green copper pigment (sometimes called verdigris), indigo , and lapis lazuli , were very costly and precious. They were imported from the Mediterranean region and, in the case of the lapis lazuli, from northeast Afghanistan. The decoration of the first eight pages of the canon tables is heavily influenced by early Gospel Books from the Mediterranean, where it was traditional to enclose the tables within an arcade . Although influenced by this Mediterranean tradition, the Kells manuscript presents this motif in an Insular spirit, where the arcades are not seen as architectural elements but rather become stylized geometric patterns with Insular ornamentation. Further, the complicated knot work and interweaving found in the Kells manuscript echo the metalwork and stone carving works that characterized the artistic legacy of the Insular period. Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscripts form a significant part of Insular art and reflect a combination of influences from the Celtic styles that arose when the Anglo-Saxons encountered Irish missionary activity. A different mixture is seen in the opening from the Stockholm Codex Aureus , where the evangelist portrait reflects an adaptation of classical Italian style, while the text page is mainly in Insular style, especially the first line with its vigorous Celtic spirals and interlace. This is one of the so-called “Tiberius Group” of manuscripts with influence from the Italian style. It is the last English manuscript in which trumpet spiral patterns are found. The Beatus Manuscripts The Commentary on the Apocalypse was originally a Mozabaric eighth-century work by the Spanish monk and theologian Beatus of Liébana. Often referred to simply as the Beatus , it is used today to reference any of the extant manuscript copies of this work, especially any of the 26 illuminated copies that have survived. The historical significance of the Commentary is even more pronounced since it included a world map, offering a rare insight into the geographical understanding of the post-Roman world. Considered together, the Beatus codices are among the most important Spanish and Mozarabic medieval manuscripts and have been the subject of extensive scholarly and antiquarian inquiry. Though Beatus might have written these commentaries as a response to Adoptionism in the Hispania of the late 700s, many scholars believe that the book’s popularity in monasteries stemmed from the Arabic-Islamic conquest of the Iberian peninsula, which some Iberian Christians took as a sign of the Antichrist. Not all of the Beatus manuscripts are complete, and some exist only in fragmentary form. However, the surviving manuscripts are lavishly decorated in the Mozarabic, Romanesque, or Gothic style of illumination. Mozarabic art refers to art of Mozarabs, Iberian Christians living in Al-Andalus who adopted Arab customs without converting to Islam during the Islamic invasion of the Iberian peninsula (from the eighth through the 11th centuries). Mozarabic art features a combination of (Hispano) Visigothic and Islamic art styles, as in the Beatus manuscripts, which combine Insular art illumination forms with Arabic-influenced geometric designs. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - AachenChapelDB.svg.png. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatine_Chapel,_Aachen#/media/File:AachenChapelDB.svg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Codex Aureus Sankt Emmeram. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - 360px-Lindisfarne_Gospels_folio_209v.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2647377%20. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 487px-CoronaRecesvinto01.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2432551%20. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:31.756287	2020-05-01T17:33:40	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/16%3A_Early_Medieval_Europe/16.01%3A_The_Early_Middle_Ages", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "16.1: The Early Middle Ages", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/16%3A_Early_Medieval_Europe/16.02%3A_The_Vikings	16.2: The Vikings Norse Ships in the Early European Middle Ages The Oseberg ship was discovered in a burial mound in Norway and is one of the finest artistic and archaeological finds from the Viking Age. Identify the important artifacts found in the burial mound of the Oseberg ship Key Points - Vikings used their great ships to invade European coasts, harbors, and river settlements on a seasonal basis. These ships were not only vessels used for war and trade but also the primary means of artistic expression. The Oseberg burial mound contained numerous grave goods and the remains of two female human skeletons. The ship’s interment into its burial mound dates from 834 CE, but parts of the ship date from around 800 CE, and scholars believe that ship itself is older. - The bow and stern of the ship are elaborately decorated with complex woodcarvings in the characteristic “gripping beast” style , also known as the Oseberg style. - The Oseberg burial contains agricultural and household tools as well as a series of textiles included woolen garments, imported silks, and narrow tapestries . The Oseberg burial is one of the few sources of Viking age textiles, and the wooden cart is the only complete Viking age cart found so far. Key Terms - Oseberg Ship : A well-preserved Viking vessel discovered in a large burial mound in Norway. Of Scandinavian descent, Norsemen are often called Vikings after their trading locations on the Norwegian shoreline. Known as pre-Christian traders and pirates, Vikings used their great ships to invade European coasts, harbors, and river settlements on a seasonal basis. They created fast and seaworthy longships that served not only as warring and trading vessels, but also as media for artistic expression and individual design. The great ships of the Vikings contain some of the major artworks left from this time. For instance, the Oseberg Bow demonstrates the Norse mastery of decorative wood carving and intricate inlay of metal. Likewise, the ship head post—representing a roaring beast—is five inches high with complicated surface ornamentation in the form of interwoven animals that twist and turn. Other examples of artistic design on Norse ships include the “King” or “Chieftain” vessels designated for the wealthier classes. Chieftain ships were distinguishable by the design of the bow of their vessel with designs such as bulls, dolphins, gold lions, drakes spewing fire out of their nose, human beings cast in gold and silver, and other unidentifiable animals cast in bronze metal. Typically, the sides of these vessels were decorated using bright colors and wood-carvings. A Ship Burial The Oseberg ship (Norwegian: Osebergskipet) is a well-preserved Viking ship discovered in a large burial mound at the Oseberg farm near Tønsberg in Vestfold County, Norway. This ship is widely celebrated as one of the finest artistic and archaeological finds to have survived the Viking Age. The Oseberg burial mound contained numerous grave goods and the remains of two female human skeletons. The ship’s interment into its burial mound dates from 834 CE, but parts of the ship date from around 800 CE, and scholars believe that ship itself is older. The bow and stern of the ship are elaborately decorated with complex woodcarvings in the characteristic “gripping beast” style, also known as the Oseberg style. This style’s primary features are the paws that grip the borders around it, neighboring beasts, or parts of its own body. Although the Osberg style distinguishes early Viking art from previous trends, it is no longer generally accepted as an independent style. Although seaworthy, the ship is relatively frail. It is thought to have been used only for coastal voyages. The skeletons of two women were found in the Oseberg burial mound. One may have been sacrificed to accompany the other in death. Regardless, the opulence of the burial rite and the grave goods suggests that this was a burial of very high status. For instance, one woman wore a very fine red wool dress of fabric woven in a lozenge twill pattern (a luxury commodity) and a fine white linen veil in a gauze weave. The other wore a plainer blue wool dress with a wool veil, showing some stratification in their social status. Neither woman wore anything entirely made of silk, although small silk strips were appliqued onto a tunic worn under the red dress. The grave had been disturbed in antiquity and many precious metals that were initially buried with Oseberg ship went missing. Nevertheless, many everyday items and artifacts were found during the early 20th-century excavations of the site. These included four elaborately decorated sleighs, a four-wheel wooden cart, bedposts, wooden chests, and other richly decorated items. For instance, the so-called “Buddha bucket” is a well-known object from the Oseberg site that features a brass and cloisonné enamel ornament of a bucket (pail) handle in the shape of a figure sitting with crossed legs. The bucket itself is made from yew wood held together with brass strips, and the handle is attached to two anthropomorphic figures often compared to depictions of the Buddha in lotus posture (although any connection to Buddhism is uncertain). Archaeologists also found more mundane items, such as agricultural and household tools, and a series of textiles that included woolen garments, imported silks, and narrow tapestries. The Oseberg burial is one of the few sources of Viking-age textiles, and the wooden cart is the only complete Viking-age cart found so far. Jelling Stones The Jelling Stones are visual records of the transitional period between Norse paganism and the process of Christianization in Denmark. Examine the function and symbolism of the Runic Stones in Jelling Key Points - The Jelling Stones are strongly identified with the creation of Denmark as a nation-state, and both feature one of the earliest records of the name “Danmark.” - The larger stone, known as Harald’s stone, is often cited as Denmark’s baptismal certificate ( dåbsattest ), containing a depiction of Christ and an inscription celebrating the conversion of the Danes to Christianity. - The runic inscriptions on the Jelling stones are the best-known in Denmark. - Originally the stones were brightly painted in polychromatic palettes . The tendency to paint runestones appears throughout Scandinavia. - The styles in which humans, animals, and abstract interlace designs appear on Harald’s Stone bear striking similarity with popular styles in illuminated manuscripts and decorative arts in the British Isles. Contact between the cultures resulted in these parallels. Key Terms - The Jelling Stones : Massive carved runestones from the 10th century found at the town of Jelling in Denmark. The Jelling Stones are massive carved runestones from the 10th century, named for the town of Jelling in Denmark. Prior to the 10th century, stone carving was extremely rare or non-existent in most parts of Scandanavia. Subsequently, and likely influenced by the spread of Christianity, the use of carved stone for permanent memorials became prevalent. The older of the two Jelling Stones is attributed to King Gorm the Old, thought to have been raised in memory of his wife Thyra. King Gorm’s son Harald Bluetooth raised the larger of the two stones in memory of his parents, in celebration of his conquest of Denmark and Norway, and to document his conversion of the Danes to Christianity. Art historians consider the runic inscriptions on the Jelling stones the best-known in Denmark. Scholars have long considered the Jelling Stones visual records of the transitional period between the indigenous Norse paganism and the victory of Christianization in Denmark. The larger stone, known as Harald’s stone, is often cited as Denmark’s baptismal certificate ( dåbsattest ), containing a depiction of Christ and an inscription celebrating the conversion of the Danes to Christianity. The Jelling Stones are also strongly identified with the creation of Denmark as a nation-state, and both stones offer the earliest examples of the name Danmark (in the form of tanmaurk on the large ston, and tanmarkar on the small stone). The runestone of Gorm, the older and smaller of the Jelling Stones, has an inscription that reads: “ King Gormr made this monument in memory of Thyrvé, his wife, Denmark’s adornment.” The larger runestone of Harald Bluetooth is engraved on one side with an inscription that reads: “King Harald ordered this monument made in memory of Gormr, his father, and in memory of Thyrvé, his mother. That Harald who won for himself all of Denmark and Norway and made the Danes Christian.” Harald’s stone has a figure of Jesus Christ on one side and on another side a serpent wrapped around a lion. The depiction of Christ standing in the shape of a cross and entangled in what appear to be branches is of note. One scholar suggested that this imagery was used to indicate that Christ had replaced the Norse pagan god Odin, who in one myth hung for nine nights in the tree Yggdrasill. Remnants of red pigment show that the Jelling Stones were once brightly painted. This practice was apparently widespread across Scandinavia, with runestones at locations such as Strängnäs Cathedral (Sweden) and Oppland (Norway) bearing similar hues . Replicas made from plaster casts in the twentieth century recreate the stones’ polychromatic appearances. The reliefs on Harald’s Stone bear a striking resemblance to the styles of humans, animals, and abstract patterns that appear in illuminated manuscripts and on decorative arts in the British Isles of the Early Middle Ages . This common thread is a result of contact between the cultures through migration and invasion. Norse Timber Architecture in the Early European Middle Ages Archaeological finds of political and religious architecture suggest a significant mastery of woodworking and engineering in Viking culture. Identify the different kinds of timber structures created by the Vikings Key Points - Viking long houses were typically inhabited by elite members of society. They were load-bearing structures with steeply pitched roofs that resembled inverted boats. - A stave church is a medieval wooden church with post-and-beam construction related to timber framing. The wall frames are filled with vertical planks. This building technique is named after load-bearing posts. - The churches are commonly divided into two categories: the first without free-standing posts and a single nave is often referred to as Type A, and the other with a raised roof and free-standing internal posts is termed Type B. - The stave churches owe their longevity to architectural innovations that protected these large, complex wooden structures against water rot, precipitation, and extreme temperatures. Most important was the introduction of massive sills underneath the staves (posts) to prevent them from rotting. - Archaeological excavations have shown that stave churches descend from palisade constructions and later churches with earth-bound posts. Similar palisade constructions have been found in buildings of the Viking era. Key Terms - triforium : A shallow arched gallery within the thickness of an inner wall, above the nave of a church or cathedral. - sill : A horizontal member bearing the upright portion of a frame. - long house : A structure typically consisting of one large room, intended to house the elite members of society. - Stave Church : A medieval wooden structure with post-and-beam construction related to timber framing. The wall frames are filled with vertical planks. This building technique is named after wood-bearing posts. - timber : A heavy wooden beam, generally a whole log that has been squared off and used to provide heavy support for something such as a roof. Historically also used in the plural, as in ship’s timbers. - palisade : A fence or wall made from wooden stakes or tree trunks, used as a defensive structure or enclosure. Background Timber architecture is used to describe a period of medieval art in which two distinctive wood building traditions converged in Norwegian architecture. One was the practice of building with horizontal logs notched at the corners, a technique likely imported east of Scandinavia. The other influence was the stave building tradition, which possibly evolved from improvements on the prehistoric long houses that had roof-bearing posts dug into the ground . Although scant evidence exists of actual buildings from the earliest permanent structures, the discovery of Viking ships (i.e. the Oseberg) and stave churches suggest a significant mastery of woodworking and engineering in Viking culture . Not counting the 28 remaining stave churches, at least 250 wooden houses predating the Black Death of 1350 are preserved more or less intact in Norway. Most of these are long houses, some with added stave-built galleries or porches. As political power in Norway was consolidated and had to contend with external threats, larger and more durable structures including fortresses, bridges, and ultimately churches and manors were built with stone and masonry. Long Houses Very little archaeological evidence of actual buildings from the earliest permanent structures in the Viking era have survived. However, in the Lofoten archipelago in Northern Norway, a Viking chieftain’s holding has been reconstructed at the Lofotr Viking Museum. In 1983, archaeologists uncovered the Chieftain House at Borg, a large Viking-era building likely established around the year 500 CE. Excavations later in the 1980s revealed the largest building ever to be found from the Viking period in Norway. The foundation of the Chieftain House at Borg measured 272 feet long and 30 feet high. After the excavation ended, the remains of what had once been the long house remained visible. Also known as mead halls, long houses typically housed the high-ranking members of Viking society, particularly royalty and aristocracy. From around the year 500 up until the Christianization of Scandinavia (by the thirteenth century), these large halls were vital parts of the political center. They were later superseded by medieval banquet halls. Typically load-bearing with post-and-lintel entrances, long houses had sharply pitched roofs that bore a curve similar to that of a ship. In fact, the roofs of many reconstructed long houses resemble inverted boats placed atop the exterior walls. This shape was likely due to the climate, as pitched roofs allow snow to fall to the ground without causing collapse. Stave Churches The most commonly cited examples of timber architecture are the Norwegian stave churches. Until the beginning of the 19th century, as many as 150 stave churches still existed. Many were destroyed as part of a religious movement that favored simple, puritan lines , and today only 28 remain (although a large number were documented with measured drawings before they were demolished). A stave church is a medieval wooden church with post-and-beam construction related to timber framing. The wall frames are filled with vertical planks. The load-bearing posts ( stafr in Old Norse , stav in Norwegian) lend their name to this building technique. The stave churches owe their longevity to architectural innovations that protected these large, complex wooden structures against water rot, precipitation, wind, and extreme temperatures. Most important was the introduction of massive sills underneath the staves (posts) to prevent them from rotting. Over the two centuries of stave church construction, this building type evolved to an advanced art and science. Forms of Church Construction Archaeological excavations have shown that stave churches descend from palisade constructions and later churches with earth-bound posts. Similar palisade constructions are known from the buildings of the Viking era. Logs were split in two halves, rammed into the ground, and given a roof. This was a simple form of construction but very strong. The wall could last for decades if set in gravel—even centuries. Remains of these buildings are found over much of Europe and are commonly grouped into two categories. Type A had no free-standing posts and a single nave as seen in the Renli Stave Church. Type B had a raised roof and free-standing internal posts as in the Lomen Stave Church. Type B churches were often further divided into two subgroups. The Kaupanger group had a complete arcade row of posts and intermediate posts along the sides and details that mimic stone capitals . These churches gave an impression of a basilica . The other subgroup was the Borgund group. These churches had cross braces joining upper and lower string beams and posts that formed a very rigid interconnection, resembling the triforium of stone basilicas. Many stave churches had or still have outer galleries running around the entire perimeter, loosely connected to the plank walls. They probably served to protect the church from the harsh climate. After the Protestant Reformation , no stave churches were built. Instead, new churches were composed of stone or horizontal log buildings with notched corners. Most old stave churches disappeared because of redundancy, neglect, deterioration, or because they were too small to accommodate larger congregations and too impractical according to new architectural standards. Ornamentation of Stave Churches Even though the wooden churches had structural differences, they give a recognizable general impression. Facade difference may conceal common floor plans, while apparently similar buildings might have significant structural differences. Certain basic principles were common to all church types. Basic geometric figures, simple numbers, just a few length units, simple ratios, and perhaps proportions were among the theoretical aids all builders inherited. The specialist knew a particular type of building so well that he could systematize its elements in a slightly different way from previous designs, thus carrying developments a stage further. Ornamentation included intricate interlace patterns, stylized human figures, and mythological animals. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - oseberg-ship-head-post.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oseberg_ship_head_post.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Osebergskipet-Detail. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Osebergskipet-Detail.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Buckle from Oseberg Vikingship Buddha. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buckle_from_Oseberg_Vikingship_Buddha.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Oseberg longship. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oseberg_longship.png. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - The Norse. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com/atoms/6644. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Viking Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Oseberg Ship. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Oseberg%20Ship. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 512px-The_Jelling_Stone_-_VIKING_exhibition_at_the_National_Museum_of_Denmark_-_Photo_The_National_Museum_of_Denmark_(9084035770).jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26755810%20. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Jelling-grosses-tier.gif. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Jelling-grosses-tier.gif. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Jelling Stones. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Jellingsten.1..jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Runesten i Jelling. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Runesten_i_Jelling.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Harald's Stone. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/6/66/Jelling_gr_Stein_3.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Interlace (Art). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlace_(art). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Viking Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Jelling Stones. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Jelling_stones. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 502px-Hedal_stavkirke_portal.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Hedal_stavkirke_portal.jpg/502px-Hedal_stavkirke_portal.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-Borg_VestvC3A5gC3B8y_LC0165.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Borg_Vestv%C3%A5g%C3%B8y_LC0165.jpg/640px-Borg_Vestv%C3%A5g%C3%B8y_LC0165.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Lomen.5. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lomen.5.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Reinli Stavkyrkje, Su00f8r-Aurdal. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Reinli_Stavkyrkje,_S%C3%B8r-Aurdal.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lom stavkyrkje A. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lom_stavkyrkje_A.jpeg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Mead Hall. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mead_hall. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Palisade. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Palisade. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Triforium. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Triforium. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lofotr Viking Museum. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lofotr_Viking_Museum. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Architecture of Norway. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Norway%23Viking_and_medieval_eras. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Stave Church. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Stave_church. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sill. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sill. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Timber. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/timber. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:31.863345	2020-05-01T17:33:42	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/16%3A_Early_Medieval_Europe/16.02%3A_The_Vikings", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "16.2: The Vikings", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/16%3A_Early_Medieval_Europe/16.03%3A_The_Carolingians	16.3: The Carolingians Carolingian Painting in the Early European Middle Ages Carolingian artwork consists of frescoes and mosaics that reached a pinnacle of production under the reign of Charlemagne. Describe Carolingian mosaics and paintings Key Points - Carolingian art comes from the Frankish Empire from about 780 to 900 CE, during the reign of Charlemagne and his immediate heirs. This period is popularly known as the Carolingian Renaissance . - Carolingian paintings show an attempt to conform to Charlemagne’s desire to revive the Roman Empire under a Christian banner. - Some fragmentary frescoes have survived, allowing art historians to theoretically conceptualize Carolingian painting. Examples of surviving fragments include those at the Abbey of Saint John at Müstair and Saint Benedikt at Mals. - Mosaics , created by assembling small pieces of colored glass, stone, pigments , and other materials, were created in Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel. Examples of well-preserved surviving frescoes can be found at Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel at Aachen and Germigny-des-Prés. Key Terms - mosaic : A piece of artwork created by placing colored squares (usually tiles) in a pattern so as to create a picture. - fresco : A technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment and as the plaster sets, the painting becomes an integral part of the wall. Background Carolingian art comes from the Frankish Empire from about 780 to 900 CE, during the reign of Charlemagne and his immediate heirs. This period is popularly known as the Carolingian Renaissance. The art was produced by and for the court circle and a group of important monasteries under imperial patronage . Surviving examples of painting from this era consist mainly of frescoes and mosaics produced in present-day France, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, northern Italy, and the Low Countries. These sites have allowed art historians to theoretically conceptualize Carolingian paintings. Paintings show an attempt to conform to Charlemagne’s desire to revive the Roman Empire under a Christian banner. The figures in the frescoes, although relatively flat and posed in a stylized manner, display a degree of modeling and an acknowledgement of the body beneath the clothing. Their facial expressions and body language imply a sense of interaction, although few stand in profile and none turn their backs to the viewer . Surviving frescoes show a greater degree of modeling, a variety of poses, and a relatively naturalistic rendering of draperies and acknowledgement of the bodies beneath. Outside the elite circle that produced these works, however, the quality of visual art was much lower. Frescoes Various forms of Carolingian painting include frescoes, which reached a pinnacle of production under the reign of Charlemagne. A villa that featured the oratory of the Palatine Chapel belonged to Bishop Theodulf of Orléans, a key associate of Charlemagne. It was destroyed later in the century, but contained multiple Carolignian frescos of the Seven Liberal Arts, the Four Seasons, and the Mappa Mundi (Map of the World). Art historians have found numerous other Carolingian frescoes in churches and palaces that have since been nearly completely lost. The Abbey of Saint John at Müstair, Switzerland is the site of exceptionally well-preserved Carolingian art. The original church has several significant early medieval frescoes from around 800 CE. The paintings are organized in five rows that stretch from the southern wall across the west wall to the northern wall. The top row features scenes from the life of King David of the Old Testament. The next three rows show scenes from the youth, life, and Passion of Christ. The bottom row contains scenes from the crucifixion of Saint Andreas. On the western wall the rows are tied together with an image of the Last Judgment. The palette consists of a limited range of colors including ochre , red, and brown. The frescoes at Saint Benedikt at Mals, Italy are contemporary with those at neighboring Saint John at Müstair. They belong to a limited set of surviving frescoes of the Carolingian period. The frescoes are mostly distributed in three niches in the altar wall, showing Jesus Christ flanked by pope Gregory the Great and Saint Stephen. On the walls separating the niches are donor portraits below a troop of 12 angels, and scenes showing Gregory writing his Dialogi and disputing with Paulus Diaconus (Paul the Deacon) alongside scenes showing Paul of Tarsus and a fragment of a scene from the life of Saint Benedict. Mosaics Mosaics were created by assembling small pieces of colored glass, stone, pigments, and other materials. The mosaics were created in Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel at Aachen, whose interior remains adorned with arch-to-dome mosaics. Like the Byzantine mosaics that influenced their design, those that adorn Charlemagne’s chapel feature floral motifs and classicized figures in various poses against largely gold backgrounds. The most famous mosaic in Charlemagne’s chapel showed an enthroned Christ worshiped by the Evangelist’s symbols and the 24 elders of the Apocalypse. This mosaic no longer survives, but a restored one remains in the apse of the oratory at Germigny-des-Prés (806), discovered in 1820 under a coat of plaster and depicting the Ark of the Covenant adored by angels. Carolingian Architecture in the Early European Middle Ages Carolingian architecture is characterized by its attempts to emulate late Roman classicism, early Christian, and Byzantine styles. Locate Carolingian architecture as it relates to pre-Romanesque, Roman classicist, Late Antique, early Christian, and Byzantine styles Key Points - Carolingian churches are generally basilican like the Early Christian churches of Rome , and commonly incorporated westworks . - The gatehouse of the monastery at Lorsch, built around 800 CE in Germany, exemplifies classical inspiration for Carolingian architecture built as a triple-arched hall dominating the gateway. The arched façade is interspersed with attached Roman- style classical columns and pilasters above. - Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel at Aachen combines the styles of the Western Roman and Byzantine Empires with contemporary innovations to create a unique Carolingian architectural style. - The exterior of a westwork consists of multiple stories between two towers, while the interior includes an entrance vestibule, a chapel, and a series of galleries overlooking the nave . The westwork of the Corvey Abbey is one of the few intact surviving examples from the Carolingian period. Key Terms - spolia : The repurposing of building stone for new construction or the reuse of decorative sculpture on new monuments. - westwork : The main entrance of a church, named for its (usually) west-facing orientation. - Carolingian architecture : A style of northern European pre-Romanesque architecture belonging to the period of the late eighth and ninth centuries. It was a conscious attempt to emulate Roman architecture and thus borrowed heavily from early Christian and Byzantine architecture. However, innovations make this a distinct style all its own. Carolingian architecture is the style of northern European pre-Romanesque architecture belonging to the Carolingian Renaissance . During the eighth and ninth centuries, the Carolingian dynasty (named for Charlemagne) dominated western Europe politically, culturally, and economically. Carolingian architecture is characterized by its conscious attempts to emulate Roman classicism and Late Antique architecture. The Carolingians thus borrowed heavily from early Christian and Byzantine architectural styles, although they added their own innovations and aesthetic style. The result was a fusion of divergent cultural aesthetic qualities. The gatehouse of Lorsch Abbey, built around 800 CE in Germany, exemplifies classical inspiration for Carolingian architecture, built as a triple-arched hall dominating the gateway, with the arcaded façade interspersed with engaged Corinthian columns and pilasters above. In addition to the engaged columns and arcades , the apse-like structures on either side of the gatehouse recall the ancient Roman basilicas , which were the sites of important government events. By contrast , the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), with its sixteen-sided ambulatory and overhead gallery, was inspired by the Byzantine-style octagonal church of San Vitale in Ravenna. The chapel makes use of ancient spolia , conceivably from Ravenna, as well as newly carved materials. The bronze decoration is of extraordinarily high quality, especially the doors with lion heads and the interior railings with Corinthian order columns and acanthus scrolls. Like San Vitale, the Palatine Chapel is a centrally-planned church whose dome serves as its focal point. However, at Aachen, the barrel and groin vaults and octagonal cloister vault in the dome reflect late Roman practices rather than the Byzantine techniques employed at San Vitale. Its round arches and massive supporting piers draw from Western Roman influence. A multicolored marble veneer creates a sumptuous interior. A monumental western entrance complex called the westwork is also drawn from Byzantine architecture. Carolingian churches are generally basilican like the Early Christian churches of Rome, and commonly incorporated westworks, arguably the precedent for the western façades of later medieval cathedrals . A westwork (German: westwerk ) is a monumental west-facing entrance section of a medieval church. This exterior consists of multiple stories between two towers, while the interior includes an entrance vestibule, a chapel, and a series of galleries overlooking the nave. The westwork first originated in the ancient churches of Syria. The westwork of Corvey Abbey (873-885), Germany, is the oldest surviving example. Like the gate house from Lorsch Abbey, the westwork of Corvey consists of a symmetrical arcade of three round arches at the base . This arcaded pattern repeats in the windows on the second and third stories. The heavy masonry throughout the façade recalls the massive appearance of the interior of the Palatine Chapel. On the upper stories of the center and towers of the westwork, a range of modified classical columns divide and accent the windows, also round arches. Carolingian Illustrated Books in the Early European Middle Ages The most common surviving works of the Carolingian era are illuminated manuscripts, which further developed the Insular book style. Identify the major Carolingian manuscripts, the workshops and schools they were created in, and the traditions they drew from Key Points - Carolingian manuscripts were likely produced largely by clerics in a few workshops around the Carolingian Empire. Each of these workshops developed its own style based on the artists and influences of that location and time. Among the most influential centers of production were the Court Schools of Charlemagne and Charles the Bald, as well as the Touronian and Rheimsian Schools. - As the earliest producer of Carolingian manuscripts, the Court School of Charlemagne initiated a revival of Roman classicism yet maintained Migration Period art (Merovingian and Insular) traditions in their linear presentation, with no concern for volume and spatial relationships. - The Drogo Sacramentary introduced the historiated initial to manuscript illumination. It became standard in manuscripts for the remainder of the Middle Ages . - The Utrecht Psalter was perhaps the most important of all Carolingian manuscripts because of its innovative and naturalistic figurine line drawings. These became the most influential innovation of Carolingian art. - The Ebbo Gospels introduced expressive and energetic lines that were unprecedented in illumination and influenced the art form for decades. Key Terms - historiated : Decorated with designs representing scenes from the text. - illuminated manuscripts : A book in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations. In the most strict definition of the term, this refers to books decorated with gold or silver, but in both common usage and modern scholarship, the term is now used to refer to any decorated or illustrated book from the Western traditions. Illuminated manuscripts are the most common surviving works of the Carolingian era. This includes a number of luxury manuscripts, mostly Gospel books. They are decorated with a relatively small number of full-page miniatures , often including evangelist portraits and lavish canon tables drawn from Insular art in Britain and Ireland. Carolingian narrative images and cycles are rare but do exist. They tend to be mostly of the Old Testament, while New Testament scenes are typically found on the ivory reliefs on the covers. Early Carolingian Manuscripts Carolingian illustrators adopted the oversized, heavily decorated initials of Insular art and developed the historiated decorated initial to produce small narrative scenes. These were seen for the first time toward the end of the period, most notably in the Drogo Sacramentary (850-855). The historiated initial, a harmonious union of classical lettering with narrative scenes, had influence into the Romanesque period. Carolingian luxury manuscripts were given treasure binding, rich covers with jewels set in gold and carved ivory panels. As in Insular art, these were prestige objects kept in the church or treasury . By contrast , working manuscripts featured a few decorated initial and pen drawings and were kept in libraries. One exception is the Utrecht Psalter, a heavily illustrated library version of the Psalms done in pen and wash and almost certainly copied from a much earlier manuscript. This was perhaps the most important of all Carolingian manuscripts for its innovative and naturalistic figure line drawings that became the most influential innovation of Carolinian art. Carolingian Manuscript Workshops Carolingian manuscripts are presumed to have been produced largely or entirely by clerics in a few workshops around the Carolingian Empire. Each of these workshops practiced its own style that developed based on the artists and influences of that particular location and time. The earliest workshop was the Court School of Charlemagne, then the Rheimsian workshop (which became the most influential of the Carolingian period), the Touronian style, the Drogo style, and the Court School of Charles II (the Bald). The Court School of Charlemagne The Court School of Charlemagne (also known as the Ada School) produced the earliest manuscripts, including the Godescalc Evangelistary (781–783), the Lorsch Gospels (778–820, ), the Ada Gospels , the Soissons Gospels , the Harley Golden Gospels (800-820), and the Vienna Coronation Gospels . The Court School manuscripts were ornate and elaborate, reminiscent of sixth-century ivories and mosaics from Ravenna, Italy. The Court School of Charlemagne initiated a revival of Roman classicism, yet maintained Migration-Period artistic (Merovingian and Insular) traditions in their linear presentation, with no concern for volume and spatial relationships. The Rheims School In the early ninth century, Archbishop Ebbo of Rheims assembled clerical artists and transformed Carolingian art. The expressive animations of the Rheims School would have influence on northern medieval art for centuries to follow, far into the Romanesque period. One example was the Gospel Book of Ebbo (816–835), painted with swift, fresh, vibrant brush strokes that evoked an inspiration and energy unknown in classical Mediterranean forms. This emotionalism was new to Carolingian art. Figures in the Ebbo Gospels are represented in nervous, agitated poses. The illustration uses an energetic, streaky style with swift brush strokes. The style directly influenced manuscript illumination for decades, as seen in the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram . The evangelist portrait of Matthew in the Ebbo Gospels is similar to the illustration of the psalmist in the first psalm of the Utrecht Psalter . Other books associated with the Rheims school include the Utrecht Psalter and the Bern Physiologus (825-850), the earliest Latin edition of the Christian allegorical text on animals. Many of its miniatures are set unframed into the text block, which was a characteristic of Late-Antique manuscripts. For this reason, it is believed to be a copy of a fifth-century manuscript. This is one of the oldest extant illustrated copies of the Physiologus . St. Martin of Tours Another style developed at the monastery of St. Martin of Tours in which large Bibles were illustrated based on late Antique Bible illustrations. Three large Touronian Bibles were created. One of the best examples was the Vivian Bible (c. 846), commissioned by Count Vivien, the lay abbot of St. Martin of Tours, and presented to Charles the Bald. The Tours School was cut short by the invasion of the Normans in 853, but its style had already left a permanent mark on other centers in the Carolingian Empire. Charles the Bald Court School Charles the Bald established a Court School that fused Touronian, Rhemsian, and Charlemagne Court School styles. Several manuscripts are attributed to this institution, and the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram (870) was the last and most spectacular. The school’s location at the time is unknown as its previous base at St Martin’s Abbey in Tours was destroyed in 853, but it had probably moved to the Basilica of St. Denis outside Paris by the time of the production of the Codex . Seven full-page miniatures show the four evangelists, Charles the Bald enthroned, the Adoration of the Lamb, and a Christ in Majesty. Carolingian Metalwork in the Early European Middle Ages Carolingian metalworkers primarily worked with gold, ivory, gems, and other precious materials. List the prominent examples of metalwork during the Carolingian era Key Points - Metalwork subjects were often narrative religious scenes in vertical sections, largely derived from Late Antique paintings and carvings. Those with more hieratic images were derived from consular diptychs and other imperial art. - Important Carolingian examples of metalwork came out of Charles the Bald’s “Palace School” workshop. - Carolingian-era metalwork produced large statues cast entirely in gold that would influence the development of monumental , elaborate sculptures and altars made from precious materials in northern European medieval art. Key Terms - Metalwork : The process of working with metal to create individual parts, assemblies, or large-scale structures. The term covers a wide range, from large ships and bridges to precise engine parts and delicate jewelry, and a corresponding range of skills, processes, and tools. Carolingian-era metalworkers primarily worked with gold, gems, ivory , and other precious materials. For instance, luxury Carolingian manuscripts were given treasure bindings and elaborately ornate covers in precious metals set with jewels around central carved ivory panels. Metalwork subjects were often narrative religious scenes in vertical sections, largely derived from Late Antique paintings and carvings. Those with more hieratic images, such as the front and back covers of the Lorsch Gospels, were derived from consular diptychs and other imperial art. Charles the Bald’s Palace School Workshop Important Carolingian examples of metalwork came out of Charles the Bald’s Palace School workshop, and include the cover of the Lindau Gospels, the cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram , and the Arnulf Ciborium . All three of these works feature fine relief figures in repoussé gold. Another work associated with the Palace School is the frame of an antique serpentine dish, now located in the Louvre. Under Charlemagne, there was a revival of large-scale bronze casting in imitation of Roman designs, although metalwork in gold continued to develop. For example, the Aachen chapel’s figure of Christ in gold (now lost) was the first-known work of this type and became a crucial inspiring feature of northern European medieval art. Another one of the finest examples of Carolingian metalwork is the Golden Altar (824–859), also known as the Paliotto , in the Basilica of Sant’Ambrogio in Milan (since damaged by World War II bombings). The altar’s four sides are decorated with images in gold and silver repoussé framed by borders of filigree, precious stones, and enamel . An Imperial Portrait Charlemagne’s personal appearance is known from a good description by a personal associate Einhard, whose biography of the emperor describes him as tall and well-built with a round head and wide eyes. This written portrait is confirmed by contemporary depictions of the emperor, his exhumed body, and sculptures believed to depict his likeness. One possibility is a bronze equestrian statuette once housed in Aachen Cathedral. Typical of sculpture in the round produced during the Carolingian period, the statuette is small, approximately eight inches high. The rider is depicted with a mustache, an open crown on his head, and a riding cloak fastened with a fibula. Like the architecture and painting of the time, this sculpture reflects Charlemagne’s desire to recreate the Roman Empire, as it bears similarities with a large-scale bronze equestrian portrait of Marcus Aurelius from the second century. Similar to the ancient Roman emperor, the mounted Carolingian ruler wears a calm expression as he rides without holding the reins. Rather, he holds a sword (now lost) in his right hand and an imperial orb in his left. Unlike its ancient predecessor, the horse does not pounce on a missing enemy but calmly prances, reflecting the stateliness of the rider. Several gold reliquaries, including one in the form of a portrait bust of Charlemagne, were produced under later dynasties, especially after his canonization in the 12th century. The Wolf’s Door Bronze also features in many decorative elements in Carolingian westwork of Aachen Cathedral. Known as the Wolf’s Door, the main entrance consists of heavy bronze leaves. Each leaf is divided into eight rectangles—a number that had religious symbolism in Christianity, as a symbol of Sunday, the day of the Resurrection. These boxes were framed by decorative strips, which are made of egg-shaped decorations. The egg was considered a symbol of life and fertility from antiquity. In Christian belief it was imbued with the even wider symbolism of Eternal Life. The door-rings in the shape of lions’ heads are wreathed by 24 stylized acanthus scrolls—again to be understood at the deepest level through numerology. The Wolf’s Door’s imitation of the shape of the ancient Roman temple door signifies Charlemagne’s claim to have established a New Rome in Aachen with the Palatine Chapel as the distinctive monumental building. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Scenes_of_saints27_lives.jpg. Provided by : WikiVisually. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Scenes_of_saints%27_lives.jpg/640px-Scenes_of_saints%27_lives.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 439px-Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg/439px-Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 378px-St_Johann_-_21.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/St_Johann_-_21.jpg/378px-St_Johann_-_21.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Germigny Des Pres 2007 01. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Germigny_Des_Pres_2007_01.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - St. Benedikt (Mals). Provided by : WikiVisually. Located at : wikivisually.com/wiki/St._Benedikt_(Mals)/wiki_ph_id_20. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Saint John Abbey, Mu00fcstair. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_John_Abbey,_M%C3%BCstair. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Palatine Chapel, Aachen. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatine_Chapel,_Aachen. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - mosaic. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mosaic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Carolingian Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_art%23Mosaics_and_frescos. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mosaics. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaics. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Fresco. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fresco. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Aachener dom oktagon. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aachener_dom_oktagon.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 360px-Corvey_Westwerk_2.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Corvey_Westwerk_2.jpg/360px-Corvey_Westwerk_2.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Torhalle Kloster Lorsch. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Torhalle_Kloster_Lorsch.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Lorsch Abbey. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorsch_Abbey. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Palatine Chapel, Aachen. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatine_Chapel,_Aachen. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Imperial Abbey of Corvey. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Abbey_of_Corvey. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Spolia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Spolia. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Carolingian Architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Westwork. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Westwork. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Codexaureus 02. 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Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DrogoSacramentaryFol71vAscension.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Aureus_of_St._Emmeram. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Utrecht Psalter. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht_Psalter. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bern Physiologus. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bern_Physiologus. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - First Bible of Charles the Bald. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Bible_of_Charles_the_Bald. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Drogo Sacramentary. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Drogo_Sacramentary. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ebbo Gospels. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebbo_Gospels. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Carolingian Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_art%23Illuminated_manuscripts. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Illuminated Manuscripts. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/illuminated%20manuscripts. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Codex Aureus Sankt Emmeram. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Charles_Marville,_Hou0302tel_Carnavalet,_statue_of_Charlemagne,_ca._1853u201370.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Marville,_H%C3%B4tel_Carnavalet,_statue_of_Charlemagne,_ca._1853%E2%80%9370.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Aachen Cathedral. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Aachen_Cathedral. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Equestrian statuette of Charlemagne. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Equestrian_statuette_of_Charlemagne. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Charlemagne. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Carolingian art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_art%23Sculpture_and_metalwork. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Metalwork. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalwork. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:31.991907	2020-05-01T17:33:48	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/16%3A_Early_Medieval_Europe/16.03%3A_The_Carolingians", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "16.3: The Carolingians", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/16%3A_Early_Medieval_Europe/16.04%3A_The_Ottonians	16.4: The Ottonians Ottonian Painting in the Early European Middle Ages The Ottonian Renaissance (951-1024) was a period of cultural and artistic achievement inspired by the revival of the Holy Roman Empire. Describe the painting of the Ottonian Renaissance Key Points - Originally a ducal family from Saxony, the Ottonians seized power after the collapse of Carolingian rule in Europe and re-established the Holy Roman Empire. This coincided with a period of significant church reform. - Ottonian art reflects the Ottonians’ desire to confirm a holy Roman imperial lineage connecting them with the Roman emperors and their Carolingian predecessors. It fuses traditions and influences from late Roman, Byzantine , and Carolingian art. - Ottonian ruler portraits are usually found in illuminated manuscripts and include motifs commonly found in ancient Roman iconography . Unlike classical art, however, these portraits lack a sense of naturalism , relying instead on iconography and hierarchical scale. - Very few examples of wall painting from the Ottonian period survive. Those that have are in very poor condition or have been restored several times, often making it difficult or impossible to discover their correct dates of production. Key Terms - iconography : The branch of art history that deals with the symbolic value of an artwork’s subject matter and content. - imperium : The right to command the force of the state; sovereignty. Sculpture and Painting Originally a ducal family from Saxony, the Ottonians (named after their first King Otto I the Great) seized power after the collapse of Carolingian rule in Europe and re-established the Holy Roman Empire. Ottonian rule was accompanied by renewed faith in the idea of imperium (Latin, roughly translated as “power to command”), referring to the sovereignty of state over individual). This coincided with a period of significant church reform. Both combined to create the Ottonian Renaissance (circa 951-1024), a period of heightened cultural and artistic fervor and achievement. The Ottonian Dynasty desired to confirm a sacred Roman imperial lineage that connected them to the Christian rulers of Late Antiquity such as Theodoric and Justinian and to their Carolingian predecessors, particularly Charlemagne. Ottonian art reflected this desire, fusing traditions and influences from late Roman, Byzantine, and Carolingian art. The style is generally grand and heavy, sometimes to excess, and initially less sophisticated than the Carolingian equivalents. Additionally, the Ottonian style exhibits no direct influence from Byzantine art and less understanding of its classical models. Surviving paintings from this period exist predominantly in illustrations from illuminated manuscripts and a small number of mural and fresco fragments. In fact, illuminated manuscripts are the best source of painted imperial portraiture from the Ottonian Renaissance. Ruler Portraits Ottonian ruler portraits usually combine ancient Roman elements with contemporary (medieval) ones. Portraits are most frequently found in the dedicatory prefaces of illuminated manuscripts. Ottonian art eschews naturalism for a more abstract style, focusing on symbolism to convey deeply philosophical and theological concepts. A portrait of Otto II enthroned depicts the emperor wearing a bejeweled crown in lieu of a laurel wreath and a large disc bearing the cross in place of an imperial orb. However, his upright posture and general pose with one raised hand somewhat recalls the Colossus of Constantine , which sat in the Basilica Nova in the fourth century. Likewise, his attire slightly resembles a Roman toga, a sartorial mainstay among emperors and senators of ancient times. In a departure from classical art, however, Otto and the figures who flank him appear flat. Further, their scale is hierarchical, which organizes size in relation to importance. Otto is the largest of the five figures depicted. Lastly, the architectural space that surrounds the emperor fails to convey a sense of naturalistic recession into space. Wall Paintings Although it is clear from records that many churches were decorated with extensive wall painting, surviving examples are extremely rare, usually fragmentary, and in poor condition. As a result, their dates of production are uncertain, especially since many have been restored. Most surviving examples are clustered in south Germany, although there are also important examples from northern Italy. There is a record of bishop Gebhard of Constance hiring lay artists for a now-vanished cycle at his newly founded Petershausen Abbey (983). Laymen may have dominated the art of wall painting, perhaps basing their designs on monastic illuminations. The artists seem to have been nomadic, regularly moving throughout Europe. The church of St. George at Oberzell on Reichenau Island has the best-known surviving example of wall paintings. However, much of the original work has been lost, and the remaining paintings to the sides of the nave have suffered from time and restoration. The largest scenes show the miracles of Christ in a style that shows both specific Byzantine elements and similarity with Reichenau manuscripts such as the Munich Gospels of Otto III . They are therefore usually dated around 980–1000. Indeed, the paintings are one of the foundations of the case for Reichenau Abbey as a major center of manuscript painting. Ottonian Architecture in the Early European Middle Ages Ottonian architecture flourished in the 10th and 11th centuries and drew inspiration from Carolingian and Byzantine architecture. Compare and contrast Ottonian architecture with its Carolingian predecessor Key Points - Ottonian architecture first developed during the reign of Otto the Great (936-975) and lasted until the mid-11th century. Surviving examples of this style of architecture are found in Germany and Belgium. - Ottonian architecture was inspired by Carolingian and Byzantine architecture and foreshadows Romanesque architecture in some features, including alternating columns and piers in regular patterns. - Ottonian religious architecture diverges from the model of the central-plan church, drawing inspiration instead from the longitudinally oriented Roman basilica . - The Ottonians adopted the Carolingian double-ended variation on the Roman basilica, featuring apses at both ends of the nave rather than just one. Churches make generous use of the round arch , have flat ceilings, and display the Ottonian appreciation of mathematical harmony by using modular planning. Key Terms - crypt : A stone chamber beneath the floor of a church or other building. - crossing : The junction of the four arms of a cruciform church. - ambulatory : The processional around the east end of a cathedral or large church and behind the high altar. - apse : A semicircular projection from a building, especially the rounded east end of a church that contains the altar. - capital : The uppermost part of a column. - nave : The middle or body of a church, extending from the transepts to the principal entrances. Originally a ducal family from Saxony, the Ottonians (named after their first king Otto I the Great) seized power after the collapse of Carolingian rule in Europe and re-established the Holy Roman Empire. Ottonian architecture first developed during the reign of Otto the Great (936 – 975 CE) and lasted until the mid-11th century. Surviving examples of this style of architecture are found today in Germany and Belgium. Ottonian architecture chiefly drew its inspiration from Carolingian and Byzantine architecture and represents the absorption of classical Mediterranean and Christian architectural forms with Germanic styles. Some features foreshadow the development of Romanesque architecture, which emerged in the mid-11th century. Its balance and harmony are a remarkable reflection of the high regard in which the Ottonians held the mathematical sciences. This is evident in the modular planning, which bases the measurements of each component of the interior on a single square unit multiplied or divided accordingly. Barring a few examples influenced by the octagonal Palatine Chapel built by Charlemagne in Aachen, Ottonian religious architecture tends to diverge from the model of the central-plan church, drawing inspiration instead from the Roman (Western) basilica. This typically consisted of a long central nave with an aisle at each side and an apse at one end. When adopted by early Christians, the basilica plan assumed a transept perpendicular to the nave, forming a cruciform shape to commemorate the Crucifixion. The Ottonians adopted the Carolingian double-ended variation on the Roman basilica, featuring apses at the east and west ends of the church rather than just the east. Most Ottonian churches make generous use of the round arch, have flat ceilings, and insert massive rectangular piers between columns in regular patterns, as seen in St. Cyriakus at Gernrode and St. Michael’s at Hildesheim. One of the finest surviving examples of Ottonian architecture is St. Cyriakus Church (960-965) in Gernrode, Germany. The central body of the church has a nave with two aisles flanked by two towers, characteristic of Carolingian architecture . However, it also displays novelties anticipating Romanesque architecture, including the alternation of pillars and columns (a common feature in later Saxon churches), semi-blind arcades in galleries on the nave, and column capitals decorated with stylized acanthus leaves and human heads. St. Michael’s at Hildesheim (1010-1031) is one of the most important Ottonian churches, a double-choir basilica with two transepts and a square tower at each crossing . This layout can be seen from the exterior of the building. The west choir is emphasized by an ambulatory and a crypt . Adhering to the Ottonian appreciation for mathematics, the ground plan of the building follows a geometric concept in which the square of the transept crossing in the ground plan constitutes the key measuring unit for the entire church. The square units are defined by the alternation of columns and piers. Unlike St. Cyriakus, St. Michael’s lacks a second-story gallery. However, ample light enters through a row of clerestory windows placed above the arcades dividing the name from the aisles. Ottonian Metalwork in the Early European Middle Ages Ottonian metalwork ranged from jewel-encrusted objects of precious metals to large-scale bronze reliefs of stylized yet dramatic figures. Discuss how Ottonian metalwork distinguished itself from Carolingian metalwork Key Points - The Ottonians were renowned for their metalwork in precious and non-precious materials. - Jeweled processional crosses embellished with portraits and engravings are some of the finest examples of Ottonian art and sculpture. - The cover of the Codex Aureus of Echternach consists of an ivory plaque surrounded by gold repoussé reliefs produced in the elegant elongated style typical in Ottonian art. - Ottonian metalwork use subject matter and iconography to refer to deep theological and philosophical concepts, as seen in the Bernward Doors and Bernward Column . Key Terms - iconography : Pertaining to the symbolic value of the subject matter or content of an artwork. The Ottonians were renowned for their metalwork, producing bejeweled book covers and massive bronze church doors with relief carvings depicting biblical scenes, a process so complex that it would not be repeated until the Renaissance . Fine, small-scale metal sculpture flourished and exquisite book covers made of ivory and embellished with gems, enamels , crystals, and cameos were produced during this period. The Cross of Lothair Many of the finest examples of the crux gemmata (jeweled cross) date from Ottonian rule. These wooden crosses were encased in carved gold and silver and encrusted with jewels and engraved gems. Arguably the finest of these Ottonian jeweled crosses is the Cross of Lothair , dating from around 1,000 and housed in the Aachen Cathedral . The cross takes its name from the large engraved green rock crystal seal near its base , which bears the portrait and name of the Carolingian ruler Lothair II, King of Lotharingia (835-869). The cross was actually commissioned over a century later for Otto III, the Holy Roman Emperor . The cross bears a cameo of the great Roman emperor Augustus Caesar on one side and an engraving of the crucifixion of Jesus on the other. The cross thus represents both church and state in keeping with the Ottonian agenda, and connects the Ottonian emperors to the original Roman emperors. The cross also depicts the Hand of God holding a wreath containing a dove representing the Holy Spirit in the crucifixion scene. This is the earliest-known appearance of the dove motif and the introduction of the entire Trinity into the crucifixion, iconography that has been repeated for centuries. The Codex Aureus of Echternach Ottonian relief figures from treasure bindings and cast sculptures are often more stylized yet more dramatic than their restrained Carolingian counterparts. The cover of the Codex Aureus of Echternach (1030-1050) dates from about 50 years before the manuscript. The metalwork is attributed to the Trier workshop set up by Egbert, Archbishop of Trier. It centers on an ivory plaque showing the Crucifixion. Surrounding the ivory plaque are panels with figures in repoussé gold relief. The style of the metal reliefs differ significantly from the central plaque. These panels are set in a framework with larger elements made up of alternating units of gold filigree set with gems and cloisonné enamel with stylized plant motifs. Thinner gold bands set with small pearls run along the diagonal axes, further separating the relief images into compartments and creating an “X” that may stand for “Christ.” The figures are produced in an elegant elongated style that contrasts strongly with the forceful and slightly squat figures of the ivory. Bronze Sculptures in Hildesheim Ottonian metalwork also includes objects produced from non-precious metals. The most famous of these is the pair of church doors, the Bernward Doors , commissioned by Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim. They contain biblical scenes from the Gospels and the Book of Genesis in bronze relief, each cast in a single piece. These powerfully simple compositions convey their meanings by emphatic gestures, a hallmark of the Ottonian style. The figures on the Bernward Doors feature a progressive style of relief, leaning out from the background instead of extending a uniform distance. A particularly apt example of this is the figure of Mary with the baby Jesus in the depiction of the Adoration of the Magi. While her lower body is still in low relief, her upper body and Christ project out further and her head and shoulders are cast in the round . This unusual style was used for artistic reasons, not because of technical limitations. Another striking Ottonian metal sculpture from is the Bernward Column (c. 1000), named for the same patron as the Bernward Doors . Produced for St. Michael’s Cathedral in Hildesheim, the column depicts images from the life of Jesus arranged in a helix similar to Trajan’s Column. Just as Roman victory columns depict the military deeds of the Emperor in an upward spiraling frieze , the Bernward Column depicts the peaceful deeds of Christ from his baptism at the Jordan to his triumphal entry into Jerusalem. The column is significant for the vitality of the figural relief, which is unusual for its time. The relief complements the Bernward Doors . Both artworks reflect Bernward’s efforts to put his seat in the position of northern Rome in the context of the Ottonian Dynasty’s renewed Christian Roman Empire. They also emphasize Christ as a model of just and godly kingship for the rulers. For this reason, the execution of John the Baptist by Herod Antipas is given a great deal of space . Ottonian Illustrated Books in the Early European Middle Ages Ottonian monasteries produced lavish illuminated manuscripts under the sponsorship of emperors, bishops, and other wealthy patrons. Describe the purpose and style of illustrated books in the Ottonian Renaissance Key Points - The illuminated manuscript is one in which text is supplemented by ornamentation in the form of colored initials, decorative borders, and miniature illustrations, sometimes executed with the addition of gold and silver leaf. - Ottonian illuminated manuscripts were used for display and most commonly consisted of liturgical books , including psalters , gospel books, and huge complete Bibles. - Manuscripts sometimes included a dedication portrait commemorating the book’s creation, in which the patron is usually depicted presenting the book to the chosen saint. Colored initials, borders, and marginalia also contain miniature portraits and other decorative emblems and motifs . - Much Ottonian art reflected the dynasty’s desire to establish a visual link to the Christian rulers of Late Antiquity and their Carolingian predecessors. - The Registrum Gregorii, the Codex Egberti , and the Pericopes of Henry II are among the most important illuminated manuscripts of the Ottonian Renaissance . Key Terms - psalter : The Book of Psalms, often applied to a book containing the Psalms separately printed. - lectionary : A book or listing that contains a collection of scripture readings appointed for Christian or Judaic worship on a given day or occasion. - liturgical book : A book published by the authority of a church containing the text and directions for the liturgy or customary public worship of its official religious services. - scriptorium : A room in a monastery set aside for the copying, writing, or illuminating of manuscripts and records. The Ottonian Renaissance (circa 951 – 1024 BCE) coincided with a period of reform and growth in the church, providing an impetus for the production of religious art . The Illuminated Manuscript One of the most important art forms of the period was the illuminated manuscript, one in which the text is supplemented by ornamentation in the form of colored initials, decorative borders, and miniature illustrations, sometimes with the addition of gold and silver leaf. Ottonian monasteries produced some of the most magnificent medieval illuminated manuscripts, working with the best equipment and talent under the direct sponsorship of emperors, bishops, and other wealthy patrons. The manuscripts produced by Ottonian scriptoria (monastic centers for copying texts) provide invaluable documentation of contemporary, religious, and political customs as well as the stylistic preferences of the period. The most richly illuminated manuscripts were used for display and were most liturgical books, including psalters, gospel books, and large, complete Bibles. These lavish manuscripts sometimes include a dedication portrait commemorating the book’s creation in which the patron is usually depicted presenting the book to the chosen saint. Colored initials, borders, and marginalia also contain miniature portraits and other decorative emblems and motifs. Illuminated manuscripts were enclosed in ornate metal book covers decorated with gems and ivory carvings. Presentation Portraits Following late Carolingian styles , presentation portraits of the patrons of manuscripts are very prominent in Ottonian art. Much Ottonian art reflected the dynasty’s desire to establish a visual link to the Christian rulers of Late Antiquity such as Theodoric and Justinian as well as to their Carolingian predecessors, particularly Charlemagne. For example, Ottonian ruler portraits typically include elements with a long imperial history as iconography , such as province personifications, or representatives of the military and the Church flanking the emperor. Famous Artists and Scriptoria Among the greatest artists of the Ottonian period was the anonymous Master of the Registrum Gregorii, who worked chiefly in Trier in the 970s to 980s. He derived his title from the miniatures in the Registrum Gregorii (a collection of letters by Pope Gregory the Great) and the Codex Egberti , a famous gospel lectionary manuscript, both for Archbishop Egbert of Trier (circa 950-993). However, most of the 51 images in the Codex Egberti , which represented events in the life of Christ, were made by two monks in the Benedictine monastery on the island of Reichenau on Lake Constance. Reichenau housed a scriptorium and artists’ workshop that was one of the largest and most influential in Europe during the late 10th and early 11th centuries. It became famous for its style of gospel illustration in liturgical books. Other famous scriptoria of the Ottonian age were found at the monasteries of Corvey, Hildesheim, and Regensburg, and the cathedral cities of Trier and Cologne. The Pericopes of Henry II (1002-1012) is a luxurious medieval illuminated manuscript made for Henry II, the last Ottonian Holy Roman Emperor . The manuscript is a product of the Liuthar Circle of illuminators, who worked in the monastery at Reichenau. The style of the Liuthar Group departs further from classical traditions. Its figures are flattened, stylized , and have exaggerated gestures. Backgrounds are often composed of bands of color with a symbolic rather than naturalistic rationale. As with depictions of Otto II and Otto III, figures’ scale is relative to importance, not based on reality. For example, the Annunciation to the Shepherds depicts the angel as the largest and thus most important figure, followed by humans and animals, as was the commonly accepted belief in Christendom at the time. Manuscripts from the Liuthar Group introduced the gold background to Western illumination, a characteristic that would remain common until the Italian Renaissance. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 612px-Reichenau_Oberzell_Fresko1.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Reichenau_Oberzell_Fresko1.jpeg/612px-Reichenau_Oberzell_Fresko1.jpeg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 352px-Meister_des_Registrum_Gregorii_001.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Meister_des_Registrum_Gregorii_001.jpg/352px-Meister_des_Registrum_Gregorii_001.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Ottonian Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottonian_art . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ottonian Renaissance. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottonian_Renaissance. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Imperium. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/imperium. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Iconography. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/iconography. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 400px-Gernrode_interieur_naar_het_westen.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gernrode_interieur_naar_het_westen.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 450px-Hildesheim-St_Michaels_Church.interior.01.JPG. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Hildesheim-St_Michaels_Church.interior.01.JPG/450px-Hildesheim-St_Michaels_Church.interior.01.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-Dehio_47_Gernrode.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Dehio_47_Gernrode.jpg/640px-Dehio_47_Gernrode.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Abbey Church of Gernrode. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_Church_of_Gernrode. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-Transeptarm.png. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica#/media/File:Transeptarm.PNG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-St_Michaels_Church_Hildesheim.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/St_Michaels_Church_Hildesheim.jpg/640px-St_Michaels_Church_Hildesheim.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Crypt. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ambulatory. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambulatory. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Crossing (Architecture). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossing_(architecture). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Apse. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/apse. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pre-Romanesque Art and Architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_art_and_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ottonian Architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottonian_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Abbey Church of Gernrode. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_Church_of_Gernrode. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Michael's_Church,_Hildesheim. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Capital. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/capital. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nave. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nave. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 456px-CodexAureusEpternacDEckel.JPG. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/CodexAureusEpternacDEckel.JPG/456px-CodexAureusEpternacDEckel.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 320px-Aachen_Germany_Domschatz_Cross-of-Lothair-01.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Aachen_Germany_Domschatz_Cross-of-Lothair-01.jpg/320px-Aachen_Germany_Domschatz_Cross-of-Lothair-01.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 512px-Hildesheim-Christussaeule-Hildesia.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Hildesheim-Christussaeule-Hildesia.jpg/512px-Hildesheim-Christussaeule-Hildesia.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 324px-BernwardstC3BCr.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Bernwardst%C3%BCr.jpg/324px-Bernwardst%C3%BCr.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Ottonian Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottonian_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hildesheim Cathedral. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hildesheim_Cathedral. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cross of Lothair. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_of_Lothair. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Codex Aureus of Echternach. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Aureus_of_Echternach#Cover. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bernward Doors. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernward_Doors. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bernward Column. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernward_Column. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 365px-Meister_der_Reichenauer_Schule_005.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Meister_der_Reichenauer_Schule_005.jpg/365px-Meister_der_Reichenauer_Schule_005.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Codex Egberti. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Egberti. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-Meister_der_Reichenauer_Schule_004.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Meister_der_Reichenauer_Schule_004.jpg/640px-Meister_der_Reichenauer_Schule_004.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Pericopes of Henry II. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericopes_of_Henry_II . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Registrum Gregorii. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Registrum_Gregorii. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Scriptorium. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/scriptorium. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Psalter. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psalter. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ottonian Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottonian_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lectionary. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectionary. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Liturgical Book. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/liturgical%20book. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:32.118604	2020-05-01T17:33:52	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/16%3A_Early_Medieval_Europe/16.04%3A_The_Ottonians", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "16.4: The Ottonians", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/17%3A_Romanesque_Art	17: Romanesque Art Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52960 Boundless Boundless 17.1: The Romanesque Period 17.2: Romanesque Architecture 17.3: Romanesque Sculpture 17.4: Other Romanesque Arts 17.5: Normandy and England	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:32.202753	2020-05-01T17:29:53	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/17%3A_Romanesque_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "17: Romanesque Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/17%3A_Romanesque_Art/17.01%3A_The_Romanesque_Period	17.1: The Romanesque Period The Romanesque Period Romanesque art was affected by shifting political powers following the Carolingian period and mobility during the Crusades. Summarize the economics and politics of the Romanesque Period Key Points - The invasion of England by William Duke of Normandy in 1066 led to the construction of castles and churches to reinforce the Norman presence. Several significant churches built at this time were founded as seats of temporal and religious power or places of coronation and burial. - The Crusades (1095–1270) brought about extensive migration and resultant spread of ideas and trade skills. - The continual movement of people, rulers, nobles, bishops, abbots, craftsmen and peasants was an important factor in creating homogenous building methods and a recognizable Romanesque style , despite regional differences. - The period saw Europe grow steadily more prosperous, and art of the highest quality was no longer confined to the royal court and a small circle of monasteries. Lay artists became increasingly valuable, and this category included most masons, goldsmiths, and painters by the end of the period. Key Terms - lay : Not belonging to the clergy, but associated with them. - Crusade : One of a series of ostensibly religious campaigns by Christian forces from the 11th to the 13th century, mostly to capture the Holy Land from the Muslims who occupied it. - feudalism : A social system based on personal ownership of resources and fealty between a suzerain (lord) and a vassal (subject). Defining characteristics are direct ownership of resources, personal loyalty, and a hierarchical social structure reinforced by religion. The Source of Inspiration Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Despite the misconception of 19 th century art historians that Romanesque architecture was a continuation of Roman styles, Roman brick and stone building techniques were lost in most parts of Europe. In the northern countries Roman style and methods were only adopted for official buildings, and in Scandinavia they were unknown. The exception was several great Constantinian basilicas that continued to stand in Rome as an inspiration to later builders. However, these did not inspire the Emperor Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel in Aachen, Germany, built around the year AD 800. Instead, the greatest building of the Dark Ages in Europe was the artistic child of the octagonal Byzantine Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, built in the sixth century. A New European Empire Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope in St. Peter’s Basilica on Christmas Day in 800 CE, with an aim of reestablishing the old Roman Empire. Charlemagne’s political successors continued to rule much of Europe, leading to the gradual emergence of the separate political states that were eventually welded into nations by allegiance or defeat. In the process, the Kingdom of Germany gave rise to the Holy Roman Empire. The invasion of England by William Duke of Normandy, in 1066 saw the building of castles and churches that reinforced the Norman presence. Several significant churches built at this time were founded by rulers as seats of temporal and religious power or as places of coronation and burial. These include the Abbaye-Saint-Denis and Westminster Abbey (where little of the Norman church now remains). The remaining architectural structures of the Roman Empire were falling into decay and much of its technology was lost. At the same time, however, the building of masonry domes and carving of decorative architectural details continued unabated, though the style had greatly evolved since the fall of Rome in the enduring Byzantine Empire. The domed churches of Constantinople and Eastern Europe had a substantial influence on the architecture of certain towns, particularly through trade and the Crusades. The most notable example is St Mark’s Basilica, Venice , but there are many lesser known examples such as the church of Saint Front, Périgueux and Angoulême Cathedral . Feudalism and Warfare Much of Europe was affected by feudalism, in which peasants held tenure from local rulers over the land they farmed in exchange for military service. As a result, they could be called on for local spats as well as to follow their lord across Europe to the Crusades. The Crusades (1095–1270) brought about substantial migration and resultant spread of ideas and trade skills, particularly the building of fortifications and the metalworking for the provision of arms, which was also applied to the fitting and decoration of buildings. The continual movement of people, rulers, nobles, bishops, abbots, craftsmen, and peasants was an important factor in creating homogeneous building methods and a recognizable Romanesque style, despite regional differences. Life became less secure after the Carolingian period, resulting in castles built at strategic points. Many were constructed as strongholds of the Normans, descendants of the Vikings who invaded northern France in 911. Political struggles also resulted in the fortification of towns by rebuilding and strengthening walls that remained from the Roman period. One of the most notable surviving fortifications is that of the city of Carcassonne. The enclosure of towns resulted in a style of tall, narrow townhouse with limited living space . These often surrounded communal courtyards, as at San Gimignano in Tuscany. Growing Prosperity As Europe grew steadily more prosperous during this period, art of the highest quality was no longer confined to the royal court and a small circle of monasteries as in the Carolingian and Ottonian periods. Monasteries remained important, especially those of the new Cistercian , Cluniac , and Carthusian orders that spread across Europe. City churches, including those on pilgrimage routes and many in small towns and villages, were elaborately decorated. Indeed, these have often survived when cathedrals and city churches have been rebuilt, while Romanesque royal palaces have not. The lay artist, Nicholas of Verdun, became a valued figure known across the continent. Most masons and goldsmiths were now lay professionals rather than monastic clergy, and lay painters like Master Hugo were the majority by the end of the period. The iconography of their church work was likely determined in consultation with clerical advisers. Romanesque Art Romanesque art refers to the art of Europe from the late 10th century to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century. Evaluate Romanesque architecture, sculpture, and painting Key Points - The Romanesque style was the first to spread across the whole of Catholic Europe and thus the first pan-European style since Imperial Roman Architecture. - Combining features of Roman and Byzantine buildings and other local traditions, Romanesque architecture exhibits massive quality, thick walls, round arches , sturdy piers , groin vaults , large towers, and symmetrical plans. - The art of the period was characterized by a vigorous style in both painting and sculpture. - Colors, which we can now see in their original brightness only in stained glass and well-preserved manuscripts, tended to be very striking. - The tympanums of important church portals were carved with monumental schemes, often depicting iconography from Byzantine painting. Key Terms - groin vault : The intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults. - tympanum : A triangular space between the sides of a pediment; the space within an arch and above a lintel or a subordinate arch, spanning the opening below the arch. - pier : In architecture, an upright support for a structure or superstructure such as an arch or bridge. Romanesque art refers to the art of Europe from the late 10 th century to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13 th century or later, depending on region. The term “Romanesque” was invented by 19 th century art historians to refer specifically to architecture of the time period, which retained many basic features of Roman architectural style—most notably semi-circular arches—but retained distinctive regional characteristics. In Southern France, Spain, and Italy, there was architectural continuity with the Late Antique period, but the Romanesque style was the first style to spread across the whole of Catholic Europe and thus the first pan-European style since Imperial Roman Architecture. Romanesque art was also influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting, and by the anti-classical energy of the decoration of the Insular art of the British Isles. From these elements was forged a highly innovative and coherent style. Architecture Combining features of Roman and Byzantine buildings along with other local traditions, Romanesque architecture is distinguished by massive quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdy piers, groin vaults, large towers, and decorative arcades . Each building has clearly defined forms and a symmetrical plan, resulting in a much simpler appearance than the Gothic buildings that would follow. The style can be identified across Europe, despite regional characteristics and materials. Painting Aside from architecture, the art of the period was characterized by a vigorous style in both painting and sculpture. In churches, painting continued to follow Byzantine iconographic models. Christ in Majesty, the Last Judgement and scenes from the Life of Christ remained among the most common depictions. In illuminated manuscripts , the most lavishly decorated examples of the period included bibles or psalters . As new scenes were depicted, more originality developed. They used intensely saturated primary colors , which now exist in their original brightness only in stained glass and well-preserved manuscripts. Stained glass first came to wide use during this period, although there are few surviving examples. Pictorial compositions usually had little depth as they were limited to the narrow spaces of historiated initials, column capitals , and church tympanums. The tension between a tight frame and a composition that sometimes escapes its designated space is a recurrent theme in Romanesque art. Figures often varied in size in relation to their importance, and landscape backgrounds were absent or closer to abstract decorations than realism , as in the trees in the “Morgan Leaf.” Human forms were often elongated and contorted to fit the shape provided and at times appeared to be floating in space. These figures focused on linear details with emphasis on drapery folds and hair. Sculpture Sculpture also exhibited a vigorous style, evident in the carved capitals of columns, which often depicted complete scenes consisting of several figures. Precious objects sculpted in metal, enamel , and ivory , such as reliquaries , also had high status in this period. While the large wooden crucifix and statues of the enthroned Madonna were German innovations at the start of the period, the high relief carvings of architectural elements are most evocative of this style. In a significant innovation, the tympanums of important church portals were carved with monumental schemes, again depicting Christ in Majesty or the Last Judgement but treated with more freedom than in painted versions. These portal sculptures were meant to both intimidate and educate the viewer . As there were no equivalent Byzantine models, Romanesque sculptors felt free to expand in their treatment of tympanums. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - San Gimignano. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:San_Gimignano.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pu00e9rigueux 3. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:P%C3%A9rigueux_3.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Europe 1142. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_1142.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Romanesque architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture%23Portals. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Crusade. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Crusade. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - feudalism. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/feudalism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - lay. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lay. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Portal moissac. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portal_moissac.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - MorganLeafVerso. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MorganLeafVerso.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Maria Lach 02. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maria_Lach_02.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - groin vault. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/groin%20vault. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//biology/definition/tympanum. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - pier. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/pier. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:32.290072	2020-05-01T17:33:55	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/17%3A_Romanesque_Art/17.01%3A_The_Romanesque_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "17.1: The Romanesque Period", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/17%3A_Romanesque_Art/17.02%3A_Romanesque_Architecture	17.2: Romanesque Architecture First Romanesque Architecture The First Romanesque style developed in the Catalan territory and demonstrated a lower level of expertise than the later Romanesque style. Differentiate between First Romanesque and Romanesque styles of architecture Key Points - The First Romanesque style developed in the north of Italy, parts of France, and the Iberian Peninsula during the 10th and 11th centuries. - Abott Oliba of the Monastery of Santa Maria de Ripoll served as an important supporter of the First Romanesque style. - The term “First Romanesque” was coined by architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch. - First Romanesque, also known as Lombard Romanesque, is characterized by thick walls, lack of sculpture, and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as Lombard bands . - In contrast to the refinement of the later Romanesque style, First Romanesque architecture employed rubble walls, smaller windows, and unvaulted roofs. Key Terms - Romanesque : The art of Europe from approximately 1000 CE to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century or later, depending on region. - First Romanesque : The name given by Josep Puig i Cadafalch to refer to the Romanesque art developed in Catalonia since the late 10th century. - Lombard band : A decorative blind arcade, usually exterior, often used during the Romanesque and Gothic periods of architecture. Development of First Romanesque Architecture Romanesque architecture is divided into two periods: the “First Romanesque” style and the “Romanesque” style. The First Romanesque style developed in the north of Italy, parts of France, and the Iberian Peninsula in the 10 th century prior to the later influence of the Abbey of Cluny. The style is attributed to architectural activity by groups of Lombard teachers and stonemasons working in the Catalan territory during the first quarter of the 11th century. Abott Oliba of the Monastery of Santa Maria de Ripoll served as a particularly influential impeller, diffuser, and sponsor of the First Romanesque style. To avoid the term Pre-Romanesque, which is often used with a much broader meaning to refer to early Medieval and early Christian art (and in Spain may also refer to the Visigothic, Asturias, Mozarabic, and Repoblación art forms) Puig i Cadafalch preferred to use the term “First Romanesque.” Characteristics The First Romanesque style, also known as Lombard Romanesque style, is characterized by thick walls, lack of sculpture, and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as Lombard bands. The difference between the First Romanesque and later Romanesque styles is a matter of the expertise with which the buildings were constructed. First Romanesque employed rubble walls, smaller windows, and unvaulted roofs, while the Romanesque style is distinguished by a more refined style and increased use of the vault and dressed stone. For example, Abott Oliba ordered an extension to the Monastery of Santa Maria de Ripoll in 1032 mirroring the First Romanesque characteristics of two frontal towers, a cruise with seven apses , and Lombard ornamentation of blind arches and vertical strips. Cistercian Architecture The Cistercians are a Roman Catholic order whose monasteries and churches reflect one of the most beautiful styles of medieval architecture. Relate Cistercian architecture to the rational principles upon which it is based Key Points - Architecturally speaking, the Cistercian monasteries and churches are counted among the most beautiful relics of the Middle Ages due to their pure style . - Cistercian architecture embodied the ideals of the order and in theory was utilitarian and without superfluous ornament . - The Cisterian order, however, was receptive to the technical improvements of Gothic principles of construction and played an important role in the spread of these techniques across Europe. - Cistercian construction involved vast amounts of quarried stone and employed the best stone cutters. Key Terms - Gothic : Of or relating to the architectural style favored in western Europe in the 12th to 16th centuries. - Romanesque : Refers to the art of Europe from approximately 1000 CE to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century or later, depending on region. - Cistercian : A member of a monastic order related to the Benedictines, who hold a vow of silence. The Cistercians are a Roman Catholic religious order of enclosed monks and nuns. This order was founded by a group of Benedictine monks from the Molesme monastery in 1098, with the goal of more closely following the Rule of Saint Benedict. Characteristics of Cistercian Architecture Cistercian architecture is considered one of the most beautiful styles of medieval architecture and has made an important contribution to European civilization . Because of the pure style of the Cistercian monasteries and churches, they are counted among the most beautiful relics of the Middle Ages. Cistercian institutions were primarily constructed in Romanesque and Gothic architectural styles during the Middle Ages, although later abbeys were also constructed in Renaissance and Baroque styles. The Cistercian abbeys of Fontenay in France, Fountains in England, Alcobaça in Portugal, Poblet in Spain, and Maulbronn in Germany are today recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Theological Principles Cistercian architecture was based on rational principles. In the mid-12 th century, the prominent Benedictine Abbot Suger of Saint-Denis united elements of Norman architecture with elements of Burgundinian architecture (including rib vaults and pointed arches , respectively), creating the new style of Gothic architecture . This new “architecture of light” was intended to raise the observer “from the material to the immaterial;”it was, according to the 20 th century French historian Georges Duby, a “monument of app lied theology.” Cistercian architecture expressed a different aesthetic and theology while learning from the Benedictine’s advances. St. Bernard saw church decoration as a distraction from piety and favored austerity in the construction of monasteries, the order itself was receptive to the technical improvements of Gothic principles of construction and played an important role in its spread across Europe. This new Cistercian architecture embodied the ideals of the order, and in theory it was utilitarian and without superfluous ornament. The same rational, integrated scheme was used across Europe to meet the largely homogeneous needs of the order. Various buildings, including the chapter-house to the east and the dormitories above, were grouped around a cloister and sometimes linked to the transept of the church itself by a night stair. Cistercian churches were typically built on a cruciform layout, with a short presbytery to meet the liturgical needs of the brethren, small chapels in the transepts for private prayer , and an aisle-edged nave divided roughly in the middle by a screen to separate the monks from the lay brothers. Engineering and Construction Cistercian buildings were made of smooth, pale stone where possible. Columns , pillars , and windows fell at the same base level, and plastering was extremely simple or nonexistent. The sanctuary kept to a proportion of 1:2 at both elevation and floor levels. To maintain the appearance of ecclesiastical buildings, Cistercian sites were constructed in a pure, rational style, lending to their beauty and simplicity. The building projects of the Church in the High Middle Ages showed an ambition for the colossal , requiring vast amounts of quarried stone. This was also true of the Cistercian projects. Foigny Abbey was 98 meters (322 ft) long; Vaucelles Abbey was 132 metres (433 ft) long. Even the most humble monastic buildings were constructed entirely of stone. In the 12 th and 13 th centuries, Cistercian barns consisted of a stone exterior divided into nave and aisles either by wooden posts or by stone piers . The Cistercians recruited the best stone cutters. As early as 1133, St. Bernard hired workers to help the monks erect new buildings at Clairvaux. The oldest recorded example of architectural tracing, Byland Abbey in Yorkshire, dates to the 12 th century. Tracings were architectural drawings incised and painted in stone to a depth of 2–3 mm, showing architectural detail to scale. Characteristics of Romanesque Architecture While Romanesque architecture tends to possess certain key features, these often vary in appearance and building material from region to region. Identify the defining characteristics and variations of Romanesque architecture found throughout Europe Key Points - Variations in Romanesque architecture can be noted in earlier styles compared later styles; differences in building materials and local inspirations also led to variations across regions. - Romanesque architecture varies in appearance of walls, piers , arches and openings, arcades , columns , vaults , and roofs and in the materials used to create these features. - A characteristic feature of Romanesque architecture, both ecclesiastic and domestic, is the pairing of two arched windows or arcade openings separated by a pillar or colonette and often set within a larger arch. - Columns were often used in Romanesque architecture, but varied in building material and decorative style. The alternation of piers and columns was found in both churches and castles. - The majority of buildings have wooden roofs consisting of a simple truss , tie beam, or king post form . Vaults of stone or brick took on several different forms and showed marked development during the period, evolving into the pointed, ribbed arch characteristic of Gothic architecture . Key Terms - capital : The uppermost part of a column. - blind arcade : A series of arches often used in Romanesque and Gothic buildings with no actual openings and no load-bearing function, simply serving as a decorative element. - ocular window : A circular opening without tracery, found in many Italian churches. - vault : An arched structure of masonry forming a ceiling or canopy. - Piers : In architecture, an upright support for a structure or superstructure such as an arch or bridge. Variations in Romanesque Architecture The general impression given by both ecclesiastical and secular Romanesque architecture is that of massive solidity and strength. Romanesque architecture relies upon its walls, or sections of walls called piers , to bear the load of the structure, rather than using arches, columns, vaults, and other systems to manage the weight. As a result, the walls are massive, giving the impression of sturdy solidity. Romanesque design is also characterized by the presence of arches and openings, arcades, columns, vaults, and roofs. In spite of the general existence of these items, Romanesque architecture varies in how these characteristics are presented. For example, walls may be made of different materials or arches and openings may vary in shape. Later examples of Romanesque architecture may also possess features that earlier forms do not. Walls The building material used in Romanesque architecture varies across Europe depending on local stone and building traditions. In Italy, Poland, much of Germany, and parts of the Netherlands, brick was customary. Other areas saw extensive use of limestone , granite, and flint . The building stone was often used in small, irregular pieces bedded in thick mortar. Smooth ashlar masonry was not a distinguishing feature of the style in the earlier part of the period, but occurred where easily worked limestone was available. Arches and Openings A characteristic feature of Romanesque architecture, both ecclesiastic and domestic, is the pairing of two arched windows or arcade openings separated by a pillar or colonette and often set within a larger arch. Ocular windows are common in Italy, particularly in the facade gable , and are also seen in Germany. Later Romanesque churches may have wheel windows or rose windows with plate tracery . In a few Romanesque buildings , such as Autun Cathedral in France and Monreale Cathedral in Sicily, pointed arches have been used extensively. Arcades The arcade of a cloister typically consists of a single stage (story), while the arcade that divides the nave and aisles in a church typically has two stages, with a third stage of window openings known as the clerestory rising above. Arcades on a large scale generally fulfills a structural purpose, but they are also used decoratively on a smaller scale both internally and externally. External arcades are frequently called “blind arcades,” with only a wall or a narrow passage behind them. Piers Although basically rectangular, piers can often be highly complex, with half-segments of large hollow-core columns on the inner surface supporting the arch and a clustered group of smaller shafts leading into the moldings of the arch. Piers that occur at the intersection of two large arches, such as those under the crossing of the nave and transept , are commonly cruciform in shape, each with its own supporting rectangular pier perpendicular to the other. Columns Columns were often used in Romanesque architecture, but varied in building material and decorative style. In Italy, a great number of antique Roman columns were salvaged and reused in the interiors and on the porticos of churches. In most parts of Europe, Romanesque columns were massive, supporting thick upper walls with small windows and sometimes heavy vaults. Where massive columns were called for, such as those at Durham Cathedral, they were constructed of ashlar masonry with a hollow core was filled with rubble. These huge untapered columns were sometimes ornamented with incised decorations. A common characteristic of Romanesque buildings, found in both churches and in the arcades that separate large interior spaces of castles, is the alternation of piers and columns. The most simple form is a column between each adjoining pier. Sometimes the columns are in multiples of two or three. Often the arrangement is made more complex by the complexity of the piers themselves, so that the alternation was not of piers and columns but rather of piers of entirely different forms. The foliate Corinthian style provided the inspiration for many Romanesque capitals , and the accuracy with which they were carved depended on the availability of original models. Capitals in Italian churches, such as Pisa Cathedral or church of Sant’Alessandro in Lucca and southern France, are much closer to the Classical form and style than those in England. Vaults and Roofs The majority of buildings have wooden roofs in a simple truss, tie beam, or king post form. Trussed rafter roofs are sometimes lined with wooden ceilings in three sections like those that survive at Ely and Peterborough cathedrals in England. In churches, typically the aisles are vaulted but the nave is roofed with timber , as is the case at both Peterborough and Ely. In Italy, open wooden roofs were common, tie beams frequently occurred in conjunction with vaults, and the timbers were often decorated, as at San Miniato al Monte, Florence. Vaults of stone or brick took on several different forms and showed marked development during the period, evolving into the pointed, ribbed arch characteristic of Gothic architecture. Architecture of the Holy Roman Empire Architecture from the Holy Roman Empire spans from the Romanesque to the Classic eras. Compare the characteristics of Romanesque architecture to pre-Romanesque and later styles Key Points - The Holy Roman Empire existed from 962 to 1806 and at its peak included territories of the Kingdoms of Germany, Bohemia, Italy, and Burgundy. - Pre- Romanesque architecture is thought to have originated with the Carolingian Renaissance in the late 8th century. - The Romanesque period (10th – early 13th century) is characterized by semi-circular arches , robust appearance, small paired windows, and groin vaults . - Gothic architecture such as the Cologne Cathedral flourished during the high and late medieval periods. - Renaissance architecture (early 15th – early 17th centuries) flourished in parts of Europe with a conscious revival and development of ancient Greek and Roman thought and culture . - Baroque architecture began in the early 17th century in Italy and arrived in Germany after the Thirty Years War. The interaction of architecture, painting, and sculpture is an essential feature of Baroque architecture. - Classicism arrived in Germany in the second half of the 18th century, just prior to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. Key Terms - Ottonian Renaissance : A minor renaissance that accompanied the reigns of the first three emperors of the Saxon Dynasty, all named Otto: Otto I (936–973), Otto II (973–983), and Otto III (983–1002). - Rococo : An 18th-century artistic movement and style which affected several aspects of the arts, including painting, sculpture, architecture, interior design, decoration, literature, music, and theater; also referred to as Late Baroque. Background: The Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a varying complex of lands that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe. The empire’s territory lay predominantly in Central Europe and at its peak included territories of the Kingdoms of Germany, Bohemia, Italy, and Burgundy. For much of its history, the Empire consisted of hundreds of smaller sub-units, principalities, duchies, counties, Free Imperial Cities, and other domains. Architecture of the Holy Roman Empire Pre-Romanesque The Pre-Romanesque period in Western European art is often dated from the Carolingian Renaissance in the late 8 th century to the beginning of the 11 th century. German buildings from this period include Lorsch Abbey , which combines elements of the Roman triumphal arch (including arch-shaped passageways and half- columns ) with the vernacular Teutonic heritage (including baseless triangles of the blind arcade and polychromatic masonry). One of the most important churches in this style is the Abbey Church of St. Michael’s, constructed between 1001 and 1031 as the chapel of the Benedictine monastery. It was built in the so-called Ottonic (Early-Romanesque) style during the Ottonian Renaissance . Romanesque The Romanesque period (10 th – early 13 th century) is characterized by semi-circular arches, robust structures, small paired windows, and groin vaults. Many churches in Germany date from this time, including the twelve Romanesque churches of Cologne. The most significant Romanesque building in Germany is Speyer Cathedral, built in stages from about 1030. In the 11 th century, it was the largest building in the Christian world and an architectural symbol of the power of the Salian dynasty , four German Kings who ruled from 1024–1125. Other important examples of Romanesque styles include the cathedrals of Worms and Mainz, Limburg Cathedral (in the Rhenish Romanesque style), Maulbronn Abbey (an example of Cistercian architecture), and the famous castle of Wartburg, which was later expanded in the Gothic style. Gothic Gothic architecture flourished during the high and late medieval periods, evolving from Romanesque architecture. Freiburg Cathedral is noted for its 116-meter tower, which is nearly square at the base with a dodecagonal star gallery at the center. Above this gallery, the tower is octagonal and tapered with a spire above. Cologne Cathedral is the largest Gothic cathedral in the world after Milan Cathedral. Construction began in 1248 and took until 1880 to complete—an intermittent period of more than 600 years. Because of its enormous twin spires, it also has the largest façade of any church in the world, and its choir boasts the largest height to width ratio of any Medieval church. Brick Gothic is a specific style of Gothic architecture common in Northern Europe, especially in Northern Germany and the regions around the Baltic Sea without natural rock resources. The buildings are mainly built from bricks. Cities such as Lübeck, Rostock, Wismar, Stralsund, and Greifswald are shaped by this regional style; key examples include Stralsund City Hall and St. Nicholas Church. The dwellings of this period were mainly timber-framed buildings still seen in Goslar and Quedlinburg, the latter of which has one of the oldest half-timbered houses in Germany. The method of construction, used extensively for town houses of the Medieval and Renaissance periods, lasted into the 20th century for rural buildings. Renaissance Renaissance architecture (early 15 th – early 17 th centuries) flourished in different parts of Europe with the conscious revival and development of ancient Greek and Roman thought and culture. As in other areas of Europe, Renaissance architecture in the Holy Roman Empire placed emphasis on symmetry , proportion, geometry, and the regularity of parts as demonstrated in the architecture of classical antiquity , particularly ancient Roman architecture. Orderly arrangement of columns, pilasters , and lintels and the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes , niches, and aedicules replaced the complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings. The earliest example of Renaissance architecture in Germany is the Fugger chapel in St. Anne’s Church, Augsburg; other works include St. Michael in Munich, Heidelberg Castle, Augsburg City Hall, and castles and manors throughout Wester, Thuringia, and Saxony. Baroque Baroque architecture began in the early 17 th century in Italy and arrived in Germany after the Thirty Years War. The interaction of architecture, painting, and sculpture is an essential feature of Baroque architecture, which integrated new fashions to express the triumph of the Catholic Church and was characterized by new explorations of form , light and shadow and dramatic intensity . Zwinger Palace in Dresden illustrated the architecture of absolutism, which always put the ruler at the center thus increasing the spatial composition; for example, a magnificent staircase leading to the figure. In Rococo , the late phase of Baroque, decoration became even more abundant and used brighter colors. Other examples of Baroque church architecture include the Basilica of the Vierzehnheiligen in Upper Franconia and the rebuilt Frauenkirche in Dresden. Classicism Classicism arrived in Germany in the second half of the 18 th century. It drew inspiration from the classical architecture of antiquity and was a reaction against the Baroque style in both architecture and landscape design. The most important architect of this style in Germany was Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Schinkel’s style, in his most productive period, is defined by its appeal to Greek rather than Imperial Roman architecture; his most famous buildings are found in and around Berlin. Romanesque Architecture: The Church of Saint-Lazare The Autun Cathedral, or the Cathedral of Saint-Lazare, is a Roman Catholic cathedral and a national monument in Autun, France. Describe the architecture and sculpture of the Church of Saint-Lazare Key Points - Famous for its Cluniac inspiration and Romanesque sculptures by Gislebertus , The Cathedral of Saint-Lazare epitomizes Romanesque art and architecture in Burgundy. - Due to the veneration of relics in this period, the Bishop of Autun ordered the creation of a larger cathedral to house the relics and accommodate the influx of pilgrims into Autun. - The column capitals and main façade of the church are embellished with realistic sculptures carved by Gislebertus; the artwork was designed to teach the masses about Christian ethics with dramatic scenes of heaven and hell. - The cathedral has a ground plan in the form of a Latin cross, with an aisled nave , a plain transept , and a three-stage choir with a semicircular end. - Many of the historiated capitals that adorn the columns within Saint-Lazare were carved by Gislebertus and include representations of biblical scenes. - In the Last Judgement, Gislebertus successfully integrated the modern view of heaven and hell and created a sculpture to act as a visual educational device for illiterate individuals. Key Terms - Cluniac : Of or related to the Benedictine order at Cluny, Saône-et-Loire, France. - transept : The transversal part of a church, perpendicular to the greatest length and between the nave and choir. - Gislebertus : A French Romanesque sculptor, whose decoration (about 1120-1135) of the Cathedral of Saint Lazare at Autun, France—consisting of numerous doorways, tympanums, and capitals—represents some of the most original work of the period. - archivolt : An ornamental molding or band following the curve on the underside of an arch. - triforium : The gallery of arches above the side-aisle vaulting in the nave of a church. The Autun Cathedral, or the Cathedral of Saint-Lazare, is a Roman Catholic cathedral and national monument in Autun, France. Famous for its Cluniac inspiration and Romanesque sculptures by Gislebertus, it epitomizes Romanesque art and architecture in Burgundy. Due to the veneration of relics in this period, the Bishop of Autun ordered the creation of a larger cathedral to house these relics and accommodate the influx of pilgrims into Autun. The column capitals and main façade of the church are embellished with realistic sculptures carved by Gislebertus, and the artwork is a means of teaching the masses about Christian ethics with dramatic scenes of heaven and hell. Work on the cathedral began around 1120 and advanced rapidly; the building was consecrated in 1130. The designs were the work of the bishop Etienne de Bâgé, who was particularly influenced by the Cluniac abbey of Paray-le-Monial. Design Elements The interior of the cathedral has a nave and two aisles divided by massive columns with longitudinal carvings punctuated with decorated Romanesque capitals. The plan of the cathedral has a narthex or antechamber of two bays topped by two towers, followed by a seven-bay nave flanked by side aisles and a transept with the tower-surmounting cross. The nave elevation is composed of three levels: grand arcade , triforium , and clerestory , each marked by a cornice . The three-story elevation of Saint-Lazare was made possible by the use of pointed arches for the nave. Each nave bay is separated at the vault by a transverse rib . Each transept projects to the width of two nave bays and the west entrance has a narthex which screens the main portal . Capital Sculptures The cathedral of St. Lazare has a ground plan in the form of a Latin cross, with an aisled nave, a plain transept, and a three-stage choir with a semicircular end. Many of the historiated capitals that adorn the columns in Saint-Lazare were carved by Gislebertus. What makes Saint-Lazare a masterpiece of Romanesque art is the quality of Gislebertus’ sculptures. These stone-carved scenes from the Bible appear on dozens of capitals in the nave and chancel. Specifically, Gislebertus created used the tendrils of the actual Corinthian capital to create an architectural frame for the narrative to develop. These portal capitals are carved with biblical and traditional scenes. The West Tympanum The West façade of Saint-Lazare contains the tympanum (1130–1135), signed Gislebertus hoc fecit (meaning “Gislebertus made this”) within the portico . It is ranked among the masterpieces of Romanesque sculpture in France. The sheer size of the tympanum required support by double lintels and middle column to further bolster the sculpture. The left side of the tympanum displays the rise to the heavenly kingdom, and on the right is a portrayal of demons in hell with an angel and a devil weighing the souls on a balance. Zodiac signs surround the arch vault, with Christ in the center portrayed as a serene figure. Christ is placed in perfect symmetrical position with a balanced composition of elongated figures. Jesus is flanked by his mother, the Virgin Mary, and his apostles cast as penitents and observers of the last judgment. St. Peter guards the gate to heaven and looks on as resurrected individuals attempt to squeeze in with the assistance of the angels. In the Last Judgement, Gislebertus successfully integrated the modern view of heaven and hell and created a sculpture to act as a visual educational device for individuals who were illiterate. The tympanum inspired terror in believers who viewed the detailed high relief sculpture . Indeed, the bottom of the tympanum underneath the weighing of the souls has an inscription which states, “May this terror terrify those whom earthly error binds for the horror of the images here in this manner truly depicts what will be.” The tympanum is framed by two archivolts: the inner has carved foliage, while the outer consists of magnificently detailed medallions representing the four seasons, zodiacs, and labors of the months. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ripoll02. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ripoll02.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Lombard band. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombard_band. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - First Romanesque. Provided by : Wikipedia. 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Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture#/media/File:Capitel_en_la_Torre_de_Pisa.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nivelles JPG00 (5). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nivelles_JPG00_(5).jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Lebeny-churche1.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture#/media/File:Lebeny-churche1.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Le Puy en Velay 03. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Puy_en_Velay_03.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Romanesque architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture%23Arcades. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture%23Arcades. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - vault. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:32.432832	2020-05-01T17:33:56	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/17%3A_Romanesque_Art/17.02%3A_Romanesque_Architecture", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "17.2: Romanesque Architecture", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/17%3A_Romanesque_Art/17.03%3A_Romanesque_Sculpture	17.3: Romanesque Sculpture Romanesque Sculpture Sculpture from the Romanesque period saw advances in metalwork, enamels, and figurative friezes and scenes found in architecture. Examine the characteristics of Romanesque sculpture Key Points - Romanesque art is the art of Europe from approximately 1000 CE to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century or later, depending on region. - Sophisticated precious objects in metalwork , ivories , and enamels held high status in the Romanesque period. - Many spectacular shrines made to hold relics have survived, such as the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral by Nicholas of Verdun. - Large reliquaries and altar frontals were built around a wooden frame, but smaller caskets were made entirely of metal and enamel. A few secular pieces such as mirror cases, jewelry, and clasps have also survived. - During the 11th and 12th centuries, figurative sculpture was revived as architectural reliefs became a hallmark of the later Romanesque period. Figurative sculpture was based largely on manuscript illumination and small-scale sculpture in ivory and metal. - Most Romanesque sculpture is pictorial and biblical in subject. A great variety of themes are found on building capitals , including scenes of Creation and the Fall of Man, the life of Christ, and the Old Testament. Key Terms - portal : An opening in a wall of a building, gate, or fortification, especially a grand entrance to an important structure. - enamel : A material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 °C (1,380 and 1,560 °F); the powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable vitreous coating on metal, glass, or ceramics. - tympanum : In architecture, the semi-circular or triangular decorative wall surface over an entrance, bounded by a lintel and arch and often containing sculpture or other imagery or ornaments. Background: Romanesque Art Romanesque art is the art of Europe from approximately 1000 CE to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century or later, depending on region. The preceding period is known as the Pre-Romanesque period. The term was invented by 19th-century art historians specifically to refer to Romanesque architecture, which retained many features of Roman architectural style (notably round-headed arches , barrel vaults , apses , and acanthus-leaf decoration) while also developing distinctive characteristics. Southern France, Spain, and Italy showed architectural continuity with the Late Antique, but the Romanesque style was the first to spread across the whole of Catholic Europe from Sicily to Scandinavia. Romanesque art was also greatly influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting, and by the anti-classical energy of the decoration of the Insular art of the British Isles. From these elements was forged a highly innovative and coherent style. Romanesque Sculpture Metalwork, Enamels, and Ivories Precious objects in metalwork, ivories, and enamels held high status in the Romanesque period. The creators of these objects are more well-known than contemporary painters, illuminators, and architect-masons. Metalwork, including decoration in enamel, became very sophisticated. Many spectacular shrines made to hold relics have survived, of which the best known is the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral by Nicholas of Verdun (circa 1180–1225). The bronze Gloucester candlestick is a superb example of metal casting , with intricate and energetic qualities that draw on manuscript painting. The Stavelot Triptych and Reliquary of St. Maurus are other examples of Mosan enamelwork. Large reliquaries and altar frontals were built around a wooden frame, but smaller caskets were made entirely of metal and enamel. A few secular pieces such as mirror cases, jewelry, and clasps have also survived, but these no doubt under-represent the amount of fine metalwork owned by the nobility. Architectural Sculpture With the fall of the Roman Empire, the tradition of carving large works in stone and sculpting figures in bronze died out, as it did for religious reasons in the Byzantine world. Some life-size sculpture was done in stucco or plaster, but surviving examples are rare. The best-known surviving sculpture of Proto-Romanesque Europe is the life-size wooden crucifix commissioned by Archbishop Gero of Cologne in about 960–65, apparently the prototype of a popular form . Beginning in the 12th centure, these were set up on a beam below the chancel arch, known in English as a rood, and flanked by figures of the Virgin Mary and John the Evangelist. During the 11th and 12th centuries, figurative sculpture was revived as architectural reliefs became a hallmark of the late Romanesque period. Figurative sculpture was based largely on manuscript illumination and small-scale sculpture in ivory and metal. The extensive friezes sculpted on Armenian and Syriac churches were another likely influence. These sources together produced a distinct style that can be recognized across Europe, although the most spectacular sculptural projects are concentrated in South-Western France, Northern Spain, and Italy. Images in metalwork were frequently embossed . The resulting surface had two main planes with incised details. This treatment was adapted to stone carving and is often seen in the tympanum above the portal , where the imagery of Christ in Majesty with the symbols of the Four Evangelists is drawn directly from the gilt covers of medieval gospel books. This style of doorway occurs in many places and continued into the Gothic period. Most Romanesque sculpture is pictorial and biblical in subject. A great variety of themes are found on building capitals, including scenes of Creation and the Fall of Man, the life of Christ, and Old Testament depictions of his Death and Resurrection, such as Jonah and the Whale and Daniel in the lions’ den. Many Nativity scenes occur, most frequently the Three Kings. Some Romanesque churches feature an extensive sculptural scheme which covers the area surrounding the portal and sometimes much of the facade. The sculptural schemes were designed to convey the message that Christian believers should recognize wrongdoing, repent, and be redeemed. The Last Judgement reminds the believer to repent, while the carved or painted Crucifix, displayed prominently within the church, reminds the sinner of redemption. Romanesque Sculpture: Majestat Batlló The Batlló Majesty is one of the finest and best-preserved examples of Catalan sculptures from the 12 th century. Discuss the triumphant symbolism and Romanesque characteristics of the Batlló Majesty. Key Points - Carved wooden images were a fundamental element in churches as objects of worship. One of the most elaborate types in Catalonia was the Christ in Majesty: images of Christ on the Cross that symbolize his triumph over death. - The most outstanding of these is the Majestat Batlló, also one of the finest and best-preserved examples of Catalan sculptures. - One of the striking features of the Majestat Batlló compared to Catalan sculptures is the well-conserved polychromy . - The frontal geometric composition of Christ’s tunic decorated in circles and floral motifs is reminiscent of the refined Byzantine and Hispano-Moorish fabrics held in high esteem in the Christian West during this time. The chronology of the Majestat Batlló is difficult to date; the inscription on the cross and the painting could be placed in the 11th century, although other authors date it back to the 12th century. Key Terms - polychromy : The practice of combining different colors, especially brilliant ones, in an artistic way. - abacus : The uppermost portion of the capital of a column, immediately under the architrave. - iconographic : Of or pertaining to a religious icon. The Majestat Batlló, or Batlló Majesty, is a 12 th century Romanesque polychrome wood carving now held in the Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya in Barcelona, Catalonia. Carved wooden images were a fundamental element in churches as objects of worship, and one of the most elaborate motifs was the Christ in Majesty: images of Christ on the Cross that symbolize his triumph over death. The most outstanding of these is the Majestat Batlló, also one of the finest and best-preserved examples of Catalan sculpture. Symbolism and Description The Majestat Batlló is a large wooden crucifix that presents Christ bearing his suffering with noble stoicism and triumph. He is wearing a colobium , or a long, sleeveless tunic. Although the corners of his mouth turn slightly downward, Christ’s open eyes and unfurrowed brow create the impression of a self-possessed impassivity. A Latin inscription above his head reads, “JHS NAZARENUS REX IUDEORUM” (“Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews”), as in biblical accounts (Matthew 27:37, Mark 15:26, Luke 23:38, John 19:19). One of the striking features of the Batlló Majesty compared to Catalan sculpture is the well-conserved polychromy. Christ’s colobium , in imitation of rich oriental silk, is decorated with blue floral designs surrounded by circular red frames embellished with dots and circles. A thin belt with an elaborate interlace knot pulls the tunic in above Christ’s hips, making the fabric above it swell out slightly and curving the path of its flat, wide vertical folds. Such robes are linked with royal and priestly functions and conveyed a message of strength to the audience. They can be seen as a visualization of the Apocalyptic Christ from the Book of Revelation. The frontal geometric composition of the tunic decorated in circles and floral motifs is reminiscent of the refined Byzantine and Hispano-Moorish fabrics held in high esteem in the Christian West during this time. The great reference for this type was the Volto Santo in Lucca (Tuscany, Italy), regarded as having miraculous origins and as the object of pilgrimage and extraordinary devotion from the end of the 11th century. The iconographic tradition of Jesus in a colobium dates to 586 CE in a manuscript of the Syriac Gospels called the Rabbula Gospels, written by the monk Rabbula somewhere in Mesopotamia . The tradition of depicting Christ in such costume was likely brought to Catalonia by artisans from Pisa, who arrived in 1114 to help Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, in his conquest of the Balearic Islands. Chronology The Majestat Batlló is difficult to date, but the inscription on the cross and the painting could be placed in the 11 th century. However, other authors date it back to the 12 th century based on the painting’s similarity to others from the area of Ripoll, mid-12 th century. The tunic is analogous to an Islamic motif of the cloister of the abbey of Saint-Pierre de Moissac, which seems to prove the spread of this style during the Romanesque period. Romanesque Sculpture: Mary as the Throne of Wisdom Mary as the Throne of Wisdom was a popular biblical theme represented throughout Romanesque sculpture. Compare the various depictions of Mary seated on the Throne of Wisdom Key Points - Images of Mary as the Throne of Wisdom are especially prevalent in Roman Catholic art. - When the Virgin is depicted in sedes sapientiae (“Throne of Wisdom”) icons and sculptural representations, she is seated on a throne with the Christ Child on her lap. - This concept of Mary likens her to the Throne of Solomon, referring to her status as a vessel of the incarnation carrying the Holy Child. The sedes sapientiae icon also appeared in Romanesque illuminated manuscripts , frescoes , mosaics , and seals. Key Terms - Romanesque : The art of Europe from approximately 1000 CE to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century or later, depending on region. - iconography : The branch of art history which studies the identification, description, and interpretation of the content of images. Background In the Roman Catholic tradition, the epithet “the Seat of Wisdom” or “Throne of Wisdom” is one of many devotional titles for the Mother of God. The phrase was coined in the 11 th and 12 th centuries by Peter Damiani and Guibert de Nogent and likens Mary to the Throne of Solomon, referring to her status as a vessel carrying the Holy Child. As the phrase associates the Blessed Virgin with glory and teaching, Madonnas in this tradition are especially popular in Catholic imagery . Cultural History In Christian iconography , s edes sapientiae (“The Throne of Wisdom”) is an icon of the Mother of God in majesty. When the Virgin is depicted in sedes sapientiae icons and sculptural representations, she is seated on a throne with the Christ Child on her lap. This type of Madonna image was a variant of the Byzantine Hodegetria type, in which the Virgin Mary is depicted holding the child Jesus at her side while pointing to him as the source of salvation for mankind. It appeared in a wide range of sculptural and painted images in Western Europe, especially near 1200 CE. In these representations, structural elements of the throne invariably appear, even if only handholds and front legs. The Virgin’s feet often rest on a low stool. Later Gothic sculptures are more explicitly identifiable with the Throne of Solomon, where “two lions stood, one at each hand. And twelve little lions stood upon the six steps on the one side and on the other” (I Kings 10, 19-20). In addition to Romanesque sculpture, the sedes sapientiae icon appeared in illuminated manuscripts, frescoes, mosaics, and seals of the time. The icon possesses emblematic verbal components: the Virgin as the Throne of Wisdom is a trope of Damiani or Guibert de Nogent, based on the typological interpretation of the passage in the Books of Kings that describes the throne of Solomon (I Kings 10: 18–20, repeated at II Chronicles 9: 17–19). This motif was frequently used in Early Netherlandish painting in works like the Lucca Madonna by Jan van Eyck. Romanesque Sculpture: Tomb of Rudolf of Swabia The tomb of Rudolf of Swabia is a prime example of Romanesque sculpture. Describe the expressive Romanesque artistry on the tomb of Rudolf of Swabia Key Points - Rudolf of Rheinfelden was the alternative king, or antiking, for the politically oriented anti-Henry German aristocrats. He died during the Great Saxon Rebellion in the late 11th century. - Rudolf’s tomb sculpture reflects the Romanesque love of inventive surface patterns and an expressive approach to the human body, using elongation, unnatural poses, and emphatic gestures to convey states of mind. - The intricate metalwork on Rudolf’s tomb is also indicative of Romanesque sculpture. Key Terms - Romanesque : The art of Europe from approximately 1000 CE to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century or later, depending on region. Rudolf of Rheinfelden (1025 – 1080) was Duke of Swabia (1057–1079) and German Antiking (1077–1080). He was the son of Count Kuno of Rheinfelden and eventually became the alternative king, or antiking, for the politically oriented anti-Henry German aristocrats. This rebellion became known as the Great Saxon Revolt. He died as a result of battle wounds as his faction met and defeated Henry’s in the Battle of Elster. Tomb of Rudolf of Rheinfelden Rudolf of Rheinfelden’s tomb, located at the cathedral of Merseburg, is a fine example of Romanesque sculpture. Sculpture of this era is marked by a love of inventive surface patterns and an expressive approach to the human body, using elongation, unnatural poses, and emphatic gestures to convey states of mind. Rudolf’s tomb reflects these characteristics. The sculpture of his body is elongated and lies with a scepter in one hand and an orb in the other, symbolic of the royal title he claimed but never held in life. He is depicted in royal garments and a crown. The material used to construct the tomb also reflects the high status of metalwork in Romanesque sculpture. Indeed, precious metal objects, enamel work, and ivory carried a much higher significance than paintings during this time. Metalwork and enamel decoration became especially sophisticated during the 10 th and 11 th centuries. Rudolf of Rheinfelden’s tomb reflects this aesthetic with its bronze relief of Rudolf’s body encased inside of a raised border edge. An inscription is also etched into the border, demonstrating the skill involved in the tomb’s construction. Romanesque Sculpture: Reiner of Huy Reiner of Huy was a 12 th century metalworker and sculptor to whom the baptismal font at St. Bartholomew’s Church is attributed. Describe the Reiner of Huy’s masterpiece, the baptismal font at St. Bartholomew’s Church in Belgium Key Points - Reiner of Huy was a 12th century metalworker and sculptor thought to be the creator of the famous baptismal font at St. Bartholomew’s Church. - Nothing is known of Reiner’s life other than that he was mentioned in an 1125 document as a goldsmith, but a 14th century chronicle mentions him as the artist of the font. - Reiner of Huy’s status as the creator of the font and the Mosan origin of the font have been questioned. - The font is a major masterpiece of Mosan art, remarkable for the classicism of its style . The five scenes can be read in chronological sequence and include depictions of John the Baptist, the Baptism of Christ, St. Peter baptizing Cornelius the Centurion, and St. John baptizing Craton. - The only other work generally agreed to be by the same master as the font is a small bronze crucifix figure now located in Schnütgen Museum, Cologne. Key Terms - lost-wax casting : The process by which a duplicate metal sculpture (often silver, gold, brass, or bronze) is cast from an original sculpture. - font : A receptacle in a church for holy water, especially one used in baptism. - Mosan : A regional style of art from the valley of the Meuse in present-day Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany. Although in a broader sense the term applies to art from this region from all periods, it generally refers to Romanesque art, with architecture, stone carving, metalwork, enameling, and manuscript illumination reaching its peak from the 11th through 13th centuries. Overview: Reiner of Huy Reiner of Huy was a 12 th century metalworker and sculptor to whom many masterpieces of Mosan art, including the baptismal font at St. Bartholomew’s Church in Liege, Belgium, are attributed. The Meuse River valley in modern Belgium and France, roughly comprising the Diocese of Liège, was the leading 12 th century center of Romanesque metalwork , which at the time was still the most prestigious art medium . Nothing is known of Rainer’s life other a mention in an 1125 document as a goldsmith; however, a 14 th century chronicle mentions him as the artist of the font. He may have died around 1150. Although Reiner of Huy is traditionally accepted to be the creator of the font, this attribution and the Mosan origin of the font, have been questioned. Baptismal Font at St. Bartholomew’s Church The font is a major masterpiece of Mosan art, remarkable for the classicism of its style. The basin is 91 centimeters (36 inches) across at the top, tapering slightly toward the base , and described as brass or bronze. It was made using the lost-wax casting technique with the basin cast in a single piece. The size was not necessarily exceptional, as both church bells and cauldrons for large households were probably comparable sizes. Some church doors cast in a single piece, though flat, were much larger. The font sat on 12 oxen (two of which are now missing) that emerged from a stone plinth, a reference to the “molten sea… on twelve oxen” cast in bronze for Solomon’s temple. The five scenes shown, identified by Latin inscriptions ( tituli ) on the rim above and in the image field, can be read in chronological sequence. They include two scenes of John the Baptist, the Baptism of Christ, St. Peter baptizing Cornelius the Centurion, and St. John the Evangelist baptizing the philosopher Craton. Possible Other Works The only other work generally agreed to be by the same master as the font is a small bronze crucifix figure now located in Schnütgen Museum, Cologne. Another crucifix in Brussels is probably from the same mold but with extra chasing. Others in Brussels and Dublin may have come from the same workshop, as they have many similarities to the Cologne bronze crucifix. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Gloucester_candlestick.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_art#/media/File:Gloucester_candlestick.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 1024px-02_Basilique_Ste-Marie-Madeleine_de_V%C3%A9zelay_-_Tympan.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_art#/media/File:02_Basilique_Ste-Marie-Madeleine_de_V%C3%A9zelay_-_Tympan.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Romanesque Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Majestat Batllu00f3. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Majestat_Batll%C3%B3.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Majestat Batllo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Majestat_Batllo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Majestat Batllo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Majestat_Batllo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - iconographic. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/iconographic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - polychromy. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/polychromy. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - abacus. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/abacus. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 800px-StifteremailJMK.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Seat_of_Wisdom#/media/File:StifteremailJMK.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Presbyter Martinus Madonna als Sedes Sapientiae. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Presbyter_Martinus_Madonna_als_Sedes_Sapientiae.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Hodegetria. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodegetria. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cross of Mathilde. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_of_Mathilde. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Throne of Wisdom. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Throne_of_Wisdom. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - iconography. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/iconography. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Grabplatte Rudolf von Rheinfelden Detail. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grabplatte_Rudolf_von_Rheinfelden_Detail.JPG. License : CC BY: Attribution - Rudolf of Rheinfelden. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_of_Rheinfelden. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Renier de Huy MCL1. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Renier_de_Huy_MCL1.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Reiner of Huy. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Reiner_of_Huy. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liu00e8ge. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptismal_font_at_St_Bartholomew's_Church,_Li%C3%A8ge. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mosan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosan. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - font. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/font. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:32.551976	2020-05-01T17:34:00	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/17%3A_Romanesque_Art/17.03%3A_Romanesque_Sculpture", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "17.3: Romanesque Sculpture", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/17%3A_Romanesque_Art/17.04%3A_Other_Romanesque_Arts	17.4: Other Romanesque Arts Romanesque Illustrated Books Many books of worship produced during the Romanesque period were characterized by illuminated manuscript. Identify the most well-known examples of illuminated bibles and psalters during the Romanesque period Key Points - A number of regional schools of art converged during the early Romanesque period and influenced the production of illuminated manuscripts and illustrated books. - The “Channel school” of England and Northern France was heavily influenced by late Anglo-Saxon art, whereas the style in southern France depended more on Iberian influence. In Germany and the Low Countries, Ottonian styles continued to develop; these styles, along with Byzantine schools, in turn influenced Italy. - Romanesque illumination typically focused on the Bible, prefacing each book by a large historiated initial, and the Psalter , where major initials were similarly illuminated. - St. Alban’s Psalter is widely considered one of the most important examples of English Romanesque art book production. - Other notable books of worship that depict Romanesque art include the Fécamp Bible, Winchester Bible, and Hunterian Psalter. Key Terms - psalter : The Book of Psalms, often applied to a book containing the Psalms separately printed. - historiated : Illuminated with decorative designs that represent parts of the following text. - illuminated manuscript : A book in which the text is supplemented by decoration, such as initials, borders (marginalia), and miniature illustrations. Illuminated Manuscripts in the Romanesque Period A number of regional schools of art converged during the early Romanesque period and influenced the production of illuminated manuscripts and illustrated books. The “Channel school” of England and Northern France was heavily influenced by late Anglo-Saxon art, whereas the style in southern France depended more on Iberian influence. In Germany and the Low Countries, Ottonian styles continued to develop; these styles, along with Byzantine schools, in turn influenced Italy. By the 12 th century reciprocal influences had developed among all these schools, although a degree of regional distinctiveness remained. Romanesque illumination and illustrated books focused on the Bible, with each book prefaced by a large historiated initial, and the Psalter, where major initials were similarly illuminated. In both cases, more lavish examples contained cycles of scenes in fully-illuminated pages, sometimes with several scenes per page. The Bibles in particular often featured large pages and might be bound into more than one volume . Well-known examples of manuscripts from this era include the St. Alban’s Psalter, Hunterian Psalter, Winchester Bible (the “Morgan Leaf”), Fécamp Bible, Stavelot Bible, and Parc Abbey Bible. By the end of the period, commercial artist and scribe workshops were significant and illumination (and books in general) became more widely available to both lay people and clergy. Well-Known Works of Art St. Alban’s Psalter St. Alban’s Psalter, also known as the Albani Psalter or the Psalter of Christina of Markyate, is an English illuminated manuscript and one of several psalters created at or for St Alban’s Abbey in the 12 th century. It is widely considered one of the most important examples of English Romanesque book production, featuring unprecedented lavishness of decoration, with over 40 full-page miniatures and contains a number of iconographic innovations that endured throughout the Middle Ages . Hunterian Psalter Also known as the York Psalter, the Hunterian Psalter is an illuminated manuscript produced in England around 1170 and considered a striking example of the Romanesque style. The book opens with an illustrated calendar, and each month begins with the historiated letters “KL”, an abbreviation for kalenda (i.e. the first day of the month). Next is 13 pages of prefactory full-page miniatures with two scenes to a page: three pages of Old Testament scenes, six pages of scenes from the Life of Christ (though further pages are perhaps missing), and unusually for this date, three pages from the Life of the Virgin, including a Death of the Virgin with a funeral procession and an Assumption. These are the earliest English miniatures to have gold-leaf backgrounds incised with patterns of lines and dots. After these pages come two full-page miniatures of David playing his harp and a “Beatus” initial for the start of Psalm 1 (“Beatus vir”). All the psalms have a large illuminated initial, often historiated, and each verse starts with an enlarged gold initial. The start of the 10 traditional divisions of the text have especially large initials, typical for this style. Winchester Bible The Winchester Bible is a Romanesque illuminated manuscript produced in Winchester between 1160 and 1175. With folios measuring 583 x 396 mm (23 x 16 inches), it is the largest surviving 12th-century English Bible. During the Romanesque period, the focus of major illumination in the West moved from the Gospel Book to the Psalter and the Bible, and the Winchester manuscript is one of the most lavish examples. The artwork is incomplete; many illuminations were left unfinished and others were deliberately removed. The illuminations appear in varying stages of completion, ranging from rough outlines and inked drawings to unpainted gilded images and figures complete in all but the final details. In all, 48 of the major historiated initials that begin each book stand complete. Fécamp Bible The Fécamp Bible is an illuminated Latin Bible produced in Paris during the third quarter of the 13 th century. Each book of the Bible and the major sections of Psalms are introduced by a large historiated initial in colors and gold, with the exception of the books of Deuteronomy, Isaiah, and Haggai. In all, there are 79 extant historiated initials. The beginnings of the prologues have large zoomorphic and foliate initials. The beginning of each chapter is marked by a small initial in red with blue-pen flourishes or in blue with red-pen flourishes. Romanesque Painting and Stained Glass Painting from the Romanesque era consisted of elaborate mural decorations and exquisite stained glass. Give examples of Romanesque painting and art in France and Spain Key Points - Romanesque painting was greatly influenced by Byzantine art and by the anti-classical energy of the Insular art of the British Isles. From these elements forged a highly innovative and coherent style in painting and stained glass. - The large wall surfaces and plain, curving vaults of Romanesque architecture lent themselves to elaborate wall paintings and mural decoration. - One of the most intact painting schemes still in existence is at the Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe in France, where the long barrel vault of the nave is decorated with scenes of the Old Testament. - The oldest-known fragments of medieval pictorial stained glass appear to date from the 10th century; the figures, though stiff and formalized, demonstrate considerable proficiency in design, indicating that their maker was well-accustomed to the medium . - Glass craftsmen were slower than architects to change their style, so much glasswork from the first part of the 13th century can be considered essentially Romanesque. - Large figures from the Strasbourg Cathedral created in about 1200 are of especially fine quality. Other exceptional stained glass examples can be found at Saint Kunibert’s Church in Cologne, made around 1220. Key Terms - Romanesque art : The art of Europe from approximately 1000 CE to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century or later, depending on region. - iconoclasm : The destruction of religious icons and other images or monuments for religious or political motives. Romanesque painting and other art forms were greatly influenced by Byzantine art and the anti-classical energy of the Insular art of the British Isles. From these elements was forged a highly innovative and coherent style in illumination, painting, and stained glass. Wall Paintings The large wall surfaces and plain, curving vaults of the architecture of the Romanesque period lent themselves to elaborate wall paintings and mural decorations. Unfortunately, many of these early wall paintings have been destroyed by dampness, and in some cases the walls have been replastered and painted over. In England, France, and the Netherlands, such pictures were systematically destroyed or whitewashed in bouts of iconoclasm during the Reformation . In Denmark and elsewhere, many have since been restored. In Catalonia (Spain), there was a national campaign to save such murals in the early 20th century by transferring them to safekeeping in Barcelona, resulting in the spectacular collection at the National Art Museum of Catalonia. In other countries, Romanesque wall paintings have suffered from war, neglect, and changing fashion. A classic scheme for the painted decoration of a church was derived from earlier examples, often in mosaic . At its focal point in the semi-dome of the apse , it commonly presented either Christ in Majesty or Christ the Redeemer enthroned within a mandorla and framed by the four winged beasts, symbols of the Four Evangelists. These iconographic images compared directly with examples from the gilt covers or illuminations of Gospel Books of the period. If the Virgin Mary was the patron saint of the church, she might replace Christ in the apse. On the apse walls below were saints and apostles, often including narrative scenes. On the sanctuary arch were figures of apostles, prophets, or the 24 elders of the Apocalypse, looking toward a bust of Christ or his symbol the Lamb at the top of the arch. The north wall of the nave often contained narrative scenes from the Old Testament while the south wall was dedicated to scenes from the New Testament. On the rear west wall was a Last Judgement with an enthroned and judging Christ at the top. One of the most intact schemes still in existence is at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe in France. The long barrel vault of the nave provides an excellent surface for fresco and is decorated with scenes of the Old Testament, showing the Creation, the Fall of Man, and other stories. The paintings include a lively depiction of Noah’s Ark, complete with a fearsome figurehead and numerous windows through which can be seen Noah and his family on the upper deck, birds on the middle deck, and pairs of animals on the lower deck. Another scene shows the swamping of Pharaoh’s army by the Red Sea. The scheme extends to other parts of the church, with the martyrdom of the local saints shown in the crypt and the Apocalypse shown in the narthex . The range of colors is limited to light blue-green, yellow ochre , reddish brown, and black. Similar paintings exist in Serbia, Spain, Germany, Italy, and elsewhere in France. Stained Glass The oldest-known fragments of medieval pictorial stained glass appear to date from the 10 th century. The earliest intact figures include five prophet windows at Augsburg dating from the late 11th century. The figures, though stiff and formalized, demonstrate considerable proficiency in design, both pictorially and in the functional use of the glass, indicating that their maker was well-accustomed to the medium. Glass craftsmen were slower than architects to change their style, so much glasswork from the first part of the 13 th century is essentially Romanesque. Large figures from the Strasbourg Cathedral, created in about 1200, are of especially fine quality. Some of these have been removed to museums for protection and better viewing. Other exceptional stained glass examples can be found at Saint Kunibert’s Church in Cologne, made around 1220. Most of the magnificent stained glass of France, including the famous “Tree of Jesse” window of Chartres Cathedral, dates from the 13 th century. Glass was both expensive and fairly adaptable in that it could be added to or rearranged, and it was often reused when churches were rebuilt in the Gothic style. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - FecampBibleFol4vIinitialICreation. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FecampBibleFol4vIinitialICreation.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Hunterian Psalter c. 1170 Gemini. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_Gemini.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - WinchesterBibleJeremiah(cover). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WinchesterBibleJeremiah(cover).GIF. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Maria Magdalena berichtet den Ju00fcngern. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maria_Magdalena_berichtet_den_J%C3%BCngern.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Hunterian Psalter. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunterian_Psalter. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - St.nAlbans Psalter. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Albans_Psalter. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_art%23Manuscript_illumination. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Fu00e9camp Bible. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9camp_Bible. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Winchester Bible. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Winchester_Bible. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - illuminated manuscript. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/illuminated%20manuscript. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - historiated. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/historiated. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - psalter. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psalter. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Su00fcddeutscher Glasmaler 001. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:S%C3%BCddeutscher_Glasmaler_001.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Pante%C3%B3nSanIsidoroLe%C3%B3n.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_art#/media/File:Pante%C3%B3nSanIsidoroLe%C3%B3n.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 'The Virgin and Child in Majesty and the Adoration of the Maji', Romanesque fresco by the Master of Pedret from the apse of the Church of Saint Joan at Tredos, Lleida, Spain, c. 1100. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:'The_Virgin_and_Child_in_Majesty_and_the_Adoration_of_the_Maji',_Romanesque_fresco_by_the_Master_of_Pedret_from_the_apse_of_the_Church_of_Saint_Joan_at_Tredos,_Lleida,_Spain,_c._1100.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Iconoclasm. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclasm. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_painting%23Metal-.2C_enamel-.2C_and_ivorywork. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_painting%23Painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque%20art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:32.645320	2020-05-01T17:34:04	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/17%3A_Romanesque_Art/17.04%3A_Other_Romanesque_Arts", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "17.4: Other Romanesque Arts", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/17%3A_Romanesque_Art/17.05%3A_Normandy_and_England	17.5: Normandy and England Norman Architecture Norman architecture is a style of Romanesque architecture developed by the Normans in lands under their dominion during the 11th and 12th centuries. Discuss the influence of Normandy and Norman architecture in France and England Key Points - The Norman dynasty had a major political, cultural, and military impact on medieval Europe. Romanesque styles originated in Normandy and became widespread in northwestern Europe, particularly in England. - The Normans were among the most traveled peoples of Europe and were thus exposed to a wide variety of cultural influences, including those from the Near East, which were incorporated in their art and architecture. - They elaborated on the Early Christian basilica plan, making it longitudinal with side aisles, an apse , and a western facade with two towers. - The Church of Saint-Pierre in Normandy is a prime example of Norman architecture. - England was influential in the development of Norman architecture and has the largest number of surviving examples. Key Terms - keeps : Towers in a castle. - motte : An earthen mound forming the site of a castle, camp, or fortification; often accompanied by an enclosed courtyard, or bailey, surrounded by a protective ditch and palisade. - Romanesque : The art of Europe from approximately 1000 CE to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century or later, depending on region. Norman architecture is a style of Romanesque architecture developed by the Normans in the lands under their dominion during the 11 th and 12 th centuries. The Normans were descended from Norse raiders and pirates from Denmark, Iceland, and Norway, who in the 10th and 11th centuries gave their name to Normandy, a region in France. The Norman dynasty had a major political, cultural, and military impact on medieval Europe. In particular, the term “Norman architecture” is traditionally used to refer to English Romanesque architecture. The Normans introduced large numbers of castles and fortifications, including keeps , monasteries, abbeys , churches, and cathedrals . These structures were constructed in a style characterized by Romanesque rounded arches (particularly over windows and doorways) and massive proportions compared to other regional variations of the style. Origins Romanesque styles originated in Normandy and became widespread in northwestern Europe, particularly in England. Indeed, England was influential in the development of Romanesque architecture and has the largest number of surviving examples. At roughly the same time, the Norman dynasty ruled in Sicily, producing a distinctive variation that incorporated Byzantine and Saracen influence. This style of Norman architecture is known alternatively as Sicilian Romanesque. Characteristics and Examples Architecture in Normandy Norman invaders arrived at the mouth of the river Seine in 911. Over the next century, Norman barons built timber castles on earthen mounds, beginning the development of motte -and-bailey castles; they also produced great stone churches in the Romanesque style of the Franks. By 950 they were building stone keeps. The Normans were among the most traveled peoples of Europe and thus exposed to a wide variety of cultural influences, including those from the Near East, some of which were incorporated into their art and architecture. They elaborated on the Early Christian basilica plan, making it longitudinal with side aisles, an apse, and a western facade with two towers. This elaboration can be seen in the Abbey of Saint-Étienne at Caen, begun in 1063, which formed a model for the larger English cathedrals whose construction began twenty years later. The Church of Saint-Pierre is another prime example of Norman architecture. This Roman Catholic church dedicated to Saint Peter is situated on the Place Saint Pierre in the center of Caen in Normandy. The construction of the present building took place between the early 13 th and 16 th centuries. The spire was destroyed in 1944 and has since been rebuilt. The eastern apse of the church was built by Hector Sohier between 1518 and 1545. The interior choir and the exterior apse display an architecture that embodies the transition from Gothic to Renaissance . Balustrades of Gothic letters, which read as part of the Magnificat, run along the top. Its west portal , the decoration of the tower spire, and the stained glass are among the features which make it one of the finest churches of the Rouen diocese. Norman Architecture in England In England, Norman nobles and bishops had influence even before the Norman Conquest of 1066, and Norman influences affected late Anglo-Saxon architecture. Edward the Confessor was raised in Normandy, and in 1042 he brought masons to work on Westminster Abbey, the first Romanesque building in England. In 1051 he brought in Norman knights who built motte (raised earthwork) castles as a defense against the Welsh. Following the Norman invasion of England, Normans rapidly constructed more motte-and-bailey castles, and in a burst of building activity constructed churches, abbeys, and more elaborate fortifications such as Norman stone keeps. The buildings show massive proportions in simple geometries. The masonry is decorated only with small bands of sculpture, perhaps used as blind arcading. Restrained decoration is seen in concentrated spaces of capitals and round doorways and in the tympanum under an arch. The Norman arch is round, in contrast to the pointed Gothic arch. Norman moldings are carved or incised with geometric ornament , such as chevron patterns (frequently termed “zig-zag moldings”) around arches. The cruciform churches often have deep chancels and a square crossing tower, which has remained a feature of English ecclesiastical architecture. Hundreds of parish churches were built, and the great English cathedrals were founded during a period from about 1083. After a fire damaged Canterbury Cathedral in 1174, Norman masons introduced the new Gothic architecture . Around 1191, Wells Cathedral and Lincoln Cathedral brought in the English Gothic style, and Norman architecture became an increasingly modest style seen only in provincial buildings. Norman Painting Norman painting, like other Romanesque painting of its time, is best demonstrated by illuminated manuscripts, wall paintings, and stained glass. Discuss the illuminated manuscripts and wall paintings in Normandy and England during the Romanesque period Key Points - The Norman dynasty had a major political, cultural, and military impact on medieval Europe, spreading from France south to Italy and north into England after the Norman invasion of England in 1066. - In the visual arts, the Normans did not have the rich and distinctive traditions of the cultures they conquered. However, in the early 11th century, the dukes began a program of church reform and encouraged the patronizing of artistic and intellectual pursuits. - The chief monasteries taking part in this “renaissance” of Norman art and scholarship helped facilitate a brief golden age of illustrated manuscripts from roughly 1090-1110. - Wall paintings were a significant form of Norman art in Normandy and England, though few exist today. - Another significant Norman art form is stained glass; most of the magnificent stained glass of France, including the famous windows of Chartres, dates from the 13th century. - Norman Romanesque embroidery is best known from the Bayeux Tapestry , an embroidered cloth nearly 70 meters (230 feet) long which depicts the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England. Key Terms - iconoclasm : The belief in, participation in, or sanction of the destruction of religious icons and other symbols or monuments, usually with religious or political motives. - quatrefoil : A symmetrical shape which forms the overall outline of four partially overlapping circles of the same diameter. - historiated : Illuminated with decorative designs that represent parts of the following text. Background: The Normans The Normans descended from Norse raiders from Denmark, Iceland, and Norway who in the 10th and 11th centuries gave their name to Normandy, a region in northern France. The distinct cultural and ethnic identity of the Normans emerged in the first half of the 10th century and continued to evolve over the succeeding centuries. The Norman dynasty had a major political, cultural and military impact on medieval Europe. Norman cultural and military influence spread from France south to Italy and north into England after the Norman invasion of England in 1066. Manuscript Illumination In the visual arts, the Normans did not have the rich and distinctive traditions of the cultures they conquered. However, in the early 11th century, the dukes began a program of church reform, encouraging the Cluniac reform of monasteries and patronizing intellectual pursuits, especially the proliferation of scriptoria and the compilation of lost illuminated manuscripts . The chief monasteries taking part in this “renaissance” of Norman art and scholarship were Mont-Saint-Michel, Fécamp, Jumièges, Bec, Saint-Ouen, Saint-Evroul, and Saint-Wandrille. These centers were in contact with the Winchester school, which channeled a pure Carolingian artistic tradition to Normandy. From roughly 1090-1110, Normandy experienced a brief golden age of illustrated manuscripts; however, the major scriptoria of Normandy ceased to function after the midpoint of the 12th century. An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia), and miniature illustrations. Romanesque illuminations focused on the Bible and the Psalter . Each book of the Bible was prefaced by a large historiated initial; major initials were similarly illuminated in the Psalter. In both cases, more lavish examples had cycles of scenes in fully illuminated pages, sometimes with several scenes per page in compartments. The Bibles, in particular, often had very large pages and were sometimes bound into more than one volume . Wall Painting The large wall surfaces and plain, curving vaults of the Romanesque period lent themselves well to mural decoration in Normandy and other Norman lands. Unfortunately, many of these early wall paintings have been destroyed by dampness over the years, or the walls themselves have been re-plastered and painted over. In Normandy, such pictures were systematically destroyed or whitewashed in bouts of iconoclasm during the Reformation . A classic scheme for the painted decoration of a church had, as its focal point in the semi-dome of the apse , Christ in Majesty or Christ the Redeemer enthroned within a mandorla and framed by the four winged beasts (symbols of the Four Evangelists). If the Virgin Mary was the dedicatee of the church, she might replace Christ here. On the apse walls below were saints and apostles, often including narrative scenes. On the sanctuary arch were figures of apostles, prophets, or the 24 “elders of the Apocalypse”, looking in towards a bust of Christ or his symbol, the Lamb, at the top of the arch. The north wall of the nave contained narrative scenes from the Old Testament, while the south wall contained scenes from the New Testament. On the rear west wall was a Last Judgment with an enthroned and judging Christ at the top. One of the most intact schemes in existence is at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe in France. The long barrel vault of the nave provides an excellent surface for fresco and is decorated with scenes of the Old Testament. One of these shows a lively depiction of Noah’s Ark, complete with a fearsome figurehead and numerous windows through which Noah and his family can be seen on the upper deck, birds on the middle deck, and pairs of animals on the lower deck. Another scene shows the swamping of Pharaoh’s army by the Red Sea. The scene extends to other parts of the church, with the martyrdom of the local saints shown in the crypt, the Apocalypse in the narthex , and Christ in Majesty. The range of colors is limited to light blue-green, yellow ochre , reddish brown, and black. Stained Glass Another significant Norman art form is stained glass. Most of the magnificent stained glass of France, including the famous windows of Chartres, dates from the 13th century. Few large windows remain intact from the 12th century. One is the Crucifixion of Poitiers, a remarkable composition which rises through three stages: the lowest a quatrefoil depicting the Martyrdom of St Peter, the largest central stage dominated by the crucifixion, and the upper stage depicting the Ascension of Christ in a mandorla. The figure of the crucified Christ already shows hints of the Gothic curve. Many detached fragments of these windows are in museums, and a window at Twycross Church in England is made up of important French panels rescued from the French Revolution . Glass was both expensive and fairly flexible in that era (in that it could be added to or rearranged) and was often reused when churches were rebuilt in the Gothic style . Other Visual Arts Many works of art have survived from this time period, mostly as church vestments . Norman Romanesque embroidery is best known from the Bayeux Tapestry, an embroidered cloth nearly 70 meters (230 feet) long that depicts the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England. Images in the cloth include depictions of William, Duke of Normandy, the coronation and death of the English King Harold, the Battle of Hastings, and even Halley’s Comet. Norman Stained Glass Stained glass was a significant art form from the Norman empire throughout both France and Norman-controlled England. Describe the characteristics of Norman stained glass Key Points - At Le Mans, Saint-Denis, and Chartres Cathedrals in France as well as Canterbury Cathedral in England, a number of panels of the 12th century Norman empire have survived. - Most of the magnificent stained glass of France, however, including the famous windows of Chartres, dates from the 13th century. Far fewer large windows remain intact from the 12th century. - Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Chartres Cathedral is the extent to which architectural structure has been adapted to meet the needs of stained glass. - At Chartres, nearly all 176 windows were filled with equally dense stained glass, creating a relatively dark but richly colored interior in which the light filtering through the myriad narrative and symbolic windows was the main source of illumination. - Though the architecture of Le Mans Cathedral features many French Gothic elements, it is notable for its rich collection of Romanesque stained glass. Key Terms - lancet : In architecture, a narrow, tall opening with a pointed arch. Stained glass was a significant art form from the Norman empire throughout both France and Norman-controlled England. At Le Mans, Saint-Denis, and Chartres Cathedrals in France as well as Canterbury Cathedral in England, a number of panels of the 12th century have survived. Most of the magnificent stained glass of France, however, including the famous windows of Chartres, dates from the 13th century. Far fewer large windows remain intact from the 12th century. Glass craftsmen were slower than architects to change their style , and much Norman stained glass from the first part of the 13th century can be considered Romanesque. Especially fine are large figures from around the year 1200 from Strasbourg Cathedral and Saint Kunibert’s Church in Cologne, both in France. Glass was both expensive and fairly flexible (in that it could be added to or rearranged) and was often reused when churches were rebuilt in the Gothic style. Famous Examples Chartres Cathedral Chartres Cathedral, also known as the Cathedral of Our Lady of Chartres, is a medieval Catholic cathedral of the Latin Church located in Chartres, France. The current cathedral was mostly constructed between 1194 and 1250. The cathedral is in an exceptional state of preservation , and the majority of the original stained glass windows survive intact. Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Chartres Cathedral is the extent to which its architectural structure has been adapted to meet the needs of stained glass. The use of three-part elevation with external buttressing allowed for far larger windows than did earlier designs, particularly at the clerestory level. Most cathedrals of the period had a mixture of windows containing plain or grisaille glass and windows containing dense stained glass panels; the brightness of the former tended to diminish the impact and legibility of the latter. At Chartres, nearly all 176 windows were filled with equally dense stained glass, creating a relatively dark but richly colored interior in which the light filtering through the myriad narrative and symbolic windows was the main source of illumination. The majority of the windows now visible at Chartres were made and installed between 1205 and 1240; however, four lancets preserve panels of Romanesque glass from the 12th century that survived the fire of 1195. Perhaps the most famous 12th-century window at Chartres is the so-called Notre-Dame de la Belle-Verrière, found in the first bay of the choir after the south transept . This window is actually a composite; the upper part, showing the Virgin and child surrounded by adoring angels, dates from around 1180 and was probably positioned at the center of the apse in the earlier building. The Virgin is depicted wearing a blue robe and sitting in a frontal pose on a throne, with the Christ Child seated on her lap raising his hand in blessing. This composition , known as the Sedes sapientia (“Throne of Wisdom”), is based on the famous cult figure kept in the crypt . The lower part of the window showing scenes from the Infancy of Christ dates from the main glazing campaign around 1225. Each bay of the aisles and the choir ambulatory contains a large lancet window roughly 8.1 meters high by 2.2 meters wide. The windows were made between 1205 and 1235 and depict stories from the Old and New Testament and the Lives of the Saints as well as typological cycles and symbolic images such as the signs of the zodiac and labors of the months. Most windows are made up of 25–30 individual panels showing distinct episodes within the narrative; only Notre-Dame de la Belle-Verrière includes a larger image made up of multiple panels. Because of their greater distance from the viewer , the windows in the clerestory generally adopt simpler, bolder designs. Most feature the standing figure of a saint or Apostle in the upper two-thirds, often with one or two simplified narrative scenes in the lower part. Unlike the lower windows in the nave arcades and the ambulatory that consist of one simple lancet per bay, the clerestory windows are each made up of a pair of lancets with a plate-traceried rose window above. The nave and transept clerestory windows mainly depict saints and Old Testament prophets. Those in the choir depict the kings of France and Castille and members of the local nobility in the straight bays, while the windows in the apse hemicycle show those Old Testament prophets who foresaw the virgin birth, flanking scenes of the Annunciation, Visitation, and Nativity in the axial window. The cathedral also has three large rose windows: the western rose, the north transept rose, and the south transept rose. Le Mans Cathedral Le Mans Cathedral is a Catholic cathedral situated in Le Mans, France. Its construction dated from the 6th through the 14th century, and though the cathedral itself features many French Gothic elements, it has a notable collection of Romanesque stained glass. The nave at Le Mans retains around 20 stained glass windows from Bishop Guillaume’s mid-12th century rebuilding, though all but one have been moved from their original locations. All were extensively restored in the 19th century. The great western window, depicting scenes from the Life of St Julian of Le Mans, dates from around 1155. The Ascension window toward the western end of the south aisle of the nave has been dated to 1120, making it one of the oldest extant stained glass windows in France. Unlike the earlier Romanesque windows, the 13th-century glazing program in the upper parts of the choir is largely intact. It presents a diverse range of scenes from the Old and New Testaments, the Lives of Saints, and various miracles of the Virgin. These windows are notable for their variety of artistic styles and their lack of coherent program (there is no obvious pattern in the distribution of subjects, and some episodes, such as the story of Theophilus or the miracle of the Jewish boy of Bourges, are repeated in different windows). The windows in the radiating chapels have fared less well over time, and most of the surviving panels have been reassembled out of context in the axial chapel. Other Notable Examples The Basilica of Saint Denis (also known as Basilique Saint-Denis) is a large medieval abbey church in the city of Saint-Denis, now a northern suburb of Paris. The basilica retains stained glass of many periods, most notably from the Romanesque era. At Canterbury Cathedral in England, Norman stained glass images include a figure of Adam digging and another of his son Seth from a series of Ancestors of Christ. Adam represents a naturalistic and lively portrayal, while in the figure of Seth, the robes have been used to great decorative effect, similar to the best stone carving of the period. The Crucifixion of Poitiers is a stained glass image dating from the 12th century in a Roman Catholic cathedral in Poitiers, France. This remarkable composition rises through three stages: the lowest stage contains a quatrefoil depicting the Martyrdom of St. Peter; the largest central stage is dominated by the crucifixion of St. Peter; and the upper stage shows the Ascension of Christ in a mandorla . The figure of the crucified Christ already shows hints of the Gothic curve. The Bayeux Tapestry The nearly 230-foot long Bayeux tapestry is the best-known example of Romanesque embroidery. Explain the importance of the Bayeux tapestry Key Points - The Bayeux tapestry depicts the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England, including scenes of William, Duke of Normandy; the coronation and death of the English King Harold; the Battle of Hastings; and even Halley’s Comet. - The tapestry was likely commissioned by Bishop Odo, the half-brother to Duke William of Normandy, and made in England—not Bayeux—in the 1070s. - The designs on the Bayeux tapestry are embroidered rather than woven, which means it’s not technically a tapestry. - The tapestry is the final and best known work of Anglo-Saxon art. Though it was made after the Norman Conquest of England, historians accept that it was created in an Anglo-Saxon tradition. - The tapestry’s central zone contains most of the action; events take place in a long series of scenes separated by highly stylized trees and surrounded by a decorative border. Key Terms - tituli : The labels or captions naming figures or subjects in art, commonly added in classical and medieval art and still conventional in Eastern Orthodox icons. Overview and History The Bayeux tapestry is the best-known example of Romanesque architecture. This embroidered cloth is nearly 70 meters (230 feet) long and 50 centimeters (20 inches) tall and depicts the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England. Images in the cloth include depictions of William, Duke of Normandy; the coronation and death of the English King Harold; the Battle of Hastings; and even Halley’s Comet. The tapestry consists of some 50 scenes with Latin tituli , or inscriptions, embroidered on linen with colored woolen yarns. It was likely commissioned by Bishop Odo, the half-brother to Duke William of Normandy, and made in England—not Bayeux—in the 1070s. The hanging was rediscovered in 1729 by scholars at a time when it was being displayed annually in Bayeux Cathedral . The tapestry is now exhibited at the Musée de la Tapisserie de Bayeux in Bayeux, Normandy, France. Design The designs on the Bayeux tapestry are embroidered rather than woven, so it’s not technically considered a tapestry. The tapestry can be seen as the final and best known work of Anglo-Saxon art, and though it was made after the Norman Conquest of England, historians accept that it was created firmly in Anglo-Saxon tradition. Such tapestries adorned both churches and wealthy houses in England, though the Bayeux tapestry is exceptionally large. The tapestry is embroidered in crewel (wool yarn) on a tabby-woven linen ground using two methods of stitching: outline or stem stitch for lettering and the outlines of figures and couching or laid work for figure interior. Nine linen panels between 14 and 3 meters in length were embroidered and sewn together, and the joins disguised with subsequent embroidery. The design involves a broad central zone with narrow decorative borders top and bottom. Later generations patched the hanging in numerous places, and some of the embroidery (especially in the final scene) has been reworked. The main yarn colors are terracotta or russet, blue-green, dull gold, olive green, and blue, with small amounts of dark blue, black, and sage green. Later repairs are worked in light yellow, orange, and light greens. The tapestry’s central zone contains most of the action, which sometimes overflows into the borders either for dramatic effect or to allow extra space for depictions. Events are each depicted in a long series of scenes separated by stylized trees. The trees are not placed consistently, however, and the greatest scene shift (between Harold’s audience with Edward after his return to England and Edward’s burial scene) is not marked. The tituli are normally located in the central zone but occasionally use the top border. The borders are otherwise decorated with birds, beasts, and fish, as well as scenes from fables, agriculture, and hunting. These don’t necessarily complement the action in the central panels. The picture of Halley’s Comet, which appears in the upper border (scene 32), is the first known depiction of this comet. The Opus Anglicanum Opus Anglicanum , Latin for “the English work,” refers to the elaborate needlework produced in England during the Middle Ages. Define the Opus Anglicanum and describe its motifs and uses Key Points - England gained a reputation for needlework as early as the pre-Norman conquest during the Anglo-Saxon period; however, it was in the 13th and 14th centuries that the Opus Anglicanum really flourished. - Embroidered pieces were used in religious and secular settings on vestments , clothing for the wealthy, and heraldic tapestries . - The work combined silk and gold or silver-gilt threads worked on linen and later velvet. The motifs followed the era’s trends in other art forms , such as illuminated manuscripts and architecture. - Opus Anglicanum consisted primarily of popular luxury that spread across Europe. However, as the 14th century progressed, demand for luxury goods decreased as funds were redirected towards military expenditures. - Few pieces have survived due to the delicate nature of the work; some were re-purposed as they aged and others were even buried with their owners. Key Terms - guild : A group of tradespeople made up of merchants, craftspeople, or artisans, particularly in the Middle Ages. - vestments : Liturgical garments and articles associated primarily with the Christian religion, especially among the Eastern Orthodox, Catholics (Latin Rite and others), Anglicans, and Lutherans. Opus Anglicanum, Latin for “the English work,” refers to the elaborate needlework produced in England during the the middle ages. Embroidered pieces were used in religious and secular settings on vestments, clothing for the wealthy, and heraldic tapestries. England gained a reputation for needlework as early as the Anglo-Saxon period prior to the Norman conquest; however, it was in the 13 th and 14 th centuries that the Opus Anglicanum really flourished. Style This work combined silk and gold or silver-gilt threads worked on linen and later velvet. The motifs used in needlework followed the trends in other art forms of the time, such as illuminated manuscripts and architecture; some motifs included the use of scrolls, spirals, and foliage. Embroidered pieces also depicted figures of kings and saints as well as the Gothic arches popular in European architecture. Craftsmen London was the primary center of production for Opus Anglicanum . While often associated with certain convents, a professional group of male craftsmen produced a great deal of the work. The Worshipful Company of Broderers was a craft guild incorporated in 1561 to represent these workers. There is some evidence that the group first incorporated as early as 1515, but those records were lost. Use Opus Anglicanum consisted primarily of popular luxury items that spread across Europe. Pope Martin IV, for example, ordered custom pieces after admiring the vestments of English Priests. As the 14 th century progressed, however, demand for luxury goods decreased as funds were redirected toward military expenditures. As a result, the style of the work was scaled back, and much of the richness and storytelling of these pieces was lost. The needlework was relegated to small applique pieces that could be added to clothing or tapestries. Few pieces have survived due to the delicate nature of the work. Some were repurposed as they aged and others were buried with their owners. One surviving piece is a cope, or a type of vestment, owned by the Butler-Bowdon family. Thought to have been made in 1330-1350, the Butler-Bowdon Cope is an example of a piece that was cut up for reuse, as it was reconstructed in the 19 th century. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 1280px-Chevet_abbHommes.JPG. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chevet_abbHommes.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 1024px-Norman_arch.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Norman_arch.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Saint Pierre Caen chevet. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saint_Pierre_Caen_chevet.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Normans. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Church of Saint-Pierre, Caen. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Saint-Pierre,_Caen. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Norman architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Motte. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Motte. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/keep. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Albanipsalter DreiKoenige. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albanipsalter_DreiKoenige.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Bayeux hawking. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bayeux_hawking.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Normans. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bayeux Tapestry. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - iconoclasm. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/iconoclasm. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - historiated. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/historiated. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - quatrefoil. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quatrefoil. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 800px-Chartres_-_cath%C3%A9drale_-_ND_de_la_belle_verri%C3%A8re.JPG. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral#/media/File:Chartres_-_cath%C3%A9drale_-_ND_de_la_belle_verri%C3%A8re.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Cath%C3%A9draleLeMansVitrauxChoeurGothique1.JPG. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mans_Cathedral#/media/File:Cath%C3%A9draleLeMansVitrauxChoeurGothique1.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 800px-The_south_transept_rose_at_Notre-Dame_de_Chartres.png. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral#/media/File:The_south_transept_rose_at_Notre-Dame_de_Chartres.png. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chartres Cathedral. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_art#Stained_glass. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Le Mans Cathedral. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mans_Cathedral. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - bayeux-hawking.jpeg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bayeux_hawking.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Bayeux_tapestry_laid_work_detail..jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry#/media/File:Bayeux_tapestry_laid_work_detail..jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Titulus. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Titulus_(inscription). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bayeux Tapestry. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Butlerbowden cope. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Butlerbowden_cope.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Opus Anglicanum. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_Anglicanum. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - English embroidery. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/English_embroidery%23Medieval_period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Worshipful Company of Broderers. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Worshipful_Company_of_Broderers. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Butler-Bowden Cope. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Butler-Bowden_Cope. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - vestments. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/vestments. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - guild. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/guild. 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https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art	18: Gothic Art Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52961 Boundless Boundless 18.1: Introduction to Gothic Art 18.2: Gothic Architecture 18.3: Gothic Sculpture 18.4: Gothic Painting 18.5: Gothic Metalwork 18.6: Italy in the Gothic Period	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:32.863698	2020-05-01T17:29:54	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "18: Gothic Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art/18.01%3A_Introduction_to_Gothic_Art	18.1: Introduction to Gothic Art Gothic Art Gothic art developed after the Romanesque, in the 12 th century. The style continued to be used well into the 16 th century in some parts of Europe, while giving way to the Renaissance style earlier in some regions. Learning Objective Describe the economic and political reasons that led to the development of the Gothic style Key Points - An increased population of cities in France, as well as a strengthened French monarch, contributes to the development of the Gothic style. - The most expressive medium for the Gothic style is architecture, specifically, Cathedrals. - While the Gothic style was developed in Northern France, it spread throughout Europe where different regional styles were adopted. Key Term - Book of Hours : A common type of illuminated manuscript that was created for personal devotion and contained a collection of texts, prayers, and psalms. Gothic art developed after the Romanesque, in the 12 th century. The style continued to be used well into the 16 th century in some parts of Europe, while giving way to the Renaissance style earlier in other regions. The style was developed in Northern France due to socioeconomic, political, and theological reasons. After the fall of the Roman Empire, people fled cities as they were no longer safe. The Romanesque era saw many people living in the countryside of France while cities remained largely abandoned. During this time period, the French monarchy was weak and feudal landowners exerted a large amount of regional power. In the 12 th century, the French royalty strengthened their power, their titles, and their landholdings, which led to more centralized government. Additionally, due to advancements in agriculture, population and trade increased. These changes brought people back to the cities, which is where we find the most expressive medium for the Gothic style—cathedrals. Gothic Architecture Gothic architecture is unique in that we can pinpoint the exact place, the exact moment, and the exact person who developed it. Around 1137, Abbot Suger began re-building the Abbey Church of St. Denis. In his re-designs, which he wrote about extensively, we can see elements of what would become Gothic architecture, including the use of symmetry in design and ratios. Ratios became essential to French Gothic cathedrals because they expressed the perfection of the universe created by God. This is where we also see stained glass emerge in Gothic architecture. Abbot Suger adopted the idea that light equates to God. He wrote that he placed pictures in the glass to replace wall paintings and talked about them as educational devices. The windows were instructional in theology during the Gothic era, and the light itself was a metaphor for the presence of God. Cathedrals served as religious centers and they were important for local economies. Pilgrims would travel throughout Europe to see relics, which would bring an influx of travelers and money to cities with Cathedrals. While the Gothic style was developed in Northern France, it spread throughout Europe where different regional styles were adopted. In England, for example, cathedrals became longer than they were tall and architects in Italy typically did not incorporate stained glass windows in the manner that the French did. Gothic Painting Illuminated manuscripts provide excellent examples of Gothic painting. A prayer book, known as the book of hours, became increasingly popular during the Gothic age and was treated as a luxury item. The Hours of Mary of Burgundy, produced in Flanders c. 1477, contains a miniature showing Mary of Burgundy in devotion with a wonderful depiction of a French Gothic Cathedral behind her. Sculpture & Metalwork Sculpture during the Gothic era really sheds light on the knowledge of artists working during this time period. Some historians believed that artists and artisans during the Gothic era had “forgotten” how to create realistic works of art, or art influenced by the classical age. However, a viewer only needs to look at the work of Nicolas of Verdun to see that artists could and did work in a classical style during the Gothic era. Additionally, sculpture produced in Germany during the Gothic era is especially noted for its lifelikeness. Gothic Cathedrals French Gothic cathedrals are characterized by lighter construction, large windows, pointed arches, and their impressive height. Learning Objective Evaluate the structure and symbolism of the French Gothic cathedral Key Points - French Gothic cathedrals were characterized by lighter construction and large windows. - The pointed arch was the defining architectural feature of Gothic construction. - Height is enhanced by both the architectural features and the decoration of the building. - All design elements of Gothic cathedrals are intended to pay homage to and bring attention to the Glory of God. - The western entrance to the Cathedral is typically the primary point of entry and therefore the most elaborate facade. - Stained glass adds a dimension of color to the light within the building, as well as providing a medium for figurative and narrative art. Key Terms - Ogival : Having the curved, pointed shape of a Gothic pointed arch, or a rib of a Gothic vault. - Lancet Arch : A sharp pointed arch used in doors and windows, etc. - Gothic Architecture : A style of architecture that flourished during the high and late medieval period; it evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture. - Jamb : The vertical components that form the sides of a door frame, window frame, or fireplace, or other opening in a wall. - Blind Arcade : A series of arches, often used in Romanesque and Gothic buildings, that has no actual openings and has no load-bearing function, and that is applied to the surface of a wall as a decorative element. - Nave : The middle or body of a church, extending from the transepts to the principal entrances. The Gothic cathedral represented the universe in microcosm, and each architectural concept, including the height and perfect ratios of the structure, were intended to convey a theological message: the great glory of God and his creation of a perfect universe. The building becomes a microcosm in two ways. First, the mathematical and geometrical nature of the construction is an image of the orderly universe, in which an underlying rationality and logic can be perceived. Second, the statues, sculptural decoration, stained glass, and murals incorporate the essence of creation in depictions of events from the Old and New Testaments. Most Gothic churches have the Latin cross (or “cruciform”) plan, with a long nave making the body of the church. This nave is flanked on either side by aisles, a transverse arm called the transept, and, beyond it, an extension referred to as the choir. One of the defining characteristics of Gothic architecture is the pointed or ogival arch. Arches of this type were used in the Near East in pre-Islamic as well as Islamic architecture before they were structurally employed in Gothic architecture. They are thought to have been the inspiration for their use in France at the Autun Cathedral, which is otherwise stylistically Romanesque. The way in which the pointed arch was drafted and utilized developed throughout the Gothic period, and four popular styles emerged: the Lancet arch, the Equilateral arch, the Flamboyant arch, and the Depressed arch. The Gothic vault, unlike the semi-circular vault of Roman and Romanesque buildings, can be used to roof rectangular and irregularly shaped plans such as trapezoids. This enabled architects to raise vaults much higher than was possible in Romanesque architecture. While the use of the pointed arch gave a greater flexibility to architectural form, it also gave Gothic architecture a very different and more vertical visual characteristic than Romanesque architecture. In Gothic architecture the pointed arch is used in every location where a vaulted shape is called for, both structurally and decoratively. Gothic openings such as doorways, windows, arcades, and galleries have pointed arches. Rows of pointed arches upon delicate shafts form a typical wall decoration known as a blind arcade. Niches with pointed arches that contain statuary are a major external feature. The pointed arch lent itself to elaborate intersecting shapes, which developed complex Gothic tracery within window spaces and formed the structural support of the large windows that are characteristic of the style. The façade of a large church or cathedral, often referred to as the West Front, is generally designed to create a powerful impression on the approaching worshiper. In the arch of the door (the tympanum) is often a significant sculpture representing scenes from Christian Theology, most frequently Christ in Majesty and Judgment Day . If there is a central door jamb or a tremeau, then it frequently bears a statue of the Madonna and Child. The West Front of a French cathedral, along with many English, Spanish, and German cathedrals, generally has two towers, which, particularly in France, express an enormous diversity of form and decoration. A characteristic of French Gothic church architecture is its height, both absolute and in proportion to its width, the verticality suggests an aspiration to Heaven. As the Gothic Age progressed in France, the different towns and cities may have been in competition with one another to create the tallest Cathedral. Architects also closely guarded the ratios they used in their architectural plans. Another one of the most distinctive characteristics of Gothic architecture is the expansive area of windows and the large size of the many individual windows. The increase in the use of large windows during the Gothic period is directly related to the use of the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, and the flying buttress. All of these architectural features absorbed the weight of the structure, which had rested on the walls in Romanesque architecture. Since the walls had less weight to support, thanks to these innovations, architects were able to pierce the walls of the structures with windows without risking the structural soundness of the cathedral. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Shrine of the Three Kings. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrine_of_the_Three_Kings . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Book of Hours. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_hours . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Gothic Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_art . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Hours of Mary of Burgundy. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hours_of_Mary_of_Burgundy . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - StDenis_Chorumgang.JPG. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Suger . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Stundenbuch_der_Maria_von_Burgund_Wien_cod._1857_14v.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hours_of_Mary_of_Burgundy . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Cologne_Cathedral_Shrine_of_Magi.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_of_Verdun . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - blind arcade. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/blind%20arcade. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Gothic Architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/gothic%20architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - jamb. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jamb. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - nave. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nave. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - lancet arch. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lancet_arch. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Autun cathedrale. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Autun_cathedrale.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Bonne-Esperance Salle capitulaire. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bonne-Esperance_Salle_capitulaire.JPG. License : CC BY: Attribution - Koelner Dom Innenraum. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Koelner_Dom_Innenraum.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:33.028857	2020-05-01T17:34:09	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art/18.01%3A_Introduction_to_Gothic_Art", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "18.1: Introduction to Gothic Art", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art/18.02%3A_Gothic_Architecture	18.2: Gothic Architecture Gothic Architecture: The Abbey Church of Saint Denis The Abbey Church of Saint Denis is known as the first Gothic structure and was developed in the 12th century by Abbot Suger. Illustrate a timeline of the creation of the Abbey Church of Saint Denis Key Points - The Abbey Church of Saint Denis provided an architectural model for cathedrals and abbeys of northern France, England, and other European countries. - In the 12th century, Abbot Suger rebuilt portions of the church using innovative structural and decorative features that were drawn from a number of sources, resulting in the first truly Gothic building. - The two architects who worked under Abbot Suger’s direction remain uncredited, identified only by their unique stylistic contributions. Key Terms - Abbey Church of Saint Denis : The Cathedral Basilica of Saint Denis is a large medieval abbey church in the commune of Saint Denis, renowned for its Gothic architecture. - Rayonnant Gothic : The period of French Gothic architecture between c. 1240 and 1350, characterized by a shift in focus away from the High Gothic mode of great scale toward a greater concern for two dimensional surfaces and the repetition of decorative motifs at different scales. - ambulatory : The round walkway encircling the altar in many cathedrals. - Romanesque : European architecture containing both Roman and Byzantine elements; sometimes applied to the debased style of the later Roman Empire, but especially to the more developed architecture prevailing from the 8th to the 12th centuries. The Abbey Church of Saint Denis, also known as the Cathedral Basilica of Saint Denis, is a large medieval abbey church in the commune of Saint Denis, now a northern suburb of Paris. This site originated as a Gallo-Roman cemetery in late Roman times. Around 475 CE, St. Genevieve established a church at this site. In the 7 th century, this structure was replaced by a much grander construction, on the orders of Dagobert I, King of the Franks. The Basilica of Saint Denis is an architectural landmark, the first major structure of which a substantial part was designed and built in the Gothic style . Both stylistically and structurally, it heralded the change from Romanesque architecture to Gothic architecture . Before the term “Gothic” came into common use, it was known as the “French Style.” Saint Denis is a patron saint of France and, according to legend, was the first Bishop of Paris. Legend says that he was decapitated on the Hill of Montmartre and subsequently carried his head to the site of the current church, indicating where he wanted to be buried. Dagobert I refounded the church as the Abbey of Saint Denis, a Benedictine monastery. Dagobert also commissioned a new shrine to house the saint’s remains; it was created by his chief counselor, Eligius, a goldsmith by training. Abbot Suger Abbot Suger (circa 1081-1151), Abbot of Saint Denis from 1122 and a friend and confidant of French kings, had been given the abbey as an oblate at the age of 10 and began work around 1135 on rebuilding and enlarging it. Suger was the patron of the rebuilding of Saint Denis, but not the architect, as was often assumed in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In fact it appears that two distinct architects, or master masons, were involved in the 12th century changes. Both remain anonymous, but their work can be distinguished stylistically. The first, who was responsible for the initial work at the western end, favored conventional Romanesque capitals and molding profiles with rich and individualized detailing. His successor, who completed the western facade and upper stories of the narthex before going on to build the new choir , displayed a more restrained approach to decorative effects, relying on a simple repertoire of motifs , which may have proved more suitable for the lighter Gothic style that he helped to create. Suger’s western extension was completed in 1140 and the three new chapels in the narthex were consecrated on June 9 th of that year. On completion of the west front, Abbot Suger moved on to the reconstruction of the eastern end. He wanted a choir (chancel) that would be suffused with light. To achieve his aims, Suger’s masons drew on the new elements that had evolved or been introduced to Romanesque architecture: the pointed arch , the ribbed vault , the ambulatory with radiating chapels, the clustered columns supporting ribs springing in different directions, and the flying buttresses , which enabled the insertion of large clerestory windows. This was the first time that these features had all been brought together. The new structure was finished and dedicated on June 11 th of 1144, in the presence of the King. Thus, the Abbey of Saint Denis became the prototype for further building in the royal domain of northern France. Through the rule of the Angevin dynasty , the style was introduced to England and spread throughout France, the Low Countries, Germany, Spain, northern Italy, and Sicily. The dark Romanesque nave , with its thick walls and small window openings, was rebuilt using the latest techniques, in what is now known as Gothic. This new style, which differed from Suger’s earlier works as much as they had differed from their Romanesque precursors , reduced the wall area to an absolute minimum. Solid masonry was replaced with vast window openings filled with brilliant stained glass and interrupted only by the most slender of bar tracery—not only in the clerestory but also, perhaps for the first time, in the normally dark triforium level. The upper facades of the two much-enlarged transepts were filled with two spectacular rose windows . As with Suger’s earlier rebuilding work, the identity of the architect or master mason is unknown. The abbey is often referred to as the “royal necropolis of France” as it is the site where the kings of France and their families were buried for centuries. All but three of the monarchs of France from the 10th century until 1789 have their remains here. The effigies of many of the kings and queens are on their tombs, but during the French Revolution , those tombs were opened and the bodies were moved to mass graves. Gothic Architecture: La Saint-Chapelle Louis IX’s patronage of the arts drove much innovation in Gothic art and architecture, exemplified by his commission of La Saint-Chappelle, an example of Rayonnant Gothic architecture. Discuss the innovations in Gothic art and architecture seen in La Saint-Chappelle Key Points - Louis IX established the Gothic chapel Sainte-Chapelle to house his collection of Christian relics in the mid-13th century. - Louis IX’s artistic and architectural patronage was both innovative and highly influential among European royalty. - Louis IX was made a saint in 1297, and remains the only French monarch to have been canonized. - Sainte-Chapelle epitomized the Rayonnant Gothic style of architecture. Key Terms - Rayonnant Gothic : The period of French Gothic architecture between c. 1240 and 1350, characterized by a shift in focus away from the High Gothic mode of great scale and height toward a greater concern for two dimensional surfaces and the repetition of decorative motifs at different scales. Rayonnant structures tend to be smaller than High Gothic Cathedrals. This style is also known as Court Style. - Sainte-Chapelle : A chapel in the courtyard of the royal palace on the Île de la Cité, built to house Louis IX’s collection of Holy relics. Louis IX ruled during the so-called “golden century of Saint Louis,” when the Kingdom of France was at its height of power in Europe, both politically and economically. The king of France was regarded as a primus inter pares among the kings and rulers of the continent. He commanded the largest army, and ruled the largest and most wealthy kingdom of Europe, which was the European center of arts and intellectual thought (La Sorbonne) at the time. The prestige and respect for King Louis IX resulted more from his benevolent personality than from his military domination. For his contemporaries, he was the quintessential example of the Christian prince, and embodied the whole of Christendom in his person. The King was later recognized as a saint by the Catholic Church. The style of Louis’ court radiated throughout Europe through the purchase of art objects from Parisian masters for export and by the marriage of the King’s daughters and female relatives to foreign husbands. Louis’ personal chapel, La Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, was copied more than once by his descendants elsewhere. La Sainte-Chapelle (The Holy Chapel) is one of the only surviving buildings of the Capetian royal palace on the Île de la Cité in the heart of Paris, France. It was commissioned by King Louis IX of France to house his collection of relics of the passion, including the Crown of Thorns—one of the most important relics in medieval Christendom. Begun some time after 1239 and consecrated on April 26, 1248, the Sainte-Chapelle is considered among the highest achievements of the Rayonnant period of Gothic architecture . Although damaged during the French revolution and heavily restored in the 19 th century, it retains one of the most extensive in-situ collections (collections that are still in their original positions) of 13 th century stained glass anywhere in the world. The glass depicts stories from the Old Testament and focuses heavily on the depictions of biblical kings, both good and bad. Scholars believe the inclusion of “bad” kings, along with the good, were meant as a lesson for the royal viewer to learn from both good and bad examples of rulership. La Sainte-Chapelle is a prime example of the phase of Gothic architectural style called “Rayonnant Gothic,” also known as Court Style, and is marked by its sense of weightlessness and strong vertical emphasis. Rayonnant structures tend to be smaller than the High Gothic Cathedrals that came before them. La Sainte-Chapelle stands squarely upon a lower chapel, which served as parish church for all the inhabitants of the palace, which was the seat of government. However, the chapel proper was a private royal chapel and scholars have noted how the structure almost looks like metalwork , as if the chapel itself is a reliquary . English Gothic Architecture English Gothic architecture (c. 1180–1520) is defined by pointed arches, vaulted roofs, buttresses, large windows, and spires. Define the characteristics and particular styles of English Gothic architecture Key Points - The Gothic style originated in France with the choir of the Basilique Saint-Denis, built by Abbot Suger and dedicated in June 1144. - The lancet , a pointed arch , was the most crucial development of the Early Gothic period (c. 1180–1250), resulting in graceful buildings with thinner walls and more light. - While French Gothic Cathedrals were built to be increasingly tall, English Gothic Cathedrals tended to emphasize the length of the building rather than the height. - The Decorated Gothic Period (c. 1250–1350) is subdivided into the earlier Geometric Period and later Curvilinear Period, differentiated by styles of window tracery . - Known for emphasizing vertical lines , the austerity of the Perpendicular Gothic Period was a response to the pandemic Black Death , which emerged in England in 1348. Key Terms - Decorated Gothic Period : A name given specifically to a division of English Gothic architecture, which was broken into two periods: the Geometric style (1250–1290) and the Curvilinear style (1290–1350). - choir : The part of a church where the singing group assembles for song. - Early English Gothic Period :A period in the late 12th century, characterized by pointed arches, that superseded the Romanesque style. Gothic architecture flourished in England from approximately 1180 to 1520. This style is defined by pointed arches, vaulted roofs, buttresses , large windows, and spires . The Gothic style was first developed in France, where the various elements had first been used together within a single building at the choir of the Basilique Saint-Denis north of Paris, built by Abbot Suger and dedicated in June 1144. The English adopted the Gothic style, however, they adapted it to their own regional preferences. While French Gothic Cathedrals were built to be increasingly tall, English Gothic Cathedrals tended to emphasize the length of the building rather than the height. Many of the largest and finest works of English architecture, notably the medieval cathedrals of England, are largely built in the Gothic style. The earliest large-scale applications of Gothic architecture in England are at Canterbury Cathedral and Westminster Abbey . Castles, palaces, great houses, universities, parish churches, and many smaller unpretentious secular buildings, including almshouses and trade halls, were also built in this style. Early English Gothic Period The Early English Gothic period lasted from the late 12th century until midway through the 13th century, according to most modern scholars. By 1175, the Gothic style had been firmly established in England with the completion of the Choir at Canterbury Cathedral by William of Sens. The most significant characteristic development of the Early English period was the pointed arch known as the lancet . Compared with the rounded Romanesque style, the pointed arch of the Early English Gothic is aesthetically more elegant and is more efficient at distributing the weight of stonework, making it possible to span higher and wider gaps using narrower columns . It also allows for much greater variation in proportions. Using the pointed arch, walls could become less massive and window openings could be larger and grouped more closely together, so architects could achieve more open, airy, and graceful buildings. At its purest, the style was simple and austere, emphasizing the height of the building, as if aspiring heavenward. In the late 12th century the Early English Gothic style superseded the Romanesque style, and during the late 13th century it developed into the Decorated Gothic style, which lasted until the mid 14th century. Decorated Gothic Period The Decorated period in architecture is traditionally broken into two periods: the Geometric style (1250–1290) and the Curvilinear style (1290–1350). Decorated architecture is characterized by its window tracery, which are elaborate patterns that fill the top portions of windows. The tracery style was geometric at first, and flowing in the later period during the 14th century. Vaulting also became more elaborate, with the use of increasing numbers of ribs , initially for structural and later for aesthetic reasons. Examples of the Decorated style can be found in many British churches and cathedrals. Principal examples are the east ends of Lincoln Cathedral and of Carlisle Cathedral and the west fronts of York Minster and of Lichfield Cathedral. Perpendicular Gothic Period The Perpendicular Gothic period is the third historical division of English Gothic architecture, and is characterized by an emphasis on vertical lines. The Perpendicular style began under the royal architects William Ramsey and John Sponlee, and lasted into the mid 16th century. The Perpendicular style grew out of the shadow of the Black Death, a disease that killed approximately half of England’s population in 18 months between June 1348 and December 1349 and returned in 1361–62 to kill another fifth of the population. This epidemic dramatically impacted every aspect of society, including arts and culture , and designers moved away from the flamboyance and jubilation present in the Decorated style. Architects were also responding to labor shortages resulting from the plague, and therefore relied on less elaborate designs. Perpendicular linearity is particularly obvious in the design of windows, which became immense, allowing greater scope for stained glass craftsmen. Some of the finest features of this period are the magnificent timber roofs: hammerbeam roofs, such as those of Westminster Hall (1395), Christ Church Hall, Oxford, and Crosby Hall, appeared for the first time. Gothic architecture continued to flourish in England for 100 years after the precepts of Renaissance architecture were formalized in Florence in the early 15th century. German Gothic Architecture Gothic architecture flourished during the high and late medieval period in the Holy Roman Empire, from approximately 1140–1400. Summarize the principal features of German Gothic architecture Key Points - The Gothic style first developed in France. Territories that constitute modern day Germany adopted the French Gothic and developed regional distinctions to this style. - Brick Gothic is a style of Gothic architecture common in Northern Europe, especially in Northern Germany and the regions around the Baltic Sea without natural rock resources where the buildings are built, more or less, using only bricks. - Hall churches are another distinctively German adaptation to the French Gothic style. Key Terms - nave : The middle or body of a church, extending from the transepts to the principal entrances. - Middle Ages : The period of time in Europe between the decline of the Roman Empire and the revival of letters (the Renaissance) or, according to Henry Hallam, the period beginning with the sixth and ending with the fifteenth century. - spire : A tapering structure built on a roof or tower, especially as one of the central architectural features of a church or cathedral roof. Gothic architecture flourished during the high and late medieval period in the Holy Roman Empire, from approximately 1140–1400. The Gothic style first developed in France. Territories that constitute modern day Germany adopted the French Gothic and developed regional distinctions to this style. German Gothic architecture is notable for its enormous towers and spires . Sometimes they were so big that they were left unfinished until modern times. The spires are quite different than English spires because they are made of lacy “openwork.” There are also many hallenkirke (or hall churches), which have no clerestorey windows. The nave and the aisles are about the same height. Freiburg Cathedral was built in three stages, the first beginning in 1120 under the Dukes of Zahringen, the second beginning in 1210, and the third in 1230. Of the original building, only the foundations still exist. It is particularly notable for its 116-meter tower, which is nearly square at the base , and the dodecagonal star gallery at its center. Above this gallery, the tower is octagonal and tapered, with the spire at the top. It is the only Gothic church tower in Germany completed in the Middle Ages (1330) that survived the November 1944 bombing raids that destroyed all of the houses on the west and north side of the market. Cologne Cathedral is, after Milan Cathedral, the largest Gothic cathedral in the world. Construction began in 1248 and took, with interruptions, until 1880 to complete—a period of over 600 years. It is 144.5 metres long, 86.5 m wide, and its two towers are 157 m tall. Because of its enormous twin spires, it also has the largest façade of any church in the world. The choir of the cathedral, measured between the piers , also holds the distinction of having the largest height to width ratio of any Medieval church. The building of Gothic churches was accompanied by the construction of guild houses and town halls by the rising bourgeoisie. Examples are the Gothic Town Hall (13 th century) at Stralsund, Bremen Town Hall (1410), and the (reconstructed) city hall of Munster (originally from 1350). The dwellings of this period were mainly timber-framed buildings, as can still be seen in Goslar and Quedlinburg. Quedlinburg has one of the oldest half-timbered houses in Germany. The method of construction, used extensively for town houses of the Medieval and Renaissance periods, lasted into the twentieth century for rural buildings. Brick Gothic Brick Gothic (Backsteingotik) is a specific style of Gothic architecture common in Northern Europe, especially in Northern Germany and the regions around the Baltic Sea that lack natural rock resources. The structures are built, more or less, using only bricks. Stralsund City Hall and St. Nicholas Church are examples of this style. Cities such as Lubeck, Rostock, Wismar, Stralsund, and Greifswald are shaped by this regional style. St. Mary’s in Lübeck, built between 1200 and 1350, was a model for many North German churches. Hall Churches Hall churches are another example of German Gothic architecture that is distinct from French Gothic. In hall churches, the aisles and nave are almost the same height and the stained glass windows are typically the full height of the walls, allowing in maximum light and space . - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Saintdenis. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saintdenis.gif. License : CC BY: Attribution - Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Saint-Denis_-_Basilique_-_Ext%C3%A9rieur_fa%C3%A7ade_ouest.JPG. License : CC BY: Attribution - Dagobert I. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagobert_I. License : CC BY: Attribution - Basilica of St Denis. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_St_Denis. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Rayonnant Gothic. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayonnant%20Gothic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - ambulatory. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ambulatory. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Abbey Church of Saint Denis. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey%20Church%20of%20Saint%20Denis. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Louis9 profilebust. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis9_profilebust.JPG. License : CC BY: Attribution - Ste Chapelle Basse s. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ste_Chapelle_Basse_s.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Louis ix. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_ix%23Patron_of_arts_and_arbiter_of_Europe. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sainte-Chapelle. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainte-Chapelle. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sainte-Chapelle. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainte-Chapelle. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Rayonnant Gothic. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayonnant%20Gothic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Gloucester_Cathedral_High_Altar,_Gloucestershire,_UK_-_Diliff.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Gothic_architecture#/media/File:Gloucester_Cathedral_High_Altar,_Gloucestershire,_UK_-_Diliff.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Wells_Cathedral_West_Front_Exterior2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Wells_Cathedral. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/3/3f/YorkMinsterWest.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - English Gothic architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Gothic_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Early English Gothic Period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Early%20English%20Gothic%20Period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - choir. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/choir. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Decorated Gothic Period. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Decorated%20Gothic%20Period. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Munich_Frauenkirche_28HDR29_28841933081829.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_church. License : CC BY: Attribution - Freiburg Cathedral. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Freiburg_Cathedral. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Cologne Cathedral. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cologne_Cathedral.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Architecture of Germany. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Germany%23Gothic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Brick Gothic. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Brick_Gothic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - spire. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/spire. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - nave. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nave. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Middle Ages. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Middle_Ages. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:33.141389	2020-05-01T17:34:12	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art/18.02%3A_Gothic_Architecture", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "18.2: Gothic Architecture", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art/18.03%3A_Gothic_Sculpture	18.3: Gothic Sculpture Gothic Sculpture Gothic art existed as monumental religious sculpture in churches, such as in the Cologne Cathedral, and as small, portable sculptures. Explain how the art of the Cologne Cathedral embodies Gothic sculpture Key Points - The most renowned work of art in the Cologne Cathedral is the Shrine of the Three Kings, an elaborately carved reliquary traditionally believed to hold the remains of the Three Magi or Three Wise Men. - The Gero-Kreuz, a large crucifix carved in oak with traces of paint and gilding is the oldest large crucifix north of the Alps. - Aside from monumental sculpture, smaller, portable sculptural pieces were also popular during the Gothic period in some urban centers, taking the form of small reliefs in ivory , bone, and wood and covering both religious and secular subjects. Key Terms - gilt : A thin layer of gold or other metal; gilding. - sacristy : A room in a church where sacred vessels, books, vestments, etc. are kept. Sometimes also used by clergy to prepare for worship or for meetings. - polyptych : A work consisting of multiple painted or carved panels joined together, often with hinges. Gothic art was a style that developed concurrently with Gothic architecture during the mid-12th century. Primary media in the Gothic period included sculpture, panel painting, stained glass fresco , and illuminated manuscripts . The earliest Gothic art existed as monumental sculpture on the walls of cathedrals and abbeys . Elaborate sculpture was used extensively to decorate the facades of these buildings. Cologne Cathedral The Cologne Cathedral is a renowned monument to German Gothic architecture as well as a World Heritage Site home to numerous works of art and decorative sculpture. Its exterior serves as a stunning example of German Gothic architecture, while its interior houses numerous examples of gothic sculpture and artwork. One of the important works in the cathedral is the High Altar, installed in 1322. It is constructed out of black marble, with a solid slab 15 feet long forming the top. The front and sides are overlaid with white marble, nine inches into which figure are set, with the Coronation of the Virgin at the centre. The most renowned work of art in the cathedral is the Shrine of the Three Kings. It was commissioned by Philip von Heinsberg, archbishop of Cologne from 1167 to 1191, and created by Nicholas of Verdun. It is traditionally believed to hold the remains of the Three Magi or Three Wise Men, whose relics were acquired at the conquest of Milan in 1164. The shrine takes the form of a large reliquary in the shape of a basilican church, made of bronze and silver. It is gilded and ornamented with architectonic details, figurative sculpture, enamels, and gemstones. The entire outside of the shrine is covered with an elaborate decorative overlay. There are 74 high relief figures in silver gilt in all, not counting smaller additional figures in the background decoration. On the sides, images of the prophets decorate the lower sections, while images of the apostles and evangelists decorate the upper part. On one end, there are (across the bottom, from left to right) images of the Adoration of the Magi, Mary enthroned with the infant Jesus, and the baptism of Christ. Above, one may see Christ enthroned at the Last Judgment. The opposite end shows scenes of the Passion: the scourging of Christ (lower left), and his crucifixion (lower left), with the resurrected Christ above. The figures, with their fully modeled bodies and wet drapery , demonstrate how sculptors in the Gothic period were familiar with classical references and were able to employ them in their works. Near the sacristy is the Gero-Kreuz, a large crucifix carved in oak with restored paint and gilding. It is the oldest large crucifix north of the Alps, as well as the oldest known free standing Northern sculpture of the medieval period. Portable Sculpture Aside from monumental sculpture, smaller, portable sculptural pieces were also popular during the Gothic period. Small carvings, made generally for the lay market, became a considerable industry in urban centers. Gothic sculptures independent of architectural ornament were primarily created as devotional objects for the home or intended as donations for local churches. Nevertheless, small reliefs in ivory, bone, and wood covered both religious, as well as secular subjects, and were for church and domestic use. Such sculptures were often the work of urban artisans. The most typical subject for three dimensional small statues is the Virgin Mary alone or with child. Additional objects typical of the time included small devotional polyptychs, single figures, especially of the Virgin Mary, mirror-cases, combs, and elaborate caskets with scenes from romances. Italian Gothic Sculpture: The Pisano Family Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni developed a Proto-Renaissance style of sculpture in Italy combining classical Roman and Gothic styles. Describe the Proto-Renaissance style of sculpture developed by the Pisano family Key Points - The Pisano family’s relief sculptures drew heavily from carved Roman sarcophagi and were characterized by sophisticated and crowded compositions and a sympathetic handling of nudity. - Nicola Pisano was born between 1220 and 1225. He was active in Tuscany and trained in the local workshops of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. - Nicola Pisano’s most famous work is the pulpit at the Pisa Baptistery, which synthesizes Classical and French Gothic styles and depicts scenes from the life of Christ. The inspiration for the structure probably came from the triumphal Arch of Constantine in Rome . - Giovanni Pisano was born in Pisa around 1250 and trained as a sculptor in his father’s workshop. He worked alongside his father on the pulpit in the Siena Cathedral and the Fontana Maggiore in Perugia. - Giovanni’s early style was almost indistinguishable from his father’s but developed further after Nicola’s death. It was more French Gothic than Classical in style and characterized by bold naturalism and animated figures. - Giovanni’s greatest work is a pulpit at the Cathedral of Pisa, which depicts nine dramatic scenes from the New Testament carved in white marble with a chiaroscuro effect, and a naturalistic carving of a naked Hercules . Key Terms - pulpit : A raised platform in a church, usually enclosed, where the minister or preacher stands to conduct the sermon. - sarcophagus : A stone coffin, often inscribed or decorated with sculpture. - chiaroscuro : An artistic technique popularized during the Renaissance, referring to the use of exaggerated light contrasts in order to create the illusion of volume. Nicola Pisano (ca. 1220–1284) and his son Giovanni Pisano (ca. 1250–1315) were Italian sculptors during the Gothic age who developed a Classical-influenced style of sculpture known as Proto-Renaissance. Their relief sculptures drew heavily from the carved Roman sarcophagus and were characterized by sophisticated and crowded compositions and a sympathetic handling of nudity. They are sometimes considered to be the first modern sculptors. The specifics of Nicola Pisano’s origins are uncertain. He was born between 1220 and 1225 in the southern Italian region of Apulia and trained in the local workshops of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. He moved to Tuscany around 1245 and was active in the cities of Lucca, Pisa, Siena, Pistoia, and Perugia. His most famous work is the pulpit of the Pisa baptistery, which is a masterful synthesis of the French Gothic style and Classical style. Made of white Carrara marble, the pulpit depicts scenes from the life of Jesus Christ in a Classical style. The figures wear tunics in a Roman fashion, and his representation of the Madonna is reminiscent of the regal bearing of goddesses in late Roman sculpture. The inspiration for the pulpit probably came from the triumphal arches in Rome. Nicola Pisano had seen the arches on his travels, particularly the Arch of Constantine, which has many features the pulpit imitates, including figures standing on top of columns and an attic storey with sculpted scenes. Other well-known projects undertaken by Nicola Pisano include a marble pulpit for the Siena Cathedral, a commission he received after making his name in Pisa, and the Fontana Maggiore or Great Fountain at Perugia, which he worked on alongside his son Giovanni. Nicola’s son, Giovanni Pisano, was born in Pisa around 1250 and trained as a sculptor in his father’s workshop. He worked alongside his father on the pulpit in the Siena Cathedral and the Fontana Maggiore in Perugia. His earliest works imitated his father’s style, and it is difficult to separate the contributions of the two sculptors. However, after his Nicola’s death, Giovanni’s style grew more distinct. While it continued to incorporate Classical influences, it was more French Gothic in style and characterized by a bold, dramatic animation that had been missing in Nicola’s serene sculptural style. Giovanni was the chief architect of the Siena Cathedral between 1287 and 1296. He also worked on statues decorating the exterior of the Pisa Baptistery, the facade of the church of San Paolo a Ripa d’Arno (St. Paul on the Bank of the Arno) at Pisa, and a monument commissioned by the emperor Henry VII, commemorating his wife Margaret of Brabant. Giovanni’s greatest work is arguably a pulpit at the Cathedral of Pisa sculpted between 1302 and 1310. The pulpit incorporates a dramatic depiction of nine scenes from the New Testament carved in white marble with a chiaroscuro effect and a naturalistic carving of a nude Hercules. The figure of Prudence in the pulpit is thought to have been an inspiration for the Tuscan painter Masaccio in his Expulsion from the Garden of Eden . - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cologne Cathedral. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cologne_Cathedral.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Gero Crucifix. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Gero_Crucifix. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Cologne Cathedral Shrine of Magi. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cologne_Cathedral_Shrine_of_Magi.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cologne Cathedral. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne_Cathedral. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Shrine of the Three Kings. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrine_of_the_Three_Kings. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - gilt. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gilt. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - sacristy. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sacristy. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - polyptych. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/polyptych. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pisa.Baptistery.pulpit02. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pisa.Baptistery.pulpit02.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - GPisano-PulpitoPisa background blurred. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GPisano-PulpitoPisa_background_blurred.JPG. License : CC BY: Attribution - Perugia 018. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Perugia_018.JPG. License : CC BY: Attribution - Giovanni Pisano. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Pisano. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nicola Pisano. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola_Pisano. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Gothic art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - pulpit. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pulpit. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - sarcophagus. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sarcophagus. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - chiaroscuro. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chiaroscuro. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:33.229036	2020-05-01T17:34:14	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art/18.03%3A_Gothic_Sculpture", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "18.3: Gothic Sculpture", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art/18.04%3A_Gothic_Painting	18.4: Gothic Painting Italian Gothic Painting Italian Gothic painting developed a distinctively western character and flourished from the second half of the 13th century onward. Explain Cimabue’s and Duccio’s break from Italo-Byzantine style into the Italian Gothic style of painting Key Points - The transition from the Romanesque to the Gothic style of painting happened quite slowly in Italy because Italy was strongly influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting. - The initial changes to the Byzantine-inspired Romanesque style were quite small, marked merely by an increase in Gothic ornamental detailing rather than a dramatic difference in the style of figures and compositions . - Cimabue of Florence and Duccio of Siena were trained in the Byzantine style but were the first great Italian painters to break away from the Italo-Byzantine art form . They were pioneers in the move towards naturalism and depicted figures with more lifelike proportions, expressions, and shading. - Giotto’s style represented a clear break with the Byzantine tradition, making use of foreshortening , chiaroscuro techniques, and depicting highly expressive figures. - During the 14th century, Tuscan painting was predominantly accomplished in the International Gothic style, characterized by a formalized sweetness and grace, elegance, and richness of detail, and an idealized quality. Key Terms - Romanesque : Refers to the art of Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century or later, depending on region. - chiaroscuro : An artistic technique popularized during the Renaissance, referring to the use of exaggerated light contrasts in order to create the illusion of volume. - Foreshortening : A technique for creating the appearance that the object of a drawing is extending into space by shortening the lines with which that object is drawn. The transition from the Romanesque to the Gothic style of painting happened quite slowly in Italy, several decades after it had first taken hold in France. After the conquest of Constantinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade , the influx of Byzantine paintings and mosaics increased greatly. This was partly the reason that Italy was strongly influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting. The initial changes to the Byzantine-inspired Romanesque style were quite small, marked merely by an increase in Gothic ornamental detailing rather than a dramatic difference in the style of figures and compositions. Italian Gothic painting began to flourish in its own right around the second half of the 13th century with the contributions of Cimabue of Florence (ca. 1240–c a. 1302) and Duccio of Siena (ca. 1255–60–ca. 1318–19), and developed an even more strongly realistic character under Giotto (1266–1337). Cimabue and Duccio were trained in the Byzantine style, but they were the first great Italian painters to start breaking away from the Italo-Byzantine art form. In a period when scenes and forms were still relatively flat and stylized , Cimabue was a pioneer in the move towards naturalism in Italian painting. His figures were depicted with more lifelike proportions and shading, as evident in the Crucifixion scene for the church of Santa Croce in Florence (1287-88), which demonstrates delicately shaded draperies and the chiaroscuro technique. His Maestà di Santa Trinita , a Madonna and Child painting commissioned by the church of Santa Trinita in Florence between 1290 and 1300, makes use of perspective in portraying Mary’s three-dimensional throne, and depicts the figures with sweeter and more natural expressions than typical in the somber Romanesque style. Much like Cimabue, Duccio of Siena painted in the Byzantine style but made his own personal contributions in the Gothic style in the linearity, the rich but delicate detail, and the warm and refined colors of his work. He was also one of the first Italian painters to place figures in architectural settings. Over time, he achieved greater naturalism and softness in his work and made use of foreshortening and chiaroscuro techniques. His characters are surprisingly expressive and human, interacting tenderly with each other. Duccio is considered the founder of the Sienese Gothic school of painting. Both Cimabue and Duccio were probably influenced by Giotto in their later years. Giotto was renowned for his distinctively western style, basing his compositions not on a Byzantine tradition but, rather, on his observation of life. His figures were solidly three-dimensional, had discernible anatomy, and were clothed with garments that appear to have weight and structure. His greatest contribution to Italian Gothic art was his intense depiction of a range of emotions, which his contemporaries began to emulate enthusiastically. While painting in the Gothic style, he is considered the herald of the Renaissance . During the 14th century, Tuscan painting was predominantly accomplished in the International Gothic style, which was prevalent throughout Western Europe at the time. In its fully developed form, it is best seen in the work of Simone Martini of Siena (1284–1344) and Gentile da Fabriano (1370–1427), whose paintings are characterized by a formalized sweetness and grace, an elegance and richness of detail, and an idealized quality that was missing in Giotto’s stark work. The tempera altarpieces of Fra Angelico bridge the gap between the International Gothic and Renaissance styles of painting, making use of Gothic elaboration, gold leaf , and brilliant color. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Duccio maesta1021. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Duccio_maesta1021.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Cimabue 025. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cimabue_025.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Maestu00e0 (Duccio). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Maest%C3%A0_(Duccio). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Gotico (arte). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : it.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotico_(arte). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Duccio. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Duccio. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Italian Renaissance painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Gothic art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Byzantine art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - chiaroscuro. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chiaroscuro. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanesque. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Foreshortening. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Foreshortening. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:33.300983	2020-05-01T17:34:18	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art/18.04%3A_Gothic_Painting", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "18.4: Gothic Painting", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art/18.05%3A_Gothic_Metalwork	18.5: Gothic Metalwork Gothic Metalwork and Ivory Carvings In France, metal and ivory pieces took on a diminutive but ornate characteristic, and required great skill to create. Evaluate metal and ivory art work in late medieval France Key Points - Metalworkers and sculptors working in ivory made an impact on the the art, architecture, craft, and interior design world of France during the period. While that work was often more diminutive, metal and ivory art was still quite striking. - In France the dominant trend was towards the ornate, especially decorative pieces used as components in doors. These included door knockers, locks, and even hinges with elaborate adornment. - Paris was a center of production for ivory sculptures of various forms . In addition to various small figures and talismans, there was a fashion for narrative panels in groups of two or three (diptychs and tryptychs), or multi-panel polytychs. Key Terms - diptych : A picture or series of pictures painted on two tablets, usually connected by hinges. - talisman : A magical object worn for protection against ill will or the supernatural, or to confer the wearer with a boon such as good luck, good health, or power(s). France is credited with exporting the Gothic style of architecture during this period. Compared to Gothic architecture , which was better known for its large dramatic features such as flying buttresses and elaborate stained glass, metal and ivory art work was often more diminutive—but it was still quite striking. Metalworkers and sculptors working in ivory made an impact on the the art, architecture, craft, and interior design world of France during the period. Metalwork Iron work during the Gothic period took on various styles and trends, from large rough wrought-iron works to more delicate items. In France the dominant trend was towards the ornate, especially decorative pieces used as components in doors. These included door knockers, locks, and even hinges with elaborate adornment. These works required high levels of skill and craftsmanship. The door to Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris is a key example. Notre Dame is one of the first buildings to use a flying buttress, which became characteristic of Gothic architecture. It is also well known for its sculptures, stained glass, and gargoyles. But the door of the cathedral is, in and of itself, a work of art, particularly when one takes into account the limited smithing techniques of the time. Ivory Ivory became available once again in Europe in the Middle Ages and created a trend for ivory sculptures of various forms. In addition to small figures and talismans, there was a fashion for narrative panels in groups of two or three (diptychs and tryptychs), or multi-panel polytychs. Paris became a center for the creation of these works. Additionally, their popularity spread beyond church art, and these pieces could be found in homes and used for decorative furnishing. These works were considered luxury items; ivory work could often be found on the backs of hairbrushes, mirrors, and other luxury items. The works often portrayed scenes of romance and love rather than the religious scenes more typical of Gothic art. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Bestaand:NotreDame Door. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : nds-nl.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bestaand:NotreDame_Door.jpg%23file. License : CC BY: Attribution - Door detail Notre Dame. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Door_detail_Notre_Dame.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution - Siu00e8ge du chu00e2teau d'amour. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Si%C3%A8ge_du_ch%C3%A2teau_d'amour.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Notre Dame de Paris. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_de_Paris. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ivory carving. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory_carving%23High_medieval_onwards. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - talisman. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/talisman. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - diptych. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diptych. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:33.369449	2020-05-01T17:34:18	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art/18.05%3A_Gothic_Metalwork", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "18.5: Gothic Metalwork", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art/18.06%3A_Italy_in_the_Gothic_Period	18.6: Italy in the Gothic Period Italian Painting: 1200–1400 In the early Renaissance, painters began to embrace naturalistic styles, creating images with attention to form and space. Identify the prominent artists and styles in Italy during the Early Renaissance Key Points - The Florentine School of Painting is characterized by the naturalism in painting in Florence that started to emerge in the 13th century. - The period between 1200 and 1400 in Italy provides an important bridge in Art History between the Medieval period and Byzantine and Gothic styles , and the Early Modern period and Renaissance styles. - Painters began to embrace the more naturalistic styles. Harkening back to classical figures, they created images portraying strong emotion and that paid attention to relationships between figures. Their painting expressed a type of realism not present in Byzantine styles. Key Terms - tempera : A method of painting where the artist mixes pigment with water and a binder, usually egg. - Renaissance : The 14th century revival of classical art, architecture, literature, and learning that originated in Italy and spread throughout Europe over the following two centuries. The Florentine School of Painting is characterized by the naturalism in art that started to emerge in Florence in the 13th century. This set the stage for what would become the great period of Florentine art in later centuries that would include the work of great artists such as Michelangelo, Fra Angelico, Botticelli, Donatello, and Lippi. However, art in Florence and northern Italy during the period between 1200 and 1400 was still in transition; it was a bridge in Art History between the Medieval period and Byzantine and Gothic styles, and the Early Modern period and Renaissance styles. Sometimes referred to as the proto-Renaissance period, art and architecture in northern Italy provided important hints at the trends that would take hold over the next centuries in the rest of Europe. City states and duchies such as Pisa, Milan, Lucca, and Florence were the main homes of these developments. In spite of the many challenges during the period, such as the ongoing ravages of the Black Plague, these city states experienced periods of politically stability and economic growth, which provided a good foundation for new experimentation in art. In Florence, leading families prospered under the economic growth promoted through trade. Each of these leading families vied for power, but also for cultural prominence, and became great patrons of the arts (the Medici family being the prime example). At the same time, there were great changes occurring in art both in terms of styles and philosophies. One important change was a focus on the individual in religious practices, which also translated into a greater naturalistic and humanist focus in art. Florence Painters in this city wholeheartedly embraced naturalist styles. Harkening back to classical figures, they created images with attention to portraying strong emotions and relationships between figures—painting that expressed a type of realism not present in Byzantine styles. One painter who demonstrated the shift that was occurring in Florentine painting during this time is Cimabue (c.1240-1302). In his Maesta the viewer may observe elements of both the earlier Byzantine style of painting, as well as the emerging Renaissance style. The work retains the gold background that was familiar in Byzantine icons , and his figures are rendered in a Byzantine style. However, Cimabue made efforts to create space in this work, which would become an important aspect in Renaissance art. His angels surrounding the Virgin and Child overlap one another to indicate space and Cimabue paid great attention to the Virgin’s throne to create a realistic depiction of space as well. Artists were able to work in Florence at least in part due to the influential art guilds , including the painters’ guild Arte dei Medici e Spezeiali. These guilds also became important patrons of the arts, and took over the maintenance and improvements of religious buildings. Siena The Sienese School of painting was more conservative than painting in Florence, but nonetheless important, flourishing between the 1200s and 1400s. Some of the important painters from this period included Duccio and his pupils Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Simone Martini, and Matteo di Giovanni. Duccio di Buoninsegna is one of the best known Siena painters of the time. His work was often ornate with the use of gold leaf and jewels, demonstrating how Siena was focused on the physical materiality of work. His work in egg tempera also used brighter colors, rounded out features in faces and hands, and played with light and dark colors to highlight the figures under the drapery creating natural form , which was very unlike Byzantine figures but important to emerging Renaissance artists. Duccio’s work was considered quite emotional, with a renewed focus on storytelling through the interactions of figures in the images and the selection of strong interpretations of biblical stories. The altarpiece Maestà (1308–1310) is one of his great works. Composed of multiple paintings and commissioned by the city of Sienna, the piece depicts the life of the Virgin Mary and Christ. The Virgin’s knee juts out toward the viewer as Duccio has created a realistic sense of form–an essential element of the emerging Renaissance style. While his work retains the gold background and gold halos so important in Byzantine art (and to Sienese patrons), this art acts as a bridge between the late Medieval era and Early Renaissance. Italian Painting: Giotto Giotto was one of the most revered painters of his time and an important bridge between the medieval and renaissance periods. Describe Giotto’s use of naturalism, storytelling, and perspective in his work Key Points - Giotto di Bondone was born during the late 1200s in the Florence region of Italy. He would go on to become one of the most revered painters of his time and an important bridge between the medieval and renaissance periods. - The Arena Chapel frescoes in Padua, which depict scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary and Jesus, are some of Giotto’s best known masterpieces. - Scholars debate which works should be attributed to Giotto and which works should be attributed to his assistants or other artists working in his style . - Giotto’s distinct contribution to the history of art was a return to a style that directly references the natural world; his paintings aimed to capture the realism of the human form . Key Terms - fresco : The technique of applying pigment, mixed with water, to wet plaster. As the pigment and plaster dry they fuse together and the painting physically becomes a part of the wall. Giotto di Bondone was born during the late 1200s in the Florence region of Italy. He would go on to become one of the most revered painters of his time, and an important bridge between the medieval and renaissance periods. The Arena Chapel frescoes were commissioned by the patron Enrico Scrovegni and depict scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary and Jesus. They are Giotto’s best known masterpieces. Scholars debate over which works should be attributed to Giotto and which works should be attributed to assistants or other artists. For example, Giotto appears to have apprenticed with the Florentine painter Cimabue in Rome and may have been responsible for portions of the Chapel at Assisi. However, there is no documentation to confirm his work in Assisi. Giotto’s distinct contribution to the history of art was a return to a style that directly references the natural world, a style that had not been emphasized by Medieval or Byzantine painters. While Medieval and Byzantine styles favored flat, elongated figures and a lack of natural perspective Giotto returned painting to a style that aimed to capture the naturalism of the human form. Another strength of Giotto’s work was his storytelling ability. He was skilled at selecting strong interpretations of Biblical stories and at drawing viewers to the most visually and spiritually rich aspects of the story. This focus on relationships between figures, as well as a renewed interest in perspective and life drawing, are some of the aspects that would become prominent in Renaissance painting. Italian Architecture 1200-1400 The Gothic style was the leading architectural style in Italy during this time period. However, Italian architects interpreted Gothic architecture differently than they did in France, resulting in a few key regional differences. Discuss the architecture of Florence, Italy, during the Middle Ages and the architecture of the Florence Cathedral Key Points - While the French Gothic style gained popularity in many parts of Europe, the Gothic style was interpreted differently in Italy. - Gothic buildings in cities such as Florence lack the stained glass that characterizes French Gothic structures and as a whole they lack the emphasized verticality of French Gothic Cathedrals . - The Florence Cathedral is an example of the Gothic style in Italy. Key Terms - lancet : A tall, narrow archway with a pointed arch at its top. - flying buttress : A buttress that stands apart from the structure that it supports, and is connected to it by an arch (flyer). Florence: Architecture and Metalwork Gothic architecture was developed in France and was characterized by lancet , or pointed, archways used for both windows and doorways. These allowed for both thinner walls and larger windows. The stained glass windows that seemed to replace walls altogether are the hallmark of French Gothic architecture. Other characteristics of the Gothic style include the increased use of flying buttresses to support walls, and a shift towards more slender and ornate columns , and vaulted ceilings. While the French Gothic style gained popularity in many parts of Europe, the Gothic style was interpreted differently in Italy. Gothic buildings in cities such as Florence lack the stained glass that characterizes French Gothic structures and as a whole they lack the emphasized verticality of French Gothic Cathedrals. Florence Cathedral The Florence Cathedral is a great example of the Gothic style in Italy. Begun in 1296, the Cathedral is built in the Gothic style as Renaissance architecture had yet to be developed. As the exterior view of the Cathedral demonstrates, Italian Gothic structures did not incorporate the stained glass windows, which had become so essential to French Gothic structures. The interior of the Cathedral, including the groin vaults and pointed arches , demonstrates the Gothic elements of its architecture quite clearly. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cimabue_-_MaestC3A0_di_Santa_Trinita_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cimabue_-_Maest%C3%A0_di_Santa_Trinita_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Duccio_maesta1021.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Duccio_maesta1021.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Florentine School. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Florentine_School. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Albert Van Helden, Florence and Tuscany. September 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m11936/latest/ . License : CC BY: Attribution - Renaissance. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Renaissance. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Giotto - Scrovegni - -31- - Kiss of Judas. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Giotto_-_Scrovegni_-_-31-_-_Kiss_of_Judas.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Cappella degli Scrovegni. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cappella_degli_Scrovegni. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Giotto. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Giotto. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Byzantine art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - fresco. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fresco. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Florence_Duomo_from_Michelangelo_hill.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Cathedral. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Duomo_Firenze_Apr_2008.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Cathedral. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Il Caparra. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : it.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_Caparra. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of Florence. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Florence%23Middle_ages. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Italian Gothic architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Gothic_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - lancet. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/lancet. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - flying buttress. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/flying_buttress. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:33.460512	2020-05-01T17:34:20	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/18%3A_Gothic_Art/18.06%3A_Italy_in_the_Gothic_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "18.6: Italy in the Gothic Period", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance	19: The Italian Renaissance Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52962 Boundless Boundless 19.1: The Italian Renaissance 19.2: Renaissance Architecture 19.3: Renaissance Sculpture 19.4: Renaissance Painting Renaissance painting was developed in 15th century Florence when artists began to reject the flatness of Gothic painting and strive toward greater naturalism. 19.5: The High Renaissance 19.6: Mannerism	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:33.545788	2020-05-01T17:29:54	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "19: The Italian Renaissance", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance/19.01%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance	19.1: The Italian Renaissance The Italian Renaissance The art of the Italian Renaissance was influential throughout Europe for centuries. Describe the art and periodization of the Italian Renaissance Key Points - The Florence school of painting became the dominant style during the Renaissance . Renaissance artworks depicted more secular subject matter than previous artistic movements. - Michelangelo, da Vinci, and Rafael are among the best known painters of the High Renaissance . - The High Renaissance was followed by the Mannerist movement, known for elongated figures. Key Terms - fresco : A type of wall painting in which color pigments are mixed with water and applied to wet plaster. As the plaster and pigments dry, they fuse together and the painting becomes a part of the wall itself. - Mannerism : A style of art developed at the end of the High Renaissance, characterized by the deliberate distortion and exaggeration of perspective, especially the elongation of figures. The Renaissance began during the 14th century and remained the dominate style in Italy, and in much of Europe, until the 16th century. The term “renaissance” was developed during the 19th century in order to describe this period of time and its accompanying artistic style. However, people who were living during the Renaissance did see themselves as different from their Medieval predecessors. Through a variety of texts that survive, we know that people living during the Renaissance saw themselves as different largely because they were deliberately trying to imitate the Ancients in art and architecture. Florence and the Renaissance When you hear the term “Renaissance” and picture a style of art, you are probably picturing the Renaissance style that was developed in Florence, which became the dominate style of art during the Renaissance. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Italy was divided into a number of different city states. Each city state had its own government, culture , economy, and artistic style. There were many different styles of art and architecture that were developed in Italy during the Renaissance. Siena, which was a political ally of France, for example, retained a Gothic element to its art for much of the Renaissance. Certain conditions aided the development of the Renaissance style in Florence during this time period. In the 15th century, Florence became a major mercantile center. The production of cloth drove their economy and a merchant class emerged. Humanism , which had developed during the 14th century, remained an important intellectual movement that impacted art production as well. Early Renaissance During the Early Renaissance, artists began to reject the Byzantine style of religious painting and strove to create realism in their depiction of the human form and space . This aim toward realism began with Cimabue and Giotto, and reached its peak in the art of the “Perfect” artists, such as Andrea Mantegna and Paolo Uccello, who created works that employed one point perspective and played with perspective for their educated, art knowledgeable viewer . During the Early Renaissance we also see important developments in subject matter, in addition to style. While religion was an important element in the daily life of people living during the Renaissance, and remained a driving factor behind artistic production, we also see a new avenue open to panting—mythological subject matter. Many scholars point to Botticelli’s Birth of Venus as the very first panel painting of a mythological scene. While the tradition itself likely arose from cassone painting, which typically featured scenes from mythology and romantic texts, the development of mythological panel painting would open a world for artistic patronage , production, and themes. High Renaissance The period known as the High Renaissance represents the culmination of the goals of the Early Renaissance, namely the realistic representation of figures in space rendered with credible motion and in an appropriately decorous style. The most well known artists from this phase are Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Titian, and Michelangelo. Their paintings and frescoes are among the most widely known works of art in the world. Da Vinci’s Last Supper , Raphael’s The School of Athens and Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel Ceiling paintings are the masterpieces of this period and embody the elements of the High Renaissance. Mannerism High Renaissance painting evolved into Mannerism in Florence. Mannerist artists, who consciously rebelled against the principles of High Renaissance, tended to represent elongated figures in illogical spaces. Modern scholarship has recognized the capacity of Mannerist art to convey strong, often religious, emotion where the High Renaissance failed to do so. Some of the main artists of this period are Pontormo, Bronzino, Rosso Fiorentino, Parmigianino and Raphael’s pupil, Giulio Romano. Humanism Humanism was an intellectual movement embraced by scholars, writers, and civic leaders in 14th century Italy. Assess how Humanism gave rise to the art of the Renasissance Key Points - Humanists reacted against the utilitarian approach to education, seeking to create a citizenry who were able to speak and write with eloquence and thus able to engage the civic life of their communities. - The movement was largely founded on the ideals of Italian scholar and poet Francesco Petrarca, which were often centered around humanity’s potential for achievement. - While Humanism initially began as a predominantly literary movement, its influence quickly pervaded the general culture of the time, reintroducing classical Greek and Roman art forms and leading to the Renaissance . - Donatello became renowned as the greatest sculptor of the Early Renaissance, known especially for his Humanist, and unusually erotic, statue of David. - While medieval society viewed artists as servants and craftspeople, Renaissance artists were trained intellectuals, and their art reflected this newfound point of view. - In humanist painting, the treatment of the elements of perspective and depiction of light became of particular concern. Key Terms - High Renaissance : The period in art history denoting the apogee of the visual arts in the Italian Renaissance. The High Renaissance period is traditionally thought to have begun in the 1490s—with Leonardo’s fresco of The Last Supper in Milan and the death of Lorenzo de’ Medici in Florence—and to have ended in 1527, with the Sack of Rome by the troops of Charles V. Overview Humanism, also known as Renaissance Humanism, was an intellectual movement embraced by scholars, writers, and civic leaders in 14th- and early-15th-century Italy. The movement developed in response to the medieval scholastic conventions in education at the time, which emphasized practical, pre-professional, and scientific studies engaged in solely for job preparation, and typically by men alone. Humanists reacted against this utilitarian approach, seeking to create a citizenry who were able to speak and write with eloquence and thus able to engage the civic life of their communities. This was to be accomplished through the study of the “ studia humanitatis ,” known today as the humanities: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy. Humanism introduced a program to revive the cultural—and particularly the literary—legacy and moral philosophy of classical antiquity . The movement was largely founded on the ideals of Italian scholar and poet Francesco Petrarca, which were often centered around humanity’s potential for achievement. While Humanism initially began as a predominantly literary movement, its influence quickly pervaded the general culture of the time, re-introducing classical Greek and Roman art forms and contributing to the development of the Renaissance. Humanists considered the ancient world to be the pinnacle of human achievement, and thought its accomplishments should serve as the model for contemporary Europe. There were important centers of Humanism in Florence, Naples, Rome , Venice , Genoa, Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino . Humanism was an optimistic philosophy that saw man as a rational and sentient being, with the ability to decide and think for himself. It saw man as inherently good by nature, which was in tension with the Christian view of man as the original sinner needing redemption. It provoked fresh insight into the nature of reality, questioning beyond God and spirituality, and provided knowledge about history beyond Christian history. Humanist Art Renaissance Humanists saw no conflict between their study of the Ancients and Christianity. The lack of perceived conflict allowed Early Renaissance artists to combine classical forms, classical themes, and Christian theology freely. Early Renaissance sculpture is a great vehicle to explore the emerging Renaissance style . The leading artists of this medium were Donatello, Filippo Brunelleschi, and Lorenzo Ghiberti. Donatello became renowned as the greatest sculptor of the Early Renaissance, known especially for his classical, and unusually erotic, statue of David, which became one of the icons of the Florentine republic. Humanism affected the artistic community and how artists were perceived. While medieval society viewed artists as servants and craftspeople, Renaissance artists were trained intellectuals, and their art reflected this newfound point of view. Patronage of the arts became an important activity, and commissions included secular subject matter as well as religious. Important patrons , such as Cosimo de’ Medici, emerged and contributed largely to the expanding artistic production of the time. In painting, the treatment of the elements of perspective and light became of particular concern. Paolo Uccello, for example, who is best known for “The Battle of San Romano,” was obsessed by his interest in perspective, and would stay up all night in his study trying to grasp the exact vanishing point . He used perspective in order to create a feeling of depth in his paintings. In addition, the use of oil paint had its beginnings in the early part of the 16th century, and its use continued to be explored extensively throughout the High Renaissance . Origins Some of the first Humanists were great collectors of antique manuscripts, including Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Coluccio Salutati, and Poggio Bracciolini. Of the three, Petrarch was dubbed the “Father of Humanism” because of his devotion to Greek and Roman scrolls. Many worked for the organized church and were in holy orders (like Petrarch), while others were lawyers and chancellors of Italian cities (such as Petrarch’s disciple Salutati, the Chancellor of Florence) and thus had access to book-copying workshops. In Italy, the Humanist educational program won rapid acceptance and, by the mid-15th century, many of the upper classes had received Humanist educations, possibly in addition to traditional scholastic ones. Some of the highest officials of the church were Humanists with the resources to amass important libraries. Such was Cardinal Basilios Bessarion, a convert to the Latin church from Greek Orthodoxy, who was considered for the papacy and was one of the most learned scholars of his time. Following the Crusader sacking of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the migration of Byzantine Greek scholars and émigrés, who had greater familiarity with ancient languages and works, furthered the revival of Greek and Roman literature and science. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Italian Renaissance painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Sandro Botticelli - La nascita di Venere - Google Art Project - edited. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sandro_Botticelli_-_La_nascita_di_Venere_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - The Marriage of the Virgin (Raphael). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Marriage_of_the_Virgin_(Raphael). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mannerism. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Mannerism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Birth of Venus (Botticelli). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_Venus_(Botticelli). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Italian Renaissance. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissance. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - fresco. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fresco. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - sfumato. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sfumato. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Uccello Battle of San Romano Uffizi. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Uccello_Battle_of_San_Romano_Uffizi.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Donatello - David - Florenu00e7a. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Donatello_-_David_-_Floren%C3%A7a.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Paolo Uccello. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Uccello. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - David (Donatello). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/David_(Donatello). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Battle of San Romano. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Battle_of_San_Romano. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Humanism. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - High Renaissance. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/High%20Renaissance. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:33.633119	2020-05-01T17:34:21	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance/19.01%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "19.1: The Italian Renaissance", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance/19.02%3A_Renaissance_Architecture	19.2: Renaissance Architecture Renaissance Architecture During the High Renaissance, architectural concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used with greater surety. Name some distinguishing features of Italian Renaissance architecture, its major exponents, and important architectural concepts Key Points - Renaissance architecture adopted distinguishing features of classical Roman architecture. However, the forms and purposes of buildings had changed over time, as had the structure of cities, which is reflected in the fusion of classical and 16th century forms. - The primary features of 16th century structures, which fused classical Roman technique with Renaissance aesthetics , were based in several foundational architectural concepts: facades, columns and pilasters , arches , vaults , domes , windows, and walls. - Although studying and mastering the details of the ancient Romans was one of the important aspects of Renaissance architectural theory, the style also became more decorative and ornamental, with a widespread use of statuary, domes, and cupolas. Key Terms - pediment : A classical architectural element consisting of a triangular section or gable found above the horizontal superstructure (entablature) which lies immediately upon the columns. - pilaster : A rectangular column that projects partially from the wall to which it is attached; it gives the appearance of a support, but is only for decoration. - Renaissance Architecture : Renaissance architecture is the architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture. Stylistically, Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture. Background Renaissance architecture is European architecture between the early 15th and early 17th centuries. It demonstrates a conscious revival and development of certain elements of classical thought and material culture , particularly symmetry and classical orders. Stylistically, Renaissance architecture came after the Gothic period and was succeeded by the Baroque . During the High Renaissance , architectural concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used with greater surety. The most representative architect of Italian Renaissance Architecture is Bramante (1444–1514), who developed the applicability of classical architectural elements to contemporary buildings, a style that was to dominate Italian architecture in the 16th century. In the late 15th century and early 16th century architects such as Bramante, Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, and others showed a mastery of the revived style and ability to apply it to buildings such as churches and city palazzos, which were quite different from the structures of ancient times. Although studying and mastering the details of the ancient Romans was one of the important aspects of Renaissance architectural theory, the style also became more decorative and ornamental, with a widespread use of statuary, domes, and cupolas. Forms and Purposes of Buildings Renaissance architecture adopted obvious distinguishing features of classical Roman architecture. However, the forms and purposes of buildings had changed over time, as had the structure of cities, which is reflected in the resulting fusion of classical and 16th century forms. The plans of Renaissance buildings typically have a square, symmetrical appearance in which proportions are usually based on a module. The primary features of 16th century structures, which fused classical Roman technique with Renaissance aesthetics, were based in several foundational architectural concepts: facades, columns and pilasters, arches, vaults, domes, windows, and walls. Foundational Architectural Concepts Renaissance façades are symmetrical around their vertical axis. For instance, church façades of this period are generally surmounted by a pediment and organized by a system of pilasters, arches, and entablatures . The columns and windows show a progression towards the center. One of the first true Renaissance façades was the Cathedral of Pienza (1459–62), which has been attributed to the Florentine architect Bernardo Gambarelli (known as Rossellino). Renaissance architects also incorporated columns and pilasters, using the Roman orders of columns (Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite) as models. The orders can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave , or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form of pilasters. During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated system. One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated system was the Old Sacristy (1421–1440) by Brunelleschi. The dome is used frequently in this period, both as a very large structural feature that is visible from the exterior, and also as a means of roofing smaller spaces where they are only visible internally. Domes were used in important structures such as the Pantheon during antiquity, but had been used only rarely in the Middle Ages . After the success of the dome in Brunelleschi’s design for the Florence Cathedral and its use in Bramante’s plan for St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome , the dome became an indispensable element in Renaissance church architecture and carried over to the Baroque. Windows may be paired and set within a semicircular arch and may have square lintels and triangular or segmental pediments, which are often used alternately. Emblematic in this respect is the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, begun in 1517. In the Mannerist period, the “Palladian” arch was employed, using a motif of a high semicircular topped opening flanked with two lower square-topped openings. Windows were used to bring light into the building and in domestic architecture, to show the view. Stained glass, although sometimes present, was not a prevalent feature in Renaissance windows. Finally, external Renaissance walls were generally of highly finished ashlar masonry, laid in straight courses . The corners of buildings were often emphasized by rusticated quoins. Basements and ground floors were sometimes rusticated, as modeled on the Palazzo Medici Riccardi (1444–1460) in Florence. Internal walls were smoothly plastered and surfaced with white chalk paint. For more formal spaces, internal surfaces were typically decorated with frescoes . Renaissance Architecture in Florence Renaissance architecture first developed in Florence in the 15th century and represented a conscious revival of classical styles. Define the importance and specific style of 15th century Florentine architecture Key Points - The Renaissance style of architecture emerged in Florence not as a slow evolution from preceding styles, but rather as a conscious development put into motion by architects seeking to revive the golden age of classical antiquity . - The Renaissance style eschewed the complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of Gothic structures, and placed emphasis on symmetry , proportion, geometry, and regularity of parts. - 15th century architecture in Florence featured the use of classical elements such as orderly arrangements of columns , pilasters , lintels , semicircular arches , and hemispherical domes . - Filippo Brunelleschi was the first to develop a true Renaissance architecture. - While the enormous brick dome that covers the central space of the Florence Cathedral used Gothic technology, it was the first dome erected since classical Rome and became a ubiquitous feature in Renaissance churches. - The buildings of the early Renaissance in Florence expressed a new sense of light, clarity, and spaciousness that reflected the enlightenment and clarity of mind glorified by the philosophy of Humanism . Key Terms - quattrocento : Term that denotes the 1400s, which may also be referred to as the 15th century Renaissance Italian period. - entablature : The part of a classical temple above the capitals of the columns; includes the architrave, frieze, and cornice but not the roof. - pilaster : A rectangular column that projects partially from the wall to which it is attached; it gives the appearance of a support, but is only for decoration. The Quattrocento , or the 15th century in Florence, was marked by the development of the Renaissance style of architecture, which represented a conscious revival and development of ancient Greek and Roman architectural elements. The rules of Renaissance architecture were first formulated and put into practice in 15th century Florence, whose buildings subsequently served as an inspiration to architects throughout Italy and Western Europe. The Renaissance style of architecture emerged in Florence not as a slow evolution from preceding styles, but rather as a conscious development put into motion by architects seeking to revive a golden age. These architects were sponsored by wealthy patrons including the powerful Medici family and the Silk Guild , and approached their craft from an organized and scholarly perspective that coincided with a general revival of classical learning. The Renaissance style deliberately eschewed the complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of Gothic structures. Instead, Renaissance architects placed emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry, and regularity of parts as demonstrated in classical Roman architecture. They also made considerable use of classical antique features such as orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters, lintels, semicircular arches, and hemispherical domes. The person generally credited with originating the Renaissance style of architecture is Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446), whose first major commission—the enormous brick dome that covers the central space of the Florence Cathedral—was also perhaps architecturally the most significant. Known as the Duomo, the dome was engineered by Brunelleschi to cover a spanning in the already existing Cathedral. The dome retains the Gothic pointed arch and the Gothic ribs in its design. The dome is structurally influenced by the great domes of Ancient Rome such as the Pantheon , and it is often described as the first building of the Renaissance. The dome is made of red brick and was ingeniously constructed without supports, using a deep understanding of the laws of physics and mathematics. It remains the largest masonry dome in the world and was such an unprecedented success at its time that the dome became an indispensable element in church and even secular architecture thereafter. Another key figure in the development of Renaissance architecture in Florence was Leon Battista Alberti (1402—1472), an important Humanist theoretician and designer, whose book on architecture De re aedificatoria was the first architectural treatise of the Renaissance. Alberti designed two of Florence’s best known 15th century buildings: the Palazzo Rucellai and the facade of the church of Santa Maria Novella. The Palazzo Rucellai, a palatial townhouse built 1446–51, typified the newly developing features of Renaissance architecture, including a classical ordering of columns over three levels and the use of pilasters and entablatures in proportional relationship to each other. The facade of Santa Maria Novella (1456–70) also showed similar Renaissance innovations based on classical Roman architecture. Alberti attempted to bring the ideals of humanist architecture and proportion to the already existing structure while creating harmony with the existing medieval facade. His contributions included a classically inspired frieze decorated with squares, four white-green pilasters, and a round window crowned by a pediment with the Dominican solar emblem and flanked on both sides by S-shaped scrolls. While the pediment and the frieze were inspired by classical architecture, the scrolls were new and without precedent in antiquity, and ended up becoming a very popular architectural feature in churches all over Italy. The buildings of the early Renaissance in Florence expressed a new sense of light, clarity, and spaciousness that reflected the enlightenment and clarity of mind glorified by the philosophy of Humanism. Renaissance Architecture in Rome Rome, the second Renaissance capital after Florence, was one of the most important architectural and cultural centers during this period. Identify features and the most important examples of Roman Renaissance architecture Key Points - Roman Renaissance architects derived their main designs and inspirations from Roman and Greek classical models. - Donato Bramante (1444–1514) was a key figure in Roman architecture during the High Renaissance . - The Palazzo Farnese, one of the most important High Renaissance palaces in Rome , is a primary example of Renaissance Roman architecture. Key Terms - Rome : A city, the capital of the province of Latium and the seat of the Holy See during the Renaissance. Rome is widely regarded by scholars as the second Renaissance capital of Italy, after Florence, and was one of the most important architectural and cultural centers during this period. Roman Renaissance architects derived their main designs and inspirations from classical models. The style of Roman Renaissance architecture does not greatly differ from what may be observed in Florence Renaissance architecture. However, patrons in Rome tended to be important officials of the Catholic Church, and buildings are generally religious or palatial in function. Donato Bramante (1444—1514) was a key figure in Roman architecture during the High Renaissance. Bramante was born in Urbino and first came to prominence as an architect in Milan before traveling to Rome. In Rome, Bramante was commissioned by Ferdinand and Isabella to design the Tempietto, a temple that marks what was believed to be the exact spot where Saint Peter was martyred. The temple is circular, similar to early Christian martyriums, and much of the design is inspired by the remains of the ancient Temple Vesta. The Tempietto is considered by many scholars to be the premier example of High Renaissance architecture. With its perfect proportions, harmony of parts, and direct references to ancient architecture, the Tempietto embodies the Renaissance. This structure has been described as Bramante’s “calling card” to Pope Julius II, the important Renaissance patron of the arts who would then employ Bramante in the historic design of the new St. Peter’s Basilica . Another primary example of Renaissance Roman architecture includes the Palazzo Farnese, one of the most important High Renaissance palaces in Rome. First designed in 1517 for the Farnese family, the building expanded in size and conception from designs by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger when Alessandro Farnese became Pope Paul III in 1534. Its building history involved some of the most prominent Italian architects of the 16th century, including Michelangelo, Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola, and Giacomo della Porta. Key Renaissance architectural features of the main facade include the alternating triangular and segmental pediments that cap the windows of the piano nobile, the central rusticated portal, and Michelangelo’s projecting cornice , which throws a deep shadow on the top of the facade. Michelangelo revised the central window in 1541, adding an architrave to give a central focus to the facade, above which is the largest papal stemma, or coat-of-arms with papal tiara, Rome had ever seen. The Palazzo Farnese courtyard, initially open arcades , is ringed by classically inspired columns (characteristic of Italian Renaissance architecture), in ascending orders (Doric, Corinthian, and Ionic). The piano nobile entablature was given a frieze with garlands, added by Michelangelo. On the garden side of the palace, which faced the River Tiber, Michelangelo proposed the innovatory design of a bridge which, if completed, would have linked the palace with the gardens of the Vigna Farnese. While the practicalities of achieving this bridge remained dubious, the idea was a bold and expansive one. During the 16th century, two large granite basins from the Baths of Caracalla were adapted as fountains in the Piazza Farnese, the urban face of the palace. The palazzo was completed for the second Cardinal Alessandro Farnese by Giacomo della Porta’s porticoed facade towards the Tiber (finished in 1589). Following the death of Cardinal Odoardo Farnese in 1626, the palazzo stood virtually uninhabited for 20 years. Renaissance Architecture in Venice In the Veneto, the Renaissance ushered in a new era of architecture after a Gothic phase, which drew on classical Roman and Greek motifs. Describe the style of Venetian architecture during the Renaissance, and of Palladio in particular Key Points - Architecture in Venice and the Veneto was largely based on the work of Andrea Palladio, who designed and completed some highly influential works, including Villas in the mainland, Vicenza, Padua, and Treviso. - Palladian architecture , in masterpieces such as Villa Emo, Villa Barbaro, Villa Capra, and Villa Foscari, evoked the imagined grandeur of antique classical Roman villas. - Palladio created an architectural movement called Palladianism, which had a strong following in the next three centuries, inspiring a new generation of architects who completed several works that echo Palladio’s aestheticism, including the first Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza. Key Terms - Venice : A maritime city and associated province in the Veneto, Italy. - Veneto : A region of northern Italy. - Palladian Architecture : Palladian architecture is a European style of architecture derived from the designs of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). The term “Palladian” normally refers to buildings in a style inspired by Palladio’s own work; what is recognized as Palladian architecture today is an evolution of Palladio’s original concepts. Venice, the capital of the Veneto, has a rich and diverse architectural style , the most famous of which is the Gothic style. Venetian Gothic architecture is a term given to a Venetian building style combining use of the Gothic lancet arch with Byzantine and Ottoman influences. The style originated in 14thcentury Venice, where the confluence of Byzantine style from Constantinople met Arab influence from Moorish Spain. Chief examples of the style are the Doge’s Palace and the Ca’ d’Oro in the city. The city also has several Renaissance and Baroque buildings, including the Ca’ Pesaro and the Ca’ Rezzonico. In the Venato, the Renaissance ushered in a new era of architecture after a phase of Gothic art, with the creation of important works including the Ca’ d’Oro and the churches of Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari and of Saints John and Paul in Venice. This phase of architecture demonstrates how Gothic and Byzantine influences lingered much longer in Venice than they did in Florence or Rome during the Renaissance. Later architecture in Venice and the Veneto was largely based on the work of Andrea Palladio, who designed and completed some highly influential works, including villas in the mainland, Vicenza, Padua, and Treviso. In Venice, he designed the Basilica of San Giorgio Maggiore, the Il Redentore, and Zitelle on the island of Giudecca. Palladian architecture, in masterpieces such as Villa Emo, Villa Barbaro, Villa Capra, and Villa Foscari, evoked the imagined grandeur of antique classical Roman villas. This aesthetic , established through Palladio’s publications, proved very popular and underwent a revival in the neoclassical period. For instance, Palladian villas were designed so that the owner visibly exerted control over production activities of the surrounding countryside by structuring the functional parts, such as the porch, close to the central body. In the case of Villa Badoer, the open barn, formed by a large circular colonnade enclosing the front yard in front of the villa, created a space that recalled the ancient idea of the Roman Forum , bringing all campaign activities to the front of the villa itself. Palladio created an architectural movement called Palladianism, which had a strong following in the next three centuries. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Roma-tempiettobramante01R.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Montorio#The_Tempietto. License : CC BY: Attribution - Palais Farnese. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palais_Farnese.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Renaissance Architecture . Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - San Pietro in Montorio. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Montorio#The_Tempietto. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Palazzo Farnese, Rome. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Palazzo_Farnese,_Rome. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Architecture of Rome. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Rome%23Renaissance. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Rome. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Veneto. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneto%23Art_and_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Veneto. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Veneto. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Venice. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Venice. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:33.746818	2020-05-01T17:34:21	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance/19.02%3A_Renaissance_Architecture", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "19.2: Renaissance Architecture", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance/19.03%3A_Renaissance_Sculpture	19.3: Renaissance Sculpture Renaissance Sculpture in Florence Renaissance sculpture originated in Florence in the 15th century and was deeply influenced by classical sculpture. Identify the impetus behind the sculptural output in 15th century Florence, its major exponents, and its best known works Key Points - Renaissance sculpture proper is often thought to have begun with the famous competition for the doors of the Florence baptistry in 1403, which was won by Lorenzo Ghiberti. - Ghiberti designed a set of doors for the competition, housed in the northern entrance, and another more splendid pair for the eastern entrance, named the Gates of Paradise. Both of these gates depict biblical scenes. - Ghiberti set up a large workshop in which many famous Florentine sculptors and artists were trained. He revived the lost wax casting of bronze , a technique that had been used by the ancients and had subsequently been lost. - Donatello created his bronze David for Cosimo de’ Medici. Conceived independently of any architectural surroundings, it was the first known free-standing nude statue produced since antiquity . - The period was marked by a great increase in patronage of sculpture by the state for public art and by wealthy patrons for their homes. Public sculpture became a crucial element in the appearance of historic city centers. Additionally, portrait sculpture, particularly busts, became hugely popular in Florence. Key Terms - allegory : The representation of abstract principles by characters or figures. - lost wax : A method of casting a sculpture in which a model of the sculpture is made from wax: the model is used to make a mould; when the mould has set, the wax is made to melt and is poured away, leaving the mould ready to be used to cast the sculpture. - baptistry : A designated space that may stand within a church as a separate room or even as a separate building associated with a church, where a baptismal font is located, and consequently, where the sacrament of Christian baptism (via aspersion or affusion) is performed. Typically during the Renaissance, baptisteries were separate buildings as people would be baptized before entering a church or Cathedral. Commonly known as “the cradle of the Renaissance,” 15th century Florence was among the largest and richest cities in Europe and its wealthiest residents were enthusiastic patrons of the arts, including sculpture. Departing from the International Gothic style that had previously dominated in Italy, and drawing from the styles of classical antiquity, Renaissance sculpture originated in Florence and was self-consciously influenced by ancient sculpture. Lorenzo Ghiberti Renaissance sculpture proper is often thought to begin with the famous competition for the doors of the Florence baptistery in 1403, from which the trial models submitted by the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and the runner up, Filippo Brunelleschi, still survive. Ghiberti’s bronze doors consist of 28 panels depicting scenes from the life of Christ, the four evangelists, and the Church Fathers Saints Ambrose, Jeromy, Gregory, and Augustine. They took 21 years to complete and still stand at the northern entrance of the baptistery, although they are eclipsed by the splendor of his second pair of gates for the eastern entrance, which Michelangelo dubbed “the gates of paradise.” These new doors were commissioned in 1425 and built over a 27-year period. They consist of 10 rectangular panels depicting scenes from the Old Testament and employ a clever use of the recently discovered principles of perspective to add depth to the composition . They are surrounded by a richly decorated gilt framework of fruit and foliage, statuettes of prophets, and busts of the sculptor and his father. In order to carry out these huge commissions, Ghiberti set up a large workshop in which many famous Florentine sculptors and artists trained in later years, including Donatello, Michelozzo, and Paolo Uccello. He revived the lost wax casting of bronze, a technique which had been used by the ancients and subsequently lost. This made his workshop particularly famous and was a great draw for aspiring artists. Donatello Another deeply influential sculptor from Florence was Donatello (1386—1466), who is best known for his work in bas- relief , a form of shallow relief that he used as a medium for the incorporation of significant 15th century sculptural developments in perspectival illusion. Donatello received his early artistic training in a goldsmith’s workshop and then trained briefly in Ghiberti’s studio before undertaking a trip to Rome with Filippo Brunelleschi, where he undertook the study and excavation of Roman architecture and sculpture. Roman art became the single most important influence on Donatello’s work. His foremost sponsor in Florence was Cosimo de’Medici, the city’s greatest patron of art. Donatello created his bronze David for Cosimo’s court in the Palazzo Medici. Conceived entirely in the round and independent of any architectural surroundings, it was the first known free-standing nude statue produced since antiquity and represented an allegory of civic virtues overcoming brutality and ignorance. This sculpture represented a particularly important development in Renaissance sculpture: the production of sculpture independent of architecture, unlike the preceding International Gothic style where sculpture rarely existed independent of architecture. Donatello’s other important projects in and near Florence include the marble pulpit of the facade of the Prato cathedral , the carved Cantoria or choir at the Florence Duomo, which was influenced by ancient sarcophagi and Byzantine ivory chests, the Annunciation scene for the Cavalcanti altar in the church of Santa Croce, and a bust of Young Man with a Cameo , the first example of a lay bust portrait since the classical era. Patronage of Sculpture The period was marked by a great increase in patronage of sculpture by the state for public art and by wealthy patrons for their homes. Public sculpture became a crucial element in the appearance of historic city centers, and portrait sculpture, particularly busts, became hugely popular in Florence following Donatello’s innovations. These 15th century innovations soon spread throughout Italy and later through the rest of Europe. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Florence - David by Donatello. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Florence_-_David_by_Donatello.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Florenca146. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Florenca146.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - lost wax. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lost_wax. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Donatello. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Donatello . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lorenzo Ghiberti. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzo_Ghiberti. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sculpture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Scultura rinascimentale. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : it.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Scultura_rinascimentale. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - baptistry. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/baptistry. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - allegory. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/allegory. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:33.822408	2020-05-01T17:34:24	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance/19.03%3A_Renaissance_Sculpture", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "19.3: Renaissance Sculpture", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance/19.04%3A_Renaissance_Painting	19.4: Renaissance Painting Renaissance Painting: Masaccio Renaissance painting was developed in 15th century Florence when artists began to reject the flatness of Gothic painting and strive toward greater naturalism. Discuss the important 15th century Florentine artists and the techniques they used Key Points - Florentine painting received a new lease on life in the early 15th century, when the use of perspective was formalized by the architect Filippo Brunelleschi and adopted by painters as an artistic technique. - Other important techniques developed in Florence during the first half of the 15th century include the use of realistic proportions, foreshortening , sfumato , and chiaroscuro . - The artist most widely credited with first popularizing these techniques in 15th century Florence is Masaccio (1401–1428), the first great painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance . - Masaccio was deeply influenced both by Giotto’s earlier innovations in solidity of form and naturalism and Brunelleschi’s formalized use of perspective in architecture and sculpture , and moved away from the International Gothic style to a more realistic mode. - Masaccio is best known for his frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, in which he employed techniques of linear perspective, such as the vanishing point for the first time, and had a profound influence on other artists despite the brevity of his career. Key Terms - vanishing point : The point in a perspective drawing at which parallel lines receding from an observer seem to converge. - quattrocento : Renaissance Italian period during the 1400s. Fifteenth century Florence was the birthplace of Renaissance painting, which rejected the flatness and stylized nature of Gothic art in order to focus on naturalistic representations of the human body and landscapes. While Giotto is often referred to as the herald of the Renaissance, there was a break in artistic developments in Italy after his death, due largely to the Black Death . However, Florentine painting was revitalized the early 15th century, when the use of perspective was formalized by the architect Filippo Brunelleschi and adopted by painters as an artistic technique. The development of perspective was part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts. Many other important techniques commonly associated with Renaissance painting developed in Florence during the first half of the 15th century, including the use of realistic proportions, foreshortening (the artistic effect of shortening lines in a drawing to create the illusion of depth), sfumato (the blurring of sharp outlines by subtle and gradual blending to give the illusion of three-dimensionality), and chiaroscuro (the contrast between light and dark to convey a sense of depth). The artist most widely credited with first pioneering these techniques in 15th century Florence is Masaccio (1401–1428), the first great painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance. Masaccio was deeply influenced by both Giotto’s earlier innovations in solidity of form and naturalism and Brunelleschi’s formalized use of perspective in architecture and sculpture. Masaccio is best known for his frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, in which he employed techniques of linear perspective such as the vanishing point for the first time, and had a profound influence on other artists despite the brevity of his career. Masaccio was friends with Brunelleschi and the sculptor Donatello, and collaborated frequently with the older and already renowned artist Masolino da Panicale (1383/4–1436) who traveled with him to Rome in 1423. From this point onwards, he eschewed the Byzantine and Gothic styles altogether, adopting traces of influence from ancient Greek and Roman art instead. These are evident in the cycle of frescoes he executed alongside Masolino for the Brancacci Chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence. The two artists started working on the chapel in 1425, but their work was completed by Filippo Lippi in the 1480s. The frescoes in their entirety represent the story of human sin and redemption from the fall of Adam and Eve to the works of St. Peter. Giotto’s influence is evident in Masaccio’s frescoes, particularly in the weight and solidity of his figures and the vividness of their expressions. Unlike Giotto, Masaccio utilized linear and atmospheric perspective , and made even greater use of directional light and the chiaroscuro technique, enabling him to create even more convincingly lifelike paintings than his predecessor. His style and techniques became profoundly influential after his death and were imitated by his successors. Renaissance Painting After Masaccio After Masaccio’s death Florentine artists built on his contributions to the use of perspective and light and shadow. Discuss the contribution of Masaccio to Renaissance art and his influence on painters of the Florentine Quattrocento Key Points - Florentine painting greatly increased in range and richness after Masaccio’s death, and 15th century artists adopted his drive towards naturalism and his use of linear perspective , as well as the sfumato and chiaroscuro techniques. - The most famous Florentine Quattrocento painters of the post-Masaccio period were Paolo Uccello, Piero della Francesca, and Filippo Lippi, who dedicated themselves to the study of light and shadow and perspective as their paramount concern. - Piero della Francesca studied light and linear perspective from a scientific point of view and wrote treatises about his findings. - Paolo Uccello used foreshortening to give his work depth and also made use of light, color, and contrast to add to the drama of his painting. Key Terms - humanism : Specifically, a cultural and intellectual movement prominent from the 14th to 16th centuries in Europe characterized by attention to classical culture and a promotion of vernacular texts, notably during the Renaissance. - chiaroscuro : An artistic technique popularized during the Renaissance, referring to the use of exaggerated light contrasts in order to create the illusion of volume. - sfumato : In painting, the application of subtle layers of translucent paint so that there is no visible transition between colors, tones, and often objects. Masaccio is widely regarded as the first Renaissance painter of the Italian Quattrocento, and despite the brevity of his career, had the most profound influence on his successors. Florentine painting greatly increased in range and richness after Masaccio’s death. Fifteenth century artists adopted and built on the style and techniques that he had introduced to Italian painting, most notably the drive towards naturalism and the use of linear perspective, sfumato, and chiaroscuro. Artists also began to focus even more on proportional and anatomically accurate representations of the human body and naturalistic landscapes. Some of the most well known Florentine Quattrocento painters of the post-Masaccio period were Paolo Uccello (1397–1475), Piero della Francesca (1415–1492), and Fra Filippo Lippi (1406–1469). These painters dedicated themselves to the study of light and shadow and perspective as their paramount concern. Paolo Uccello was said to be so obsessed with trying to achieve the appearance of perspective by grasping the exact vanishing point that it disturbed his sleep. Piero della Francesca studied light and linear perspective from a scientific point of view and wrote treatises about his findings. These artists are usually referred to as the “Perfect Artists” for their precise and technical use of perspective in their works. Paolo Uccello’s paintings emphasized color and pageantry rather than strictly classical realism , and he used perspective to convey a feeling of depth rather than to narrate different or succeeding stories as his contemporaries did. He is best known for his three egg tempera on wood paintings representing the Battle of San Romano, which use broken weapons on the ground and fields on the distant hills to show of his perfect employment of perspective and play of the idea of the checkerboard floor. Paolo Uccello also used light and contrast for dramatic effect in some of his almost monochrome frescoes , enlivening terra verde or “green earth” compositions with touches of bright vermilion. The best known is his equestrian portrait of John Hawkwood in the Florence Cathedral , which gives the impression of being lit by natural light as if the light source was an actual window in the cathedral. Piero della Francesca is well known for his fresco paintings including the cycle of frescoes depicting the Legend of the True Cross. His paintings are characterized by its serene humanism and its use of geometric forms in addition to his close attention to perspective. His Flagellation of Christ demonstrates his mastery over linear perspective and his knowledge of how light is proportionally disseminated from its point of origin. The artist also includes a checkerboard floor in this work to show off his perfect use of perspective. There are two light sources in the painting, one inside the building and the other from outside. While the light source inside the building is invisible, its position can be calculated with mathematical certainty from the rest of the composition, demonstrating his intimate understanding of the science of light. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Masaccio7. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Masaccio7.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - vanishing point. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vanishing_point. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Italian Renaissance painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Masaccio. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaccio. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Italian renaissance. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_renaissance. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Renaissance painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - quattrocento. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quattrocento. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Piero della Francesca 042 Flagellation. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piero_della_Francesca_042_Flagellation.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commons/9/98/San_Romano_Battle_(Paolo_Uccello,_London)_01.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Italian Renaissance painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Renaissance painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - chiaroscuro. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chiaroscuro. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - humanism. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/humanism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - sfumato. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sfumato. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:33.902486	2020-05-01T17:34:26	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance/19.04%3A_Renaissance_Painting", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "19.4: Renaissance Painting", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance/19.05%3A_The_High_Renaissance	19.5: The High Renaissance The High Renaissance The High Renaissance refers to a short period of exceptional artistic production in the Italian states. Describe the different periods and characteristic styles of 16th century Italian art Key Points - Many art historians consider the High Renaissance to be largely dominated by three individuals: Michelangelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci. - Mannerism , which emerged in the latter years of the Italian High Renaissance, is notable for its intellectual sophistication and its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities, such as elongated proportions, stylized poses, and lack of clear perspective . - Some historians regard Mannerism as a degeneration of High Renaissance classicism, or even as an interlude between High Renaissance and Baroque —in which case the dates are usually from c. 1520 to 1600 and it is considered a positive style complete in and of itself. Key Terms - High Renaissance : The period in art history denoting the apogee of the visual arts in the Italian Renaissance. The High Renaissance period is traditionally taken to have begun in the 1490s, with Leonardo’s fresco of The Last Supper in Milan and the death of Lorenzo de’ Medici in Florence, and to have ended in 1527, with the Sack of Rome by the troops of Charles V. - Mannerism : A style of art developed at the end of the High Renaissance, characterized by the deliberate distortion and exaggeration of perspective, especially the elongation of figures. High Renaissance Art High Renaissance art was the dominant style in Italy during the 16th century. Mannerism also developed during this period. The High Renaissance period is traditionally taken to begin in the 1490s, with Leonardo’s fresco of The Last Supper in Milan, and to end in 1527, with the Sack of Rome by the troops of Charles V. This term was first used in German (“Hochrenaissance”) in the early 19th century. Over the last 20 years, use of the term has been frequently criticized by academic art historians for oversimplifying artistic developments, ignoring historical context, and focusing only on a few iconic works. High Renaissance art is deemed as “High” because it is seen as the period in which the artistic aims and goals of the Renaissance reached their greatest application. High Renaissance art is characterized by references to classical art and delicate application of developments from the Early Renaissance (such as on-point perspective). Overall, works from the High Renaissance display restrained beauty where all of the parts are subordinate to the cohesive composition of the whole. Many consider 16th century High Renaissance art to be largely dominated by three individuals: Michelangelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci. Michelangelo excelled as a painter, architect, and sculptor and demonstrated a mastery of portraying the human figure. His frescoes rank among the greatest works of Renaissance art. Raphael was skilled in creating perspective and in the delicate use of color. Leonardo da Vinci painted two of the most well known works of Renaissance art: The Last Supper and the Mona Lisa . Leonardo da Vinci was a generation older than Michelangelo and Raphael, yet his work is stylistically consistent with the High Renaissance. Mannerism Mannerism is an artistic style that emerged from the later years of the 16th century and lasted as a popular aesthetic style in Italy until about 1580, when the Baroque began to replace it (although Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century throughout much of Europe). Michelangelo’s later works, such as The Last Judgment on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel , and the Laurentian Library, are considered to be Mannerist style by some art historians. Some historians regard Mannerism as a degeneration of High Renaissance classicism, or even as an interlude between High Renaissance and Baroque—in which case the dates are usually from c. 1520 to 1600 and it is considered a positive style complete in and of itself. The definition of Mannerism, and the phases within it, continues to be the subject of debate among art historians. For example, some scholars have applied the label to certain early modern forms of literature (especially poetry) and music of the 16th and 17th centuries. The term is also used to refer to some Late Gothic painters working in northern Europe from about 1500 to 1530, especially the Antwerp Mannerists, a group unrelated to the Italian movement. Mannerist art is characterized by elongated forms, contorted poses, and irrational settings. Painting in the High Renaissance The term “High Renaissance” denotes a period of artistic production that is viewed by art historians as the height, or the culmination, of the Renaissance period. Describe the key factors that contributed to the development of High Renaissance painting and the period’s stylistic features Key Points - The High Renaissance was centered in Rome , and lasted from about 1490 to 1527, the end of the period marked by the Sack of Rome . - The restrained beauty of a High Renaissance painting is created when all of the parts and details of the work support the cohesive whole. - The prime example of High Renaissance painting is The School of Athens by Raphael. Key Terms - High Renaissance : A period of artistic production that is viewed by art historians as the height, or the culmination, of the Renaissance period. The period is dated from 1490–1527. The High Renaissance The term “High Renaissance” denotes a period of artistic production that is viewed by art historians as the height, or the culmination, of the Renaissance period. Artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael are considered High Renaissance painters. While the term has become controversial, with some scholars arguing that it oversimplifies artistic developments and historical context, it is hard to ignore the works of these High Renaissance artists as they remain so iconic even into the 21st century. High Renaissance Style The High Renaissance was centered in Rome, and lasted from about 1490 to 1527, with the end of the period marked by the Sack of Rome. Stylistically, painters during this period were influenced by classical art, and their works were harmonious. The restrained beauty of a High Renaissance painting is created when all of the parts and details of the work support the cohesive whole. While earlier Renaissance artists would stress the perspective of a work, or the technical aspects of a painting, High Renaissance artists were willing to sacrifice technical principles in order to create a more beautiful, harmonious whole. The factors that contributed to the development of High Renaissance painting were twofold. Traditionally, Italian artists had painted in tempera paint. During the High Renaissance, artists began to use oil paints, which are easier to manipulate and allow the artist to create softer forms . Additionally, the number and diversity of patrons increased, which allowed for greater development in art. If Rome was the center for the High Renaissance, its greatest patron was Pope Julius II. As patron of the arts, Pope Julius II supported many important artists, including Michelangelo and Raphael. The prime example of High Renaissance painting is The School of Athens by Raphael. Raphael was commissioned by Pope Julius II to redecorate the Pope’s living space in Rome. As part of this project, Raphael was asked to paint in the Pope’s library, or the Stanza della Segnatura. The School of Athens is one of the frescoes within this room. The fresco represents the subject of philosophy and is consistently pointed to as the epitome of High Renaissance painting. The work demonstrates many key points of the High Renaissance style; references to classical antiquity are paramount as Plato and Aristotle are the central figures of this work. There is a clear vanishing point , demonstrating Raphael’s command of technical aspects that were so important in Renaissance painting. But above all, the numerous figures in the work show restrained beauty and serve to support the harmonious, cohesive work. While the figures are diverse and dynamic, nothing serves to detract from the painting as a whole. Sculpture in the High Renaissance Sculpture in the High Renaissance demonstrates the influence of classical antiquity and ideal naturalism. Describe the characteristics of High Renaissance sculpture Key Points - Sculptors during the High Renaissance were deliberately quoting classical precedents and they aimed for ideal naturalism in their works. - Michelangelo (1475–1564) is the prime example of a sculptor during the Renaissance; his works best demonstrate the goals and ideals of the High Renaissance sculptor. During the Renaissance, an artist was not just a painter, or an architect, or a sculptor. They were typically all three. As a result, we see the same prominent names producing sculpture and the great Renaissance paintings. Additionally, the themes and goals of High Renaissance sculpture are very much the same as High Renaissance painting. Sculptors during the High Renaissance were deliberately quoting classical precedents and they aimed for ideal naturalism in their works. Michelangelo (1475–1564) is the prime example of a sculptor during the Renaissance; his works best demonstrate the goals and ideals of the High Renaissance sculptor. Bacchus The Bacchus is Michelangelo’s first recorded commission in Rome . The work is made of marble, it is life sized, and it is carved in the round . The sculpture is of the god of wine, who is holding a cup and appears drunk. The references to classical antiquity are clear in the subject matter, and the body of the god is based on the Apollo Belvedere, which Michelangelo would have seen while in Rome. Not only is the subject matter influenced by antiquity, but so are the artistic influences. Pieta While the Pieta is not based on classical antiquity in subject matter, the forms display the restrained beauty and ideal naturalism that was influenced by classical sculpture. Commissioned by a French Cardinal for his tomb in Old St. Peter’s, it is the work that made Michelangelo’s reputation. The subject matter of the Virgin cradling Christ after the crucifixion was uncommon in the Italian Renaissance, indicating that it was chosen by the patron . David When the David was completed, it was intended to be a buttress on the back of the Florentine Cathedral . But Florentines during that time recognized it as so special and beautiful that they actually had a meeting about where to place the sculpture. Members of the group that met included the artists Leonardo da Vinci and Botticelli. What about this work made it stand out so spectacularly to Michelangelo’s peers? The work demonstrates classical influence. The work is nude, in emulation of Greek and Roman sculptures, and the David stands in a contrapposto pose. He shows restrained beauty and ideal naturalism. Additionally, the work demonstrates an interest in psychology, which was new to the High Renaissance, as Michelangelo depicts David concentrating in the moments before he takes down the giant. The subject matter was also very special to Florence as David was traditionally a civic symbol. The work was ultimately placed in the Palazzo Vecchio and remains the prime example of High Renaissance sculpture. Architecture in the High Renaissance Architecture during the High Renaissance represents a culmination of the architectural developments that were made during the Renaissance. Describe the important architects of the High Renaissance and their achievements Key Points - The Renaissance is divided into the Early Renaissance (c. 1400–1490) and the High Renaissance (c. 1490–1527). - During the Early Renaissance, theories on art were developed, new advancements in painting and architecture were made, and the style was defined. The High Renaissance denotes a period that is seen as the culmination of the Renaissance period. - Renaissance architecture is characterized by symmetry and proportion, and is directly influenced by the study of antiquity . - The architects most representative of the High Renaissance are Donato Bramante (1444–1514) and Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). The Renaissance is divided into the Early Renaissance (c. 1400–1490) and the High Renaissance (c. 1490–1527). During the Early Renaissance, theories on art were developed, new advancements in painting and architecture were made, and the style was defined. The High Renaissance denotes a period that is seen as the culmination of the Renaissance period, when artists and architects implemented these ideas and artistic principles in harmonious and beautiful ways. Renaissance architecture is characterized by symmetry and proportion, and is directly influenced by the study of antiquity. While Renaissance architecture was defined in the Early Renaissance by figures such as Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472), the architects most representative of the High Renaissance are Donato Bramante (1444–1514) and Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). Donato Bramante A key figure in Roman architecture during the High Renaissance was Donato Bramante (1444–1514). Bramante was born in Urbino and first came to prominence as an architect in Milan before traveling to Rome . In Rome, Bramante was commissioned by Ferdinand and Isabella to design the Tempietto, a temple that marks what was believed to be the exact spot where Saint Peter was martyred. The temple is circular, similar to early Christian martyriums, and much of the design is inspired by the remains of the ancient Temple Vesta. The Tempietto is considered by many scholars to be the premier example of High Renaissance architecture. With its perfect proportions, harmony of its parts, and direct references to ancient architecture, the Tempietto embodies the Renaissance. This structure has been described as Bramante’s “calling card” to Pope Julius II, the important Renaissance patron of the arts who would then employ Bramante in the historic design of the new St. Peter’s Basilica . Andrea Palladio Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) was the Chief Architect in the Republic of Venice in the 16th century. Deeply inspired by Roman and Greek architecture, Palladio is widely considered one of the most influential individuals in the history of Western architecture. All of his buildings are located in what was the Venetian Republic, but his teachings, summarized in the architectural treatise, The Four Books of Architecture , gained him wide recognition beyond Italy. Palladian Architecture , named after him, adhered to classical Roman principles that Palladio rediscovered, applied, and explained in his works. Palladio designed many palaces, villas, and churches, but his reputation has been founded on his skill as a designer of villas. Palladian villas are located mainly in the province of Vicenza. Villas Palladio established an influential new building format for the agricultural villas of the Venetian aristocracy. His designs were based on practicality and employed fewer reliefs . He consolidated the various standalone farm outbuildings into a single impressive structure and arranged as a highly organized whole, dominated by a strong center and symmetrical side wings, as illustrated at Villa Barbaro. The Palladian villa configuration often consists of a centralized block raised on an elevated podium, accessed by grand steps and flanked by lower service wings. This format, with the quarters of the owner at the elevated center of his own world, found resonance as a prototype for Italian villas and later for the country estates of the British nobility. Palladio developed his own more flexible prototype for the plan of the villas to moderate scale and function. Leonardo da Vinci While Leonardo da Vinci is admired as a scientist, an academic, and an inventor, he is most famous for his achievements as the painter of several Renaissance masterpieces. Describe the works of Leonardo da Vinci that demonstrate his most innovative techniques as an artist Key Points - Among the qualities that make da Vinci’s work unique are the innovative techniques that he used in laying on the paint, his detailed knowledge of anatomy, his innovative use of the human form in figurative composition , and his use of sfumato . - Among the most famous works created by da Vinci is the small portrait titled the Mona Lisa , known for the elusive smile on the woman’s face, brought about by the fact that da Vinci subtly shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined. - Despite his famous paintings, da Vinci was not a prolific painter; he was a prolific draftsman, keeping journals full of small sketches and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that interested him. Key Terms - sfumato : In painting, the application of subtle layers of translucent paint so that there is no visible transition between colors, tones, and often objects. While Leonardo da Vinci is greatly admired as a scientist, an academic, and an inventor, he is most famous for his achievements as the painter of several Renaissance masterpieces. His paintings were groundbreaking for a variety of reasons and his works have been imitated by students and discussed at great length by connoisseurs and critics. Among the qualities that make da Vinci’s work unique are the innovative techniques that he used in laying on the paint, his detailed knowledge of anatomy, his use of the human form in figurative composition, and his use of sfumato. All of these qualities are present in his most celebrated works, the Mona Lisa , The Last Supper , and the Virgin of the Rocks . The Last Supper Da Vinci’s most celebrated painting of the 1490s is The Last Supper , which was painted for the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. The painting depicts the last meal shared by Jesus and the 12 Apostles where he announces that one of the them will betray him. When finished, the painting was acclaimed as a masterpiece of design. This work demonstrates something that da Vinci did very well: taking a very traditional subject matter, such as the Last Supper, and completely re-inventing it. Prior to this moment in art history, every representation of the Last Supper followed the same visual tradition: Jesus and the Apostles seated at a table. Judas is placed on the opposite side of the table of everyone else and is effortlessly identified by the viewer . When da Vinci painted The Last Supper he placed Judas on the same side of the table as Christ and the Apostles, who are shown reacting to Jesus as he announces that one of them will betray him. They are depicted as alarmed, upset, and trying to determine who will commit the act. The viewer also has to determine which figure is Judas, who will betray Christ. By depicting the scene in this manner, da Vinci has infused psychology into the work. Unfortunately, this masterpiece of the Renaissance began to deteriorate immediately after da Vinci finished painting, due largely to the painting technique that he had chosen. Instead of using the technique of fresco , da Vinci had used tempera over a ground that was mainly gesso in an attempt to bring the subtle effects of oil paint to fresco. His new technique was not successful, and resulted in a surface that was subject to mold and flaking. Mona Lisa Among the works created by da Vinci in the 16th century is the small portrait known as the Mona Lisa, or La Gioconda , “the laughing one.” In the present era it is arguably the most famous painting in the world. Its fame rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the woman’s face—its mysterious quality brought about perhaps by the fact that the artist has subtly shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined. The shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be called sfumato, the application of subtle layers of translucent paint so that there is no visible transition between colors, tones , and often objects. Other characteristics found in this work are the unadorned dress, in which the eyes and hands have no competition from other details; the dramatic landscape background, in which the world seems to be in a state of flux; the subdued coloring; and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly technique, employing oils, but applied much like tempera and blended on the surface so that the brushstrokes are indistinguishable. And again, da Vinci is innovating upon a type of painting here. Portraits were very common in the Renaissance. However, portraits of women were always in profile, which was seen as proper and modest. Here, da Vinci present a portrait of a woman who not only faces the viewer but follows them with her eyes. Virgin and Child with St. Anne In the painting Virgin and Child with St. Anne , da Vinci’s composition again picks up the theme of figures in a landscape. What makes this painting unusual is that there are two obliquely set figures superimposed. Mary is seated on the knee of her mother, St. Anne. She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice . This painting influenced many contemporaries, including Michelangelo, Raphael, and Andrea del Sarto. The trends in its composition were adopted in particular by the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese. Raphael Raphael was an Italian Renaissance painter and architect whose work is admired for its clarity of form and ease of composition. Discuss Raphael influences and artistic achievements Key Points - Together with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael forms the traditional trinity of great masters of the High Renaissance . He was enormously productive, running an unusually large workshop, and despite his death at 30, he had a large body of work. - Some of Raphael’s most striking artistic influences come from the paintings of Leonardo da Vinci; because of this inspiration, Raphael gave his figures more dynamic and complex positions in his earlier compositions . - Raphael’s “Stanze” masterpieces are very large and complex compositions that have been regarded among the supreme works of the High Renaissance. They give a highly idealized depiction of the forms represented, and the compositions, though very carefully conceived in drawings, achieve sprezzatura , the art of performing a task so gracefully it looks effortless. Key Terms - sprezzatura :The art of performing a difficult task so gracefully that it looks effortless. - loggia :A roofed, open gallery. - contrapposto :The position of a figure whose hips and legs are twisted away from the direction of the head and shoulders. Overview Raphael (1483–1520) was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. His work is admired for its clarity of form and ease of composition and for its visual achievement of the Neoplatonic ideal of human grandeur. Together with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael forms the traditional trinity of great masters of that period. He was enormously productive, running an unusually large workshop; despite his death at 30, a large body of his work remains among the most famous of High Renaissance art. Influences Some of Raphael’s most striking artistic influences come from the paintings of Leonardo da Vinci. In response to da Vinci’s work, in some of Raphael’s earlier compositions he gave his figures more dynamic and complex positions. For example, Raphael’s Saint Catherine of Alexandria (1507) borrows from the contrapposto pose of da Vinci’s Leda and the Swans . While Raphael was also aware of Michelangelo’s works, he deviates from his style . In his Deposition of Christ , Raphael draws on classical sarcophagi to spread the figures across the front of the picture space in a complex and not wholly successful arrangement. The Stanze Rooms and the Loggia In 1511, Raphael began work on the famous Stanze paintings, which made a stunning impact on Roman art, and are generally regarded as his greatest masterpieces. The Stanza della Segnatura contains The School of Athens , Poetry , Disputa, and Law . The School of Athens, depicting Plato and Aristotle, is one of his best known works. These very large and complex compositions have been regarded ever since as among the supreme works of the High Renaissance, and the “classic art” of the post-antique West. They give a highly idealized depiction of the forms represented, and the compositions—though very carefully conceived in drawings—achieve sprezzatura , a term invented by Raphael’s friend Castiglione, who defined it as “a certain nonchalance that conceals all artistry and makes whatever one says or does seem uncontrived and effortless.” In the later phase of Raphael’s career, he designed and painted the Loggia at the Vatican, a long thin gallery that was open to a courtyard on one side and decorated with Roman style grottesche. He also produced a number of significant altarpieces , including The Ecstasy of St. Cecilia and the Sistine Madonna . His last work, on which he was working until his death, was a large Transfiguration which, together with Il Spasimo, shows the direction his art was taking in his final years, becoming more proto-Baroque than Mannerist . The Master’s studio Raphael ran a workshop of over 50 pupils and assistants, many of whom later became significant artists in their own right. This was arguably the largest workshop team assembled under any single old master painter, and much higher than the norm. They included established masters from other parts of Italy, probably working with their own teams as sub-contractors, as well as pupils and journeymen. Architecture In architecture, Raphael’s skills were employed by the papacy and wealthy Roman nobles. For instance, Raphael designed the plans for the the Villa Madama, which was to be a lavish hillside retreat for Pope Clement VII (and was never finished). Even incomplete, Raphael’s schematic was the most sophisticated villa design yet seen in Italy, and greatly influenced the later development of the genre . It also appears to be the only modern building in Rome of which Palladio made a measured drawing. Draftsman Raphael was one of the finest draftsmen in the history of Western art, and used drawings extensively to plan his compositions. According to a near-contemporary, when beginning to plan a composition, he would lay out a large number of his stock drawings on the floor, and begin to draw “rapidly,” borrowing figures from here and there. Over 40 sketches survive for the Disputa in the Stanze, and there may well have been many more originally (over 400 sheets survived altogether). As evidenced in his sketches for the Madonna and Child , Raphael used different drawings to refine his poses and compositions, apparently to a greater extent than most other painters. Most of Raphael’s drawings are rather precise—even initial sketches with naked outline figures are carefully drawn, and later drawings often have a high degree of finish, with shading and sometimes highlights in white. They lack the freedom and energy of some of da Vinci’s and Michelangelo’s sketches, but are almost always very satisfying aesthetically. Michelangelo Michelangelo was a 16th century Florentine artist renowned for his masterpieces in sculpture, painting, and architectural design. Discuss Michelangelo’s achievements in sculpture, painting, and architecture Key Points - Michelangelo created his colossal marble statue, the David, out of a single block of marble, which established his prominence as a sculptor of extraordinary technical skill and strength of symbolic imagination. - In painting, Michelangelo is renowned for the ceiling and The Last Judgement of the Sistine Chapel , where he depicted a complex scheme representing Creation, the Downfall of Man, the Salvation of Man, and the Genealogy of Christ. - Michelangelo’s chief contribution to Saint Peter’s Basilica was the use of a Greek Cross form and an external masonry of massive proportions, with every corner filled in by a stairwell or small vestry. The effect is a continuous wall-surface that appears fractured or folded at different angles. Key Terms - contrapposto : The standing position of a human figure where most of the weight is placed on one foot, and the other leg is relaxed. The effect of contrapposto in art makes figures look very naturalistic. - Sistine Chapel : The best-known chapel in the Apostolic Palace. Michelangelo was a 16th century Florentine artist renowned for his masterpieces in sculpture, painting, and architectural design. His most well known works are the David , the Last Judgment , and the Basilica of Saint Peter’s in the Vatican. Sculpture: David In 1504, Michelangelo was commissioned to create a colossal marble statue portraying David as a symbol of Florentine freedom. The subsequent masterpiece, David , established the artist’s prominence as a sculptor of extraordinary technical skill and strength of symbolic imagination. David was created out of a single marble block, and stands larger than life, as it was originally intended to adorn the Florence Cathedral . The work differs from previous representations in that the Biblical hero is not depicted with the head of the slain Goliath, as he is in Donatello’s and Verrocchio’s statues; both had represented the hero standing victorious over the head of Goliath. No earlier Florentine artist had omitted the giant altogether. Instead of appearing victorious over a foe, David’s face looks tense and ready for combat. The tendons in his neck stand out tautly, his brow is furrowed, and his eyes seem to focus intently on something in the distance. Veins bulge out of his lowered right hand, but his body is in a relaxed contrapposto pose, and he carries his sling casually thrown over his left shoulder. In the Renaissance , contrapposto poses were thought of as a distinctive feature of antique sculpture. The sculpture was intended to be placed on the exterior of the Duomo, and has become one of the most recognized works of Renaissance sculpture. Painting: The Last Judgement In painting, Michelangelo is renowned for his work in the Sistine Chapel. He was originally commissioned to paint tromp-l’oeil coffers after the original ceiling developed a crack. Michelangelo lobbied for a different and more complex scheme, representing Creation, the Downfall of Man, the Promise of Salvation through the prophets, and the Genealogy of Christ. The work is part of a larger scheme of decoration within the chapel that represents much of the doctrine of the Catholic Church. The composition eventually contained over 300 figures, and had at its center nine episodes from the Book of Genesis, divided into three groups: God’s Creation of the Earth, God’s Creation of Humankind, and their fall from God’s grace, and lastly, the state of Humanity as represented by Noah and his family. Twelve men and women who prophesied the coming of the Jesus are painted on the pendentives supporting the ceiling. Among the most famous paintings on the ceiling are The Creation of Adam, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, the Great Flood, the Prophet Isaiah and the Cumaean Sibyl. The ancestors of Christ are painted around the windows. The fresco of The Last Judgment on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel was commissioned by Pope Clement VII, and Michelangelo labored on the project from 1536–1541. The work is located on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel, which is not a traditional placement for the subject. Typically, last judgement scenes were placed on the exit wall of churches as a way to remind the viewer of eternal punishments as they left worship. The Last Judgment is a depiction of the second coming of Christ and the apocalypse; where the souls of humanity rise and are assigned to their various fates, as judged by Christ, surrounded by the Saints. In contrast to the earlier figures Michelangelo painted on the ceiling, the figures in The Last Judgement are heavily muscled and are in much more artificial poses, demonstrating how this work is in the Mannerist style . In this work Michelangelo has rejected the orderly depiction of the last judgement as established by Medieval tradition in favor of a swirling scene of chaos as each soul is judged. When the painting was revealed it was heavily criticized for its inclusion of classical imagery as well as for the amount of nude figures in somewhat suggestive poses. The ill reception that the work received may be tied to the Counter Reformation and the Council of Trent , which lead to a preference for more conservative religious art devoid of classical references. Although a number of figures were made more modest with the addition of drapery, the changes were not made until after the death of Michelangelo, demonstrating the respect and admiration that was afforded to him during his lifetime. Architecture: St. Peter’s Basilica Finally, although other architects were involved, Michelangelo is given credit for designing St. Peter’s Basilica. Michelangelo’s chief contribution was the use of a symmetrical plan of a Greek Cross form and an external masonry of massive proportions, with every corner filled in by a stairwell or small vestry. The effect is of a continuous wall surface that is folded or fractured at different angles, lacking the right angles that usually define change of direction at the corners of a building. This exterior is surrounded by a giant order of Corinthian pilasters all set at slightly different angles to each other, in keeping with the ever-changing angles of the wall’s surface. Above them the huge cornice ripples in a continuous band, giving the appearance of keeping the whole building in a state of compression . The Venetian Painters of the High Renaissance Giorgione, Titian, and Veronese were the preeminent Venetian painters of the High Renaissance. Summarize the impact of the paintings of Giorgione, Titian, and Veronese on art of the Venetian High Renaissance Key Points - The Venetian High Renaissance artists Giorgione, Titian, and Veronese employed novel techniques of color, scale, and composition , which established them as acclaimed artists north of Rome . - In particular, these three painters followed the Venetian School ‘s preference of color over disegno . - Giorgio Barbarelli da Castlefranco, known as Giorgione (c. 1477–1510), is an artist who had considerable impact on the Venetian High Renaissance. Giorgione was the first to paint with oil on canvas. - Tiziano Vecelli, or Titian (1490–1576), was arguably the most important member of the Venetian school, as well as one of the most versatile. His use of color would have a profound influence not only on painters of the Italian Renaissance, but on future generations in Western art. - Paolo Veronese (1528–1588) was one of the primary Renaissance painters in Venice , known for his paintings such as The Wedding at Cana and T he Feast in the House of Levi . Key Terms - disegno : Drawing or design. - Venetian School : The distinctive, thriving, and influential art scene in Venice, Italy, starting from the late 15th century. Giorgione, Titian, and Veronese were the preeminent painters of the Venetian High Renaissance. All three similarly employed novel techniques of color and composition, which established them as acclaimed artists north of Rome. In particular, Giorgione, Titian, and Veronese follows the Venetian School’s preference of color over disegno. Giorgione Giorgio Barbarelli da Castlefranco, known as Giorgione (c. 1477–1510), is an artist who had considerable impact on the Venetian High Renaissance. Unfortunately, art historians do not know much about Giorgione, partly because of his early death at around age 30, and partly because artists in Venice were not as individualistic as artists in Florence. While only six paintings are accredited to him, they demonstrate his importance in the history of art as well as his innovations in painting. Giorgione was the first to paint with oil on canvas. Previously, people who used oils were painting on panel, not canvas. His works do not contain much under-drawing, demonstrating how he did not adhere to Florentine disegno, and his subject matters remain elusive and mysterious. One of his works that demonstrates all three of these elements is The Tempest (c. 1505–1510). This work is oil on canvas, x-rays show there is very little under drawing, and the subject matter remains one of the most debated issues in art history. Titian Tiziano Vecelli, or Titian (1490–1576), was arguably the most important member of the 16th century Venetian school, as well as one of the most versatile; he was equally adept with portraits, landscape backgrounds, and mythological and religious subjects. His painting methods, particularly in the application and use of color, would have a profound influence not only on painters of the Italian Renaissance, but on future generations of Western art. Over the course of his long life Titian’s artistic manner changed drastically, but he retained a lifelong interest in color. Although his mature works may not contain the vivid, luminous tints of his early pieces, their loose brushwork and subtlety of polychromatic modulations were without precedent In 1516, Titian completed his well-known masterpiece, the Assumption of the Virgin, or the Assunta, for the high altar of the church of the Frari. This extraordinary piece of colorism, executed on a grand scale rarely before seen in Italy, created a sensation. The pictorial structure of the Assumption— uniting in the same composition two or three scenes superimposed on different levels, earth and heaven, the temporal and the infinite—was continued in a series of his works, finally reaching a classic formula in the Pesaro Madonna (better known as the Madonna di Ca’ Pesaro ). This perhaps is Titian’s most studied work; his patiently developed plan is set forth with supreme display of order and freedom, originality and style . Here, Titian gave a new conception of the traditional groups of donors and holy persons moving in aerial space , the plans and different degrees set in an architectural framework. Veronese Paolo Veronese (1528–1588) was one of the primary Renaissance painters in Venice, well known for paintings such as The Wedding at Cana and The Feast in the House of Levi. Veronese is known as a supreme colorist, and for his illusionistic decorations in both fresco and oil. His most famous works are elaborate narrative cycles, executed in the dramatic and colorful style, full of majestic architectural settings and glittering pageantry. His large paintings of biblical feasts executed for the refectories of monasteries in Venice and Verona are especially notable. For example, in The Wedding at Cana, which was painted in 1562–1563 in collaboration with Palladio, Veronese arranged the architecture to run mostly parallel to the picture plane , accentuating the processional character of the composition. The artist’s decorative genius was to recognize that dramatic perspective effects would have been tiresome in a living room or chapel, and that the narrative of the picture could best be absorbed as a colorful diversion. The Wedding at Cana offers little in the representation of emotion: rather, it illustrates the carefully composed movement of its subjects along a primarily horizontal axis. Most of all, it is about the incandescence of light and color. Even as Veronese’s use of color attained greater intensity and luminosity, his attention to narrative, human sentiment, and a more subtle and meaningful physical interplay between his figures became evident. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - C39Altima_Cena_-_Da_Vinci_5.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Supper_(Leonardo_da_Vinci). License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Last_Judgement_28Michelangelo29.jpg. 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License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Titian. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Titian. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Venetian School. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian%20School. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/connoisseurship. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:34.093913	2020-05-01T17:34:29	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance/19.05%3A_The_High_Renaissance", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "19.5: The High Renaissance", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance/19.06%3A_Mannerism	19.6: Mannerism Mannerism Mannerist artists began to reject the harmony and ideal proportions of the Renaissance in favor of irrational settings, artificial colors, unclear subject matters, and elongated forms. Describe the Mannerist style, how it differs from the Renaissance, and reasons why it emerged. Key Points - Mannerism came after the High Renaissance and before the Baroque . - The artists who came a generation after Raphael and Michelangelo had a dilemma. They could not surpass the great works that had already been created by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. This is when we start to see Mannerism emerge. - Jacopo da Pontormo (1494–1557) represents the shift from the Renaissance to the Mannerist style . Key Terms - Mannerism : Style of art in Europe from c. 1520–1600. Mannerism came after the High Renaissance and before the Baroque. Not every artist painting during this period is considered a Mannerist artist. Mannerism is the name given to a style of art in Europe from c. 1520–1600. Mannerism came after the High Renaissance and before the Baroque. Not every artist painting during this period is considered a Mannerist artist, however, and there is much debate among scholars over whether Mannerism should be considered a separate movement from the High Renaissance, or a stylistic phase of the High Renaissance. Mannerism will be treated as a separate art movement here as there are many differences between the High Renaissance and the Mannerist styles. Style What makes a work of art Mannerist? First we must understand the ideals and goals of the Renaissance. During the Renaissance artists were engaging with classical antiquity in a new way. In addition, they developed theories on perspective , and in all ways strived to create works of art that were perfect, harmonious, and showed ideal depictions of the natural world. Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo are considered the artists who reached the greatest achievements in art during the Renaissance. The Renaissance stressed harmony and beauty and no one could create more beautiful works than the great three artists listed above. The artists who came a generation after had a dilemma; they could not surpass the great works that had already been created by da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. This is when we start to see Mannerism emerge. Younger artists trying to do something new and different began to reject harmony and ideal proportions in favor of irrational settings, artificial colors, unclear subject matters, and elongated forms . Jacopo da Pontormo Jacopo da Pontormo (1494–1557) represents the shift from the Renaissance to the Mannerist style. Take for example his Deposition from the Cross , an altarpiece that was painted for a chapel in the Church of Santa Felicita, Florence. The figures of Mary and Jesus appear to be a direct reference to Michelangelo’s Pieta . Although the work is called a “ Deposition,” there is no cross. Scholars also refer to this work as the “Entombment” but there is no tomb. This lack of clarity on subject matter is a hallmark of Mannerist painting. In addition, the setting is irrational, almost as if it is not in this world, and the colors are far from naturalistic. This work could not have been produced by a Renaissance artist. The Mannerist movement stresses different goals and this work of art by Pontormo demonstrates this new, and different style. Mannerist Painting Mannerism emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance, and is notable for its sophisticated and artificial qualities. Contrast the painting of High Mannerism with its earlier, anti-classical phase Key Points - Mannerist painting encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals and restrained naturalism associated with High Renaissance artists. Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. - Mannerism developed in both Florence and Rome , from around 1520 until about 1580. The early Mannerist painters are notable for elongated forms , precariously balanced poses, a collapsed perspective , irrational settings, and theatrical lighting. - The second period of Mannerist painting, called “Maniera Greca,” is differentiated from the earlier “anti-classical” phase. High Mannerists stressed intellectual conceits and artistic virtuosity, features that have led later critics to accuse them of working in an unnatural and affected “manner.” Key Terms - Sack of Rome : A military event carried out on May 6, 1527 by the mutinous troops of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in Rome. - Mannerism : A style of art developed at the end of the High Renaissance, characterized by the deliberate distortion and exaggeration of perspective, especially the elongation of figures. Mannerism Mannerism is a period of European art that emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance. It began around 1520 and lasted until about 1580 in Italy, when a more Baroque style began to be favored. Stylistically, Mannerist painting encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals and restrained naturalism associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and early Michelangelo. Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. There is an existing debate between scholars as to whether Mannerism was its own, independent art movement, or if it should be considered as part of the High Renaissance. Mannerist Painting Mannerism developed in both Florence and Rome. The early Mannerist painters in Florence—especially Jacopo da Pontormo and Rosso Fiorentino, both students of Andrea del Sarto—are notable for using elongated forms, precariously balanced poses, a collapsed perspective, irrational settings, and theatrical lighting. Parmigianino (a student of Correggio) and Giulio Romano (Raphael’s head assistant) were moving in similarly stylized aesthetic directions in Rome. These artists had matured under the influence of the High Renaissance, and their style has been characterized as a reaction or exaggerated extension of it. In other words, instead of studying nature directly, younger artists began studying Hellenistic sculptures and paintings of masters past. Therefore, this style is often identified as “anti-classical,” yet at the time it was considered a natural progression from the High Renaissance. The earliest experimental phase of Mannerism, known for its “anti-classical” forms, lasted until about 1540 or 1550. This period has been described as both a natural extension of the art of Andrea del Sarto, Michelangelo, and Raphael, as well as a decline of those same artists’ classicizing achievements. In past analyses, it has been noted that Mannerism arose in the early 16th century alongside a number of other social, scientific, religious and political movements such as the Copernican model, the Sack of Rome , and the Protestant Reformation ‘s increasing challenge to the power of the Catholic Church. Because of this, the style’s elongated forms and distorted forms were once interpreted as a reaction to the idealized compositions prevalent in High Renaissance art. This explanation for the radical stylistic shift in 1520 has fallen out of scholarly favor, though the early Mannerists are still set in stark contrast to High Renaissance conventions; the immediacy and balance achieved by Raphael’s School of Athens no longer seemed interesting to young artists. Indeed, Michelangelo himself displayed tendencies towards Mannerism, notably in his vestibule to the Laurentian Library, in the figures on his Medici tombs, and above all the Sistine Chapel . Maniera Greca The second period of Mannerist painting, called “Maniera Greca,” or High Mannerism, is commonly differentiated from the earlier, so-called “anti-classical” phase. Influenced by earlier Byzantine art, High Mannerists stressed intellectual conceits and artistic virtuosity, features that have led later critics to accuse them of working in an unnatural and affected “manner” (maniera). Maniera artists held their elder contemporary Michelangelo as their prime example; theirs was an art imitating art, rather than an art imitating nature. Maniera art combines exaggerated elegance with exquisite attention to surface and detail: porcelain-skinned figures recline in an even, tempered light, regarding the viewer with a cool glance, if at all. The Maniera subject rarely displays an excess of emotion, and for this reason is often interpreted as “cold” or “aloof. ” A number of the earliest Mannerist artists who had been working in Rome during the 1520s fled the city after the Sack of Rome in 1527. As they spread out across the continent in search of employment, their style was distributed throughout Italy and Europe. The result was the first international artistic style since the Gothic style (including French, English, and Dutch Mannerism styles). The style waned in Italy after 1580, as a new generation of artists, including the Carracci brothers, Caravaggio and Cigoli, reemphasized naturalism. Walter Friedlaender identified this period as “anti-mannerism,” just as the early Mannerists were “anti-classical” in their reaction to the High Renaissance. Mannerist Sculpture Mannerist sculpture, like Mannerist painting, was characterized by elongated forms, spiral angles, twisting poses, and aloof subject gazes. Define characteristics of Mannerist sculpture Key Points - Figura serpentinata (Italian: serpentine figure) is a style in painting and sculpture that is typical of Mannerism . It is similar, but not identical, to contrapposto , and often features figures in spiral poses. - The Mannerist style of sculpture began to create a form in which figures showed physical power, passion, tension, and semantic perfection. Movements were not without motivation, nor even simply done with a will, but were shown in a pure form. - Mannerist sculpture was an attempt to find an original style that would surpass the achievements of the High Renaissance , which was equated with Michelangelo. Much of the struggle to surpass his success centered on commissions to fill other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, next to Michelangelo’s David . Key Terms - Figura Serpentinata : Figura Serpentinata (Italian: serpentine figure) is a style in painting and sculpture that is typical of Mannerism. It is similar, but not identical, to contrapposto, and features figures often in a spiral pose. - Mannerism : A style of art developed at the end of the High Renaissance, characterized by the deliberate distortion and exaggeration of perspective, especially the elongation of figures. - piazza : A public square, especially in an Italian city. While sculpture of the High Renaissance is characterized by forms with perfect proportions and restrained beauty, as best characterized by Michelangelo’s David , Mannerist sculpture, like Mannerist painting, was characterized by elongated forms, spiral angels, twisted poses, and aloof subject gazes. Additionally, Mannerist sculptors worked in precious metals much more frequently than sculptors of the High Renaissance. Figura serpentinata (Italian: serpentine figure) is a style in painting and sculpture that is typical of Mannerism. It is similar, but not identical, to contrapposto, and often features figures in spiral poses. Early examples can be seen in the work of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. In defining figura serpentinata, Emil Maurer writes of the painter and theorist Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo: “the recommended ideal form unites, after Lomazzo, three qualities: the pyramid , the ‘serpentinata’ movement and a certain numerical proportion, all three united to form one whole. At the same time, precedence is given to the ‘moto’, that is, to the meandering movement, which should make the pyramid, in exact proportion, into the geometrical form of a cone.” With the loosening of the norms of the High Renaissance and the development of the “Serpentinata” style, the Mannerist style’s structures and rules began to be systematized. The Mannerist style of sculpture began to create a form in which figures showed physical power, passion, tension, and semantic perfection. Mannerist figural sculpture was marked by contorted, twisting poses, as best evidenced by Giambologna’s Rape of the Sabine Women. As in painting, early Italian Mannerist sculpture was largely an attempt to find an original style that would expand and surpass the achievements of the High Renaissance. For contemporaries in sculpture, the High Renaissance was equated with Michelangelo, and much of the struggle to surpass his success was played out in commissions to fill other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, next to Michelangelo’s David . For example, Baccio Bandinelli took over the project of Hercules and Cacus from Michelangelo, although his work was maliciously compared by Benvenuto Cellini to “a sack of melons.” Like other works of Mannerists, Bandinelli removes far more of the original block of stone than Michelangelo would have done. Outside of natural stone sculptures, Cellini’s bronze Perseus with the head of Medusa is a Mannerist masterpiece, designed with eight angles of view. Small bronze figures for collector’s cabinets, often mythological subjects with nudes, were characteristic of Mannerist sculpture. They were a popular Renaissance form at which Giambologna excelled in the later part of the century. He and his followers devised elegant, elongated examples of the figura serpentinata, often of two intertwined figures, that were interesting from all angles and joined the Piazza della Signora collection. Mannerist Architecture During the Mannerist period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships. They did so by deliberately playing with the symmetry, order, and harmony typically found in Renaissance architecture. Relate Mannerist architecture to the Early Renaissance style that came before Key Points - Stylistically, Mannerist architecture was marked by widely diverging tendencies from Renaissance and Medieval styles that eventually led to the Baroque style, in which the same architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric. - Michelangelo (1475–1564) is the best known artist associated with Mannerism . Key Terms - Mannerist architecture : During the Mannerist period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships. The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms. During the High Renaissance , architectural concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used with greater surety. The most representative architect of this period is Bramante (1444–1514), who expanded the applicability of classical architecture to contemporary buildings in a style that would dominate Italian architecture in the 16th century. Hallmarks of High Renaissance architecture are symmetry , proportion, order, harmony, and deliberate references to the buildings of the classical past. During the Mannerist period architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships. They did so by deliberately playing with the symmetry, order, and harmony typically found in Renaissance architecture. As a result, Mannerist architecture appears playful, almost as if the architects are deliberately playing with expectations put forth by Renaissance architecture. In Mannerist architecture, the Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms. The best known artist associated with the Mannerist style is Michelangelo (1475–1564). With his design for the vestibule of the Laurentian Library, there are ambiguities of how to read the space , which result from Michelangelo’s playfulness with the architecture itself. Columns lean back instead of forward, and the corners come out toward you instead of recessing. Michelangelo was aware of the ideals of Renaissance architecture but he is deliberately playing with those ideals and creating something new. Stylistically, Mannerist architecture was marked by widely diverging tendencies from Renaissance and Medieval styles that eventually led to the Baroque style, in which the same architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric. Baldassare Peruzzi (1481–1536) was an architect working in Rome whose work bridged the High Renaissance and Mannerism. His Villa Farnesina of 1509 is a very regular monumental cube of two equal stories, with the bays articulated by orders of pilasters . Peruzzi’s most famous work is the Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne in Rome. The unusual features of this building are that its façade curves gently to follow a curving street. It has, in its ground floor, a dark central portico running parallel to the street, but as a semi-enclosed space, rather than an open loggia . Above this, three undifferentiated floors rise, the upper two with identical small horizontal windows in thin flat frames that contrast strangely with the deep porch, which has served, from the time of its construction, as a refuge to the city’s poor. All of these architectural features are unexpected and disrupt the ideas of harmonious proportions, making it a Mannerist building. Giulio Romano (1499–1546) was a pupil of Raphael, assisting him on various works for the Vatican. Romano was also a highly inventive designer, working for Federico II Gonzaga at Mantua on the Palazzo del Te (1524–1534), a project that combined his skills as architect, sculptor, and painter. In this work, which incorporated garden grottoes and extensive frescoes , he uses illusionistic effects, surprising combinations of architectural form and texture , and features that seem somewhat disproportionate or out of alignment, making it very much a Mannerist structure. Mannerism and the Counter-Reformation Mannerism concerned many Catholic leaders in the wake of the Reformation, as they were seen as lacking pious appeal. Distinguish the artistic ideal of the Counter-Reformation from Mannerism and the art of the Reformation in Northern Europe Key Points - Pressure to restrain religious imagery affected art from the 1530s and influenced several decrees from the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563. These decrees included short passages on religious images that had significant impact on the development of Catholic art during the Counter- Reformation . - The Counter-Reformation Catholic Church promoted art with “sacred” or religious content. In other words, art was to be strictly religious, created for the purpose of glorifying God and Catholic traditions. Key Terms - refectory : A dining-hall especially in an institution such as a college or monastery. - Counter-Reformation : The period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ending at the close of the Thirty Years’ War (1648); sometimes considered a response to the Protestant Reformation. Italian Painting and Mannerism Italian Renaissance painting after 1520 developed certain characteristics that are considered Mannerist , such as elongated forms and irrational settings. Mannerism, as well as works from the High Renaissance , concerned many Catholic leaders in the wake of the Reformation, as they were seen as lacking pious appeal. Furthermore, a great divergence had arisen between the Catholic Church and Protestant reformers of Northern Europe regarding the content and style of art work. Church pressure to restrain religious imagery affected art from the 1530s and influenced several decrees from the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563. These decrees included short passages concerning religious images that had significant impact on the development of Catholic art during the Counter-Reformation. The Church felt that religious art in Catholic countries (especially Italy) had lost its focus on religious subject matter. It focused on decorative qualities instead, with heavy influences from classical , pagan art, leading to a church decree that “art was to be direct and compelling in its narrative presentation, that it was to provide an accurate presentation of the biblical narrative or saint’s life, rather than adding incidental and imaginary moments, and that it was to encourage piety” (Paoletti and Radke, Art in Renaissance Italy). The reforms that resulted from this council are what set the basis for Counter-Reformation art. The Counter-Reformation Movement While the Protestants largely removed public art from religion and moved towards a more “secular” style of art, embracing the concept of glorifying God through depictions of nature, the Counter-Reformation Catholic Church promoted art with “sacred” or religious content. In other words, art was to be strictly religious, created for the purpose of glorifying God and Catholic traditions. To that end, The Last Judgment , a fresco on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo (1534–41), came under attack for its classical imagery and the large quantity of nudes, some of which were interpreted at the time as being in compromising poses. The Last Judgment was an object of dispute between critics within the Catholic Counter-Reformation and those who appreciated the genius of the artist and the Mannerist style of the painting. Michelangelo was accused of being insensitive to proper decorum, and of flaunting personal style over appropriate depictions of content. The fresco was also completed at a time when prints could be made of the work and distributed throughout Northern Europe, the base for criticisms against the Catholic Church. While Michelangelo had been celebrated during the Renaissance for his classical influence and depictions of monumental nudes in a variety of poses, here he was being criticized for The Last Judgment . Michelango was not doing anything new or different from his previous style, which had been celebrated in the past. This demonstrates how the historical situation had altered and just how threatened the Catholic Church felt at this time in history. Scipione Pulzone’s painting of the Lamentation, commissioned for the Gesu Church in 1589, gives a clear demonstration of what the Council of Trent was striving for in the new style of religious art. With the focus of the painting giving direct attention to the crucifixion of Christ, it complies with the religious content of the council and shows the story of the Passion while keeping Christ in the image of the ideal human. On the other hand, in Paolo Veronese’s painting The Last Supper (subsequently renamed The Feast in the House of Levi ), one can see what the Council regarded as inappropriate. Veronese was summoned before the Inquisition on the basis that his composition was indecorous for the refectory of a monastery. The painting shows a fantasy version of a Venetian patrician feast, with, in the words of the Inquisition: “buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs and other such scurrilities” as well as extravagant costumes and settings. Veronese was told that he must change his painting within a three-month period; instead he simply changed the title to The Feast in the House of Levi . - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Deposition_from_the_Cross__artble.com. Provided by : artble. Located at : http://www.artble.com/artists/rosso_fiorentino/paintings/deposition_from_the_cross . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Pontormo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontormo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Deposition from the Cross (Pontormo). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Deposition_from_the_Cross_(Pontormo). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mannerism. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannerism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pontormo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontormo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mannerism. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannerism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Louvre wtewael 1616. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louvre_wtewael_1616.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Parmigianino 003b. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Parmigianino_003b.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Jacopo_Pontormo_004.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannerism. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Michelangelo the libyan. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Michelangelo_the_libyan.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Madonna with the Long Neck. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna_with_the_Long_Neck. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mannerism. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannerism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mannerism. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Mannerism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Boundless. 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Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Reformation_and_art%23Art_and_the_Counter-Reformation. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - refectory. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/refectory. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Counter-Reformation. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Counter-Reformation. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:34.296166	2020-05-01T17:34:29	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/19%3A_The_Italian_Renaissance/19.06%3A_Mannerism", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "19.6: Mannerism", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance	20: The Northern Renaissance Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52963 Boundless Boundless 20.1: The Northern Renaissance 20.2: Painting in the Northern Renaissance 20.3: Books of the Northern Renaissance 20.4: Architecture of the Northern Renaissance 20.5: Sculpture of the Northern Renaissance 20.6: Textiles of the Northern Renaissance	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:34.382376	2020-05-01T17:29:54	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "20: The Northern Renaissance", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance/20.01%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance	20.1: The Northern Renaissance The Northern Renaissance Before 1450, Renaissance humanism had little influence outside Italy; after 1450, these ideas began to spread throughout Europe. Describe how the Northern Renaissance differed from the Italian Renaissance Key Points - Humanism influenced the Renaissance periods in Germany, France, England, the Netherlands, and Poland. There were also other national and localized movements, each with different characteristics and strengths. - Northern painters in the 16th century increasingly looked to Rome for influence, and became known as the Romanists . The High Renaissance art of Michelangelo and Raphael and the stylistic tendencies of Mannerism also had a great impact on their work. - Although Renaissance humanism and the large number of surviving classical artworks and monuments in Italy encouraged many Italian painters to explore Greco-Roman themes, Northern Renaissance painters developed other subject matters, such as landscape and genre painting. Key Terms - Romanists : A group of artists in the late 15th and early 16th century from the Netherlands who began to visit Italy and started to incorporate Renaissance influences in their work. - Northern Renaissance : The Northern Renaissance describes the Renaissance as it occurred in northern Europe. The Northern Renaissance describes the Renaissance in northern Europe. Before 1450, Renaissance humanism had little influence outside Italy; however, after 1450 these ideas began to spread across Europe. This influenced the Renaissance periods in Germany, France, England, the Netherlands, and Poland. There were also other national and localized movements. Each of these regional expressions of the Renaissance evolved with different characteristics and strengths. In some areas, the Northern Renaissance was distinct from the Italian Renaissance in its centralization of political power. While Italy and Germany were dominated by independent city-states , parts of central and western Europe began emerging as nation-states. The Northern Renaissance was also closely linked to the Protestant Reformation , and the long series of internal and external conflicts between various Protestant groups and the Roman Catholic Church had lasting effects. As in Italy, the decline of feudalism opened the way for the cultural, social, and economic changes associated with the Renaissance in northern Europe. Northern painters in the 16th century increasingly looked to Rome for influence, and became known as the Romanists. The High Renaissance art of Michelangelo and Raphael and the stylistic tendencies of Mannerism had a significant impact on their work. Although Renaissance humanism and the large number of surviving classical artworks and monuments in Italy encouraged many Italian painters to explore Greco-Roman themes, Northern Renaissance painters developed other subject matters, such as landscape and genre painting. As Renaissance art styles moved through northern Europe, they were adapted to local customs. For example, in England and the northern Netherlands, the Reformation nearly ended the tradition of religious painting. In France, the School of Fontainebleau, which was originally founded by Italians such as Rosso Fiorentino, succeeded in establishing a durable national style. Finally, by the end of the 16th century, artists such as Karel van Mander and Hendrik Goltzius collected in Haarlem in a brief but intense phase of Northern Mannerism that also spread to Flanders . Impact of the Protestant Reformation The Reformation was a religious movement in the 16th century that resulted in the theological divide between Roman Catholics and Protestants. Describe the Protestant Reformation and its effects on Western European art of the 16th century Key Points - Art that portrayed religious figures or scenes followed Protestant theology by depicting people and stories accurately and clearly and emphasized salvation through divine grace, rather than through personal deeds, or by intervention of church bureaucracy. - Reformation art embraced Protestant values , although the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced. Instead, many artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of art like history painting , landscapes, portraiture, and still life . - The Protestant Reformation induced a wave of iconoclasm , or the destruction of religious imagery , among the more radical evangelists. Key Terms - Protestant Reformation : The 16th century schism within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other early Protestants; characterized by the objection to the doctrines, rituals, and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church and led to the creation of Protestant churches, which were outside of the control of the Vatican. - iconoclasm : The belief in, participation in, or sanction of destroying religious icons and other symbols or monuments, usually with religious or political motives. The Protestant Reformation and Art The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement that occurred in Western Europe during the 16th century that resulted in the theological divide between Roman Catholics and Protestants. This movement created a North-South split in Europe, where generally Northern countries became Protestant, while Southern countries remained Catholic. Protestant theology centered on the individual relationship between the worshiper and the divine, and accordingly, the Reformation’s artistic movement focused on the individual’s personal relationship with God. This was reflected in a number of common people and day-to-day scenes depicted in art. The Reformation ushered in a new artistic tradition that highlighted the Protestant belief system and diverged drastically from southern European humanist art produced during the High Renaissance . Reformation art embraced Protestant values, although the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced (largely because a huge patron for the arts—the Catholic Church—was no longer active in these countries). Instead, many artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of art like history painting, landscapes, portraiture, and still life. Art that portrayed religious figures or scenes followed Protestant theology by depicting people and stories accurately and clearly and emphasized salvation through divine grace, rather than through personal deeds, or by intervention of church bureaucracy. This is the direct influence of one major criticism of the Catholic Church during the Reformation—that painters created biblical scenes that strayed from their true story, were hard to identify, and were embellished with painterly effects instead of focusing on the theological message. In terms of subject matter, iconic images of Christ and scenes from the Passion became less frequent, as did portrayals of the saints and clergy. Instead, narrative scenes from the Bible and moralistic depictions of modern life became prevalent. The Protestant Reformation also capitalized on the popularity of printmaking in northern Europe. Printmaking allowed images to be mass produced and widely available to the public at low cost. The Protestant church was therefore able to bring their theology to the people through portable, inexpensive visual media . This allowed for the widespread availability of visually persuasive imagery. With the great development of the engraving and printmaking market in Antwerp in the 16th century, the public was provided with accessible and affordable images. Many artists provided drawings to book and print publishers. Iconoclasm and Resistance to Idolatry All forms of Protestantism showed a degree of hostility to religious images, especially sculpture and large paintings, considering them forms of idol worship. After the early years of the Reformation, artists in Protestant areas painted far fewer religious subjects for public display, partly because religious art had long been associated with the Catholic Church. Although, there was a conscious effort to develop a Protestant iconography of Bible images in book illustrations and prints. During the early Reformation, some artists made paintings for churches that depicted the leaders of the Reformation in ways very similar to Catholic saints. Later, Protestant taste turned away from the display of religious scenes in churches, although some continued to be displayed in homes. There was also a reaction against images from classical mythology, the other manifestation of the High Renaissance at the time. This brought about a style that was more directly related to accurately portraying the present times. For example, Bruegel’s Wedding Feast portrays a Flemish-peasant wedding dinner in a barn. It makes no reference to any religious, historical, or classical events, and merely gives insight into the everyday life of the Flemish peasant. The Protestant Reformation induced a wave of iconoclasm, or the destruction of religious imagery, among the more radical evangelists. Protestant leaders, especially Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, actively eliminated imagery from their churches and regarded the great majority of religious images as idolatrous—even plain crosses. On the other hand, Martin Luther encouraged the display of a restricted range of religious imagery in churches. For the most part, however, Reformation iconoclasm resulted in a disappearance of religious figurative art, compared with the amount of secular pieces that emerged. Antwerp: A Center of the Northern Renaissance Antwerp, located in Belgium, was a center for art in the Netherlands and northern Europe for much of the 16th and 17th centuries. Describe the characteristics of Antwerp Mannerism Key Points - The Antwerp School for painting flourished during the 16th and 17th centuries. The Antwerp School comprised many generations of artists and is known for portraiture, animal paintings, still lifes, and prints. - Antwerp Mannerism bore no relation to Renaissance Mannerism, but the name suggests a reaction to the “classic” style of the earlier Flemish painters. Although attempts have been made to identify individual artists, most paintings remain attributed to anonymous masters. - Antwerp was an internationally significant publishing center, with prodigious production of old master prints and book illustrations. Furthermore, Antwerp animaliers, or animal painters, such as Frans Snyders, Jan Fyt, and Paul de Vos, dominated animal painting in Europe. Key Terms - Antwerp School : The Antwerp School is a term for the artists active in Antwerp, first during the 16th century when the city was the economic center of the Low Countries, and then during the 17th century when it became the artistic stronghold of the Flemish Baroque under Peter Paul Rubens. - Antwerp : A province of Flanders, Belgium. Antwerp, located in present-day Belgium, was a center for art in the Netherlands and northern Europe for much of the 16th and 17th centuries. The so-called Antwerp School for painting flourished during the 16th century when the city was the economic center of the Low Countries, and again during the 17th century when it became the artistic stronghold of the Flemish Baroque . The Antwerp School comprised many generations of artists and is known for portraiture, animal paintings, still lifes, and prints. Antwerp became the main trading and commercial center of the Low Countries around 1500, and the boost in the economy attracted many artists to the cities to join craft guilds . For example, many 16th century painters, artists, and craftsmen joined the Guild of Saint Luke, which educated apprentices and guaranteed quality. The first school of artists to emerge in the city were the Antwerp Mannerists , a group of anonymous late Gothic painters active in the city from about 1500 to 1520. Antwerp Mannerism bore no direct relation to Renaissance or Italian Mannerism, but the name suggests a style that was a reaction to the “classic” style of the earlier Flemish painters. Although attempts have been made to identify individual artists, most paintings remain attributed to anonymous masters. Characteristic of Antwerp Mannerism are paintings that combine early Netherlandish and Northern Renaissance styles, and incorporate both Flemish and Italian traditions into the same compositions . Practitioners of the style frequently painted subjects such as the Adoration of the Magi and the Nativity, both of which are generally represented as night scenes, crowded with figures and dramatically illuminated. The Adoration scenes were especially popular with the Antwerp Mannerists, who delighted in the patterns of the elaborate clothes worn by the Magi and the ornamentation of the architectural ruins in which the scene was set. The iconoclastic riots (“Beeldenstorm” in Dutch) of 1566 that preceded the Dutch Revolt resulted in the destruction of many works of religious art , after which time the churches and monasteries had to be refurnished and redecorated. Artists such as Otto van Veen and members of the Francken family, working in a late Mannerist style, provided new religious decoration. These also marked the beginning of economic decline in the city, as the Scheldt river was blockaded by the Dutch Republic in 1585 and trade restricted. The city experienced an artistic renewal in the 17th century. The large workshops of Peter Paul Rubens and Jacob Jordaens, along with the influence of Anthony van Dyck, made Antwerp the center of the Flemish Baroque. The city was an internationally significant publishing center, with prodigious production of old master prints and book illustrations. Furthermore, Antwerp animaliers or animal painters, such as Frans Snyders, Jan Fyt ,and Paul de Vos, dominated animal painting in Europe for at least the first half of the century. But as the economy continued to decline, and the Habsburg nobility and the Church reduced their patronage , many artists trained in Antwerp left for the Netherlands, England, France, or elsewhere. By the end of the 17th century, Antwerp was no longer a major artistic center. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Jan Gossaert 003. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jan_Gossaert_003.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Northern renaissance. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_renaissance . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Northern Renaissance. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Renaissance. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Romanism. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanism_(painting) . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pieter Bruegel d.nu00c4.n011. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._011.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Altaarretabel Domkerk. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Altaarretabel_Domkerk.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Peasant Wedding. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Peasant_Wedding. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Reformation and art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Reformation_and_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - iconoclasm. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/iconoclasm. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Protestant Reformation. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant%20Reformation. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Jan Gossaert 001. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jan_Gossaert_001.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Jan Fyt 001. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jan_Fyt_001.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - The Adoration of the Kings (Gossaert). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Adoration_of_the_Kings_(Gossaert). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Antwerp Mannerism. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Antwerp_Mannerism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Antwerp school. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Antwerp_school. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Antwerp School. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Antwerp%20School. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Antwerp. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Antwerp. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:34.472345	2020-05-01T17:34:38	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance/20.01%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "20.1: The Northern Renaissance", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance/20.02%3A_Painting_in_the_Northern_Renaissance	20.2: Painting in the Northern Renaissance Flemish Painting in the Northern Renaissance The Flemish School refers to artists who were active in Flanders during the 15th and 16th centuries. Compare the artistic advances seen in the works of Robern Campin, Jan van Eyck, and Rogier van der Weyden Key Points - The three most prominent painters during this period, Jan van Eyck, Robert Campin, and Rogier van der Weyden, were known for making significant advances in illusionism , or the realistic and precise representation of people, space , and objects. - The preferred subject matter of the Flemish School was typically religious in nature, and the majority of the work was presented as panels, usually in the form of diptychs or polyptychs. - While the Italian Renaissance was based on rediscoveries of classical Greece and Rome , the Flemish school drew influence from the region’s Gothic past. - Van Eyck is known for signing and dating his work “ALS IK KAN” (“AS I CAN”). - Robert Campin has been identified with the signature “Master of Flemalle.” - Because the Flemish masters used a workshop system, they were able to mass produce high-end panels for sale and export throughout Europe. Key Terms - illusionism : The realistic and precise representation of people, space, and objects. - tempera : A type of painting where color pigments are mixed with a binder, usually egg. Tempera can also refers to the finished work of art itself. - triptych : A picture or series of pictures painted on three tablets connected by hinges. - polyptych : A work consisting of multiple painted or carved panels joined together, often with hinges. The Flemish School The Flemish School, which has also been called the Northern Renaissance , the Flemish Primitive School, and Early Netherlandish, refers to artists who were active in Flanders during the 15th and 16th centuries, especially in the cities of Bruges and Ghent. The three most prominent painters during this period—Jan van Eyck, Robert Campin, and Rogier van der Weyden—were known for making significant advances in illusionism, or the realistic and precise representation of people, space, and objects. The preferred subject matter of the Flemish School was typically religious in nature, but small portraits were common as well. The majority of this work was presented as either panels, single altarpieces , or more complex altarpieces, which were usually in the form of diptychs or polyptychs. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the Low Countries became a political and artistic center focused around the cities of Bruges and Ghent. Because Flemish masters employed a workshop system, wherein craftsmen helped to complete their art, they were able to mass produce high-end panels for sale throughout Europe. The Flemish School emerged almost concurrently with the Italian Renaissance. However, while the Italian Renaissance was based on the rediscoveries of classical Greek and Roman culture , the Flemish school drew influence from the area’s Gothic past. These artists also experimented with oil paint earlier than their Italian Renaissance peers. Robert Campin Robert Campin, considered the first master of the Flemish School, has been identified with the signature “Master of Flemalle,” which appears on numerous works of art. Campin is known for producing highly realistic works, for making great use of perspective and shading, and for being one of the first artists to work with oil paint instead of tempera . One of his best known works, the Merode Altarpiece, is a triptych that depicts an Annunciation Scene. The Archangel Gabriel approaches Mary as she is reading in a room that is recognized as a typical middle class Flanders home. The work is highly realistic, and the objects throughout the painting conveyed recognizable, religious meaning to viewers at the time. Jan Van Eyck Jan van Eyck, a contemporary of Campin, is widely considered to be one of the most significant Northern European painters of the 15th century. He is known for signing and dating his work “ALS IK KAN” (“AS I CAN”). Signatures were not particularly customary during this time, but helped to secure his lasting reputation. Active in Bruges, and very popular within his own lifetime, van Eyck’s work was highly innovative and technical. It exhibited a masterful manipulation of oil paint and a high degree of realism . While van Eyck completed many famous paintings, perhaps his most famous is the Ghent Altarpiece , a commissioned polyptych from around 1432. Rogier van der Weyden Rogier van der Weyden is the last of the three most renowned Early Flemish painters. An apprentice under Robert Campin, van der Weyden exhibited many stylistic similarities, including the use of realism. Highly successful in his lifetime, his surviving works are mainly religious triptychs, altarpieces, and commissioned portraits. By the end of the 15th century, van der Weyden surpassed even van Eyck in popularity. Van der Weyden’s most well-known painting is The Descent From the Cross , circa 1435. Panel Painting in the Northern Renaissance The court of the Holy Roman Emperor played an important role in panel paintings during the Northern Renaissance. Describe panel painting in the Holy Roman Empire Key Points - A panel painting is a painting made on a flat panel made of wood, either a single piece or a number of pieces joined together. Until canvas became the more popular support medium in the 16th century, panels were the normal form of support for a painting not painted directly onto a wall (known as a fresco) or vellum , which was used for miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and paintings for the framing. Key Terms - Holy Roman Emperor : A term used by historians to denote a medieval ruler who had also received the title “Emperor of the Romans” from the Pope. The court of the Holy Roman Emperor , originally based in Prague, played an important role in supporting artists as patrons during the Northern Renaissance . During this time period, works of art were often painted on wooden panels and are referred to as “tempera on panel” or “oil on panel.” A panel painting is a painting made on a flat panel made of wood, either a single piece or a number of pieces joined together. Until canvas became the more popular support medium in the 16th century, panels were the normal form of support for a painting not painted directly onto a wall (known as a fresco) or vellum, which was used for miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and paintings for the framing. Albrech Durer is a well known artist of the Northern Italian Renaissance who found a patron in Emperor Maximillian I. Durer. Like most painters during this time period, Durer painted on wood panels. German Painting in the Northern Renaissance The German Renaissance is reflective of Italian and German influence in its paintings, and one is not present without the other. Discuss the work of Dürer, Grünewald, Holbein, Altdorfer, and other artists of the Danube school during the Holy Roman Empire in Germany Key Points - Albrecht Dürer ‘s work shows strong classical influence due, in part, to his travels to the Italian peninsula. - Matthias Grünewald combined Gothic and Renaissance attributes in his painted work on the Isenheim Altarpiece . - The Danube School is known for the first productions of painted landscapes (independent of foreground figures) in nearly 1,000 years. - Hans Holbein the Elder and his brother Sigismund Holbein painted religious works in the late Gothic style . The former was a pioneer and leader in the transformation of German art from the Gothic to the Renaissance style. - The outstanding achievements of the first half of the 16th century were followed by a remarkable absence of noteworthy German art. Key Terms - perspective : The illusion of distance or depth on a two-dimensional surface. - en plein air : In an outdoor setting, as opposed to in a studio or other interior location. - polyptych : An artwork, usually a painting, consisting of four or more panels. - Classical ornament : Influenced by the Roman motif in style. Albrecht Dürer One of a small number of Germans with the means to travel internationally, Nuremberg born Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) helped bring the artistic styles of the Renaissance north of the Italian Alps after his visits to the Italian peninsula in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Like the Italian artists Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo Buonarotti, Dürer was a Renaissance Man, adept in multiple disciplines such as painting, printmaking , and mathematical theorizing. Dürer’s introduction of classical motifs into Northern art has secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance . This is reinforced by his theoretical treatises, which involve principles of mathematics, perspective , and ideal proportions. One of Dürer’s paintings that display a clearly classical rendering of the body is Adam and Eve (1507), the first full-scale nude subjects in German painting. A clear departure from flat and stylized representations of the Romanesque and Gothic periods, the bodies appear naturalistic and dynamic, with each figure posed in an engaging contrapposto pose. Although they stand against a black background, the ground on which both figures stand and the tree that flanks Eve comprise naturalistic landscape elements. Likely the first landscape painter in Early Modern Europe, Dürer honed his landscape painting skills working en plein air at home and during his travels. Matthias Grünewald Lying somewhat outside these developments is Matthias Grünewald, whose birthplace is located in eastern France and who left very few works. However, his Isenheim Altarpiece (1512–1516), produced in collaboration with Niclaus of Haguenau, has been widely regarded as the greatest German Renaissance painting since it was restored to critical attention in the 19th century. It is an intensely emotional work that continues the German Gothic tradition of unrestrained gesture and expression, using Renaissance compositional principles while maintaining the Gothic format of the multi-winged polyptych . In its closed form , the Isenheim Altarpiece depicts an emaciated Christ whose skin bears many dark spots. Its lower panel, which houses relief sculptures displayed on certain feast days, opens in a manner that makes the legs of Christ, being entombed, appear amputated. Not surprisingly, Grünewald produced the altarpiece for a chapel in an infirmary that treated patients with a variety of diseases, including ergotism and isolated remaining strains of the plague. A primary symptom of both diseases was painful sores on the skin. In some cases of ergotism, limbs developed gangrene and had to be amputated. Through the skin sores and seemingly amputated legs, Grünewald informs the viewer that Christ understands and feels the suffering of the sick. Such “humanization” of Biblical figures became common throughout Europe during the Renaissance in an effort to make them more relatable to worshippers. The Danube School Albrecht Altdorfer’s (c.1480–1538) Danube Landscape near Regensburg (c. 1528) is one of the earliest Western pure landscapes. The Danube School is the name of a circle of artists from the southern German-speaking states active during the first third of the 16th century in Bavaria and Austria, including Albrecht Altdorfer, Wolf Huber, and Augustin Hirschvogel. With Altdorfer in the lead, the school produced the first examples of independent landscape art in the West (nearly 1,000 years after China), in both paintings and prints. Their religious paintings had an expressionist style somewhat similar to Grünewald’s. Dürer’s pupils Hans Burgkmair and Hans Baldung Grien worked largely in prints, with Baldung developing the topical subject matter of witches in a number of enigmatic prints. Hans Holbein the Elder Hans Holbein the Elder and his brother Sigismund Holbein painted richly colored religious works. His later paintings show how he pioneered and led the transformation of German art from the (Late) International Gothic to the Renaissance style. Holbein the Elder was a pioneer and leader in the transformation of German art from the Gothic to the Renaissance style. His son, Hans Holbein the Younger, was an important painter of portraits and a few religious works, working mainly in England and Switzerland. The outstanding achievements of the first half of the 16th century were followed by a remarkable absence of noteworthy German art. The next significant German artists worked in the rather artificial style of Northern Mannerism , which they had to learn in Italy or Flanders . Hans von Aachen and the Netherlandish Bartholomeus Spranger were the leading painters at the Imperial courts in Vienna and Prague, and the productive Netherlandish Sadeler family of engravers spread out across Germany, among other counties. Spanish Painting in the Northern Renaissance Spanish art of the Northern Renaissance was influenced by Netherlandish painting, due to shared economic and political connections. Discuss the Golden Age of Spain as manifested through painting Key Points - Spain was an extremely devout country and Spanish painting in the 16th century exhibited a sense of religious intensity . - El Greco was one of the most important and distinctive artists to emerge during the Spanish Golden Age. - Mannerism was the dominant style of painting for most of the 16th century. Key Terms - intensity : The degree of depth, strength, or brilliance of a color or light. - sfumato : In painting, the application of subtle layers of translucent paint so that there is no visible transition between colors, tones, and often objects. - Mannerism : A style of art developed at the end of the High Renaissance, characterized by the deliberate distortion and exaggeration of perspective, especially the elongation of figures. Influence of the Netherlands Due to important economic and political links between Spain and the Netherlands (which included present-day Holland and Belgium) from the mid-15th century onwards, the early Renaissance in Spain was heavily influenced by Netherlandish painting, leading to the identification of a Hispano-Netherlandish school of painters. Overall the Renaissance and subsequent Mannerist styles are difficult to categorize in Spain, due to the mix of Netherlandish and Italian influences, and regional variations. Apart from technical aspects, the themes and spirit of the Renaissance were modified to the Spanish culture and religious environment. Consequently, very few classical subjects or female nudes were depicted. Rather, the works frequently exhibited a sense of pious devotion and religious intensity—attributes that would remain dominant in much art of Counter Reformation Spain throughout the 17th century and beyond. Spanish Golden Age The Spanish Golden Age, a period of Spanish political ascendancy and subsequent decline, saw a great development of art in Spain. The period is generally considered to have begun at some point after 1492 and ended by or with the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659; in art the start is delayed until the reign of Philip III (1598–1621) or just before, and the end is also delayed until the 1660s or later. Luis de Morales The most popular Spanish painter of the early 16th century was Luis de Morales (c. 1510–1586), called “The Divine” by his contemporaries, because of the religious intensity of his paintings. From the Renaissance style, he also frequently used sfumato modeling, and simple compositions but combined them with Netherlandish style precision of details. His subjects included many devotional images, including the Madonna and Child . El Greco Doménikos Theotokópoulos, better known as El Greco (1541–1614) “the Greek,” was one of the most individualistic of the painters of the period, developing a strongly Mannerist style based on his origins in the post-Byzantine Cretan school, in contrast to the naturalistic approaches then predominant in Seville, Madrid, and elsewhere in Spain. Universally known for his great impact in bringing the Italian Renaissance to Spain, El Greco studied the great Italian masters of his time—Titian, Tintoretto, and Michelangelo—when he lived in Italy from 1568 to 1577. Many of his works reflect the silvery grays and strong colors of Venetian painters such as Titian, while adding strange elongations of figures, unusual lighting, disposing of perspective space , and filling the surface with very visible and expressive brushwork. Although his signature style would eventually become renowned and influence later artists, during his lifetime, El Greco received harsh criticism in his native Crete and his adopted country of Spain for not conforming to stylistic norms. In 1577, El Greco relocated to Spain, where he produced his mature works. His mature style is characterized by a tendency to dramatize rather than to describe. The strong spiritual emotion transfers from painting directly to the audience. El Greco’s preference for exceptionally tall and slender figures and elongated compositions, which served both his expressive purposes and aesthetic principles, led him to disregard the laws of nature and elongate his compositions to ever greater extents, particularly when they were destined for altarpieces . A significant innovation of El Greco’s mature works is the interweaving between form and space. A reciprocal relationship is developed between the two that completely unifies the painting surface. This interweaving would re-emerge three centuries later in the works of Paul Cézanne and Pablo Picasso . El Greco’s most famous painting, The Burial of the Count of Orgaz (1586–88) blends his signature style with the classical revival of the Renaissance and medieval renderings of the body. The lower register represents the earthly plane in which mourners gather for the count’s burial. The count, the mourners, and most of the clergy are rendered in a manner that acknowledge the body beneath the clothing. However, the two high-ranking clergy members burying the body, as well as the one reading the sermon on the right, wear bulky garments that do not acknowledge the body, as figures were often depicted in the Middle Ages . On the upper register, Christ, the Virgin Mary, and a host of members of the heavenly court gather to welcome the count’s soul (the kneeling semi-naked man in a loincloth) to heaven. In this other worldy depiction, El Greco has elongated the bodies and filled negative spaces with sweeping, expressive lines and forms to create a sense of drama. English Painting in the Northern Renaissance The Tudor period was, for England, one of isolation from European trends. Discuss the paintings produced under the Tudor dynasty in England Key Points - In the Tudor period, foreign artists were recruited and often welcomed lavishly by the English court. - The Netherlandish painters remained predominant, though French influence was also important for Lucas Horenbout and Nicholas Hilliard. Despite a growing influence of classicism on the continent, Horenbout’s early miniatures of the royal family show a strong influence of illuminated manuscript styles . - The German artist Hans Holbein the Younger was probably the best known painter of the court of Henry VIII. His double portrait The Ambassadors foreshadows the increasingly secular subject matter of English painting. - With the virtual extinction of religious painting during the Reformation , and little interest in classical mythology until the very end of the period, the portrait was the most important form of painting for all the artists of the Tudor court, and the only one to have survived in any numbers. - A portrait of Elizabeth I as a princess is largely absent of religious symbolism despite its sitter’s future role as Defender of the Faith. Although the style of the portrait bears striking similarities to contemporary royal portraits produced in France, the sitter’s status as a female future sovereign was unique for its time. Key Terms - limner : A painter who specializes in the production of portrait miniatures. - Tudors : A European royal house of Welsh origin that ruled the Kingdom of England and its realms, including the Lordship of Ireland (later the Kingdom of Ireland) from 1485 until 1603. Art of the Tudor Court The artists of the Tudor court were the painters and limners engaged by the English monarchs’ Tudor dynasty and their courtiers between 1485 and 1603 (from the reign of Henry VII to the death of Elizabeth I). Typically managing a group of assistants and apprentices in a workshop or studio, many of these artists produced works across several disciplines, including portrait miniatures, large-scale panel portraits on wood, and illuminated manuscripts. The Tudor period was, for England, one of unusual isolation from European trends. At the start, the Wars of the Roses had greatly disrupted artistic activity, which apart from architecture had reached a very low ebb by 1485. In the Tudor period, foreign artists were recruited and often welcomed lavishly by the English court, as they were in other artistically marginal parts of Europe like Spain or Naples. The Netherlandish painters remained predominant, though French influence was also important for both Lucas Horenbout, trained in illuminated manuscripts, and Nicholas Hilliard, the founder and greatest exponent of the distinctively English tradition of the portrait miniature. Horenbout’s portrait miniature of Katharine of Aragon, the first wife of Henry VIII, with its relatively flat subject matter and gold outlines , bears a closer resemblance to illuminated manuscripts than to the realistically modeled classical style appearing elsewhere in Europe at the time. The Court of Henry VIII Possibly the best known painter employed in the court of Henry VIII was the German artist Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543), who worked in the style of the Northern Renaissance . His portraits of the royal family and nobles are a record of the court in the years when the king was asserting his supremacy over the English church. By 1533, when Holbein painted his famous double portrait The Ambassadors , Henry VIII had severed the Church of England from Rome when the Pope refused to allow the king to divorce Katharine of Aragon and marry Anne Boelyn. Although Holbein’s sitters Jean de Dinteville and Georges de Selve were ordained Catholic priests from France, religious symbolism in the painting is significantly subordinated. Almost hidden behind the green curtain in the upper left-hand corner is a crucifix. On the second level of the table between the ambassadors is a lute (typically a symbol of harmony) with a broken string, symbolizing the separation of the English church from Roman Catholicism. The book in front of it provides an explanation for the discord, as it is opened to a hymn to Martin Luther, who began the Protestant Reformation . Unlike Holbein’s native land, in which Lutheranism permitted a certain degree of religious imagery , the subject matter in The Ambassadors foreshadows the new direction in religious austerity in English art as Catholicism became less tolerated. The Court of Elizabeth I With the virtual extinction of religious painting during the Reformation and little interest in classical mythology until the very end of the period, the portrait was the most important form of painting for all the artists of the Tudor court, and the only form to have survived in any numbers. How many of these have also been lost can be seen from Holbein’s book (nearly all pages in the Royal Collection), containing preparatory drawings for portraits. Of 85 drawings, only a handful have surviving Holbein paintings, though often copies have survived. Portraiture ranged from the informal miniature—almost invariably painted from life in the course of a few days and intended for private contemplation—to the later large-scale portraits of Elizabeth I, such as the Rainbow Portrait , filled with symbolic iconography in dress, jewels, background, and inscription. Elizabeth I took a personal interest in painting, keeping her own collection of miniatures locked away, wrapped in paper on which she wrote the names of the sitter. She is reputed to have had paintings of her burnt that did not match the iconic image she wished to be shown. One portrait that she did retain was painted before she ascended the throne. Elizabeth I as Princess (c. 1546), once attributed to William Scrots but now believed to have been painted by Levinia Teerlinc, depicts a young literate woman standing erect and exchanging her gaze with the viewer in the confident manner in which Jean Clouet painted François I of France. Whereas Holbein subordinates the crucifix in The Ambassadors , the only hint at religious symbolism in this portrait of the future Defender of the Faith are the abstract cruciform designs on her brooch and her belt. The book in her hand and on the easel behind her bear no title or writing, allowing them to be interpreted as secular literature, as opposed to Biblical scripture. While the portrait style of the classically rendered confident sitter against a decorative background shows French influence, the gender of the sitter was unique to England at the time. Because Henry VIII’s only surviving son had died during his adolescence, the English law of succession had to be amended to allow Elizabeth and her elder sister Mary access to the throne. Later portraits of Elizabeth would often depict her holding a globe in her hand to symbolize her growing international power in an age of exploration and conquest. In France, on the other hand, women were barred from serving as sovereign rulers and would never be pictured as possessing such power. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - El Descendimiento, by Rogier van der Weyden, from Prado in Google Earth. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:El_Descendimiento,_by_Rogier_van_der_Weyden,_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Merodealtarpiece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Merodealtarpiece.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Lamgods open. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lamgods_open.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Descent from the Cross (van der Weyden). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Descent_from_the_Cross_(van_der_Weyden). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - ARTH111: Introduction to Western Art History - Proto-Renaissance to Contemporary Art. Provided by : Saylor. Located at : https://legacy.saylor.org/arth111/Intro/ . License : CC BY: Attribution - Jan van Eyck. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_van_Eyck. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Early Netherlandish painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Rogier van der Weyden. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogier_van_der_Weyden. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Robert Campin. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Campin. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Northern Renaissance. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Renaissance. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Northern Renaissance. Provided by : Saylor. Located at : http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/HIST302-8.3.1-Northern-Renaissance-FINAL.pdf . License : CC BY: Attribution - triptych. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/triptych. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - tempera. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tempera. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - polyptych. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/polyptych. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Durer_selfporitrait.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Portrait_(D%C3%BCrer,_Munich). License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - German art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/German_art%23Renaissance_painting_and_prints. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - International Gothic. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Gothic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Holy Roman Emperor. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy%20Roman%20Emperor. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Grunewald_Isenheim1.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=128080%20. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 382px-Albrecht_Du00fcrer_-_Adam_and_Eve_(Prado)_2.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=150385%20. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-Hans_Holbein_the_Elder_-_The_Dormition_of_the_Virgin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=22007482. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Albrecht Altdorfer 007. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albrecht_Altdorfer_007.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Albrecht Altdorfer. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Altdorfer. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Albrecht Du00fcrer. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : goo.gl/7CkJnd. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Definition of Classical Ornament in Art History. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com/art-history/definition/classical-ornament. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hans Holbein the Elder. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Holbein_the_Elder. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Adam and Eve (Du00fcrer). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : goo.gl/ANhrBH. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Isenheim Altarpiece. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Isenheim_Altarpiece. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Matthias Gru00fcnewald. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : goo.gl/p9nnMG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - German Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/German_art%23Renaissance_painting_and_prints. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 392px-El_Greco_-_The_Burial_of_the_Count_of_Orgaz.jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1170096%20. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - El Greco. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Greco. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 279px-El_Expolio,_por_El_Greco.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=46661432. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 361px-Luis_de_Morales_001.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=155900 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - The Disrobing of Christ. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Disrobing_of_Christ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Spanish Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_art%23Renaissance_and_Mannerism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - El Greco. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Greco. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Luis de Morales. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_de_Morales. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Spanish Golden Age. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age%23Painting. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sfumato. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sfumato. 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Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elizabeth_I_Rainbow_Portrait.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Portraiture of Elizabeth I of England. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Portraiture_of_Elizabeth_I_of_England. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Levinia Teerlinc. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Levina_Teerlinc. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hans Holbein the Younger. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Holbein_the_Younger. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lucas Hornebout. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_Horenbout. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Art in the Elizabethan Era. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_in_the_Elizabethan_era. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tudors. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudors. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Portrait Miniatures. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/portrait%20miniatures. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:34.626742	2020-05-01T17:34:40	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance/20.02%3A_Painting_in_the_Northern_Renaissance", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "20.2: Painting in the Northern Renaissance", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance/20.03%3A_Books_of_the_Northern_Renaissance	20.3: Books of the Northern Renaissance Illuminated Manuscripts During the early to mid 1400s, illuminated books were considered a high art form, and Burgundy (Flanders) was a center of such production. Examine the market for illuminated manuscripts in northern Europe during the Gothic period and how it changed Key Points - Illuminated manuscripts included religious works such the books of hours and prayer books, but also histories, tales of adventure and love, poetry, and a wide range of moralizing works that we might classify as self-improvement books today. - By the 14th century, the production of luxury manuscripts by monks writing in the monastic scriptorium had almost fully given way to commercial urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome , and Burgundy. - At the time illuminated manuscripts were considered treasured works of high craft; to own books indicated wealth, status, and taste. In addition books were commonly used as diplomatic gifts or as offerings to commemorate dynastic marriages. - In the 1440s the cities of Bruges and Ghent became the most important centers of production of illuminated manuscripts, in part due to the patronage of the cultured Philip the Good , who by his death had collected over 1,000 individual books. - Simon Marmion was perhaps the best known and most successful artist specializing in this area, although van Eyck is thought to have contributed to the “Turin-Milan Hours” as the anonymous artist known as Hand G. Key Terms - scriptoria : Rooms set aside for the copying, writing, or illuminating of manuscripts and records, especially in monasteries. - illuminated manuscript : A book in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia), and miniature illustrations. - Simon Marmion : Born c. 1425 at Amiens, France, died 24 or 25 December 1489, Valenciennes. A French or Burgundian Early Netherlandish painter of panels and illuminated manuscripts. Marmion lived and worked in what is now France but for most of his lifetime was part of the Duchy of Burgundy in the Southern Netherlands. - Philip the Good : July 31, 1396–June 15, 1467. Philip was Duke of Burgundy from 1419 until his death. He was a member of a cadet line of the Valois dynasty (the then Royal family of France). During his reign Burgundy reached the height of its prosperity and prestige and became a leading center of the arts. Illumination in a Gothic World The Gothic period, which generally saw an increase in the production of illuminated manuscripts, also saw more secular works such as chronicles and works of literature illuminated. Wealthy people began to build up personal libraries. Philip the Bold probably had the largest personal library of his time in the mid-15th century; he is estimated to have had about 600 illuminated manuscripts, while a number of his friends and relations had several dozen. Monastic Production of Luxury Books During the early to mid 1400s, illuminated books were considered a higher art form than panel painting. While they had traditionally been created in monasteries, by the 12th century levels of demand led to their production in specialist workshops known in French as libraires . The works included religious works such the books of hours and prayer books, but also histories, tales of adventure and love , poetry, and a wide range of moralizing works that we might classify as self-improvement books today. Urban Scriptoria By the 14th century, the production of luxury manuscripts by monks writing in the monastic scriptorium had almost fully given way to commercial urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome, and Burgundy. While the process of creating an illuminated manuscript did not change, the move from monasteries to commercial settings was a radical step. Demand for manuscripts grew to such an extent that the monastic libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began employing secular scribes and illuminators. These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the day. In reality, illuminators were often well-known and acclaimed and many of their identities have survived. At the time illuminated manuscripts were considered treasured works of high craft; to own books indicated wealth, status, and taste. In addition, they became common as diplomatic gifts, or offerings to commemorate dynastic marriages. Paris was the major source of supply after their production spread from the monasteries. However, its importance was supplanted in the 1440s by the cities of Bruges and Ghent, in part due to the patronage of the cultured Philip the Good, who by his death had collected over 1,000 individual books. When in the early to mid-15 th century manuscripts were held in higher regard than panel paintings, masters would often produce single leaf illustrations to be almost randomly inserted into precious books, as a means for the master to display and advertise his skill. Outstanding Illuminators Simon Marmion was perhaps the best known and most successful artist specializing in this area, although van Eyck is thought to have contributed to the Turin-Milan Hours as the anonymous artist known as Hand G. A number of illustrations from the period show a strong stylistic resemblance to the work of Gerard David, though it is unclear whether they are by his hand or by his followers. There was considerable overlap between panel painting and illumination, and by the second half of the century large manuscript commissions were often shared between several different masters, with more junior painters, including many women, assisting, especially in producing the increasingly elaborate border decoration. German Woodcuts Printmaking by woodcut and engraving was already more developed in Germany and the Low Countries than anywhere else during the Renaissance. Discuss German woodcuts of the 16th century Key Points - Printmaking by woodcut and engraving was already more developed in Germany and the Low Countries than anywhere else, and the Germans took the lead in developing book illustrations. - Martin Schongauer (c.1450–1491) is credited as the first artist to create an engraving. - The most well-known artist of the German Renaissance is Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), who worked as a printmaker and engraver. Key Terms - woodcut : A print or a method of printmaking from an engraved block of wood. - engraving : The practice of incising a design onto a hard, flat surface by cutting grooves into it. - Albrecht Dürer : (1471–1528) A German painter, printmaker, mathematician, and theorist from Nuremberg, often regarded as the greatest artist of the Northern Renaissance. Woodcuts and Engraving Printmaking by woodcut and engraving was already more developed in Germany and the Low Countries than anywhere else during the Renaissance. The Germans took the lead in developing book illustrations. These were typically of a relatively low artistic standard, but were seen all over Europe, with the woodblocks often being lent to printers of editions in other cities or languages. Martin Schongauer Martin Schongauer (c. 1450–1491), from Southern Germany, is credited as the first artist to create an engraving; he was also a well-known painter. He is known for further developing the engraving methods by refining the cross-hatching technique to depict volume and shade. Another notable German printmaker is known as the “Housebook Master.” His prints were made in drypoint: he scratched his lines on the plate, leaving them much more shallow than they would be with an engraving. Albrecht Dürer The greatest artist of the German Renaissance, Albrecht Dürer, began his career as an apprentice to a leading workshop in Nuremberg, that of Michael Wolgemut, who had largely abandoned his painting to exploit the new medium . Dürer worked on the most extravagantly illustrated book of the period, The Nuremberg Chronicle, published by his godfather Anton Koberger, Europe’s largest printer-publisher at the time. After completing his apprenticeship in 1490, Dürer traveled in Germany for four years and to Italy for a few months before establishing his own workshop in Nuremberg. He rapidly became famous all over Europe for his energetic and balanced woodcuts and engravings; he also continued his painting during this period. Block Books The mass production of paper in 15th century Europe opened the door for the proliferation of printed books. Describe the development of printed books in Northern Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries Key Points - Around 1450, small woodcut books called “block books,” or “xylographica,” came into prominence and began to be reproduced in large numbers. They are believed to have been less expensive than books printed with moveable type. - Block books were short books consisting of up to 50 leaves. They were printed with woodcuts carved to include both text and imagery and were nearly always religious in nature. - The most renowned block book is titled the Ars Moriendi , or The Art of Dying . This block book was from the Netherlands and was reprinted in several editions with different illustrations. - The Biblia Pauperum involved visual depictions relating the Old Testament to the New Testament and often placed the illustrations in the center with very little additional text. Whenever writing did appear, it was in the vernacular language, as opposed to Latin. - Unlike typical polychromatic prints, polychromatic block books were printed with a single block and subsequently hand painted. Key Terms - Pigment : Powdered coloring material that forms the basis of painting, drawing, and printing media. - polychromatic : Multi-colored. - monochromatic : Black and white, or using one color. - woodcut : A method of relief printing in which the image is carved into the smooth side of a wooden block. The increasing mass production of paper, coupled with the invention of the printing press in 15th century Europe, opened the doors for the proliferation of printed books. Woodcut printing on textiles had been practiced in Europe for some time when paper became more affordable and readily available. Around 1450, small woodcut books called “block books” or “xylographica” came into prominence and were reproduced in large numbers. Block books were short books consisting of up to 50 leaves block-printed with woodcuts carved to include both text and imagery. These books were aimed at a general audience and were often popular titles, nearly always religious in nature, and sometimes reprinted into multiple editions. Germany and Northern Europe were important centers for the spread and development of printed works during the 15th and 16th centuries. It is widely believed that block books existed as a cheaper alternative to the movable-type printed book, which was in use but still very expensive. Research has uncovered over 40 titles, with a much smaller number ranking among the most popular. The most popular texts were reprinted many times, often using new woodcuts copying the earlier versions. Block books were typically printed as folios, with two pages printed on one full sheet of paper, which was then folded once for binding. Several such leaves were then inserted inside another to form a gathering of leaves, one or more of which would be sewn together to form the complete book. Some block books, called “chiro-xylographic,” were printed with only illustrations, and then the type was filled in by hand. Block books are considered incunabula (or “incunable”), a term referring to a book, pamphlet, or broadside printed before the year 1501 in Europe. The most renowned block book is the Ars Moriendi , or The Art of Dying , from the Netherlands. It was reprinted in several editions with different illustrations. There was originally a “long version” and a later “short version” containing 11 woodcut pictures as instructive images that could be easily explained and memorized. It was written within the historical context of the effects of the macabre horrors of the Black Death 60 years earlier and consequent social upheavals of the 15th century. It was very popular, translated into most West European languages, and was the first in a Western literary tradition of guides to death and dying. The Biblia Pauperum , or Pauper’s Bible , was also a popular series that had existed previously in the 14th century as illuminated manuscripts , hand-painted on vellum , before woodcuts took over. A Biblia Pauperum included visual depictions that related the Old Testament to the New Testament, often placing the illustrations in the center with very little additional text. When text did appear in the Biblia Pauperum , it was usually in the local vernacular language, rather than Latin. Each group of images is dedicated to one event from the Gospels, which is accompanied by two slightly smaller pictures of Old Testament events that prefigure the central one, according to belief of medieval theologians. Other notable Biblia paupera include the Gutenberg Bible of 1455, as well as the incunabula of 1486, printed and illustrated by Erhard Reuwich. Polychromatic block books were produced in addition to the monochromatic ones. Whereas most polychromatic prints required a separate printing surface for each color used, polychromatic block books were colored by hand. Pigments ranged from plant materials, such as ochre (red and yellow), to more chemically-derived ones, such as cobalt (blue). Various insect species were also used for a variety of red values . Since block books were less expensive than traditional illuminated manuscripts, artists colored the images exclusively in paints and inks, as opposed to gilding. Most of the earliest block books are believed to have been printed in the Netherlands, while the later ones are thought to be from Southern Germany. Specifically, Nuremberg, Ulm, Augsburg, and Schwaben were notable locations for the development of print media in the 15th and 16th centuries. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 14th-century painters - Les Tru00e8s Belles Heures de Notre Dame de Jean de Berry - WGA16014. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:14th-century_painters_-_Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Belles_Heures_de_Notre_Dame_de_Jean_de_Berry_-_WGA16014.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - illuminated manuscript. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/illuminated%20manuscript. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Early Netherlandish painting. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting%23Illuminated_manuscripts. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Illuminated manuscript. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - scriptoria. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/scriptoria. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Simon Marmion. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon%20Marmion. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Philip the Good. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20the%20Good. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer%2C_Adam_and_Eve%2C_1504%2C_Engraving.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Martin_Schongauer_-_The_Fifth_Foolish_Virgin_-_WGA21028.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Schongauer. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - German art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/German_art%23Renaissance_painting_and_prints. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Matthias Grunewald. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias%20Grunewald. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Albrecht Durer. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht%20Durer. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Martin Luther. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Luther. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 359px-Apocalypse.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7751217. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Ars.moriendi.pride.a. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ars.moriendi.pride.a.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - BibliaPauperum. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BibliaPauperum.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Block Book. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_book. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ars Moriendi. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_moriendi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Biblia Pauperum. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblia_pauperum. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Illuminated Manuscript. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Old Master Print. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_master_print. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Woodcut. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/woodcut. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:34.730150	2020-05-01T17:34:42	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance/20.03%3A_Books_of_the_Northern_Renaissance", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "20.3: Books of the Northern Renaissance", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance/20.04%3A_Architecture_of_the_Northern_Renaissance	20.4: Architecture of the Northern Renaissance Chartreuse de Champmol The Chartreuse de Champmol, a Carthusian monastery on the outskirts of Dijon, represents the finest monumental work of early modern France. Discuss how the Carthusian monastery Chartreuse de Champmol became “the grandest project in a reign renowned for extravagance” under the Valois dynasty of Burgundy Key Points - Champmol was intended to rival Cîteaux, Saint-Denis, where the Kings of France were buried, and other dynastic burial places. - Champmol was lavishly enriched with works of art, and the dispersed remnants of its collection remain key to the understanding of the art of the period. - The monastery was founded in 1383 by Duke Philip the Bold to provide a dynastic burial place for the Valois Dukes of Burgundy, and operated until it was dissolved in 1791, during the French Revolution . - In 1395, Claes Sluter began work on the Well of Moses , which combines International Gothic with northern realism . However, the monumentality of the sculptures is unprecedented in either style . - The interior of the church features the elaborate tombs of John the Fearless and Margaret of Bavaria, each of which is supported by a sculpture group of pleurants (mourners) whose expressions of grief are unprecedented for their time. Key Terms - Carthusian monastery : The building, or complex of buildings, comprising the domestic quarters and workplace(s) of monastics, whether monks or nuns, and whether living in community or alone (hermits). The monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer, which may be a chapel, church or temple, and may also serve as an oratory. - Valois : A cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty, succeeding the House of Capet (or “Direct Capetians”) as kings of France from 1328 to 1589. A cadet branch of the family reigned as dukes of Burgundy from 1363 to 1482. They were descendants of Charles of Valois, the fourth son of King Philip III. They based their claim on the Salic law, which excluded females (Joan II of Navarre) as well as male descendants through the distaff line (Edward III of England), from the succession to the French throne. Monastic Splendor The Chartreuse de Champmol, formally the Chartreuse de la Sainte-Trinité de Champmol, was a Carthusian monastery on the outskirts of Dijon, which is now in France, but in the 15th century was the capital of the then-independent Duchy of Burgundy. The monastery was founded in 1383, by Duke Philip the Bold, to provide a dynastic burial place for the Valois Dukes of Burgundy, and operated until it was dissolved in 1791, during the French Revolution. It was lavishly enriched with works of art, and the dispersed remnants of its collection remain key to the understanding of the art of the period. Champmol was intended to rival Cîteaux, Saint-Denis, where the Kings of France were buried, and other dynastic burial places. Purchase of the land and quarrying of materials began in 1377, but construction did not begin until 1383, under the architect Druet de Dammartin from Paris, who had previously designed the Duke’s chateau at Sluis, and worked as an assistant in the construction of the Louvre. A committee of counselors from Dijon supervised the construction for the often absent Duke. By 1388 the nearly completed church was consecrated. Claes Sluter and his workshop produced sculptures of Philip and his wife kneeling in prayer toward the central sculpture of the Madonna and Child for the church’s main portal . The monastery was built for 24 choir monks, instead of the usual 12 in a Carthusian house. Its cloister surrounded a courtyard in which Sluter constructed the Well of Moses (1395–1403), whose monumental sculptures combine the International Gothic style with a northern realism. Their scale, however, is unprecedented in either style. The figures range from the namesake of the well to Old Testament prophets to the Crucifixion. Although it was intended to function as a fountain, the water feature was abandoned so as not to conflict with the monks’ vow of silence. In 1433, two more monks were endowed to celebrate the birth of Charles the Bold. These lived semi-hermitic lives in their individual small houses when not in the chapel. Other inhabitants of the monastery included non-ordained monks, servants, novices, and other workers. A Ducal Symbol Somewhat in contradiction to the Carthusian mission of tranquil contemplation, the monastery welcomed visitors and pilgrims. The expenses of hospitality were then recompensed by the Dukes. In 1418, Papal indulgences were granted to those visiting the Well of Moses , further encouraging pilgrims. The Ducal family had a private oratory overlooking the church, which has since been destroyed, though their visits were in fact rare. Ducal accounts show major commissions for paintings and other works to complete the monastery continuing until about 1415. Further works were later added by the Dukes and other donors, although building progressed at a slower rate. The Valois dynasty of Burgundy had less than a century to run when the monastery was founded. The number of Valois tombs never approached that of their Capetian predecessors at Cîteaux, as the choir of the church was not large enough to accommodate them. Only two monuments were ever erected, both in the same style, with painted alabaster effigies with lions at their feet and angels with spread wings at their heads. Underneath the slab on which the effigies rested, small unpainted pleurants (mourners) were set among Gothic tracery . They were, at the time of their production, the most moving representations of grief conveyed in a sculptural medium . Champmol was designed as a showpiece. The artistic contents, now dispersed, represent much of the finest monumental work of French and Burgundian art of the period, demonstrating a tradition distinct from that of the similarly prestigious illuminated manuscripts . French Architecture in the Northern Renaissance Francis I (1515–1547) brought about such huge cultural changes in France that he has been called France’s original Renaissance monarch. Discuss the advancements in architecture as seen under the reign of Francis I Key Points - At the time of the accession of Francis I, the royal palaces of France were ornamented with only a scattering of great paintings and devoid of sculpture. During his reign, the magnificent art collection of the French kings was begun. - Francis poured vast amounts of money into new structures. He continued the work of his predecessors on the Château d’Amboise and also started renovations on the Château de Blois. Early in his reign, he also began construction of the magnificent Château de Chambord. - Not a castle in the traditional military sense, the Château de Chambord was built as a hunting lodge for the king and contains unique architectural elements, such as towers without turrets and a double spiral staircase that extends through three stories. - The largest building project under Francis’s reign was at the Palace of Fontainebleau, where, it is said, the French Renaissance began. - Francis employed some of the most famous artists from Europe to decorate Fontainebleau. They included Rosso Fiorentino, Francesco Primaticcio, and Benvenuto Cellini. Cellini designed the famous Nymphe de Fontainebleau . Key Terms - patron : An influential, wealthy person who supports an artist, craftsman, scholar, or aristocrat. - château : French castle, fortress, manor house, or large country house. Francis I: Patron of the Arts Francis I (1494–1547) was King of France from 1515 until his death. During his reign, huge cultural changes took place in France. He has been called France’s original Renaissance monarch. By the time he ascended the throne in 1515, the Renaissance had arrived in France, and Francis became a major patron of the arts. At the time of his accession, the royal palaces were ornamented with only a scattering of great paintings and no sculptures. During Francis’s reign, the magnificent art collection of the French kings, which can still be seen at the Louvre, was begun. Francis poured vast amounts of money into new structures. He continued the work of his predecessors on the Château d’Amboise and also started renovations on the Château de Blois. Early in his reign, he began construction of the magnificent Château de Chambord, inspired by the styles of the Italian Renaissance and perhaps even designed by Leonardo da Vinci. Francis rebuilt the Château du Louvre, transforming it from a medieval fortress into a building of Renaissance splendor. He financed the building of a new City Hall (Hôtel de Ville) for Paris in order to have control over the building’s design. He constructed the Château de Madrid in the Bois de Boulogne and rebuilt the Château de St-Germain-en-Laye. Châteaux in the 16th century departed from castle architecture. While they were offshoots of castles, with features commonly associated with them, they did not have serious defenses. Extensive gardens and water features, such as a moat, were common amongst châteaux from this period. Château de Chambord Chambord is the largest château in the Loire Valley. It was built primarily as the king’s hunting lodge. The layout is reminiscent of a typical castle with a keep , corner towers, and defended by a moat. Built in Renaissance style, the internal layout is an early example of the French and Italian style of grouping rooms into self-contained suites, a departure from the medieval style of corridor rooms. The massive château is composed of a central keep with four immense bastion towers at the corners. The keep also forms part of the front wall of a larger compound with two more large towers. Bases for a possible further two towers are found at the rear, but these were never developed, and remain the same height as the wall. The château features 440 rooms, 282 fireplaces, and 84 staircases. Four rectangular vaulted hallways on each floor form a cross shape. Like the Château de Blois, one of Chambord’s architectural highlights is the spectacular open double spiral staircase. The two spirals ascend the three floors without ever meeting, illuminated from above by a sort of lighthouse at the highest point of the château. Château of Fontainebleau The largest of Francis’s building projects was the reconstruction and expansion of the royal Château of Fontainebleau, which quickly became his favorite place of residence, as well as the residence of his official mistress (Anne, Duchess of Étampes). He commissioned the architect Gilles le Breton to build a château in the new Renaissance style. Le Breton preserved the old medieval donjon , where the king’s apartments were located, but incorporated it into the new Renaissance style Cour Ovale (Oval Courtyard), built on the foundations of the old castle. It included monumental Porte Dorée (Golden Door), the main entrance, as its southern entrance, as well as a monumental Renaissance stairway, the portique de Serlio , to give access the royal apartments on the north side. Beginning in approximately 1528, Francis constructed the Gallery Francis I, which allowed him to pass directly from his apartments to the chapel of the Trinitaires. He brought the architect Sebastiano Serlio from Italy, and the Florentine painter Giovanni Battista di Jacopo, known as Rosso Fiorentino, to decorate the new gallery. Between 1533 and 1539 Rosso Fiorentino filled the gallery with murals glorifying the king, framed in stucco ornament in high relief , and lambris sculpted by the furniture maker Francesco Scibec da Carpi. Another Italian painter, Francesco Primaticcio from Bologna, joined later in the decoration of the château. Together their style of decoration became known as the first School of Fontainebleau. This was the first great decorated gallery built in France. Broadly speaking, at Fontainebleau the Renaissance was introduced to France. Each of Francis’s projects was luxuriously decorated, both inside and out. Fontainebleau, for instance, had a gushing fountain in its courtyard where quantities of wine were mixed with the water. The fountain was linked to a legend related to one of the best known projects for the château. Among the most striking works of art within Fontainebleau was the Nymphe de Fontainebleau (1542) by the Italian sculptor Benvenuto Cellini. Francis commissioned this large-scale bronze bas relief , cast in the lost wax process, as the tympanum to sit atop the Porte Dorée . In the sculpture, a Mannerist nude nymph reclines among woodland animals, such as deer and boars. The central buck, wearing a garland of fruit, symbolizes Francis’s power. As a whole the sculpture is based on a legend in which a hunting dog discovered a spring personified by a nymph learning against an urn . It was this spring that gave the château and surrounding environs the name Fontainebleau. The tympanum was to be flanked on either side by bronze sculptures of nude satyrs , posed as mirror images of one another, also cast by Cellini. Eventually, the project was abandoned, and the nymph was integrated into the design of an aristocrat’s palace 10 years later. Spanish Architecture in the Northern Renaissance Gothic, Renaissance, and Mannerist elements are all important to the architecture of Spain in the 16th century. Examine the influence of Gothic, Renaissance, and Mannerist elements in the architecture of Spain in the 16th century Key Points - Plateresque emerged in Spain in the late 15th century. This architectural style , named for silversmiths, was known for producing decorative façades suggestive of silver plate. - From the mid 16th century, Spanish architecture adhered closely to the art of ancient Rome , anticipating Mannerism . - The Herrerian style dominated Spain in the late 16th and 17th centuries and was defined by clean and sober façades and attention to geometrical precision. - El Escorial is a well-known example of the Herrerian style with its austere façades and fortress-like appearance. Key Terms - Herrerian : A 16th century Spanish style characterized by geometric rigor, clean volumes, the dominance of the wall over the span, and the almost total absence of decoration. - plateresque : Pertaining to an ornate style of architecture of 16th century Spain suggestive of silver plate. Renaissance architecture reached the Iberian peninsula in the 16th century, ushering in a new style that gradually replaced the Gothic architecture , which had been popular for the centuries. Gothic forms began to incorporate the classical style of the Renaissance in the last decades of the 15th century. Local architects developed a specifically Spanish Renaissance, bringing the influence of South Italian architecture, sometimes from illuminated books and paintings, mixed with Gothic tradition and local traditions. The new style was called Plateresque because of the extremely decorated façades that brought to the mind the decorative motifs of the intricately detailed work of silversmiths, the “Plateros.” Ornamentation included floral designs, chandeliers, festoons, fantastic creatures, and similar configurations. The spatial arrangement of Plateresque, however, is more clearly Gothic-inspired. This fixation on specific parts and their spacing, without structural changes of the Gothic pattern, causes it to be often classified as simply a variation of Renaissance style. A prime example of this decorative style can be seen in the façade of the University of Salamanca. From the mid 16th century, under architects such as Pedro Machuca, Juan Bautista de Toledo, and Juan de Herrera, there was a much closer adherence to the art of ancient Rome, sometimes anticipating Mannerism. An example of this is the palace of Charles V in Granada built by Pedro Machuca. A new style emerged in Spain with the work of Juan Bautista de Toledo and Juan de Herrera in El Escorial, known as the Herrerian style. Herrerian architecture was extremely sober, naked, and particularly accomplished in the use of granite ashlar work. This style influenced the Spanish architecture of both the peninsula and the colonies for over a century. The floor plan of El Escorial—a palace for the royal family, monastery for their clergy, and burial place for major Spanish monarchs—was designed in the form of a gridiron. It was a design whose origin remains a matter of debate. Regardless of the reasons behind the floor plan, its basic components, as well as the general exterior and main façade, conform to the austerity of the Herrerian style, making the structure appear more like a fortress than a palace or monastery. It takes the form of a gigantic quadrangle, which encloses a series of intersecting passageways and courtyards and chambers. At each of the four corners is a square tower surmounted by a spire and near the center of the complex rise the pointed belfries and round dome of the basilica , which are and taller than the rest. As overseer of the construction of El Escorial, Philip II instructed his architects to maintain a sense of simplicity. The austerity of the west façade of El Escorial is typical of the classicism that re-emerged during the Renaissance. However, the main entrance, which takes the form of classical temple façades stacked atop another, actually looks forward to an architectural design that would become common during the Baroque era throughout Europe. English Architecture in the Northern Renaissance The Tudor architectural style was the final development of medieval architecture during the Tudor period (1485–1603). Describe the key elements of the Tudor architectural style, including the Tudor arch, oriel windows, and the chimney stack Key Points - Tudor architecture followed the Perpendicular style and, although superseded by Elizabethan architecture in the domestic building of any pretensions to fashion, the Tudor style still retained its hold on English taste. - The four-centered arch , now known as the Tudor arch , was a defining feature of the period. It was often used in the construction of large lancet style windows. - Another common feature of Tudor architecture was the oriel window and the jetty , both defined by their projection from the main part of the building. - During this period, the arrival of the chimney stack and enclosed hearths resulted in the decline of the great hall based around an open hearth, which was typical of earlier medieval architecture. - During the Tudor era, houses and buildings of ordinary people were typically timber -framed, the frame usually filled with wattle and daub but occasionally with brick. Key Terms - Perpendicular style : The third historical division of English Gothic architecture, so called because of its emphasis on vertical lines. - Tudor arch : Low and wide with a pointed apex, much wider than its height and appearing to have been flattened under pressure. - jetty : A building technique used in medieval timber-frame buildings in which an upper floor projects beyond the dimensions of the floor below. - oriel : A form of bay window that projects from the main wall of a building but does not reach to the ground. - Elizabethan : Pertaining to the reign of first female monarch of England. The Tudor architectural style was the final development of medieval architecture during the Tudor period (1485–1603), and even beyond, for conservative college patrons . The designation “Tudor style” is an awkward one, with its implied suggestions of continuity through the period of the Tudor dynasty and the misleading impression that there was a style break at the accession of Stuart James I in 1603. It followed the Perpendicular style and, although superseded by Elizabethan architecture in the domestic building of any pretensions to fashion, the Tudor style still retained its hold on English taste. Portions of the additions to the various colleges of Oxford University and Cambridge University were still being carried out in the Tudor style, which overlaps with the first stirrings of the Gothic Revival. The Tudor arch, a low and wide type of arch with a pointed apex , was a defining feature of the period. It is much wider than its height and gives the visual effect of having been flattened under pressure. This type of arch, when employed as a window opening, lends itself to very wide spaces , as seen in the chapel window of King’s College at Cambridge University. Some of the most remarkable oriel windows belong to this period. An example can be seen in the Priory Church of St. Bartholomew the Great in London. The oriel window was installed inside St. Bartholomew the Great in the early 16th century by Prior William Bolton, allegedly so that he could keep an eye on the monks. The symbol in the center panel is a crossbow “bolt” passing through a “tun” (or barrel), a pun on the name of the prior. During this period, the arrival of the chimney stack and enclosed hearths resulted in the decline of the great hall based around an open hearth, which was typical of earlier medieval architecture. Instead, fireplaces could now be placed upstairs, and it became possible to have a second story that ran the whole length of the house. Tudor chimney pieces were made large and elaborate to draw attention to the owner’s adoption of this new technology. The jetty appeared as a way to show off the modernity of having a complete, full-length upper floor. The style of large houses moved away from the defensive architecture of earlier moated manor houses, and instead began emphasizing aesthetics . For example, quadrangular (‘H’ or ‘E’ shaped plans) became more common. It was also fashionable for these larger buildings to incorporate “devices,” or riddles, designed into the building, which served to demonstrate the owner’s wit and to delight visitors. Occasionally these were Catholic symbols, for example, subtle or not-so-subtle references to the trinity, seen in three-sided, triangular, or ‘Y’ shaped plans, designs, or motifs . The houses and buildings of ordinary people were typically timber-framed, the frame usually filled with wattle and daub but occasionally with brick. These houses were also slower to adopt the latest trends and the great hall continued to prevail. The Dissolution of the Monasteries provided surplus land, resulting in a small building boom, as well as a source of stone. Anne Hathaway’s Cottage is a 12-room farmhouse where the wife of William Shakespeare lived as a child in the village of Shottery, Warwickshire, England. As in many houses of the period, it has multiple chimneys to spread the heat evenly throughout the house during winter. The largest chimney was used for cooking. It also has visible timber framing, typical of vernacular Tudor architecture. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Dijon-Palais-Gisant-Detail. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dijon-Palais-Gisant-Detail.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-Dijon_mosesbrunnen2.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=763389. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Dijon - Tombeau des ducs de Bourgogne 1. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dijon_-_Tombeau_des_ducs_de_Bourgogne_1.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Dijon_-_Chartreuse_de_Champmol_-_Portail_1.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2758448%20. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Champmol.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5505613. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Well of Moses. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Well_of_Moses. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Champmol. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Champmol. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Carthusian Monastery. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthusian%20monastery. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Philip the Bold. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20the%20Bold. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Valois. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Valois. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - France Loir-et-Cher Blois Chateau 05. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:France_Loir-et-Cher_Blois_Chateau_05.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-Chateau_de_Fontainebleau_Cour_ovale.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11713096. License : CC BY: Attribution - Francis1-1. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Francis1-1.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 360px-Escalier_double_helice_Chambord.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=445927. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Chu00e2teau_de_Fontainebleau_2011_(262).jpeg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16668144%20. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Nymphe_de_Fontainebleau.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23381123. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Chambord_Castle_Northwest_facade.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=22654063. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 619px-ChambordGrundriss.png. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2178228. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Chu00e2teau de Blois. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Blois. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Nymphe de Fontainebleau. Provided by : Wikipedia (France). Located at : fr.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nymphe_de_Fontainebleau. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chu00e2teau de Chambord. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Chambord. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Palace of Fontainebleau. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_Fontainebleau#The_Renaissance_Ch.C3.A2teau_of_Francis_I_.281528.E2.80.931547.29. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Francis I of France. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_I_of_France. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Patron. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/patron. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Francis I. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20I. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chateau. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chateau. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 640px-Facade_monastery_San_Lorenzo_de_El_Escorial_Spain.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=21879649. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 334px-University_of_Salamanca.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39607. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Herrerian. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Herrerian. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-Vista_aerea_del_Monasterio_de_El_Escorial.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6581920%20. License : CC BY: Attribution - 471px-Escorial_traza_def.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2945873. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - El Escorial. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Escorial. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Architecture of the Spanish Renaissance. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Spanish_Renaissance. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Plateresque. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plateresque. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Herrerian. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Herrerian. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - KingsCollegeChapel. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KingsCollegeChapel.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-LittleMoretonHall.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=942415. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 360px-Prior_Bolton_Oriel_Window.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7066809 . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 620px-Anne_Hathaways_Cottage_1_(5662418953).jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=21108259. License : CC BY: Attribution - English Gothic Architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Gothic_architecture#Perpendicular_Gothic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Oriel Window. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriel_window. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - St. Bartholomew the Great. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Bartholomew-the-Great. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Anne Hathaway's Cottage. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Hathaway%27s_Cottage. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Perpendicular Style. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpendicular%20style. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tudor Architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Elizabethan. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Elizabethan. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tudor Arch. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor%20arch. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:34.871289	2020-05-01T17:34:45	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance/20.04%3A_Architecture_of_the_Northern_Renaissance", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "20.4: Architecture of the Northern Renaissance", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance/20.05%3A_Sculpture_of_the_Northern_Renaissance	20.5: Sculpture of the Northern Renaissance Wood Sculpture in the Northern Renaissance The sculpture of Veit Stoss and Tilman Riemenschneider show the evolution from the Gothic style to the styles of the Renaissance. Describe how the sculptures of Veit Stoss and Tilman Riemenschneider mark a transition between the Gothic and Renaissance styles Key Points - Veit Stoss and Tilman Riemenschneider are the most famous among the wood carvers of the German-speaking states of the Northern Renaissance . Their long careers covered the transition between the Gothic and Renaissance periods, although their ornament often remained Gothic even after their compositions began to reflect Renaissance principles. - Veit Stoss was a leading German sculptor, mostly in wood, whose style emphasized pathos and emotion, helped by his virtuoso carving of billowing drapery. - Tilman Riemenschneider, also known for his wood sculptures, produced work in the Gothic, classical , and Mannerist styles. His tomb of Lorenz von Bibra marks a transition between the Gothic and the classical. Key Terms - polychromatic : Multi-colored. - virtuoso : A person (especially a musician) with masterly ability, technique, or personal style. The late 15th and early 16th centuries mark the transition in wood sculpture from the International Gothic to a more classical style of the Renaissance. Often seen as a revival of the classical style, the International Gothic is defined by a dignified elegance, which replaces monumentality, along with rich decorative coloring, elongated figures, and flowing lines . It also makes a more practiced use of perspective , modeling, and setting. Through commerce and individual travel, the classical and Mannerist styles from the Italian peninsula began to make their way north. The classical style recaptures the naturalism of Graeco-Roman art, with attention to features of the body and expressive restraint. Artists working in this style often employed live models to ensure a realistic appearance of their productions. On the other hand, the Mannerist, or Late Renaissance, style jettisoned the live model and aimed for more expressive figures, resulting in heightened emotion and drama and sometime artificially elongated and ill-proportioned bodies. The wood sculptures of the German-speaking states of this time display both Italian styles in addition to more traditional International Gothic elements. Veit Stoss (1450–1533), Tilman Riemenschneider (1460–1531), and Peter Vischer the Elder (1455–1529) are the most famous among the wood carvers of the German-speaking states of the Northern Renaissance. Their long careers covered the transition between the Gothic and Renaissance periods, although their ornamentation often remained Gothic even after their compositions began to reflect Renaissance principles. Veit Stoss Veit Stoss was a leading German sculptor, mostly working in wood, whose career covered the transition between the late Gothic and the Northern Renaissance. His style emphasizes pathos, often conveyed by tilted heads, downcast eyes, expressive or introspective countenances, and dynamic poses. His virtuoso carving of billowing drapery helps to underscore this sense of emotion. He had a large workshop, and in addition to his own works there are a number by pupils. He is best known for the colossal polychromatic altarpiece in St. Mary’s Basilica in Kraków, Poland, produced in collaboration with his son Stanislaw. Completed in 1489, the altarpiece was the largest triptych of its time. Its use of drama through gilding, diagonal lines, and expressive body language convey Stoss’s loyalty to the International Gothic style, while its naturalistic bodies and drapery point to an adoption of Renaissance attributes. Better known for his polychromatic sculptures, Stoss also left some sculptures unpainted, as became the preferred appearance for a brief time in the early 16th century. This can be seen in Tobias and the Angel (c. 1504–06), a commission for Bamberg Cathedral . Like his painted sculptures, Tobias and the Angel retains Stoss’s signature expressive countenances and body language. Tilman Riemenschneider Tilman Riemenschneider was active in Würzburg from 1483. He was one of the most prolific and versatile sculptors of the transition period between late Gothic and Renaissance, a master in stone and limewood. His work is characterized by the expressiveness of the figurines ‘ faces (often shown with an inward look) and by their detailed and richly folded clothing. The emphasis on expression of inner emotions sets Riemenschneider’s work apart from that of his immediate predecessors. Riemenschneider’s early success as a sculptor was due to the plasticity of his works, with great care in the modeling of garments. This way of sculpting the garments as well as the typical oval faces and almond-shaped eyes were modeled on art from the Upper Rhine region of the 1470s, implying that Riemenschneider might have learned his trade either there or at Ulm. Later works lost some of the volume of the early sculptures, allowing a more efficient production. While his earlier styles convey a strong Gothic influence, his mature style shows Mannerist characteristics. Reimenschneider’s tomb of Lorenz von Bibra, the Prince-Bishop of Würzburg, is considered a transition work from the Gothic to the Renaissance style. Here, the figure of the interred is depicted with veristic “warts-and-all” realism , shown in his gaunt cheeks and double chin. Such attributes are reminiscent of the Roman Republic. While the top half of his body is masked in his heavy drapery (a hallmark of many medieval styles), the lower half depicts the contours of his legs, acknowledging the body beneath the garments (a hallmark of classicism). Likewise, his hands, drapery folds, sword, and scepter are rendered in a realistic manner. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 167px-LorenzvBibrawholegrave.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3073618. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Gothic altar veit stoss bordercropped. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gothic_altar_veit_stoss_bordercropped.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 423px-GNM-Veit-Stoss-Raphael-Tobias.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15140669%20. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Veit Stoss altarpiece in Kraku00f3w. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Veit_Stoss_altarpiece_in_Krak%C3%B3w. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Northern Renaissance. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Renaissance#Art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tilman Riemenschneider. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilman_Riemenschneider. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Lorenz von Bibra. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz_von_Bibra. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - International Gothic. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Gothic#Painting_and_sculpture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - German Art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/German_art#Sculpture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Veit Stoss. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Veit_Stoss. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Virtuoso. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/virtuoso. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:34.948097	2020-05-01T17:34:47	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance/20.05%3A_Sculpture_of_the_Northern_Renaissance", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "20.5: Sculpture of the Northern Renaissance", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance/20.06%3A_Textiles_of_the_Northern_Renaissance	20.6: Textiles of the Northern Renaissance Flemish Textiles of the Northern Renaissance During the Burgundy period, Flanders became one of the richest parts of Europe, where magnificent tapestries where produced. Examine the importance of tapestries in Flanders during the Burgundy period Key Points - By 1433, most of the Belgian and Luxembourgian territory, along with much of the rest of the Low Countries, became part of Burgundy under Philip the Good . When Mary of Burgundy, granddaughter of Philip the Good, married Maximilian I, the Low Countries became Habsburg territory. - Flemish tapestries hung on the walls of castles throughout Europe. Some designs were influenced by the paintings of major Italian Renaissance artists such as Raphael, which were copied into textile form by Flemish artists who trained on the Italian peninsula. - Millefleurs was a particularly popular style during the late 15th and early 16th centuries. This style features backgrounds filled with small, yet detailed, bouquets of flowers. The name literally translates from French as “a thousand flowers.” - Among the most famous of Flemish tapestries is The Hunt of the Unicorn , often referred to as the Unicorn Tapestries : a series of seven tapestries dating from 1495–1505. - The two major interpretations of many Flemish tapestries from the Renaissance hinge on both pagan and Christian symbolism . Key Terms - cartoon : A preparatory two-dimensional drawing of a finished artwork. - slashing : A decorative technique that involved making small cuts on the outer fabric of a garment in order to reveal the inner garment or lining. - Flanders : A subnational state in the north of federal Belgium, the institutional merger of a territorial region and the Dutch language “community” that also has/shares some authority in the capital region Brussels. - unicorn : A mythical beast traditionally represented as having the legs of a buck, the body of a horse, the tail of a lion, and a single spiral horn on its head; a symbol of virginity. - tapestries : A form of textile art, traditionally woven on a vertical loom, however it can also be woven on a floor loom as well. It is composed of two sets of interlaced threads, those running parallel to the length (called the warp) and those parallel to the width (called the weft); the warp threads are set up under tension on a loom, and the weft thread is passed back and forth across part or all of the warps. The Evolution of Art and Industry By 1433 most of the Belgian and Luxembourgian territory, along with much of the rest of the Low Countries, became part of Burgundy under Philip the Good. When Mary of Burgundy, granddaughter of Philip the Good, married Maximilian I, the Low Countries became Hapsburg territory. Their son, Philip I of Castile (Philip the Handsome), was the father of the later Charles V. The Holy Roman Empire was unified with Spain under the Hapsburg Dynasty after Charles V inherited several domains. During the late Middle Ages—especially during the Burgundy period (the 15th and 16th centuries)— Flanders ‘s trading towns, particularly Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres, made it one of the richest and most urbanized parts of Europe, weaving the wool of neighboring lands into cloth for both domestic use and export. As a result, a very sophisticated culture developed, with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture, rivaling those of Northern Italy. Trade in the port of Bruges and the textile industry, mostly in Ghent, turned Flanders into the wealthiest part of Northern Europe at the end of the 15th century. The Influence of Raphael in Brussels The great period of Renaissance weaving in Brussels dates from the weaving entrusted by Pope Leo X (1475–1521) to a consortium of its studios of The Acts of the Apostles after cartoons by Raphael, between 1515 and 1519. The conventions of a monumental pictorial representation with the effects of perspective that would be expected of a fresco or other wall decoration were applied for the first time in these tapestries. The prominent painter and tapestry designer Bernard van Orley (who trained in Italy) transmuted the Raphaelesque monumental figures to forge a new tapestry style that combined the Italian figural style and perspective rendition with the rich narrative and ornamental traditions of the Netherlands. Such elements can be found in his nine-part series called The Honors , of which the tapestry Fortuna is a notable example. Millefleurs Literally translating as “a thousand flowers,” the Millefleurs style refers to a background style of many different small flowers and plants, usually shown on a green ground , as though growing in grass. This style was most popular in late 15th- and early 16th century French and Flemish tapestry, with the best known examples in the series The Hunt of the Unicorn (see below). These are from what has been called the “classic” period, where each “bouquet” or plant is individually designed, improvised by the weavers as they worked, while later tapestries, probably mostly made in Brussels, usually have mirror images of plants on the right and left sides of the piece, suggesting a cartoon reused twice. Another classic example is The Triumph of Death (1510–20), in which the Fates represent death as they stand above the body of a fallen maiden. The background consists of rich vegetation expected in the millefleurs tradition. The Hunt of the Unicorn Flemish tapestries hung on the walls of castles throughout Europe. Among the most famous of Flemish tapestries is The Hunt of the Unicorn , often referred to as the Unicorn Tapestries . These constitute a series of seven tapestries dating from 1495–1505. The tapestries show a group of noblemen and hunters in pursuit of a unicorn. The tapestries were woven in wool, metallic threads, and silk. The vibrant colors still evident today were produced with three dye plants: weld (yellow), madder (red), and woad (blue). One tapestry, The Mystic Capture of the Unicorn , survives only in two fragments. Interpretive Traditions: Pagan and Christian Much of the history of the Unicorn Tapestries is disputed, and there are many theories about their original purpose and meaning, including suggestions that the seven tapestries were not originally hung together. However, it seems likely that they were commissioned by Anne of Brittany to celebrate her marriage to the King of France Louis XII. The two major interpretations of the tapestries hinge on pagan and Christian symbolism respectively. The pagan interpretation focuses on the medieval lore of beguiled lovers, whereas Christian writings interpret the unicorn and its death as the Passion of Christ. The unicorn has long been identified as a symbol of Christ by Christian writers, allowing the traditionally pagan symbolism of the unicorn to become acceptable within religious doctrine. The original myths surrounding The Hunt of the Unicorn refer to a beast with one horn that can only be tamed by a virgin. Subsequently, Christian scholars translated this into an allegory for Christ’s relationship with the Virgin Mary. Ancient Graeco-Roman paganism lies in the interpretation of The Triumph of Death , with the Fates hailing from pre-Christian times. However, the tapestry may also align with the vanitas tradition, which began to emerge in the art of the Northern Renaissance and would become enormously popular with the elite classes of the Netherlands during the Baroque period. Vanitas images, whether as still-lifes or as women adoring their reflections, usually couple earthly (transient) concerns with a symbol or specter of death. No matter how concerned a woman might be with her beauty, death always lurks in the background and can strike at any moment, causing the viewer to focus on the preparedness of his or her soul for the afterlife. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Hunt of the Unicorn Tapestry 1. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Hunt_of_the_Unicorn_Tapestry_1.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 398px-Fates_tapestry.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2628868. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 640px-Honors_Tapestry_Fortuna.png. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18495274. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Brussels Tapestry. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels_tapestry. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Renaissance in the Low Countries. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Millefleur. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Millefleur. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Unicorn. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/unicorn. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Devonshire Hunting Tapestries. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonshire_Hunting_Tapestries. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Flanders. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Flanders. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of Belgium. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Belgium. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Hunt of the Unicorn. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hunt_of_the_Unicorn. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tapestries. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/tapestries. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:35.027905	2020-05-01T17:34:48	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/20%3A_The_Northern_Renaissance/20.06%3A_Textiles_of_the_Northern_Renaissance", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "20.6: Textiles of the Northern Renaissance", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/21%3A_The_Baroque_Period	21: The Baroque Period Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 52964 Boundless Boundless 21.1: The Baroque Period 21.2: Architecture of the Baroque Period 21.3: Sculpture of the Baroque Period 21.4: Painting of the Baroque Period 21.5: The Dutch Painters	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:35.110799	2020-05-01T17:29:54	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/21%3A_The_Baroque_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "21: The Baroque Period", "author": "Boundless" }
https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/21%3A_The_Baroque_Period/21.01%3A_The_Baroque_Period	21.1: The Baroque Period Defining the Baroque Period Baroque is a period of artistic style that started around 1600 in Rome, Italy, and spread throughout the majority of Europe. Name the most prominent characteristics of Baroque art and its best known artists Key Points - The most important factors during the Baroque era were the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation ; the development of the Baroque style was considered to be closely linked with the Catholic Church. The popularity of the Baroque style was encouraged by the Catholic Church, which had decided at the Council of Trent that the arts should communicate religious themes and direct emotional involvement in response to the Protestant Reformation . - The Baroque style is characterized by exaggerated motion and clear detail used to produce drama, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture , painting, architecture, literature, dance, and music. - The chiaroscuro technique refers to the interplay between light and dark that was often used in Baroque paintings of dimly lit scenes to produce a very high-contrast, dramatic atmosphere. - Famous painters of the Baroque era include Rubens, Caravaggio, and Rembrandt. In music, the Baroque style makes up a large part of the classical canon, such as Bach, Handel, and Vivaldi. - The later Baroque style was termed Rococo , a style characterized by increasingly decorative and elaborate works. Key Terms - Counter-Reformation : The period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ending at the close of the Thirty Years’ War (1648); sometimes considered a response to the Protestant Reformation. - Reformation : The religious movement initiated by Martin Luther in the 16th century to reform the Roman Catholic Church. - Council of Trent : One of the Roman Catholic Church’s most important ecumenical meetings, held between 1545 and 1563 in northern Italy; it was prompted by the Protestant Reformation and has been described as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation. - chiaroscuro : An artistic technique popularized during the Renaissance, referring to the use of exaggerated light contrasts in order to create the illusion of volume. Overview: The Baroque Period The Baroque is a period of artistic style that started around 1600 in Rome , Italy, and spread throughout the majority of Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. In informal usage, the word baroque describes something that is elaborate and highly detailed. The most important factors during the Baroque era were the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation, with the development of the Baroque style considered to be linked closely with the Catholic Church. The popularity of the style was in fact encouraged by the Catholic Church, which had decided at the Council of Trent that the arts should communicate religious themes and direct emotional involvement in response to the Protestant Reformation. Baroque art manifested itself differently in various European countries owing to their unique political and cultural climates. Characteristics The Baroque style is characterized by exaggerated motion and clear detail used to produce drama, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, and music. Baroque iconography was direct, obvious, and dramatic, intending to appeal above all to the senses and the emotions. The use of the chiaroscuro technique is a well known trait of Baroque art. This technique refers to the interplay between light and dark and is often used in paintings of dimly lit scenes to produce a very high-contrast, dramatic atmosphere. The chiaroscuro technique is visible in the painting The Massacre of the Innocents by Peter Paul Rubens. Other important Baroque painters include Caravaggio (who is thought to be a precursor to the movement and is known for work characterized by close-up action and strong diagonals) and Rembrandt. In the Baroque style of architecture, emphasis was placed on bold spaces , domes , and large masses , as exemplified by the Queluz National Palace in Portugal. In music, the Baroque style makes up a large part of the classical canon. Important composers include Johann Sebastian Bach, George Handel, and Antonio Vivaldi. In the later part of the period, the Baroque style was termed Rococo , a style characterized by increasingly decorative and elaborate works. - Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Peter Paul Rubens Massacre of the Innocents. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_Massacre_of_the_Innocents.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Queluz Palace fountains. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queluz_Palace_fountains.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Counter-Reformation. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Counter-Reformation. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Baroque architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Baroque. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Chiaroscuro. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiaroscuro. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Council of Trent. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Trent. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Caravaggio. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravaggio. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Reformation. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reformation. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - chiaroscuro. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chiaroscuro. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	libretexts	2025-03-17T19:54:35.181920	2020-05-01T17:34:50	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/21%3A_The_Baroque_Period/21.01%3A_The_Baroque_Period", "book_url": "https://commons.libretexts.org/book/human-52943", "title": "21.1: The Baroque Period", "author": "Boundless" }

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