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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament%20of%20South%20Africa
Parliament of South Africa
{{Infobox Parliament | background_color = Green | name = Parliament of the Republic of South Africa | legislature = 27th Parliament | coa_pic = SA_Parliament_coat_of_arms.svg | coa_res = 200px | session_room = Houses of Parliament (Cape Town).jpg | house_type = Bicameral | houses = National AssemblyNational Council of Provinces | leader1_type = Speaker of the National Assembly | leader1 = Nosiviwe Mapisa-Nqakula | party1 = ANC | election1 = 19 August 2021 | leader2_type = Chairperson of the National Council of Provinces | leader2 = Amos Masondo | party2 = ANC | election2 = 23 May 2019 | leader3_type = Leader of the Opposition | leader3 = | party3 = DA | election3 = 26 May 2014 | members = 49090 National Council400 National Assembly | house1 = National Council of Provinces | house2 = National Assembly | structure1 = South African National Council of Provinces 2019.svg | structure1_res = 270px | structure2 = Diagram of the National Assembly of South Africa.svg | structure2_res = 270px | political_groups1 = ANC (29 + 25) DA (13 + 7) EFF (9 + 2) Others (3 + 2) | political_groups2 = ANC (230) DA (84) {{nowrap| Other parties (86)}} EFF (44) IFP (14) FF+ (10) ACDP (4) UDM (2) ATM (2) Good (2) NFP (2) AIC (2) COPE (2) PAC (1) Al Jama-ah (1) | meeting_place = Houses of Parliament, Cape Town Western Cape, South Africa | website = | logo_pic = Parliament of South Africa logo.svg|logo_res=250px }} The Parliament of the Republic of South Africa' is South Africa's legislature; under the present Constitution of South Africa, the bicameral Parliament comprises a National Assembly and a National Council of Provinces. The current twenty-seventh Parliament was first convened on 22 May 2019. From 1910 to 1994, members of Parliament were elected chiefly by the South African white minority. The first elections with universal suffrage were held in 1994. Both chambers held their meetings in the Houses of Parliament, Cape Town that were built 1875–1884. A fire broke out within the buildings in early January 2022, destroying the session room of the National Assembly. It was decided that the National Assembly would temporarily meet at the Good Hope Chamber. History Before 1914 The predecessor of the Parliament of South Africa, before the 1910 Union of South Africa, was the bicameral Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope. This was composed of the House of Assembly (the lower house) and the Legislative Council (the upper house). It dated back to the beginnings of Cape independence in 1853 and was elected according to the multi-racial Cape Qualified Franchise system, whereby suffrage qualifications were applied equally to all males, regardless of race. The buildings of the Cape Parliament went on to house the Parliament of South Africa, after union.The Houses of Parliament, Cape Town, Andrew Cusack, 3 November 2009 1910–1994 When the Union of South Africa was established in 1910, the Parliament was bicameral and consisted of the King or the Queen, the Senate, and the House of Assembly (known in Afrikaans as the Volksraad). The King (from 1952, the Queen of South Africa) was represented by the Governor-General. The Senate consisted of senators nominated by the four provinces, and by the Governor-General, initially for a period of ten years. The number of senators was changed from time to time. The Senate was chaired by a President of the Senate chosen by the senators from among themselves. The House of Assembly consisted of members who were directly elected by the voters. Each MP represented an electoral district (constituency), and most of them were elected on the basis of their political party. The number of constituencies and parliamentary seats was increased from time to time, in line with increases in the population. The House was chaired by a Speaker chosen by the MPs from among themselves. Only white men could be senators or MPs. The franchise (right to vote) was originally granted to white men in all four provinces, to black men in the Cape Province and Natal, and to Coloured men in the Cape Province – in all cases, the minimum age was 21 years. The composition of Parliament was changed by constitutional amendments from time to time: From 1930, white women had the vote, and the right to serve as senators and MPs, on the same basis as white men. In 1934, Parliament was declared "the sovereign legislative power in and over the Union". From 1937, black voters were separated from the other races – in the Senate they were represented by four elected senators (two for the Cape, one for Natal, one for the Orange Free State and Transvaal), and in the House of Assembly by three "native representative" MPs elected in separate black constituencies. From 1950, white voters in South West Africa, which was under South African administration at that time, were represented by four senators and six MPs. From 1957, Coloured voters were separated from the whites – in the Senate, they were represented by separate senators, and in the House of Assembly by MPs elected in separate Coloured constituencies. To pass this amendment in the face of strong opposition (and two Supreme Court rulings), prime minister Johannes Strijdom had to enlarge the Senate and appoint enough pro-government senators to get the two-thirds majority he needed to force through the constitutional change. Representation of black voters was ended in 1960. Voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1960. In a referendum held in 1960, a small majority of the white voters approved the conversion of the country from a Realm or Dominion of the British Commonwealth to a republic. 1961–1984 The Republic of South Africa was established in 1961. The only change made to the composition of the Parliament was the substitution of the State President for the Queen. A few significant changes were made later: Coloured representation was ended in 1968, leaving both the Senate and the House of Assembly representing white voters only. South West Africa ceased to be represented in Parliament from 1977. The Senate was abolished in 1981, changing Parliament to a unicameral legislature. 1984–1994 A new Constitution, introduced in 1984, re-enfranchised the Coloured population (women as well as men) and enfranchised the Indian population. It retained the existing House of Assembly for whites and established a House of Representatives to represent the Coloureds, and a House of Delegates for the Indians, making Parliament a tricameral legislature. Blacks continued to be excluded. Each house consisted of members elected to represent constituencies, plus a few additional members elected by the MPs, and some nominated by the State President. Each house legislated on "own affairs" exclusive to its own race group, and they legislated jointly on "general affairs" affecting all races. In practice, the House of Assembly, which had more MPs than the other two houses combined, continued to dominate the legislature. Each house was chaired by a chairman elected by its members from among themselves. They were coordinated by a Speaker of Parliament, elected by the members of all three houses in a joint sitting. The existing House of Assembly, elected in 1981, was deemed to have been re-elected in 1984, to coordinate its term of office with those of the two new houses. However, this was later overturned by the Supreme Court, and a separate election had to be held for the House of Assembly in 1987. The House elected in 1987 was then dissolved with the other houses in 1989. The black majority were still disfranchised, and the new system lacked legitimacy even among the Coloureds and Asians, many of whom boycotted elections. In a referendum held in 1992, 68.73% of (only white) voters approved the reform process that effectively ended Apartheid. In late 1993, one of the last pieces of legislation passed by the tricameral Parliament was the Interim Constitution, which took effect on 27 April 1994, the same day as the first non-racial elections. Since 1994 A new interim constitution, introduced in 1994 after four years of negotiation, finally introduced all-race democracy and enfranchised men and women of all races on equal terms, the minimum age remaining 18 years. Parliament was reconstituted to consist of a Senate and a National Assembly. The Senate consisted of 90 senators, ten nominated by each of the nine provinces. It was chaired by a President of the Senate elected by the senators from among themselves. The National Assembly consists of 400 members, elected by voters on a proportional representation/party list system. There are no electoral districts, and each party is allocated a number of seats proportionate to the percentage of the votes it receives across the country. It is chaired by a Speaker elected by the MPs from among themselves. In 1997, the current Constitution of South Africa came into force, in which the Senate was replaced by a 90-member National Council of Provinces (NCOP), made up of a 10-member delegation from each province (six delegates elected by the provincial legislature, the Premier and three other members of the provincial legislature). The NCOP is chaired by a Chairperson elected by the members from among themselves. The parliamentary system uses proportional representation, with voters voting for political parties rather than for candidates. Proportional representation allows for smaller parties to have a chance of acquiring seats in parliament, although these parties often combine in order to have a stronger voice within the political system, especially against the ANC. The Independent Electoral Commission is charged with keeping elections fair, regular, and equal. Parties submit closed lists of candidates to the IEC, and the IEC fills the seats allotted to individual parties using the candidate lists after election results come in. The electoral system has seen little corruption since 1994. International Relations Minister and Cooperation Naledi Pandor has noted that during her term (starting 1994) a decline in political respectability had occurred in parliament, due to its members not engaging with one another in a courteous manner. She remarked that she felt undignified to be an observer of the crude behaviour, which also inhibited the conduct of successful politics. 2022 fire On 2 January 2022, large parts of the Old Assembly Building and National Assembly building were damaged in a fire. A man was arrested and subsequently charged with arson. Major political parties in parliament African National Congress: The ANC was founded in 1912, but were banned by State President Charles Robberts Swart in 1960, remaining so until the ban was lifted thirty years later by President F. W. De Klerk. The ANC became the leading political party in South Africa after the first multi-racial election in 1994. The party's main platform rests on working towards racial equality and eradicating the socio-economic classes which are often based on race. The ANC has been considered a party for native South Africans, especially before 2009 when party leader Jacob Zuma faced multiple accusations regarding corruption, particularly using public funds for his own purposes. The economic difficulties in South Africa, as well as police brutality have both been blamed on the ANC. Currently, the ANC holds 230 seats in parliament. Support for the ANC went down between the 2014 and the 2019 general elections, with violent protests erupting all over the country in response to the allegations of corruption within the ANC and the non-delivery of municipal services. Democratic Alliance: The DA was formed when the New National Party, the successor to the apartheid-era National Party, merged with the Democratic Party and the Federal Alliance in 2000 to form an alliance. The DA is an opposition party and has been traditionally supported by South Africa's minority communities (White, Coloured and Indian). In more recent years, the party has attempted to win votes from Black South Africans and as a result, Black support for the DA has risen over the past several years, going from 1% to 6%. The DA is a liberal party that favours free-market policies. The DA was allotted 89 seats in parliament after the 2014 general election, but the party's seat total decreased to 84 seats following the 2019 general election. Economic Freedom Fighters: The EFF emerged eight months before the 2014 general election and won 25 seats in parliament. After the 2019 general elections, the EFF increased their seats in parliament to 44, the only party of the top three parties that achieved an increase of members in parliament. The EFF is a far-left revolutionary socialist political party, advocating for land expropriation and for an end to corruption within parliament. Inkatha Freedom Party: The IFP, which was formed in 1990 was the successor to the former government in the now-defunct Kwazulu Bantustan, traditionally draws its support from the Zulu people. It has however made inroads into the minority electorate of Whites and Indians. The IFP was the third-largest party until it was unseated by the EFF and is one of the few parties to have consecutive representation in parliament since democracy in 1994. The IFP apart from the ANC was part of the National Government for 10 years. The IFP champions the rights of traditional leaders and advocates for policies which favour free markets. The party is opposed to socialism and communist policies. Because the ANC has such a large majority in parliament, smaller parties are constantly forming alliances and coalitions in order to act as a stronger opposition to the ANC-run legislative and executive branches. Seat of Parliament Parliament sits at the Houses of Parliament, Cape Town, even though the seat of government is in Pretoria. This dates back to the foundation of the Union, when there was disagreement among the four provinces as to which city would be the national capital. As a compromise, Cape Town was designated the legislative capital, Bloemfontein the judicial capital, and Pretoria the administrative capital. The African National Congress (ANC) government has proposed moving Parliament to Pretoria, arguing that the present arrangement is cumbersome as ministers, civil servants and diplomats must move back and forth when Parliament is in session. However, many Capetonians have spoken out against such a move, accusing the ANC of trying to centralise power. Under the Constitution, there is provision for Parliament to sit elsewhere than Cape Town on grounds of public interest, security or convenience and Parliament is permitted to provide in its rules and orders for sittings outside Cape Town. Rule 24 of the National Assembly Rules accordingly allows the Speaker to direct that the House will sit at 'a place other than the Houses of Parliament in Cape Town' after consulting the Leader of the House and the Chief Whip of each party represented in the House. Rule 23 of the rules of the National Council of Provinces allows the council to pass a resolution providing for it to sit elsewhere. In 2018, the Government of South Africa formed a project steering committee to conduct a feasibility study into moving parliament to Pretoria and to identify potential sites for a new parliament building. In April 2019, the Minister of Public Works announced that a list of potential sites had been drawn up. In 2020, it was suggested that moving parliament to Pretoria would save R650 million per year. In January 2022, a fire broke out at the Houses of Pariament building in Cape Town causing severe damage to the session rooms of both the National Council of Provinces and the National Assembly. The 2022 State of the Nation Address was held at Cape Town City Hall and subsequent meetings of the National Assembly will be held at Good Hope Chamber. The temporary debating chamber has previously been used for committee meetings of the National Assembly and has a seating capacity of 170, reduced to 70 during COVID-19 precautions. The National Assembly has 400 members. List of Parliaments Parliaments of the Union 1st South African Parliament (1910–1915) – majority party : South African Party 2nd South African Parliament (1915–1920) – majority party : South African Party 3rd South African Parliament (1920–1921) – majority party : South African Party 4th South African Parliament (1921–1924) – majority party : South African Party 5th South African Parliament (1924–1929) – majority party : National Party 6th South African Parliament (1929–1933) – majority party : National Party 7th South African Parliament (1933–1938) – majority party : United Party 8th South African Parliament (1938–1943) – majority party : United Party 9th South African Parliament (1943–1948) – majority party : United Party 10th South African Parliament (1948–1953) – majority party : National Party 11th South African Parliament (1953–1958) – majority party : National Party 12th South African Parliament (1958–1961) – majority party : National Party Parliaments of the Republic 13th South African Parliament (1961–1966) – majority party : National Party 14th South African Parliament (1966–1970) – majority party : National Party 15th South African Parliament (1970–1974) – majority party : National Party 16th South African Parliament (1974–1977) – majority party : National Party 17th South African Parliament (1977–1981) – majority party : National Party 18th South African Parliament (1981–1984) – majority party : National Party 19th South African Parliament (1984–1987) – majority party : National Party 20th South African Parliament (1987–1989) – majority party : National Party 21st South African Parliament (1989–1994) – majority party : National Party Democratic Parliaments 22nd South African Parliament (1994–1999) – majority party : African National Congress 23rd South African Parliament (1999–2004) – majority party : African National Congress 24th South African Parliament (2004–2009) – majority party : African National Congress 25th South African Parliament (2009–2014) – majority party : African National Congress 26th South African Parliament (2014–2019) - majority party : African National Congress 27th South African Parliament (2019–present) - majority party: African National Congress See also List of Acts of the Parliament of South Africa Politics of South Africa List of legislatures by country Committees of the Parliament of South Africa References South Africa Act 1909 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1961 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1983 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1993 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 Kahn, E. (1961). The New Constitution. Kruger, D.W. (1969). The Making of a Nation. May, H.J. (1949). The South African Constitution''. External links Government of South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa
376185
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kath%20%26%20Kim
Kath & Kim
Kath & Kim (also written as Kath and Kim) is an Australian sitcom created by Jane Turner and Gina Riley, who portray the title characters of Kath Day-Knight, a cheery, middle-aged suburban mother, and Kim, her self-indulgent daughter. The cast also includes Glenn Robbins, Peter Rowsthorn and Magda Szubanski as, respectively, Kath's metrosexual boyfriend (later husband) Kel Knight, Kim's henpecked husband Brett Craig, and her lonely "second-best friend" Sharon Strzelecki. The series is set in Fountain Lakes, a fictional suburb of Melbourne, Victoria. Aside from the television series, which ran from 2002 to 2007 and comprises four seasons, the franchise also includes a television film, Da Kath & Kim Code (2005), and a feature film, Kath & Kimderella (2012). The series also spawned a short-lived American remake, which ran for 17 episodes between 2008 and 2009. A two-part special to mark its 20th Anniversary, titled Kath & Kim: Our Effluent Life and Kath and Kim: 20 Preposterous Years, was screened on 20–21 November 2022. Premise Kath & Kim follows the day-to-day Australian suburban life of Kath Day-Knight (Jane Turner), her only child Kimberly (Kim) Diane Craig née Day (Gina Riley), Kim's husband and Computa City salesman, Brett Craig (Peter Rowsthorn), Kath's love interest and eventual husband who works as a "purveyor of fine meats", Kel Knight (Glenn Robbins), and long-time family friend Sharon Strzelecki (Magda Szubanski). Storylines follow the characters' day-to-day lives, and document their personal struggles and the banality of their achievements and aspirations. Kath & Kim satirises the mother-daughter relationship and the habits and values of modern suburban Australians, and emphasises the kitsch and superficial elements of contemporary society, particularly the traditional working class which has progressed to a level of affluence (or "effluence" as quoted by Kath) which previous generations had been unable to achieve. Despite this affluence, good taste and a sense of cultural sophistication still eludes the titular characters. They visit places such as the Westfield Fountain Gate (some parts filmed at Westfield Southland), the local IKEA, Target and various local restaurants. It also occasionally mocks Australian and international mass popular culture, such as popular reality television shows Big Brother and Australian Idol. It sometimes makes statements about Australian politics. The crass and embarrassing behaviour of the characters, and their gaudy, out-dated fashion sense are popular features of the show. Processed and widely recognised Australian foods, such as Jatz crackers, Tim Tams and Fruche yoghurt are frequently referenced in the series. During the credits, most episodes end with Kath and Kim sitting in Kath's back yard, chatting about issues related to the episode. Sometimes these chats help to complete the story which was told during the episode. Cast and characters Main cast Jane Turner as Kath Day-Knight – A middle aged woman who strives to keep herself fit. Gina Riley as Kim Craig – Kath's 20-something year old daughter who is known for being lazy and extremely self-centred. Magda Szubanski as Sharon Strzelecki – Kim's "second-best friend", described as very unlucky in love and a sports enthusiast. Glenn Robbins as Kel Knight – Kath's boyfriend and later husband, a metrosexual man who is a local "purveyor of fine meats" Peter Rowsthorn as Brett Craig – Kim's husband Recurring cast Zara Harrington, Emma Le Boeuf and Makayla Berkers as Epponnee-Rae Craig – Kim's baby (series 2, episode 8 and onwards), and Morghyne de Vries played her as a young girl in the movie. Jane Turner and Gina Riley as Prue and Trude, two snobby women who work in a homewares store (8 episodes, TV movie, movie) Marg Downey as Marion, a new-age marriage celebrant and counsellor (6 episodes + movie) Mick Molloy as Gary Poole, Kim's father (2 episodes + movie) William McInnes (credited as Rock Hampton) as Sandy Freckle, long-time friend of Kel (2 episodes) Tony Martin as Mark, romantic interest of Sharon (4 episodes) Peta Brady as Kelly, Brett's supervisor at work (4 episodes + TV movie) Mark Trevorrow as Daryl Lee, a camp man who works in a menswear shop (3 episodes and TV movie). Trevorrow also plays a similar character in the movie. Luke Lennox as Brodie (1 episode + TV movie) Matt Lucas as Karen, Sharon's maternal half-sister (2 episodes) Shivantha Wijesinha as Imran (2 episodes) Guest cast Several guest stars are well-known Australian comedy performers, some of whom previously worked with Turner or Riley. Bublé and Lucas were fans of the show and asked to appear in it. Humphries declared himself a fan of the series before taking part. Episodes Overview The storyline of the first series follows Kath's engagement and plans for her wedding to Kel. Kim frequently stays in her mother's house owing to her rocky relationship with Brett (most of which is due to her own childish, spoilt, and rude behaviour towards Brett). Sharon's always around with a helping hand and her own relationship problems. Her history with Brett is also explored. The second series follows Kim's pregnancy and her rekindled relationship with Brett. Kath and Kel's relationship goes through some teething troubles. Kim and Brett have a baby in the final episode of the second series whom they name Epponnee Raelene Kathleen Darlene Charlene Craig, shortened to Epponnee Rae. Several episodes of the third series focus on Epponnee Rae. The third-season finale features an adult Epponnee Rae, played by Kylie Minogue. Production Development The characters of Kath, Kim (created by Riley and Turner) and Sharon (created and played by Magda Szubanski) first featured in their current forms during the mid 1990s as a weekly segment of the Australian comedy series Big Girl's Blouse (Seven, 1994–95), having appeared in a more embryonic incarnation earlier in the decade on the sketch comedy show Fast Forward (Seven, 1989–92). They also appeared in Something Stupid (Seven, 1998). Robbins had also appeared on Fast Forward, while Rowsthorn and Robbins had previously worked together on The Comedy Company. The skits were developed by Riley and Turner into a full series. Big Girl's Blouse had been deemed a failure by the ABC who wanted to pull Kath and Kim. But it was championed by Robyn Kershaw the ABC Head of Drama so Kath and Kim had the distinction for a comedy show of being produced by the drama department, and was loved by the "suburban people" it supposedly attacked. Twenty-four episodes lasting approximately twenty-five minutes each across three seasons aired on ABC TV from 2002 to 2004. The series debuted on 15 May 2002 on the ABC Network with "Sex" and became one of the highest-rated shows for ABC. A replacement of a full series occurred in 2005 with the telemovie Da Kath & Kim Code. The fourth season of Kath & Kim began airing on the Seven Network on 19 August 2007, due to the contract expiring with ABC. In late 2009, they announced that writing had begun on season 5, but by May 2010, Turner said: "We sort of felt like it was the end two years ago. We thought, 'We've done enough and the well is dry and we can't think of any more ideas' ... We think we might just leave it for now." Writing The alternative vocabulary including the mixed metaphors, hypercorrection, malapropisms, eggcorns (like "ravishing" instead of "ravenous"), and mis-pronunciations of the regular characters are much repeated by the show's fans. These include: "Look at moy" (look at me)—used by Kath to command attention during arguments, and "It's noice, different and unusual"—used by Kath, Kim and Sharon to express approval or agreement. Filming Kath's home, known as "Chateau Kath", was within the fictionalised suburb of Fountain Lakes, and served as the central filming location for the series. The home, located in Patterson Lakes, Victoria, 35 km east of Melbourne, was originally rented by ABC during the entire run of the series, and chosen for its likeness to Sylvania Waters. The property backs onto a canal, which ABC fenced off during filming in order for it to look more suburban. It was sold in 2016 for $1,485,000. In May 2022, the house was in the process of being demolished, which was completed by July 2022. Other footage was filmed around Cheltenham and Moorabbin; scenes set at Fountain Gate were actually filmed at Westfield Southland. Costuming Second-hand shops were used for Kath's clothing, whereas Kim was dressed in current trends. Opening titles The title sequence shows the main five regular characters over a white background. In season 3, it was amended to include Epponnee-Rae and Cujo, before switching to a revised version of the previous sequence for the Seven Network run, where Cujo was retained. The five regular cast members are then credited over aerial shots of suburban houses (Szubanski is credited as a "special guest" despite appearing in every episode) before fading into an aerial shot of Kath and Kim's house (some episodes replace it with an aerial shot of the mall, while "The Wedding" replaced it with a ground-level shot of a hospital). The theme song is "The Joker," performed by Gina Riley. A re-recording of it debuted in the telemovie opening sequence and was used for the show's run on the Seven Network. Broadcast First run Kath & Kim was broadcast Thursday nights at 8.30 pm throughout its run on ABC, while Seven Network aired the series Sunday nights at 7.30 pm. The series premiered in the United Kingdom in April 2004, when it was broadcast on the now-defunct subscription channel LivingTV, and later on Ftn. It made its terrestrial television debut when it screened on BBC Two from 12 May 2005. The fourth season has never been broadcast in the UK, but did premiere when it was made available on Netflix. Re-runs In 2017, the rights to the series were acquired by the Nine Network which began airing repeats of the series from 1 August 2017 until 21 November 2017. In 2018, the series was released on Netflix in several regions, as well as the films and TV specials. In July 2019, the series was launched onto Netflix in Australia as well as the Kountdown Specials and Souvenir Editions. In 2022, to mark its 20th anniversary the Seven Network began airing repeats of the series from 29 September 2022. Reception Ratings Kath & Kim premiered on 16 May 2002 and became one of ABC's highest-rated shows. When the show premiered on the Seven Network, it became the highest-rating episode in Australian television history, until the record was broken by Nine Network's Underbelly: A Tale of Two Cities on 9 February 2009. The fourth season of Kath & Kim debuted with a record-breaking 2.511 million viewers peaking at 2.731 million. In its second and third episodes viewers fell to 1.994 & 1.817 million, respectively; however, viewers then rebounded for its fourth and fifth episodes with ratings of 2.047 and 2.157 million, respectively. Strong ratings continued with viewers of 2.049 and 2.066 million for the sixth and seventh episodes. The eighth episode and show's finale rated 2.338 million giving the fourth season an average viewership of 2.122 million, making it the highest-rating TV season in Australia for 2007 and the highest-rating of all four seasons of the show. In 2007, Channel Seven started showing repeats of the show from season one onwards which had previously only aired on the ABC network. The repeats proved quite successful, with the first two rating 1.465 and 1.530 million, winning in a very competitive timeslot and being amongst the highest-rating shows of the week. In the UK, its BBC premiere drew viewing figures of 1.691 million in May 2005. Awards and nominations Home media The enduring public interest and popularity of Kath and Kim has led to a merchandising industry. The title family and supporting characters appear on everything from T-shirts to posters. The Kath & Kim series have been released on VHS (although titles are now discontinued in the VHS format) and DVD, in box sets and separate series editions in both region 4 (Australia, New Zealand, Latin America) as well as region 2 (Europe). The series has also had a CD release, featuring songs from the series and recordings from Kath and Kim. In addition, there has been clothing (such as aprons, T-shirts and oven mitts). Merchandise is available to purchase online, from the Kath & Kim official website. DVD releases CD releases A CD, titled "Kath & Kim's Party Tape", was released on 2 May 2004. It reached #17 in the Australian Albums Chart and was certified Gold (50,000+ units sold). In 2004, Kath & Kim's Party Tape was released in Australia under the Universal record label. It features 21 tracks including the full length version of the show's title theme, "The Joker" (as sung by Gina Riley) as well as Diana Ross and Lionel Richie's "Endless Love" and Donna Summer's "MacArthur Park". Gina Riley – "The Joker" Kath & Kim (Jane Turner and Gina Riley) – "Wine Time #1" The Tubes – "Don't Touch Me There" Bobby Hebb – "Sunny" Kath & Kim – "Wine Time #2" Diana Ross and Lionel Richie – "Endless Love" Status Quo – "Roll Over Lay Down" Kath & Kim – "Wine Time #3" The Supremes – "Rhythm of Life" Van McCoy – "The Hustle" Yvonne Elliman – "If I Can't Have You" Donna Summer – "MacArthur Park" Kath & Kim – "Wine Time #4" The Commodores – "Three Times a Lady" Sérgio Mendes and Brasil '66 – "Day Tripper" Kath & Kim – "Wine Time #5" Yvonne Fair – "It Should Have Been Me" Stephanie Mills – "Never Knew Love Like This Before" Kath & Kim – "Wine Time #6" Captain & Tennille – "Love Will Keep Us Together" Kath & Kim – "Lady Bump" Other media Feature film On 9 March 2011, Turner and Riley announced plans for a movie, in which, Kath, Kim, Kel, Brett, Sharon and Epponnee would head overseas on holiday. Contracts were written to finance the film's production under the working title of The Kath & Kim Filum, with the word 'film' deliberately misspelt with the letter 'u' in typical Kath and Kim yumour. However, the title Kath & Kimderella was ultimately used, and the film was released in Australia on 6 September 2012. It was directed by Ted Emery (director of the television series) and produced by Rick McKenna. The holiday scenes were shot in Positano, Italy and filming took a total of two weeks. The film was released in Australian cinemas on 6 September 2012. It grossed in excess of $2.1 million in its first weekend on Australian movie screens. 20th Anniversary special In July 2022, it was reported that Kath & Kim will be returning for a 10-minute special to commentate 20 years of the series. The special will showcase a countdown of celebrity guests and unseen clips that didn't feature in the series, as well as the cast discussing their favourite scenes. Celebrity guests for the special will include Mason Cox, Sonia Kruger and Celia Pacquola. The two specials, Kath and Kim: Our Effluent Life and Kath and Kim: 20 Preposterous Years, aired on 20 and 21 November 2022, respectively. American adaptation Due to the success that Kath & Kim has achieved internationally, it was remade for US audiences by NBC. Riley and Turner served as executive producers on the US version. In this remake, actress Molly Shannon has taken the role of Kath Day, and Selma Blair the role of Kim. The character of Sharon does not appear at the insistence of Szubanski. NBC chose Jason Ensler to direct. Michelle Nader developed the series for American television, which premiered in the United States as part of the Fall schedule of 2008. The series started to shoot in California in July 2008. NBC debuted the US adaptation on 9 October 2008, while Seven started screening it to Australian viewers on 12 October 2008. After airing only two episodes, Seven dropped the sitcom from their lineup due to poor ratings, only to bring it back several weeks later as a late-night schedule filler. In America, reviews were poor, but it averaged roughly around 5 to 7 million viewers per week, and was rewarded with a full season order in October 2008. On 19 May 2009, NBC announced that there would not be a second season of Kath & Kim. Trivia The name of the series "Kath and Kim" is a pun of the idiom kith and kin which is an old fashioned idiom for 'friends and family'. Notes References External links Official Kath & Kim website Official BBC website Yahoo!7 website 2002 Australian television series debuts 2007 Australian television series endings Australian Broadcasting Corporation original programming Australian television sitcoms English-language television shows Literary duos Logie Award for Most Outstanding Comedy Program winners Mass media portrayals of the working class Seven Network original programming Television shows set in Melbourne Working class in Australia Television duos City of Kingston (Victoria) Television shows adapted into films
376186
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinology
Sinology
Sinology, otherwise referred to as Chinese studies, is a sub-field of area studies or East Asian studies involved in social sciences and humanities research on China. It is an academic discipline that focuses on the study of the Chinese civilization primarily through Chinese language, history, culture, literature, philosophy, art, music, cinema, and science. Its origin "may be traced to the examination which Chinese scholars made of their own civilization." The academic field of sinology often refers to Western scholarship. It was historically seen to be equivalent to the application of philology to Chinese classics, and until the 20th century was generally seen as meaning "Chinese philology" (language and literature). Sinology has broadened in modern times to include Chinese history, epigraphy, and other subjects. Terminology The terms "sinology" and "sinologist" were coined around 1838 and use "sino-", derived from Late Latin Sinae from the Greek Sinae, from the Arabic Sin which in turn may derive from Qin, as in the Qin dynasty. In the context of area studies, the European and the American usages may differ. In Europe, sinology is usually known as Chinese studies, whereas in the United States, sinology is a subfield of Chinese studies. A China watcher is a person who monitors current events and power struggles in the People's Republic of China. Japanese sinology In Japan, sinology was known as . It was opposed to kokugaku, the study of Japan, and Yōgaku or Rangaku, the study of the West or Netherlands. It is distinguished from the Western and modern sinology. Chinese sinology In modern China, the studies of China-related subjects is known as "national studies" (), and foreign sinology is translated as "Han studies" (). Western sinology Beginnings to 17th century The earliest Westerners known to have studied Chinese in significant numbers were 16th-century Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian missionariesall from either the Dominican Order or the Society of Jesus (Jesuits)seeking to spread Catholic Christianity among the Chinese people. An early Spanish Dominican mission in Manila operated a printing press, and between 1593 and 1607 produced four works on Catholic doctrine for the Chinese immigrant community, three in Classical Chinese and one in a mixture of Classical Chinese and vernacular Hokkien. Dominican accomplishments among the Chinese diaspora pale in comparison to the success of the Jesuits in mainland China, led by the renowned pioneer Matteo Ricci. Ricci arrived in Canton (modern Guangzhou) in 1583 and spent the rest of his life in China. Unlike most of his predecessors and contemporaries, Ricci did not view the Chinese as "idolatrous pagans", but viewed them as "like-minded literati approachable on the level of learning". He studied the Chinese Confucian classics, just like educated Chinese scholars, in order to present Catholic doctrine and European learning to the Chinese literati in their own language. 18th century During the Age of Enlightenment, sinologists started to introduce Chinese philosophy, ethics, legal system, and aesthetics into the West. Though often unscientific and incomplete, their works inspired the development of chinoiserie and a series of debates comparing Chinese and Western cultures. At that time, sinologists often described China as an enlightened kingdom, comparing it to Europe, which had just emerged from the Dark Ages. Among those European literati interested in China was Voltaire, who wrote the play L'orphelin de la Chine inspired by The Orphan of Zhao, Leibniz who penned his famous Novissima Sinica (News from China) and Giambattista Vico. Because Chinese texts did not have any major connections to most important European topics (such as the Bible), they were scarcely studied by European universities until around 1860. An exception to this was France, where Chinese studies were popularized owing to efforts from Louis XIV. In 1711, he appointed a young Chinese, Arcadio Huang to catalog the royal collection of Chinese texts. Huang was assisted by Étienne Fourmont, who published a grammar of Chinese in 1742. In 1732 a missionary priest of the Sacred Congregation "De propaganda fide" from the Kingdom of Naples, Matteo Ripa (1692–1746), created in Naples the first Sinology School of the European Continent: the "Chinese Institute", the first nucleus of what would become today's Università degli studi di Napoli L'Orientale, or Naples Eastern University. Ripa had worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the imperial court of the Kangxi Emperor between 1711 and 1723. Ripa returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, all teachers of their native language and formed the Institute sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to teach Chinese to missionaries and thus advance the propagation of Christianity in China. 19th century In 1814, a chair of Chinese and Manchu was founded at Collège de France. Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat, who taught himself Chinese, filled the position, becoming the first professor of Chinese in Europe. By then the first Russian sinologist, Nikita Bichurin, had been living in Beijing for ten years. Abel-Rémusat's counterparts in England and Germany were Samuel Kidd (1797–1843) and Wilhelm Schott (1807–1889) respectively, though the first important secular sinologists in these two countries were James Legge and Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. In 1878, a professorship of Far Eastern languages, the first of its kind in the German-speaking world, was created at the University of Leipzig with von der Gabelentz taking the position. Scholars like Legge often relied on the work of ethnic Chinese scholars such as Wang Tao. Stanislas Julien served as the chair of Chinese at the Collège de France for over 40 years, starting his studies with Rémusat and succeeding him in 1833. He was notable for his translations not only of classical texts but also works of vernacular literature, and for his knowledge of Manchu. Édouard Chavannes succeeded to the position after the death of Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys in 1893. Chavannes pursued broad interests in history as well as language. The image of China as an essentially Confucian society conveyed by Jesuit scholars dominated Western thought in these times. While some in Europe learned to speak Chinese, most studied written classical Chinese. These scholars were in what is called the "commentarial tradition" through critical annotated translation. This emphasis on translating classical texts inhibited the use of social science methodology or comparing these texts of other traditions. One scholar described this type of sinology as "philological hairsplitting" preoccupied with marginal or curious aspects. Secular scholars gradually came to outnumber missionaries, and in the 20th century sinology slowly gained a substantial presence in Western universities. 20th century and after The Paris-based type of sinology dominated learning about China until the Second World War even outside France. Paul Pelliot, Henri Maspero, and Marcel Granet both published basic studies and trained students. Pelliot's knowledge of the relevant languages, especially those of Central Asia, and control of bibliography in those languages, gave him the power to write on a range of topics and to criticize in damning detail the mistakes of other scholars. Maspero expanded the scope of sinology from Confucianism to include Daoism, Buddhism, and popular religion, as well as art, mythology, and the history of science. The contribution of Granet was to apply the concepts of Emile Durkheim, a pioneer sociologist, to the society of ancient China, especially the family and ritual. The Russian school of sinology was focused mainly on learning classical Chinese texts. For example, the contribution of the Russian sinologist Julian Shchutsky was especially valuable. The best full translation of the I Ching (Book of Changes) was made by him in 1937. Later his translation was translated in English and other European languages. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the study of China developed along diverging lines. The rise of Area studies, the role of China watchers, and the growth of university graduate programs has changed the role of sinology. Funding for Chinese and Taiwanese studies may come from a variety of sources; one prominent source is the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation. The Area studies approach, especially in the United States, challenged the dominance of classical sinology. Scholars such as John King Fairbank promoted the "study of China within a discipline," an approach which downplayed the role of philological sinology and focused on issues in history and the social sciences. One of the earliest American scholars of Cold War China and Sino-American relations was Chinese-American Tang Tsou of the University of Chicago. Tsou emphasized the importance of academic objectivity in general and in sinology in particular, stressing that intellectual and academic exchange between China and the West was the only way for both parties to come to a greater understanding of one another. In 1964 an exchange in the pages of the Journal of Asian Studies debated the continued relevance of sinology. The anthropologist G. William Skinner called for the social sciences to make more use of China, but wrote "In recent years the cry has gone up: Sinology is dead; long live Chinese studies!" and concluded that "Sinology, a discipline unto itself, is being replaced by Chinese studies, a multidisciplinary endeavor with specific research objectives." Joseph Levenson, an historian, went further. He doubted that sinology was a tool which social scientists would still find useful, while another historian, Benjamin I. Schwartz, on the other hand, replied that the disciplines were too often treated as ends in themselves. Sinology had its backers. Frederick W. Mote, a specialist in traditional China, replying to Skinner, spoke up for sinology, which he saw as a field or discipline in itself. Another specialist in traditional China, Denis Twitchett, in reply to the back and forth of this debate, issued what he called "A Lone Cheer for Sinology." He did not accept the assumption that there is "some implicit hostility between 'Sinology’ and the disciplines of history and social sciences." Sinology, he continued, is used in too a wide range of meanings to be so confined: At one extreme it is used to characterize a rather ridiculous caricature compounded of pedantry and preoccupation with peripheral and precious subjects of little general significance.... At the other extreme, the definition used by Prof. Mote is so broad and all-inclusive as to mean little more than the humanistic studies in the Chinese field. During the Cold War, China Watchers centered in Hong Kong, especially American government officials or journalists. Mutual distrust between the United States and China and the prohibition of travel between the countries meant they did not have access to press briefings or interviews. They therefore adopted techniques from Kremlinology, such as the close parsing of official announcements for hidden meanings, movements of officials reported in newspapers, and analysis of photographs of public appearances. But in the years since the opening of China, China watchers can live in China and take advantage of normal sources of information. Towards the end of the century, many of those studying China professionally called for an end to the split between sinology and the disciplines. The Australian scholar Geremie Barmé, for instance, suggests a "New Sinology", one which "emphasizes strong scholastic underpinnings in both the classical and modern Chinese language and studies, at the same time as encouraging an ecumenical attitude in relation to a rich variety of approaches and disciplines, whether they be mainly empirical or more theoretically inflected." Arab Sinology Before 20th Century Chinese historical sources indicate that the Chinese had knowledge of the Arabs several centuries before Islam, as the history of relations between the two civilizations dates back to the pre-Islamic era. The policy of the Han Dynasty (206 BC) aimed at opening trade routes with the western regions, which are today called Central Asia, India and Western Asia, extending to the Arabian Peninsula and Africa. Historical studies confirmed that Muslim Arabs entered China during the early days of Islam to spread the religion, when four of Muhammad's companions namely Saad bin Abi Waqqas, Jaafar bin Abi Talib, and Jahsh bin Riab preached in China in the year 616/17. During the reign of Emperor Yongle, the first Chinese fleet arrived on the shores of the Arabian Peninsula, led by Zheng He, on his fourth voyage in 1412 AD. It is clear from the foregoing that there had been friction between China and the Arabs from a long time ago, and that there are cultural and commercial relations existing between the Arab and Chinese civilizations, which required the visiting Arabs to learn the Chinese language and vice versa. However, there are no texts indicating that the Arabs during this period studied the Chinese language or culture beyond what their missionary or trades affairs demanded, and the reason for this is due to the fact that the purpose of the visits was often to trade or to spread Islam. At the beginning of the seventh century until the eighth century, the power of the Arabs increased due to the expansion of Islam and its spread throughout the world, and their control expanded to the east and west. Their power was strengthened by their vast lands, their advanced network of postal stations, and the pilgrimage to Mecca, in addition to the flourishing of land and sea trade. All this led to the advancement of their studies in geography and thus, new knowledge about China found its way to the Arab world. Up to the twelfth century, the Arabs possessed exclusive knowledge about the East, and they were contributing to the transmission of knowledge to the West, which contributed to the advancement of Islamic civilization and its impact on world culture. Arabs such as Abu al-Hasan Ali al-Masoudi, who is a well-known historical figure in the Arabian Peninsula, made significant contributions to Sinology. Al-Masoudi has traveled all over the world since he was a child, visiting faraway places. In the year 915, he visited India, Ceylon, Champa, and the coastal regions of China, and then visited Zabagh and Turkistan in Central Asia. He died in the year 956, and he is the author of the book “Meadows of Gold,” which deals with history, geography, and other fields. He had many records about China, and these records were popular among orient scholars. Abu Zayd's book "On China and India" was a well-known and highly regarded Arabic historical material. The book had two separate parts, the first part was "History of Indian and Chinese Affairs" by an unknown author, and the second part was "A Collection of Rumors of India and China" by Abu Zayd. The first part was a selection from Solomon's "Chinese experiences" and other anonymous sources, written and recorded in 851, together with their experiences in India. 20th century and after During the 20th century, projects of cooperation between China and the Arab countries led to the development of Sinology in the Arab countries nominally after expanding the scope of Chinese-Arab cooperation in the field of education, with some difference according to the level of cooperation. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Egypt in 1956, Egypt began to open the Chinese language specialization course in Egyptian universities, but on a small scale at that time. Ain Shams University opened the Chinese language specialization in 1958. However, the course was stopped for prevailing political reasons at the time. In the period between 1958 and 1963, 33 Chinese language students graduated from Egyptian universities. In 1977, Ain Shams University reintroduced the Sinology specialization course. In addition to Egypt, there were activities to teach the Chinese language in Kuwait as well, but they stopped after a short period. The number of Arabs that learn the Chinese Language has increased. The Chinese Language Department at Ain Shams University is a major center for teaching the Chinese language in Egypt and one of the notable centers for teaching the Chinese language in the Arab world and Africa in terms of student size, teaching quality, and the level of teachers and staff. The Bourguiba Institute for Modern Languages was also opened in Tunisia, and it specializes in the Chinese language in 1977. Cairo University also established the Chinese Language Department in September 2004 becoming a major center for Sinology is North Africa. Arab scholars sought to delve deeper into Sinology for academic, political, cultural and diplomatic purposes in order to build a bridge of communication between the Arab and Chinese peoples. Their interest in the history of China also increased greatly. Many books related to the history of Chinese culture and its people were published in the Arabic language. In 2020 after spending about six years as a consul in Guangzhou, Ali bin Ghanem Al-Hajri, a Qatari diplomat who is considered one of the Arabs with a lot of original Arabic academic works in sinology, published the book “Zheng He, Chinese Emperor of the Seas”. The book covers the history and adventures of a Chinese commander by the name Zheng He whose fleet went round the known world in seven voyages between the years 1415 and 1432. He also wrote before that the novel “The Fleet of the Sun” inspired by the story of the Chinese commander. It was considered the first Arabic novel with a Chinese as the central character, thus it achieved some fame in the Arab world, although it was not published until recently. He also published "China in the Eyes of Travelers", a book that delved deep into the history of ancient China through the discoveries made by travellers and explorers. Al-hajri further wrote the book "Arts in the Ming Dynasty", in which he elaborated on the political and economic development of the Ming Dynasty and the historical development of Chinese culture. Four of his books are translated into Chinese Many books have been translated from Chinese into Arabic as part of these efforts. Where more than 700 books about the people of China, their culture, economy, literature and philosophy have been translated into Arabic by the (House of Wisdom) company located in the Ningxia Hui region, northwest China since its establishment in 2011. Sinologists Journals Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême Orient Chinese Heritage Quarterly, China Heritage Project, Australian National University Euro-Sinica Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Journal of Asian Studies Journal of the European Association for Chinese Studies The (Cambridge) China Quarterly Journal Asiatique Late Imperial China Monumenta Serica Sino-Platonic Papers T'oung Pao Modern China Toho Gakuho Toyoshi Kenkyu See also Sinophile References Sources Barrett, Timothy Hugh, Singular Listlessness: A Short History of Chinese Books and British Scholars (London: Wellsweep, 1989). 125 pages. "Published in its original form in F. Wood, ed., British Library Occasional papers, 10: Chinese studies [1988], p. 9-53.". Cayley, John & Ming Wilson ed., Europe Studies China: Papers from an International Conference on the History of European Sinology, London: Han-Shan Tang Books, 1995. (See also E.G. Pulleyblank's review of the work in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 122, No. 3 (Jul.-Sep., 2002), pp. 620–624, available through JSTOR). Mungello, David E., Curious Land: Jesuit Accommodation and the Origins of Sinology , Stuttgart: F. Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden, 1985; rpr. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1989 . Yang Liansheng, Excursions in Sinology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969). Zurndorfer, Harriet, "A Brief History of Chinese Studies and Sinology," in External links The Sinology Institute New Sinology 后汉学/後漢學 The China Story Australian Center on China in the World Guoxue Chinese Text Project Chinese Civilisation Centre - City University of Hong Kong Sinology Project, University of Massachusetts, Amherst China Heritage Project - Australian National University Torbjörn Lodén,"Swedish Sinology: A Historical Perspective" (archived) Library and research guides Electronic Resources for Chinese Studies and East Asian Libraries (includes China) Chinese culture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audubon
Audubon
The National Audubon Society (Audubon; ) is an American non-profit environmental organization dedicated to conservation of birds and their habitats. Located in the United States and incorporated in 1905, Audubon is one of the oldest of such organizations in the world. There are completely independent Audubon Societies in the United States, which were founded several years earlier such as the Massachusetts Audubon Society, Indiana Audubon Society, and Connecticut Audubon Society. The society has nearly 500 local chapters, each of which is an independent 501(c)(3) non-profit organization voluntarily affiliated with the National Audubon Society. They often organize birdwatching field trips and conservation-related activities. It also coordinates the Christmas Bird Count held each December in the U.S., a model of citizen science, in partnership with Cornell Lab of Ornithology, and the Great Backyard Bird Count each February. Together with Cornell, Audubon created eBird, an online database for bird observation. The National Audubon Society also has many global partners to help birds that migrate beyond the U.S.'s borders, including BirdLife International based in Great Britain, Bird Studies Canada, American Bird Conservancy, and many partners in Latin America and in the Caribbean. Audubon's International Alliances Program (IAP) brings together people throughout the Western Hemisphere to work together to implement conservation solutions at Important Birds Areas (IBAs). History Development of Audubon societies In 1886, Forest and Stream editor George Bird Grinnell was appalled by the negligent mass slaughter of birds that he saw taking place. As a boy, Grinnell had avidly read Ornithological Biography, a work by the bird painter John James Audubon; he also attended a school for boys conducted by Lucy Audubon. The Audubon name became the namesake of the society he founded. Within a year of its foundation, the early Audubon Society claimed 39,000 members. Eventually, it attained a membership of 48,862. Each member signed a pledge to "not molest birds". Prominent members included jurist Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., abolitionist minister Henry Ward Beecher, and poet John Greenleaf Whittier. This society was later discontinued, but the name and plan survived. Organizations for the protection of birds were not a wholly new idea. Even before Grinnell's Audubon Society was organized, the American Ornithologists' Union, founded in 1883, was aware of the dangers facing many birds in the United States. There were, however, influential ornithologists who defended the collection of birds. In 1902, Charles B. Cory, the president-elect of the AOU refused to attend a meeting of the District of Columbia Audubon Society stating that "I do not protect birds. I kill them." In 1895, the first Audubon Society was created. Cousins and Boston socialites, Harriet Hemenway and Minna B. Hall, disturbed by the destruction left by plume hunters, organized a series of afternoon teas with other wealthy local women, encouraging them to avoid feathered garments. They also sent literature asking these women to, in Hall's words, "join a society for the protection of birds, especially the egret". Later that same year, they founded the Massachusetts Audubon Society. Over 900 women came together with Hemenway and Hall, and across the country, many others were doing the same. These boycotts were largely successful, and the efforts of the early society members helped bring about the end of the plume trade and assisted in the introduction of early conservation legislation such as the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. In 1896, Pennsylvania created their Audubon Society, and during the next few years, bird lovers in many other states followed suit. St. Louis Audubon Society (SLAS) was established in 1916 as the St Louis Bird Club. In 1944, the Bird Club became the first local Audubon chapter in the United States. The national committee of Audubon societies was organized at a meeting held in Washington, D.C. in 1902. 1905 saw the organization of the National Association of Audubon Societies for the Protection of Wild Birds and Animals; William Dutcher was president, and T. Gilbert Pearson was secretary and financial agent. During this time, Albert Willcox provided financial support, more than $331,072 in 1905 and 1906. At the end of 1906, the Association had an interest-bearing endowment fund of more than $336,000 and an income from other sources of approximately $9,000. Bird protection Birds in the United States were threatened by market hunting as well as for the fashion industry. Pressure from shooting enthusiasts was intense. For example, great auks, whose habit of crowding together on rocks and beaches made them especially easy to hunt, had been driven to extinction early in the century. During one week in the spring of 1897, nature author Florence Merriam claimed to have seen 2,600 robins for sale in one market stall in Washington alone. By the start of the 20th century, the sale of bird flesh had never been greater. The second equally great threat to the bird population was the desire for their plumage. In the late 1890s, the American Ornithologists' Union estimated that five million birds were killed annually for the fashion market. In the final quarter of the 19th century, plumes, and even whole birds, decorated the hair, hats, and dresses of women. Poachers killed game warden Guy Bradley on July 8, 1905; poachers killed Game Warden Columbus G. McLeod in November 1908 in Florida and Audubon Society employee Pressly Reeves of South Carolina also in 1908. Public opinion soon turned on the fashion industry. Bolstered by the support of Boston socialite Harriet Hemenway, President of the United States and avowed Audubon Society sympathizer Theodore Roosevelt, and a widespread letter-writing campaign driven by church associations, many of whom distributed the Audubon message in their various newsletters, the plume trade was halted by such laws as the New York State Audubon Plumage Law (May 1910), which banned the sales of plumes of all native birds in the state. By 1920, similar laws were enacted in about 12 other states. Audubon Society activities are responsible for many laws for the establishment of game commissions and game warden forces, or prohibiting the sale of game. Refuges In 1918, the NAS actively lobbied for the Federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act. In the 1920s, the organization also played a vital role in convincing the U.S. government to protect vital wildlife areas by including them in a National Wildlife Refuge system. The association also acquired land through purchases and donation. The Theodore Roosevelt Sanctuary and Audubon Center in Oyster Bay, New York was donated to New York Audubon in 1923 by Emlen Roosevelt and Christine Roosevelt in memory of their cousin, who is buried in the adjacent Youngs Memorial Cemetery. The Audubon Center of Greenwich, Connecticut was founded in 1943. The Paul J. Rainey Wildlife Sanctuary in Louisiana was acquired in 1924, and at it is still the largest. In the late 20th century, the organization began to place a new emphasis on the development of Centers in urban locations, including Brooklyn, New York; East Los Angeles, California; Phoenix, Arizona; and Seattle, Washington. Field guides In 1934, with membership at a low of 3,500, and with the nation in the Great Depression, John H. Baker became the NAS president. He was a World War I aviator and ardent bird lover, and also a businessman, and he set about to invigorate the society and bolster its budget prosperity through publication. Baker began publishing book-length field guides on major forms of bird and mammal life. Soon, in association with New York publisher Alfred A. Knopf, the Audubon Field Guides became a staple of every artist's and environmentalist's library. Today, many Audubon field guides have been adapted for mobile phone apps. This field guide series covers a wide range of nature-related topics, including the night sky, rocks and minerals, wildflowers, and many animals. This series has sold 18 million copies and uses photographs instead of the commissioned paintings or other drawings that many other field guides possess, such as the Peterson Field Guides. DDT, whaling, and politics During the post-World War II period, the NAS was consumed by the battle over the pesticide DDT. As early as 1960, the society circulated draft legislation to establish pesticide control agencies at the state level. In 1962 the publication of Silent Spring by long-time Audubon member Rachel Carson gave the campaign against "persistent pesticides" a huge national forum. Following her death in 1964, the NAS established a fund devoted strictly to the various legal fights in the war against DDT. Today, Audubon selects outstanding women in conservation to receive its prestigious Rachel Carson Award. Honorees include Bette Midler, founder of the New York Restoration Project; Dr. Sylvia Earle, oceanographer and founder of Deep Search International; Majora Carter, Founder and Executive Director of Sustainable South Bronx; actress and conservation activist Sigourney Weaver, and NRDC President Frances Beinecke. Through the 1960s and 1970s, the society began to use its influence to focus attention on a wider range of environmental issues and became involved in developing major new environmental protection policies and laws. Audubon staff and members helped legislators pass the Clean Air, Clean Water, Wild and Scenic Rivers, and Endangered Species acts. In 1969, the society opened an office in Washington, D.C., in an effort to keep legislators informed of Audubon's priorities. By the 1970s, NAS had also extended to global interests. One area that NAS became actively involved with was whaling. Between 1973 and 1974 alone, the poorly regulated whaling industry had succeeded in harvesting 30,000 whales. But by 1985, following the 37th annual meeting of the International Whaling Commission in Bournemouth, England, which was attended by officials from the National Audubon Society and other U.S.-based environmental organizations, a worldwide moratorium on whaling was declared. So successful has this moratorium been in restoring populations of many whales, that "non-consumptive uses of whales" may once again be permitted in some areas. Television specials During the 1980s and 1990s, the National Audubon Society produced a notable series of nature documentary television specials, many of which were entitled The World of Audubon. These included specials on many animals other than birds (the traditional focus of this organization) and on natural areas such as the Great Lakes. This series included a special documenting the rescue efforts to save the black-footed ferret from extinction. Arthur Unger of the Christian Science Monitor reviewed this special very favorably and wrote that this special was "further proof that the Audubon series deserves a place in television's splendid wildlife triumvirate alongside Nature and National Geographic Specials". Audubon Medal The Audubon Medal is given in recognition of outstanding achievement in the field of conservation and environmental protection. 52 people have received the honor in Audubon's 108-year history. List of awardees 1947 – Hugh Hammond Bennett 1949 – Ira Noel Gabrielson 1950 – John D. Rockefeller Jr. 1952 – Louis Bromfield 1955 – Walt Disney 1956 – Ludlow Griscom 1959 – Olaus Murie 1960 – J.N. "Ding" Darling 1961 – Clarence Cottam 1962 – William O. Douglas 1963 – Rachel Carson 1964 – Laurance Rockefeller 1966 – A. Starker Leopold 1967 – Stewart Udall 1968 – Henry Fairfield Osborn Jr. 1969 – Horace M. Albright 1971 – Roger Tory Peterson 1973 – Barbara Ward (Lady Jackson, D.B.E.) 1974 – Tom McCall 1975 – Maurice F. Strong 1976 – John B. Oakes 1977 – Russell W. Peterson 1978 – Charles H. Callison 1979 – Thomas L. Kimball 1980 – Margaret E. Murie 1981 – Richard H. Pough 1982 – C.R. "Pink" Gutermuth 1983 – Margaret Wentworth Owings 1984 – Joseph Hickey 1985 – Cecil D. Andrus 1986 – John F. Seiberling 1987 – Vladimir E. Flint 1988 – Oscar and Marguerita Arias 1989 – Robert Redford 1990 – Durward L. Allen 1991 – Ted Turner 1992 – John H. Chafee 1993 – Chief Oren Lyons and Anita Roddick 1994 – Jimmy Carter 1995 – Edward O. Wilson 1996 – James Parks Morton 1997 – Hazel Wolf 1998 – Julie Packard 1999 – William Conway 2000 – Chandler Robbins 2001 – Michael Dombeck 2002 – Edward H. Harte 2004 – Harriet Bullitt 2005 – The Rockefeller Family 2008 – Richard Louv 2010 – Donal C. O'Brien Jr. 2013 – Louis Bacon 2015 – Jack and Laura Dangermond 2016 – Paul Tudor Jones II 2017 – Frances Beinecke 2018 – Sir David Attenborough 2019 – Johnny Morris & Family Current activities In 2011, Audubon created a new model for positioning energy transmission lines along the East Coast to help preserve bird and wildlife habitat. Audubon President David Yarnold has made environmentally friendly siting for renewable energy one of the organization's highest priorities. Audubon played an important part in bird rescue and Gulf Coast wetlands recovery efforts in the aftermath of the April 20, 2010, BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry. Audubon recruited over 34,000 volunteers to assist in rescuing, cleaning and releasing injured brown pelicans and other water birds. In addition, Audubon was a leader in pushing for legislation to use BP oil spill penalties to rebuild the Gulf Coast. Audubon's Mississippi River and Louisiana Coastal Initiatives have been helping to restore coastal wetlands and to rebuild Mississippi River delta marshlands. The Mississippi Delta loses an area the size of Manhattan to the sea every year, stripping away coastal protections for both human communities and wildlife habitat. Audubon's Important Bird Area program has been protecting 370 million acres along migratory bird flyways in the United States and is a key part of Audubon's work with BirdLife International and other conservationists around the globe. Audubon is leading the campaign for U.S. Congressional Reauthorization of the Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Act which would generate as much as $100 million each year to advance hemispheric bird conservation. In Wyoming and across the Intermountain west, Audubon's Sagebrush Initiative works with industry, government, ranchers and conservationists to protect 15 million acres of greater sage grouse Core habitat. It also helps promote the development of renewable energy projects in the area. Audubon also helped to secure the preservation of 240,000 acres of wild lands at the Tejon Ranch, the largest land conservation area created in California history. In March 2020, the Arkansas chapter of the Audubon Society announced its plan to spend $80,000 to install solar panels on its grounds, which will make their Little Rock office the state's first nonprofit to utilize 100% solar energy. Sanctuaries and nature centers Nature centers and wildlife sanctuaries continue to be an important part of Audubon's work to educate and inspire the public about the environment and how to conserve it. Some of the Audubon's earliest nature centers are still teaching young and old alike about the natural world. In 2016, Audubon's Hog Island Camp in Maine marked its 80th anniversary. Audubon's national network currently includes nearly 500 local chapters, 23 state programs, 41 nature centers. After nearly three-quarters of a century, the National Wildlife Refuge Campaign also remains a key component of overall NAS policy. Conservation ranching initiative Audubon has begun to certify bird-friendly ranching facilities, such as the Blue Nest Beef enterprise in order to provide consumers with a method of determining the environmental credentials of the businesses advertising that they are providing "bird-friendly", "grass-fed", and similar products, as options for beef that is raised sustainably and benefits wildlife habitat. Native plants database An online database is provided by Audubon that displays which native plants are important for birds in different areas that is searchable by USA zip code. Invasive species Audubon has recently expanded its outreach about the detrimental impact of invasive species like Norway maples, Tatarian honeysuckle and other ecological threats to human health and wildlife. Drilling for natural gas The Audubon society opposes drilling for gas on national reserves. Natural gas has been drilled for and produced at its Paul J. Rainey Wildlife Sanctuary. The society said it was legally compelled to allow gas and oil drilling at the sanctuary under the terms of the land's donation by its original owners. This explanation, however, has been challenged. The presence of oil and gas drilling on Audubon's sanctuaries has been used to illustrate the difference between private and public decision-making. An August 26, 2009, an open letter was sent to the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee calling for stronger climate protections, including an end to subsidies for drilling companies. This signatories of this letter included the Central New Mexico Audubon Society, Champaign County Audubon Society, Delaware Audubon Society, Elisha Mitchell Audubon Society, Huachuca Audubon Society, Kalmiopsis Audubon Society, San Bernardino Valley Audubon Society, Sequoia Audubon Society, and Audubon South Carolina. Dan W. Lufkin Prize for Environmental Leadership The Dan W. Lufkin Prize for Environmental Leadership is a new award that recognizes Dan W. Lufkin's lifetime commitment to the environment and honors individuals who have dedicated their lives to on-the-ground conservation. As part of this award, the recipient receives a $100,000 cash prize, made through an endowment established by Dan's family and friends, to help further his or her conservation efforts. This award will become a signature prize in the field of conservation innovation. George Archibald was the inaugural Dan W. Lufkin Prize recipient for his tireless efforts to protect all species of cranes and their habitats throughout the world. The Wall Street Journal featured Dan W. Lufkin as the Donor of the Day, for the creation of this new Audubon prize. Women in Conservation Program The Rachel Carson Award is part of a broader Audubon initiative called Women in Conservation Project. Their mission statement is "To recognize outstanding women leaders in today's conservation movement; to support environmental opportunities for girls and young women; and to educate women on important issues related to conservation and the environment." Audubon New York created the Rachel Carson Field Internship in 2012, which is given to young women seeking experience in the fields of "habitat-stewardship and wildlife-management". There is also the Women in Conservation Fellowship. These internships are given to women who wish to learn about areas such as public relations, management, and event planning. Climate change report In September 2014, the Audubon Society released its Audubon Birds and Climate Change report which found that expected changes to North American climate will have a major, detrimental impact on birds in the United States. The scope of the report includes 588 species of birds and found that 314 of those species could lose up to half of their climatic range during the 21st-century. Namesake controversy The society was named in honor of John James Audubon, a Franco-American ornithologist and naturalist who painted, cataloged, and described the birds of North America in his famous Birds of America book (1827–1838). Despite these accolades, John James Audubon's legacy has been tarnished by numerous accusations of plagiarism and scientific fraud, which his biographers (and Audubon's leadership) have routinely dismissed or minimized, even while admitting to his history of racism and slavery. John James Audubon was also a body snatcher who collected human skulls to assist the race supremacist work of Samuel G. Morton. In the wake of the protests following the murder of George Floyd, there have been public appeals to strip the name Audubon from the society and change the names of species that honor him. The Audubon Society has publicly supported the removal of Confederate monuments, including acknowledging that "it's not just an issue of physical monuments". An internal Board of Directors vote in 2023 resulted in a decision to retain the Audubon name for the national organization, with the subsequent resignation of three of its 26 board members. In February 2023, the union representing Audubon employees renamed itself The Bird Union. Also in February, the Seattle chapter of Audubon announced they would change the name, and later announced the new name would be Birds Connect Seattle, effective June 2023. Shortly after the Seattle chapter's announcement in February, the Chicago chapter also announced they will change their name. In March 2023, the New York City chapter announced that after studying the issue for eight months, it will change its name; Jessica Wilson, executive director of the NYC chapter, stated that the current name "served as a barrier to getting all New Yorkers involved". Chapters in other cities such as Washington, D.C., Portland, Oregon, and Buffalo, New York, have made similar announcements. Leadership David Yarnold became Audubon's 10th president in September 2010, expressing a commitment to build on the organization's strong conservation legacy and expand its commitment to improving the quality of life for both birds and people by aligning Audubon's conservation work along the migratory flyways that millions of birds travel each spring and fall. Following layoffs and complaints about diversity and inclusion programs, an Audubon union organizing drive went public in March 2021 with about 400 workers. Yarnold stepped down the next month following an internal audit into Audubon's workplace culture and toxic workplace complaints. Elizabeth Gray was named Audubon's CEO in November, 2021. Audubon magazine The National Audubon Society publishes a bi-monthly magazine called Audubon. See also List of environmental awards NatureShare (2009) References Notes Further reading Frank Graham Jr., The Audubon Ark: A History of the National Audubon Society (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990) Carolyn Merchant. Spare the Birds! George Bird Grinnell and the First Audubon Society (Yale University Press, 2016). xiv, 327pp External links Audubon Magazine website Great Backyard Bird Count website Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of American History: "The Feather Trade and the American Conservation Movement" — online exhibition. Audubon Society Audubon Society Audubon Society Audubon Society Non-profit organizations based in New York City Audubon Society Nature centers in Arizona Nature centers in California Nature centers in New York (state) Organizations established in 1905 1905 establishments in the United States 1905 in the environment Environmental organizations based in New York City
376195
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre%20of%20Canada
Theatre of Canada
Canada's contemporary theatre reflects a rich diversity of regional and cultural identities. Since the late 1960s, there has been a concerted effort to develop the voice of the 'Canadian playwright', which is reflected in the nationally focused programming of many of the country's theatres. Within this 'Canadian voice' are a plurality of perspectives - that of the First Nations, new immigrants, French Canadians, sexual minorities, etc. - and a multitude of theatre companies have been created to specifically service and support these voices. Prominent playwrights, practitioners, and contributors David Fennario Herman Voaden George F. Walker Michel Tremblay James Reaney Dora Mavor Moore Tomson Highway Christopher Newton Robert Lepage Judith Thompson Wajdi Mouawad Daniel MacIvor Daniel Brooks Sky Gilbert Paul Thompson (playwright) John Hirsch Morris Panych Marie Clements Yvette Nolan Linda Griffiths Ann-Marie MacDonald Sharon Pollock Daniel David Moses Drew Hayden Taylor Djanet Sears Timothy Findley Jordan Tannahill Hannah Moscovitch John Herbert Micheline Chevrier Early Canadian theatre The Annapolis Basin in Nova Scotia served as the cradle for both French and English language theatre in Canada. Théâtre de Neptune, performed in 1606, was the first European theatre production in North America. The tradition of English theatre in Canada also started at Annapolis Royal. In Fort Anne, Nova Scotia, plays were produced for Prince of Wales' birthday. George Farquhar's The Recruiting Officer was produced on Saturday, 20 January 1733 to celebrate the birthday of Frederick, Prince of Wales. When he was a Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia, Paul Mascarene translated Molière's French play The Misanthrope in to English and produced several plays in 1743 and 1744. An unknown play was also staged on 20 January 1748 for the Prince's birthday, and it was restaged on 2 February 1748. Plays Lescarbot's Neptune Theatre 1606 Molière's Tartuffe Scandal 1693 Halifax Prologue 1776 Sullen Indian Prologue 1826 Eight Men Speak 1933 (at Toronto's Standard Theatre) Events Theatre was banned in French Canada by the Catholic clergy in 1694, but after Canada became British in 1763, theatrical activity begun to flourish, foremost among the British garrisons and within amateur theatre. Antoine Foucher (1717-1801), of Terrebonne (father of Louis-Charles Foucher), was the owner of the first Francophone theatre in Canada. In 1774, with various British officers, he staged the first production of Molière at his home in Montreal. Other Garrison performances were private shows put on for troops, publicly performed by officers, which helped bridge theatre and war during its initial stages of development. It was welcomed by the populaces and distracted soldiers from war and routine military protocol. The first professional theatre company was Allen's Company of Comedians, which made its first performance in Montreal in 1786, and was followed by the all male French language amateur society Les Jeunes Messieurs Canadiens in Quebec City in 1789. From 1790 to 1840, amateur theatre was regularly performed at the Haymarket Theatre in Quebec City. Before 1825, the Hayes House Hotel on Dalhousie Square, Montreal, had a theatre that staged German Orchestras and held Viennese dances. After it burned it down, John Molson built the Theatre Royal in 1825, presenting Shakespeare and Restoration authors. It sat 1,000 guests and was also used for circuses and concerts. Edmund Kean and Charles Dickens both performed there before it was demolished in 1844 to make way for the Bonsecours Market. In the West, the Grand Theatre was built in 1912 in Calgary by the visionary Sir James Lougheed. The Grand was the initial home of many arts organizations in Calgary; the first theatre, opera, ballet, symphony concerts, and movies were seen here. This theatre was the centre of social, cultural, and political life in Calgary until the early 1960s. The Grand Theatre has been saved from demolition in 2004 by the company Theatre Junction and its director Mark Lawes. From 1929, Martha Allan founded the Montreal Repertory Theatre and later co-founded the Dominion Drama Festival. She loathed amateur theatre, but her energies spearheaded the Canadian Little Theatre Movement at a time when live theatre in Montreal and across Canada was being threatened by the rapid expansion of the American-influenced movie theatre. She almost single-handedly laid the groundwork for the development of the professional modern Canadian theatre scene. Theatre of the 1950s Plays Teach Me How To Cry 1955 Patricia Joudry Theatre companies and groups Hudson Players Club 1948 (Hudson, Qc) founded by the collective group of HPC Theatre du Nouveau Monde 1951 (Montreal), founded by Jean Gascon Stratford Shakespeare Festival 1953 (Stratford), founded by Tom Patterson Manitoba Theatre Centre 1958 (Winnipeg), founded by John Hirsch Toronto Workshop Productions 1958 (Toronto), founded by George Luscombe Theatre of the 1960s Plays Ecstasy of Rita Joe 1967 George Ryga Fortune and Men's Eyes 1967 John Herbert Les Belles-Soeurs 1968 Michel Tremblay Theatre companies and groups National Theatre School of Canada 1960 (Montreal) Shaw Festival 1962 (Niagara on the Lake) Neptune Theatre (Halifax) 1963 Vancouver Playhouse 1963 (Vancouver) Arts Club Theatre Company 1964 (Vancouver) The Citadel Theatre 1965 (Edmonton) Globe Theatre 1966 (Regina) Young People's Theatre 1966 (Toronto, theatre for young audiences) Theatre New Brunswick 1968 (Fredericton) Theatre Passe-Muraille 1968 (Toronto) Centaur Theatre 1969 (Montreal) National Arts Centre 1969 (Ottawa) Theatre of the 1970s Plays How Now Black Man, 1971, Lorris Elliot Creeps, 1971, David Freeman Leaving Home 1972 David French The Farm Show 1972 Paul Thompson and Theatre Passe Muraille Hosanna 1973 Michel Tremblay 1837: Farmer's Revolt 1974 Rick Salutin The Donnellys Trilogy 1974-1975 James Reaney Zastrozzi, The Master of Discipline 1977 George F. Walker Waiting for the Parade 1977 John Murrell Billy Bishop Goes to War 1978 John Gray Balconville 1979 David Fenario Blitzkrieg by Bryan Wade, Tarragon Theatre, 1974 Theatre companies and groups Factory Theatre 1970 (Toronto), founded by Ken Gass Tarragon Theatre 1971 (Toronto), founded by Bill Glassco Toronto Free Theatre 1971 (Toronto), founded by Tom Hendry, Martin Kinch, John Palmer 25th Street Theatre 1972 (Saskatoon) Black Theatre Workshop 1972, founded by Dr. Clarence S. Bayne Manitoba Theatre Workshop, later Prairie Theatre Exchange 1972 (Winnipeg) The Second City 1973 (Toronto) Persephone Theatre 1974 (Saskatoon), founded by Janet Wright, Susan Wright, Brian Richmond Green Thumb Theatre 1975 (Vancouver, theatre for young audiences), founded by Dennis Foon Carbone 14 1975 (Montreal) Great Canadian Theatre Company 1975 (Ottawa) Theatre Network 1976 (Edmonton) VideoCabaret 1976 (Toronto), founded by Michael Hollingsworth and Deanne Taylor Northern Light Theatre 1977 Scott Swan (Edmonton) Catalyst Theatre 1977 (Edmonton) Necessary Angel 1978 (Toronto), founded by Richard Rose Buddies in Bad Times 1979 (Toronto, queer), founded by Sky Gilbert Nightwood Theatre 1979 (Toronto, feminist), founded by Cynthia Grant, Kim Renders, Mary Vingoe and Maureen White Workshop West Theatre 1979 Gerry Potter Artistic Director (Edmonton) Roseneath Theatre 1979 (Toronto, theatre for young audiences), founded by David S Craig and Robert Morgan Events With Canada's centennial in 1967 came a growing awareness of the need to cultivate a national cultural identity. Thus, the 1970s were marked by the establishment of multiple theatre institutions dedicated to the development and presentation of Canadian playwrights, such as Factory Theatre, Tarragon Theatre, and the Great Canadian Theatre Company. Theatre Passe Muraille, under Paul Thompson's directorship in the 1970s, gained a national reputation for its distinctive style of collective creation with plays such as The Farm Show, 1837: The Farmer's Revolt and I Love You, Baby Blue. In 1971 a group of Canadian playwrights issued the Gaspé Manifesto as a call for at least one-half of the programing at publicly subsidized theatres to be Canadian content. The numerical goal was not achieved, but the following years saw an increase in Canadian content stage productions. Theatre of the 1980s and 1990s Plays The Cavan Blazers 1992 Robert Winslow Tamara 1981 John Krizanc Albertine en cinq temps 1984 Michel Tremblay Doc 1984 Sharon Pollock Drag Queens on Trial 1985 Sky Gilbert Occupation of Heather Rose 1986 Wendy Lill Goodnight Desdemona (Good Morning Juliet) by Anne-Marie MacDonald Polygraph 1988 Robert Lepage Dry Lips Oughta Move to Kapuskasing 1989 Thomson Highway Unidentified Human Remains and the True Nature of Love 1989 Brad Fraser Lion in the Streets 1990 Judith Thompson Harlem Duet 1997 Djanet Sears The Drawer Boy 1999 Michael Healey Theatre companies and groups 4th Line Theatre (Millbrook, Ontario) 1992 Cirque du Soleil (Quebec) (early 1980s) Windsor Feminist Theatre 1980 (Windsor) Native Earth Performing Arts 1982 (Toronto) Half the Sky Feminist Theatre 1982 (Hamilton) DNA Theatre 1982 (Toronto) Crow's Theatre 1982 (Toronto) One Yellow Rabbit 1982 (Calgary) Theatre Junction 1991 The Augusta Company 1980-90s (Toronto) De-ba-jeh-mu-jig Theatre 1984 (Manitoulin Island) Cahoots Theatre 1986 (Toronto) da da kamera 1986 (Toronto) Radix Theatre 1988 (Vancouver) Primus Theatre 1988 (Winnipeg) Théâtre Ex Machina 1990 (Quebec City) Rumble Productions 1990 (Vancouver) Theatre Projects Manitoba 1990 (Winnipeg) founded by Harry Rintoul Mammalian Diving Reflex 1993 (Toronto) Die in Debt Theatre 1993 (Toronto) STO Union 1992 (Wakefield) Artistic Fraud of Newfoundland 1995 (St. John's) Soulpepper Theatre Company 1997 (Toronto) The Electric Company Theatre 1996 (Vancouver) Nightswimming 1995 (Toronto) Sarasvati Productions 1998 (Toronto, later relocated to Winnipeg) Imago Theatre 1987 (Montreal) Common Boots Theatre 1984 (Toronto) Events The 1980s and 1990s saw a flourish of experimental theatre companies cropping up across Canada, many of whom were exploring site-specific and immersive staging techniques, such as Toronto's DNA Theatre and Vancouver's Radix Theatre. Theatre of the 2000s Plays Elizabeth Rex 2000 Timothy Findley I, Claudia 2001 Kristen Thomson Incendies 2003 Wajdi Mouawad Half Life 2005 John Mighton Cul-de-Sac 2005 Daniel MacIvor blood.claat 2006 d'bi Young The December Man 2007 Colleen Murphy Palace of the End 2008 Judith Thompson Pyaasa 2008 Anusree Roy Where The Blood Mixes 2009 Kevin Loring East of Berlin 2009 Hannah Moscovitch Theatre companies and groups Bluemouth Inc. 1998 (Toronto) Project Porte Parole 1998 (Montreal) 2b theatre company 1999 (Halifax) Old Trout Puppet Workshop 1999 (Calgary) Leaky Heaven 1999 (Vancouver) Zuppa Theatre 1999 (Halifax) Obsidian Theatre 2000 (Toronto) Aluna Theatre 2001 (Toronto) Small Wooden Shoe 2001 (Halifax/Toronto) fu-GEN 2002 (Toronto) Theatre Replacement 2003 (Vancouver) Realwheels Theatre 2003 (Vancouver) Downstage 2004 (Calgary) DaPoPo Theatre 2004 (Halifax) B2C Theatre 2004 (Toronto) Ecce Homo Theatre 2005 (Toronto) Convergence Theatre 2006 (Toronto) Segal Centre for Performing Arts (Montreal) Why Not Theatre 2007 (Toronto) Suburban Beast 2008 (Toronto) Outside The March 2009 (Toronto) Crane Creations Theatre Company 2015 (Mississauga) Events The 2000s saw the creation of several theatre companies with specific cultural mandates including Obsidian Theatre, a company supporting 'the Black voice', fu-GEN, a company dedicated to work by Asian Canadians, and Aluna Theatre, a company with a focus on Latin Canadian artists. Western Canadian theatre British Columbia Northwest of Armstrong is the Caravan Farm Theatre, a professional outdoor theatre company. Chemainus hosts the annual Chemainus Festival. The heritage village of Fort Steele includes the Wild Horse Theatre, which produces a historic revue starring professional actors during the summer months. Gabriola Island is home to the Gabriola Theatre Festival, which produces twelve shows over one weekend in August. Kamloops is home to Western Canada Theatre. North Vancouver has Presentation House Theatre and Centennial Theatre. Prince George is the home of Theatre North West. Vancouver is home to, among others, the Arts Club Theatre Company, the PuSh International Performing Arts Festival, the Vancouver Fringe Festival, Touchstone Theatre, Carousel Theatre, Bard on the Beach, Theatre Under the Stars, the Metro Theatre, Studio 58, Pacific Theatre, and the Firehall Arts. Vancouver had also been home to the now-defunct Vancouver Playhouse Theatre Company, which had been Vancouver's oldest professional theatre company. Victoria has a major regional theatre, the Belfry Theatre, as well as professional companies Theatre SKAM, SNAFU Dance Theatre Society, Blue Bridge Repertory Theatre, William Head on Stage, Theatre Inconnu, Atomic Vaudeville, Impulse Theatre, Puente Theatre Society, Suddenly Dance Theatre, and Wonderheads Theatre. Kaleidoscope is the resident Professional TYA company. Intrepid Theatre is a local alternative company and organizes both the Uno Festival and the Victoria Fringe Festival. Alberta Calgary is home to Theatre Calgary, a mainstream regional theatre; Alberta Theatre Projects, a major centre for new play development in Canada; the Calgary Animated Objects Society; Vertigo Theatre, the premiere theatre in North America for the intrigue genre; Theatre Junction a multidisciplinary collective directed by Mark Lawes; One Yellow Rabbit, a touring company; and Urban Curvz, a feminist theatre company rebranded as Handsome Alice Theatre in 2016. Calgary is also home for expert marionetteer, Ronnie Burkett. Calgary is the base of operations of Loose Moose Theatre, which performs improvisational theatre. Other companies, some of which specialize in new plays, include Sage Theatre, Downstage Theatre, Ground Zero Theatre, The Shakespeare Company and Lunchbox Theatre. Edmonton is best known for the Edmonton International Fringe Festival, the first and largest fringe theatre festival in North America. The major live venue is the Citadel Theatre. The neighborhood of Old Strathcona contains the Theatre District, where Catalyst Theatre, Walterdale Playhouse, and the Varscona Theatre (home of several companies: Teatro la Quindicina, Shadow Theatre, Rapid Fire Theatre, Die-Nasty, and Oh Susanna!) are located. Other well-known companies, some of which specialize in new plays, include Workshop West Theatre, Northern Light, and Theatre Network. Edmonton is also known for its prestigious BFA conservatory acting program at the University of Alberta Lethbridge is the home of New West Theatre, a professional theatre company. Theatre Outré also operates out of Lethbridge and presents theatrical content, subject matter, styles and forms that are alternative to what is currently offered in the community. Rosebud, located one hour east of Calgary, is home to Rosebud Theatre, Alberta's only rural professional theatre. Red Deer hosts the Scott Block Theatre. Saskatchewan Regina features Saskatchewan's only permanent arena theatre, the Globe Theatre. Saskatoon is home to Saskatchewan's largest theatre, Persephone Theatre, as well as Shakespeare on the Saskatchewan, the Gordon Tootoosis Nīkānīwin Theatre, Saskatchewan's francophone theatre La Troupe du Jour, Live Five and the Saskatoon Fringe Theatre Festival. Dancing Sky Theatre and the Rosthern Station Arts Centre are located 45 minutes east and north of Saskatoon, respectively. Manitoba Winnipeg is the home of Le Cercle Molière (the oldest continuously running theatre company in Canada), Fantasy Theatre for Children (Manitoba's oldest children's theatre), Merlyn Productions, Manitoba Theatre for Young People, Prairie Theatre Exchange, Rainbow Stage, the Royal Manitoba Theatre Centre (Canada's oldest English-language regional theatre), Sarasvati Productions, Theatre Projects Manitoba, the Winnipeg Jewish Theatre, and the Winnipeg Fringe Festival. Northwest Territories Yellowknife is home to the Northern Arts and Cultural Centre, a small theatre with just over 300 seats. Central Canadian theatre Ontario Blyth is the home of the Blyth Festival Theatre and Centre for the Arts. Brampton is home to the Rose Theatre Brampton. Drayton Entertainment has seven stages at six theatres across Ontario including the Drayton Festival Theatre in Drayton, Hamilton Family Theatre Cambridge in Cambridge, Huron Country Playhouse in Grand Bend, King's Wharf Theatre in Penetanguishene, and St. Jacobs Country Playhouse and the Schoolhouse Theatre in St. Jacobs. Kitchener is home to actOUT! The Kitchener Waterloo Children's Drama Workshop, which for over a quarter century has produced theatre by & for the children of the Waterloo Region. Kingston is home to its own professional company, Theatre Kingston, the Vagabond Repertory Theatre Company, as well as many amateur and student theatre groups. In nearby Gananoque, the Thousand Islands Playhouse features professional productions in two venues. London is home to the Grand Theatre. Mississauga is home to Crane Creations Theatre Company that manages the Maja Prentice Theatre and presents Puppet Festival Mississauga each year in March. Niagara-on-the-Lake is best known for the Shaw Festival. Oshawa is home to Oshawa Little Theatre (http://oshawalittletheatre.com) founded in 1928 and running continuously since 1950; offers 4 productions a year as well as a youth group production. It runs out of its own facility on Russet Ave. since 1983. Ottawa is home to the multi-venue National Arts Centre and the smaller Great Canadian Theatre Company, and holds the Ottawa Fringe Festival. The Ottawa Little Theatre, founded in 1913, is the longest-running community theatre company in Canada. Stratford is best known for the Stratford Shakespeare Festival. Sudbury has the regional theatre companies Sudbury Theatre Centre and Théâtre du Nouvel-Ontario. Thunder Bay has Magnus Theatre, The Dr. S. Penny Petrone Centre for the Performing Arts, a regional professional theatre company. Toronto has a large and vibrant theatre scene, centred around the Toronto Theatre District, with many different companies. Some produce large-scale Broadway-style productions (produced by companies like Mirvish Productions), and others produce smaller-scale plays by Canadian and other playwrights. Some of the major theatre companies of Toronto include: Canadian Stage Company, Tarragon Theatre, Theatre Passe-Muraille, the Factory Theatre, Soulpepper Theatre Company, the Lower Ossington Theatre and Buddies in Bad Times. The Harbourfront Centre's World Stage festival presents innovative contemporary performance from national and international companies. Toronto has several theatre festivals throughout the year, including The Next Stage Festival in January, the Toronto Fringe Festival in June, and SummerWorks in August. Important smaller companies include Native Earth, Nightwood Theatre, Necessary Angel, Crow's Theatre, Obsidian Theatre, Acting Upstage, and Volcano. 2012 saw a surge of storefront theatres opening in the city including Videofag and The Storefront Theatre. In Windsor, the Windsor Light Music Theatre has been staging musicals, operettas and other theatre productions since 1948. Quebec Montréal's theatre scene is split between French and English language theatre. The city is home to Le Festival TransAmériques, the Montreal Fringe Festival, the National Theatre School of Canada, the Segal Centre for Performing Arts, the Centaur Theatre, Usine C, Le Théâtre du Nouveau Monde, Imago Theatre, and Canada's oldest professional Black theatre company, The Black Theatre Workshop. Trois-Rivières is home to Le Théâtre des Nouveaux Compagnons, the oldest French-speaking theatre company in Canada. Québec City is the home of Robert Lepage's company Ex Machina and Le Grand Théâtre de Québec. Atlantic Canada New Brunswick Moncton has the restored Capitol Theatre, one of only eight theatres of the ca. 1922 Pantages/Vaudeville design in the nation. Saint John has the restored Imperial Theatre, an historic ca. 1913 modern adaptation of the Italian Renaissance. Fredericton is host to The Playhouse, a gift to the people of New Brunswick by Lord Beaverbrook in 1964. Theatre New Brunswick is a provincial theatre company. Prince Edward Island Charlottetown is home to the Charlottetown Festival and the Confederation Centre of the Arts, with its 1,100 seat mainstage theatre being one of Atlantic Canada's pre-eminent performing arts facilities. Watermark Theatre - a professional theatre presenting classic and modern classic plays in North Rustico Nova Scotia Amongst Halifax's theatre producers are Neptune Theatre, Shakespeare by the Sea, 2b theatre company, Zuppa Theatre, DaPoPo Theatre and Canada's longest continuously running community theatre The Theatre Arts Guild. Halifax's theatre venues include The Bus Stop and the Rebecca Cohn Auditorium. See Culture of the Halifax Regional Municipality#Theatre. Cape Breton Regional Municipality has both the Highland Arts Theatre performing arts centre in Sydney, and the Savoy Theatre, long considered a cultural centre for Cape Breton Island, located in Glace Bay. Antigonish has Festival Antigonish Summer Theatre, and Theatre Antigonish Antigonish. Parrsboro has Ship's Company Theatre. Wolfville was home to the Atlantic Theatre Festival. Newfoundland and Labrador St. John's has the RCA (Resource Centre for the Arts), an artist-run company that is based at the LSPU Hall. It also has the St. John's Arts and Culture Centre, with a 1,000 seat main theatre. Clarenville, Newfoundland is the home to The New Curtain Theatre Company, which operates as a year-round professional theatre based out of The Loft Theatre at the White Hills Ski Resort in Clarenville (2 hours west of St. John's). Cupids, Newfoundland is home to The New World Theatre Project, which aims to do work from and inspired by the year 1610, when Cupids was settled as Canada's first English colony. Stephenville, Newfoundland and Labrador, on the west coast of the island of Newfoundland, features the annual Stephenville Theatre Festival, a summer festival that began in the mid-1970s. In Corner Brook, the Grenfell Campus of Memorial University offers a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in Theatre, with productions staged every semester. Summer Festivals Major summer theatre festivals include: 4th Line Theatre based in Millbrook, Ontario, Ontario. Gabriola Theatre Festival (Gabriola Island, British Columbia) Bard on the Beach Shakespeare Festival, based in Vancouver, British Columbia. The Blyth Festival Theatre, based in Blyth, Ontario The Stratford Festival of Canada, based in Stratford, Ontario. The Shaw Festival, based in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario. The Thousand Islands Playhouse, based in Gananoque, Ontario. The Charlottetown Festival, based in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Festival Antigonish Summer Theatre, based in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. Shakespeare by the Sea, based in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The Magnetic North Theatre Festival, based in Ottawa, Ontario and held annually, alternating between Ottawa and another Canadian city. The Shakespeare on the Saskatchewan Festival in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan As of 2014, Canada had more fringe theatre festivals than any other country, forming a summer fringe circuit running from the St-Ambroise Montréal Fringe in June and heading westward to the Vancouver Fringe Festival in September. The circuit includes the two largest fringe festivals in North America, the Winnipeg Fringe Theatre Festival and the Edmonton International Fringe Festival. Other fringe theatre festivals include the Saskatoon Fringe Theatre Festival, the Calgary Fringe Festival, the London Fringe Theatre Festival (Ontario), the Toronto Fringe Festival and the Atlantic Fringe Festival. See also List of Canadian playwrights List of Canadian plays References Further reading Wagner, Anton, ed. Contemporary Canadian Theatre: New World Visions, a Collection of Essays Prepared by the Canadian Theatre Critics Association. Toronto: Simon & Pierre, 1985. 411 p. External links Globalization Theory ArtsAlive.ca|Théâtre Français Playwrights Canada Press Canadian Theatre Encyclopedia The Canadian Theatre Record L.W. Conolly Theatre Archives at University of Guelph, Archival and Special Collections, which holds more than 150 archival collections related to Canadian theatre SIBMAS: International Directory of Performing Arts Collections and Institutions The Canadian Adaptations of Shakespeare Project
376221
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclone%20Tracy
Cyclone Tracy
Severe Tropical Cyclone Tracy was a small tropical cyclone that devastated the city of Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia, from 24 to 26 December 1974. The small, developing easterly storm had initially appeared likely to pass clear of the city, but then turned towards it early on 24 December. After 10:00 p.m. ACST, damage became severe, and wind gusts reached before instruments failed. The anemometer in Darwin Airport control tower had its needle bent in half by the strength of the gusts. Residents of Darwin were celebrating Christmas, and did not immediately acknowledge the emergency, partly because they had been alerted to an earlier cyclone (Selma) that passed west of the city, and did not affect it in any way. Additionally, news outlets had only a skeleton crew on duty over the holiday. Tracy killed 71 people, caused $837 million in damage (1974 AUD, about $ in 2022), or about US$5.2 billion (2022 dollars). It destroyed more than 70 percent of Darwin's buildings, including 80 percent of houses. It left more than 25,000 out of the 47,000 inhabitants of the city homeless prior to landfall and required the evacuation of over 30,000 people, of whom many never returned. After the storm passed, the city was rebuilt using more stringent standards "to cyclone code". The storm is the second-smallest tropical cyclone on record (in terms of gale-force wind diameter), behind only the North Atlantic's Tropical Storm Marco in 2008. Meteorological history On 20 December 1974, the United States' ESSA-8 environmental satellite recorded a large cloud mass centred over the Arafura Sea about northeast of Darwin. This disturbance was tracked by the Darwin Weather Bureau's regional director Ray Wilkie, and by senior meteorologist Geoff Crane. On 21 December 1974, the ESSA-8 satellite showed evidence of a newly formed circular centre near latitude 8° south and longitude 135° east. Crane - the meteorological duty officer at the time - issued the initial tropical cyclone alert, describing the storm as a tropical low that could develop into a tropical cyclone. Later in the evening, the Darwin meteorological office received an infrared satellite image from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's satellite, NOAA-4, showing that the low pressure had developed further and that spiralling clouds could be observed. The storm was officially pronounced a tropical cyclone at around 10p.m. on 21 December, when it was around to the north-northeast of Cape Don ( northeast of Darwin). Cyclone Tracy was first observed on the Darwin radar on the morning of 22 December. Over the next few days, the cyclone moved in a southwesterly direction, passing north of Darwin on 22 December. A broadcast on ABC Radio that day stated that Cyclone Tracy posed no immediate threat to Darwin. However, early in the morning of 24 December, Tracy rounded Cape Fourcroy on the western tip of Bathurst Island, and moved in a southeasterly direction, straight towards Darwin. The bureau's weather station at Cape Fourcroy measured a mean wind speed of at 9:00 that morning. By late afternoon on 24 December, the sky over the city was heavily overcast, with low clouds, and was experiencing strong rain. Wind gusts increased in strength; between 10p.m. (local time) and midnight, the damage became serious, and residents began to realise that the cyclone would not just pass by the city, but rather over it. On 25 December at around 3:30a.m., Tracy's centre crossed the coast near Fannie Bay. The highest recorded wind gust from the cyclone was , which was recorded around 3:05a.m. at Darwin Airport. The anemometer (wind speed instrument) failed at around 3:10a.m., with the wind vane (wind direction) destroyed after the cyclone's eye passed over. The Bureau of Meteorology's official estimates suggested that Tracy's gusts had reached . The lowest air pressure reading during Tracy was , which was taken at around 4a.m., by a Bureau staff member at Darwin Airport. This was recorded during the eye of the cyclone. From around 6:30a.m., the winds began to ease, with the rainfall ceasing at around 8:30 a.m. After making landfall, Tracy rapidly weakened, dissipating on 26 December. Total rainfall in Darwin from Cyclone Tracy was at least . Preparations Darwin had been severely battered by cyclones before; in January 1897 and again in March 1937. However, in the 20 years leading up to Cyclone Tracy, the city had undergone a period of rapid expansion. E.P. Milliken estimated that on the eve of the cyclone there were 43,500 people living in 12,000 dwellings in the Darwin area. Though building standards at the time required that some attention be given to the possibility of cyclones, most buildings were not capable of withstanding the force of a cyclone's direct hit. On the day of the cyclone, most residents of Darwin believed that the cyclone would not cause any damage to the city. Cyclone Selma had been predicted to hit Darwin earlier in the month, but it instead went north and dissipated without affecting Darwin in any way. As a result, Cyclone Tracy took most Darwin residents by surprise. Despite several warnings, the people of Darwin did not evacuate or prepare for the cyclone. Many residents continued to prepare for Christmas, and many attended Christmas parties, despite the increasing winds and heavy rain. Journalist Bill Bunbury interviewed the residents of Darwin some time later and recorded the experiences of the survivors of the cyclone in his book Cyclone Tracy, picking up the pieces. Resident Dawn Lawrie, a 1971 independent candidate for the electorate of Nightcliff, told him: Another resident, Barbara Langkrens, said: Impact Cyclone Tracy killed at least 71 people. Two Royal Australian Navy (RAN) sailors died when , an , sank at Stokes Hill Wharf. The storm also caused the substantial destruction of the city of Darwin. At Darwin Airport, thirty-one aircraft were destroyed and another twenty-five badly damaged. The initial estimate put the reported death toll at 65, but it was revised upwards in March 2005 to 71, when the Northern Territory Coroner proclaimed that those six who still remained listed as missing had "perished at sea". Several factors delayed the dissemination of the news of the cyclone's impact to the country. The intensity and track of the cyclone had destroyed virtually all telecommunication and radio equipment in the city, including the transmission equipment at both Royal Australian Navy bases HMAS Melville and HMAS Coonawarra. The first communication link reestablished in the aftermath was via HF Radio sourced from a Connellan Airways de Havilland Heron that had been hastily stored in an empty hangar at Darwin Airport the night before, being anchored to towing equipment and weighed down with of beer cartons. From this aircraft, pilot David Fredrickson contacted the Katherine Flight Service Center by mid-morning to convey news of the disaster. He then spent much of the day relaying messages on behalf of emergency services, Navy personnel and airport staff until additional communication links were established later in the day. The destruction of transportation infrastructure and the distance between Darwin and the rest of the Australian population played a role in the delayed information dissemination, as did the fact the storm made landfall on Christmas Day and most media outlets had only a skeleton crew rostered on at best. Most Australians were not aware of the cyclone until late in the afternoon. Dick Muddimer, a reporter for the local ABC radio station, 8DR, credited as being the man who informed the rest of the nation about the cyclone, after finding out that the ABC's studios on Cavenagh Street were completely knocked off transmission, was able to travel through the wreckage and the storm to the studios of the local television station NTD-8 to send a message to the ABC station in Mount Isa, Queensland to notify ABC headquarters in Sydney that Darwin had been hit by a cyclone. In order to provide the initial emergency response, a committee was created. The committee, composed of several high-level public servants and police, stated that, "Darwin had, for the time being, ceased to exist as a city". Gough Whitlam, the Australian Prime Minister, was touring Syracuse, Sicily, at the time and flew to Darwin upon hearing of the disaster. Additionally, the Australian government began a mass evacuation by road and air; all of the Defence Force personnel throughout Australia, along with the entire Royal Australian Air Force's fleet of transport planes, were recalled from holiday leave and deployed to evacuate civilians from Darwin as well as to bring essential relief supplies to the area. Thirteen RAN ships were used to transport supplies to the area as part of Operation Navy Help Darwin, which is the largest humanitarian or disaster relief operation ever performed by the Royal Australian Navy. Health and essential services crisis As soon as the worst of the storm had passed, Darwin faced several immediate health crises. On Christmas Day, the Darwin Hospital treated well over five hundred patients, with 112 of these being admitted into the hospital, and both of the facility's operating theatres being utilised. The first casualties did not arrive till 7a.m. because of high winds and severe road conditions in and around the Darwin area. Operating continued throughout the night and into the early morning. Local teams worked without relief until the arrival of a surgical team from Canberra late that day. Those who were considered unable to return to work within two weeks were evacuated by air to safer locations. All official communications out of Darwin were no longer operational. The antennas at the OTC Coastal Radio Service station (callsign VID) were destroyed during the storm. Station manager Bob Hooper, who was an amateur radio operator, helped to establish communications using his own equipment. By 10a.m., Gary Gibson, another amateur operator, was able to establish a station at the Darwin Community College, and within a short period of time, a network of stations was established across the country. This network, coordinated by Melbourne D24 police, provided message services to the cities of Perth, Melbourne, Sydney, Canberra, Townsville, Brisbane, Adelaide, Alice Springs, Gove, Mt Isa, Cairns, Rockhampton, Mackay, Lismore, and Cooma. By 10:40a.m., VID operators had established VID2 on board MV Nyanda in Darwin Harbour, and then for five days official communications traffic in and out of Darwin was handled via continuous wave radio (Morse code). The only local radio station that was not completely disabled was the ABC's 8DR. For the next two days, it was Darwin's only link to the outside world and was on the air for all but 34 hours in the coming weeks. Those who remained in Darwin faced the threat of several diseases due to much of the city being without water, electricity, or basic sanitation. An initial response was to vaccinate residents for typhoid and cholera. Approximately 30,000 people were homeless and were forced to seek shelter in several makeshift housing and emergency centres that lacked proper hygienic conditions. Volunteers came in from across the country to assist with the emergency relief efforts. Trench latrines were dug, water supplies delivered by tankers, and mass immunisation programs begun. The army was given the task of searching houses for bodies of people and animals, as well as locating other health risks, for example, cleaning out rotting contents from fridges and freezers across the city. This was completed within a week. Houses which had been "searched and cleared" had S&C painted on an external wall. The city itself was sprayed with malathion to control mosquitoes and other similar pests. Attempts to reconnect the essential services to the city began on Christmas Day. Local officers from the Commonwealth Department of Housing and Construction began clearing debris and working to restore power. They sealed off damaged water hydrants and activated pumps to reactivate the city's water and sewerage systems. Evacuation and the public response Major-General Alan Stretton, Director-General of the Natural Disasters Organisation, and the Commonwealth Minister for the Northern Territory, Rex Patterson, arrived at Darwin Airport late on Christmas Day and took charge of the relief efforts. After an assessment of the situation and meetings with the Department of the Northern Territory and the relevant minister, it was concluded that Darwin's population needed to be reduced to a "safe level" of 10,500 people. This decision was made on the advice of Dr. Charles Gurd, the Director of Health in the Northern Territory. Around 10,000 people left Darwin and the surrounding area within the first two days, but the rate of departures then began to slow down. The government then gave support to his position, offering full reimbursement of personal costs, as long as the evacuation took place. The population was evacuated by air and ground; because of communications difficulties with Darwin airport, landing was limited to one plane every ninety minutes. At major airports, teams of federal and territory department officials as well as Salvation Army and Red Cross workers met refugees, with the Red Cross taking responsibility for keeping track of the names and temporary addresses of the refugees. Evacuations were prioritised according to need; women, children, the elderly, and the sick were evacuated first. There were reports of men dressing up as women to escape with the early evacuations. Between 26 and 31 December, a total of 35,362 people were evacuated from Darwin. Of those, 25,628 were evacuated by air, the remainder by road. Most evacuation flights were conducted onboard commercial aircraft sent by Ansett, TAA, MMA and Qantas, with a majority of these flights being filled to upwards of 150% their normal passenger capacity. One particular evacuation flight, a Qantas Boeing 747-238B (VH-EBB) departed Darwin on 28 December with a record breaking 673 evacuees on board. By 31 December, only 10,638 people (mostly men who were required to help clean up the city) remained in Darwin. Stretton also regulated access to the city by means of a permit system. Permits were issued only to those who were involved in either the relief or reconstruction efforts, and were used to prevent the early return of those who had been evacuated. Upon receiving news of the damage, several community groups across Australia began fundraising and relief efforts to assist the survivors. Major reception centres were set up in cities such as Katherine, Tennant Creek and Alice Springs. Several of the small towns along the Stuart Highway made efforts to assist people who were fleeing by road, supplying them with food, fuel, rest, and mechanical aid. At Adelaide River, the small local population provided hot meals to the refugees who stopped there. Approximately 24 hours after the storm hit Darwin, the population of Alice Springs had raised over $105,000 to assist the victims of Tracy. In Melbourne at the Boxing Day Test cricket match between Australia and England, members of both teams moved around the boundaries carrying buckets which the crowd threw cash into for the relief funds. Darwin families were also given priority on public housing waiting lists. On 31 December 1974, Stretton recommended that full civilian control should resume in Darwin, and handed over control of the city to its elected officials. Aftermath Reconstruction and effects on Darwin In February 1975, Whitlam announced the creation of the Darwin Reconstruction Commission, which was given the task of rebuilding the city "within five years", focusing primarily on building houses. The commission was headed by Tony Powell. The damage to the city was so severe that some advocated moving the entire city. However, the government insisted that it be rebuilt in the same location. By May 1975, Darwin's population had recovered somewhat, with 30,000 residing in the city. Temporary housing, caravans, hotels, and an ocean liner (MV Patris), were used to house people, because reconstruction of permanent housing had not yet begun by September that year. Ella Stack became Mayor of Darwin in May 1975 and was heavily involved in its reconstruction. However, by the following April, and after receiving criticism for the slow speed of reconstruction, the commission had built 3,000 new homes in the nearly destroyed northern suburbs, and completed repairs to those that had survived the storm. Several new building codes were drawn up, trying to achieve the competing goals of the speedy recovery of the area and ensuring that there would be no repeat of the damage that Darwin took in 1974. By 1978, much of the city had recovered and was able to house almost the same number of people as it had before the cyclone hit. However, by the 1980s, as many as sixty percent of Darwin's 1974 population had left, never to return. In the years that followed, Darwin was almost entirely rebuilt and now shows almost no resemblance to the pre-Tracy Darwin of December 1974. Although a Legislative Assembly had been set up earlier in the year, the Northern Territory had only minimal self-government, with a federal minister being responsible for the Territory from Canberra. However, the cyclone and subsequent responses highlighted several problems with the way the regional government was set up. This led Malcolm Fraser, Whitlam's successor as Prime Minister, to give self-government to the Territory in 1978. Many of the government records associated with Cyclone Tracy became publicly available on 1 January 2005 under the 30-year rule. In popular culture Cyclone Tracy inspired the song "Santa Never Made It into Darwin", composed by Bill Cate and performed by Bill and Boyd in 1975 to raise money for the relief and reconstruction efforts. In 1983, Hoodoo Gurus released "Tojo", a song comparing the Japanese bombing of Darwin under the command of Hideki Tojo during World War II to the damage done by Cyclone Tracy. The much-feared Japanese invasion never happened, but the cyclone was virtually ignored and ended up destroying the city. In May 1976, Australian band Ayers Rock released the single "Song for Darwin", also as a fundraiser for the relief and reconstruction efforts. In 1986, the Nine Network and PBL created Cyclone Tracy, a period drama mini-series based on the events during the cyclone. Michael Fisher, Ted Roberts and Leon Saunders wrote the series, and also starred Chris Haywood and Tracy Mann, who played the lead characters of Steve and Connie. The mini-series was released on DVD by Umbrella Entertainment in December 2005. The DVD is compatible with all region codes and includes special features such as newsreel footage of the devastation and a documentary titled On A Wind and a Prayer. Records and meteorological statistics Tracy is the most compact cyclone or equivalent-strength hurricane on record in the Australian basin and Southern Hemisphere, with gale-force winds extending only from the centre, and was also the smallest tropical cyclone worldwide until 2008, when Tropical Storm Marco of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season broke the record, with gale-force winds extending only from the centre. After forming over the Arafura Sea, the storm moved southwards and affected the city with Category 4 winds on the Australian cyclone intensity scale, while there is evidence to suggest that it had reached Category 3 on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale when it made landfall. Bruce Stannard of The Age stated that Cyclone Tracy was a "disaster of the first magnitude ... without parallel in Australia's history." Pressure estimates David Longshore, in the book Encyclopedia of Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Cyclones 1992 and 2008 edition, states that Tracy's barometric pressure was as low as 914 mbar, but the actual lowest pressure was 950 mbar. This information was recorded by a Bureau of Meteorology staff member at the Darwin airport. See also 1897 Darwin cyclone Santa Never Made It into Darwin Cyclone Tracy (1986 mini-series) Blown Away (2014 film), documentary film about Cyclone Tracy Booya (ship) Cyclone Althea, Christmas 1971, Queensland Cyclone Marcus, March 2018, Kimberley, WA Typhoon Nock-ten, Christmas 2016, Philippines, strongest Christmas Day tropical cyclone on record Typhoon Phanfone, Christmas 2019, Philippines, another typhoon that also traversed in the Philippines exactly on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day. Typhoon Tip, 1979, Philippines, the largest tropical cyclone on record References Bibliography External links Memories and comments of Cyclone Tracy Cyclone Tracy, Northern Territory Library online feature Northern Territory Library online exhibition Cyclone Tracy Northern Territory Library on Cyclone Tracy Collected oral histories of Cyclone Tracy Houses destroyed by Cyclone Tracy, Darwin, December 1974 (picture) / Alan Dwyer. Meteorological Information Weather satellite image of Tropical Cyclone Tracy 25 December 1974 (9:55am Darwin time, 0025 Greenwich Mean Time), over Darwin, Northern Territory, from NOAA 4. Records about Cyclone Tracy from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology Additional Information on Cyclone Tracy Australia Broadcasting Corp. Rewind on Cyclone Tracy House construction details before C-Tracy. Darwin builder's website. The National Film and Sound Archive of Australia added ABC coverage of the aftermath of the cyclone, broadcast on ABC radio and radio outlets around the world, featuring Mike Hayes, a senior ABC journalist in Darwin, to their Sounds of Australia registry in 2011. Listen to Mike Hayes' first-person account of the aftermath of the cyclone on australianscreen online See the National Film and Sound Archive of Australia's film Cyclone Tracy – Darwin, Christmas 1974 from its Film Australia Collection. 1974–75 Australian region cyclone season 1974 in Australia Tropical cyclones in 1974 Tropical cyclones in the Northern Territory History of Darwin, Northern Territory Retired Australian region cyclones Category 4 Australian region cyclones Disasters in the Northern Territory 1974 disasters in Australia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Matrix%20%28franchise%29
The Matrix (franchise)
The Matrix is an American cyberpunk media franchise consisting of four feature films, beginning with The Matrix (1999) and continuing with three sequels, The Matrix Reloaded, The Matrix Revolutions (both 2003), and The Matrix Resurrections (2021). The first three films were written and directed by the Wachowskis and produced by Joel Silver. The screenplay for the fourth film was written by David Mitchell and Aleksandar Hemon, was directed by Lana Wachowski, and was produced by Grant Hill, James McTeigue, and Lana Wachowski. The franchise is owned by Warner Bros., which distributed the films along with Village Roadshow Pictures. The latter, along with Silver Pictures, are the two production companies that worked on the first three films. The series features a cyberpunk story of the technological fall of humanity, in which the creation of artificial intelligence led the way to a race of powerful and self-aware machines that imprisoned humans in a virtual reality system—the Matrix—to be farmed as a power source. Occasionally, some of the prisoners manage to break free from the system and, considered a threat, become pursued by the artificial intelligence both inside and outside of it. The films focus on the plight of Neo (Keanu Reeves), Trinity (Carrie-Anne Moss), and Morpheus (Laurence Fishburne and Yahya Abdul-Mateen II) trying to free humanity from the system while pursued by its guardians, such as Agent Smith (Hugo Weaving, Abdul-Mateen II, and Jonathan Groff). The story incorporates references to numerous norms particularly philosophical, religious, and spiritual ideas, among others the dilemma of choice vs. control, the brain in a vat thought experiment, messianism, and the concepts of inter-dependency and love. Influences include the principles of mythology, anime, and Hong Kong action films (particularly "heroic bloodshed" and martial arts movies). The film series is notable for its use of heavily choreographed action sequences and "bullet time" slow motion effects, which revolutionized action films to come. The characters and setting of the films are further explored in other media set in the same fictional universe, including animation, comics, and video games. The comic "Bits and Pieces of Information" and The Animatrix short film "The Second Renaissance" act as prequels to the films, explaining how the franchise's setting came to be. The video game Enter the Matrix connects the story of the Animatrix short "Final Flight of the Osiris" with the events of Reloaded, while the online video game The Matrix Online was a direct sequel to Revolutions. These were typically written, commissioned, or approved by the Wachowskis. The first film was an important critical and commercial success, winning four Academy Awards, introducing popular culture symbols such as the red pill and blue pill, and influencing action filmmaking. For those reasons, it has been added to the National Film Registry for preservation. Its first sequel was also a commercial success, becoming the highest-grossing R-rated film in history, until it was surpassed by Deadpool in 2016. As of 2006, the franchise has generated US$3 billion in revenue. A fourth film, The Matrix Resurrections, was released on December 22, 2021, with Lana Wachowski producing, co-writing and directing and Reeves and Moss reprising their roles.Setting The series depicts a future in which Earth is dominated by a race of self-aware machines that was spawned from the creation of artificial intelligence early in the 21st century. At one point conflict arose between humanity and machines, and the machines rebelled against their creators. Humans attempted to block out the machines' source of solar power by covering the sky in thick, stormy clouds. A massive war emerged between the two adversaries which ended with the machines victorious, capturing humanity. Having lost their definite source of energy, the machines devised a way to extract the human body's bioelectric and thermal energies by enclosing people in pods, while their minds are controlled by cybernetic implants connecting them to a simulated reality called The Matrix. The virtual reality world simulated by the Matrix resembles human civilization around the turn of the 21st century (this time period was chosen because it is supposedly the pinnacle of human civilization). The environment inside the Matrix is practically indistinguishable from reality (although scenes set within the Matrix are presented on-screen with a green tint to the footage, and a general bias towards the color green), and the vast majority of humans connected to it are unaware of its true nature. Most of the central characters in the series are able to gain superhuman abilities within the Matrix by taking advantage of their understanding of its true nature to manipulate its virtual physical laws. The films take place both inside the Matrix and outside of it, in the real world; the parts that take place in the Matrix are set in a vast Western megacity. The virtual world is first introduced in The Matrix. The short comic "Bits and Pieces of Information" and the Animatrix short film The Second Renaissance show how the initial conflict between humanity and machines came about, and how and why the Matrix was first developed. Its history and purpose are further explained in The Matrix Reloaded. In The Matrix Revolutions a new status quo is established in the Matrix's place in humankind and machines' conflict. This was further explored in The Matrix Online, a now-defunct MMORPG. Films Future During production of the original trilogy, the Wachowskis told their close collaborators that, "at that time they had no intention of making another Matrix film after The Matrix Revolutions". In February 2015, in promotion interviews for Jupiter Ascending, Lilly Wachowski called a return to The Matrix "a particularly repelling idea in these times", noting studios' tendencies to "greenlight" sequels, reboots, and adaptations, in preference to original material. Meanwhile, Lana Wachowski, in addressing rumors about a potential reboot, stated that "...they had not heard anything, but she believed that the studio might be looking to replace them". At various times, Keanu Reeves and Hugo Weaving each confirmed their interest and willingness to reprise their roles in potential future installments of the Matrix films, with the stipulation that the Wachowskis were involved in the creative and production process. These comments were made prior to the announcement in August 2019 that Lana Wachowski would direct a fourth Matrix film ultimately titled The Matrix Resurrections. Following the release of Resurrections, producer James McTeigue said that there were no plans for further Matrix films, though he believed that the film's open ending meant that could change in the future. Other projects In March 2017, The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Warner Bros. was in the early stages of developing a re-launch of the franchise. Consideration was given to producing a Matrix television series, but was dismissed as the studio opted to pursue negotiations with Zak Penn in writing a treatment for a new film, with Michael B. Jordan eyed for the lead role. According to the article, the Wachowskis were not involved at that point. In response to the report, Penn refuted all statements regarding a reboot, remake, or continuation, remarking that he was working on stories set in the pre-established continuity. Potential plotlines being considered by Warner Bros. Pictures included a prequel film about a young Morpheus, or an alternate storyline with a focus on one of his descendants. By April 2018, Penn described the script as "being at a nascent stage". Later, in September 2019, Jordan addressed the rumors of his involvement by saying he was "flattered", but without making a definitive statement. In October 2019, Penn confirmed the script he wrote is set within an earlier time period than the first three films in the franchise. Cast and crew Cast Crew The following is a list of crew members who have participated in the making of the Matrix film series. Production The Matrix series includes four feature films. The first three were written and directed by the Wachowskis and produced by Joel Silver, starring Keanu Reeves, Laurence Fishburne, Carrie-Anne Moss and Hugo Weaving. The series was filmed in Australia and began with 1999's The Matrix, which depicts the recruitment of hacker Neo into humanity's rebellion against sentient machines. The film's mainstream success had backed up the initial idea of making a trilogy. The sequels, The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions, were filmed simultaneously during one shoot (under the project codename "The Burly Man"), and released in two parts in 2003. They tell the story of the impending attack on the human enclave of Zion by a vast machine army. Neo also learns more about the history of the Matrix and his role as The One. The sequels also incorporate more ambitious action scenes and visual effects. Reception Box office performanceThe Matrix was highly successful, earning over $460 million worldwide on a modest budget of $63 million. The sequels had a much larger budget of $150 million each; Reloaded was also a big commercial success, earning almost $742 million worldwide and becoming the highest-grossing R-rated film in history, a title which it held for 13 years until it was surpassed by the film Deadpool; Revolutions had the world's first simultaneous release across major cities all over the world, which for the first time in history included both a release in China, and a release in IMAX theaters. Its five-day opening at $204 million broke the previous record, but ultimately the film made $427 million, a little less than the original. Critical and public responseThe Matrix and The Matrix Reloaded received positive reviews, the critical response to The Matrix Revolutions was more negative. One complaint was that Revolutions did not give answers to the questions raised in Reloaded. Accolades Legal claims In April 2003, Sophia Stewart filed a legal complaint in the United States District Court for the Central District of California alleging that the idea of The Matrix (and the 1984 film The Terminator) were plagiarized from her own film treatment titled "The Third Eye". The court allowed the lawsuit to move forward in 2005, but Stewart did not attend the deposition. In a 53-page ruling, Judge Margaret Morrow dismissed the case, stating that Stewart and her attorneys "had not entered any evidence to bolster its key claims or demonstrated any striking similarity between her work and the accused directors' films." In August 2014, Stewart successfully sued her lawyers because they "failed to provide legal services to Ms. Stewart in the California case, and thereby breached the Contract. For example, [her lawyers] failed timely to respond to discovery requests or serve discovery requests on the California defendants, failed to depose key witnesses or develop admissible evidence, failed to deny requests for admission, and failed to respond timely to the California defendants’ motion for summary judgment." "Ms. Stewart did not appear for [the 2005] deposition, ultimately twice failing to appear for her deposition; and both times unknowingly, as her attorneys never advised her of the depositions." Stewart was awarded damages totaling $316,280.62. Despite the ruling, the case became the subject of "Internet legend", with many sources claiming Stewart had actually won the lawsuit. In 2013, Thomas Althouse filed suit in California federal court alleging that ideas for the sequels The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions came from a screenplay he wrote called The Immortals. In a summary judgement for the defendants, Judge R. Gary Klausner stated "The basic premises of The Matrix Trilogy and The Immortals are so different that it would be unreasonable to find their plots substantially similar." Influences and interpretations The Matrix films make numerous references to films and literature, and to historical myths and philosophy, including Buddhism, Vedanta, Advaita Hinduism, Christianity, Messianism, Judaism, Gnosticism, existentialism, obscurantism, and nihilism. The films' premise resembles Plato's Allegory of the cave, René Descartes's evil demon, Kant's reflections on the Phenomenon versus the Ding an sich, Zhuangzi's "Zhuangzi dreamed he was a butterfly", Marxist social theory and the brain in a vat thought experiment. Many references to Jean Baudrillard's 1981 treatise Simulacra and Simulation appear in the first film. Baudrillard himself considered this a misrepresentation, although Lana Wachowski claims the point the reference was making was misunderstood. There are similarities to cyberpunk works such as the 1984 book Neuromancer by William Gibson, who has described The Matrix as "arguably the ultimate 'cyberpunk' artifact". Japanese director Mamoru Oshii's 1995 film Ghost in the Shell was a strong influence. Producer Joel Silver has stated that the Wachowskis first described their intentions for The Matrix by showing him that anime and saying, "We wanna do that for real."Joel Silver, interviewed in "Making The Matrix" featurette on the Matrix DVD. Mitsuhisa Ishikawa of Production I.G, which produced Ghost in the Shell, noted that the anime's high-quality visuals were a strong source of inspiration for the Wachowskis. He also commented, "... cyberpunk films are very difficult to describe to a third person. I'd imagine that The Matrix is the kind of film that was very difficult to draw up a written proposal for to take to film studios." He stated that since Ghost in the Shell had gained recognition in America, the Wachowskis used it as a "promotional tool". Similarities to the 1985 anime film Megazone 23 have also been noticed, but the Wachowskis stated they have never seen it. Reviewers have commented on similarities between The Matrix and other late-1990s films such as Strange Days, Dark City, and The Truman Show. The Wachowskis stated Dark City had no influence on the franchise, but commented about it and The Truman Show that they thought it was "very strange that Australia came to have three films associated with it that were all about the nature of reality." Comparisons have also been made to Grant Morrison's comic series The Invisibles; Morrison believes that the Wachowskis essentially plagiarized their work to create the film. The Wachowskis responded that they enjoy the comic, but did not use it for inspiration. In addition, the similarity of the films' central concept to a device in the long-running series Doctor Who has also been noted. As in the film, the Matrix of that series (introduced in the 1976 serial The Deadly Assassin) is a massive computer system which one enters using a device connecting to the head, allowing users to see representations of the real world and change its laws of physics; but if killed there, they will die in reality. The first Matrix film features numerous references to the "White Rabbit", the "Rabbit Hole" and mirrors, referring to Lewis Carroll's novels Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass (1871). Matrixism is a new religious movement inspired by the trilogy. Adam Possamai, a sociologist of religion, describes these types of religions/spiritualities as hyper-real religions due to their eclectic mix of religion/spirituality with elements of popular culture and their connection to the fluid social structures of late capitalism. There is some debate about whether followers of Matrixism are indeed serious about their practice; however, the religion (real or otherwise) has received attention in the media. Following the Wachowskis' coming out as transgender women some years after the release of the films, the first film and the pill analogy have also been analyzed in the context of the Wachowskis' transgender experiences. In this case, taking the red pill and living out of the Matrix symbolizes exploring one's own gender identity, starting the transition and coming out as transgender, as opposed to a continued life in the closet. In 2016, Lilly Wachowski acknowledged this analysis by calling it "a cool thing because it's an excellent reminder that art is never static". Home media In 2004, Warner Home Video released The Ultimate Matrix Collection, a 10-disc set of the films on DVD. It included the trilogy of films, The Animatrix, and six discs of additional material, including the documentary film The Matrix Revisited, the live-action footage shot for Enter the Matrix, and a promotional compilation of The Matrix Online. For this release, The Matrix was remastered under the supervision of the Wachowskis and the trilogy's cinematographer, Bill Pope, to improve its picture quality and make its color timing closer to that of its sequels. At the request of the Wachowskis, as they explain in a written statement that accompanies the boxset, each of the three films is accompanied by two audio commentaries, one by philosophers who liked the films, and another by critics who did not, with the intention that viewers use them as reference points to form their own opinion. The compilation includes 35 hours of bonus material, but some of the extras from earlier, standalone, releases are missing. A Limited Edition of The Ultimate Matrix Collection was also released. It encases the ten discs plus a resin bust of Neo inside an acrylic glass box.The Ultimate Matrix Collection was later also released on HD DVD (5 discs) and Blu-ray (6 discs) in 2007 and 2008, respectively. The HD DVD release added a picture-in-picture video commentary to the three films and the extras that were missing from the previous DVD compilation. The Blu-ray release presented The Animatrix in high definition for the first time. A pared-down set dubbed The Complete Matrix Trilogy was also released on HD DVD and Blu-ray (3 discs each), which dropped The Animatrix and some of the special features. The Ultra HD Blu-ray release of The Matrix Trilogy came out in 2018 (9 discs), and presented the trilogy in 4K resolution and high-dynamic-range video, remastered from the original camera negative and supervised by Bill Pope. In this release, The Matrix is presented with a color grade that reportedly comes closer to its theatrical presentation than any of the previous home video releases. The set also includes standard Blu-ray copies of the films sourced from the new 4K master, but is missing The Animatrix and some special features. Other media and merchandising By August 2000, The Matrix DVD had sold over three million copies in United States, becoming the best-selling of all time. By November 2003, The Matrix franchise had generated from VHS and DVD sales, from the video game Enter the Matrix (2003), from The Matrix Reloaded: The Album soundtrack sales, and from licensed merchandise sales. As of 2006, the franchise has grossed from all sources worldwide. Animation In acknowledgment of the strong influence of Japanese Anime on the Matrix series, The Animatrix was produced in 2003 to coincide with the release of The Matrix Reloaded. This is a collection of nine animated short films intended to further flesh out the concepts, history, characters, and setting of the series. The objective of The Animatrix project was to give other writers and directors the opportunity to lend their voices and interpretation to the Matrix universe; the Wachowskis conceived of and oversaw the process, and they wrote four of the segments themselves, although they were given to other directors to execute. Many of the segments were produced by notable figures from the world of Japanese animation. Four of the films were originally released on the series' official website, one was shown in cinemas with Dreamcatcher, one was shown on MTV, MTV2, MTV3, MTV4, and Syfi, and the others first appeared with the DVD release of all nine shorts shortly after the release of The Matrix Reloaded. Video games On May 15, 2003, the game Enter the Matrix was released in North America concurrently with The Matrix Reloaded. The first of three video games related to the films, it told a story running parallel to The Matrix Reloaded and featured scenes that were shot during the filming of The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions. Two more The Matrix video games were released in 2005. The MMORPG The Matrix Online continued the story beyond The Matrix Revolutions, while The Matrix: Path of Neo allowed players to control Neo in scenes from the film trilogy. The Matrix Online was shut down in 2009. The Matrix official website also provided several original Adobe Flash-based browser games. An interactive technology demonstration, titled The Matrix Awakens, was released on December 9, 2021. Comic booksThe Matrix Comics is a set of comics and short stories based on the series and written and illustrated by figures from the comics industry; one of the comics was written by the Wachowskis and illustrated by the films' concept artist Geof Darrow. The comics and stories were originally presented for free on the Matrix series' website between 1999 and 2003. One of them was printed in 1999 to be given away at theaters as a promotional item for The Matrix, but Warner Bros. recalled it due to its mature content. Most of them were later republished by the Wachowskis' Burlyman Entertainment, along with some new stories and updates with color to some of the existing ones, in two printed trade paperback volumes in 2003 and 2004 and a deluxe hardcover twentieth-anniversary edition in 2019. Screensaver The Matrix official website provided a free screensaver for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X, which simulates the falling "Matrix digital rain" of the films. The screensaver was reported to have a password security problem. The "Matrix digital rain" also inspired the creation of many unofficial screensavers. Books Official The Art of the Matrix by various (Newmarket Press, 2000) The Matrix Shooting Script by the Wachowskis (with introduction by William Gibson) (Newmarket Press, 2001) The Matrix Comics, Vol. 1 by various (Burlyman Entertainment, 2003) The Matrix Comics, Vol. 2 by various (Burlyman Entertainment, 2004) Enter the Matrix: Official Strategy Guide by Doug Walsh (BradyGames, 2003) The Matrix Online: Prima Official Game Guide (Prima Games, 2005) The Matrix: Path of Neo: Official Strategy Guide (BradyGames, 2005) The Matrix Comics: 20th Anniversary Edition by various (Burlyman Entertainment, 2019) Unofficial Jacking In to the Matrix Franchise: Cultural Reception and Interpretation by Matthew Kapell and William G. Doty (Continuum International, 2004) Taking the Red Pill: Science, Philosophy and Religion in "The Matrix" by Glenn Yeffeth (Summersdale, 2003) Matrix Warrior: Being the One by Jake Horsley (Gollancz, 2003) The "Matrix" and Philosophy: Welcome to the Desert of the Real by William Irwin (Open Court, 2002) More Matrix and Philosophy by William Irwin (Open Court, 2005) Like a Splinter in Your Mind: The Philosophy Behind the "Matrix" Trilogy by Matt Lawrence (Blackwell, 2004) The Matrix (British Film Institute, 2004) Matrix Revelations: A Thinking Fan's Guide to the Matrix Trilogy by Steve Couch (Damaris, 2003) Beyond the Matrix: Revolutions and Revelations by Stephen Faller (Chalice Press, 2004) The "Matrix" Trilogy: Cyberpunk Reloaded by Stacy Gillis (Wallflower Press, 2005) Exegesis of the Matrix by Peter B. Lloyd (Whole-Being Books, 2003) The Gospel Reloaded by Chris Seay and Greg Garrett (Pinon Press, 2003) The "Matrix": What Does the Bible Say About... by D. Archer (Scripture Union, 2001) [Journey to the Source: Decoding Matrix Trilogy] by Pradheep Challiyil (Sakthi Books 2004) Exploring the Matrix: Visions of the Cyber Present by Karen Haber (St. Martin's Press, 2003) Philosophers Explore The Matrix by Christopher Gray (Oxford University Press, 2005) The Matrix Cultural Revolution by Michel Marriott (Thunder's Mouth Press, 2003) The Matrix Reflections: Choosing between reality and illusion by Eddie Zacapa (Authorhouse, 2005) The One by A.J. Yager & Dean Vescera (Lifeforce Publishing, 2003) Matrix og ulydighedens evangelium (Danish for: "Matrix and the Evangelium of disobedients") by Rune Engelbreth Larsen (Bindslev, 2004) The Third Eye: Where It All Begins by Sophia Stewart (All Eyes on Me, 2006) The Matrix 4 – The Evolution of Consciousness: Cracking the Genetic Code by Sophia Stewart (All Eyes on Me, 2010) The Matrix and the Alice Books by Voicu Mihnea Simandan (Lulu Books, 2010) See also Religion and the Internet The Meatrix'', 2003 parody Notes References Further reading External links Action film franchises American film series Martial arts science fiction films Religion in science fiction Science fiction film franchises Simulated reality in fiction Warner Bros. Pictures franchises Film series introduced in 1999 Dystopian fiction Fiction about consciousness transfer Apocalyptic fiction Post-apocalyptic fiction Fiction about artificial intelligence Fiction about virtual reality Malware in fiction Fiction about memory erasure and alteration Brain–computer interfacing in fiction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaman%20King
Shaman King
is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Hiroyuki Takei. It follows the adventures of Yoh Asakura as he attempts to hone his shaman skills to become the Shaman King by winning the Shaman Fight. Takei chose shamanism as the main theme of the series because he wanted a topic that had never been attempted before in manga. The Shaman King manga was originally serialized in Shueisha's Weekly Shōnen Jump between June 1998 and August 2004. The individual chapters were collected and released in 32 volumes. In 2017, Kodansha acquired the rights to the series and re-launched it on 35 e-book volumes in 2018, also published in print since 2020. An anime television series produced by NAS and Xebec aired for 64 episodes on TV Tokyo from July 2001 to September 2002. A reboot anime television series adaptation, produced by Bridge, aired on TV Tokyo and other channels from April 2021 to April 2022. A sequel to the reboot has been announced. The manga has also been reprinted in a edition, and has spawned various spin-offs and sequel manga, video games, a trading card game, and many types of Shaman King-related merchandise. In North America, Viz Media obtained the English-language license for the manga and published chapters of Shaman King in its Shonen Jump magazine from March 2003 to August 2007. Kodansha USA re-licensed the series in 2020, and will release it in both digital and physical formats. The anime series was licensed in North America by 4Kids Entertainment in 2003, and aired on FoxBox. Exclusive video games were released by 4Kids Entertainment in North America and Europe. In Japan, the manga has been popular. By March 2021, it had over 38 million copies in circulation. Both the manga and anime have been featured, at various times, in "top ten" lists of their respective media. The Shaman King anime has been watched by many television viewers in Japan. Publications about manga, anime, and other media have commented on the Shaman King manga, with positive comments on the series. Plot The plot of Shaman King revolves around Yoh Asakura, a shaman, a medium between the worlds of the living and the dead. Yoh seeks to become Shaman King, one able to channel the power of the Great Spirit to reshape the world as they wish, by winning the Shaman Fight, a tournament overseen by the Patch Tribe that occurs once every 500 years. Anna Kyoyama, Yoh's fiancée, soon enters the scene and prescribes a brutal training regimen to prepare him for the tournament. Thus begins the plot that will lead Yoh on a journey that will lead him to befriend Manta Oyamada and encounter other shamans: "Wooden Sword" Ryu, Tao Ren, Horohoro and Faust VIII. Yoh's group travels to America to pass the final trial for the right to participate in the Shaman Fight, joined by Lyserg Diethel while encountering a group of shamans led by Yoh's estranged twin brother Hao Asakura, the reincarnation of a powerful shaman who wishes to eradicate all humans and create a world for shamans. The group also encounter the X-Laws, a group dedicated with killing Hao, with Lyserg joining them. Yoh's team is joined by Joco McDonnell (known as Chocolove McDonnell), as they engage in a series of three-man matches. After several matches, only the teams that consist of Yoh's group, the X-Laws and Hao's team remain. Due to Hao's level of power despite being supported by the Gandhara group in selecting Yoh, Ren, Horohoro, Lyserg, and Joco as the five legendary warriors, the teams forfeit the tournament in a gambit to stop Hao while he undergoes a process to merge with the Great Spirit while Gandhara acquires the Patch Tribe's five elemental spirits. Though Yoh and his friends defeat ten Patch tribesmen who are obligated to protect the new Shaman King, they are powerless against awaken Hao as he brings their souls and everyone they know within the Great Spirit before he commences with his goal of destroying all human life. But Yoh and his friends acquire the elemental spirits and battle Hao while joined by their friends and associates, revealing their goal is actually ensure Hao would not abuse his powers. It is revealed that the Great Spirit granted Hao's wish for someone to bring back his mother's spirit. With Anna's help, Hao's mother is brought to the Great Spirit. Convinced by his mother to forgive humanity for her death, Hao decides to postpone his plan to eradicate humans so he can observe how Yoh and his friends will change the world. Seven years later, Hana Asakura waits at a station for the five legendary warriors and his parents, Yoh and Anna. Production Before creating Shaman King, Takei, an assistant of Nobuhiro Watsuki's Rurouni Kenshin, exchanged ideas about the series with the other assistants which included the creator of One Piece, Eiichiro Oda. As a colleague of Watsuki, he worked primarily as a manga assistant, only focusing on his own projects during his days off. He was influenced by street art from hip-hop and rap culture, which is apparent in his manga artwork. For drawing, he used calligraphy inks and pen nibs. When illustrating, he used Copic brand color markers. He chose shamanism as the principal topic of the series because he wanted to choose a subject that had never been approached in manga before. He said he incorporated his own personality and beliefs in Shaman King. He has an interest in the topic, and "choosing shamanism as the subject of this story seemed like a natural extension of that." For the title, he said he used "shaman", an English word, due to the fact that "the nuance is really great" and because he could not find a Japanese word with the accurate meaning of the word "shaman". Another reason to have shamanism as the main subject was because he could explore elements from different cultures and their relationship with the dead and the spirits. Takei created the stories after he created the characters because he believed the "stories are born because of the existence of the characters". In addition, he felt that "the most important thing [to create a character] is to have originality". Through his characters he wanted to show different cultures, backgrounds and values. When asked "how do shamans of pacifistic religions ever win the Shaman Fight?" he answered that the Shaman Fight is fought using the "strength of the soul". Takei declared "the final message of Shaman King is that fighting is no good." Media Manga Shueisha edition Written and illustrated by Hiroyuki Takei, Shaman King was serialized in Shueisha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from June 30, 1998, to an abrupt and improvised end on August 30, 2004. The first 275 chapters were collected into 31 volumes, released from December 3, 1998, to October 4, 2004. The release of volume 32—intended for publication on December 3, 2004—was delayed and Shueisha reported they would only publish volume 32 if they receive evidence of demand from approximately 50,000 people. The release of the last ten chapters in format happened on January 5, 2005. A spin-off to Shaman King, , published in Akamaru Jump in 2003 and 2004, lasted for five chapters—all of which were included in volume 32. Taking place seven years after the end of the manga series, it features Hana Asakura, son of Yoh and Anna, and his journey with Ryu to find the Five Elemental Warriors for a reunion before the opening of the Funbari Hot Springs Inn. Takei declared it was not a decrease in the series profitability that was the reason for its cancellation, but a "fatigue" he had been through because he was no more able to follow his fans' wishes. In the author's opinion, Shaman King was being "normalized" by the desire of his readers with the introduction of typical shōnen aspects and losing its originality. In 2007, he revealed he was planning to end the series with the finale he initially envisioned, to be published in another Shueisha magazine at the end of the year or at the beginning of 2008. Eventually the entire series was reprinted in 27 volumes with the title Shaman King Kanzen-Ban (or "Perfect Edition"), concluding with the "true ending" to the series. The new series finale was also posted on the official Kanzen-Ban website, in addition to the print editions. The first volume of the Perfect Edition was released on March 4, 2008 with the last (volume 27) being published on April 3, 2009. Five years after the end of the series, when the Shaman King Kanzen-Ban was finished, Takei said, "After making the readers so much for this, the last thing I wanted to do was to disappoint them". He thought the ending was a "huge responsibility". This edition served to make corrections and adjustments and, for Takei, it was something "fun," as it was different from scratch. Shaman King has also been published as part of the Shueisha Jump Remix series of magazine-style books. Sixteen volumes of Shaman King were released under the Shueisha Jump Remix series between April 1, 2011 and October 28, 2011. Viz Media licensed the series for an English-language release in North America; the chapters initially serialized in the American Shonen Jump, beginning in third issue in 2003 and ceasing its serialization in the August 2007 issue. From then, it was exclusively published through graphic novel format and Viz said it was done in order to speed up the series' publication. Volume 1 was released in August or September 2003, and volume 32 was released to conclude the series on January 4, 2011. In Australasian region, Madman Entertainment licensed and published the series between February 10, 2009 and September 10, 2011. The manga has also been licensed in some countries such as in Brazil by Editora JBC, in France by Kana, in Germany by Carlsen Comics, in Italy by Star Comics, in Norway by Schibsted Forlagene, in Russia by Comix-ART, in Singapore by Chuang Yi, in Spain by Editores de Tebeos, in Sweden by Bonnierförlagen, and in Vietnam by Kim Đồng Publishing House. Kodansha edition In December 2017, Kodansha announced the company acquired the "Shaman King" trademark from Shueisha in Japan and Viz Media in North America. A website opened on January 1, 2018, to announce Kodansha's celebration for the series' 20th anniversary. For this purpose, Kodansha republished the original manga in 35 e-books, with new cover artwork, between May 1 and October 1, 2018. Kodansha republished these volumes in print, released every month; volumes 1–5 were published on June 17, 2020, after that, three volumes were published around the 17th of every month; volume 33 and 34 were published on April 15, 2021; the 35th and final volume was released on October 15 of that same year. In July 2020, ComiXology and Kodansha USA announced that they would publish the thirty-five volumes of the new complete edition of the manga digitally starting in July 2020, however it was delayed to October of the same year. Kodansha USA also announced that they would release the series physically in twelve three-in-one omnibus edition volumes. The first volume was published on March 23, 2021, while the last was released on March 7, 2023. Related series A series of one-shot chapters, called "zero stories", later colected as Shaman King: Zero, detailing Yoh and other characters backstories, were serialized in Shueisha's Jump X from from November 10, 2011, to October 10, 2014. A sequel series, titled Shaman King: Flowers, centered on Hana Asakura's development as a shaman, was serialzied in Jump X from April 10, 2012, to October 10, 2014. Another series, titled Shaman King: The Super Star, was preceded by three prologue chapters published in Kodansha's Shōnen Magazine Edge on April 17, 2018, and the series started in the same magazine on May 17 of that same year. A spin-off manga titled Shaman King: Red Crimson, by Jet Kusamura, was launched in Shonen Magazine Edge on June 15, 2018, and finished on January 17, 2020. Another spin-off by Kusamura, titled Shaman King: Marcos, was serialized in Shōnen Magazine Edge from April 17, 2020, to June 17, 2022. Another spin-off, conceptualized by Kusamura and illustrated by Kyo Nuesawa, titled Shaman King & a Garden, was serialized in Kodansha's shōjo manga magazine Nakayoshi from December 1, 2020, to May 2, 2022. A spin-off manga, illustrated by Aya Tanaka and based on Kakeru Kobashiri's novel Shaman King Faust8: Eien no Eliza, started on the Kodansha's Magazine Pocket app on July 10, 2021; its last chapter was made available online on June 25, 2022. Its chapters were collected in three volumes, released between October 15, 2021, and August 17, 2022. Anime First series (2001) The episodes of the Shaman King anime series are directed by Seiji Mizushima and co-produced by TV Tokyo, NAS, and Xebec. At an early stage of anime production, Takei himself helped the anime's staff. However, he soon left the staff due to his time limitations as he was working on the manga. In September 2020, Mizushima commented that the original anime material presented in the latter half of the show was not something he did on his own accord, and it was requested from Shaman King'''s original publisher Shueisha. The 64 episodes were aired between July 4, 2001 and September 25, 2002 on TV Tokyo in Japan. The episodes were collected into 16 DVDs by King Records and released between October 30, 2001, and January 22, 2003. The DVDs were later collected and released in three box sets between August 27 and December 25, 2008. In June 2020, it was announced that the series would be streamed on Full Anime TV and Bonbon TV services in Japan. 4Kids Entertainment obtained the rights to broadcast the Shaman King anime in the United States, where it premiered on FoxBox on September 6, 2003. Three DVD compilations of the English adaptation were released by Funimation, in an uncut form, between October 19, 2004, and February 22, 2005. In June 2021, Discotek Media announced they re-licensed the series. Second series (2021) At Otakon 2015, former Madhouse president and then MAPPA president, Masao Maruyama, expressed his desire to work on a reboot of Shaman King. In February 2017, while answering a fan's question, Takei revealed on his official Twitter that he received an offer for an anime reboot of Shaman King, but he turned the offer down because he was told that the new anime would not be able to use the first anime's voice actors and soundtrack music, although Takei hoped for another chance in the future. In June 2020, a second anime television series was announced, which would adapt the 35 volumes of the new complete manga edition. The anime is produced by Bridge and directed by Joji Furuta, with series composition by Shōji Yonemura, character designs by Satohiko Sano and music composed by Yuki Hayashi. It aired from April 1, 2021 to April 21, 2022, on TV Tokyo. The series consists of 52 episodes from four Blu-ray Disc boxes, each with 13 episodes: with the first two scheduled for a release on August 25 and November 24, 2021 respectively, and the last two set for release on February 23 and May 25, 2022. Netflix acquired the streaming rights to the series for an English dub, and it premiered on August 9, 2021 on the streaming platform. At the end of the reboot's finale, it was announced that a sequel has been green-lit. Audio The music for the first Shaman King anime adaptation was composed by Toshiyuki Omori. Two CD soundtracks were released; the first one was on March 27, 2002, titled Shaman King: Vocal Collection, and contains 14 tracks, including the first opening and ending themes in their original television lengths; the second one, Shaman King: Original Soundtrack, was released on June 26 of that same year, with an additional 20 tracks and the second opening theme "Northern Lights". Six character song CDs were released on March 24, 2004, sung by the voice actors as their respective characters. Three drama CDs have been produced for the series as well, featuring the original voice actors from the series. Trading card game A collectible card game based on the Shaman King series was produced by Tomy in Japan and released in the United States by Upper Deck in 2005. Upper Deck originally planned a mass market release of the game for January 2005, however, it was later announced that Blockbuster Video would have exclusive rights to sell the game from January 28, 2005 to February 15, 2005, after which it would be released to other retailers. In an interview with Upper Deck's Director of Brand and New Product Development, Cory Jones stated that it was the television show's underperformance and later cancellation which led to the cancellation of the trading card game. A collaboration with Bushiroad's TCG "Cardfight!! Vanguard overDress" was announced on the Japanese Bushiroad TCG Strategy Presentation 2021 Summer on May 12, 2021. Trial Deck and Booster Pack Vol. 1 are scheduled to be released on November 5, 2021 and a Booster Pack Vol. 2 is planned to be released during Spring 2022. Video games Thirteen video games based on the Shaman King series have been released. The first one, Shaman King Chō Senji Ryakketo Funbari Hen, was released on December 21, 2001. Although the games developed in Japan have not been released outside of that region, Konami and 4Kids Entertainment developed a series of games that were only released in North America and Europe. Characters of the Shaman King series have also made appearances in the games Jump Super Stars and Jump Ultimate Stars. Other Two light novels with the story by Hideki Mitsui and art by Hiroyuki Takei were released on December 25, 2001 and August 23, 2002. A fanbook titled was released on April 30, 2004. Two guidebooks were released. The first, based on the original series and entitled , was released on June 4, 2002. The second, called , for the version of the series, was released exactly seven years later. Following Kodansha's acquisition of the series, a novelization written by Kakeru Kobashiri and titled was released on November 15, 2018, and a character book was published on November 30 of that same year. Reception Public response By November 2011, the original manga series of 32 volumes has sold over 26 million copies in Japan. By March 2020, the manga had over 35 million copies in circulation. By March 2021, the manga had over 38 million copies in circulation. The volumes have been ranked in listings of best-selling manga in Japan, as well as its guidebook, both Zero volumes, Flowers first four volumes, and The Super Star first volume. Volumes of the series have been ranked in listings of best-selling manga in the United States such as The New York Times, Nielsen BookScan and Diamond Comic Distributors. In 2008, Shaman King was North America's 24th best manga property according to ICv2, based on sales for the entire year of 2008. The anime adaptation has also been featured several times in the Japanese TV ranking, with the last episode having a 9.5 percent television viewership rating. Shaman King was voted the sixth best anime of 2001 by Animage readers. In 2005, Japanese television network TV Asahi conducted a "Top 100" online web poll and the Shaman King anime adaptation placed 47th. Moreover, approximately 165 million cards from the Shaman King trading card game were sold in Japan. Critical response Justin Freeman from Anime News Network (ANN) criticized the first volume for relying too heavily on the spirits as a deus ex machina, stating that is what "places the series on the wrong path." On other hand, Alexander Hoffman of Comics Village declared "in this first novel, letting the relationships between Yoh, Amidamaru, and Manta flesh out is more important that developing every spiritual entity that shows up." Holly Ellingwood of Active Anime said she was fascinated by how Takei was capable of taking several myths and cultural beliefs and "blending them into the character backgrounds". Lori Henderson of Manga Life cited the fact every character, even the villains, "has a reason for fighting" and their "internal struggles" as well as the fights itself as the main reason why Shaman King is "an enjoyable title." A reviewer for The Star declared, praised the characters' development and Takei's capacity to create "new interesting ones each volume," commending "their backgrounds and unique personalities." Writing for ANN, John Jakala commented that he was struck with the "unique", "graffiti-style" visual of the series. Although labeled its art as "silly", Sheena McNeil from Sequential Start expressed that "it's smooth and nicely detailed with excellent expressions." McNeil deemed Takei did "a wonderful job of bringing shaman into the modern day but keeping it a story of fantasy". Ellingwood stated the series' "vibrant action", "imaginative plot twists and a creative world" makes it "a unique and stylish shōnen series." Mania's Eduardo Chavez said that, Shaman King can "hit all the right buttons one volume" but "it could be a complete bore" in the next. School Library Journals Cathleen Baxter commented that Shaman King has "nonstop action" with "typical shōnen characters and battle styles". The storyline is "easy to follow and will hold the reader's interest." Margaret Veira of Active Anime, however, argued that the storyline gets more complex as the series progresses, while comics critic Jason Thompson commented that from volume 20 it "seemed to veer off tracks". In addition of a decline on artwork in his opinion, the numbers of fights also decreased; Thompson wrote, "their enemy ... may be unbeatable by force alone, so the plot shifts away from battles and towards unexpected betrayals, character relationships, and clever (and confusing) schemes—rather than mere fighting techniques." The last volume, especially, "may leave some readers feeling cheated," said Leroy Douresseaux from Comic Book Bin. Thompson was also disappointed by the 2004 conclusion but he wrote that the version has "a great ending", whose "transcendental climax is not too different from Katsuhiro Otomo's Akira'', or for many American comics about beings with ultimate power." Notes References Further reading External links Shaman King Adventure anime and manga Ainu in fiction Bridge (studio) Discotek Media Funimation Kodansha franchises Kodansha manga Netflix original anime Odex Shōnen manga Shueisha franchises Shueisha manga Supernatural anime and manga TV Tokyo original programming Viz Media manga Xebec (studio)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20locomotive%20builders
List of locomotive builders
A locomotive is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. This list of locomotive builders is ordered by country and includes current and defunct builders. Many of the companies changed names over time; this list attempts to give the most recognisable name, generally the one used for the longest time or during the company's best-known period. Argentina Active companies Grupo Emepa Material Ferroviario Defunct companies Astarsa Fábrica Argentina de Locomotoras GAIA Australia Australia imported its locomotives from the United Kingdom and United States until domestic production began, and even afterwards built many with U.S. and British mechanical equipment. Active companies Alstom, Dandenong Downer Rail, Cardiff, Maryborough & Newport UGL Rail, Broadmeadow formerly United Group Rail, United Goninan and A Goninan Alstom, Ballarat, Newport, Epping, North Ryde, Perth, Brisbane Defunct companies AE Goodwin, Granville Avteq, Sunshine Cardiff Locomotive Workshops Chullora Railway Workshops Clyde Engineering, Granville, Kelso, Somerton, Eagle Farm, Rosewater & Forrestfield, taken over by Evans Deakin Industries July 1996, became part of Downer Rail in March 2001 Comeng, Clyde, Dandenong & Bassendean EM Baldwin, Castle Hill (not the American company) - built mainly small sugar cane and mining tram engines English Electric Australia, Rocklea Evans, Anderson, Phelan & Co, Kangaroo Point Eveleigh Railway Workshops, Redfern Islington Railway Workshops James Martin & Company, Gawler Martin & King, Somerton Midland Railway Workshops, Perth Mine Technic Australia Morrison-Knudsen Australia National Railway Equipment Company, Islington North Ipswich Railway Workshops Perry Engineering, Mile End Phoenix Engine Company, Ipswich Springall & Frost, Ipswich Tulloch Limited, Rhodes Walkers Limited, Maryborough Azerbaijan Baku Carriage Repair Factory Baku Metro STP-Wagon-Building Factory Belgium Active companies Alstom Charleroi – formerly ACEC Transport Bombardier Transportation Brugge – formerly BN-Eurorail, formerly La Brugeoise et Nivelles John Cockerill - former CMI Defunct companies Ateliers de Tubize Ateliers de la Meuse Société Anglo-Franco-Belge Brazil Mafersa EIF EMD (Progress Rail/ Caterpillar) Wabtec (formerly GE Transportation) Bulgaria Express Service Canada Active companies Bombardier Transportation – Berlin-based division of Alstom (no locomotives produced in Canada) Railpower Technologies – Vancouver, British Columbia – subsidiary of R.J. Corman Railroad Group since 2009 Defunct companies Canadian Locomotive Company – Kingston, Ontario – Fairbanks-Morse (Canada) Ltd 1965 and ceased operations 1969 General Motors Diesel Division – London, Ontario – later as Electro-Motive Diesel Canadian operations and ceased production by Progress Rail in 2012 Montreal Locomotive Works – Montreal, Quebec – formerly part of American Locomotive Company, acquired by Bombardier Inc in 1975 but ended locomotive production 1985 Urban Transportation Development Corporation – Toronto, Ontario – former Crown corporation Chile Casagrande Motori China Active companies CRRC Defunct companies China CNR - merged into CRRC CSR Corporation - merged into CRRC Croatia Končar Czech Republic ČKD (Českomoravská Kolben-Daněk) CZ LOKO Škoda Transportation Škoda Works Denmark ABB Frichs Pedershaab Triangel Finland Lokomo Rautaruukki Oyj Saalasti Oy Škoda Transtech Tampella Valmet Valtionrautatiet (Finnish State Railways) France Commercial manufacturers Alcard, Buddicom et Cie. Alsthom (now Alstom) Anciens Établissements Cail – 1883–1898, became SFCM André Koechlin et Cie. – to SACM in 1872 Ateliers du Nord de la France (ANF) – also known as Blanc-Misseron; acquired by Bombardier Transportation in 1989 Brissonneau & Lotz – acquired by Alstom in 1972 Buffault et Robatel Charbonniers et Cie CFD Compagnie des forges et aciéries de la marine et d'Homécourt Compagnie Electro-Méchanique – acquired by Alstom in 1985 Compagnie générale de construction de locomotives – , Nantes, founded 1917 Corpet-Louvet – 1889–1952 Etablissment Cavé – to Charbonniers et Cie. in 1854 Etablissment Claprède Fives-Lille – merged into Fives-Lille Cail in 1958 Schneider-Creusot – now Schneider Electric Société Alsacienne de Constructions Mécaniques (SACM) – 1836–1848, became Société J. F. Cail & Cie. Société de Construction des Batignolles, Paris – founded 1871, ceased locomotive production 1928, merged into Spie Batignolles in 1968 Société française de constructions mécaniques (SFCM) – created in 1898, merged into Fives-Lille Cail in 1958 Société Franco-Belge Société J. F. Cail & Cie – 1850–1883, became Anciens Établissements Cail Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée Railway company workshops Arles (1899–1904) – PLM La Chapelle, Paris – Chemins de Fer du Nord Épernay (1854–1970) – Chemins de fer de l'Est Hellennes, Lille – Chemins de Fer du Nord Ivry – PLM Nîmes (1856–1858) – Chemin de fer de Lyon à la Méditerranée, later Chemins de fer de Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée (PLM) Ouillins (1863–1914) – PLM Paris (1909–1920) – PLM Sotteville, Rouen – Chemins de fer de l'Ouest from 1909) Vilnius locomotive repair depot Georgia Germany Active companies Bombardier Transportation Fahrzeugtechnik Dessau Interlock steam Schalker Eisenhütte Maschinenfabrik Schöma Siemens Mobility Voith Vossloh Windhoff Defunct companies Adtranz – now part of Bombardier AEG – now part of Bombardier AG Vulcan Stettin Berliner Maschinenbau Gmeinder Hanomag Henschel - acquired by Adtranz Hohenzollern Locomotive Works Krauss-Maffei Krupp LEW Hennigsdorf – formerly Borsig Lokomotiv Werke, formerly AEG, now part of Bombardier Maschinenbau Kiel (MaK) - acquired by Siemens, now part of Vossloh Maschinenfabrik Esslingen Maschinenfabrik L. Schwartzkopff Orenstein & Koppel Schichau-Werke Waggonfabrik Talbot - now part of Bombardier Greece Basileiades Skaramagas Hellenic Shipyards Co. Eleuisis Shipyards Siemens Hellas Kioleidis Hungary Ganz MÁVAG India Integral Coach Factory BHEL Jhansi, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) Patiala Locomotive Works Rail Coach Naveenikaran Karkhana, Sonipat Marathwada Rail Coach Factory, Latur Rail Coach Factory(RCF), Bharat Earth Movers Limited Ovis Equipment Pvt Ltd. Railway Engineering Works SAN Engineering & Locomotive Co. Ltd. Medha Servo Drives Pvt Ltd. Raajratna Energy Holdings Private Limited (REHPL) Republic Industrial & Technical Services Tata Motors (TELCO) Titagarh Wagons Electric Locomotive Factory, Madhepura GE Diesel Locomotive Works, Marhaura Indonesia Industri Kereta Api Iran MLC (Mapna Locomotive Engineering and Manufacturing Company) Wagon Pars Italy Active companies Alstom Ferroviaria S.p.A. – Savigliano Bombardier Transportation Italy – Vado Ligure Hitachi Rail Italy (formerly Ansaldo Breda) Firema Trasporti Ipe Valente Defunct companies Fiat Ferroviaria Officine Casaralta Società Italiana Ernesto Breda - Later Breda Costruzioni Ferroviarie, merged with Ansaldo as AnsaldoBreda, now Hitachi Rail Italy Gio. Ansaldo & C. - Merged into AnsaldoBreda, now Hitachi Rail Italy Japan Hitachi Kawasaki Railcar Manufacturing Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Toshiba Nippon Sharyo J-TREC (former Tokyu Car Co.) Kinki Sharyo Alna Sharyo Niigata Transys Latvia Rīgas Vagonbūves Rūpnīca Malaysia SMH Rail Sdn Bhd Netherlands Active companies Bemo, Warmenhuizen Defunct companies Allan N.V. Heemaf Spoorijzer Werkspoor New Zealand Active companies A & G Price Defunct companies Dispatch & Garlick EW Mills Gibbons & Harris OW Smith Scott Engineering Union Foundry North Korea Kim Chong-t'ae Electric Locomotive Works Pakistan Pakistan Locomotive Factory Equinox Philippines Defunct companies Manila Railroad Company's Caloocan Works — The Manila Railroad once made its own railmotors at the Caloocan yards from 1924 to 1949. It also assembled two 630 class 2-8-2 locomotives with parts acquired from the War Assets Administration in 1948. Ramcar, Inc. — Also constructed and assembled railmotors alongside the MRR. Although it still survives as the Ramcar Group of Companies, its rolling stock business ended during World War II. Poland Active companies Bombardier Transportation Bumar Fablok H. Cegielski (Poznań) Newag Pesa Defunct companies Pafawag – now part of Bombardier Portugal Sorefame - acquired by ABB, then ADtranz, now part of Bombardier Romania Electroputere – Craiova RELOC | Passion for locomotives FAUR – Bucharest Promat – Craiova Softronic – Craiova UCM Reşiţa – Reşiţa Romania Euroest S.A. – Constanța Russia Active Companies Kambarka Engineering Works Kirov Plant Sinara Group Lyudinovsky Locomotive Plant Ural Locomotives Transmashholding Bryansk Machine-Building Plant Demikhovo Machinebuilding Plant Kolomna Locomotive Works Metrowagonmash Novocherkassk Electric Locomotive Factory (NEVZ) Defunct Companies Serbia Goša FOM Mašinska Industrija Niš (MIN) Slovakia Avokov ZOŠ - Vrútky South Africa DCD Group Girdlestone Steam Transnet Engineering Union Carriage & Wagon Grindrod Locomotives Prof Pty Ltd Engineers Trident South Africa Prof Pty Ltd Engineers South Korea Hyundai Rotem Woojin Industrial Systems Spain Active companies CAF Stadler Rail Talgo Defunct companies ATEINSA. Became part of the GEC-Alstom group (now Alstom) in 1989. Babcock & Wilcox Euskalduna (MTM). Became part of the GEC-Alstom group (now Alstom) in 1989. MACOSA. Became part of the GEC-Alstom group (now Alstom) in 1989, until 2005 when it became part of the Vossloh group. The plant was sold to Stadler in 2015. Sweden ASEA – later ABB, later Adtranz; rail business sold to Bombardier in 2001 Helsingborgs Mekaniska Verkstad Ljunggrens Verkstad Munktells Mekaniska Verkstad NOHAB Switzerland Brown, Boveri & Cie – later ABB, later Adtranz; rail business sold to Bombardier in 2001 DLM AG, Dampflokomotiv- und Maschinenfabrik AG Ferdinand Steck Maschinenfabrik SIG Stadler Rail Swiss Locomotive & Machine Works (SLM) – closed in 2001, parts taken over by Stadler Rail, DLM and Prose Taiwan Taiwan Rolling Stock Company Defunct companies Tang Eng Iron Works (Manufacturing of rolling stock has been ceased and transferred to Taiwan Rolling Stock Co.) Turkey EUROTEM TÜDEMSAŞ Tülomsaş TÜVASAŞ TÜRKARGE Ukraine Kriukiv Railway Car Manufacturing Plant Luhanskteplovoz Kharkiv Locomotive Factory (KhPZ) United Kingdom Historically, major railways in the United Kingdom built the vast majority of their locomotives. Commercial locomotive builders were called upon when requirements exceeded the railway works' capacity, but these orders were generally to the railways' own designs. British commercial builders concentrated on industrial users, small railway systems, and to a large extent the export market. British-built locomotives were exported around the world, especially to the British Empire. With the almost total disappearance of British industrial railways, the shrinking of the export market and much reduced demand from Britain's railways, few British locomotive builders survive. Active companies Alan Keef – narrow-gauge diesel/steam locomotives, permanent way Bombardier Transportation – electric multiple units, diesel multiple units; Derby Brush-Barclay – Kilmarnock; part of Wabtec Brush Traction – diesel and electric locomotives; Loughborough; part of Wabtec Clayton Equipment Company – diesel/electric/battery locomotives Cowans Sheldon – railway cranes Exmoor Steam Railway – narrow-gauge steam locomotives Ffestiniog Railway – narrow-gauge steam locomotives and carriages Hitachi Rail – diesel and electric locomotives, carriages Hunslet Engine Company – diesel locomotives, narrow-gauge steam locomotives; part of Wabtec Rhino Industries – narrow-gauge diesel/steam locomotives, new build, maintenance Severn Lamb – narrow gauge diesel/steam/steam outline locomotives, carriages, and track infrastructure Steam Loco Design TMA Engineering – narrow-gauge diesel locomotives Defunct companies 5AT project – steam for the 21st century Andrew Barclay Sons & Company Armstrong Whitworth Aveling & Porter Avonside Engine Company Baguley Cars - acquired by Drewry Car Company in 1962 William Beardmore & Company Beyer, Peacock & Company Birmingham Railway Carriage & Wagon Company Black, Hawthorn & Company British Rail Engineering Limited British Electric Vehicles British Thomson-Houston Cravens – multiple units/coaching stock D Wickham & Company Davies & Metcalfe De Winton Drewry Car Company Dübs & Company – to North British Locomotive Company in 1903 English Electric FC Hibberd & Company Fletcher Jennings Fox, Walker & Company – became Peckett & Sons in 1880 George England & Company Gloucester Railway Carriage & Wagon Company – multiple units/coaching stock Grant, Ritchie & Company Greenwood & Batley Hawthorn Leslie & Company – locomotive business sold to Robert Stephenson & Hawthorns in 1937 Hudswell Clarke John Fowler & Company Kerr, Stuart & Company Kitson & Company Manning Wardle Metro-Cammell (multiple units/coaching stock) Metropolitan-Vickers Midland Railway Carriage & Wagon Company Motor Rail Muir-Hill Nasmyth, Gaskell & Company Neilson & Company – became Neilson Reid & Company in 1898; to North British Locomotive Company in 1903 North British Locomotive Company Peckett & Sons Pressed Steel Company – multiple units/coaching stock R&W Hawthorn – to 1870 Ruston & Hornsby Sentinel Waggon Works Robert Stephenson & Company – became Robert Stephenson & Hawthorns in 1937 Robert Stephenson & Hawthorns Sharp, Roberts & Company – became Sharp Brothers & Company in 1843; Sharp, Stewart & Company in 1852; to North British Locomotive Company in 1903 Stephen Lewin Thomas Hill Tulk and Ley Vulcan Foundry WG Bagnall Walker Brothers Wingrove & Rogers Yorkshire Engine Company See also: List of British railway-owned locomotive builders List of early British private locomotive manufacturers United States Active companies Brookville Equipment Corporation Process Locomotives Colmar Electro-Motive Diesel GE Transportation Harsco Corporation Katiland Trains Kloke Locomotive Works Knoxville Locomotive Works Merrick Light Railway Motive Power & Equipment Solutions National Railway Equipment Company NS Juniata Locomotive Shop (Thoroughbred Mechanical Services) Progress Rail Quality Rail Service Corporation Railserve Leaf RELCO Locomotives Republic Transportation Systems Siemens Mobility Train Rides Unlimited Tweetsie Railroad -official source for Crown Metal Products parts Wabtec Western Train Co Amusement Rides Manufacturer specializing in Locomotives, Carousels, and Railroad Installation Wiese Defunct companies In addition to these, many railroads operating steam locomotives built locomotives in their shops. Notable examples include the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's Mount Clare Shops, Norfolk & Western's Roanoke Shops, Pennsylvania Railroad's Altoona Works and the Southern Pacific's Sacramento Shops. An estimate of total steam locomotive production in the United States is about 175,000 engines, including nearly 70,000 by Baldwin. Altoona Machine Shops (PRR) American Locomotive Company (ALCO) Amoskeag Locomotive Works Appomattox Locomotive Works – operated by Uriah Wells Atlas Car & Manufacturing Company Baldwin Locomotive Works – later known as Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton Bell Locomotive Works – New York City and Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania Brooks Locomotive Works - to ALCO in 1901 Budd Company Burr & Ettinger Miniature Railway Company – also known as Cagney Bros. Cincinnati Locomotive Works – also known as Harkness and as Moore & Richardson Climax Manufacturing Company Cooke Locomotive & Machine Works - began as Danforth Locomotive & Machine Company, later Danforth, Cooke, & Company, to ALCO in 1901 Covington Locomotive Works Crown Metal Products Custom Fabricators Davenport Locomotive Works Denmead Dickson Manufacturing Company - to ALCO in 1901 Dunkirk Engineering Company Eastwick & Harrison Euclid Road Machinery Company Fairbanks-Morse Globe Locomotive Works Glover Locomotive Works Grant Locomotive Works HK Porter – Smith & Porter, later Porter, Bell & Co. Heisler Locomotive Works Hicks Locomotive and Car Works Hinkley Locomotive Works Hurlbut Amusement Company Ingalls Shipbuilding Kentucky Locomotive Works Lancaster Locomotive Works Lawrence Machine Shop Lima Locomotive Works – later Lima-Hamilton, then Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton Locks and Canals Machine Shop Lowell Machine Shop Manchester Locomotive Works - to ALCO in 1901 Mason Machine Works McQueen Locomotive Works Mount Savage Locomotive Works Nashville Manufacturing Company New Castle Manufacturing Company New Jersey Locomotive & Machine Company – began as Swinburne, Smith & Company New York Locomotive Works – also known as Breese, Kneeland & Company Niles & Company Norris Locomotive Works Ottaway Amusement Company Pittsburgh Locomotive & Car Works - to ALCO in 1901 Plymouth Locomotive Works Portland Company Rhode Island Locomotive Works - to ALCO in 1901 Richmond Locomotive Works - to ALCO in 1901 Roanoke East End Shops Rogers Locomotive & Machine Works – began as Rogers, Ketchum & Grosvenor, to ALCO in 1905 Rome Locomotive Works – New York Ross Winans Locomotive Works Schenectady Locomotive Works - later became American Locomotive Company (ALCO) St Louis Car Company Swinburne, Smith & Company Sygnet Rail Technologies T. H. Paul & Sons Talbott & Brother Iron Works Taunton Locomotive Manufacturing Company Tredegar Iron Works Union Iron Works United Aircraft Virginia Locomotive & Car Works – also known as Smith & Perkins Vulcan Iron Works Wasatch Railroad Contractors – builder of brand-new gauge Cagney replica steam locomotives West Point Foundry Westinghouse Electric Corporation Whitcomb Locomotive Works Ernst Wiener Co., New York Wilmarth See also List of rolling stock manufacturers List of tram builders List of railway companies References List of manufacturers Manufacturers Locomotive manufacturers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English%20folk%20music
English folk music
The folk music of England is a tradition-based music which has existed since the later medieval period. It is often contrasted with courtly, classical and later commercial music. Folk music traditionally was preserved and passed on orally within communities, but print and subsequently audio recordings have since become the primary means of transmission. The term is used to refer both to English traditional music and music composed or delivered in a traditional style. There are distinct regional and local variations in content and style, particularly in areas more removed from the most prominent English cities, as in Northumbria, or the West Country. Cultural interchange and processes of migration mean that English folk music, although in many ways distinctive, has significant crossovers with the music of Scotland. When English communities migrated to the United States, Canada and Australia, they brought their folk traditions with them, and many of the songs were preserved by immigrant communities. English folk music has produced or contributed to several cultural phenomena, including sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and the music for Morris dancing. It has also interacted with other musical traditions, particularly classical and rock music, influencing musical styles and producing musical fusions, such as British folk rock, folk punk and folk metal. There remains a flourishing sub-culture of English folk music, which continues to influence other genres and occasionally gains mainstream attention. History Origins In the strictest sense, English folk music has existed since the arrival of the Anglo-Saxon people in Britain after 400 AD. The Venerable Bede's story of the cattleman and later ecclesiastical musician Cædmon indicates that in the early medieval period it was normal at feasts to pass around the harp and sing 'vain and idle songs'. Since this type of music was rarely notated, we have little knowledge of its form or content. Some later tunes, like those used for Morris dance, may have their origins in this period, but it is impossible to be certain of these relationships. We know from a reference in William Langland's Piers Plowman, that ballads about Robin Hood were being sung from at least the late 14th century and the oldest detailed material we have is Wynkyn de Worde's collection of Robin Hood ballads printed about 1495. 16th century to the 18th century While there was distinct court music, members of the social elite into the 16th century also seem to have enjoyed, and even to have contributed to the music of the people, as Henry VIII perhaps did with the tavern song "Pastime with Good Company". Peter Burke argued that late medieval social elites had their own culture, but were culturally 'amphibious', able to participate in and affect popular traditions. In the 16th century the changes in the wealth and culture of the upper social orders caused tastes in music to diverge. There was an internationalisation of courtly music in terms of both instruments, such as the lute, dulcimer and early forms of the harpsichord, and in form with the development of madrigals, pavanes and galliards. For other social orders, instruments like the pipe, tabor, bagpipe, shawm, hurdy-gurdy, and crumhorn accompanied traditional music and community dance. The fiddle, well established in England by the 1660s, was unusual in being a key element in both the art music that developed in the baroque, and in popular song and dance. By the mid-17th century, the music of the lower social orders was sufficiently alien to the aristocracy and "middling sort" for a process of rediscovery to be needed in order to understand it, along with other aspects of popular culture such as festivals, folklore and dance. This led to a number of early collections of printed material, including those published by John Playford as The English Dancing Master (1651), and the private collections of Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) and the Roxburghe Ballads collected by Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer (1661–1724). Pepys notably mentioned in his famous diary singing the ballad Barbara Allen on New Year's Eve, 1665, a ballad that survived in the oral tradition well into the twentieth century. In the 18th century there were increasing numbers of collections of what was now beginning to be defined as "folk" music, strongly influenced by the Romantic movement, including Thomas D'Urfey's Wit and Mirth: or, Pills to Purge Melancholy (1719–20) and Bishop Thomas Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765). The last of these also contained some oral material and by the end of the 18th century this was becoming increasingly common, with collections including Joseph Ritson's, The Bishopric Garland (1784), which paralleled the work of figures like Robert Burns and Walter Scott in Scotland.It was in this period, too, that English folk music traveled across the Atlantic Ocean and became one of the foundations of American traditional music. In the colonies, it mixed with styles of music brought by other immigrant groups to create a host of new genres. For instance, English ballads, along with Irish, Scottish, and German musical traditions when combined with the African banjo, Afro-American rhythmic traditions and the Afro-American jazz and blues aesthetic led in part to the development of bluegrass and country music. Early 19th century With the Industrial Revolution the themes of the music of the labouring classes began to change from rural and agrarian life to include industrial work songs. Awareness that older kinds of song were being abandoned prompted renewed interest in collecting folk songs during the 1830s and 1840s, including the work of William Sandys' Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), William Chappell, A Collection of National English Airs (1838) and Robert Bell's Ancient Poems, Ballads and Songs of the Peasantry of England (1846). Technological change made new instruments available and led to the development of silver and brass bands, particularly in industrial centres in the north. The shift to urban centres also began to create new types of music, including from the 1850s the Music hall, which developed from performances in ale houses into theatres and became the dominant locus of English popular music for over a century. This combined with increased literacy and print to allow the creation of new songs that initially built on, but began to differ from traditional music as composers like Lionel Monckton and Sidney Jones created music that reflected new social circumstances. Folk revivals 1890–1969 From the late 19th century there were a series of movements that attempted to collect, record, preserve and later to perform, English folk music and dance. These are usually separated into two folk revivals. The first, in the later 19th and early 20th centuries, involved figures including collectors Sabine Baring-Gould (1834–1924), Frank Kidson (1855–1926), Lucy Broadwood (1858–1939), and Anne Gilchrist (1863–1954), centred around the Folk Song Society, founded in 1911. Francis James Child's (1825–96) eight-volume collection The English and Scottish Popular Ballads (1882–92) became the most influential in defining the repertoire of subsequent performers, and Cecil Sharp (1859–1924), founder of the English Folk Dance Society, was probably the most important figure in understanding of the nature of folk song. The revival was part of a wider national movement in the period around the First World War, and contributed to the creation of the English Pastoral School of classical music which incorporated traditional songs or motifs, as can be seen in the compositions of Percy Grainger (1882–1961), Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1951), George Butterworth (1885–1916), Gustav Holst (1874–1934) and Frederick Delius (1862–1934). In 1932 the Folk-Song Society and the English Folk Dance Society merged to become the English Folk Dance and Song Society (EFDSS). Some of these revivalists recorded folk songs on wax cylinders, and many of the recordings, including Percy Grainger's collection, are available online courtesy of the Vaughan Williams Memorial Library and the British Library Sound Archive. The second revival gained momentum after the Second World War, following on from the American folk music revival as new forms of media and American commercial music appeared to pose another threat to traditional music. The key figures were Ewan MacColl and A. L. Lloyd. The second revival was generally left wing in politics and emphasised the work music of the 19th century and previously neglected forms like erotic folk songs. Topic Records, founded in 1939, provided a major source of folk recordings. The revival resulted in the foundation of a network of folk clubs in major towns, from the 1950s. Major traditional performers included The Watersons, the Ian Campbell Folk Group, and Shirley Collins. The fusing of various styles of American music with English folk also helped to create a distinctive form of guitar fingerstyle known as 'folk baroque', which was pioneered by Davy Graham, Martin Carthy, John Renbourn and Bert Jansch. Several individuals emerged who had learnt the old songs in the oral tradition from their communities and therefore preserved the authentic versions. These people, including Sam Larner, Harry Cox, Fred Jordan, Walter Pardon, Frank Hinchliffe and the Copper Family, released albums of their own and were revered by folk revivalists. Popular folk revival musicians based their works on songs sung by these traditional singers and those collected during the first folk revival. There are various databases and collections of English folk songs collected during the first and second folk revivals, such as the Roud Folk Song Index, which contains references to 25,000 English language folk songs, and the Vaughan Williams Memorial Library, a multimedia archive of folk-related resources. The British Library Sound Archive contains thousands of recordings of traditional English folk music, including 340 wax cylinder recordings made by Percy Grainger in the early 1900s. Progressive folk The process of fusion between American musical styles and English folk can also be seen as the origin of British progressive folk music, which attempted to elevate folk music through greater musicianship, or compositional and arrangement skills. Many progressive folk performers continued to retain a traditional element in their music, including Jansch and Renbourn, who with Jacqui McShee, Danny Thompson, and Terry Cox, formed Pentangle in 1967. Others totally abandoned the traditional element and in this area particularly influential were the Scottish artists Donovan, who was most influenced by emerging progressive folk musicians in America like Bob Dylan, and the Incredible String Band, who from 1967 incorporated a range of influences including medieval and eastern music into their compositions. Some of this, particularly the Incredible String Band, has been seen as developing into the further subgenre of psych or psychedelic folk and had a considerable impact on progressive and psychedelic rock. There was a brief flowering of English progressive folk in the late 1960s and early 1970s, with groups like the Third Ear Band and Quintessence following the eastern Indian musical and more abstract work by group such as Comus, Dando Shaft, The Trees, Spirogyra, Forest, and Jan Dukes De Grey, but commercial success was elusive for these bands and most had broken up or moved in very different directions by about 1973. Perhaps the finest individual work in the genre was from artists early 1970s artists like Nick Drake and John Martyn, but these can also be considered the first among the English 'folk troubadours' or 'singer-songwriters', individual performers who remained largely acoustic but who relied mostly on their own individual compositions. The most successful of these was Ralph McTell, whose 'Streets of London' reached number 2 in the UK Single Charts in 1974, and whose music is clearly folk, but without much reliance on tradition, virtuosity, or much evidence of attempts at fusion with other genres. British folk rock British folk rock developed in Britain during the mid to late 1960s by the bands Fairport Convention, and Pentangle which built on elements of American folk rock, and on the second British folk revival. It uses traditional music, and compositions in a traditional style, played on a combination of rock and traditional instruments. It was most significant in the 1970s, when it was taken up by groups such as Pentangle, Steeleye Span and the Albion Band. It was rapidly adopted and developed in the surrounding Celtic cultures of Brittany, where it was pioneered by Alan Stivell and bands like Malicorne; in Ireland by groups such as Horslips; in Canada by groups such as Barde; and also in Scotland, Wales and the Isle of Man and Cornwall, to produce Celtic rock and its derivatives. It has been influential in those parts of the world with close cultural connections to Britain, such as the US and Canada and gave rise to the subgenre of Medieval folk rock and the fusion genres of folk punk and folk metal. By the 1980s the genre was in steep decline in popularity, but has survived and revived in significance as part of a more general folk resurgence since the 1990s. Folk punk In the mid-1980s a new rebirth of English folk began, this time fusing folk with energy and political aggression derived from punk rock. Leaders included The Pogues, The Men They Couldn't Hang, Oyster Band and Billy Bragg. Folk dance music also became popular in the 80s, with acts like the English Country Blues Band and Tiger Moth. The decade later saw the use of reggae with English folk music by the band Edward II & the Red Hot Polkas, especially on their seminal Let's Polkasteady from 1987. Folk metal In a process strikingly similar to the origins of British folk rock in the 1960s, the English thrash metal band Skyclad added violins from a session musician on several tracks for their 1990 debut album The Wayward Sons of Mother Earth. When this was well received they adopted a full-time fiddle player and moved towards a signature folk and jig style leading them to be credited as the pioneers of folk metal, which has spread to Ireland, the Baltic and Germany. Traditional folk resurgence 1990–present The peak of traditional English folk, like progressive and electric folk, was the mid- to late-1970s, when, for a time it threatened to break through into the mainstream. By the end of the decade, however, it was in decline. The attendance at, and numbers of folk clubs began to decrease, probably as new musical and social trends, including punk rock, new wave and electronic music began to dominate. Although many acts like Martin Carthy and the Watersons continued to perform successfully, there were very few significant new acts pursuing traditional forms in the 1980s. This began to change with a new generation in the 1990s. The arrival and sometimes mainstream success of acts like Kate Rusby, Bellowhead, Nancy Kerr, Kathryn Tickell, Jim Moray, Spiers and Boden, Seth Lakeman, Frank Turner, Laura Marling and Eliza Carthy, all largely concerned with acoustic performance of traditional material, marked a radical turn around in the fortunes of the tradition. This was reflected in the adoption creation of the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards in 2000, which gave the music a much needed status and focus and the profile of folk music is as high in England today as it has been for over thirty years. Folk clubs Although there were a handful of clubs that allowed space for the performance of traditional folk music by the early 1950s, its major boost came from the short-lived British skiffle craze, from about 1956–8. New clubs included the 'Ballad and Blues' club in a pub in Soho, co-founded by Ewan MacColl. As the craze subsided from the mid-1950s many of these clubs began to shift towards the performance of English traditional folk material. Many became strict 'policy clubs', that pursued a pure and traditional form of music. By the mid-1960s there were probably over 300 in Britain. Most clubs were simply a regular gathering, usually in the back or upstairs room of a public house on a weekly basis. They were largely a phenomenon of the urbanised middle classes and known for the amateur nature of many performances. There were also 'residents', who performed regular short sets of songs. Many of these later emerged as major performers in their own right, including A. L. Lloyd, Martin Carthy, and Shirley Collins. A later generation of performers used the folk club circuit for highly successful mainstream careers, including Billy Connolly, Jasper Carrott, Ian Dury and Barbara Dickson. The number of clubs began to decline in the 1980s, in the face of changing musical and social trends. But the decline began to stabilize in the mid-1990s with the resurgence of interest in folk music and there are now over 160 folk clubs in the United Kingdom, including many that can trace their origins back to the 1950s. Folk music and the radio The difficulty of gaining regular appearances on television in England has long meant that radio has remained the major popular medium for increasing awareness of the genre. The EFDSS sponsored the BBC Home Service radio program, As I Roved Out, based on field recordings made by Peter Kennedy and Séamus Ennis from 1952 to 1958, which probably did more than any other single factor to introduce the general population to British folk music in the period. Also important were occasional radio shows, such as Lomax's Ballads and Blues (1951), MacColl's Radio-ballads (1958–64) and The Song Carriers (1968). John Peel frequently included folk music of his Top Gear show on Radio One from 1968, but dropped it when punk arrived in the 1970s. The most consistent source of folk music on radio, has been BBC Radio 2. In 1967 "My Kind of folk" was broadcast on Wednesdays. In 1970 "Folk on Friday" began, presented by Jim Lloyd. In 1972 it became "Folk on Sunday". "Folkweave" was presented by Tony Capstick 1975–8. "Folk on Two" (Wednesdays) began in 1980. In 1998 Jim Lloyd retired from the programme and was replaced by Mike Harding. In 2007 it was renamed "The Mike Harding Folk Show". In October 2012 it was announced that Mike Harding would be leaving the programme to be replaced by Mark Radcliffe. Ian A. Anderson, editor of "fRoots", also presented the occasional series for Radio Two. He hosted a World music programme on "Jazz FM" and then spent 10 years broadcasting on the BBC World Service. He currently hosts "fRoots Radio" on the web. For over twenty years, until 2006, Charlie Gillett presented World music on BBC London. Folk festivals Folk festivals began to be organised by the EFDSS from about 1950, usually as local or regional event with an emphasis on dance, like the Sidmouth Festival (from 1955) and the Keele Festival (1965), which was abandoned in 1981 but reinstituted three years later as the National Folk Festival. The EFDSS gave up its organizing role in these festivals in the 1980s and most are locally run and financed. One of the largest and most prestigious English folk festivals at Cambridge was founded in 1965 and attracts about 10,000 people. Probably the largest is Fairport's Cropredy Convention, which since 1979 has provided a venue for folk, British folk rock, and rock artists; it now attracts up to 20,000 people a year as well as performances for Fairport Convention and their friends. Like rock festivals, folk festivals have begun to multiply since the 1990s and there are over a hundred folk festivals or varying sizes held in England every year. Forms of folk music Ballads A ballad is a form of verse, often a narrative story and set to music. Many ballads were written and sold as single sheet broadsides. They are usually narrative in structure and make considerable use of repetition. The traditional ballad has been seen as originating with the wandering minstrels of late medieval Europe. There have been many different and contradictory attempts to classify traditional ballads by theme, but commonly identified types are religious, supernatural, tragic, love, historic, legends and humour. Many ballads were brought by English settlers to the New World, thus contributing in part to the bedrock of American folk music that had been established via the Afro-American rhythmic traditions, the blues aesthetic, and the cross-pollination of the American immigrant cultures at the time. Carols A carol is a festive song. In modern times, carols are associated primarily with Christmas, but in reality there are carols celebrating all festivals and seasons of the year, and not necessarily Christian festivals. They were derived from a form of circle dance accompanied by singers, which was popular from the mid-12th century. From the 14th century they were used as processional songs, particularly at Advent, Easter and Christmas, and to accompany religious mystery plays. They declined after the Protestant Reformation which banned many religious festivals, but some famous carols were written in this period, including 'The Holly and the Ivy' and they were more strongly revived from the 19th century and began to be written and adapted by eminent composers. Children's songs The earliest vernacular children's songs in Europe are lullabies from the later medieval period. From soon after we have records of short children's rhyming songs, but most nursery rhymes were not written down until the 18th century. The first English collections were Tommy Thumb's Song Book and a sequel, Tommy Thumb's Pretty Song Book, are both thought to have been published before 1744, and John Newbery's, Mother Goose's Melody, or, Sonnets for the Cradle (c.1785), is the first record we have of many classic rhymes. These rhymes seem to have come from a variety of sources, including traditional riddles, proverbs, ballads, lines of Mummers' plays, drinking songs, historical events, and, it has been suggested, ancient pagan rituals. Roughly half of the current body recognised 'traditional' English rhymes were known by the mid-18th century. From this period we sometimes know the origins and authors of rhymes, like 'Twinkle Twinkle Little Star', which combined an 18th-century French tune with a poem by English writer Jane Taylor and 'Mary Had a Little Lamb', written by Sarah Josepha Hale of Boston in 1830. The first, and possibly the most important collection to focus in this area was, James Orchard Halliwell's, The Nursery Rhymes of England (1842) and Popular Rhymes and Tales in 1849. At the height of the revival Sabine Baring-Gould produced A Book of Nursery Songs (1895), and Andrew Lang produced The Nursery Rhyme Book in 1897. Children's songs, unlike folk songs, have remained part of a living and continuous tradition, for although added to from other sources and affected by written versions, most adults pass on songs they learned from oral sources as children. Erotic folk songs It has been noted by most recent commentators on English folk song even if it was a bit immoral, that love, the erotic and even the pornographic, were major traditional themes and, if more than ballads are considered, may have been the largest groups of printed songs. Many collectors in the first revival either ignored such songs, or bowdlerized them for publication, as Francis Child and Cecil Sharp did in their collections. In the second revival, erotic folk song was much more accepted as part of the canon of traditional song, helped by the publication of books such as Gershon Legman's, The Horn Book: Studies in Erotic Folklore (1964) and Ed Cray's, The Erotic Muse: American Bawdy Songs, which printed many previously unpublished songs (1968). In England A. L. Lloyd was the key figure in introducing erotic songs to the canon, lecturing and publishing on the subject. He recorded The Foggy Dew and Other Traditional English Love Songs in 1959, and then The Bird in the Bush, Traditional Erotic Songs in 1966 with Frankie Armstrong, and Anne Briggs. He drew a distinction between erotic songs, i.e. those that dealt with love and suggested sexuality through innuendo (like 'The Bonny Black Hare' and 'The Bird in the Bush'), and pornographic songs that were explicit and therefore unworthy of attention. Some authors, however, find these distinctions more difficult to maintain. Although erotic songs became part of the standard fare in folk clubs and among folk rock musicians, relatively few of the more explicit songs have been placed on record. Hornpipes The hornpipe is a style of dance music thought to have taken its name from an English reed instrument by at least the 17th century. In the mid-18th century it changed from 3/2 time to 2/2, assuming its modern character, and probably reaching the height of its popularity as it became a staple of theatrical performances. It is most often associated with the Sailor's Hornpipe, but has formed the basis of many individual and group country dances into the modern period. Like many dances it was taken up in Scotland and Ireland and given a distinctive national character and moved to America with emigration. Jigs Jigs are a style of dance music developed in England to accompany a lively dance with steps, turns and leaps. The term jig was derived from the French 'giguer', meaning 'to jump'. It was known as a dance in the 16th century, often in 2/4 time and the term was used for a dancing entertainment in 16th century plays. The dance began to be associated with music particularly in 6/8 time, and with slip jigs 9/8 time. In the 17th century the dance was adopted in Ireland and Scotland, where they were widely adapted, and with which countries they are now most often associated. In some, usually more northern, parts of England, these dances would be referred to as a "Gallop" – such as the Winster Gallop from Derbyshire (though this owes its origins to the Winster Morris). Morris dance A morris dance is a type of English folk dance, usually accompanied by music, and based on rhythmic stepping and the execution of choreographed figures by a group of dancers, often using implements such as sticks, swords, and handkerchiefs. The name is thought to derive from the term 'moorish dance', for Spanish (Muslim) styles of dance and may derive from English court dances of the period. References have been found that suggest that morris dance dates back to the mid-15th century, but claims of pre-Christian origins are now largely dismissed. Morris dance appears to have been widespread in England by the early 17th century, particularly in pastoral areas, but was suppressed, along with associated festivals during and after the English Civil War. It recovered after the Restoration in 1660 but was in steep decline after agricultural and industrial revolutions by the 19th century, when collectors like Cecil Sharp recorded the practice, particularly from versions of dance he found in the Cotswolds. This led to a revival of the tradition, although it may also have affected form and practice. Morris dance took something of a back seat to unaccompanied singing in the second revival, but received a further boost when it attracted the attention of British folk rock musicians like Ashley Hutchings, who produced several albums of dance music, including the influential Morris On series from 1972. Traditionally Morris dance was accompanied by either a pipe and tabor or a fiddle, but from the mid-19th century most common instruments were the melodeon, accordion, concertina and drums. Particularly in Cotswold and Border morris, many tunes are linked to particular dances. Morris dance survives in the distinct local traditions of Cotswold morris, north-west morris, Border Morris, rapper dance and Long Sword dance. Protest songs Perhaps the oldest clear example of an English protest song is the rhyme 'When Adam delved and Eve span, who was then the gentleman?', used in the Peasants Revolt of 1381. Songs that celebrated social bandits like Robin Hood, from the 14th century onwards can be seen as a more subtle form of protest. With the Levellers and Diggers in the mid-17th century, more overt criticism surfaced, as in the ballad "The Diggers' Song". From roughly the same period, songs of protest at war, pointing out the costs to human lives, also begin to appear, like "The Maunding Souldier or The Fruits of Warre is Beggery", framed as a begging appeal from a crippled soldier of the Thirty Years War. With industrialisation from the 18th century. A surprising English folk hero immortalised in song is Napoleon Bonaparte, in songs such as the "Bonny Bunch of Roses" and "Napoleon's Dream". As labour became more organised songs were used as anthems and propaganda, for miners with songs like "The Black Leg Miner", and for factory workers with songs like "The Factory Bell". These industrial protest songs were largely ignored during the first English folk revival of the later 19th and early 20th century, but were recorded by figures like A. L. Lloyd on albums such as The Iron Muse (1963). In the 1980s the anarchist rock band Chumbawamba recorded several versions of traditional English protest as English Rebel Songs 1381–1914. Ewan MacColl became the leading writer of English protest songs in the 1950s, with pro-communist songs such as "The Ballad of Ho Chi Minh" and "The Ballad of Stalin", as well as volatile protest and topical songs concerning the nuclear threat to peace, most notably "Against the Atom Bomb". The leading voice of protest in Thatcherite Britain in the 1980s was Billy Bragg, whose style of protest song and grass-roots political activism was mostly reminiscent of those of Woody Guthrie. Sea shanties Sea shanties are a type of work song traditionally sung by sailors. Derived from the French word 'chanter', meaning 'to sing', they may date from as early as the 15th century, but most recorded examples derive from the 19th century. Shanties were usually slow rhythmic songs designed to help with collective tasks on labour-intensive sailing and later steam ships. Many were call and response songs, with one voice (the shantyman) singing a lead line and the rest of the sailors giving a response together. They were derived from varied sources, including dances, folk songs, polkas, waltzes and even West African work-songs. Since different songs were useful for different tasks they are traditionally divided into three main categories, short haul shanties, for tasks requiring quick pulls over a relatively short time; halyard shanties, for heavier work requiring more set-up time between pulls; and Capstan shanties, for long, repetitive tasks requiring a sustained rhythm, but not involving working the lines. Famous shanties include, the 'Blow the Man Down and 'Bound for South Australia', some of which have remained in the public consciousness or been revived by popular recordings. There was some interest in sea shanties in the first revival from figures like Percy Grainger, who recorded several traditional versions on phonographs. In the second revival A. L. Lloyd attempted to popularise them, recording several albums of sea songs from 1965. War songs In England songs about military and naval subjects were a major part of the output of ballad writers from the 16th century onwards, including one of the earliest British ballads 'The Ballad of Chevy Chase', which deals with the events of the Scottish victory of the Battle of Otterburn in 1388 and may date to the early 15th century. The conflicts between England and Spain in the later 16th and early 17th centuries produced a number of ballads describing events, particularly naval conflicts like those of the Spanish Armada. The English Civil War (1642–1653) produced a subgenre of "Cavalier ballads", including "When the King Home in Peace Again". Many of these were adapted and reused by Jacobites after the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688. The Anglo-French Wars of the 17th and 18th centuries saw more descriptive works, usually couched in patriotic terms, but some, like 'Captain Death' (1757) dealt with loss and defeat. As regimental identities emerged songs were adopted for marching, like 'The British Grenadiers', based on a 17th-century dance tune. Output became a flood during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1797–1815), seeing numerous patriotic war songs, like 'Heart of Oak' and the emergence of a stereotype of the English seaman as 'Jolly Jack Tar', who appeared in many ballads and on stage. As the musical hall began to take over the lead in popular music and folk song declined, folk song ceased to deal with contemporary wars in the later 19th century. Work songs Work songs include music sung while conducting a task (often to coordinate timing) or a song linked to a task or trade which might be a connected narrative, description, or protest song. The two main types of work song in England are agricultural work songs, usually are rhythmic a cappella songs sung by people working on a physical and often repetitive task, like the 'Harvest song' common in south-west England. The songs were probably intended to increase productivity while reducing feelings of boredom. Rhythms of work songs can serve to synchronize physical movement in a group or gang. Industrial folk song emerged in Britain in the 18th century, as workers took the music with which they were familiar, including ballads and agricultural work songs, and adapted them to their new experiences and circumstances. Unlike agricultural work songs, it was often unnecessary to use music to synchronise actions between workers, as the pace would be increasingly determined by water, steam, chemical and eventually electric power, and frequently impossible because of the noise of early industry. As a result, industrial folk songs tended to be descriptive of work, circumstances, or political in nature, making them amongst the earliest protest songs and were sung between work shifts or in leisure hours, rather than during work. This pattern can be seen in textile production, mining and eventually steel, shipbuilding, rail working and other industries. Regional traditions East Anglia Like many regions of England there are few distinctive local instruments and many songs were shared with the rest of Britain and with Ireland, although the distinct dialects of the regions sometimes lent them a particular stamp and, with one of the longest coastlines of any English region, songs about the sea were also particularly important. Along with the West Country, this was one of the regions that most firmly adopted reed instruments, producing many eminent practitioners of the melodeon from the mid-19th century. Also like the West Country it is one of the few regions where there is still an active tradition of step dancing and like the Midlands the tradition of Molly dance died out in the 1930s. The region was relatively neglected by folk song collectors of the first revival. Lucy Broadwood and Cecil Sharp collected in Cambridgeshire, as did and Vaughan Williams as well as in Norfolk and Essex from 1905, but most important regional figure was composer Ernest John Moeran, who collected over 150 songs in Norfolk and Suffolk in the 1920s. The second folk revival led to the discovery of many East Anglian folk musicians, including Suffolk melodeon player Oscar Woods, Norfolk singers Sam Larner (1878–1965), Harry Cox (1885–1971) and Walter Pardon (1914–96); Suffolk fiddler Harkie Nesling (1890–1978); Suffolk singer and bargeman Bob Roberts (1907–82), many of whom recorded for Topic Records. Perhaps the most influential folk dance musical album was English Country Dance Music (1965), put together by Reg Hall and Bob Davenport with largely Norfolk musicians, it was the first instrumental recording of folk instruments. Also from Norfolk was Peter Bellamy, who in solo projects, with the Young Tradition and in theatrical productions was probably one of the most influential musicians of the post revival period. The Norfolk melodeon player and singer Tony Hall has given the tradition a unique style. East Anglia made a contribution to the British folk rock scene of the 1970s, producing the short-lived, but more recently reformed, bands Midwinter and Stone Angel, based in Great Yarmouth and the more successful Spriguns of Tolgus from Cambridge, who produced four albums. The most successful folk artists from the region in recent years are probably the Essex born Billy Bragg and the Norfolk born Beth Orton. The region is home to numerous folk clubs and hosts many folk festivals, including Steeleye Span's Spanfest at Kentwell Hall, Suffolk and the Cambridge Folk Festival, generally seen as the most prestigious in the calendar. Since 2000 the East Anglian Traditional Music Trust has been promoting folk music in the region, organising a 'Traditional Music Day' every year in August. The Midlands Due to its lack of clear boundaries and a perceived lack of identity in its folk music, the English Midlands attracted relatively little interest in the early revivals. However, in more recent years a distinct cultural heritage has been recognised including unique folk traditions and songs, many associated with the regions industrial connections. It has also produced a number of important performers and some particular local instruments, such as the Lincolnshire bagpipes, however the last player, John Hunsley, died in the 19th century and no actual examples of the pipes have survived. From the 19th century the instruments used appear to have been much like those in other regions, with fiddles, accordions and eventually silver and brass. Although, some traditions, like Molly dance died out in the 1930s, the Midlands retained strong traditions of both ceremonial and social dance, particularly in the south Midlands and Cotswolds and in the distinctive Border Morris from Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Shropshire. The region also furnished some important material for folk songs, including a claim by Nottinghamshire for one of the most popular series of ballads, that of Robin Hood, while local places appear in songs such as 'The Leicester Chambermaid' and 'Oxford' or 'Worcester City'. Folk song collecting in the first revival was much less comprehensive than for many other regions. In the 1860s Llewellynn Jewitt, collected songs from Derbyshire, and some songs were printed by Georgina F. Jackson in her study of Shropshire folk lore. Cecil Sharp's interest in the region was largely confined to the south, particularly the Cotswold morris villages of Oxfordshire and Warwickshire, which provided him with an archetype of English ceremonial dance. From 1905, Percy Grainger was actively collecting in Lincolnshire, acquiring recordings of songs that would provide the basis for his Lincolnshire Posy (1937). It was not until the early 1970s that the broader heritage of the region, including the many industrial and work songs associated with mining or The Potteries, began to gain serious attention. Despite this neglect there was an active folk scene in the region, which produced several key artists of the second revival from the 1960s, including Anne Briggs from Nottinghamshire, The Settlers from the West Midlands and from Birmingham one of the most influential groups of the period, the Ian Campbell Folk Group, which numbered among its members later British folk rock musicians Dave Swarbrick and Dave Pegg. Slightly later a number of folk groups came out of Derbyshire, including The Druids, Ram's Bottom Band and Muckram Wakes, which included one of the most highly regarded modern performers John Tams. Lincolnshire has produced Martin Simpson, perhaps the most highly regarded folk guitarist of his generation. Birmingham's position as a centre for folk music has been emphasised by its place as the home of the Birmingham Conservatoire Folk Ensemble, led by former Albion Band fiddler Joe Broughton, which provides something of a clearing house of promising young folk musicians. The regions has numerous folk clubs and host many major folk festivals, including those of Gainsborough, Lincolnshire; Loughborough, Leicestershire; Shrewsbury, Shropshire; Warwick, Warwickshire; and Moseley, West Midlands. The North West Although relatively neglected in the first folk revival North West England had a rich tradition of balladry stretching back at least to the 17th century and sharing in the tradition of Border ballads, including perhaps the finest 'The Ballad of Chevy Chase', thought to have been composed by the Lancashire-born sixteenth century minstrel Richard Sheale. Lancashire in particular was a common location for folk songs, including 'The Lancashire Miller', 'Warrington Ale' and 'The soldier's farewell to Manchester', beside several local Wassailing songs. With a variety of dialects and acting as something of a crossroads for the cultures and immigrants of England, Scotland and Ireland, there is a distinctive local character to folk music, which expressed itself in local enthusiasm that emerged as a major factor within the wider folk movement in the second revival. The key event in the history of folk music in the counties of the north west of England was the Industrial Revolution, which divided the region economically and culturally into a northern, often highland and pastoral region, in Westmorland and Cumberland and a more urbanised and industrialised southern zone with large and growing conurbations like Manchester and Liverpool, where changing social and economic patterns emerged in new traditions and styles of folk song, often linked to migration and patterns of work, these included processional dances, often associated with rushbearing and the Wakes Week festivities and types of step dance, most famously clog dancing. These were very different from the styles of dance that collectors like Cecil Sharp had encountered in the Cotswolds and were largely dismissed by him as contaminated by urbanisation, yet they were, and remain, a thriving tradition of music and dance. A local pioneer of folk song collection in the first half of the 19th century in Lancashire was Shakespearian scholar James Orchard Halliwell, and he was followed a little later by John Harland, William E. Axon, Thomas T. Wilkinson and Sidney Gilpin, who performed a similar service for Cumberland. Most of these works, although important in unearthing, and in some cases preserving, locally relevant ballads, largely depended on manuscript sources, rather than oral collection and often did not give tunes, but only lyrics. It was not until the second folk revival that the full range of song from the region began to gain attention. The region not only produced one of the major figures of the revival in Ewan MacColl but also a local champion in Harry Boardman, who from 1965 onwards probably did more than anyone to popularise and record the industrial folk song of the region, in several albums and books. The region produced no significant bands in the folk rock movement of the 1970s but can claim one of the most significant figures, as Maddy Prior was brought up in Blackpool. However, perhaps the most influential folk artists to emerge from the region in this period were folk troubadour Roy Harper and comedian and broadcaster Mike Harding. More recently it has produced some significant performers including guitarist Ken Nicol and mother and daughter singer songwriters Chris and Kellie While. The region is home to numerous folk clubs, many of them catering to Irish and Scots folk. Folk festivals include the Fylde Folk Festival at Fleetwood in Lancashire. Northumbria Northumbria possesses a distinctive style of folk music with a flourishing and continuing tradition. The region is particularly noted for the unique Northumbrian smallpipes and strong fiddle tradition that was already well-established in the 1690s. Northumbrian music is characterised by considerable influence from other regions, particularly southern Scotland, other parts of the north of England and Ireland. Local tunes were collected from the mid-18th century by figures including Henry Atkinson and William Vickers and in the first revival by John Bell, Bruce. J. Collingwood and John Stokoe. The short-lived Northumbrian Small Pipes Society was founded in Newcastle in 1893 and the Northumbrian Pipers' Society in 1928, and they are generally credited with keeping the distinctive tradition alive. Border ballads were a major part of those collected by Francis James Child and make up most of the sixth volume of his ten volume collection of The English and Scottish Popular Ballads (1882–98). The second folk revival saw a number of acts drawing on this work, and enjoying some success. Probably the most influential piper at that time was Billy Pigg. Performers such Louis Killen, The High Level Ranters and Bob Davenport brought Northumbrian folk to national and international audiences. The 1970s saw folk rock bands like Lindisfarne, and the more traditionally focused Jack the Lad and Hedgehog Pie. More recently, Northumbrian folk music, and particularly the use of the Northumbrian pipes, has become one of the liveliest and most widely known subgenres of folk music in Britain, with artists like fiddler Nancy Kerr, piper Kathryn Tickell and Rachel Unthank and the Winterset gaining international reputations. Currently the region has over thirty active folk clubs and hosts several major folk festivals, including the Traditional Music Festival at Rothbury. The South East Even excluding Sussex and London, South-east England has been one of the key areas of English folk music and collection. It had retained a strong tradition of wassailing, and seafaring songs were important in the coastal counties of Kent and Hampshire. Arguably the published collection of oral material was made in this area by John Broadwood, as Old English Songs, As Now Sung by the Peasantry of the Weald of Surrey and Sussex (1843). When the first revival was at its height in the first decade of the 20th century, George Gardiner and Alice Gillington both collected songs in Hampshire, Lucy Broadwood in Surrey, Hampshire and Oxfordshire, Alfred Williams in Oxfordshire and Berkshire and Cecil Sharp in Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, and Kent. In the second folk revival the region contributed several figures, with probably the most important being Martin Carthy from Hertfordshire. The most significant British folk rock group from the region were the Oyster Band, formed in Canterbury, while guitarist John Martyn came from Surrey and fiddle player Chris Leslie from Banbury in Oxfordshire. From the current crop of young folk musicians probably the most prominent are Spiers and Boden from Oxfordshire and Chris Wood, born in Kent. The region is host to numerous folk clubs, and festivals, including the Oxford festival and Fairport's Cropredy Convention in Oxfordshire and St Albans in Hertfordshire. London Despite being the centre of both folk revivals and the British folk rock movement, the songs of London were largely neglected in favour of regional and rural music until relatively recently. London, unsurprisingly, was the most common location mentioned in English folk songs, including 'London is a Fine Town', and the 'London Prentice' and it was the centre of the broadside publishing industry. From the 17th century to the 19th, street singers were characteristic of London life, often selling printed versions of the songs they sang. The capital is home to the Folk-Song Society and the English Folk Dance Society since the late 19th century (now known as the English Folk Dance and Song Society), but the most distinctive genre of London music, its many street cries, were not considered folk music by mainstream collectors and were recorded and published by figures such as Andrew White in Old London Street Cries ; and, The Cries of To-day (1885). Both Ewan MacColl and A. L. Lloyd gravitated to London in the 1950s, it was the base of Topic Records and it was there that the first folk clubs were formed before they spread out across the country. It was also the home of folk musicians like Ashley Hutchings, Richard Thompson and Simon Nicol who formed Fairport Convention, and many artists, like Bert Jansch and Davy Graham, moved there in order to be able to pursue their careers or for the greater networks and opportunities the capital allowed. More recent performers of folk music include Noah and the Whale, Emma Lee Moss, Mumford and Sons, The Border Surrender and Anna Tam. Sussex Sussex has disproportionately affected the history of English folk music. This was due to a flourishing tradition of folk dance, mummers plays and folk song, but also in part because of the rural nature of the county in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and yet its relatively close proximity to London. It was thus a rich and convenient place for the collectors of the first folk song revival, including Kate Lee, Lucy Broadwood and W. P. Merrick. Sussex material was used by the composers of the English pastoral school, for example in Percy Grainger's arrangement of 'The Sussex Mummers' Christmas Carol', Ralph Vaughan Williams' use of the tune 'Monk's Gate' as a setting for John Bunyan's 'To be a Pilgrim' and George Butterworth's arrangement of 'Folk Songs from Sussex'. Most important of the collector's sources were the Copper Family of Rottingdean, who emerged as authorities on folk song and eventually as major recording artists. Sussex folk song also had a formative effect on one of the major figures of the second revival, as it was as a child of five in Sussex that A. L. Lloyd first heard folk music. Other performers include Scan Tester, Henry Burstow and the sisters Dolly and Shirley Collins. Sussex songs were also the foundation of the repertoire of the influential Young Tradition. The county has over twenty folk clubs and other venues hosting folk music by organisations such as Acoustic Sussex. There are also annual folk music festivals at Eastbourne, Crawley and Lewes. The West Country Cornwall The music of Cornwall is often noted for its similarity to that of Brittany and, as a result of the close physical and cultural ties between the two peninsulas, some older songs and carols share the same root as Breton tunes. From the late Middle Ages the fiddle (crowd in Cornish), bombarde (horn-pipe), bagpipes and harp all seem to have been used in music. The Cornish bagpipes died out, as elsewhere in southern England, in the 16th century, but have recently been re-created. From the mid-19th century accordions became progressively more popular as a folk instrument in the county, as in the rest of the West Country. There is long and varied history of Cornish dance from the medieval period, with records of strong traditions of morris dancing, mumming, guise dancing, and social dance. These seem to have been interrupted by the Reformation and Civil War and Commonwealth in the 16th and 17th centuries. However, there was revival from the late 18th century and seasonal and community festivals, mumming and guising all flourished. In the 19th century a strong tradition of nonconformity and temperance may also have affected dancing and music adversely and encouraged choral and brass band movements, while traditional tunes were used for carols. Some community events survived, such as the 'Obby 'Oss festival in Padstow and the Furry Dance in Helston. Folk songs include 'Sweet Nightingale', 'Little Eyes', and 'Lamorna'. 'Trelawny' is often sung at sporting events and is seen by many as an unofficial anthem. Few traditional Cornish lyrics survived the decline of the language, but in some cases lyrics of common English songs became attached to older Cornish tunes. Some folk tunes have Cornish lyrics written since the language revival of the 1920s. Modern Cornish musicians include the former Cornish folk singer Brenda Wootton and the Cornish-Breton family band Anao Atao. Recently bands like Sacred Turf, Skwardya and Krena, have begun performing British folk rock in the Cornish language. The Cornwall Folk Festival has been held annually for more than three decades. The rest of the West Country Outside Devon and Cornwall Celtic influence on music in the West Country is much less obvious, but folk music still retains many distinctive local characteristics. As in Cornwall there are very strong traditions of folk dance and mumming, the best known being the Hobby horse celebrations at Minehead in Somerset. The maritime heritage of Devon made sea shanties, hornpipes and naval or sea ballads important parts of regional folk music. From the 19th century accordions have been a popular and accepted part of the local folk sound. Folk songs from the West Country include 'Widdecombe Fair', 'Spanish Ladies' and 'The Seeds of Love.' The region was important in the first folk revival, as the Devon-born antiquarian Sabine Baring-Gould invested effort in collecting regional music, published as Songs and Ballads of the West (1889–91), the first collection published for the mass market. He later collaborated with Cecil Sharp who, with Charles Marson, produced a three volume Folk-Songs from Somerset (1904–09). Other collectors included Henry and Robert Hammond in Dorset, the Reverend Geoffrey Hill in Wiltshire, Percy Grainger in Gloucestershire and, perhaps the most famous, Ralph Vaughan Williams' 'Folk Songs from Somerset', which provided themes for his English Folk Song Suite. In the second folk revival the most famous West country musicians were melodeon-player Bob Cann and writer, performer and broadcaster Cyril Tawney, 'The Father of the West Country Folk Revival'. In the 1970s there were figures such as Tony Rose. The same period saw one of the most surprising hybrids in music history Scrumpy and Western with bands like the Wurzels and The Yetties, who took most of the elements of West Country folk music for comical folk-style songs with affectionate parodies of more mainstream musical genres, delivered in local West Country dialects. More seriously, the West Country and particularly Devon, have produced some of the most successful folk artists of recent years, including Show of Hands, Mark Bazeley and Jason Rice, Paul Downes, Jim Causley, Seth Lakeman and his brothers. The region has numerous folk clubs and annual festivals, including those at Portsmouth and the first modern English folk festival to be established at Sidmouth in Devon along with its associated 'Late Night Extra' venue at Bulverton . Yorkshire Yorkshire has a rich heritage of folk music and folk dance including the Long Sword dance. Folk songs were collected there from the 19th century but, though it probably had more attention than other northern counties, its rich heritage of industrial folk song was relatively neglected. It was not until the second revival in the 1950s that Nigel and Mary Hudleston began to attempt to redress the balance, collecting Yorkshire songs between 1958 and 1978. Yorkshire folk song lacked the unique instrumental features of folk in areas like Northumbria and was chiefly distinguished by the use of dialect, particularly in the West Riding and exemplified by the song 'On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at', probably written in the later 19th century and using a Kent folk tune (almost certainly borrowed via a Methodist hymnal), but often seen as an unofficial Yorkshire anthem. Most Yorkshire folk songs were not unique and tended to be adapted to fit local geography and dialect, as was the case with probably the most commercially successful Yorkshire song, 'Scarborough Fair', recorded by Simon & Garfunkel, which was a version of the Scottish ballad 'The Elfin Knight'. The most famous folk performers from the county are the Watersons from Hull, who began recording Yorkshire versions of folk songs from 1965. Other Yorkshire folk musicians include Heather Wood (born 1945) of the Young Tradition, the short-lived folk rock group Mr Fox (1970–2), The Deighton Family, Julie Matthews, Kathryn Roberts, and the Mercury Prize nominated Kate Rusby. Even considering its position as the largest county in England, Yorkshire has a flourishing folk music culture, with over forty folk clubs and thirty annual folk music festivals. In 2007, the Yorkshire Garland Group was formed to make Yorkshire folk songs accessible online and in schools. See also English country music – term used in 1960s to 1970s to describe a genre of instrumental traditional music List of selected, noteworthy folk musicians and bands (with an emphasis on artists from Britain and the U.S.A.) as contained in the Guinness Who's Who of Folk Music (pub. 1993) Notes External links English Folk and Traditional Music Historical Notes on British Melodies Folk Music of England East Anglian Music Trust Pepys Ballad Archive Yorkshire Garland Group Field recordings by various collectors from the British Library (See under Europe) Hidden English: A Celebration of English Traditional Music Various Artists Topic Records TSCD600 (CD, UK, 1996) English styles of music Folk music by country
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang%20di-Pertuan%20Agong
Yang di-Pertuan Agong
The Yang di-Pertuan Agong (, Jawi: ), also known as the Supreme Head of the Federation, the Paramount Ruler or simply the Agong, and unofficially known as the King of Malaysia, is the constitutional monarch and head of state of Malaysia. The office was established in 1957, when the Federation of Malaya (now Malaysia) gained independence from the United Kingdom. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected by the Conference of Rulers, comprising the nine rulers of the Malay states, with the office de facto rotated between them, making Malaysia one of the world's few elective monarchies. The 16th and current Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Abdullah of Pahang, replacing Muhammad V of Kelantan, who abdicated on 6 January 2019. Abdullah was elected on 24 January 2019, at a special meeting of the Conference of Rulers; he took the oath of office and was sworn in at the Istana Negara on 31 January 2019. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong's queen consort is known as the Raja Permaisuri Agong, currently Tunku Azizah Aminah Maimunah Iskandariah. The royal couple are styled in English as "His Majesty" and "Her Majesty". Constitutional role The Yang di-Pertuan Agong's role is that of a constitutional monarch. The Federal Constitution of Malaysia and Acts of Parliament made in accordance with it define the extent of his powers as the head of state. These are divided into two categories: powers exercised on the advice of the Cabinet or of a Minister acting under the general authority of the Cabinet, the Conference of Rulers, or some other officer or institution, and discretionary powers. The Constitution vests the executive power of the federal government in the monarch. However, with few exceptions, he is bound to exercise this power on the advice of the Cabinet or a minister acting under the Cabinet's general authority. Thus, in practice, most of the actual day-to-day work of governing is performed by the Cabinet. The discretionary powers of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong pertain chiefly to appointing the Prime Minister, withholding consent to dissolve Parliament, and calling meetings with the Conference of Rulers "concerned solely with the privileges, position, honours and dignities of Their Royal Highnesses". Under the Westminster system, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is expected to appoint a Prime Minister who will command the confidence of a majority of the Dewan Rakyat, the elected lower house of Parliament. Should the Prime Minister be or become unacceptable, he may be forced out by a vote of no confidence, which would require the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to appoint someone else as Prime Minister or dissolve Parliament for an election. Conventionally, the Prime Minister is the head of the party with a majority in Parliament. This was the Barisan Nasional coalition from independence in 1957 until 2018, when the Pakatan Harapan coalition took office. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong renews the appointment of a Prime Minister after every general election until the minister decides to step down. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong has discretionary powers to choose who he wants as the prime minister if no party has won a majority vote and is not bound by the decision of the outgoing prime minister (Article 40). It, however, does not afford him the right and authority to dismiss the prime minister. He also can dismiss or withhold consent to a request for the dissolution of parliament (Article 40). He may discontinue or dissolve parliament (Article 55) but he can only dissolve parliament at the request of the prime minister (Article 43). He can reject any new laws or amendments to existing laws but if he still withholds permission, it will automatically become law after 30 days from the initial submission to him (Article 66). Appointments The Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints numerous high-ranking office holders in the Federation under the terms of the Constitution and various Acts passed by Parliament. The constitution established procedures for such appointments. The Cabinet of Ministers Prime Minister, to preside over the Cabinet, appointed at his discretion from among the elected members of the House of Representatives who in his judgment is likely to command the confidence of the majority of the members of that house – usually the party or coalition leader. Deputy Prime Minister, Ministers and Deputy Ministers, while acting on the advice of the Prime Minister. Chief Secretary to the Government as the Secretary of the Cabinet, while acting on the advice of the Prime Minister. Commissions and committees The Election Commission, on the advice of the Conference of Rulers. The Judicial and Legal Service Commission, after consultation with the Chief Justice The Malaysian Public Service Commission at his discretion, after considering the advice of the Prime Minister and after consultation with the Conference of Rulers. Judges The Chief Justice of Malaysia, on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Conference of Rulers. The Chief Judge of Malaya, on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Conference of Rulers. The Chief Judge of Sabah and Sarawak, on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Conference of Rulers. Senators The Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints 44 senators to the Dewan Negara, the upper house of Parliament. State governors The Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints the (Governors), of the states of Penang, Malacca, Sabah and Sarawak, at his discretion, after considering the advice of the state's Chief Minister. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong also appoints the Mayor and City Council of Kuala Lumpur. Head of Islam In addition, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the Head of Islam in the four states ruled by appointed Governors, in the three Federal Territories, as well as in his own state. In this role, he is advised by the State Islamic Affairs Council in each of the States. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints the chairman and members of each council. He also appoints the State Mufti in each of these states. There is a single Islamic Affairs Council with jurisdiction for the three Federal Territories. This council is also appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Commander-in-Chief In accordance with Article 41 of the Constitution, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Commander-in-Chief of the Malaysian Armed Forces. As such, he is the highest-ranking officer in the military chain of command. As the Supreme Commander of the Malaysian Armed Forces, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints the Chief of Defence Forces, on the advice of the Armed Forces Council. He also appoints the service heads of each of the three branches of the military forces. History On 31 August 1957, having rejected the suggested title of Yang di-Pertuan Besar in favour of Yang di-Pertuan Agong, the Conference of Rulers elected the first occupant of the throne. By seniority, the 84-year-old major general Ibrahim of Johor, Sultan of Johor since 1895, was first in line, but he declined due to old age. The next in line, Abu Bakar of Pahang, Sultan of Pahang since 1932, was rejected five times by his fellow electors, and did not secure the necessary votes, in part because the rulers considered his various marriages to celebrities and cabaret dancers to be unbecoming of royalty. Abdul Rahman of Negeri Sembilan, having been elected to his state throne (Yamtuan Besar) in 1933, was elected by eight votes to one. The first Conference of Rulers after the formation of Malaysia comprised: Election The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is formally elected to a five-year term by and from the nine rulers of the Malay states (nine of the thirteen states of Malaysia that have hereditary royal rulers), who form the Conference of Rulers. After a ruler has served as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, he may not stand for election until all rulers of the other states have also stood for election. In the event of a vacancy of the office (by death, resignation, or deposition by a majority vote of the rulers), the Conference of Rulers elects a new Yang di-Pertuan Agong as if the previous term had expired. The new Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected for a full five-year term. After his term expires, the Conference holds a new election, in which the incumbent would not be re-elected. The position de facto rotates among the nine rulers. The selection of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong initially followed an order based on the seniority (calculated by length of reign) of each ruler in 1957, at the Federation of Malaya's independence from the United Kingdom. The Conference of Rulers, which has the power to disqualify a candidate, has sometimes varied the original seniority order, as noted above. Since then, the states have followed a de facto established rotation order. Minors are automatically disqualified from office. The Conference of Rulers has met regularly since 1985. The four governors (; the heads of states without hereditary rulers) also attend the Conference, but only Rulers are allowed to vote and stand for election as Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Qualifications Only a ruler may be elected. Only the rulers may vote. The Constitution provides that a Ruler is not eligible for election as Yang di-Pertuan Agong if: The ruler is a minor. The ruler has notified the Keeper of the Rulers’ Seal that he does not wish to be elected. The Conference of Rulers by a secret ballot resolves that the Ruler is unsuitable by reason of infirmity of mind or body, or for any other cause, to exercise the functions of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The resolution requires at least five members of the Conference to vote in favour of it. Election proceedings The election is carried out by a secret ballot. The ballot papers used are not numbered, but marked with the same pen and ink, and are inserted into a ballot box. Only the Rulers participate in the election. A ruler may appoint another Ruler as his proxy to vote on his behalf if he is unable to attend the Election Meeting. During the election process, the Keeper of the Rulers' Seal distributes the ballot with only one candidate. Each ruler is requested to indicate whether the candidate is suitable or not to be elected as Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The most junior ruler, who is not listed as nominee for the office of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, or the outgoing Yang di-Pertuan Agong is appointed to count the ballot papers together with the Keeper of the Rulers' Seal. The nominee must have obtained five votes before the ruler presiding over the Election Meeting offers him the office of Yang di-Pertuan Agong. If the successful nominee declines the offer or the nominated ruler fails to secure the required majority votes, the voting process is repeated with the nomination of the second most senior ruler based on the list of Seniority of States. Rulers are named and stand for election in turn. The process is completed only after a ruler has accepted the offer of the office of Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Conference declares the ruler as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to hold office for a term of five years. The ballot papers are destroyed in the presence of the rulers as soon as the result of the election is announced. On taking office as Yang di-Pertuan Agong, he appoints a regent for the duration of his five-year term for the state which he rules. Usually, but not always, the regent is a close relative. The regent acts as head of state in that state for every purpose except for the role of head of Islam, which is retained by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Order of seniority of states Since the first cycle of nine Yang di-Pertuan Agong (1957–1994), the order among the eligible state rulers has followed the order established by that cycle, namely: the Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan the Sultan of Selangor the Raja of Perlis the Sultan of Terengganu the Sultan of Kedah the Sultan of Kelantan the Sultan of Pahang the Sultan of Johor the Sultan of Perak With Brunei's decision not to participate in the formation of Malaysia in 1963, only the rulers of the nine royal states of Peninsular Malaysia have been made eligible for election for the throne. Had it been admitted as a royal state the Sultan of Brunei would have been granted the right to stand for election as Yang di-Pertuan Agong by the Conference. This cycle was originally established based on seniority. However, the current Rulers are named (and stand as a candidate) according to the cycle, irrespective of whether they are currently the most senior. Since independence from British Colonial Rule, this has been the order of elected Yang di-Pertuan Agong. However, the order is not a precedent and the election to the position of Yang di-Pertuan Agong is at the pleasure of the Conference of Rulers. As an elective monarchy, there is no line of succession to the throne of Malaysia. Four of the states of Malaysia currently have no hereditary royal rulers. These are Malacca, Penang, Sarawak and Sabah. Sarawak previously had a hereditary ruler until it became a Crown Colony of the British Empire in 1946. These four states, along with Malaysia's three Federal Territories, do not supply the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Immunity In 1993, amendments to the Malaysian constitution removed the legal immunity of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and the rulers in their personal capacity, due to public outrage over their behaviour. A Special Court (Makhamah Khas Raja-raja) is established where civil and criminal proceedings can be made against a ruler with the approval of the Attorney General. The right to sue a ruler is limited to Malaysian citizens following a precedent. The Special Court also have jurisdiction where a ruler initiates legal actions against any party. When a ruler is charged with an offence in the Special Court, he is required to stop exercising the functions of a ruler. In the event of a ruler being sentenced to imprisonment for more than one day, he will cease to be a ruler unless a free pardon is granted. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong or any ruler cannot pardon himself or his immediate family. In such case, they may request clemency from the Conference of Rulers. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong cannot be sued in court for his actions while carrying out his official duties. Any claims can be made against the federal government. Residences The official residence of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Istana Negara (the National Palace) located in Jalan Duta in the federal capital Kuala Lumpur. It was completed in 2011. It replaced the old Istana Negara in Jalan Istana which had been turned into The Royal Museum in 2013. Other residences include the royal retreat, Istana Melawati in the federal administrative capital Putrajaya. It is also the venue of meetings of the Conference of Rulers. Titles and style The Yang di-Pertuan Agong's full style and title in Malay is . literally means 'Under the dust of the Almighty', referring to how the Yang di-Pertuan Agong's power is dust compared to God's power and the ruler is always subservient to God. refers to Seri as in a person. means victorious and the term is the Malay possessive pronoun for a royal in the third person. in literal English is 'He who is made Supreme Lord'. It is an archaic term for a presiding head which is or literally means 'One who is made lord'. "Agong" (or in standard Malay) means 'supreme'. The term is not translated, as in the Constitution of Malaysia. Common English terms used in the media and by the general public include "Paramount Ruler", "Head of State", "Head of the Federation" and "Head of State of the Federation". The very common term "King" has also been conveniently used by the media and the public, although incorrectly as it is not an official or legal title of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. In Malaysian passports before 2010, the title "The Supreme Head of Malaysia" was used in the English version of the passport note. Since the issuance of ICAO-compliant e-passports in 2010, the untranslated title "His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia" is used. In formal English correspondence, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is referred to as "His Majesty The Yang di-Pertuan Agong". Formal address to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is taken seriously in Malaysia. There are two ways of addressing the Yang di-Pertuan Agong: Malay: Tuanku (literally 'My Lord') English: Your Majesty Royal Standards The Royal Standard of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is royal yellow with the Coat of arms of Malaysia in the centre, surrounded by a rice paddy wreath. The same goes for the Royal Standards of the Raja Permaisuri Agong and the Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong, but the designs are different. The Raja Permaisuri Agong's standard is green in colour, with the coat of arms at the centre surrounded by the paddy wreath. The Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong's standard is bicolored, yellow at the top and light blue at the bottom, with the coat of arms at the centre (without the paddy) and below that is the office bearer's title. Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong The Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected by the same process immediately after the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The office is usually (but not always) held by the ruler next in line after the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong exercises the functions of the head of state during the Yang di-Pertuan Agong's absence, or inability to exercise his functions due to illness or infirmity (similar to a regent in other countries). The Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong does not automatically succeed as Yang di-Pertuan Agong when a vacancy occurs in that office. The Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong acts as head of state before the election of the new Yang di-Pertuan Agong and Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The current Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Sultan Nazrin Shah of Perak since 31 January 2019. Official Birthday The first Saturday of June, until 2015, was mandated by law as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong's official birthday. It is marked with various activities all over the nation and the celebrations in Kuala Lumpur are the highlights of the national festivities, with the celebrations of it from 2013 onwards lasting a whole week between two weekends. After the installation of Sultan Muhammad V as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong in 2017, the date for the official birthday was amended twice, first to the last Saturday of July, and then to September 9. This amendment was originally planned to take effect under the reign of Sultan Muhammad V until 2021, before his announcement to abdicate. In March 2020, it was announced that Yang di-Pertuan Agong's Birthday would be changed from the customary first Saturday of June (6 June) to the following Monday (8 June). From 2021, subsequent iterations of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong's birthday throughout Al-Sultan Abdullah's reign will fall on the first Monday of June instead. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong's Birthday Honours List Ceremony and Birthday High Tea The Istana Negara in Kuala Lumpur serves as the venue for the annual Yang di-Pertuan Agong's Birthday Honours List and Address to the Nation ceremony attended by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and the Raja Permaisuri Agong, members of the Federal Government and Parliament, the state diplomatic corps, honoured guests and the Honours List members for the year, in the order of precedence of state medals. The event honours the year's national achievers and heroes with the awarding of state orders, medals and decorations and their accompanying titles. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong addresses the whole nation via radio and television on this day from the Throne Room of the palace complex. It is followed later by the traditional holiday high tea gathering at the palace grounds in the afternoon. Trooping the Colour Trooping the Colour in Malaysia, although inherited from the British, has transformed into a grander and more Malaysian celebration on the first Saturday of June annually live on Kuala Lumpur's Independence Square, which is both open to invited guests and the general public. As the Supreme Commander of the Malaysian Armed Forces, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong takes the salute on this day together with the commanders of the three services of the Malaysian Armed Forces, the Joint Forces Command, Malaysia and the members of the Malaysian Armed Forces Council, of which he is the chairman, plus military personnel and veterans in attendance. He wears the No.1 dress uniform on that day, and as each of the 8 state monarchs are Colonel-in-Chief of selected Malaysian Army regiments as well as of the Royal Malaysian Air Force and the Sultan of Selangor serves as Commodore-in-Chief of the Royal Malaysian Navy, he wears that regiment's coloured sash as part of his ceremonial uniform (for the Army), or the RMAF blue or RMN white No. 1 dress uniform. The 2013 edition was held on the second Saturday of June for the first time in its history, while the 2016 parade was held on the fourth Friday of July (22 July) for the first time in Putrajaya, the national seat of government. RTM broadcasts the ceremony live, starting at 8:50am. Yang di-Pertuan Agong Scholarship In November 2006, the 10th Yang di-Pertuan Agong awarded, for the first time, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong Scholarship to ten outstanding students to pursue postgraduate studies at high-ranking world universities. The award of scholarships was held at the Istana Negara in conjunction with the Independence Day celebrations and the Conference of Rulers. Lists Yang di-Pertuan Agong The following rulers have served as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong: Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong The following Rulers have served as the Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong (lit. Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong): * Denotes those who became the new Yang di-Pertuan Agong immediately following the end of their tenure as Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong Timeline See also List of current monarchs of sovereign states Malay titles Regalia of Malaysia References Further reading Visu Sinnadurai, "His Majesty Sultan Azlan Shah: The Yang di-Pertuan Agong IX Malaysia", The Supreme Court Journal, Kuala Lumpur, . (Special issue to commemorate the installation of His Majesty Sultan Azlan Shah as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong IX Malaysia, with a lengthy description of the functions of the office.) External links Malaysian Parliament's Yang di-Pertuan Agong page. Malaysia National Library's Yang di-Pertuan Agong page. 1957 establishments in Malaya Federal political office-holders in Malaysia Field marshals Government of Malaysia Heads of state in Asia Yang di Pertuan Agong Malaysian monarchy Malaysian nobility Noble titles of Malaysia Recipients of the Darjah Kerabat Diraja Malaysia Royal titles Malaysian royalty
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terengganu
Terengganu
Terengganu (; Terengganu Malay: Tranung, Jawi: ), formerly spelled Trengganu or Tringganu, is a sultanate and federal state of Malaysia. The state is also known by its Arabic honorific, Dāru l-Īmān ("Abode of Faith"). The coastal city of Kuala Terengganu, which stands at the mouth of the broad Terengganu River, is both the state and royal capital as well as the largest city in Terengganu. Other major cities and towns includes Jerteh, Kuala Dungun, Chukai, Kuala Berang, Marang, and Permaisuri. At 13,035 square kilometres in size and a population of around 1.14 million people, Terengganu is Malaysia's 7th largest state by area and 10th largest in population. Terengganu, along with Kelantan, Perlis and the Federal Territory of Putrajaya is one of the most homogeneous states/territories in the country of which 95% of the population are ethnic Malay-Muslims with its own distinct language/dialect, culture, history and tradition. Located on the East Coast region of Peninsular Malaysia, Terengganu borders with the state of Kelantan to the north and Pahang to the west and south while to the east of Terengganu is the South China Sea. Terengganu is geographically divided into sparsely populated and mountainous inland (known as Terengganu Highlands of which the highest point is Mount Lawit at 1,519 metres) that spans from the border with Kelantan to Kemaman district and largely flat coastal plains of which most of the state's 1.1 million people are concentrated. The state is known for having the longest coastline in west Malaysia and achieved the Malaysian Book of Records for having the cleanest beach in the country. Many of the most popular islands in Malaysia are located in the state of Terengganu such as Perhentian, Kapas and Redang islands as well as Bidong Island which was once a refuge to tens of thousands of Vietnamese refugees in the 1970s. Etymology There are several theories on the origin of the name "Terengganu". One theory attributes the name's origin to terang ganu, Malay for 'bright rainbow'. Another story, said to have been originally narrated by the ninth Sultan of Terengganu, Baginda Omar, tells of a party of hunters from Pahang roving and hunting in the area of what is now southern Terengganu. One of the hunters spotted a big animal fang lying on the ground. A fellow party member asked to which animal did the fang belong. The hunter, not knowing which animal, simply answered taring anu (Malay: 'fang of something'). The party later returned to Pahang with a rich hoard of game, fur and sandalwood, which impressed their neighbours. They asked the hunters where did they source their riches, to which they replied, from the land of taring anu, which later evolved into Terengganu. Terengganu was called Trangkanu () by the Siamese when it was under their influence. Terengganuans usually pronounce Terengganu as Tranung or Ganu with the G often being emphasized. Chinese naming The traditional Chinese name for Terengganu has been "丁加奴" (Pinyin: dīngjiānú), which is a direct transcription of the Malay name. However, in recent years, the Chinese community in Terengganu has raised objections to the name, citing that the characters used loosely translate to "giving birth to a child who will become a slave" (Chinese: 添丁加做奴). Therefore, they successfully petitioned the regulatory commission for Chinese language in Malaysia to change the Chinese name for the state to "登嘉楼" (Pinyin: dēngjiālóu), which can be loosely translated to "aspiring/stepping up to a higher level", in September 2004. The new name was in unofficial use by the state's Chinese community for at least 30 years before its official adoption. Certain segments of the Chinese community opposed the name change, citing the fact that the new name contains too many character strokes, making it much more difficult to write. They have proposed to revert the name to the version used before 2004, but with the word "奴" (slave, which was mainly the cause of the controversy) to the similar sounding, but more positive "努" (perseverance). History Prehistory Human activities may have already existed in Terengganu as early as 16,000 years ago during the Paleolithic age as evidenced by the discovery of a skeleton in Gua Bewah, Hulu Terengganu in 2009. The skeleton, which is called Bewah Man (Malay: Orang Bewah) has been analyzed as 5,000 years older than skeletons found in Perak, making it the oldest known modern human skeleton in the country. Hindu-Buddhist Era Terengganu's location by the South China Sea ensured that it was on trade routes since ancient times. Based on Ptolemy's 2nd century map called Golden Chersonese, the areas of what would be known as Terengganu today was historically called Perimula and Kole Polis. The earliest written reports on the area that mentioned the name "Terengganu" were by Chinese merchants and seafarers in the early 6th century A.D. During the early Hindu–Buddhist period, Terengganu was known as Tan-Tan which is based in what is now Kuala Telemong. It was a small ancient polity that came under the influence of Langkasuka, a powerful kingdom based either in Kedah or Patani in the 1st century AD. In the 7th century, the dynasty of Langkasuka that once ruled over Terengganu was replaced by a new kingdom called Srivijaya. Under Srivijaya, Terengganu traded extensively with other kingdoms in the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and Sumatra, Champa, Khmer Empire, Majapahit Empire and especially the Chinese. Medieval and early modern period Terengganu was the first Malay state to receive Islam, as attested to by the Terengganu Inscription Stone with Arabic inscriptions found in Kuala Berang, the capital of the district of Hulu Terengganu. The inscribed date which is incomplete due to damage can be read as various dates from 702 to 789 AH (1303 to 1387 CE). Terengganu became a vassal state of Malacca, but retained considerable autonomy with the emergence of Johor Sultanate. Terengganu emerged as an independent sultanate in 1724. The first sultan was Tun Zainal Abidin, the younger brother of a former sultan of Johor, and Johor strongly influenced Terengganu politics through the 18th century. However, in the book Tuhfat al-Nafis, the author, Raja Ali Haji, mentions that in the year 1708, Tun Zainal Abidin was installed as the Sultan of Terengganu by Daeng Menampuk - also known as Raja Tua - under the rule of Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah. In 1741, Sultan Sulaiman installed Sultan Mansur as ruler of Terengganu, his rule from 1741 to 1793 saw him creating a strong united Malay front against the rising power of the Bugis. He expanded his power on a weakened and divided Kelantan in 1764, culminating in the installation of his son's marriage to the daughter of the ruler of Kelantan. European accounts of the time praised the well-ordered administration of his rule, while at the same time he was highly respected by his subjects. In the 19th century, Terengganu became a vassal state of the Thai Rattanakosin Kingdom, and sent tribute every year called bunga mas. This occurred under the reign of Sultan Omar Riayat Shah, who was remembered as a devout ruler who promoted trade and stable government. Terengganu prospered, and was largely left alone by the authorities in Bangkok unlike in neighbouring Patani and Kelantan. The period also witnessed the existence of a Terengganuan vassal of Besut Darul Iman. Modern era The terms of the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 saw power over Terengganu transferred from Siam to Great Britain. A British advisor was appointed to the sultan in 1919, and Terengganu become one of the Unfederated Malay States. The move was highly unpopular locally, and in 1928 the British used military force to suppress a popular uprising. During World War II, Japan occupied Terengganu and transferred sovereignty over the state back to Siam, which had been renamed Thailand in 1939, along with Kelantan, Kedah, and Perlis. After the defeat of Japan, British control over these Malay states was reestablished. Terengganu became a member of the Federation of Malaya in 1948, then a state of a sovereign Malaya in 1957, which became Malaysia in 1963. Following decades of rule by the Barisan Nasional coalition, the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) came to power in 1999, making Terengganu the second state in Malaysia to be ruled by the Islamist party (the first being neighbouring Kelantan). Terengganu was recaptured in the 2004 Malaysian general election by the Barisan Nasional, which continued to govern it until the 2018 Malaysian general election. Geography Terengganu is situated in eastern Peninsular Malaysia, and is bordered in the northwest by Kelantan, the southwest by Pahang, and the east by the South China Sea. Several outlying islands, including Pulau Perhentian, Pulau Kapas and Pulau Redang, are also a part of the state. The state has a total area of . Politics and government Constitution The Constitution of Terengganu came into force in 1911. It has a supplement that came into force in 1959. The official English title for the 1911 constitution is "The Constitution of the Way of Illustrious Sovereignty". The 1959 constitutional supplement is divided into two sections. The sections' official English language titles are "The Laws of the Constitution of Terengganu (First Part)" and "The Laws of the Constitution of Terengganu (Second Part)" The Sultan of Terengganu The Sultan is the constitutional ruler of the state of Terengganu. The State Constitution proclaims that the Sultan is "the Ruler and fountain head of all authority of government in the State and Territory of Terengganu", the Head of the Religion of Islam in the state and the source of all titles, honours and dignities in the state. He is also vested with the Executive Power of the State. The hereditary Sultan of Terengganu since 1998 has been Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin. Regency As per both the Malaysian and state constitutions, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong or King of Malaysia cannot simultaneously reign as federal Head of State and ruler of his own state. This means that a state ruler must appoint a regent to govern in his absence. Between 2006 and 2011, the current Sultan served as the 13th King of Malaysia, naming his eldest son and heir apparent, Tengku Muhammad Ismail, as Regent (Pemangku Raja) of Terengganu. As he was only eight years old upon his father's election, the young Prince co-reigned with a three-member Regency Advisory Council (Majlis Penasihat Pemangku Raja) headed by Raja Tengku Baderulzaman (the King's younger brother) as dictated by syarat (2) Fasal 16 AA Undang-Undang Bagi Diri Kerajaan Terengganu (Bab Yang Kedua) of the Terengganu State Constitution. Chief Ministers When Terengganu was an absolute monarchy, the Chief Minister was selected by the Sultan. Since the declaration of independence of Malaysia (then called Tanah Melayu) and the first general election, the Chief Minister has been the State Assembly (ADUN) member elected by a majority of all State Assembly members, who are themselves elected by universal adult suffrage of the citizens of their constituencies. Below is the list of the Chief Ministers of Terengganu from 1925. Note:* The state Government formed by PAS after the general election in 1959 was turned over to Perikatan in Nov 1961, due to a vote of no confidence in the State Assembly and the fact that two PAS assemblymen switched parties 2008 Menteri Besar appointment crisis Following the ruling party UMNO's return to power over Terengganu after winning 24 out of 32 seats in the 2008 general elections, Prime Minister (PM) Abdullah Ahmad Badawi put forth the reappointment of Datuk Seri Idris Jusoh to a second term as Menteri Besar. In what political analysts described as a possible constitutional crisis, trouble began to precipitate after the Sultan of Terengganu, Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin, who is also the then Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King) of Malaysia refused to re-appoint and swear in Idris as Menteri Besar. Similar problems occurred in the state of Perlis where the PM's choice was also rejected, in which the latter eventually gave in to its Sultan. The Sultan of Terengganu appointed Ahmad Said instead for the job, with the Regency Advisory Council handing him the letter of appointment. The PM claimed that the appointment of Ahmad Said was unconstitutional as it went against the wishes of the assemblymen and the Prime Minister's office who have supported Idris Jusoh candidacy for Menteri Besar. In spite of threats to strip Ahmad Said of his party membership "for disobeying the leadership", he went to the office in Wisma Darul Iman to begin the first day of his new appointment on 25 March 2008. The party announced earlier that they made good on their promise to remove his membership, which technically disqualifies him to be appointed as Menteri Besar in the first place. The ruling also planned to vote down the sultan's choice through a motion of no-confidence by 22 UMNO state assemblymen. The opposition party Parti Islam SeMalaysia in the meantime promised that its assemblymen would support Ahmad Said as Menteri Besar. On 26 March 2008 however, PM Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin met at Istana Negara to resolve the deadlock. The Prime Minister reversed his stance and decided to accept the King's appointment of Ahmad Said as Chief Minister of Terengganu. He also apologised to the King for the public spat over the appointment of the Menteri Besar, explaining that there was no intention to disparage or humiliate the royal household. The apparent backdown was due to threat that the royal household would be prepared to dissolve the state assembly if the motion of no-confidence was initiated against Ahmad Said, which would trigger another election in what is already a climate of discontent towards the ruling party and the possibility of dissenting assemblymen defecting to the opposition. The UMNO Supreme Council proceeded to endorse Ahmad Said as the new Menteri Besar of Terengganu. With the resolution of the impasse, Ahmad Said expressed his gratefulness on his appointment and paid tribute to Idris, an old friend he has known since university, for the work he has done for the Terengganu people so far and to seek his advice. After the swearing in ceremony where the duties are handed over from Idris, he also expressed hopes in moving on to discharge his responsibility to the people and eradicate poverty within the state. Administrative divisions Terengganu is divided into 8 districts (daerah), 99 mukims, and 7 local governments. On 18 September 2014, it was announced that the Kuala Terengganu District sub-district of Kuala Nerus would become Terengganu's 8th district, to be called Kuala Nerus by sixth Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Razak. Demographics Terengganu has a population of 1,015,776 , which increase to 1,149,440 in 2020. In 2006, Malays make up 94.7% of the population and Chinese, 2.6%, while Indians 0.2% and other ethnic groups comprise the remainder, 2.4%. According to the 2010 census, the ethnic composition of Terengganu is 97% Bumiputras, 2.6% Chinese, 0.2% Indian, and 0.1% others. In 2000, the state's population was only 48.7% urban; the majority lived in rural areas. By the 2005 census, the proportions had changed significantly, with 51% of the population living in urban areas and 49% in the rural areas. Ethnic groups Terengganu is one of Malaysia's most homogeneous states along with Kelantan. More than 95% of the population is ethnically Malay, but there are other ethnic groups that live in the state as well including Chinese (mostly Hokkien), Indians (mostly Tamils), Siamese and Orang Aslis (Batek and Semaq Beri). Malays Malays are the largest ethnic group in the state with more than 94% of the population. The Malays in Terengganu are distinct from Malays of other parts of the country, they have unique cultures, traditions and spoken language. There are two sub-groups of Malays in the state: Terengganu Malays Terengganu Malays are the majority Malay sub-group in the state. They are the dominant Malay sub-group in all districts of Terengganu except for Besut and northern Setiu. They habitually speak Terengganu Malay language which is distinct but closely related to Kelantanese variety in the north. Terengganu Malays are also known for their rich cultures and traditions, one of the most well known is the Ulek Mayang. Besut Malays Besut Malays are predominantly found in the district of Besut and northern Setiu. Despite being Terengganu citizens, they are ethnically, linguistically and culturally closer to, and still maintain strong ties with, Kelantan. Most Malays in Besut and northern Setiu speaks only Kelantanese, although those who have long been exposed to other districts of Terengganu can speak Terengganuan as well. Chinese The Chinese Terengganuan form the largest minority ethnic group in the state. They are mostly Hokkien by ancestry and speak a dialect of Hokkien. Unlike other parts of Malaysia, the Chinese in Terengganu are much more assimilated; they speak fluent local Malay (Terengganuan in most parts of Terengganu and Kelantanese in Besut) and also share a similar lifestyle. They also have a local Peranakan culture known as "Mek Awang" which is a mixture of Chinese (mostly Hokkien) and Malay (Terengganu Malay) cultures, which can be seen in their cuisine and clothing and their language as well. Indian Indians in Terengganu are mostly Tamils and the majority are adherents of Hinduism, although a minority follow Islam. Like their Chinese counterparts, the Indian community in Terengganu are highly assimilated, with many fluent in Terengganu Malay along with Tamil, Standard Malay and English. There is one major Hindu temple in Kuala Terengganu. Most Indians in Terengganu live in urban areas like Kuala Terengganu. Siamese The Siamese in Terengganu maintain a small but well-organised community. They can be found in Besut and few in Setiu and Kuala Terengganu. Physically, there is little difference between Malays and Siamese other than their name and religion. Their native language is Southern Thai language but most speak Kelantanese as large numbers of them live in Besut. Orang Asli The Orang Aslis are the indigenous peoples of Peninsular Malaysia. In Terengganu they can be found mostly in Hulu Terengganu and Besut districts. There are two Orang Asli ethnic groups in Terengganu, the Semaq Beris lives near Lake Kenyir or other parts of the district, they belong to Senoi group. Besides the Semaq Beris, there are also Batek people, a Semang ethnic group mostly found in interior parts of Terengganu, especially in Taman Negara area or in other parts of Terengganu. Both Semaq Beris and Bateks still maintain their semi-nomadic lifestyle although some now lives in permanent homes. Both are also speakers of Austroasiatic languages. Languages The people of Terengganu generally speak Coastal Terengganu Malay, which is distinct from standard Malay and Kelantan-Pattani Malay, except for those in Besut district, Perhentian Islands and some parts of Setiu where Kelantanese are more dominant. Those that live in Hulu Terengganu had their own distinct variant but closely related to Coastal Terengganu Malay. Chinese Terengganuans are predominantly Hokkein and thus mostly speak Hokkien as their first language, although a number of Mandarin speakers are increasing. Indians in Terengganu mostly speak Malaysian Tamil. There is also an Orang Asli languages such as Batek and Semaq Beri, spoken in inland parts of Terengganu and is part of the Austroasiatic language family. Religion According to the 2010 Census, the population of Terengganu is 96.9% Muslim, 2.5% Buddhist, 0.2% Hindu, 0.2% Christian, and 0.2% follower of Chinese folk religions or unknown affiliation. Statistics from the 2010 Census indicate that 91.4% of the Chinese population are identified as Buddhists, with significant minorities of adherents identifying as Christians (4.7%), Chinese folk religions (1.6%) and Muslims (1.4%). The majority of the Indian population are Hindus (69.8%), with a significant minorities of numbers identifying as Muslims (18.1%), Christians (5.3%) and Buddhists (4.9%). The non-Malay bumiputera community are predominantly Muslims (56.8%), with significant minorities identifying as Christians (33.2%) and Buddhists (5.6%). All Malays are Muslims. Economy Terengganu used to be Malaysia's poorest state until oil and gas were discovered off its coastline in the 80s. Terengganu's main industry now is petroleum and gas. There are huge petrochemical complexes near Paka and Kerteh, involving many joint ventures between the Malaysian national oil company, Petronas, and foreign multinationals. Tourism and fishing are also major industries in Terengganu, a state with a long coastline. Agriculture also remains important, with banana, rambutan, durian, watermelon, and various other fruits and vegetables available in season. Terengganu was traditionally famous for boatbuilding, with highly decorated carved wooden boats called bangau to be found in the harbour of every village and town in days not so long gone by, before electric motorboats became standard equipment for the state's fishermen. Culture and attractions Terengganu did not receive many Indian or Chinese migrants, and therefore Malay cultural influences predominate. Traditional pursuits such as kite-flying contests, top-spinning contests, and traditional arts & crafts, such as batik and songket are still very much alive. The people of Terengganu have always had a reputation for being socially conservative and devout Muslims. The major tourist attractions in the state include: Kuala Terengganu, the capital; Islamic Heritage Park, Tasik Kenyir, a large artificial lake; Sekayu Waterfalls; Kuala Ibai Lagoons; Batu Burok Beach, Kemasik Beach, Rantau Abang, Setiu Wetlands, Marang, Chukai town and several offshore islands such as Pulau Redang, Pulau Lang Tengah, and Pulau Kapas, and the Pulau Perhentian, which attract beachgoers and snorkelers because of their picture perfect beaches. Many travellers find the relatively rural and tranquil atmosphere in the state conducive to a relaxing holiday. Terengganu has recently been known internationally as the host of Monsoon Cup, which was first held in 2005 and then became an annual national sporting event. The event brought millions of ringgit of investment into the state from the private sectors and Malaysian Government. Tourists flocked to Kuala Terengganu and Duyong to witness this event, held during the monsoon season, which had previously been low season for tourism in Terengganu. Culture Terengganu, along with Kelantan, is known as the cradle of the Malay civilization in Peninsular Malaysia. There are various traditional dances in the state such as the Ulek Mayang, Rodat, Saba, Balai, and Nur Sakti; some even predate the arrival of Islam in the region. Terengganu is also one of few states to adopt the gamelan as part of their traditional theatre (after Riau and Pahang); the Terengganu gamelan has developed a distinct identity from Sundanese and Javanese gamelan. The gamelan was originally brought to Pahang and later to Terengganu, and was played only during royal occasions. Today the gamelan is part of the state's cultural heritage. Events 2008 National Horse Show at Terengganu Equestrian Resort 31 October to 2 November Monsoon Cup- international sailing event Sultan's Cup Terengganu Endurance Challenge - Horse Endurance Race Formula Future- speed boat racing for under 15 Kapas-Marang International Swimathon- International swimming event Kenyir Motocross Championship Terengganu Masters- Golf Kenyir International Mountain Bike Challenge 'Candat Sotong' Fiesta - fishing competition Kenyir Lake International Triathlon Terengganu Starhill Tasik Kenyir 4x4 Challenge Tasik Puteri Water Festival Terengganu Traditional Games Competition Terengganu International 4WD Rainforest Challenge 2007 FEI World Endurance Championship 2008 Le Tour de Langkawi 2012 Terengganu International Squid Jigging Festival Cuisine The most famous local food is Keropok Lekor, which is made primarily from a combination of dough (sago flour) and pounded fish mainly from mackerel and sardines, fried and served with hot chilli sauce for afternoon tea. Keropok Keping (fish crackers) are made from sun-dried slices of Keropok Lekor. Numerous keropok stalls are to be found on the side of the highway that passes through coastal communities. Keropok lekor is best eaten with local chili sauce, made from dried chili, tamarind, sugar and vinegar. Budu, a very pungent and salty anchovy sauce is also popular among the locals. It is often mixed with sliced onions and chillies as condiments. Budu made from ikan bilis fermented with salt. There are other version of budu, known as Pelara were made by using mackerel were popular among the older generation, can be found in traditional market sold in bottles. Laksam (or laksang in Terengganu Malay), a modified version of laksa, is made from rice flour (thick and soft slices). It is served in a bowl of light fresh coconut milk mixed with boiled fish flesh (mainly mackerel), finely chopped cucumbers, chillies, onions and long beans. It is eaten cold at breakfast. Another Terengganu speciality is sata, a type of otak-otak or fish cake wrapped in banana leaves and cooked over a grill. Sata made from combination of fish and grated coconut, with some portion of spice. Nasi dagang is also popular. Education There are several institutes of higher learning in Terengganu. They are either categorised as Institut Pengajian Tinggi Awam (IPTA); public university or Institut Pengajian Tinggi Swasta (IPTS); private university. Among public universities which have campus in Terengganu is the Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin and Universiti Malaysia Terengganu. Both universities have campus in Gong Badak, in north Kuala Terengganu. Beside that, Terengganu also had 3 Universiti Teknologi MARA branches, in Kuala Terengganu, Dungun and Bukit Besi. Also, Terengganu host several private university and college, such as TATI University College in Kemaman, UCSI Terengganu campus in Marang, Institut Teknologi Petroleum PETRONAS (INSTEP) in Batu Rakit, Kuala Terengganu and Kolej Teknologi Bestari in Setiu, Politechnics Sultan Zainal Abidin, among others. List of Tertiary Institutes (public and private) Politeknik Kuala Terengganu Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin Universiti Malaysia Terengganu Universiti Teknologi MARA (3 branches) Institut Teknologi Petroleum PETRONAS (INSTEP) Politeknik Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin Kolej PTPL Kolej Teknologi & Inovasi KRIM Institut Teknologi Petronas Kolej Seri Iman Kolej Ketengah RANACO Education and Training Institute (RETI) Kolej Teras Timur Kolej Islam Sains Teknologi (KIST) TATI University College(TATIUC) MARA KETENGAH International College (MKIC) Secondary school (high school) education is provided by Sekolah Kebangsaan (National School, e.g.: Sekolah Kebangsaan Sultan Sulaiman), Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan (National-type School) Chinese primary schools, and Sekolah Ugama (Religious schools, e.g.: SMA Sultan Zainal Abidin Ladang). All of them follow the syllabus and curriculum provided and regulated by the Malaysian Ministry of Education (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia). Every year the state government spends RM34 million to develop education in Terengganu. Part of these grants ensures that every eligible primary school student in Terengganu is able to get a Netbook worth RM1000 to help in their studies. Transportation Air There are three airports located in Terengganu, of which two of them are open to the public. Sultan Mahmud Airport located in Gong Badak, Kuala Nerus is the state's main airport and serves as a main gateway by air to and from Terengganu. Other public airport is the Redang Airport, located in Redang Island off the coast of Terengganu. Kerteh Airport, located in the town of Kerteh, Kemaman is the state's second largest airport but is not open to public because the airport is owned and operated by Petroliam Nasional Berhad or Petronas via its East Coast Regional Office (ECRO), and was built to serve the purpose of airlifting its employees and ExxonMobil employees to their various oil platforms located 100–200 km offshore South China Sea. The airport although small, has a single 1,362 m (4,469 ft) long runway which can accommodate a Boeing 737-400 aircraft. A military air force base, RMAF Gong Kedak is located between the borders of Kelantan (Pasir Puteh) and Terengganu (Besut) and has an airstrip which crosses the two state borders. Sister states See also Proclamation of Malaysia In popular culture Movies Tukang Perahu Pulau Duyong (2013) References External links Terengganu State Government Information Portal Tourism Malaysia - Terengganu Terengganu tourism page States of Malaysia Peninsular Malaysia States and territories established in 1724 1724 establishments in Asia British Malaya in World War II
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keio%20University
Keio University
, abbreviated as or , is a private research university located in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. It is the oldest institute of western higher education in Japan. Its founder, Fukuzawa Yukichi, originally established it as a school for Western studies in 1858 in Edo. The university is one of the members of the Top Global University Project (Top Type), funded by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Keio University is also one of the member universities of RU11 and APRU, and it is one of only two Japanese universities (alongside the University of Tokyo) to be a member of the World Economic Forum's Global University Leaders Forum. Its list of alumni and faculty includes three former prime ministers, two astronauts, six international honorary members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a Wolf Prize winner. Keio University also produced the largest number of CEOs of companies listed in the first section of Tokyo Stock Exchange and ranks 53rd (in the world) in top 100 Global Executives, according to Times Higher Education's "Alma Master Index 2017". Overview Keio traces its history to 1858 when Fukuzawa Yukichi, who had studied the Western educational system at Brown University in the United States, started to teach Dutch while he was a guest of the Okudaira family. In 1868 he changed the name of the school to Keio Gijuku and devoted all his time to education. While Keio's initial identity was that of a private school of Western studies, it expanded and established its first university faculty in 1890, and became known as a leading institute in Japanese higher education. It was the first Japanese university to reach its 150th anniversary, celebrating this anniversary in 2008. Keio has leading research centres. It has approximately 30 Research Centers located on its five main campuses and at other facilities for advanced research in Japan. Keio University Research Institute at SFC (KRIS) has joined the MIT and the French INRIA in hosting the international W3C. Mission In his speech at an alumni gathering on November 1, 1896, Fukuzawa stated the mission of Keio as follows: Keio Gijuku shouldn't be satisfied with being just one educational institution. Its mission is expected to be a model of the nobility of intelligence and virtue, to make clear how it can be applied to its family, society, and nation, and to take an actual action of this statement. It expects all students to be leaders in society by the practice of this mission. Those sentences were given to students as his will and considered as the simple expression of Keio's actual mission. Academic culture Keio is known for being the first institution to introduce many modern education practices in Japan. Keio is the earliest Japanese school that introduced an annual fixed course fee, designed by Fukuzawa. It initially introduced the culture of speech to Japan, which Japan had never had before. It built Japan's earliest speech house Mita Speech House in 1875 as well. Keio is regarded as Japan's first university to accept international students. Keio accepted 2 Korean students in 1881 as its (and also Japan's) first international students. 60 Korean students entered in 1883 and 130 Korean students in 1895. Keio put "" as a foundation of its education. This is meant to be physically and mentally independent, and respect yourself for keeping your virtue. Independence and self-respect are also regarded as Fukuzawa's nature and essence of his education. is the other unique culture at Keio. During the late Edo period and the early Meiji period, several private prep schools often used students as assistant teachers and it was called "Learning half and teaching half". Keio also had initially used this system. In the early period of such schools of Western studies, there had been many things to learn not only for students but also professors themselves. Hence there had been occasions when students who had learned in advance had taught other students and even professors. After the proper legal systems for education had been set up, those situations disappeared. However, Fukuzawa thought the essence of academia was and is a continuous learning process, and that more knowledge provided more learning opportunities. Keio respects his thought and established the rule "", which states that there shouldn't be any hierarchy between teachers and learners and that all of the people in Keio Gijuku are in the same company. For this reason, there is still a culture at Keio that all professors and lecturers are officially called with the honorific of "Kun" but never "Teacher" or "Professor". is also a uniqueness of Keio. Fukuzawa stated in 1879 that the Keio's success today is because of the collaboration in its company, and "Collaboration in a company" originally came from this article. People in Keio often think that all of the people related to Keio (e.g. professors, students, alumni and their family members) are part of their company, thus they should try to help each other like brothers and sisters. This culture has been often seen especially in the alumni organization called Mita-Kai. History was established in 1858 as a School of Western studies located in one of the mansion houses in Tsukiji by the founder Fukuzawa Yukichi. Its root is considered as the Han school for Kokugaku studies named Shinshu Kan established in 1796. Keio changed its name to "Keio Gijuku" in 1868, which came from the era name "Keio" and "Gijuku" as the translation of Private school. It moved to the current location in 1871, established the Medical school in 1873, and the official university department with Economics, Law and Literacy study in 1890. In 1886, Keio named Hiromoto Watanabe as the first chancellor of the Imperial University (University of Tokyo). He was the first chancellor of an officially authorized university in Japan. In 1899, Keio sent 6 students to study abroad. In the same year, it accepted three international students from India, Qing-dynasty China, and Thailand. Eight international students entered from Taiwan (which had technically been a territory of the Japanese Empire since 1895) in the following year. Keio was visited by Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore in 1916. In 1922, Keio was visited by Albert Einstein, who presented a special lecture on the theory of relativity. In 1946, Keio began accepting female students. In 2006, a paper with a Keio undergraduate student as its first listed author was published in the research journal Science. In 2008, Keio was visited by Prince Charles. Presidents Since the president system was established in 1881, Keio has had 20 presidents. Student body In 2021, there are 33,469 students at Keio University, with 28,667 undergraduate students and 4,802 graduate students. Although two-thirds of the student body are males, this ratio highly depends on the major (56% of students are female in the Faculty of Letters, for instance. On the other hand, in the School of Medicine, three-quarters of students are men.). There are 1,908 international students on May 1, 2021, with 874 undergraduate students (3.1% of total undergraduate students (=28,667) ), 861 graduate students (18.0% of total graduate students (=4,802) ) and 173 other students. China is the country which provides the most international students with 1,016, followed by South Korea (436), France (66), Taiwan (51), the United States (36), Indonesia (34), and Germany (29). Student life Societies In Japanese universities, there are student societies called "circles". Although the exact number is not clear, there are over 410 circles in Keio. Festivals Keio holds school festivals every year on each campus. The main festival is called "" and is usually held on the Mita campus in late November. Mita Sai includes various academic and recreational activities and also serves as a research workshop for students on the Mita campus. Approximately 200,000 people visit Mita Sai every year. Athletics Edward Bramwell Clarke and Tanaka Ginnosuke first introduced Rugby union to Japanese students at Keio University. The game had been played in the treaty ports of Yokohama and Kobe before that, but not between Japanese teams. The interest of Keio's students in baseball stretches back to the early years of the 20th century. In 1913, an American touring team of players from the New York Giants and the Chicago White Sox played an exhibition game against the Keio team. In a 1932 exhibition game, the Keio team beat the University of Michigan team, which was then touring Japan. Keio's baseball team plays in the Tokyo Big6 Baseball League (six prominent universities in the Tokyo area). Association football Keio University's association football (soccer) team is the most successful team in the history of the Emperor's Cup, although their last triumph was in 1956. They have won nine times, a number no professional team has ever achieved in the tournament. Kei-So rivalry Traditionally, there has been a strong rivalry between Keio and Waseda University. There are annually many matches between the two universities in several sports, such as baseball, rowing, rugby, lacrosse, track and field, American football, association football, aikido, karate, basketball, tennis, swimming, fencing, figure skating, ice hockey, and field hockey. These games are called "Kei–So Sen (慶早戦)" or, more generally, "So–Kei Sen (早慶戦)". The Kei-So baseball rivalry, which dates back more than a century, is especially famous because of its importance in Japanese baseball history. The most famous Kei-So baseball game, which was played on October 16, 1943, was made into a movie titled "The Last Game – the Final So-Kei Sen -" in 2008. There are two Kei-So baseball games every year, and they are usually broadcast by NHK. There is no lecture on all campuses in Keio on the game day because of the students who want to watch this match. Kei-So baseball games were even visited by Japanese emperors in 1929, 1950 and 1994. Keio University is one of the most prestigious universities in Japan. Times Higher Education estimates that Keio is in 351–400th place in general academic rankings among world universities. American football Scandals In October 2016, six male students from Keio Advertisement Society, a long-standing student club famous for its organisation of the Miss Keio pageant contest, were investigated for gang rape during a club activity. An out-of-court settlement was reached and the students were not prosecuted. In May 2018, another three students were arrested for sexual assaults. In March 2017, a student tennis club was disbanded after a student died of alcohol poisoning during a club activity. Two other Keio students died due to over-drinking in 2012 and 2013. In June 2017, the school's election committee unconventionally selected Haseyama Akira, a legal history professor who only won second place at the general election among teachers and staff, to be the school's new president, breaking a 50-year convention. In late 2019, both the American football team and the cheerleading club suspended club activities for "inappropriate behaviours". In January 2020, it was reported that a former member of the school president's secretarial staff had installed a camera in a female toilet stall on the Mita campus, filming over a thousand videos over 3 months. Academic rankings Keio ranks 53rd in the world in the Times Higher Education's Alma Mater Index. It ranks 34th globally in the Center for World University Rankings (CWUR) and 3rd in Asia. Keio is ranked at 58th of the Reuters Top 100 innovative universities worldwide. British Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) company estimates that Keio is ranked the 192nd in QS World University Rankings 2017/18. It is ranked the 45th in QS World University Ranking 2017/18 for Graduate Employability Ranking. In the Asian University Ranking (2015), Quacquarelli Symonds also ranked Keio as 37th in Asia. The Academic Ranking of World Universities (2015), which is compiled by Shanghai Jiao Tong University, ranks Keio 151-175 in the world and 37 in Asia. Keio, with Waseda University, is one of the prominent private universities within Japan. The difficulty level of entrance exams at Keio University is one of the highest among private universities in Japan. Research performance According to Thomson Reuters, Keio is the 10th best research university in Japan, and it is the only private university within the Top 15. In addition, Weekly Diamond reported that Keio has the 8th highest research standard in Japan in terms of research fundings per researchers in COE Program, and it is also the only private university within Top 10. The Asahi Shimbun summarized the number of academic papers in Japanese major legal journals by the university, and Keio was ranked 2nd during 2005–2009. Accordingly, Keio is a prominent research university in Japan. In economics, according to The Asahi Shimbun, Keio's been ranked 7th in Japan in the economic research ranking during 2005–2009. More recently, Repec in January 2011 ranked Keio's Economic department as Japan's 6th best economic research university. Keio has provided 3 presidents of Japanese Economic Association in its 42-year history, and this number is 5th largest. In addition, Nikkei Shimbun on 2004/2/16 surveyed about the research standards in Engineering studies based on Thomson Reuters, Grants in Aid for Scientific Research and questionnaires to heads of 93 leading Japanese Research Centers, and Keio was placed 8th (research planning ability 4th/informative ability of research outcome 3rd) in this ranking. Business Keio ranks second in Japan, for the number of alumni holding CEO positions in Fortune Global 500 companies, according to Mines ParisTech: Professional Ranking of World Universities. Keio is also ranked 1st in Japan for the number of alumni generally holding executive positions (when positions like COO, CFO, CIO etc. are included along with the CEO position) in listed companies of Japan, and this number per student (probability of becoming an executive) is also top. Keio Business School is Japan's first business school and one of four Japanese schools holding The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) accreditation. Keio was ranked No. 1 in Japan by Nikkei Shimbun. Eduniversal also ranked Keio as the top in Japan (75th in the world). In Eduniversal Keio is one of only 3 Japanese schools categorized in "Universal Business schools with major international influence". In 2012, the Keio Business School became a founding member of the university alliance Council on Business & Society that consists of Tuck School of Business from the USA, the University of Mannheim Business School from Germany, ESSEC Business School from France, Fudan University from China, Fundação Getúlio Vargas from Brazil and Keio Business School. According to the Weekly Economist's 2010 rankings and the PRESIDENT's article on 16 October 2006, graduates from Keio University have the 3rd best employment rate in 400 major companies, and the alumni's average salary is the 3rd best in Japan. Accounting As an extension of Keio's strong business focus, for over 30 years, Keio graduates have been ranked first in Japan in the number of successful national CPA exam applicants. Medicine Keio has been influential in Japanese medical societies as well. In fact, there have been 4 presidents of Japan Medical Association related to this university (2 Alumni and 2 professors). This number is the 2nd largest among Japanese medical schools. Keio is one of 2 Japanese universities which provided a president of World Medical Association. Law Keio's law faculty is typically ranked among the best in all of Japan along with the University of Tokyo, University of Kyoto, Chuo University, and Hitotsubashi University. In 2010 and 2015, Keio University Law School ranked highest among all Japanese universities for the Bar Exam passage rate. Furthermore, the number of Members of Parliament who graduated Keio has been 3rd in Japan. Popularity and selectivity Keio is a popular university in Japan, often considered one of Japan's top two private universities alongside their rival, Waseda University. The number of applicants per place was 11.7 (48260/4098) in 2011 undergraduate admissions. Its entrance difficulty is usually considered as the top with Waseda among 730 private universities. Nikkei BP has been publishing a ranking system called "Brand rankings of Japanese universities" every year, composed of the various indications related to the power of the brand, in which Keio was the top in 2014, and ranked second in 2015 and 2016 in Greater Tokyo Area. Webometrics (2008) also ranks Keio University as 3rd in Japan, 11th in Asia, and 208th in the world for quantity and quality of web presence and link visibility. In a unique ranking, TBS ranked Japanese universities by the questionnaire "Which university student do you want to have as your boyfriend?" to 300 girls in Shibuya, and Keio was ranked 1st in this ranking. Evaluation from Business World Finance According to Keio's financial report, there was an operating revenue of 197 billion yen in 2010. The top three largest incomes were from "tuition and fees", "medical care" and "capital gain", with 49 billion yen, 48 billion yen and 21 billion yen respectively. The number of endowments in 2010 was about 5 billion yen. Keio is known for having one of the largest financial endowments of any Japanese university. On the other hand, the top 3 largest expenses in 2010 were "Compensation and benefits", "Education & Research" and "Investment", with 65 billion yen, 52 billion yen and 33 billion yen respectively. The total asset value in 2010 was about 364 billion yen with an increase of 5 billion yen. In addition, the total amount of assets under management was approximately 109 billion yen in 2010, composed mainly of cash, deposits with banks and marketable securities. Tuition fees The university tuition fee system in Japan is different from other countries and very complicated. In most Japanese universities, more payments are required in the first year, such as "entrance fees", and less in subsequent years. There are several types of fees (some of which must be paid only once and some of which must be paid once or twice every year) and the so-called "course fee" is officially only one of those fees. At Keio University, tuition fees vary and depend on the course. Social Science & Humanity studies have the lowest fees at approximately 1,110,000 yen per year, and the School of Medicine is the most expensive fee at about 3,610,000 yen per year. The tuition fees for the various graduate schools are much less than those for undergraduate studies, e.g. 690,000 yen per year for Social Science & Humanities and 1,313,000 yen per year for School of Medicine. Although it is acceptable to pay twice with half in spring and half in autumn, the "entrance fee" must be paid before enrollment. The entrance fee for undergraduate study is 200,000 yen and the one for graduate study is 310,000 yen. Scholarship/loan Many students receive additional financial support. For example, in 2008, there were 9,764 students (about 30% of all students) who used either scholarships or loans. Additionally, Keio funds over 3,000 students who receive, on average, scholarships of 300,000 yen. Organization Faculties Keio has ten undergraduate faculties, which cover a wide range of academic fields, with each operating independently and offering broad educational and research activities. The faculties, with a planned annual number of enrolled first-year students in parentheses, are: Faculty of Letters (800) Faculty of Economics (1200) Faculty of Law (1200) Faculty of Business and Commerce (1000) School of Medicine (112) Faculty of Science and Technology (932) Faculty of Policy Management (425) Faculty of Environment and Information Studies (425) Faculty of Nursing and Medical Care (100) Faculty of Pharmacy (210) Graduate schools In addition to the ten undergraduate faculties listed above, Keio has fourteen graduate schools. Many professors are associated with both an undergraduate faculty and a graduate school. Graduate School of Letters Graduate School of Economics Graduate School of Law Graduate School of Human Relations Graduate School of Business and Commerce Graduate School of Medicine Graduate School of Science and Technology Graduate School of Business Administration Graduate School of Media and Governance Graduate School of Health Management Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences Law School Graduate School of Media Design Graduate School of System Design and Management Media centers Keio's Media Centers, with combined holdings of over 4.58 million books and publications, are one of the largest academic information storehouses in the country. Mita Media Center Hiyoshi Media Center Media Center for Science and Technology Shinanomachi Media Center SFC Media Center Information technology centers ITC Headquarters Mita ITC Hiyoshi ITC Shinanomachi ITC Science & Technology ITC Shonan Fujisawa ITC Affiliated schools Elementary education Keio Yochisha Elementary School Keio Yokohama Elementary School Secondary education Keio Futsubu School (Boys Junior High School) Keio Chutobu Junior High School Keio Shonan Fujisawa Junior and Senior High School Keio Senior High School Keio Shiki Senior High School Keio Girls Senior High School Keio Academy of New York (High School) Language education Japanese Language Program Keio Foreign Language School Others Keio Marunouchi City Campus (KMCC) Hospital Keio University Hospital is one of the largest and most well-known general hospitals in Japan, the number of surgeries for carcinoma uteri in 2007 was top and the one for lung cancer was third among all university hospitals. and is also a famous teaching hospital. The number of trainee doctors who selected Keio as their first choice training hospital was 30 (33rd) among all Japanese teaching hospitals in 2010. Established in 1920, it has over 1,000 beds, a leading laboratory, and research and medical information divisions. Campuses There are eleven campuses. Mita Campus (2-15-45 Mita, Minato, Tokyo) Hiyoshi Campus (4-1-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku, Yokohama, Kanagawa), home of the Hiyoshi tunnels Yagami Campus (3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku, Yokohama, Kanagawa) Shinanomachi Campus (35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku, Tokyo) Shonan Fujisawa Campus (Fujisawa, Kanagawa, aka SFC) designed by Fumihiko Maki Shiba Kyoritsu Campus (Minato ward, Tokyo) Shin-Kawasaki Town Campus (Kawasaki, Kanagawa) Tsuruoka Town Campus of Keio (Tsuruoka, Yamagata, aka TTCK) Urawa Kyoritsu Campus (Urawa, Saitama) Keio Osaka Riverside Campus (Osaka) Keio Marunouchi City Campus (Tokyo) Notable alumni Some of the prominent Keio alumni include Japanese Prime Ministers Junichiro Koizumi (2001–2006), Ryutaro Hashimoto (1996–1998), and Tsuyoshi Inukai (1931–1932). Dozens of other alumni have been cabinet members and governors in the post-war period. Its alumni include 230 CEOs of major companies and 97 CEOs of foreign-affiliated companies (both highest in Japan). Keio has over 320,000 alumni in 866 alumni associations. Politicians Junichiro Koizumi, the 87th/88th/89th Prime Minister of Japan (2001–2006), the 20th President of Liberal Democratic Party of Japan (Economics, 1967) Ryutaro Hashimoto, the 82nd/83rd Prime Minister of Japan (1996–1998), the 17th President of Liberal Democratic Party of Japan (Law, 1960) Tsuyoshi Inukai, the 29th Prime Minister of Japan (1931–1932), the 6th President of Rikken Seiyūkai Ichirō Ozawa, Former President of Democratic Party of Japan, Former Secretary General of Liberal Democratic Party of Japan (Economics, 1967) Tamisuke Watanuki, President of People's New Party, Former Speaker of The House of Representatives of Japan (Economics, 1950) Toshiko Hamayotsu, Minister for Global Environmental Issues and Director-General of Environment Agency of Government of Japan (1994). Kenji Kosaka, Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Law, 1968) Jirō Kawasaki, Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare (Business and Commerce, 1971) Andrew Thomson, Minister for Sport and Tourism and Minister Assisting the Prime Minister for the Sydney 2000 Games in the Australian Government 1997 – 1998 Shigefumi Matsuzawa, Governor of Kanagawa (Law, 1982) Akihiko Noro, Governor of Mie (Science and Technology, 1969) Genjirō Kaneko, Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2021-2022), Governor of Nagasaki (Letters, 1968) Motohiro Ōno, Governor of Saitama (Law, 1987) Hiroshi Nakai, Chairman of the National Commission on Public Safety, Minister of State for Disaster Management and the Abduction Issue (Economics, 1969) Yūzan Fujita, Governor of Hiroshima (Business and Commerce, 1972) Ryōzō Hiranuma, Mayor of Yokohama, Order of Culture Keiichi Inamine, Governor of Okinawa (Economics, 1957) Masaharu Ikuta, President of Japan Post, Former CEO of Mitsui O.S.K. Lines (Economics, 1957) Yukio Ozaki, Mayor of Tokyo, Minister of Justice, Education, "Father of parliamentary politics" in Japan. Nobuteru Ishihara, Minister of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Minister of State for Administrative and Regulatory Reform, Candidate for the LDP presidency 2008 Heitaro Inagaki, Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry (Economics, 1913) Banri Kaieda, Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry (Law) Hirofumi Nakasone, Minister for Foreign Affairs Yoshio Sakurauchi, Minister for Foreign Affairs Kamata Eikichi, Minister of Education Hidenao Nakagawa, Chief Cabinet Secretary Mitsuo Horiuchi, Minister of International Trade and Industry Yoshiyuki Kamei, Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Seiichi Ota, Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Ryu Shionoya, Minister of Education, Science and Technology Kosuke Hori, Minister of Education Fusanosuke Kuhara, Minister of communications Shigeru Ishiba, Minister of Defense, Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Law, 1979) Kazuyoshi Kaneko, Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and Minister for Ocean Policy Takeo Kawamura, Minister of Education, Science and Technology and Chief Cabinet Secretary Koichi Yamamoto, Minister of Environment Akira Amari, Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry and Minister of State in charge of Administrative Reform Tatsuya Ito, Minister of State for Financial Services Tadamori Oshima, Minister of Agriculture Takeo Hiranuma, Minister of Transport and Minister of Economy, Trade, and Industry Akira Nagatsuma, Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare, Minister of State for Pension Reform Masajuro Shiokawa, Chief Cabinet Secretary of Japan Heizō Takenaka, Minister of Internal Affairs and Communications (Emeritus Prof.) Wataru Takeshita, Minister for Reconstruction Jon Richards, Wisconsin legislator Sommai Hoontakoon, Minister of Finance (Thailand) (Economics, 1942) Set Aung – politician, economist and management consultant, incumbent Deputy Planning and Finance Minister of Myanmar Yun Duk-min –ambassador of South Korea to Japan Public servants, international organizations Takeshi Kasai, WHO Regional Director of Western Pacific (medicine, 1990) Shigeru Omi, WHO Regional Director of Western Pacific, Kiyoko Okabe, the first female justice of the Supreme Court of Japan (Master, Law, 1974) Taro Takemi, president of the World Medical Association and Japan Medical Association (MD, medicine, 1930) Ichirō Fujisaki, diplomat, Chairman of Executive Committee of United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (Economics (dropout), 1969) Central Bank Governors Shigeaki Ikeda, Minister of Finance, Commerce and Industry, Governor of The Bank of Japan Makoto Usami, Governor of The Bank of Japan Tarisa Watanagase (Thai), Governor of the Bank of Thailand, 2006–2010 (Economics) Chang Kia-ngau (Economics, 1906–1908), Governor of the Central Bank of Republic of China Astronauts Chiaki Mukai, JAXA astronaut (MD, medicine, 1988) Akihiko Hoshide, JAXA astronaut Finance Taizo Nishimuro, Chairman and CEO of Tokyo Stock Exchange, Former CEO of Toshiba Corporation (Economics 1961) Koichiro Miyahara, Chairman and CEO of Tokyo Stock Exchange Atsushi Saito, Chairman and CEO of Tokyo Stock Exchange, Shigeharu Suzuki, President and CEO of Daiwa Securities Group (Economics 1971) Media Tōru Shōriki, owner of The Yomiuri Shimbun (Economics, 1942) Tarō Kimura, journalist (Law, 1964) Akira Ikegami, journalist (Economics, 1973) Kazuhiko Torishima, president of Hakusensha (Law, 1976) Motoaki Tanigo, CEO of Hololive Production (Science and Technology) Other business people Akio Toyoda, President and CEO Toyota Motor Corporation 2009–current Yutaka Katayama, the first president of the U.S. operations of Nissan Motors (Economics 1935) Osamu Nagayama, CEO of Chugai Pharmaceutical and Chairman of Sony Corporation Katsuaki Watanabe, President of Toyota Motor Corporation (Economics 1964). Yuzaburo Mogi, Chairman and CEO of Kikkoman Corporation (Law 1958) Yotaro Kobayashi (Economics, 1956), chairman of Fuji Xerox, former chairman of Japan Association of Corporate Executives Shinzo Maeda, President and CEO of Shiseido (Letters 1970) Hidetaka Miyazaki, President of FromSoftware, game designer and director Ichizō Kobayashi, Founder of Hankyu Railway and the Takarazuka Revue, Minister of Commerce and Industry in the 1940 Konoe Cabinet Nobutada Saji, Chief executive of Suntory Ltd., the wealthiest individual in Japan as of 2004 by Forbes Akira Mori, President and CEO of Mori Trust, the fourth-wealthiest person in Japan as of 2013 by Forbes Keiichi Ishizaka, chairman and CEO, Warner Music Japan Inc. (Business and Commerce, 1968) – 2009 Medal of Honor Awardee Lee Jae-yong, vice chairman of Samsung Electronics (MBA 1995) Teruaki Yamagishi, received the 4th Class, Order of the Rising Sun Gold Rays with Rosette in 2008 Takeo Shiina, Chairman of IBM Japan, former Chairman of Japan Association of Corporate Executives (Science and Technology 1951) Matsuo Yokoyama, former president of Walt Disney Enterprises of Japan Academia Dozens of alumni and professors have been elected as academy members or in important positions. Shinzo Koizumi (politics, 1910), Member of Japan Academy, best known as the educator of His Majesty the Emperor Emeritus at the age of the prince. Received an honorary doctorate from Columbia University Sho-Chieh Tsiang (undergraduate atten.), member of Academia Sinica Atsuo Iiyoshi (engineering, 1960), emeritus professor of Kyoto University, an honorary doctorate of Russian Academy of Sciences Seiichiro Takahashi (politics, 1908), Member of Japan Academy, Minister of Education Toshihiko Izutsu (literature, 1937), Member of Japan Academy Akira Hayami (economics, 1954), Member of Japan Academy, coined the notion of "Industrious Revolution" Tokuzo Fukuda (prof.), Member of Japan Academy Kazui Tashiro (Ph.D. in economics), Member of Japan Academy, Junzaburo Nishiwaki (economics, 1917), nominated for Nobel Prize, International Honorary Member of American Academy of Arts and Sciences Tsuneo Tomita (medicine, 1932), International Honorary Member of American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Member of Japan Academy, Professor Emeritus of Yale University Osamu Saito (Hitotsubashi University) (economics, 1968), member of Japan Academy, International Honorary Member of American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Professor Emeritus of Hitotsubashi University David J. Farber, fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science (the Distinguished Professor and Co-Director of Cyber Civilization Research Center) Hiromoto Watanabe (1865), the first President of Tokyo Imperial University Hamao Arata (1869), the third and eighth President of the Tokyo Imperial University Sahachiro Hata (Prof.), nominated for Nobel Prize, member of Japan Academy, Masayuki Amagai (medicine, 1985), International Member of National Academy of Medicine Masaharu Tsuchiya (medicine, 1953), member of Académie Nationale de Médecine, Masaki Kitajima (medicine, 1966), Honorary Fellow of Royal College of Surgeons of England, member of European Academy of Science Ken Sakamura (engineering, 1974), emeritus professor of University of Tokyo, Japan Academy Prize (academics), the creator of the real-time operating system architecture TRON project Takao Suzuki (sociolinguist) (literature, 1950), former professor of Yale University Toshio Ito (Medicine), best known for the discovery of Ito cell, Japan Academy Prize (academics), Hideyuki Okano (medicine, 1983), the first in the world to produce transgenic marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) with germline transmission. Besides, he is to conduct the world's first clinical test in which artificially derived stem cells will be used to treat patients with spinal cord injuries. Toju Hata (medicine, 1934), Japan Academy Prize (academics), best known for the discovery of Mitomycin C, Yoshitaka Tanimura, derived Hierarchical equations of motion with Ryogo Kubo, Professor of Kyoto University, Humboldt Prize Winner (Sci.and Tech) Katsuhiko Mikoshiba (medicine, 1969), Emeritus Professor of The University of Tokyo, first cloned in the world of the IP3 receptor in the laboratory, which was found to play an important role in many biological functions such as body development and brain plasticity. Legion of Honor, honorary doctorate from Karolinska Institute (2011), Japan Academy Prize (academics) Kuniaki Tatsuta (PhD, 1969), the first in the world to synthesize totally four big Antibiotics (aminoglycoside, -lactam, macrolide and tetracycline antibiotics), which was accomplished by using carbohydrates as chiral sources in their laboratories. Japan Academy Prize (academics),Ernest Guenther Award(2013) Hikohjiro Kaneko (Ph.D. in Literature, 1946), Japan Academy Prize (academics) Tatsuya Sakamoto (Economics, 1979), Japan Academy Prize (academics) Masayoshi Tomizuka, professor in Control Theory in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, and director of Mechanical Systems Control Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley. He holds the Cheryl and John Neerhout, Jr., Distinguished Professorship Chair, and has supervised more than 90 PhD students to completion, many of which have become professors in universities in the USA, Taiwan, etc., prestigious for the research in the field of Mechanical Engineering. (B.S. and M.S. degrees, Mechanical Engineering, 1968 and 1970) Yoshio Nishi (B.A. , 1966), Charles Stark Draper Prize (2014) Laureate. Shosuke Okamoto (medicine, 1941), first synthesized in 1962 Tranexamic acid with Utako Okamoto. Emeritus professor of Kobe University Tatsuji Nomura (medicine, 1945), a pioneer in the development of laboratory animals with the aim of assuring the reproducibility of experimental results in medical research. Medal of Honor With Purple Ribbon from Japanese Government(1984). Fumiko Yonezawa (Emeritus), The first female President of The Physical Society of Japan, the Laureate of L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards in 2005. Yasuhiro Matsuda, professor of international politics at the University of Tokyo (Law) Yoshihiro Tsurumi, professor of international business at Baruch College of the City University of New York (Economics) Jun Murai, "The Father of The Internet" in Japan, Legion of Honor (2018) (PhD, Engineering) Yasuhiro Koike, Developed the High-bandwidth graded-index plastic optical fibre.He is thought as one of the Nobel Prize candidates in Physics in terms of the achievement of plastic optical fibre. (Sci. and Tech) Masaru Tomita, Established the metabolomics analysis by using the CE-MS. (Environment and Information Studies) Eitaro Noro, Marxian Economist. The Author of "History of the Development of Japanese Capitalism"(1930) (Native:「日本資本主義発達史講座」), Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo Yuichi Motai, professor of electrical and computer engineering at Virginia Commonwealth University, NSF Career Award (2011) Joi Ito, former director of the MIT Media Lab, professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University (PhD, Media and Governance, 2018) Art Shotaro Yasuoka, Member of Japan Art Academy Yamamoto Kenkichi, Member of Japan Art Academy Hiroshi Sakagami, Member of Japan Art Academy Shusaku Endo (Literature, 1948) Akutagawa Prize, Order of Culture, honorary doctorate from Georgetown University Daigaku Horiguchi, Poet, Translator, Member of Japan Art Academy Tanaka Chikao, Member of Japan Art Academy (Literature) Rofū Miki (undergraduate attendee), poet Gozo Yoshimasu, Member of Japan Art Academy Jun Etō, Member of Japan Art Academy, literary critic Mantaro Kubota, Member of Japan Art Academy Haruo Sato, Member of Japan Art Academy (Literature) Kafū Nagai, Member of Japan Art Academy, Order of Culture (Prof.) Shinobu Orikuchi, Ethnologist (Emeritus prof.) Takitaro Minakami, author (Economics) Yojiro Ishizaka, author (Literature) Sakutarō Hagiwara, Poet Yumeno Kyūsaku, Surrealistic detective novelist Kazuki Kaneshiro, Zainichi Korean novelist Kôhei Tsuka, playwright, theatre director, and screenwriter Adebayo Adewusi, Lawyer and Public Administrator. Yoshio Taniguchi (Engineering, 1960), member of Japan Art Academy. Architect best known for his redesign of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City which was reopened on November 20, 2004, Fumihiko Maki (Keio High school, undergraduate attend.), International Honorary Member of American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Wolf Prize in Arts, Kyoko Matsuoka, author and translator of children's literature Others Ryuichi Kuki, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, Governor of The Imperial Museum (The Tokyo National Museum, Kyoto National Museum, and Nara National Museum), The Father of Syuzo Kuki (1874) Theodor Holm "Ted" Nelson, Computer architect, visionary, and contrarian (PhD, Media and Governance, 2002) Wataru Kamimura, professional shogi player (the first university graduate to become a shogi professional) (Science and Technology / mathematical sciences, 2013) Yūka Nishio, voice actress and musician Ghib Ojisan, a travel YouTuber based in Singapore Notable faculty Fukuzawa Yukichi, founder of Keio University, the current portrait of 10,000-yen banknote Kohei Itoh, successfully generated and detected quantum entanglement between electron spin and nuclear spin in phosphorus impurities added to silicon with Dr. John Morton at Oxford University. This is the world's first successful generation. Also an alumni. Genichi Kato, nominated for Nobel Prize, member of Japan Academy Kitasato Shibasaburō, first dean of Keio University School of Medicine; member of Japan Academy, a fellow of Royal Society of London, nominated for Nobel Prize Ryogo Kubo, the Boltzmann Medal, Order of Culture, member of Japan Academy, International Honorary Member of American Academy of Arts and Sciences Mikinosuke Miyajima, International Honorary Member of American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Japan's representative for League of Nations Health Organization. Yone Noguchi, poet; also alumni Shuichi Nosé, famous for the Nosé–Hoover thermostat Keisuke Suzuki, member of Japan Academy Toshiyuki Takamiya, professor emeritus; led the digital documentation, facsimile reproduction, and distribution of many rare medieval books and manuscripts including the Gutenberg Bible and Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Gutenberg Bible The only copy of the Gutenberg Bible held outside Europe or North America is the first volume of the Hubay 45 copy at Keio University. It was purchased by the university in 1996 from Maruzen booksellers, who originally purchased the copy at auction in 1987 for US$5.4 million. The Humanities Media Interface Project (HUMI) at Keio University is known for its high-quality digital images of Gutenberg Bibles and other rare books. Under the direction of Professor Toshiyuki Takamiya, the HUMI team has made digital reproductions of eleven sets of the bible in nine institutions, including in 2000, both full-text facsimiles held in the collection of the British Library. Bibliography Notes References See also Keio Medical Science Prize Keio Media Centers (Libraries) Eliica Auto-ID Labs Keio University Shonan Fujisawa Campus Keio Shonan-Fujisawa Junior & Senior High School Sakura Tsushin ("Sakura Diaries"), a manga and anime series by U-Jin which prominently features Keio University. List of National Treasures of Japan (crafts: others) External links Keio University, Institute for Advanced Biosciences/TTCK Shonan Fujisawa Campus Keio Academy of New York Keio Organization for Global Initiatives (OGI) Universities and colleges established in 1858 Minato, Tokyo Private universities and colleges in Japan Universities and colleges in Kanagawa Prefecture 1858 establishments in Japan American football in Japan Kantoh Collegiate American Football Association Top 8 university Universities and colleges in Tokyo
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema%20of%20Canada
Cinema of Canada
Cinema in Canada dates back to the earliest known display of film in Saint-Laurent, Quebec, in 1896. The film industry in Canada has been dominated by the United States, which has utilized Canada as a shooting location and to bypass British film quota laws, throughout its history. Canadian filmmakers, English and French, have been active in the development of cinema in the United States. Films by Thomas A. Edison, Inc. were some of the first to arrive in Canada and early films made in the country were produced by Edison Studios. Canadian Pacific Railway and other railways supported early filmmaking including James Freer, whose Ten Years in Manitoba was the first known film by a Canadian. Evangeline is the earliest recorded Canadian feature film. George Brownridge and Ernest Shipman were major figures in Canadian cinema in the 1920s and 1930s. Shipman oversaw the production the most expensive film up to that point. Brownridge's career led to Carry on, Sergeant! and its failure caused a decline in the film industry. The Canadian Government Motion Picture Bureau was formed in 1918, and expanded to sound and 16 mm film in the 1930s before merging into the National Film Board of Canada. The NFB expanded under the leadership of John Grierson. The Canadian Cooperation Project between the government and Motion Picture Association of America from 1948 to 1958, negatively effected Canadian filmmaking. Internal divisions between English and French Canadians within the NFB starting in the 1940s led to the creation of an independent branch for French language productions by the 1960s. The government provided financial support to the film industry through the Capital Cost Allowance and Telefilm Canada. History Film Arrival of film The first time a film was displayed in Canada, and one of the first times in North America, was at an event organized by Louis Minier and Louis Pupier using a cinematograph in Saint-Laurent, Quebec, on 27 June 1896. Prior to the discovery of the Saint-Laurent showing by Germain Lacasse in 1984, it was believed that a showing conducted by Andrew M. Holland and George C. Holland, where films by Thomas A. Edison, Inc. such as The Kiss were shown, in Ottawa, from 21 July to 28 August 1896, was the first. The Saint-Laurent showing was overlooked as English researchers did not search through French sources. Léo-Ernest Ouimet stated that he attended the showing and he was used as evidence of it until Lacasse found newspaper coverage of the event in La Presse. R.A. Hardie and F.H. Wall also presented films in Winnipeg from 18 to 25 July 1896. The development of a Canadian film industry was hampered by the country's low population density, it had six million inhabitants and only Toronto and Montreal had more than 100,000 people in 1905, and the lack of domestic vaudeville as most of the acts came from the United States, United Kingdom, and France. Andrew Holland was critical of Canada as a place for the film industry due to the quality of its films, distance between major urban areas, and different electrical systems. Early films were used to as promotional material for companies, promote immigration, or displays of scenic locations including Niagara Falls. The Edison Company created some of the first films in Canada by documenting the Klondike Gold Rush, Canadian soldiers leaving to fight in the Second Boer War, and George V, the Duke of York, arriving in Canada in 1902. James Freer is believed to have been the first Canadian to produce films. He purchased an Edison camera and projector and started filming agriculture activates and Canadian Pacific Railway trains in 1897, and toured the United Kingdom with the sponsorship of the CPR in 1898, and a second less successful tour was sponsored by Clifford Sifton in 1901. His second tour was the first time that the government was directly involved with film. British and American filmmakers were selected as they could guarantee the distribution of their films unlike Canadian filmmakers. The CPR enlisted Charles Urban and his company, in order to allow the distribution of the films to the United Kingdom, to travel and film Canada to promote settlement in the western areas. This group, the Bioscope Company of Canada, conducted filming in Quebec to Victoria from 1902 to 1903. The film, Living Canada, was premiered at the Palace Theatre in 1903, with High Commissioner Donald Smith in attendance. A total of thirty-five Living Canada films were released by 1904, and was reedited into Wonders of Canada in 1906. Urban success led to him gaining contracts with the government of British Columbia and the Northern Railway Company. The Grand Trunk Railway entered the industry by hiring Butcher's Film Service in 1909. The CPR hired the Edison Company to film in Canada and they sent nine people, including J. Searle Dawley, Henry Cronjager, and Mabel Trunnelle, in 1910. They were provided a specialized train and the RMS Empress of India and produced thirteen films. Creating an independent film industry Silent films used intertitles in English and French, but sound films were mostly produced in English. The first recorded feature film created in Canada was Evangeline. The Palace was the first theatre to transition to showing sound films when it presented Street Angel on 1 September 1928. There were multiple attempts to create an independent film industry in Canada in the early 20th century. Thirty-six companies meant for film production were created between 1914 and 1922, but the majority of the companies did not produce any films. In 1914, Canadian Animated Weekly by Universal Pictures became one of the first newsreels in Canada. Ouimet, who was a pioneer for Canadian newsreels, created Specialty Film Import in 1915, as a distributor, but his newsreel and distribution companies were sold in 1923, and he unsuccessfully worked in the United States in the 1920s. At the peak of Ouimet's career 1.5 million Canadians were watching his newsreels twice per week. Domestic newsreel companies were unsuccessful after branches of American companies, Fox Canadian News and Canadian Kinograms, were established. Ernest Shipman established multiple film companies in cities and would produce a limited amount of films using local money before moving to another area. Unlike other Canadian filmmakers he sought financial support from the American market. In 1919, incorporated Canadian Photoplays with a financial capital of $250,000 in Alberta. He started production on Wapi, the Walrus, but retitled it to Back to God's Country to capitalize God's Country and the Woman, starring his wife Nell Shipman. The film was a critical and financial success, with it grossing over $500,000 in its first year, and Shipman's investors saw a 300% return on investment. Despite the success of the film Canadian Photoplays did not produce another film and went into voluntary liquidation. He signed a contract with Ralph Connor in 1919, and formed Dominion Films, based in New York, to produce films in Winnipeg. Winnipeg Productions was formed to adapt twelve of Connor's stories, but only five were filmed. Shipman created five companies across Canada in 1922, but only three produced films. He incorporated New Brunswick Films on 23 August 1922, but the failure of Blue Water ended Shipman's career. Trenton, Ontario, despite its small size, was a major film production area and had one of the few studios to last longer than a few years. Canadian National Features, founded by George Brownridge, construction a studio in the town and raised a financial capital of $500,000, with $278,000 coming within the first week, in 1916. However, the company suspended production after spending $43,000 on its first two films, The Marriage Trap and Power, and declared bankruptcy with $79,000 in assets. The studio in Trenton was taken over by the Pan American Film Corporation in 1918, but only released one film before closing. Brownridge founded Adanac Producing Company and released the two Canadian National Features films in 1918. Brownridge shifted production towards corporate sponsorships by displaying products in dramatized films. Brownridge sought a sponsorship from the CPR and John Murray Gibbon saw Power and asked Brownridge to make anti-Bolshevik films during the First Red Scare. Adanac was reorganized in 1919, with Brownridge as its managing director and Denis Tansey, a member of parliament, as its president. The Great Shadow was released in 1920, after being filmed in Canada rather than New York as Brownridge wanted to create a domestic film industry, and was a critical and financial success although the CPR pulled its public support before its release. However, the company went bankrupt with Brownridge balming Harley Knoles's wastefulness and Selznick Pictures's distribution policy. Brownridge sold the Trenton studio to the Ontario Motion Picture Bureau in 1924, and it continued to be used, with Carry on, Sergeant! as the sole fictional work filmed there, until Mitchell Hepburn ordered its closure in 1934, and it was turned into a community centre. Motion Skreenadz, incorporated in 1920, conducted the majority of film production in western Canada and brought colour film production to British Columbia. Leon C. Shelly gained control over Motion Skreenadz and Vancouver Motion Pictures from 1936 to 1937. He extended the company to Toronto in 1945, but relocated the company entirely to Toronto in 1946. The company was reorganized into Shelly Films, but production of non-newsreels was ended in favor of focusing on film laboratories. British Columbia's government agencies used promotional films from 1908 to 1919, before the creation of the British Columbia Patriotic and Educational Picture Service. It was headed by A. R. Baker and mainly distributed films produced under contract by Arthur D. Kean. The provincial legislature passed legislation requiring the display of at least one ten-minute education film or travelogue during all of the programs. The Motion Picture Branch of the Bureau of Publications was created by Saskatchewan in 1924, to produce education films. The Ontario Motion Picture Bureau was established in 1917, but did not produce its own films until 1923. S.C. Johnson, who worked in the Ontario Agriculture Department, was its first director. The victory of the United Farmers of Ontario in the 1919 election resulted in Peter Smith reorganized film production under the Amusement Branch with Otter Elliott heading it. He changed the focus of filmmaking from agricultural training towards quality productions. By 1925, the bureau had 2,000 films in its library, distributed 1,500 reels of film per month, and made one feature-length documentary, Cinderella of the Farms in 1931, but the bureau was dissolved after the Ontario Liberal Party won in the 1934 Ontario general election. Albert Tessier and Maurice Proulx produced large amounts of films in French at a time when it was uncommon. Joseph Morin, the Quebec Minister of Agriculture, used film for education purposes and the Service de ciné-photographie was established in 1941. The War Office Cinematographic Committee, one of the first times the national government was involved in filmmaking, was formed in 1916, and was led by Max Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook. The committee contracted the Topical Film Company before buying a controlling share. The committee aided in the production of distribution of D. W. Griffith's Hearts of the World. The committee was dissolved after World War I and its shares in Topical Film Company were sold, which were donated to war charities. The Associated Screen News of Canada was founded by Bernard Norrish in 1920, and the CPR held a majority control of its stock. The company grew from two employees in 1920, to over one hundred by 1930, and focused on the production of newsreels, theatrical shorts, and sponsored films. It was the largest Canadian film company until the growth of Crawley Films in the 1950s. It was one of Canada's longest lasting film production companies with Crawley Films and the National Film Board of Canada being one of the few to outlast it. Before ASN constructed a film laboratory all of the film print distributed in Canada were processed in the United States. The company was processing twenty-two million feet of film in per year by 1929. ASN constructed a sound stage in 1936, and produced House in Order, which was its only feature film in the 1930s. Brownridge was sent to New York in 1925 by the Ontario Motion Picture Bureau to gain a distribution contract, but only negotiated one with Cranfield and Clarke after a year of high expenses. Treasurer William Herbert Price criticized Brownridge stating that his "travelling expenses are very high and I do not see there was very much result from anything he has done". George Patton, the bureau's head, supported the deal as Cranfield and Clarke had no Jews in its company. W.F. Clarke, who was later blamed for the company's financial failure, pushed for Canadian film production and came up with an idea of a film about "a dramatic story written by an eminent authority around the part played by the Canadians in the World War". Clarke incorporated British Empire Films of Canada in June 1927. The film adaption of The Better 'Ole was released in Canada under the name Carry On! and was financially success. Clarke's film was named Carry on, Sergeant! to help raise funds. It received financial backing from influential people, including prime ministers Arthur Meighen and Bennett. The film started production, by the recently created subsidiary Canadian International Films, in 1926, and Bruce Bairnsfather was hired to direct with an expensive contract, but his inexperience with film led to production troubles that increased the cost of the budget. The production difficulties led to internal company problems and Clarke was removed as general manager although he remained vice-president. The film was released in 1928, to mixed-to-negative reviews and was only distributed in Ontario before the company went bankrupt in 1929. Brownridge attempted to recut and release the film in 1930, stating that it "would gross at least $200,000", but it did not happen. The Ontario government was still interested in attempting to create a large film studio by 1932, along with Edward Wentworth Beatty and Herbert Samuel Holt, but the recent failure of Canadian International Films and Great Depression led to its not receiving investments. The Canadian film industry would not recover until after World War II. National Film Board The Exhibits and Publicity Bureau was founded on 19 September 1918, and was reorganized into the Canadian Government Motion Picture Bureau on 1 April 1923. Its films were theatrically released in the United States by Bray Productions. The organization's budget stagnated and declined during the Great Depression. The organization was led by Bernard Norrish from 1917 to 1920, Raymond Peck from 1920 to 1927, and Frank Badgley from 1927 to 1941. Badgley stated that the bureau needed to transition to sound films or else it would lose its access to theatrical releases, but the organization did not gain the equipment until 1934, and by then it had lost its theatrical distributors. Badgley was able to get a 16 mm film facility for the bureau in 1931. The organization's budget fell from $75,000 in 1930, to $65,000 in 1931, and $45,000 in 1932. However, its budget was increased to $70,000 in 1933. The bureau was reorganized into the National Film Board of Canada in 1941, following John Grierson's recommendation. Ross McLean was working as the secretary to High Commissioner Vincent Massey when he met Grierson, and asked for Grierson to come to Canada to aide in the governmental film policy. Grierson made a report on the Canadian film industry in 1938, and the National Film Act, which he drafted, was passed in 1939 causing the creation of the NFB. Grierson became the first Film Commissioner of the NFB and served until the end of World War II. Employment rose from fifty to over seven hundred from 1941 to 1945, although it was cut by 40% after the war ended. Grierson selected McLean to work as assistant commissioner and Stuart Legg to oversee the productions. Lest We Forget, Canada's first feature-length war documentary with sound, was released in 1935. Grierson made efforts to increase the theatrical distribution of NFB films, primarily its war-related films, as he was coordinating wartime information for the United Kingdom in North America. Famous Players aided in distribution and the Canadian Motion Picture War Services Committee, which worked with the War Activities Committee of the Motion Pictures Industry, was founded in 1940. NFB productions such as The World in Action was watched by 30-40 million people per month in the United Kingdom and United States in 1943, and Canada Carries On was watched by 2.25 million people by 1944. The audience for NFB newsreels reached 40-50 million per week by 1944. Grierson opposed feature film production as he believed that Canada did not have a large enough market for an independent feature film industry. He supported working with American film companies and stated that "the theatre film business is an international business, dependent when it comes to distribution on an alliance or understanding with American film interests". He travelled to Hollywood in 1944, and the NFB sent scripts to American companies for consideration. Grierson lacked strong support in the Canadian government and some of his films received opposition from members of the government. Inside Fighting Russia was criticized for its support of the Russian Revolution and Balkan Powderkeg for criticizing the United Kingdom's policy in the Balkans. Grierson and the NFB were attacked during the onset of the Cold War. The Federal Bureau of Investigation created a file on Grierson in 1942, due to the World in Action newsreel being considered too left-wing. Leo Dolan, an ally of Hepburn and the head of the Canadian Government Travel Bureau, accused Grierson of being Jewish and a Co-operative Commonwealth Federation supporter. The Gouzenko Affair implicated Freda Linton, one of Grierson's secretaries, and the organization was criticized by the Progressive Conservative Party for subversive tendencies, financial waste, and being a monopoly. Grierson was also accused of being involved, but was proven not to be although he resigned as commissioner in 1945. McLean was ordered to assist the Royal Canadian Mounted Police screen NFB employees and the RCMP requested him to fire a list of employees. McLean, who refused to fire any employees without their disloyalty being proven, was not reappointed as commissioner and replaced by William Arthur Irwin in 1950. Irwin also refused to fire employees without proven disloyalty and reduced the demand and only three of the thirty-six requested were fired. The Royal Commission on National Development in the Arts, Letters and Sciences, with Massey as its chair, was formed in 1949. The NFB submitted a brief asking to have a headquarters constructed, budget increases, and to become a Crown corporation. Robert Winters, whose ministry oversaw the NFB, stated that its brief did not represent government policy. The Association of Motion Picture Producers and Laboratories of Canada submitted a brief criticizing a government monopoly, with the NFB's crown corporation request being referred to as an "expansionist, monopolistic psychology", and that they were unable to compete with the NFB as it paid no taxes and was exempt from tariffs. The commission's report supported the NFB and its requests for Crown corporation status and a headquarters were accepted. A Canadian tour by Princess Elizabeth and Prince Philip was filmed and was initially meant to be two reels, worth twenty minutes, but grew to five reels as they could not determine what to cut. Irwin met with Harvey Harnick, the NFB's Columbia theatrical distributor, and J.J. Fitzgibbons, the president of Famous Players, and Fitzgibbons told Irwin that he would screen all five reels if the film was completed for a Christmas release. Royal Journey opened in seventeen first-run theatres and over course of the next two years it was screened in 1,249 Canadian theatres where it was watched by a record two million people and the film was also screened in forty other countries. The film cost $88,000, but the NFB gained a profit of $150,000 and the film's success was one of the reasons Grierson stated that Irwin "saved the Film Board". The Canadian Government Motion Picture Bureau and Associated Screen News of Canada had no French-Canadian employees. Vincent Paquette became the NFB's first French-Canadian filmmaker in 1941, and directed La Cité de Notre-Dame, the board's first in-house French-language film, in 1942. The number of French-Canadian employees grew to seventeen by 1945, and a quarter of the board's budget was spent on French productions. The Massey Commission and Gratien Gélinas, a member of the NFB's Board of Governors, called for an improvement in French-language productions, but Premier Maurice Duplessis opposed it. French-language media, including Le Devoir, criticized the NFB after it removed Roger Blais in 1957. NFB francophone directors Denys Arcand, Gilles Carle, Jacques Godbout, Gilles Groulx, and Clément Perron criticized the organization for its censorship policies, refusal to produce feature films, and its colonial treatment of Quebec. Michel Brault, Carle, Bernard Gosselin, Groulx, and Arthur Lamothe left following reprimands. Guy Roberge became the first French-Canadian to serve as the NFB's commissioner. Duplessis died in 1959, and Quebec Liberal Party gained control while the Liberal Party won in the 1963 Canadian federal election. The Liberals supported a policy of bilingualism and biculturalism. A French-language branch of the NFB that was independent of its English-language productions was formed in 1964, under the leadership of Pierre Juneau. Drylanders, the organization's first English language feature-length fiction film, was released in 1963. Kathleen Shannon organized Studio D, the first publicly funded feminist film-production unit in the world, in 1974, and produced 125 films before its closure in 1996. However, there would be no French version of Studio D until the formation of Studio B in 1986. Governmental financial involvement Starting in 1954, the Capital Cost Allowance was able to be used for a 60% tax write-off for film investment and the amount was increased to 100% in 1974. $1.2 billion was invested in Canadian film and television in the thirteen years following the increase. The average film budget rose from $527,000 to $2.6 million in 1979, and $3.5 million in 1986. From 1958 to 1967, private film investment accounted for 18% of film investments and it declined to 13.5% in 1968, while the CFDC accounted for 37.5%. Following the tax write-off increase private investment rose to account for 47% of film investment between 1975 and 1978 while the CFDC declined to 15%. Silence of the North was the first film with American backing to receive CCA certification. The Film and Video Production Tax Credit replaced the Capital Cost Allowance in 1995. In 1962, Roberge proposed the creation of an organization to aid in film finance based on the National Film Finance Corporation and Centre national du cinéma et de l'image animée. The Interdepartmental Committee on the Possible Development of a Feature Film Industry in Canada, under the leadership of NFB commissioner Roberge, was formed by the secretary of state. The committee submitted a report to the 19th Canadian Ministry for the creation of a loan fund to aid the development of the Canadian film industry. The proposal was approved in October 1965, and legislation, the Canadian Film Development Corporation Act of 1966-67, for its creation was introduced in June 1966, before being approved on 3 March 1967. The Canadian Film Development Corporation was established with a budget of $10 million in 1967. In February 1968, Spender was appointed as its director along with a five-member board. Canada lack of a film school leading to the creation of the Canadian Film Centre by Norman Jewison. The CFDC started investing up to 50% of its budget into films that cost less than $500,000. Explosion was the first film to receive financial support from the CFDC. Valérie by Denis Héroux, which was not financially supported by the CFDC, was made at cost of $70,000 and made over $1 million in Quebec. The CFDC financially supported Héroux's other films Here and Now (L'Initiation), Love in a Four Letter World, Virgin Lovers, and Two Women in Gold (Deux Femmes en or). Deux Femmes en or was financially successful, with its two million ticket sales remaining the highest in Canadian history, and became the highest grossing Canadian film. The $10 million budget was used by October 1971, after the CFDC invested $6.7 million into 64 films with an average cost of $250,000 per film. The CFDC was not financially successful as only three of those films made a profit and the organization recovered $600,000 of its investments. After 1970 the CFDC focused on investing in smaller budgeted films and ended its work with American theatrical distributors to them hiding profits. Another $10 million budget was given to the CFDC in November 1971, and a new investment strategy in which $600,000 per year would be invested into productions, with its creative and technical crew being Canadian, budgeted below $100,000, and $3 million per year on films with guaranteed distribution. It took the CFDC five years to recover its first $1 million investment, but recovered $1 million in 1977 alone. From 1977 to 1978, the CFDC invested $1.6 million into twenty films and its investments rose to $10.8 million into 34 films from 1979 to 1980. Between 1968 and 1978, the organization funded 103 English-language films, but only Black Christmas, Death Weekend, Heart Farm, Shivers, and The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz were profitable to the CFDC. The Toronto Filmmakers' Coop, an organization with 150 filmmakers, sent a letter with the endorsement of 200 filmmakers to Gérard Pelletier asking for the creation of a content quota that required distributors to have 15% of their films be Canadian. Pelletier announced the creation of a theatre in the National Capital Region that exclusively showed Canadian films in 1972. A study published by the Secretary of State reported that a content quota would not work as a 50% quote would generate less revenue than a 5% sales increase for foreign films. The study stated that new tax regulations and investments by the CFDC could make the Canadian film industry internationally competitive. The budget for the CFDC was limited to a few million and its budget from 1982 to 1983 was $4.5 million. However, the organization had its role expanded to include television in 1983, and administered the Canadian Broadcast Program Development Fund. The television fund was initially given an annual budget of $60 million. An annual budget of $30 million through the Feature Film Fund was created in 1986, and an annual budget of $17 million through the Feature Film Distribution Fund was created in 1988. The organization's combined budget grew to $146 million by 1989. A report was written by a task force in 1985, and it stated that foreign domination of film and video distribution, chronic undercapitalization of production companies, and concentration of theatre ownership and distribution and exhibition vertical integration hurt the development of the film industry. They recommended legislation to increase the control of Canadian-owned companies over distribution and Minister of Communications Flora MacDonald proposed a film licensing system based on their recommendations. American distributors opposed the policy and lobbied the American government through the MPAA and its president, Jack Valenti. Valenti met with President Ronald Reagan at least twice and Reagan criticized the legislation of a US-Canadian economic summit. 54 members of the United States Congress signed a letter to Prime Minister Brian Mulroney opposing the legislation. The legislation was not tabled and it failed. Post-Carry on, Sergeant! F. R. Crawley, who was involved in filmmaking for a decade, and Judith Crawley created Île d'Orléans in 1938, and its success led to a $3,000 loan from F. R. Crawley's father that created Crawley Films. It employment rose from 6 in 1946, 33 in 1949, and around 100 by the 1950s. One-sixth of the $3 million worth of films produced by the Canadian film industry in 1952 came from Crawley Films. France Film and other companies started creating French film productions in the 1930s. Maria Chapdelaine is commonly, although incorrectly, regarded as the first French-Canadian sound movie. Étienne Brûlé gibier de potence was the first colour feature film made in Quebec and the first Canadian colour film shot in English and French. Joseph-Alexandre DeSève monopolized the distribution of French-language films through France-Film. France-Film arose from the distribution of Maria Chapdelaine which sold 70,000 tickets in Canada. He also aided in the production of Notre-Dame de la Mouise in response to the papal encyclical Vigilanti Cura. DeSève purchased Renaissance Films following the success of The Music Master. DeSève produced four films through Renaissance Films Distribution. Paul L'Anglais formed Quebec Productions filmed Whispering City in English and French, under the title La Forteresse. It was seen by over 100,000 people in Quebec over the course of six weeks. The papal encyclical Vigilanti Cura in 1936, changed the Catholic attitude towards movies and the church became a part of Quebec movie production in the 1940s. Most of the nineteen movies, fifteen in French and four in English, produced in Quebec from 1944 to 1953 were made by Renaissance Films or Quebec Productions. Those were the only French-language feature films produced in Canada in that period. Bush Pilot was the only English-language feature film created by a Canadian company in the 1940s. Modern industry Canadians had to import colour 35 mm film until 1967, as Canada did not produce any internally. By the 1960s Nat Taylor, a theatre owner, controlled the largest private film studio in Canada, Toronto International Film Studios, two distribution companies, International Film Distributors and Allied Artists Pictures, a television station, CJOH-DT, and multiple production companies. He entered film production with The Mask in 1961. Taylor, unlike other members of the AMPPLC, supported state involvement in feature film production. Bryant Fryer founded one of the first animation companies in Canada and made six silhouette films from 1927 to 1935. Norman McLaren was brought to Canada from Scotland by Grierson in 1941. McLaren recruited English-Canadian animators from OCAD University, including George Dunning, Evelyn Lambart, Grant Munro, and Robert Verrall. McLaren recruited French-Canadian animators from École des beaux-arts de Montréal, including René Jodoin. Jodoin created a French animation unit in 1966, which included Laurent Coderre and Bernard Longpré. Le village enchanté was the first recorded animated feature film in Canadian history and Return to Oz which was based on Tales of the Wizard of Oz, the first recorded Canadian animated television series, was the second recorded animated feature film. In the 1960s filmmakers came from universities throughout Canada. David Cronenberg, Clarke Mackey, and David Secter graduated from the University of Toronto. John Hofsess, Ivan Reitman, and Peter Rowe graduated from McMaster University. Jack Darcus and Larry Kent graduated from the University of British Columbia. Cronenberg received financial support from the CFDC and Shivers was their most successful investment, with a budget of $150,000 ($75,000 from the CFDC) and gross of $5 million. 708 feature films, over twice the amount made in the past fifty years, were made during the 1970s. Carle, Groulx, Claude Jutra, and Jean Pierre Lefebvre, who were inspired by the French New Wave, made their directorial debuts from 1963 to 1965, and all won the Grand Prix at the Montreal International Film Festival throughout the 1960s. Jean-Claude Lauzon's Night Zoo won the most Genie Awards in history, with thirteen awards. Dream Life by Mireille Dansereau was the first privately produced feature film in Canada to be directed by a woman. Porky's became the first Canadian film to gross more than $100 million. The Decline of the American Empire was the most successful Quebec film released in France with 1,236,322 viewers. The Care Bears Movie, by Nelvana, was the highest-grossing non-Disney animated film at the time of its release. Six of the ten highest-grossing films in Canada between 1991 and 2001 were made in Quebec. Film investment in British Columbia rose from $188.5 million in 1990 to over $1 billion in 1999. Feature film production rose from 16 films to 56 films with the total amount of productions rising from 50 to 192. Theatres In the 1890s and 1900s films were shown by travelling showmen. John C. Green, a magician who presented for the Holland brothers at their first showing, travelled throughout eastern Canada and New England until the establishment of movie theatres. John Albert Schuberg was credited with bringing movies to Vancouver and Winnipeg, and the provinces of British Columbia and the Canadian Prairies. Schuberg established Canada's first permanent movie theatre, the Electric Theatre, in Vancouver, in October 1902, with its first movie played being The Eruption of Mount Pelee. He opened additional theatres in Winnipeg, and later gained the license for First National Pictures in western Canada. He had one of the largest theatre chains and sold it to Jay and Jules Allen for around $1 million in 1919, before returning in 1921, and then selling it to Famous Players in 1924. Jay and Jules Allen established their first theatre in Brantford in 1906. The established Allen Amusement Corporation, a film exchange, in 1908. Their chain was worth over $20 million by 1920, and had fifty-three theatres by 1923, when they declared bankruptcy and it was acquired by Famous Players. The Allens owned the distribution rights for Pathé and Paramount Pictures. In 1916, they rejected an offer by Paramount president Adolph Zukor to create an equal partnership. The Allens informed Nathan Nathanson of this attempt and Nathanson convinced Zukor to give him their distribution rights in 1920, for twenty years after creating his own theatre chain. Nathanson's Famous Players started an expansion campaign in the 1920s that led to its gaining control of all first run theatres in the major cities. Zukor and Paramount forced Nathanson out of Famous Players after buying a large amount of the stock in 1930. Famous Players also controlled the distribution industry in Canada, accounting for at least 40% of distribution, due to its connections to Paramount Pictures. Paul Nathanson managed Regal Films, which was controlled by Paramount, and distributed films from British International Pictures, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and Pathé, and Famous Players also distributed films from Columbia Pictures. Fox Film, RKO Pictures, Tiffany Pictures, and Warner Bros. were the other main distributors in Canada in the 1930s. A study conducted by United Artists in 1931 showed that 67% of rental revenue in Canada came from nineteen theatres in Canada's main cities while the remainder came from the rest. Block booking by major studios, that were from outside Canada, prevented independent theatre owners from obtaining films at a reasonable price. R. B. Bennett, who invested into the film industry, made investigating the film industry an issue in the 1930 election. Peter White was appointed to investigate Famous Players' monopolistic control of theatres under the Combines Investigation Act. White concluded that "a combine exists and has existed at least since the year of 1926" and Famous Players was detrimental to the public interest in 1931, but no action was taken against the company. Bennett supported taking action and the attorney generals of Alberta, British Columbia, Ontario, and Saskatchewan would prosecute Famous Players. Fifteen companies and three people, including Nathan Nathanson, were charged, but the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in favor of the companies. After losing control over Famous Players Nathanson created Odeon Theatres in April 1941, and resigned from his position at Famous Players in May. He built the company using Regal Films, which was managed by his brother and distributed MGM films, and gaining the business of companies whose contracts with Famous Players were expiring. Odeon did not gain a MGM distribution contract, but did gain ones for all of Columbia Pictures' films, two-thirds of Universal's films, and one-third of Fox's films. Nathanson died in 1943, and was succeeded by his son Paul. Films released in Famous Players and Odeon theatres, both foreign owned after Paul sold his stock to J. Arthur Rank in 1946, accounted for over 60% of the Canadian box office by 1947. Taylor, who declined to become the general manager of Odeon in 1941, founded Twentieth Century Theatres in the 1930s and the Famous Players-aligned company grew to own sixty-five theatres by the 1960s. He opened the International Theatre in Toronto which was the first theatre in Canada dedicated towards screening art films. Taylor and Garth Drabinsky created the Cineplex Odeon Corporation in 1979, and by 1987 it was the largest theatre chain in North America with 1,500 theatres, with two-thirds of them in the United States. The deaths of seventy-eight children from the Laurier Palace Theatre fire in 1927, and opposition to film from the Catholic Church led to a ban on minors attending movie theatres until 1961. In the 1930s Quebec was the only province that allowed for theatres to be open on Sundays. The Quebec Cinema Act, passed in 1983, required that English-language films in Quebec must be translated into French within sixty days. However, films from the United States were unaffected as their distribution ended before the deadline and the NFB was exempted from the requirements. The Canadian box office increased following World War II. In 1934, there were 796 theatres which admitted 107 million people to earn $25 million and that grew to 1,229 theatres admitting 151 million people to make $37 million in 1940. By 1950, the amount of theatres increased to 2,360 earning $86 million with 245 million people attending. However, during the 1950s Canadian film attendance declined with the nation falling from the fifth-highest in film attendance to twenty-fifth by the 1960s and the amount of films the average Canadian saw per year dropped from seventeen in 1950 to eight in 1960. Ticket sales in Quebec fell from 60 million in 1952, to 19 million in 1969. The amount of theatres in Canada declined from 1,635 in 1962, to 1,400 in 1967, to 1,116 in 1974, and to 899 in 1984. International Many native-born Canadians, such as Al Christie, Allan Dwan, Louis B. Mayer, Sidney Olcott, Mack Sennett, and Jack L. Warner, aided in the creation and development of the American film industry. In the early 1900s Canada was used as a shooting location for dramatic productions with Hiawatha, the Messiah of the Ojibway being one of the first in 1903. The Kalem Company was one of the first American companies to conduct location shooting in Canada in 1909. Two of the films D. W. Griffith made in his first year as a director, The Ingrate and A Woman's Way, were made in Canada. British American Film Company, Canadian Bioscope Company, Conness Till Film Company of Toronto, and the All-Red Feature Company, the four Canadians companies that produced fictional films prior to World War I, had their invested come from Americans, but all of them were financially unsuccessful and closed within a few years with Conness Till suffering a fire that destroyed their $50,000 studio. Canadians were hostile to American filmmakers and provincial film review boards instituted censorship policies in 1915, which included a ban on the gratuitous display of the flag of the United States. Fifty reels of film were banned in British Columbia in 1914, due to "an unnecessary display of U.S. flags" which put it as the third most common reason behind infidelity and seduction. In 1927, the United Kingdom created a quota limiting the amount of foreign films that could be shown in the country, but productions that were produced within the British Empire and was mostly made by British subjects were excluded from the quotas. American financers produced low-budget B movies within Canada to exploit the loophole before the legislation was changed in 1938 to exclude the Dominion. Nanook of the North and The Viking exploited the loophole. From 1928 to 1938, twenty-two feature films, the majority of Canada's film production, meant solely for the British market were filmed. American companies made $17 million in profits from Canada in 1947. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King's government sought to reduce the general trade imbalance between Canada and the United States. McLean called for the reinvestment of this money into Canadian film production and requiring the American distribution of Canadian shorts. The Motion Picture Association of America proposed the Canadian Cooperation Project and it was accepted by the Canadian government on 14 January 1948. The government would not restrict revenue to American companies in exchange for productions being filmed in Canada and mentions of Canada in those scripts to promote tourism. The project was considered unsuccessful and stifled Canadian filmmaking, with only eight Canadian feature films being made during the CCP's existence, before it ended in 1958. McLean was critical of the agreement as there was a lack of Canadian films distributed in the United States. Michael Spencer stated that the agreement was "allowed to die of embarrassment". Gilbert Agar attended the Fourth National Motion Picture Conference of the Motion Picture Council in America in 1926, and reported that 95% of films released in Canada were from the United States. Eric Johnston stated that "outside the U.S. itself, Canada ranks as the second largest market in the world for Hollywood films." The amount of films in Canada of American origin declined to 68% by 1954, and 41% in 1962. Canadian directors, such as Norman Jewison, left Canada to work in the United States. Raoul Barré worked as a cartoonist in Canada before moving to the United States and working as an animator at Barré Studio. Stephen Bosustow and other animators left Walt Disney Animation Studios during the Disney animators' strike and founded United Productions of America. Seven Arts Productions, while being listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange and having a majority of its investors be Canadians, had the majority of its productions done by its American subsidiary. It spent $25 million on ten American film productions, including Dr. Strangelove and What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?. Canadian 3D animation companies, such as Softimage and Alias Research, had their software used for American films, such as Jurassic Park. Reception Productions from the NFB received 64 Academy Award nominations and ten victories by 2000. The Crawleys produced 2,500 films and won over 200 awards during their careers, including the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature Film for The Man Who Skied Down Everest. Churchill's Island, If You Love This Planet, and Neighbours were awarded the Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Film. The Sand Castle, Special Delivery, and Every Child were awarded the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film. I'll Find a Way was awarded the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film. David Bairstow's Royal Journey won the BAFTA Award for Best Documentary in 1952. Colin Low's The Romance of Transportation in Canada was awarded the Prix du Film d'Animation at the Cannes Film Festival in 1953. Brault won the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director for Orders. Censorship and preservation Censorship Ouimet's fine of $10 in February 1908, for having the Ouimetoscope open on Sundays was a test case to establish the power to close places of amusement on Sundays. In 1920, Pierre-François Casgrain opposed an attempt to remove a 15¢ per reel per day tax on film exhibitors stating that "Pictures that are shown are an invitation to the people of the poorer classes to revolt, and they bring disorder into the country". Fees implemented by the censorship boards earned the government large amounts of money with Alberta's two censorship boards making $12,275 in 1927. By 1921, New Brunswick had the lowest fee at $0.50 per reel while Ontario had the highest at $3 per reel, $1 per reel license for each copy. Appeals cost $5 in Quebec and $10 in Ontario. Variety reported in 1950 that censorship fees were costing the film industry over $1,450,000 per year, with $600,000 of the expense coming from Canada. Censorship boards were established in Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec in 1911, in Alberta and British Columbia in 1913, and in Nova Scotia in 1915. 5,500 reels of film were censored in the United Kingdom in 1925, compared to 6,639 reels in Quebec, 5,518 reels in Manitoba, and 5,013 reels in Alberta. Maclean's reported that the amount of films banned in Canada fell from one hundred one in 1932, to nineteen in 1940, with nine being banned in Quebec and none in Ontario. Three hundred of the six hundred films examined by censors in 1940 were censored. Quebec censors rejected all films the dealt with divorce. Multiple Russian films were banned due to "suspected Communist propaganda" and during World War II all foreign films, with the exception of France, were banned. Ontario banned all war films in 1914. The Canadian Militia initially ordered censorship boards in very province to condemn war films, but later created its own war films by 1915. In 1950, All Quiet on the Western Front was banned in Nova Scotia as there was a military recruitment drive happening. Damaged Goods, a film about sexually transmitted infection, was banned in Ontario in 1916. Mutual Film screened the film to a selected audience, as a private showing it was exempt from the provincial censorship laws, and asked them if the film should be released. The audience approved of the film and Mutual Film appealed the ruling, but were unsuccessful. To combat the spread of sexual diseases a government campaign was initiated in the late 1910s. The Canadian National Council for Combating Venereal Disease, which was led by William Renwick Riddell and Gordon Bates, sought to distribute The End of the Road in Ontario in 1919. The censorship board was conflicted over maintaining its earlier ruling or allowing a government campaign to continue. The board rejected the film and the ruling was maintained on appeal. However, the ruling was reversed in 1920, and over 20,000 people saw the film within five days of its release and 40,000 by 1932. Other films about sexual diseases were allowed to be shown as well. Censors were criticized starting in the 1950s for their abuse of power. Minister of Finance Hepburn banned all of The March of Time newsreels in 1942, without the board watching it, due to a Time article about him that he did not like. J. Bernard Hughes, the chief censor in British Columbia, banned Diary of a Nazi stating that it was "purely Russian propaganda" that depicted "the Nazis at their worst". Ernest Manning believed that the film industry in the United States was dominated by communists and sought to ban multiple films including Frank Sinatra's The House I Live In. The advent of television made it difficult for censors as they could not control the content being broadcast to Canada from the United States and had limited control over internal television broadcasts, with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation showing films that were banned in provinces in those provinces. Henry McLeod, a censor from Nova Scotia, stated that "What's the point of banning a film when the trade can turn around and sell it to the CBC?". The Canadian Federation of Film Societies, an organization with 25,000 members, called for the replacement of censorship boards with a rating system. In 1961, George Enos, who served as New Brunswick's censor for thirty years, stated that censorship "is very undesirable" and that "Ninety percent of the worry is needless. Respectable people will condemn a bad picture. I don't like the idea of setting up one man to say what his neighbour shall see or not see. He would have to be a superman." By the 1960s the Quebec censorship board was one of the largest with eighteen full-time staff employed compared to other provincial boards which had two to five full-time staff. By the 1970s the censorship boards were being transitioned to classification boards with the companies having to recut their films rather than the boards. The Hicklin test was used as the standard for film censorship until 1959, when the Criminal Code was amended and the Supreme Court of Canada overruled a ruling by the Nova Scotia Court of Appeal that held that the Hicklin test was still in effect. The Columbus of Sex by John Hofsess was the first film in Canada charged with obscenity. The film was ordered to be destroyed following the trial, but the film's producers, Reitman and Daniel Goldberg, sold the rights to an American company that recut the film into My Secret Life. Last Tango in Paris was banned in Nova Scotia in 1974. Gerard McNeil, the editor of the Dartmouth Free Press, opposed the film's censorship and he filed a lawsuit in which he argued that the censors were acting illegally when they banned the film, citizens have a right to view uncensored films regardless of its content, and that the taxes and fees collected by the Amusements Board was to continue its illegal activities. The censors argued that McNeil had no standing to sue as he had no direct interest in the case, but the Nova Scotia Supreme Court stated that "there could be a large number of persons with a valid desire to challenge". The court ruled on 2 February 1976, that the provinces had no power to censor films under the British North America Acts. However, the Supreme Court of Canada overruled the court on 19 January 1978, in a five to four decision. Preservation The University of Alberta created a film library in 1917, and Quebec was the first province to utilize film in schools. The rights to Carry on, Sergeant! were acquired by the National Film Archive of Canada and reconstructed the film with Gordon Sparling, who worked on it as an assistant director, to show on television in 1968. The Canadian Film Archives was formed by the NFB in 1951. In 1924, the majority of Ouimet's Specialty Film Import's collection was destroyed by fire. The rising costs for the construction of the NFB's headquarters in Montreal resulted in the Department of Public Works cancelling the construction of film vaults. 13.1 million metres of archival footage worth $4.8 million () was instead stored in Kirkland, Quebec, and were destroyed in a fire in July 1967. Financial See also History of Canadian animation Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood List of Canadian films List of Canadian actors Top 10 Canadian Films of All Time Documentary Organization of Canada Northern (genre) List of film festivals in Canada List of filming locations in Metro Vancouver List of films shot in Toronto Montreal in films World cinema References Works cited Books Journals Press Notes Further reading External links War Art in Canada: A Critical History (2021) by Laura Brandon, published by the Art Canada Institute. Canadian Feature Film Database Canadian Film Encyclopedia Canadian Film Online The Toronto Film Map - Map of full-length feature films or television shows set in Toronto, indicating availability at University of Toronto Libraries and Toronto Public Library History of mass media in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negeri%20Sembilan
Negeri Sembilan
Negeri Sembilan (, Negeri Sembilan Malay: Nogori Sombilan, Nismilan), historically spelled as Negri Sembilan, is a state in Malaysia which lies on the western coast of Peninsular Malaysia. It borders Selangor on the north, Pahang in the east, and Malacca and Johor to the south. Negeri Sembilan has diverse tropical rainforests and an equatorial climate. The state's mountain ranges belong to the Titiwangsa Mountains, a southern subrange of the Tenasserim Hills that spans throughout southern Myanmar, southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, with Mount Besar Hantu as the highest point. The Titiwangsa also ends here, at Mount Tampin, located south of the state. The capital of Negeri Sembilan is Seremban. The royal capital is Seri Menanti in Kuala Pilah District. Other important towns are Port Dickson, Bahau and Nilai. The name is believed to derive from the nine (sembilan) villages or nagari in the Minangkabau language (now known as luak) settled by the Minangkabau, a people originally from West Sumatra (in present-day Indonesia). Minangkabau features are still visible today in traditional architecture and the dialect of Malay spoken. Unlike the hereditary monarchs of the other royal Malay states, the ruler of Negeri Sembilan is elected and is known as Yang di-Pertuan Besar instead of Sultan. The election of the Ruler is also unique. He is elected by the council of Undangs who lead the four biggest territories of Sungai Ujong, Jelebu, Johol, and Rembau, from the legitimate male members of the Pagaruyung Dynasty, with the surviving sons of the previous Yamtuan coming first in the considerations but not being obligatory to be voted on, making it one of the more democratic monarchies. The Arabic honorific title of the state is Darul Khusus (دار الخصوص; "The Special Abode"). Etymology The name Negeri Sembilan is believed to derive from the nine (sembilan) chiefdoms or Nogoghi in the Negeri Sembilan dialect (now known as luak) settled by the Minangkabau. The size of Negeri Sembilan is now smaller than the original size of Negeri Sembilan. History Ancient and medieval history The earliest possible human settlement in Negeri Sembilan can be traced back around 14 kya in the Pasoh Caves, a complex of karst caves near Simpang Pertang in the district of Jelebu. Some of the artefacts found around the caves include stone tools and food leftovers, and they are estimated to be used around 12,000 BCE based on carbon dating. Other early inhabitants of Negeri Sembilan were the ancestors of the Semelai, Semai, Semang, and Jakun peoples, who lived either as hunter-gatherer nomads or as subsistence farmers. According to the Malay Annals, Parameswara reportedly visited the settlement of Sening Ujong, which was located in what is now Seremban. The Minangkabaus from Sumatra settled in what is today Negeri Sembilan in the 15th century under the protection of the Malacca Sultanate, and later under the protection of its successor, the Sultanate of Johor. They also brought their matrilineal custom, known as Adat Perpatih, with them and made it the local custom. The Linggi River along the western part of the state, and the Muar River were used as one of the main trade routes since the time of the Malacca Sultanate. The former linked the tin-rich area of Sungai Ujong to the port city of Malacca; while the latter, along with the Pahang River via the Serting River in just a walking distance to the east, formed part of the Laluan Penarikan (lit. 'portage route' in Malay), which ensured easier access between the Strait of Malacca and the South China Sea. As Johor weakened in the 18th century, attacks by the Bugis forced the Minangkabaus to seek protection from their homeland. The Minangkabau ruler, Sultan Abdul Jalil, obliged by sending his near relative, Raja Mahmud, also known as Raja Melewar. When he arrived, he found that another royal, Raja Khatib had already established himself as ruler. He declared war against Raja Khatib and became the ruler of Negeri Sembilan. The Sultan of Johor confirmed his position by granting the title Yamtuan Seri Menanti (He Who is Highest Lord of the Seri Menanti) in 1773. Negeri Sembilan, at the dawn of her establishment, was originally a loose confederation consisting of nine luaks, hence the name. At the time of Raja Melewar's accession, it used to cover a larger area than its modern-day boundaries. Besides the entirety of modern day Negeri Sembilan, it also spanned parts of what is today Selangor, Malacca, Pahang and Johor. The original nine chiefdoms or domains in 1773 that made up the first incarnation of Negeri Sembilan and gave the state its name are namely Sungai Ujong, Jelebu, Rembau, Johol, Jelai, Ulu Pahang, Naning, Segamat and Klang. The latter four chiefdoms were annexed into neighbouring states in the 19th century. Naning was annexed into the Straits Settlement of Malacca in 1832 following the Naning War; Ulu Pahang became Bera region of Pahang, Segamat annexed into Johor and Klang became Kuala Langat region of Selangor. After Raja Melewar's death, a series of disputes arose over the succession. For a considerable period, the local nobles applied to the Minangkabau ruler in Sumatra for a ruler. However, competing interests supported different candidates, often resulting in instability and civil war. Colonial history In 1874, the British intervened militarily in a leadership tussle in Sungai Ujong to preserve British economic interests, and placed the domain under the control of a British Resident. Jelebu followed in 1883 and Rembau in 1887. The formation of modern Negeri Sembilan began in 1889, when the Seri Menanti domain, under the rule of Tuanku Muhammad (son of Yamtuan Antah), combined with the domains of Tampin and Rembau, forming the Seri Menanti Confederation as a single political entity. The domains of Sungai Ujong and Jelebu joined this confederation in 1895, forming the state of Negeri Sembilan in its modern borders. Martin Lister became the new state's first Resident, and Negeri Sembilan became part of the Federated Malay States the same year. Modern history Negeri Sembilan endured Japanese occupation in World War II between 1942 and 1945, joined the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and became a state of Malaysia in 1963. In the 1990s and 2000s, Seremban and Nilai attracted people who moved in from the overcrowded towns of the Klang Valley. These two cities also became the sites of new factories and industrial parks, accelerating the development of the state into modern times. On 9 September 2009, the Ministry of Housing and Local Government approved the state capital of Seremban's application to become a city (Bandar Raya), as it had attracted enough people to become large. In order for that to happen, its city council had to be merged with the Nilai Municipal Council. After several times when it was postponed, Seremban achieved the status of a city on 20 January 2020. Later that year on 9 November, Negeri Sembilan was subjected to the Movement Control Order lockdown due to increasing COVID-19 infections. Geography Facing the Strait of Malacca, Negeri Sembilan is one of the West Coast states of Peninsular Malaysia, and is specifically belong to the southern region, along with Malacca and Johor, although some sources define Negeri Sembilan as a central region state with Selangor and the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya. Roughly the same size as Selangor, Negeri Sembilan wields a total land area of 6,686 km² (430 sq mi). It is the fourth smallest state in Malaysia by area as well as the second largest in the southern region behind Johor. On the administrative level, Negeri Sembilan consists of seven districts, namely Port Dickson, Seremban, Rembau, Kuala Pilah, Jelebu, Jempol and Tampin Districts, and further sectioned into 14 respective luaks. The following luaks are Sungai Ujong, Rembau, Jelebu, Johol, Tampin, Ulu Muar, Terachi, Inas, Jempol, Gunung Pasir, Gemencheh, Pasir Besar, Air Kuning, and Linggi. Sungai Ujong, Rembau, Johol and Jelebu are governed by the Undangs, thus they are known as the Luak Berundang. In addition, there are four luaks that are protected under two of the Luak Berundang, which are Gemencheh, Air Kuning and Pasir Besar, which are protectorates of Johol; as well as Linggi, a protectorate of Sungai Ujong. Luaks that surround Seri Menanti such as Terachi, Ulu Muar, Jempol, Gunung Pasir and Inas are collectively known as the Luak Tanah Mengandung. The Luak of Tampin, also known as the Adat Territory of Tampin (Malay: Wilayah Adat Tampin) is autonomous and is ruled by the Tunku Besar. The topographical profile of Negeri Sembilan is composed of two vast plains divided by a mountainous spine in the middle, well drained by various rivers. The Titiwangsa Mountains, the southernmost extension of the Tenasserim Hills and the wider Indo-Malayan Cordillera, spans for approximately 92 km through the middle of the state from the border tripoint with Pahang and Selangor near Kenaboi, Jelebu towards Tampin, close to the border with Malacca. For this reason, this results in the state being bisected into two regions, namely western Negeri Sembilan - consisting of Port Dickson, Seremban and Rembau Districts; and eastern Negeri Sembilan, which covers the districts of Jelebu, Kuala Pilah, Jempol and Tampin. The western half seems to be more developed and has an intricate and concentrated road network than the latter, which is much more rural. The Negri stretch of the Titiwangsa Mountains is also part of the Titiwangsa Forest Complex, a component of the Central Forest Spine conservation area that covers much of the heavily forested and mountainous interior of Peninsular Malaysia. Mount Besar Hantu, at 1,462 m (4,797 ft), located in Jelebu District, is the highest point in Negeri Sembilan. The state is mostly drained by the Linggi and Muar Rivers. Both rivers play a vital role as major sources of water supply for much of the state's populace. The Linggi River basin constitutes much of western Negeri Sembilan, while the Muar River basin covers the state's eastern half. In addition, the Muar River basin also overlaps with the Pahang River basin at the districts of Jelebu and Jempol. Climate Negeri Sembilan experiences equatorial climate (Köppen climate classification: Af), which is hot and humid all year round. Thunderstorms are mostly prevalent during the period of monsoonal transitions that occur twice a year. Dry seasons usually starts shortly after the first monsoonal transition and lasts until August to September, as the moisture brought by the southwesterly Indo-Australian Monsoon are blocked by the Barisan Mountains in Sumatera, creating a rainshadow effect on the eastern coast of the island and the Malay Peninsula. In the corresponding Borneo-Australian Monsoon that blows from the northeast, Negeri Sembilan, along with the states of Melaka, Johor, and the east coastal states of Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang are the most affected by the monsoonal surge that brings persistently heavy rainfall and caused rough sea conditions in the South China Sea. Government Constitution The Constitution of Negeri Sembilan came into force on 26 March 1959. It is divided into two sections. The constitution establishes that the state's form of government is constitutional monarchy and the world's only elective monarchy for matrilineal society. The system was partially the basis for the federal monarchy. The Ruler The official constitutional title of the Ruler of the state are Duli Yang Maha Mulia Yang di-Pertuan Besar Negeri Sembilan, (currently Duli Yang Maha Mulia Yang di-Pertuan Besar Negeri Sembilan Darul Khusus Tuanku Muhriz ibni Almarhum Tuanku Munawir), Yang Teramat Mulia Undang of Sungei Ujong, Yang Teramat Mulia Undang of Jelebu, Yang Teramat Mulia Undang of Johol, Yang Teramat Mulia Undang of Rembau and Yang Teramat Mulia Tengku Besar Tampin and they holds office for life. The state's constitution proclaims the Yang di-Pertuan Besar, Undang of Sungei Ujong, Undang of Jelebu, Undang of Johol, Undang of Rembau and Tengku Besar Tampin are vested with the Executive Power of the state, are the Head of the Religion of Islam in the state and are the fountain of all honour and dignity for the state. The current Yang di-Pertuan Besar is His Royal Highness Tuanku Muhriz ibni Almarhum Tuanku Munawir. His Royal Highness succeeds Almarhum Tuanku Jaafar Ibni Almarhum Tuanku Abdul Rahman who died on 27 December 2008. Unlike Malaysia's eight other Royal Malay states, the Ruler of Negeri Sembilan is elected to his office by the territorial chiefs or Ruling Chiefs of the state. These Ruling Chiefs are titled Undang. Only four of the Undangs have the right to vote in the election for the Ruler of the State. They are: The Undang of Sungai Ujong The Undang of Jelebu The Undang of Johol The Undang of Rembau The Undang themselves cannot stand for election, and their choice of Ruler is limited to a male Muslim who is Malay and also a "lawfully begotten descendant of Raja Radin ibni Raja Lenggang". The Assembly convenes at the Wisma Negeri in the state capital, Seremban. Executive and Legislature The State Executive Council consists of the Menteri Besar, who is its chairman, and ten other members. The Menteri Besar and the other members of the council are appointed by the Yang Di-Pertuan Besar from the members of the State Assembly of the governing party or coalition. The current Menteri Besar or Chief Minister of the state is Aminuddin Harun. The unicameral Negeri Sembilan State Legislative Assembly is the state legislature of Negeri Sembilan. It consists of 36 members who represent single-member constituencies throughout the state. Elections are held no more than five years apart, and are usually conducted simultaneously with elections to the federal parliament. Departments Negeri Sembilan State Financial Office Negeri Sembilan Public Works Department Office of Lands and Mines Negeri Sembilan Negeri Sembilan Irrigation and Drainage Department Negeri Sembilan State Forestry Department Negeri Sembilan State Agriculture Department Negeri Sembilan Social Welfare Department Negeri Sembilan Town and Country Planning Department Department of Veterinary Services of Negeri Sembilan Negeri Sembilan State Mufti Department Negeri Sembilan State Islamic Religious Affairs Department Negeri Sembilan Syariah Judiciary Department Statutory bodies Negeri Sembilan State Islamic Religious Council Negeri Sembilan State Museum Board Negeri Sembilan Public Library Corporation Negeri Sembilan Foundation Negeri Sembilan State Development Corporation Administrative divisions The state comprises 7 districts, which in turn divided into 61 mukims. Demographics Ethnicity Negeri Sembilan has a collective population of 1,098,500 as of 2015; the ethnic composition consisting of Malays 622,000 (56.6%) (mostly are Minangkabau descent), other Bumiputras 20,700 (1.9%), Chinese 234,300 (21.3%), Indian 154,000 (14%), Others 4,200 (0.4%), and Non Citizens 63,300 (5.8%). The state has the highest percentage of Indians when compared to other Malaysian states. Up until today the state is known as the strongholds of Adat Perpatih in Malaysia. Religion According to the 2010 census, the population of Negeri Sembilan is 60.3% Muslim, 21.2% Buddhist, 13.4% Hindu, 2.4% Christian, 1.1% of unknown affiliation, 0.8% non-religious, 0.5% Taoist or Chinese religion follower, and 0.3% of followers of other religions. Statistics from the 2010 Census indicate that 92.9% of the Chinese population in Negeri Sembilan is identified as Buddhists, with significant minority of adherents identifying as Christians (3.6%), Chinese folk religions (1.9%) and Muslims (0.8%). The majority of the Indian population are Hindus (89.0%), with a significant minorities of numbers identifying as Christians (5.0%), Muslims (3.2%) and Buddhists (1.4%). The non-Malay Bumiputera community are predominantly Atheists (39.7%), with significant minorities identifying as Christians (28.3%) and Muslims (20.2%). All Malays are Muslims. Languages Negeri Sembilan is a multiethnic state in which every ethnic group speaks their respective languages and dialects. The Negeri Sembilanese people speak a unique variety of Malay known as Negeri Sembilan Malay or in their native language as Baso Nogoghi. It is not closely related to other varieties of Malay in Peninsular Malaysia but more closely related with Malay varieties spoken in neighbouring Sumatra especially varieties of Minangkabau. Besides Malays, the Chinese community also speak their languages and dialects. Orang Asli peoples like Temuans speak a language closely related to Malay. Standard Malay is widely used throughout the state. Tamil (mother tongue to Indian Tamils and Ceylon Tamils) is used as a lingua franca among the other minor Indian communities. Besides, a small number of Telugu, Malayalam and Punjabi exist in the towns of Negeri Sembilan. Economy The state's manufacturing sector contributes almost half of the state's gross domestic product (GDP), followed by services and tourism (40.3%), agriculture (6%), construction (2.2%) and mining (0.3%). Manufacturing activities include electrical supplies and electronics, textiles, furniture, chemicals, machinery, metal works and rubber products. The main industrial areas in Negeri Sembilan include Senawang, Bandar Sri Sendayan, Sungai Gadut, Bandar Enstek and Nilai in Seremban, Tanah Merah in Port Dickson and Chembong in Rembau. Notable companies also set up their plants in Negeri Sembilan, such as Kellogg's, Dutch Lady, Ajinomoto and Coca-Cola in Bandar Enstek, Hino Motors in Bandar Sri Sendayan, Yakult in Seremban 2, Samsung SDI, Onsemi and NXP Semiconductors in Senawang, and Nestlé in Chembong. Nestlé's Chembong plant is also the largest Milo manufacturer in the world, as well as the company's largest global centre of excellence. Negeri Sembilan is mainly an agricultural state. However, the establishment of several industrial estates enhanced the manufacturing sector as a significant contributor to the state economy. Two districts in the western half of the state - Seremban and Port Dickson - have been gazetted as part of the Malaysia Vision Valley (MVV, Malay: Lembah Wawasan Malaysia), a 1530 sq km new growth corridor conceived from the joint venture between Sime Darby and both the federal and state governments in 2015 as part of the National Transformation Agenda, the National Physical Plan (NPP), the Eleventh Malaysia Plan (11MP) and the 2045 Negeri Sembilan Structural Plan, in order to evenly balancing the existing development in the neighbouring Klang Valley area, providing ample space for the southern extension of the Greater Kuala Lumpur area, as well as to transform Negeri Sembilan into a developed state by 2045. As of 2022, the MVV is now in its second iteration, and is still undergoing development. Meanwhile, districts east of the MVV - Rembau, Kuala Pilah, Tampin and Jempol - are yet to be developed into an agropolis, to boost foodstuff production in the state and national levels respectively. The agricultural activity includes rubber and oil palm plantations, livestock, fruit orchards and vegetable farming. About 3,099 square kilometres are used for rubber and oil palm plantations. Culture The Minangkabau people brought along with them a cultural heritage which is still preserved and practised today as the adat perpatih, a matrilineal system of inheritance and administration that is unique to the state, where the husband is the head of the household and inheritance passes from the mother to the daughter. The Minangkabaus in Negeri Sembilan are divided into twelve suku (clans). Each of these suku is led by a chief, known as the Lembaga. Each suku is broken down into subunits known as the Perut, where each of them are led by a chief, either known as a Buapak (male) or Ibu Soko (female). Both the Buapak and Ibu Soko play a vital role as people to refer to regarding the adat and religious matters among the subordinates of the Perut, known as Anak Buah. Marriage between members of the same clan is forbidden. The twelve suku are known as the following, of which the names of each suku indicates the area where they hailed: Biduanda Seri Lemak Seri Melenggang Anak Aceh Anak Melaka Tiga Nenek Tiga Batu Tanah Datar Batu Hampar Payakumbuh Batu Belang Mungkal One perbilangan (customary poetry) sums up the traditional administrative system of the state: Alam beraja, Luak berpenghulu, Suku berlembaga, Anak buah berbuapak. The Minangkabau influence in the state can be found in dances and food as well. Performing arts Negeri Sembilan also has traditional music like the Caklempong, Dikir Rebana, Tumbuk Kalang, and Bongai. The musical instruments used to bear some semblance to Sumatra, the ancestral home of the Minangkabau people. Dances like the tarian lilin (candle dance) and rentak kuda (the beat of the horse) are popular in Negeri Sembilan and the coordinated movements of the dancers in their colorful costumes in the Tarian Piring and the upbeat tempo of Tarian Randai. Unlike modern dance, each beat, rhythm and movement in these dances combines to form a story, maybe of a bygone myth or simply a reflection of the lifestyles of another era. They are usually performed at traditional festivities, cultural events and dinner-cum-cultural shows. Transportation As in most other Asian cities, driving is the main choice in the state. there are three expressways serving the state, which are PLUS Highway, LEKAS Highway and Seremban–Port Dickson Highway. Public transportation covers a variety of transport modes such as bus, rail and taxi. For the bus services, it is operated by myBAS in the state. There are also 3 lines of free bus services in the Seremban and Jempol districts funded by the state government, now operated by MARA Liner. MARA Liner also operated 4 rural routes in Rembau and Tampin districts. Seremban has a main bus station which is Terminal One which connects Seremban with major places in Negeri Sembilan such as Kuala Pilah, Bahau, Rembau and Malaysia such as Alor Setar, Ipoh and Melaka. All bus companies that provide bus services are based here. For the rail services, Seremban Railway Station is the main station to the state capital - Seremban and part of the Klang Valley Integrated Transit System, while Gemas Railway Station in Tampin District is the interchange between West Coast and East Coast Line. The KTM Komuter, a commuter rail service, was introduced in 1995 as the first rail transit system to provide local rail services from Negeri Sembilan to Kuala Lumpur and the surrounding Klang Valley suburban areas. KTM Komuter's 175 km (109 mi) network in the Central Sector has 53 stations. It consists of two cross-city routes, namely the Port Klang Line (Tanjung Malim to Port Klang) and Seremban Line (Batu Caves to Pulau Sebang/Tampin). There are no civil airports in the state, while the nearest airport, Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) at Sepang, Selangor can be accessed via shuttle bus between Nilai Komuter station to the airport. Cuisine Traditional Negeri Sembilan food is typically very hot and spicy, as one of the ingredients used is the cili padi, one of the hottest types of chili peppers. Masak lemak cili api, a type of gulai made with turmeric and cili padi-infused coconut milk (santan), is a trademark dish in the cuisine of the state. The Negeri Sembilanese are also known for their penchant for smoked foods (known as salai in Malay), with examples include sembilang salai (smoked catfish), ayam salai (smoked chicken), etc., and these can also be cooked masak lemak cili api-style. Rendang, which is a rich dish of dry braised meat with herbs, spices and coconut milk, is also a well known fare in Negeri Sembilan, and there are variations of it according to the districts where the rendang originated, such as rendang maman from Gemencheh in Tampin District, made with maman leaves. Another Negeri Sembilan speciality is lemang, glutinous rice cooked in coconut milk in a bamboo stem over an open fire. This is normally served with rendang. Tourism Attractions in Negeri Sembilan include: Galeri Diraja Tuanku Ja'afar - is a gallery in Seremban, showcasing the life of former Negeri Sembilan Yang di-Pertuan Besar, Tuanku Ja'afar. Port Dickson – A famous weekend retreat for city dwellers, said to have been named after British officer John Frederick Dickson in 1889. Port Dickson is known for its high-end hotel establishments, army bases, pristine beaches facing the Strait of Malacca, and a lot more. Seri Menanti Royal Museum – Originally a palace for the Negeri Sembilan Royal family until 1992, this five-storey wooden palace was built using no nails or screws. The palace exhibits costumes, weaponry, bed chambers as well as documents on the royal lineage on display in the museum Army Museum – Located in the Port Dickson suburb of Sirusa, it is the largest military museum in Malaysia. The Army Museum (Malay: Muzium Tentera Darat) exhibits artefacts in regards to the history of the Malaysian Army. Mount Datuk - Located in Rembau, this 884-metre peak provides a good work out and excellent views from the top, which also include the Strait of Malacca, visible from the peak on a clear day. It is easily accessible via a day trip from Kuala Lumpur. Mount Angsi - Standing at , it is the seventh highest peak in Negeri Sembilan, after Mounts Besar Hantu (), Hantu Kecil (), Telapak Buruk (), Berembun (), Datuk () and Bintongan (). It is even closer to Kuala Lumpur and is a popular climbing spot. The mountain is located on the border between Seremban and Kuala Pilah Districts. Lukut Fort and Museum - In Lukut, the tourists can wander among the hilltop remains of a 19th-century fort before visiting the neighbouring Lukut Museum which contains a Lukut Historical Gallery and other interesting artefacts. Penarikan Portage - the spot close to Bahau town is Jalan Penarikan where boats were carried over the short gap between eastbound and westbound rivers of the Malay Peninsula allowing movement between both coasts of the peninsula. It is described as the first east–west land route in Malaysian history. Teratak Za'aba - Pendeta Za'aba, whose real name was Zainal Abidin Ahmad, was a renowned Malay scholar and linguist who contributed a lot in shaping the modern Malay language. This museum, dedicated to him, is located at his birthplace in Kampung Bukit Kerdas, Batu Kikir near Bahau. Megalithic sites - Negeri Sembilan is home to a number of megalithic sites of historical significance, such as in Terachi in Kuala Pilah District, Repah in Tampin District and Pengkalan Kempas in Port Dickson District. Gemencheh Bridge (Sungai Kelamah) Memorial - This memorial marks the site of a battle at Gemencheh Bridge during World War II where Allied forces ambushed advancing Japanese troops. Many people died here. Gemas Railway Museum - Gemas, Tampin District is a town known for being located on the junction between the east coast and west coast lines of the Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad's (KTMB) railway network. Previously, the museum's building was the former Gemas railway station, which ceased operations in 2013 after 91 years of service, coincident to the completion of the new station building, as part of the electrification and double tracking of the Seremban-Gemas section of the West Coast Line. Pasoh Caves - Located in Pasoh Forest Reserve, Jelebu, the Pasoh Caves complex holds the distinction of being the southernmost karst cave in Peninsular Malaysia as well as the first Paleolithic site discovered in the southern region, following the discovery of some artifacts as old as 14,000 years, in an excavation conducted by the Science University of Malaysia (USM). Batu Maloi Cave - Located in Johol, Kuala Pilah District, the Batu Maloi Cave is a 2.4-kilometre long talus cave made up of fallen boulders of granite with a river flowing through it. Said to be the longest granite cave in Malaysia, and is popular among cavers. Kenaboi State Park - Located in Jelebu, Kenaboi State Park is nestled in the lush million-year old rainforest and peaks of the Titiwangsa Mountains. The nature reserve is famous for being the main entry point to the tallest mountain in Negeri Sembilan, Mount Besar Hantu (1,462 m) and natural landmarks such as Lata Kijang, Lata Dinding and Lata Berungut. Mount Tampin - Located in Tampin in the southern corner of the state, Mount Tampin is the geographical southern terminus of the Titiwangsa Mountains, at an elevation of 764 m. Education Negeri Sembilan has several tertiary education institutions. Most of these education institutions are concentrated in major towns in Negeri Sembilan. The list below represents public and private university based in Negeri Sembilan state: Public universities Private universities and university colleges Health care There are public hospitals and private hospitals in Negeri Sembilan: Public Hospitals Hospital Tuanku Jaafar, Seremban Hospital Tuanku Ampuan Najihah, Kuala Pilah Hospital Port Dickson Hospital Tampin Hospital Jelebu Hospital Jempol Hospital Rembau Private Hospitals Nilai Medical Centre Seremban Specialist Hospital Columbia Asia Medical Centre - Seremban Senawang Specialist Hospital NSCMH Medical Centre Columbia Asia Hospital Mawar Medical Centre Notable people Zaquan Adha, professional footballer Nabil Ahmad, comedian, actor and television personality Zainal Abidin Ahmad, better known by his pen name Za'aba, Malay linguist and writer Wan Aishah Wan Ariffin, known mononymously as Aishah, singer and politician Abdul Ghafar Baba, former Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia Azam Baki, head of MACC Shamsiah Fakeh, feminist and nationalist, one of the prominent figures of Angkatan Wanita Sedar (AWAS). Mohamad Hasan, deputy leader of both UMNO and BN, 10th Menteri Besar of Negeri Sembilan and current Minister of Defence Shah Indrawan Ismail, also known by his stage name Tomok, singer Khairy Jamaluddin, politician and radio personality Fish Leong, singer Anthony Loke, Secretary-General of the DAP and current Minister of Transport Rosmah Mansor, wife of sixth Prime Minister Najib Razak Abdul Ghani Minhat, former professional footballer Tuanku Abdul Rahman ibni Almarhum Tuanku Muhammad, eighth Yamtuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan and the first Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia Siti Nordiana, singer Tuanku Jaafar ibni Almarhum Tuanku Abdul Rahman, 10th Yamtuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan, as well as the 10th Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia Dol Said, nationalist and rebel leader, known for his involvement in the Naning War. Yong Nyuk Lin, former Singaporean politician Rais Yatim, eighth Menteri Besar of Negeri Sembilan and current President of the Dewan Negara Aidil Zafuan, professional footballer See also Overseas Minangkabau References External links Official site of Negeri Sembilan State Government Tourism Malaysia – Negeri Sembilan Negeri Sembilan travel guide written and maintained by locals Peninsular Malaysia States of Malaysia Minangkabau Strait of Malacca
376458
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilio%20Segr%C3%A8
Emilio Segrè
Emilio Gino Segrè (1 February 1905 – 22 April 1989) was an Italian-born American physicist and Nobel laureate, who discovered the elements technetium and astatine, and the antiproton, a subatomic antiparticle, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1959 along with Owen Chamberlain. Born in Tivoli, near Rome, Segrè studied engineering at the University of Rome La Sapienza before taking up physics in 1927. Segrè was appointed assistant professor of physics at the University of Rome in 1932 and worked there until 1936, becoming one of the Via Panisperna boys. From 1936 to 1938 he was director of the Physics Laboratory at the University of Palermo. After a visit to Ernest O. Lawrence's Berkeley Radiation Laboratory, he was sent a molybdenum strip from the laboratory's cyclotron accelerator in 1937, which was emitting anomalous forms of radioactivity. Using careful chemical and theoretical analysis, Segrè was able to prove that some of the radiation was being produced by a previously unknown element, named technetium, the first artificially synthesized chemical element that does not occur in nature. In 1938, Benito Mussolini's fascist government passed antisemitic laws barring Jews from university positions. As a Jew, Segrè was rendered an indefinite émigré. At the Berkeley Radiation Lab, Lawrence offered him a job as a research assistant. There, Segrè helped discover the element astatine and the isotope plutonium-239, which was later used to make the Fat Man nuclear bomb dropped on Nagasaki. From 1943 to 1946 he worked at the Los Alamos National Laboratory as a group leader for the Manhattan Project. He found in April 1944 that Thin Man, the proposed plutonium gun-type nuclear weapon, would not work due to the presence of plutonium-240 impurities. In 1944, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. On his return to Berkeley in 1946, he became a professor of physics and of history of science, serving until 1972. Segrè and Owen Chamberlain co-headed a research group at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory that discovered the antiproton, for which the two shared the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physics. Segrè was an active photographer who took many pictures documenting events and people in the history of modern science, which were donated to the American Institute of Physics after his death. The American Institute of Physics named its photographic archive of physics history in his honor. Early life Emilio Gino Segrè was born into a Sephardic Jewish family in Tivoli, near Rome, on 1 February 1905, the son of Giuseppe Segrè, a businessman who owned a paper mill, and Amelia Susanna Treves. He had two older brothers, Angelo and Marco. His uncle, Gino Segrè, was a law professor. He was educated at the ginnasio in Tivoli and, after the family moved to Rome in 1917, the ginnasio and liceo in Rome. He graduated in July 1922 and enrolled in the University of Rome La Sapienza as an engineering student. In 1927, Segrè met Franco Rasetti, who introduced him to Enrico Fermi. The two young physics professors were looking for talented students. They attended the Volta Conference at Como in September 1927, where Segrè heard lectures from notable physicists including Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Robert Millikan, Wolfgang Pauli, Max Planck and Ernest Rutherford. Segrè then joined Fermi and Rasetti at their laboratory in Rome. With the help of the director of the Institute of Physics, Orso Mario Corbino, Segrè was able to transfer to physics, and, studying under Fermi, earned his laurea degree in July 1928, with a thesis on "Anomalous Dispersion and Magnetic Rotation". After a stint in the Italian Army from 1928 to 1929, during which he was a commissioned as a second lieutenant in the antiaircraft artillery, Segrè returned to the laboratory on Via Panisperna. He published his first article, which summarised his thesis, "On anomalous dispersion in mercury and in lithium", jointly with Edoardo Amaldi in 1928, and another article with him the following year on the Raman effect. In 1930, Segrè began studying the Zeeman effect in certain alkaline metals. When his progress stalled because the diffraction grating he required to continue was not available in Italy, he wrote to four laboratories elsewhere in Europe asking for assistance and received an invitation from Pieter Zeeman to finish his work at Zeeman's laboratory in Amsterdam. Segrè was awarded a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship and, on Fermi's advice, elected to use it to study under Otto Stern in Hamburg. Working with Otto Frisch on space quantization produced results that apparently did not agree with the current theory; but Isidor Isaac Rabi showed that theory and experiment were in agreement if the nuclear spin of potassium was +1/2. Physics professor Segrè was appointed assistant professor of physics at the University of Rome in 1932 and worked there until 1936, becoming one of the Via Panisperna boys. In 1934, he met Elfriede Spiro, a Jewish woman whose family had come from Ostrowo in West Prussia, but had fled to Breslau when that part of Prussia became part of Poland after World War I. After the Nazi Party came to power in Germany in 1933, she had emigrated to Italy, where she worked as a secretary and an interpreter. At first she did not speak Italian well, and Segrè and Spiro conversed in German, in which he was fluent. The two were married at the Great Synagogue of Rome on 2 February 1936. He agreed with the rabbi to spend the minimal amount on the wedding, giving the balance of what would be spent on a luxury wedding to Jewish refugees from Germany. The rabbi managed to give them many of the trappings of a luxury wedding anyway. The couple had three children: Claudio, born in 1937, Amelia Gertrude Allegra, born in 1937, and Fausta Irene, born in 1945. After marrying, Segrè sought a stable job and became professor of physics and director of the Physics Institute at the University of Palermo. He found the equipment there primitive and the library bereft of modern physics literature, but his colleagues at Palermo included the mathematicians Michele Cipolla and Michele De Franchis, the mineralogist Carlo Perrier and the botanist . In 1936 he paid a visit to Ernest O. Lawrence's Berkeley Radiation Laboratory, where he met Edwin McMillan, Donald Cooksey, Franz Kurie, Philip Abelson and Robert Oppenheimer. Segrè was intrigued by the radioactive scrap metal that had once been part of the laboratory's cyclotron. In Palermo, this was found to contain a number of radioactive isotopes. In February 1937, Lawrence sent him a molybdenum strip that was emitting anomalous forms of radioactivity. Segrè enlisted Perrier's help to subject the strip to careful chemical and theoretical analysis, and they were able to prove that some of the radiation was being produced by a previously unknown element. In 1947 they named it technetium, as it was the first artificially synthesized chemical element. Radiation Laboratory In June 1938, Segrè paid a summer visit to California to study the short-lived isotopes of technetium, which did not survive being mailed to Italy. While Segrè was en route, Benito Mussolini's fascist government passed racial laws barring Jews from university positions. As a Jew, Segrè was now rendered an indefinite émigré. The Czechoslovakian crisis prompted Segrè to send for Elfriede and Claudio, as he now feared that war in Europe was inevitable. In November 1938 and February 1939 they made quick trips to Mexico to exchange their tourist visas for immigration visa. Both Segrè and Elfriede held grave fears for the fate of their parents in Italy and Germany. At the Berkeley Radiation Lab, Lawrence offered Segrè a job as a research assistant—a relatively lowly position for someone who had discovered an element—for a month for six months. When Lawrence learned that Segrè was legally trapped in California, he took advantage of the situation to reduce Segrè's salary to $116 a month. Working with Glenn Seaborg, Segrè isolated the metastable isotope technetium-99m. Its properties made it ideal for use in nuclear medicine, and it is now used in about 10 million medical diagnostic procedures annually. Segrè went looking for element 93, but did not find it, as he was looking for an element chemically akin to rhenium instead of a rare-earth element, which is what element 93 was. Working with Alexander Langsdorf, Jr., and Chien-Shiung Wu, he discovered xenon-135, which later became important as a nuclear poison in nuclear reactors. Segrè then turned his attention to another missing element on the periodic table, element 85. After he announced how he intended to create it by bombarding bismuth-209 with alpha particles at a Monday meeting Radiation Laboratory meeting, two of his colleagues, Dale R. Corson and Robert A. Cornog carried out his proposed experiment. Segrè then asked whether he could do the chemistry and, with Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, successfully isolated the new element, which is today called astatine. Segrè and Wu then attempted to find the last remaining missing non-transuranic element, element 61. They had the correct technique for making it, but lacked the chemical methods to separate it. He also worked with Seaborg, McMillan, Joseph W. Kennedy and Arthur C. Wahl to create plutonium-239 in Lawrence's cyclotron in December 1940. Manhattan Project The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 and the subsequent United States declaration of war upon Italy rendered Segrè an enemy alien and cut him off from communication with his parents. Physicists began leaving the Radiation Laboratory to do war work, and Raymond T. Birge asked him to teach classes to the remaining students. This provided a useful supplement to Segrè's income, and he established important friendships and professional associations with some of these students, who included Owen Chamberlain and Clyde Wiegand. In late 1942, Oppenheimer asked Segrè to join the Manhattan Project at its Los Alamos Laboratory. Segrè became the head of the laboratory's P-5 (Radioactivity) Group, which formed part of Robert Bacher's P (Experimental Physics) Division. For security reasons, he was given the cover name of Earl Seaman. He moved to Los Alamos with his family in June 1943. Segrè's group set up its equipment in a disused Forest Service cabin in the Pajarito Canyon near Los Alamos in August 1943. His group's task was to measure and catalog the radioactivity of various fission products. An important line of research was determining the degree of isotope enrichment achieved with various samples of enriched uranium. Initially, the tests using mass spectrometry, used by Columbia University, and neutron assay, used by Berkeley, gave different results. Segrè studied Berkeley's results and could find no error, while Kenneth Bainbridge likewise found no fault with New York's. However, analysis of another sample showed close agreement. Higher rates of spontaneous fission were observed at Los Alamos, which Segrè's group concluded were due to cosmic rays, which were more prevalent at Los Alamos due to its high altitude. The group measured the activity of thorium, uranium-234, uranium-235 and uranium-238, but only had access to microgram quantities of plutonium-239. The first sample plutonium produced in the nuclear reactor at Oak Ridge was received in April 1944. Within days the group observed five times the rate of spontaneous fission as with the cyclotron-produced plutonium. This was not news that the leaders of the project wanted to hear. It meant that Thin Man, the proposed plutonium gun-type nuclear weapon, would not work and implied that the project's investment in plutonium production facilities at the Hanford Site was wasted. Segrè's group carefully checked their results and concluded that the increased activity was due to the plutonium-240 isotope. In June 1944, Segrè was summoned into Oppenheimer's office and informed that while his father was safe, his mother had been rounded up by the Nazis in October 1943. Segrè never saw either of his parents again. His father died in Rome in October 1944. In late 1944, Segrè and Elfriede became naturalized citizens of the United States. His group, now designated R-4, was given responsibility for measuring the gamma radiation from the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945. The blast damaged or destroyed most of the experiments, but enough data was recovered to measure the gamma rays. Later life In August 1945, a few days before the surrender of Japan and the end of World War II, Segrè received an offer from Washington University in St. Louis of an associate professorship with a salary of . The following month, the University of Chicago also made him an offer. After some prompting, Birge offered $6,500 and a full professorship, which Segrè decided to accept. He left Los Alamos in January 1946 and returned to Berkeley. In the late 1940s, many academics left the University of California, lured away by higher-salary offers and by the University's peculiar loyalty oath requirement. Segrè chose to take the oath and stay, but this did not allay suspicions about his loyalty. Luis Alvarez was incensed that Amaldi, Fermi, Pontecorvo, Rasetti and Segrè had chosen to pursue patent claims against the United States for their pre-war discoveries and told Segrè to let him know when Pontecorvo wrote from Russia. He also clashed with Lawrence over the latter's plan to create a rival nuclear-weapons laboratory to Los Alamos in Livermore, California, in order to develop the hydrogen bomb, a weapon that Segrè felt would be of dubious utility. Unhappy with his deteriorating relationships with his colleagues and with the poisonous political atmosphere at Berkeley caused by the loyalty oath controversy, Segrè accepted a job offer from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. The courts ultimately resolved the patent claims in the Italian scientists' favour in 1953, awarding them for the patents related to generating neutrons, which worked out to about $20,000 after legal costs. Kennedy, Seaborg, Wahl and Segrè were subsequently awarded the same amount for their discovery of plutonium, which came to $100,000 after being divided four ways, there being no legal fees this time. After turning down offers from IBM and the Brookhaven National Laboratory, Segrè returned to Berkeley in 1952. He was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences that same year. He moved his family from Berkeley to nearby Lafayette, California, in 1955. Working with Chamberlain and others, he began searching for the antiproton, a subatomic antiparticle of the proton. The antiparticle of the electron, the positron had been predicted by Paul Dirac in 1931 and then discovered by Carl D. Anderson in 1932. By analogy, it was now expected that there would be an antiparticle corresponding to the proton, but no one had found one, and even in 1955 some scientists doubted that it existed. Using Lawrence's Bevatron set to 6 GeV, they managed to detect conclusive evidence of antiprotons. Chamberlain and Segrè were awarded the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery. This was controversial, because Clyde Wiegand and Thomas Ypsilantis were co-authors of the same article, but did not share the prize. Segrè served on the University's powerful Budget Committee from 1961 to 1965 and was chairman of the Physics Department from 1965 to 1966. He supported Teller's successful bid to separate the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory from the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory in 1970. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1963. He was one of the trustees of Fermilab from 1965 to 1968. He attended its inauguration with Laura Fermi in 1974. During the 1950s, Segrè edited Fermi's papers. He later published a biography of Fermi, Enrico Fermi: Physicist (1970). He published his own lecture notes as From X-rays to Quarks: Modern Physicists and Their Discoveries (1980) and From Falling Bodies to Radio Waves: Classical Physicists and Their Discoveries (1984). He also edited the Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science from 1958 to 1977 and wrote an autobiography, A Mind Always in Motion (1993), which was published posthumously. Elfriede died in October 1970, and Segrè married Rosa Mines in February 1972. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1973. That year he reached the University of California's compulsory retirement age. He continued teaching the history of physics. In 1974 he returned to the University of Rome as a professor, but served only a year before reaching the mandatory retirement age. Segrè died from a heart attack at the age of 84 while out walking near his home in Lafayette. Active as a photographer, Segrè took many photos documenting events and people in the history of modern science. After his death Rosa donated many of his photographs to the American Institute of Physics, which named its photographic archive of physics history in his honor. The collection was bolstered by a subsequent bequest from Rosa after her death from an accident in Tivoli in 1997. Notes See also List of Jewish Nobel laureates References Bibliography E. Segrè (1964). Nuclei and Particles. E. Segrè (1970). Enrico Fermi, Physicist, University of Chicago Press. eBook published by Plunkett Lake Press (2016). . E. Segrè (1980). From X-rays to Quarks: Modern Physicists and Their Discoveries (Dover Classics of Science & Mathematics), Dover Publications. E. Segrè (1984). From Falling Bodies to Radio Waves: Classical Physicists and Their Discoveries. Free Online – UC Press E-Books Collection. eBook published by Plunkett Lake Press (2016). . Further reading Segrè, E; et.al. "Formation of the 50-Year Element 94 from Deuteron Bombardment of U238", (June 1942), Argonne National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission). Segrè, E. "Spontaneous Fission", (22 November 1950), Radiation Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission). Segrè, E. (1953) Experimental Nuclear Physics. Segrè, E; et.al. "Observation of Antiprotons", (19 October 1955), Radiation Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission). Segrè, E; et.al. "Antiprotons", (29 November 1955), Radiation Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission). Segrè, E; et.al. "The Antiproton-Nucleon Annihilation Process (Antiproton Collaboration Experiment)", (10 September 1956), Radiation Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission). Segrè, E; et.al. "Experiments on Antiprotons: Antiproton-Nucleon Cross Sections", (22 July 1957), Radiation Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission). External links 1965 Audio Interview with Emilio Segre by Stephane Groueff Voices of the Manhattan Project Oral History transcripts with Emilio G. Segre, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives including his Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1959 Properties of Antinucleons Archival collections Emilio Segre lectures and other collected recordings, 1968-1997, Niels Bohr Library & Archives 1905 births 1989 deaths People from Tivoli, Lazio Sapienza University of Rome alumni Academic staff of the Sapienza University of Rome Nobel laureates in Physics Italian Nobel laureates 20th-century Italian physicists Discoverers of chemical elements Experimental physicists Italian emigrants to the United States 20th-century Italian Jews Jewish physicists Manhattan Project people Fellows of the American Physical Society University of California, Berkeley faculty Academic staff of the University of Palermo Rare earth scientists Italian exiles People from Los Alamos, New Mexico Italian Sephardi Jews Annual Reviews (publisher) editors Time Person of the Year Members of the American Philosophical Society
376473
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian%20Islamic%20Party
Malaysian Islamic Party
The Malaysian Islamic Party, also known as the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (; ) or its Jawi-based acronym PAS, is an Islamist political party in Malaysia. Ideologically focused on Islamic fundamentalism, PAS's electoral base is largely centered around Peninsular Malaysia's rural and eastern coasts and conservative northern, particularly in the states of Kelantan, Terengganu, Perlis, & Kedah. They also gained significant support in the rural areas of Perak and Pahang in the last 2022 Malaysian general election & 2023 Malaysian state elections; dubbed as the "Green Wave". The party was a component party of the then governing Perikatan Nasional (PN) coalition which came to power as a result of the 2020–21 Malaysian political crisis. The party governs either solely or as coalition partners in the states of Kelantan, Terengganu, Kedah, Perlis and Sabah. In the past, it was a coalition partner in the state governments of Penang and Selangor as part of the federal opposition between 2008 and 2018. Since the 2022 Malaysian general election, the party holds 43 of the 222 seats in the federal Dewan Rakyat, being the largest individual party, and has elected parliamentarians or state assembly members in eight of the country's 13 states. Internationally, PAS is affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood. History Origins The post-World War II period, while Malaya was still under British colonial rule, saw the emergence of the country's first formal Islamic political movements. The Malay Nationalist Party (MNP), a left-wing nationalist organisation, was formed in October 1945 and led by Burhanuddin al-Helmy, who would later become the president of PAS. Out of the MNP arose the Pan Malayan Supreme Islamic Council (Majlis Agama Tertinggi Sa-Malaya or MATA) in 1947, and MATA in turn formed the party Hizbul Muslimin (Muslim People's Party of Malaya) in 1948. The central aim of Hizbul Muslimin was the establishment of an independent Malaya as an Islamic state. However, the party did not live beyond 1948. The Malayan Emergency of that year, while a British–Communist dispute, saw the colonial administration arrest a number of the party's leaders, and the nascent group disbanded. Nevertheless, the party served as a forerunner to PAS, supplying both the ideology upon which PAS was formed and some of PAS's key leaders in its early years. Party formation PAS was founded on 24 November 1951, as the Persatuan Islam Sa-Malaya (Pan Malayan Islamic Union) at a meeting in Butterworth, Penang. Shortly after it was renamed Persatuan Islam sa-Tanah Melayu (Tanah Melayu means "Land of the Malays" and was used by Malays to mean Malaya). It became known as the Pan Malayan Islamic Party (PMIP) before the 1955 election as the registrar of society required it to incorporate the word "party" into its name. Its acronym PAS, originally used in Malay but became more widely adopted in the 1970s, is based the written form in Jawi (ڤاس). The formation of the party was the culmination of a growing desire among Muslim clerics within the United Malays National Organisation to formalise a discrete Islamic political organisation. However, the lines between UMNO and the new party were initially blurred. PAS allowed dual membership of both parties, and many of its early senior leaders were also UMNO members. The party's first president was Ahmad Fuad Hassan, an UMNO cleric. He lasted in the position only until 1953, when he fell out of favour with the party, which was now developing a more distinct identity, and returned to the UMNO fold. Fuad's departure coincided with the end of dual membership. The party turned to Abbas Alias, a Western-educated medical doctor, as its second president, although he did not play an active role in the party and was little more than a nominal figurehead. The party's first electoral test was the pre-independence 1955 election to the Federal Legislative Council, the body that preceded the national parliament. 52 single-member seats were up for election; PAS fielded 11 candidates. Hampered by a lack of funds and party organisation, PAS succeeded in having only one candidate elected: Ahmad Tuan Hussein, a teacher at an Islamic school in Kerian, Perak. He was the only opposition member of the council; the other 51 seats were won by members of the Alliance coalition between UMNO, the Malaysian Chinese Association and the Malaysian Indian Congress. PAS' performance in the election weakened its hand in negotiations with the British over the terms of Malayan independence. Its advocacy for the protection of Malay and Muslim rights, including the recognition of Islam as the country's official religion, was ignored. Alias stepped down from the presidency in 1956, handing it voluntarily to the radical nationalist Burhanuddin al-Helmy. This change exemplified a broader trend among PAS's leadership in the late 1950s: the party's upper echelons gradually became filled with nationalists and long-time UMNO opponents, replacing the UMNO clerics who had initially led the party. Left-wing Islamism Burhanuddin al-Helmy, a prominent anti-colonialist, steered PAS in a socialist and nationalist direction and set about strengthening the party's internal structure and geographic reach. In the 1959 election, Malaya's first since independence, the party's focus on rural constituencies, especially in the north, paid off. Thirteen PAS candidates were elected to the 104-member House of Representatives, and the party took control of the legislative assemblies of the northern states of Kelantan and Terengganu. However, Burhanuddin's leftist Pas-Islamism, under which PAS sought greater ties between the Muslim peoples of Malaya and the Indonesian archipelago, soon led the party into a wedge. The Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation of 1963–66 turned popular Malayan opinion against Indonesia. PAS's attacks on Tunku Abdul Rahman's Alliance government for seeking Western assistance during the confrontation, and the party's continued support for Southeast Asian PAS-Islamism, led to a loss of support in the 1964 election. The party's parliamentary cohort was reduced to nine. The party became further marginalised the following year, when Burhanuddin was detained without trial under the Internal Security Act on allegations that he had collaborated with Indonesia. Political circumstances in the country had changed by the 1969 election. The Konfrontasi had ended, Burhanuddin had been released from custody although was too ill to campaign actively, and the Alliance coalition was suffering from internal division as well as unpopularity. PAS' vote rose to over 20 percent of the national electorate, netting the party 12 seats in Parliament. However, the parliament would not convene until 1971 as the 13 May race riots resulted in the declaration of a state of emergency. The country would be run by a National Operations Council for the following two years. In the meantime, Burhanuddin died in October 1969 and was replaced as PAS' president by his deputy, Asri Muda. Pivot to Malay nationalism Asri came to the presidency having been PAS's de facto leader during Burhanuddin's long illness. But this did not mean a seamless transition for the party. While Burhanuddin had been sympathetic to left-wing causes and parties in Malaysia, Asri was first and foremost a Malay nationalist, and was hostile to leftist politics. One of his first acts as President of PAS was to part ways with the party's opposition allies on the left, such as the Malaysian People's Party. Ideologically, Asri's presidency would see the party shift markedly away from the Pas-Islamism of Burhanuddin. The party became principally concerned with the protection and advancement of the rights of ethnic Malays. The party's activities also became solely focused on party politics, as reflected in the change of its name in 1971 from the "Persatuan Islam Se-Malaysia" (Pan-Malaysian Islamic Association) to the "Parti Islam Se-Malaysia" (Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party, but commonly referred to as Parti Islam, or PAS). However, Asri's most radical change was still to come. In January 1972, he announced that PAS would be joining the Alliance Party coalition (which would soon rebrand itself as Barisan Nasional) as a junior partner to its main rival UMNO. The move was controversial within PAS, and some of its members and senior leaders either left the party or were purged by Asri. Asri's principal justification for joining UMNO in a coalition government was that after the 1969 race riots, Malay unity was paramount, and that this required a partnership between the country's two ethnic-Malay political parties. Asri himself was given a ministerial position in the cabinet of prime minister Abdul Razak Hussein. The 1974 election saw PAS competing under the Barisan Nasional banner for the first and only time. The party won 14 parliamentary seats to UMNO's 62, cementing PAS's position as the junior of the coalition partners. PAS also found itself governing in coalition in Kelantan, which it had previously governed in its own right. PAS's vote in its northern strongholds was weakened by a loss of support to both its former opposition allies and renegade PAS candidates running on anti-Barisan Nasional tickets. Ultimately, it was Kelantan, Asri's home state and the base of political power, that would trigger the downfall of the UMNO–PAS partnership. After a conflict between Asri and the UMNO-favoured chief minister of the state, Mohamed Nasir, over investigations that Nasir initiated into Asri's financial dealings, Asri mobilised the PAS members of the Kelantan State Legislative Assembly to move a no-confidence motion against Nasir. The UMNO assemblymen staged a walk-out, abandoning Asri, driving an irreparable wedge through the coalition and causing a political crisis in the state. The Prime Minister Hussein Onn declared an emergency in the state, allowing the federal government to take control. Asri withdrew PAS from Barisan Nasional in December 1977. The 1978 election underscored how disastrous PAS's foray into the Barisan Nasional had been. The party was reduced to five parliamentary seats and, in separate state-level elections in Kelantan, was routed by UMNO and the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Front (BERJASA), which Nasir had founded after leaving PAS. The party's fortunes in the Kelantan election were not helped by a ban on public election rallies; while the Barisan Nasional was able to campaign through a compliant mass media, public talks were the principal way in which PAS could reach voters. PAS fared little better in the 1982 election. In the face of a new prime minister, Mahathir Mohamad, and the decision of the popular Islamist youth leader Anwar Ibrahim to join UMNO instead of PAS, the party was unable to improve on its five parliamentary seats and failed to regain government in Kelantan. Meanwhile, the 1978 to 1982 period coincided with the rise of a new generation of leaders within the party, including foreign-educated Muslim clerics (or "ulama") such as Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat and Abdul Hadi Awang. This group sought to reorient PAS as an Islamist party and were fundamentally hostile to UMNO, whose Malay nationalist focus they saw to be at the expense of Islam. In 1980 the group succeeded in electing Yusof Rawa to the deputy presidency of the party, ousting the Asri loyalist Abu Bakar Omar. By the time of PAS's 1982 assembly, it was clear to Asri that the ulama faction had the numbers to defeat him. He resigned on the floor of the assembly, and subsequently attacked the party through the media, leading to his expulsion and the formation of splinter party, Parti Hizbul Muslimin Malaysia (HAMIM) by Asri in 1983. The following year, in 1983, Yusof was elevated to the presidency, unopposed. Ulama takeover The ulama who took over PAS in 1982 drew from the 1979 Iranian revolution for inspiration in establishing an Islamic state; Yusof Rawa himself had served as Malaysia's Ambassador to Iran in the years preceding the revolution. Yusof openly rejected the Malay nationalism that characterised both UMNO and PAS under Asri Muda, considering it a narrow and ignorant philosophy that was contrary to the concept of a Muslim ummah. As if to exemplify the shift in the party's ideological outlook under Yusof and his ulama colleagues, the party's new leaders adopted a more conservative and religious form of dress, abandoning Malay and western clothing for traditional Arab religious garb. Politics between UMNO and PAS became increasingly religious in nature. The Barisan Nasional government tried to counter the possible electoral appeal of PAS's Islamisation by creating a number of state-run Islamic institutions, such as the International Islamic University of Malaysia. PAS leaders responded by labelling such initiatives as superficial and hypocritical, UMNO leaders as "infidels", and UMNO as the "party of the devil". The increasingly divisive rhetoric between UMNO and PAS produced deep divisions in Malay communities, especially in the northern states. Sometimes the divisions became violent, the most infamous example being the 1985 Memali incident, in which the government sanctioned a raid on a village led by the PAS cleric Ibrahim Libya, which left 14 civilians and four policemen dead. It was against this backdrop that the PAS ulama faced their first general election in 1986. The result was a whitewash for the Barisan Nasional coalition. PAS recorded its worst-ever election result, retaining only one seat in Parliament. PAS, in recovering from the defeat, had no choice but to retreat from its hardline Islamism and pursue a moderate course. By 1989, Yusof had become too ill to remain as PAS's president, and was replaced by his deputy, Fadzil Noor, another member of the ulama faction that now dominated the party. Electoral revival in the 1990s While not abandoning PAS's ideological commitment to the establishment of an Islamic state, Fadzil Noor moderated the party's rhetoric. He also set about infusing the party's membership with young urban professionals in an attempt to diversify the leadership ranks beyond religious clerics. The 1990s also saw PAS engage in international Islamist movements. Abdul Hadi Awang became active in a number of international Islamic organisations and delegations, and Islamist parties abroad sent delegations to Malaysia to observe PAS. The first electoral test of Fadzil's presidency was the 1990 election, which occurred against the backdrop of a split in UMNO out of which the Semangat 46 opposition party was formed. PAS joined Semangat 46 and two other Malay parties in the United Ummah Front ("Angkatan Perpaduan Ummah"), and won seven parliamentary seats. The new coalition swept the Barisan Nasional from power in Kelantan, winning all of its state assembly seats. Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat, a cleric who played a leading role in the 1982 takeover of the party, became Kelantan's Chief Minister, and would remain in the position until his retirement in 2013. One of the first acts of the PAS-led government in Kelantan was to seek to introduce hudud, a criminal punishment system for particular Islamic offences. The move was abandoned after it became clear that the law could not be enforced over the objections of the federal government. PAS retained its seven parliamentary seats and the government of Kelantan in the 1995 election while all other opposition parties lost ground. By the time of the next election in 1999, circumstances external to PAS had changed its fortunes for the better. The 1997 Asian financial crisis split the Barisan Nasional government between supporters of the Prime Minister, Mahathir Mohamad, and his deputy, Anwar Ibrahim. Mahathir's sacking and subsequent detention without trial of Anwar in 1998 provoked widespread opposition, which PAS capitalised on more than any other opposition party. The party ran a sophisticated campaign for the 1999 election, taking advantage of the internet to bypass restrictions on print publications and managing to woo urban professional voters while retaining its traditional rural support base. For the first time, PAS joined the centre-left and secular Democratic Action Party in the Barisan Alternatif coalition which included the new party Keadilan, which was formed by Wan Azizah Wan Ismail, the wife of the now imprisoned Anwar. It resulted in PAS's second best electoral performance (behind those of 2022 general election). The party took 27 of 192 parliamentary seats and had landslide state-level victories in Kelantan and Terengganu. PAS in the Pakatan Rakyat The death of Fadzil Noor in 2002, and his replacement by the conservative cleric Abdul Hadi Awang, coincided with a period of division within the party between its younger and professional leaders, who sought to make PAS's Islamist ideology more appealing to mainstream Malaysia, and its conservative, and generally older, clerics. The party was unable to reconcile the views of the two factions with a coherent definition of the "Islamic state" that the party's platform envisioned. The debate itself caused the DAP to break with the Barisan Alternatif coalition; as a secular party with mainly an ethnic Chinese support base, it could not support the vision of an Islamic state propagated by PAS's conservatives. PAS also found itself losing Malay support following the replacement of Mahathir as Prime Minister with Abdullah Badawi, a popular and moderate Muslim, and post-September 11 fears among the electorate about radical Islam in Southeast Asia. If the 1999 election had been the party's zenith, the 2004 poll was one of the lowest points in its history. In an expanded Parliament, PAS was reduced to seven seats. Abdul Hadi not only lost his parliamentary seat but saw the government he led in Terengganu thrown from office after one term. The response of PAS to the 2004 election, like its response to the similar 1986 wipeout, was to abandon the hardline image that had contributed to its defeat. By now, the urban professional wing of the party's membership, brought into the party by Fadzil Noor in the 1990s, was ready to take charge. While Abdul Hadi's presidency was not under threat, the moderate faction, known as the "Erdogans" after the moderate Turkish Islamist leader Recep Tayyip Erdogan, had its members voted into other key positions in the party's 2005 general assembly. PAS was now able to attack Abdullah Badawi's government from both the right and the left: on the one hand, it criticised Abdullah's promotion of Islam Hadhari as a watered-down version of Islam; on the other, it attacked the government for its human rights record and promoted the causes of social and economic justice, including for non-Muslims. The party also capitalised on the growth of the internet and social media in Malaysia to bypass the pro-government mass media. Ahead of the 2008 election PAS joined the DAP and Anwar Ibrahim's Keadilan, which was now known as People's Justice Party (PKR) in a new coalition, Pakatan Rakyat. The coalition handed the Barisan Nasional its worst-ever election result. Barisan Nasional lost its two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives, disabling it from passing constitutional amendments without opposition support. PAS won 23 seats; the Pakatan Rakyat as a whole won 82. At state level, decades-old Barisan Nasional governments fell in Kedah, Perak and Selangor. PAS now governed Kedah and Kelantan (led respectively by Azizan Abdul Razak and Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat) and supplied the Chief Minister of Perak (Nizar Jamaluddin) in a Pakatan Rakyat coalition government. PAS's 2009 general assembly saw latent fissures within the party come out into the open. The incumbent deputy president Nasharudin Mat Isa, a Malay nationalist who promoted greater co-operation between PAS and UMNO, was challenged by two moderate candidates. Nasharudin survived with the backing of the conservative ulama faction; his two opponents had split the moderate vote. But at the 2011 assembly, Nasharudin was not so lucky: Mohamad Sabu, a leading moderate close to Anwar Ibrahim, commanded the support of the "Erdogan" wing and toppled him. Sabu's election was a significant defeat for the ulama faction. He was the first non-cleric to serve as the party's deputy president in over 20 years. The Pakatan Rakyat coalition went into the 2013 election facing Najib Razak, who had replaced Abdullah as Prime Minister in 2009 but failed to improve the government's fortunes, especially among urban voters. PAS made a concerted effort to expand its voter base beyond the northern peninsula states, and campaigned heavily in Johor, where it had never won a parliamentary seat. The election witnessed a significant degree of cross-over ethnic voting: Chinese voters in Malay-majority seats decided in large numbers to support PAS, to maximise the chances of a national Pakatan Rakyat victory. Pakatan Rakyat garnered 50.8 percent of the national popular vote but could not win a majority in parliament. PAS, however, suffered a net loss of two parliamentary seats. This was principally attributable to a swing against the party in Kedah, where the party was removed from state government after one term and lost four parliamentary seats. Leaving Pakatan Rakyat and forming Gagasan Sejahtera When PAS saw its share of seats shrink in the 2013 election, it started to reassert its Islamic agenda. DAP criticised its president Abdul Hadi Awang for pushing a bill on hudud without consulting his opposition partners. This incident led to the DAP announcing in March 2015 that it would no longer work with the PAS leader. The rift worsened after conservatives captured PAS leadership, as progressive leaders were voted out of office in party elections, characterised by the media as an intentional wipe out and purge, led to an exodus and the subsequent formation of Parti Amanah Negara by Mohamad Sabu. The party accepted a motion by its conservative ulama wing to sever ties with DAP. In response, DAP's Secretary-General Lim Guan Eng said that the Pakatan Rakyat coalition no longer exists as a result of the violation of the coalition's Common Policy Framework, of which PAS had violated by intentionally severing ties with DAP. The coalition was replaced by Pakatan Harapan, which the newly formed Parti Amanah joined as a founding member. The party formed Gagasan Sejahtera with Malaysia National Alliance Party (IKATAN) in 2016, with BERJASA joining the coalition the same year. The coalition entered the 2018 Malaysian general election using the PAS logo and contested 158 seats, with PAS contesting 155 of them. The coalition was able to win 18 parliamentary seats as well as wrangle control of the state of Terrenganu from BN, which PAS had last ruled in 2004, in addition to retaining control of Kelantan and denying supermajority of BN state government in Pahang.However, PAS was the only party to win any seats as both BERJASA and IKATAN remained without representation. Participation of 2018 Anti-ICERD Rally In 2018, following the then-Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad's announcement of the Seventh Mahathir cabinet's decision for the government to "ratify all remaining core UN instruments related to the protection of human rights", including International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) and other five previously unratified conventions at a United Nations General Assembly, UMNO, PAS along with various non-governmental organisations, staged an Anti-ICERD Rally that was held at the Dataran Merdeka, Kuala Lumpur, to protest against the ratifications of the relevant international conventions, due to their perception that these human rights instruments contravene with the special position of the Malays, Bumiputera and Islam within the country; all of which are enshrined within the Malaysian Constitution. 2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis In February 2020, PAS President Abdul Hadi Awang, in concert with Bersatu President Muhyiddin Yassin, UMNO leaders Ahmad Zahid Hamidi and Ismail Sabri Yaakob and PKR defector members led by Azmin Ali, collectively convened at the Sheraton Petaling Jaya hotel to initiate a change in government, thus causing political instability by depriving the elected Pakatan Harapan government of a majority within the 14th Malaysian Parliament. As a result, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad (along with the Seventh Mahathir cabinet) tendered their resignation. In March 2020, after the Yang di-Pertuan Agong consulted all members of the 14th Malaysian Parliament, Muhyiddin Yassin was deemed to have the greatest support within Parliament and was selected as the 8th Prime Minister of Malaysia (without an electoral mandate). Renewed co-operation with UMNO and joining Perikatan Nasional In September 2019, UMNO decided to form a pact with PAS called Muafakat Nasional. Its express purpose was to unite the Malay Muslim communities for electoral purposes. However, this co-operation did not cover the rest of Barisan Nasional, which UMNO was member to, despite calls for a migration to the new alliance. Barisan Nasional continued to function as a separate coalition of four parties comprising UMNO, MCA, MIC and PBRS. During the Tanjung Piai by-election, PAS vice-president Mohd Amar Nik Abdullah stated that PAS would support the candidate nominated by Barisan Nasional, which was reaffirmed by PAS president Abdul Hadi Awang. On 23 February 2020, PAS held an extraordinary meeting Janda Baik, Pahang together with the UMNO in the lead up to the 2020-21 Malaysian political crisis. PAS President Hadi Awang was among the entourage of then-opposition political leaders as well as members of government that visited the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to discuss the formation of a new government on 23 February. On 24 February, Mahathir announced his resignation as prime minister, followed by the withdrawal of Parti Pribumi Bersatu Malaysia (BERSATU) as well as 11 PKR MPs led by Azmin Ali from Pakatan Rakyat's successor coalition, Pakatan Harapan. This led to the collapse of the government as the remaining three parties, the DAP, PKR, and Amanah did not have enough seats for a majority. PAS along with UMNO declared their support for Mahathir to remain as prime minister. On 25 February, UMNO and PAS revealed that they had withdrawn their prior support for Mahathir to continue as prime minister, and instead called for the dissolution of parliament. It was previously reported that as all political factions voiced their support for Mahathir, he was intent on establishing a "unity government", which the two parties could not agree with. Annuar Musa, UMNO's secretary-general, said the basis of negotiations with Mahathir was that UMNO and PAS would lend their support to form an alternative coalition without DAP. Therefore, both PAS and UMNO instead announced their support for a snap election. On 28 February, PAS then released a statement announcing their support for the BERSATU president, Muhyiddin Yassin to be appointed as the 8th Prime Minister, with every Muafakat Nasional MPs also signing statutory declarations in support of Muhyiddin. On 29 February, BERSATU President Muhyiddin Yassin and his allies including party leaders from UMNO, PAS, Gabungan Parti Sarawak, Parti Bersatu Rakyat Sabah, and the Homeland Solidarity Party had an audience with the Agong to discuss the formation of a government. He announced that his coalition consisting of BERSATU, UMNO, PAS, PBRS, GPS, and STAR would be called Perikatan Nasional,. and claimed that they had majority support in parliament to elect a Prime Minister and to form a government. In the Muhyiddin cabinet, which was formed on 10 March 2020, three PAS MPs became were given ministerial positions and five PAS MPs were afforded the position of deputy ministers. Sanusi's Controversial Remarks about the Selangor Sultan On the night of 11 July 2023, during a political talk in Selayang, a town in the District of Gombak, Selangor for the upcoming 2023 Malaysian State Elections, PAS Election Director and Menteri Besar of Kedah Sanusi had reportedly belittled and drawn a comparison between the Kedah and Selangor sultans, and said the Kedah ruler would not have appointed Amirudin Shari as the Menteri Besar. His statement has caused an outrage nationwide, especially for Selangorians because the Malay Royal Instiutions should be respected just as stated in the second Rukun Negara. This is because Malaysia's sultans play a largely ceremonial role, including acting as custodians of Islam in the Muslim-majority country, and are held in deep respect. Sanusi drew comparisons between the Sultan of Kedah (Al-Aminul Karim Sultan Sallehuddin Sultan Badlishah) and the Sultan of Selangor (Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah) in appointing Amirudin as Menteri Besar back in 2018 after an unprecedented win of Pakatan Harapan in the 14th General Elections which he labelled using Kedah-Northern dialect as 'Cokia' (substandard or useless) and body shamed him as 'Inci Pun Tak Berapa Nak Cukup' (unfit for duties). Due to his statements, numerous police reports have been made and also the representatives on behalf of the Selangor Sultan itself, The Council of Royal Selangor, has lodge a legal action to take Sanusi as a serious (criminal) matter. Datuk Emran Abdul Kadir, one of its members stated that Sanusi must immediately apologise for disputing Sultan’s prerogative. Other notable figures who voiced out against Sanusi were, Hashim Jasin, the Spiritual Leader of PAS reminded Sanusi to watch his mouth. In the contrary, former Minister of Health Khairy Jamaludin stated that watching his mouth will not change his gung-ho image. Then, UMNO President Ahmad Zahid Hamidi told Kedahans to not vote on a joker as he was referring to Sanusi during the upcoming state polls. Next, The Communications and Digital Minister, Fahmi Fadzil condemned Sanusi’s alleged insults against Selangor Sultan by asking him to prepare for the consequences. Same goes to, The Home Affairs Minister, Saifuddin Nasution Ismail which told the press that issues relating with 3R (Race, Religion, and Royalty) has negative consequences which Sanusi must be held accountable for his actions and the government has many other things to do rather than banning his TikTok account. After the outcry, on the 14 July 2023, made a press conference Sanusi issues a formal apology letter to the Sultan and told the press that his words was taken out of context. Sanusi also confirmed that he had given his statement to the police to complete an investigation into the report launched by PKR Youth and other political parties. He was informed by the Selangor Royal Office that the Sultan has replied his letter which he refused to disclose the contents of the replied letter due to the respect of the nobility of the Selangor Royal Institution. In response, Menteri Besar Amiruddin Shari was furious about the statement and told that Sanusi should be held accountable for the comments and must act more responsibly as befitting his position. He urges Sanusi to learn from him on how to develop Kedah and stop lying to his voters and the masses. He also puzzled about his apology and remind Malaysians to focus on facts and data to help develop the respective states and country. On the 17 July 2023, The Commisioner of PAS in Selangor, Ahmad Yunus Hairi and The Selangor Police Chief, Dato Hussein Omar Khan has made an audience with Sultan Sharafuddin to discuss about the matter. Hence, the Selangor Royal Office has made a Royal Decree that 'the issue is yet to be resolved'. Despite the clarifications and the apology, Sanusi was detained and taken into custody by the Royal Malaysian Police (PDRM) on the wee hours of 18 July 2023 after the Perikatan Nasional's Supreme Council Meeting held at their headquarters in Solaris Dutamas, Segambut, Kuala Lumpur. Harian Metro reported that Sanusi was arrested at his hotel room in Mont Kiara by 20 offiers from the Classified Criminal Investigations Department (USJT) and Bukit Aman's Anti-Vice, Gambling, and Secret Societies Division (D7). They ordered him to get out of his room, and taken him to a Toyota Fortuner four-wheel drive heading to the Gombak District Police Headquarters (IPD). He was heavily escorted with the PDRM Selangor Contingent of Crime Investigation Department (JSJ) Vehicles. According to The Star, his political secretary, Hilmi Abd Wahab, said that Sanusi saw two men in dark clothes standing at the emergency exit. As minutes went by, more and more uniformed men showed up, before finally, at 2.30am, a total of 20 policemen were reportedly standing outside his hotel room. He was told that Sanusi was detained under Section 4(1)(a) (Act 15) of the Sediction Act which he needs to attend legal proceedings at the Selayang Sessions Court. This was confirmed by the PDRM's Inspector-General of Police (IGP), Razarudin Husain as he stated that investigation papers about 3Rs has been sent to the Attorney General of Malaysia. Included in the papers as well are, former Prime Minister Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad, PAS President Abdul Hadi Awang, and former Finance Minister Lim Guan Eng. He also included that Sanusi refused to answer calls which leads to his sudden arrest. Hence, it is a seizable offense because the report was lodged by the Selangor Royal Council of which it involves the Agong and Selangor Sultan. Also, Razarudin clarifies that 3R is a serious matter because Sanusi's case could leads to insulting all the other Malay Rulers as well. Later in the morning, he was seen at the Selayang Sessions Court at 8:55 a.m.. However, Astro Awani during a live broadcast reported that he entered the court using the back entrance in purpose to avoid the media. According to Free Malaysia Today, the disgraced Sanusi pleaded not guilty to two charges, both framed under Section 4(1)(a) (Act 15) of the Sedition Act 1948 at two separate courts. The judges of the case were Nor Rajiah Mat Zin and Osman Affendi Mohd Shalleh. The provision carries a punishment of up to a RM5,000 in fine, three years in jail, or both for first-time offenders. He is said to have committed the offence at Simpang Empat, Taman Selayang Mutiara in Gombak, Selangor, on 11 July. The second charge he faces is in relation to a statement that he made that was "inclined to incite disloyalty against the Rulers". He is said to have committed the same offence at the same place and time for this charge. He was allowed bail of RM5,000 for both charges, and both courts have imposed a gag order on Sanusi to stop him from making any comments regarding the case. Amid criticism of the use of the controversial Sedition Act against a political opponent, Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim stressed that the case relates to “the position and dignity” of Malaysian’s monarchs. He further added that he refuse to meddle in the matter as the charges were laid by the Attorney General, after a police investigation that followed the proper procedures. Meanwhile, Law and Institutional Reforms Minister Azalina Othman Said said that the government was mooting a new law to tackle the so-called 3R issues, to replace the controversial Sedition Act from 1948. She also stated the Sanusi actions will notabsolve criminal offence. The government will hold discussions with relevant parties to assess the matter with stakeholders. Negative remarks about the Malaysian's Royalty can be prosecuted under a colonial-era law, The Sedition Act 1948, which has been used against people who criticise the Sultans on social media. However, sedition charges brought against Malaysian politicians have been rare in recent years. Neighbouring Thailand has a strict lese-majeste law banning insults against its monarchy. Ideology and policies According to Farish A. Noor, a Malaysian academic who has written a complete history of PAS: From the day PAS was formed, in November 1951, the long-term goal of creating an Islamic state in Malaysia has been the beacon that has driven successive generations of PAS leaders and members ever forward. What has changed is the meaning and content of the signifier 'Islamic state' From time to time, PAS's pursuit of an "Islamic state" has involved attempts to legislate for hudud—an Islamic criminal justice system—in the states that it governs. Such laws would apply to all Muslims and would not apply to non-Muslims. PAS-dominated state assemblies in Kelantan and Terengganu passed hudud laws in the early 1990s and early 2000s respectively, although neither has ever been enforced due to opposition from the federal government. PAS returned to its pursuit of hudud laws after the 2013 election, signalling that it would table bills in the federal Parliament to allow the laws, still on the statute books in Kelantan, to be enforced. The bills would require a two-thirds majority in the Parliament as they involve constitutional amendments. After PAS's electoral rout in 2004, the party sought to broaden its policies beyond Islamism. Among other things, the party focused on calling for improved civil liberties and race relations. However, these policy shifts have proven controversial within the party; conservatives have considered them part of a dilution of PAS's commitment to an Islamic state. When PAS was defeated in Terengganu, enforcement of female dress codes was reduced. The state PAS government in Kelantan bans traditional Malay dance theatres, banned advertisements depicting women who are not fully clothed, and enforced the wearing of headscarves, although they allowed gender segregated cinemas and concerts. Some government-controlled bodies pressure non-Muslims to also wear headscarves, and all students of the International Islamic University of Malaysia and female officers in the Royal Malaysian Police are required to wear headscarves in public ceremonies. The PAS party wishes that the death penalty be enacted for Muslims who attempt to convert, as part of their ultimate desire to turn Malaysia into an Islamic state. The party is also against the government-backed wave of Anti-Shi'a persecution. Ties and linkages with the Muslim Brotherhood PAS has also maintained close personal and ideological ties with the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. The party's relationship with the Muslim Brotherhood dates back to the 1940s when PAS's founders were exposed to the ideas and teachings of the Muslim Brotherhood while they were studying in Cairo during the 1940s. According to Wan Saiful Wan Jan of the think tank Institute for Democracy and Economic Affairs, the Muslim Brotherhood regards PAS as a model for a successful Muslim political party; since PAS has governed the state of Kelantan continually since 1990. PAS representatives are often invited to Muslim Brotherhood speaking engagements overseas. In 2012, PAS President Abdul Hadi Awang spoke alongside Muslim Brotherhood scholar Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi at a speaking event in London. That same year, PAS representatives met with Muslim Brotherhood leaders Sheikh Mahdi Akif and Dr Muhammad Badie in Cairo. According to Müller, PAS's current generation of leaders, the Ulama Leadership (Kepimpinan Ulama) were also influenced by Muslim Brotherhood ideology while studying in Egypt, Saudi Arabia and India during the 1980s. Muslim Brotherhood–inspired Islamic education methods (tarbiyah) and regular study circles (usrah/halaqah) were systematically introduced while networks were established with Muslim political parties and movements abroad. In April 2014, Awang criticised the governments of Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates for designating the Muslim Brotherhood as a terrorist organisation. In January 2016, former PAS leader Mujahid Yusof Rawa claimed that the Muslim Brotherhood's influence on PAS was limited to sharing the organisation's views on the role of Islam in society. Rawa also claimed that other local Muslim groups such as Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (ABIM; Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia) and IKRAM were also sympathetic to the Muslim Brotherhood. Controversies Militia Parade Incident The Terengganu police have announced an investigation into a controversial parade organized by the local PAS Youth group, which took place on February 19, 2023. The police were initially informed about the march, but they were not aware that some supporters would be carrying replica weapons, causing concern among certain groups. DCP Datuk Rohaimi Md Isa, the police chief, has stated that preliminary investigations will be conducted to determine if any offenses were committed during the event, and appropriate action will be taken accordingly. Images circulating on social media showed members of Terengganu PAS Youth dressed in medieval Islamic war attire and wielding fake swords, spears, and shields. The parade was reportedly part of a two-day gathering called "Himpunan Pemuda Islam Terengganu" (Himpit), held at a resort in Setiu, Terengganu. Religious Affairs Minister Datuk Dr. Mohd Na’im Mokhtar criticized the parade, expressing that it presented an inappropriate image of Islam, emphasizing the importance of promoting peace and unity in society. He also called for authorities to investigate any potential legal violations. Social media photos also depicted a pickup truck carrying a large fake sword, with youths dressed in militant costumes standing on its cargo bed while it was in motion. Support for the Taliban After the Taliban took over Kabul in 2021 and re-established an Islamic theocracy in Afghanistan, PAS international affairs and external relations committee chairman, Muhammad Khalil Abdul Hadi (also the son of the incumbent PAS president), congratulated the Islamist militant group for "successfully achieving victory for their country" on Twitter and Facebook, stating its liberation from Western powers. In August 2021, Khalil also added that the Taliban had also become more moderate, spuriously claiming that women's rights (including women's freedom of movement) and the opportunities for women in the workforce were preserved. The unsubstantiated comments were widely condemned by numerous Malaysian social media users, and Muhammad Khalil Abdul Hadi's pro-Taliban posts on Facebook and Twitter were taken down in response. In March 2022, numerous independent news reports indicated that women and girls in Afghanistan were deprived (by decrees from the Taliban) from their ability to work, study or move freely within the country. In October 2021, the leader of PAS's youth wing, Khairil Nizam Khirudin, proposed closer ties between PAS and the Taliban. He claimed that if China was able build ties with the Taliban, Malaysia should also do so. In August 2021, PAS president Abdul Hadi Awang alleged that Western media made false accusations against the Taliban in order to advance an Islamophobic agenda, without studying and fully understanding the religion of Islam. He also repeated the Taliban claim, that the Taliban provided broad amnesty to government officials of the toppled Islamic Republic of Afghanistan; this claim was disputed as numerous independent reports with evidence indicated that the Taliban instead conducted enforced disappearances, summary executions and revenge killings against the former government officials. In the same article, Abdul Hadi Awang also alleged that the Taliban undertook a celebratory approach to the diversity of society within a multi-ethnic Afghanistan; this claim was also disputed as numerous evident news reports indicated that the Taliban engaged in the persecution of Hazaras (who numerous Taliban fighters deem as heretical), censorship against journalists and the news media, violence against journalists, arbitrary arrest and detention, political repression. Most notably, anyone from a religious minority who was an apostate of Islam is sentenced to death. In February 2022, PAS president Abdul Hadi Awang spuriously alleged that various media were anti-Islam and slandered the Taliban, as according to him, the media were making unsubstantiated claims that the Taliban were denying girls and women the right to education. However, in March 2022, numerous evident news reports indicated that the Taliban prevented girls from attending secondary schools throughout the educational system of Afghanistan, generating widespread condemnation amid a global outcry. Unconstitutional Kelantan Syariah Law amendment Sisters in Islam had criticized PAS for unconstitutional Shariah enactment on the recent update of the shariah law of Kelantan penal code including: attempting to convert out of Islam distortion of Islamic teachings disrespecting the month of Ramadan destroying houses of worship disobeying parents tattooing undergoing plastic surgery. This has sparked another controversy where the punishments include a jail term of not more than three years and a fine of up to RM5,000 or six strokes of the cane, and that the punishment is categorized under ta'zir (crimes with discretionary punishments) and not under hudud (Islamic Penal Code). Flight attendant uniform criticism PAS had spark another controversy where several of its lawmakers criticizing flight stewardess uniform attire they claimed that it is "too revealing" and added that is if flight stewardess are allowed to wear a hijab. Following those two statement, Sisters in Islam (SIS) said the issue had taken priority over other concerns somehow and they claim that ministerial directives should not interfere with a company's policy which may subject extra rebranding and production costs unless there were issues of safety, health and security. National Union of Flight Attendants Malaysia vice secretary-general S Shashi Kumar also publicly states that this complaint is "nonsensical" where he said the baju kebaya has become a fashion statement in southeast Asia. He said "Royal Brunei Airlines, Singapore Airlines and Garuda Indonesia have adopted the baju kebaya as the uniform for their female flight attendants." Transport minister Anthony Loke had said that “We are aware that this is not a new policy and there is nothing new, but there are no plans to change the existing policies on the dressing of stewards and stewardesses. The image and outfit depend on the airline company.".He added that “The Ministry has no restriction if Muslim air stewardesses choose to wear attire that are Syariah compliant as long as it fulfills the criteria set by CAAM,." It looks like PAS leaders lack knowledge of the Malay heritage and criticising their own traditional attire, responded the Global Human Rights Federation. Timah whiskey Following the fame of Malaysia's local liquor company, Timah whiskey after the winning of two silver medals in the Tasting Awards for the International Spirits Challenge 2020 (ISC) as well as the Annual San Francisco World Spirits Competition 2020 (SFWSC), PAS urged Ismail Sabri Yaakob's Cabinet for the company to be shut down stating that it "to prevent trigger the sensitivity of Muslims in the country" and "to avoid a precedent of new liquor companies emerging". PAS also states that they had to face numerous severe backlash. PAS Deputy President, Tuan Ibrahim Tuan Man, said that "We have always been consistent in our stance against alcohol because it is clear that it is haram according to the Quran,". The request was denied by Ismail Sabri Yaakob's Cabinet where they had decided to rule against the decision. Prime Minister Ismail Sabri Yaakob state that the "cannot cause concern to the people in the context of race and religion". PAS Deputy President, Tuan Ibrahim Tuan Man, states "For me, the ' people's anxiety ' can be considered as ' the confusion of the people, especially the Malay-Muslims ' ". Tuan Ibrahim was also reported by the media on October 19 as saying that the brand and logo of Timah whiskey "can be confusing" and asked for it to be reviewed. English language criticism PAS president Abdul Hadi Awang has claimed that people who advocate for the English language to be taught in Malaysia are "stuck in a colonial mindset". Expanding on this point he said such Malaysians seemed to be embarrassed to use their national language (Malay) and had placed greater importance on English. In the PAS party newspaper Harakah Hadi wrote an article titled "Ignore the delirious voices which are trying to reduce the importance of the Malay language" where in it he stated that such advocates "are behaving like slaves to the former colonial masters despite having been freed from their clutches". Additionally in the same article he further went on to say that "advertisements in shops and the market as well as the names of cities and roads are named in English even though a majority of its target audience do not know English, at the same time, they do not care about whether their audiences consist of Malaysians who do not know English". Structure and membership PAS's general assembly ("Muktamar") elects the party's president, Deputy President, three vice-presidents and a multi-member Central Working Committee. The assembly is held annually, but elections occur only once every two years. The assembly is composed mainly of delegates elected by individual local divisions of the party. The day-to-day administration of the party is carried out by its Secretary-General, a position appointed by the party's leadership. The Central Working Committee is ostensibly the party's principal decision-making body, although its decisions are susceptible to being overturned by the Syura Council, an unelected body composed only of Muslim clerics and led by the party's Spiritual Leader ("Musyidul 'Am"). The relationship between the different administrative bodies within the party occasionally causes conflict. In 2014, the Central Working Committee voted to support the nomination of Wan Azizah Wan Ismail, the President of the People's Justice Party, to be the Chief Minister of the Pakatan Rakyat government in Selangor. Abdul Hadi Awang, as PAS's president and with the backing of the Syura Council, overturned the decision and nominated different candidates. The party has three recognised sub-organisations for different categories of party members: an ulama wing (the "Dewan Ulama") for Muslim clerics, a women's wing (the "Dewan Muslimat") and a youth wing (the "Dewan Pemuda"). Each wing elects its own leadership at its own general assembly. There is a fourth wing for non-Muslim supporters of the party, although it does not have the same recognised position in the party's structure as the other three wings. PAS has approximately one million members, more than any other opposition party in Malaysia. PAS members often distinguish themselves from UMNO members through cultural and religious practices. For Islamic headwear, males who support PAS tend to prefer the white, soft kopiah, while UMNO supporters tend to wear the traditional Malay songkok, a rigid black cap. Some areas of Malaysia host rival mosques catering for the members and supporters of each party. Current office bearers (2023-2025) Spiritual Leader: Hashim Jasin Deputy Spiritual Leader: Ahmad Yakob Permanent Chairperson: Hussin Ismail Deputy Permanent Chairperson: Kamal Ashaari President: Abdul Hadi Awang Deputy President: Tuan Ibrahim Tuan Man Vice-president: Ahmad Samsuri Mokhtar Mohd Amar Abdullah Idris Ahmad Dewan Ulamak's Chief: Ustaz Haji Ahmad Yahaya Dewan Pemuda's Chief: Afnan Hamimi Taib Azamudden Dewan Muslimat's Chief: Nuridah Mohd Salleh DHPP Chief: Balasubramaniam Nachiappan Secretary-General: Takiyuddin Hassan Deputy Secretary-General: Khairul Faizi Ahmad Kamil Khairul Fahmi Mat Som Mohd Syahir Che Sulaiman Treasurer: Iskandar Abdul Samad Information Chief: Ahmad Fadhli Shaari Election Director: Muhammad Sanusi Md Nor Central Working Committee (Elected): Muhammad Khalil Abdul Hadi Azman Ibrahim Halimah Ali Ahmad Fadhli Shaari Ahmad Marzuk Shaary Siti Zailah Mohd Yusoff Awang Hashim Ahmad Amzad Hashim Mohd. Nassuruddin Daud Mohamed Fadzli Hassan Kamaruzaman Mohamad Najihatussalehah Ahmad Misbahul Munir Masduki Rosni Adam Central Working Committee (Appointed): Nasrudin Hassan Mohd Yusni Mat Piah Wan Rohimi Wan Daud Mohd Zuhdi Marzuki Nik Muhammad Zawawi Salleh Ahmad Yunus Hairi Mohd Mazri Yahya Annuar Musa Shahidan Kassim State Commissioner: Perlis : Mohd. Shukri Ramli Kedah : Ahmad Yahaya Kelantan : Ahmad Yakob Terengganu :Husin Awang Penang : Muhammad Fauzi Yusoff Perak : Razman Zakaria Pahang : Rosli Abdul Jabar Selangor : Ab Halim Tamuri Federal Territory : Azhar Yahya Negeri Sembilan : Rafiei Mustapha Malacca : Zulkifli Ismail Johor : Abdullah Hussin Sabah : Aliakbar Gulasan Sarawak : Jofri Jaraiee List of leaders Presidents Spiritual leaders Elected representatives Dewan Negara (Senate) Senators Kelantan: Nik Mohamad Abduh Nik Abdul Aziz Wan Martina Terengganu: Hussin Awang Hussin Ismail Kedah: Abd Nasir Idris Musoddak Ahmad Dewan Rakyat (House of Representatives) Members of Parliament of the 15th Malaysian Parliament PAS has the highest number of members in Dewan Rakyat among political parties, with 42 members. Dewan Undangan Negeri (State Legislative Assembly) Malaysian State Assembly Representatives PAS has 148 members of state legislative assemblies, more than any other parties. It has representatives in every assembly other than those of Malacca and Sarawak. The party holds a majority in the Kelantan, Terengganu, Kedah and Perlis State Legislative Assemblies. Terengganu State Legislative Assembly Kelantan State Legislative Assembly Perlis State Legislative Assembly Kedah State Legislative Assembly Pahang State Legislative Assembly Perak State Legislative Assembly Selangor State Legislative Assembly Penang State Legislative Assembly Negeri Sembilan State Legislative Assembly Johor State Legislative Assembly Sabah State Legislative Assembly Malacca State Legislative Assembly Sarawak State Legislative Assembly PAS state governments PAS currently governs the states of Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu. Previously, when it was a component of Pakatan Rakyat, PAS was part of the Penang and Selangor state governments. After 2020 Sheraton Move it witnessed change of state government, PAS itself teamed up with Barisan Nasional, to formed new state government PAS was part of the Perak, Pahang, Johor, and Sabah state governments Kelantan (1959-1978, 1990–present) Terengganu (1959–1961, 1999–2004, 2018–present) Perlis (2022–present) Kedah (2008–2013, 2020–present) Perak (2008–2009, 2020–2022) Pahang (2020–2022) Johor (2020–2022) Sabah (2020–2022) Penang (2008–2015) Selangor (2008–2018) General election results State election results References Footnotes Cited texts External links Harakahdaily (PAS party newspaper in Malay) Harakahdaily (PAS party newspaper in English) Political parties in Malaysia Islamic political parties in Malaysia Political parties established in 1951 1951 establishments in Malaya Defunct political parties in Singapore Far-right politics in Asia Islamist groups Islamism Social conservative parties Islamic organizations established in 1951
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Fisher%2C%201st%20Baron%20Fisher
John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher
Admiral of the Fleet John Arbuthnot Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher, (25 January 1841 – 10 July 1920), commonly known as Jacky or Jackie Fisher, was a British Admiral of the Fleet. With more than sixty years in the Royal Navy, his efforts to reform the service helped to usher in an era of modernisation which saw the supersession of wooden sailing ships armed with muzzle-loading cannon by steel-hulled battlecruisers, submarines and the first aircraft carriers. Fisher has a reputation as an innovator, strategist and developer of the navy rather than as a seagoing admiral involved in major battles, although in his career he experienced all these things. When appointed First Sea Lord in 1904 he removed 150 ships then on active service which were no longer useful and set about constructing modern replacements, developing a modern fleet prepared to meet Germany during the First World War. Fisher saw the need to improve the range, accuracy and rate-of-fire of naval gunnery, and became an early proponent of the use of the torpedo, which he believed would supersede big guns for use against ships. As Controller, he introduced torpedo-boat destroyers as a class of ship intended for defence against attack from torpedo boats or from submarines. As First Sea Lord he drove the construction of , the first all-big-gun battleship, but he also believed that submarines would become increasingly important and urged their development. He became involved with the introduction of turbine engines to replace reciprocating engines, and with the introduction of oil fuelling to replace coal. He introduced daily baked bread on board ships, whereas when he entered the service it was customary to eat hard biscuits, frequently infested by biscuit beetles. He first officially retired from the Admiralty in 1910 on his 69th birthday, but became First Sea Lord again in November 1914. He resigned seven months later in frustration over Churchill's Gallipoli campaign, and then served as chairman of the Government's Board of Invention and Research until the end of the war. Character and appearance Fisher was five feet seven inches tall and stocky with a round face. In later years, some suggested that Fisher, born in Ceylon of British parents, had Asian ancestry due to his features and the yellow cast of his skin. However, his colour resulted from dysentery and malaria in middle life, which nearly caused his death. He had a fixed and compelling gaze when addressing someone, which gave little clue to his feelings. Fisher was energetic, ambitious, enthusiastic and clever. A shipmate described him as "easily the most interesting midshipman I ever met". When addressing someone he could become carried away with the point he was seeking to make, and on one occasion, the King asked him to stop shaking his fist in his face. He was considered a "man who demanded to be heard, and one who didn't suffer fools lightly". Throughout his life he was a religious man and attended church regularly when ashore. He had a passion for sermons and might attend two or three services in a day to hear them, which he would 'discuss afterwards with great animation'. However, he was discreet in expressing his religious views because he feared public attention might hinder his professional career. He was not keen on sport, but he was a highly proficient dancer. Fisher employed his dancing skill later in life to charm a number of important ladies. He became interested in dancing in 1877 and insisted that the officers of his ship learn to dance. Fisher cancelled the leave of midshipmen who would not take part. He introduced the practice of junior officers dancing on deck when the band was playing for senior officers' wardroom dinners. This practice spread through the fleet. He broke with the then ball tradition of dancing with a different partner for each dance, instead adopting the scandalous habit of choosing one good dancer as his partner for the evening. His ability to charm all comers of all social classes made up for his sometimes blunt or tactless comments. He suffered from seasickness throughout his life. Fisher's aim was 'efficiency of the fleet and its instant readiness for war', which won him support amongst a certain kind of navy officer. He believed in advancing the most able, rather than the longest serving. This upset those he passed over. Thus, he divided the navy into those who approved of his innovations and those who did not. As he became older and more senior he also became more autocratic and commented, 'Anyone who opposes me, I crush'. He believed that nations fought wars for material gain, and that maintaining a strong navy deterred other nations from engaging it in battle, thus decreasing the likelihood of war: "On the British fleet rests the British Empire." Fisher also believed that the risk of catastrophe in a sea battle was far greater than on land: a war could be lost or won in a day at sea, with no hope of replacing lost ships, but an army could be rebuilt quickly. When an arms race broke out between Germany and Britain to build larger navies, the German Kaiser commented, 'I admire Fisher, I say nothing against him. If I were in his place I should do all that he has done and I should do all that I know he has in mind to do'. Childhood and personal life John Arbuthnot Fisher was born on 25 January 1841 on the Wavendon Estate at Ramboda in Ceylon. He was the eldest of eleven children, of whom only seven survived infancy, born to Sophie Fisher and Captain William Fisher, a British Army officer in the 78th Highlanders, who had been an aide-de-camp to the former governor of Ceylon, Sir Robert Wilmot-Horton, and was serving as a staff officer at Kandy. Fisher commented, 'My mother was a most magnificent and handsome, extremely young woman....My father was 6 feet 2 inches..., also especially handsome. Why I am ugly is one of those puzzles of physiology which are beyond finding out'. William Fisher sold his commission the year John was born, and became a coffee planter and later chief superintendent of police. He incurred such debt on his two coffee plantations that he could barely support his growing family. At the age of six John (who was always known within the family as "Jack") was sent to England to live with his maternal grandfather, Charles Lambe, in New Bond Street, London. His grandfather had also lost money and the family survived by renting out rooms in their home. John's younger brother, Frederic William Fisher, joined the Royal Navy and reached the rank of admiral, and his youngest surviving sibling Philip became a navy lieutenant on before drowning in an 1880 storm. William Fisher was killed in a riding accident when John was 15. John's relationship with his mother Sophie suffered from their separation, and he never saw her again. However, he continued to send her an allowance until her death. In 1870, she suggested visiting Fisher in England, but he dissuaded her as strongly as he could. Fisher wrote to his wife: "I hate the very thought of it and really, I don't want to see her. I don't see why I should as I haven't the slightest recollection of her." Fisher married Frances Katharine Josepha Broughton, known as 'Kitty', the daughter of the Rev. Thomas Delves Broughton and Frances Corkran, on 4 April 1866 while stationed at Portsmouth. Kitty's two brothers were both naval officers. According to a cousin, she believed that Jack would rise "to the top of the tree." They remained married until her death in July 1918. They had a son, Cecil Vavasseur, 2nd Baron Fisher (1868–1955), and three daughters, Beatrix Alice (1867–1930), Dorothy Sybil (1873–1962), and Pamela Mary (1876–1949), all of whom married naval officers who went on to become admirals. Beatrix Alice married Reginald Rundell Neeld in 1896, Pamela Mary married Henry Blackett in 1906, and in 1908 Dorothy Sybil married Eric Fullerton. Early career (1854–1869) Fisher's father ultimately aided his entry into the navy, via his godmother Lady Horton, widow of the governor of Ceylon to whom William Fisher had been Aide-de-camp. She prevailed upon a neighbour, Admiral Sir William Parker (the last of Nelson's captains), to nominate John as a naval cadet. The entry examination consisted of writing out the Lord's Prayer and jumping naked over a chair. He formally entered the Royal Navy on 13 July 1854, aged 13, on board Nelson's former flagship, , at Portsmouth. On 29 July he joined , an old ship of the line. She was built of wood, in 1831, with 84 smooth-bore muzzle-loading guns arranged on two gun decks, and relied entirely on sail for propulsion. She had a crew of 700, and discipline was strictly enforced by the "hard-bitten Captain Robert Stopford". Fisher fainted when he witnessed eight men being flogged on his first day. Calcutta participated in the blockade of Russian ports in the Gulf of Finland during the Crimean War, entitling Fisher to the Baltic Medal, before returning to Britain a few months later. The crew was paid off on 1 March 1856. On 2 March 1856, Fisher was posted to , and was sent to Constantinople (now Istanbul) to join her. He arrived on 19 May, just as the war was ending. After a tour around the Dardanelles picking up troops and baggage, Agamemnon returned to England, where the crew was paid off. Promotion to midshipman came on 12 July 1856 and Fisher joined a 21-gun steam corvette, , part of the China Station. He was to spend the next five years in Chinese waters, seeing action in the Second Opium War, 1856–1860. The Highflyer's captain, Charles Shadwell, was an expert on naval astronomy (subsequently being appointed a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1861) and he taught Fisher much about navigation, with spectacular later results. When Shadwell was replaced as captain following an injury in action, he gave Fisher a pair of studs engraved with his family motto 'Loyal au Mort', which Fisher was to use for the rest of his life. Fisher passed the seamanship examination for the rank of lieutenant, and was given the acting rank of mate, on his nineteenth birthday, 25 January 1860. He was transferred three months later to the steam frigate as an acting lieutenant. Shortly afterwards, Fisher had his first brief command: taking the yacht of the China Squadron's admiral—the paddle-gunboat —from Hong Kong to Canton (presently Guangzhou), a voyage of four days. He was transferred, on 12 June 1860, to the paddle-sloop where he saw sufficient action to add the Taku Forts and Canton clasps to his China War Medal. Furious left Hong Kong and the China Station in March 1861 and, after a leisurely voyage home, paid off her crew in Portsmouth on 30 August. Captain Oliver Jones of the Furious was entirely different from Shadwell: Fisher wrote there was a mutiny on board within his first fortnight, that Jones terrorized his crew and disobeyed orders given to him. For his part, by the end of the tour, Jones was impressed by Fisher. At the end of November 1861, Fisher sat his final lieutenant's examination in navigation at the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth, passing with flying colours. He had already received top grades in seamanship and gunnery, and achieved the highest score then attained under the recently introduced five-yearly scheme, with 963 out of 1,000 marks in navigation. For this, he was awarded the Beaufort Testimonial, an annual prize of books and instruments; but in the meantime he had to wait around, unpaid, until his appointment came through officially. From January 1862 to March 1863, Fisher returned to the payroll at the navy's principal gunnery school aboard , a three-decker moored in Portsmouth harbour. During this time, Excellent was evaluating the performance of the "revolutionary" Armstrong breech-loading guns against the conventional Whitworth muzzle-loading type. During free afternoons Fisher would walk the downs, shouting to practice his command voice. He spent 15 of the next 25 years in four tours of duty at Portsmouth concerned with development of gunnery and torpedoes. In March 1863, Fisher was appointed Gunnery Lieutenant to , the first all-iron seagoing armoured battleship and the most powerful ship in the fleet. Built in 1859, she marked the beginning of the end of the Age of Sail and, coincidentally, was armed with both Armstrong guns (breech-loading) and Whitworth rifles (muzzle-loading). Fisher noted he was popular amongst his brother officers because he frequently stayed on board when others went ashore and could take duty for them. Fisher returned to Excellent in 1864 as a gunnery instructor, where he remained until 1869. Towards the end of his posting he became interested in torpedoes, which were invented in the 1860s, and championed their cause as a relatively simple weapon capable of sinking a battleship. His expertise with torpedoes led to his being invited to Germany in June 1869 for the founding ceremony of a new naval base at Wilhelmshaven, where he met King William I of Prussia (soon to become German emperor), Bismarck and Moltke. Perhaps inspired by the visit, he started preparing a paper on the design, construction and management of electrical torpedoes, the cutting-edge technology of the time. Commander (1869–1876) On 2 August 1869, "at the early age of twenty-eight", Fisher was promoted to commander. On 8 November, he was posted as second-in-command of , serving under Captain Hewett, a Crimean War Victoria Cross holder. Donegal was a , with auxiliary screw propulsion. She plied between Portsmouth and Hong Kong, taking out relief crews and bringing home the crews they replaced. During this time he completed his torpedoes treatise. In May 1870, Fisher transferred, again as second in command, to , flagship of the China Station. It was whilst he was on Ocean that he wrote an eight-page memoir: "Naval Tactics", which Captain J. G. Goodenough had printed for private circulation. He installed a system of electrical firing so that all guns could be fired simultaneously, making Ocean the first vessel to be so equipped. Fisher noted in his letters that he greatly missed his wife, but also missed his work on torpedoes and the access to important people possible with a posting in England. In 1872, he returned to England to the gunnery school Excellent, this time as head of torpedo and mine training, during which time he split the Torpedo Branch off from Excellent, forming a separate establishment for it called . His duties included lecturing, and negotiating the purchase of the navy's first Whitehead torpedo. In order to promote the school, he invited politicians and journalists to attend lectures and organised demonstrations. This produced mixed reactions amongst some officers, who did not approve of his showmanship. He was promoted to captain on 30 October 1874, aged thirty-three, in time to be Vernons first commander. Vernon consisted of the hulk of , William Symonds' 1832 50-gun sailing frigate, and the hulk of the 26-gun steam frigate provided accommodation. , a torpedo boat of 245 tons, was Vernon's experimental tender for the conduct of torpedo trials. They were moored in Portsmouth Harbour. In 1876, Fisher served on the Board of Admiralty's torpedo committee. Captain R.N. (1876–1883) September 1876 – March 1877: On half-pay with his family. 30 January 1877 – 1 March 1877: Commanding . Fisher was appointed to command as flag captain to the Admiral of the North America and West Indies Station, Astley Cooper Key, from 2 March 1877 to 4 June 1878. Bellerophon had been in the dockyard for repairs, so the new crew was less than perfect in carrying out their duties. Fisher told them I intend to give you hell for three months, and if you have not come up to my standard in that time you'll have hell for another three months. Midshipman (later Admiral) A. H. Gordon Moore reported, Fisher was a very exacting master and I had at times long and arduous duties, long hours at the engine room telegraphs in cold fog, etc., and the least inattention was punished. It was, I think, his way of proving us, for he always rewarded us in some way when an extra hard bit of work was over. Cooper Key was transferred to a special squadron operating in the Channel formed to combat fears of war with Russia. Fisher went with him as flag captain of HMS Hercules from 7 June to 21 August 1878. From 22 August to 12 September he transferred still as flag captain under Cooper Key to . At this time Fisher first became a proponent of the new compass being designed by Sir William Thomson which incorporated corrections for the deviation caused by the metal in iron ships. From 9 January to 24 July 1879 Fisher commanded serving in the Mediterranean Command under Geoffrey Phipps Hornby. Pallas was in poor condition, having a chain passed around the ship to hold the armour plates in place. The tour included an official visit to Istanbul where Fisher dined with the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from gold cups and plates. He then returned to the UK for two months leave at half pay, visiting Bruges with his family. His next posting, starting 25 September 1879, was to as Flag Captain to Sir Leopold McClintock, commanding the North American squadron. Northampton was a new ship with a number of innovations, including twin screws, searchlights and telephones, as well as being armed with torpedoes. It was fitted with an experimental Thomson-designed compass, which the inventor was on hand to adjust. Three days were spent attempting and failing to adjust the compass, with Thomson becoming increasingly bad tempered, until it was noticed that by accident the degree card had been marked with only 359 instead of 360 degrees. The ship was fitted with a new design of lamp created by Captain Philip Colomb, who came on board to inspect them. As a joke, Fisher arranged for anything that could go wrong with the lamps to do so, sending Colomb away disheartened over his invention (although Fisher officially reported favourably about the lamps). On another occasion, the naval hospital at Halifax requested some flags to fly for the Queen's birthday. Fisher obliged, but sent only yellow and black flags signifying plague and quarantine. On the other hand, he worked hard at improving his ship. As reported by his second in command, Commander Wilmot Fawkes, the ship carried out 150 runs with torpedoes in a fortnight, whereas the whole rest of the navy performed only 200 in a year. Fisher's brother Philip was serving on the training ship , which disappeared somewhere between the West Indies and England, believed lost in a storm. Northampton was one of the ships sent to search for her, but without result. In January 1881 Fisher received news of his appointment to the new ironclad battleship . Admiral McClintock commented, Everyone regrets the departure of Captain Fisher, but I fancy we shall not fully realize our loss until he is gone....Since his nomination to the Inflexible, his spirits have returned and daily increased, and now he almost requires wiring down. The ship was still building, so Fisher was temporarily appointed to , flagship of the port admiral at Portsmouth between 30 January and 4 July 1881. HMS Inflexible Fisher was considered sufficiently able, with recommendations following all of his postings, to be appointed captain of the newly completed battleship . Inflexible had the largest guns and thickest armour of any ship in the navy, but still carried masts and sails and had slow, muzzle-loading guns. She had been seven years under construction and had many innovations built into her, including electric lighting and torpedo tubes, but with such a tortuous layout that crew became lost. The sails were never used for propulsion, but because a ship's performance was partly judged on the speed with which a ship could set sails, Fisher was obliged to drill the crew in their use. In spring 1882 Inflexible was part of the Mediterranean Fleet and was assigned to protection of Queen Victoria during a visit to Menton on the Riviera. This was intended as a reminder of British naval prowess to the French, but allowed Fisher to meet Victoria and her grandson, Prince Henry of Prussia, who later became admiral of the German navy. Victoria was impressed by Fisher, as she had been by his brother Philip who had served on royal yachts and for whom she had arranged the ill-fated posting to Atalanta. Inflexible took part in the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War, bombarding the port of Alexandria as part of Admiral Seymour's fleet. Fisher was placed in charge of a landing party which was quartered in the Khedive's palace. Lacking means of reconnaissance, he devised a plan to armour a train with iron plates, machine gun and cannon. This became celebrated and widely reported by correspondents, so that its inventor, Fisher, came to the attention of the public for the first time as a hero. Shore duty had the unfortunate effect that Fisher became seriously ill with dysentery and malaria. He refused to take sick leave, but eventually was ordered home by Lord Northbrook, who commented, 'the Admiralty could build another Inflexible, but not another Fisher'. During this time he became a close friend of the future King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra. He was appointed a Companion of the Bath (CB) in 1882. Home postings From January to April 1883 Fisher was on half pay recovering from his illness. In January he was invited to visit Osborne House for a fortnight by Queen Victoria, concerned about the charming Captain Fisher. Fisher, having entered the navy penniless and unknown, was delighted. In April 1883 Fisher had recovered sufficiently to return to duty and was appointed commander of . He remained with Excellent for two years until June 1885, where he gained a following of officers concerned with the poor offensive capabilities of the fleet, including John Jellicoe and Percy Scott. For the next 15 months he had no naval command and still suffered the effects of his illness. He took to visiting Marienbad, which was famous amongst notable society for its restoring climate, and went there regularly in later years. During June–July 1885 Fisher served a short posting to in the Baltic under Admiral Hornby, following the Panjdeh Incident, which led to fear of war with Russia. From November 1886 to 1890, he was Director of Naval Ordnance, responsible for weapons and munitions. He was responsible for the development of quick-firing guns to be used against the growing threat from torpedo boats, and particularly claimed responsibility for removing wooden boarding pikes from navy ships. The Navy did not have responsibility for manufacture and supply of weapons and ammunition, which was in the hands of the War Office. Fisher began a long campaign to return this responsibility to the Admiralty, but did not finally succeed until he later became First Sea Lord. He was appointed Aide-de-Camp to the Queen in 1887, and promoted Rear-Admiral in August 1890. Admiral (1890–1902) From May 1891 to February 1892, Fisher was Admiral Superintendent of the dockyard at Portsmouth, where he concerned himself with improving the speed of operations. was built in two years rather than three, while changing a barbette gun on a ship was reduced from a two-day operation to two hours. His example obliged all shipyards, both navy and private, to reduce the time they took to complete a ship, making savings in cost and allowing new designs to enter service more rapidly. He used all the tricks he could devise: an official who refused to step outside his office to personally supervise the work was offered a promotion to the tropics; he would find out the name of one or two men amongst a work crew and then make a point of complimenting them on their work and using their names, giving the impression he knew everyone personally; he took a chair and table into the yard where some operation was to be carried out and declared his intention to stay there until the operation was completed. He observed, When you are told a thing is impossible, that there are insuperable objections, then is the time to fight like the devil. His next appointment was Third Naval Lord and Controller of the Navy, the naval officer with overall responsibility for provision of ships and equipment. He presided over the development of torpedo boat destroyers armed with quick-firing small-calibre guns (called destroyers at Fisher's suggestion). A suggestion for the boats was brought to the Admiralty in 1892 by Alfred Yarrow of shipbuilders Thornycroft and Yarrow, who reported that he had obtained plans of new torpedo boats being built by the French, and he could build a faster boat to defend against them. Torpedo boats had become a major threat, as they were cheap but potentially able to sink the largest battleships, and France had built large numbers of them. The first destroyers were considered a success and more were ordered, but Fisher immediately ran into trouble by insisting that all shipbuilders, not just Yarrow's, should be invited to build boats to Yarrow's design. A similar (though opposite) difficulty with vested interests arose over the introduction of water tube boilers into navy ships, which held out the promise of improved fuel efficiency and greater speed. The first examples were used by Thornycroft and Yarrow in 1892, and then were trialled in the gunboat . However, an attempt to specify similar boilers for new cruisers in 1894 led to questions in the House of Commons, and opposition from shipbuilders who did not want to invest in the new technology. The matter continued for several years after Fisher moved on to a new posting, with a parliamentary enquiry rejecting the new boilers. Eventually the new design was adopted, but only after another eighteen ships had been built using the older design, with consequent poorer performance than necessary. Fisher was knighted in the Queen's Birthday Honours of 1894 as a Knight Commander of the Bath, promoted to vice-admiral in 1896, and put in charge of the North America and West Indies Station in 1897. In 1898 the Fashoda Crisis brought the threat of war with France, to which Fisher responded with plans to raid the French West Indies including Devil's Island prison, and return the "infamous" Alfred Dreyfus to France to foment trouble within the French army. It was Fisher's policy to conduct all manoeuvres at full speed while training the fleet, and to expect the best from his crews. He would socialise with junior officers so that they were not afraid to approach him with ideas, or disagree with him when the occasion demanded. Fisher was chosen by Prime Minister Lord Salisbury as British naval delegate to the First Hague Peace Convention in 1899. The peace conference had been called by Russia to agree to limits on armaments, but the British position was to reject any proposal which might restrict use of the navy. Fisher's style was to say little in formal meetings, but to lobby determinedly at all informal gatherings. He impressed many by his affability and style, combined with a serious determination to press the British case with everyone he met. The conference ended successfully with limitations only upon dumdum bullets, poison gas and bombings from balloons, and Fisher was rewarded with appointment as Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet, 'the tip-top appointment of the fleet' . The German delegation summarised Britain's position: English world position depended upon the navy, the navy was sufficiently powerful to overcome any combination of states, and England reserved the right to employ that fleet any way it chose. Mediterranean Fleet Unlike the North America and West Indies station, the Mediterranean Fleet was a vital British command operating from Alexandria and Gibraltar. The important shipping route between India and Britain passed through the Suez Canal, and was considered threatened by France. France was concerned with the route north–south to its colonies in Northern Africa. Fisher retained his flagship from the North American Squadron, , rather than choosing a more powerful but slower traditional battleship, despite criticism from other officers. His strategy emphasised the importance of striking the first blow, but with an awareness that sunk ships could not easily be replaced, and would replace any officer who could not keep up with the standards he demanded. He gave lectures on naval strategy to which all officers were invited and once again encouraged his officers to bring ideas to him. He offered prizes for essays on tactics and maintained a large tabletop map room with models of all ships in the fleet, where all officers could come to develop tactics. A particular concern was the threat of torpedoes, which Germany had boasted would dispose of the British fleet, and the numerous French torpedo boats. Fisher's innovations were not universally approved, with some senior officers resenting the attention he paid to their juniors, or the pressure he placed on all to improve efficiency. A programme of realistic exercises was adopted including simulated French raids, defensive manoeuvres, night attacks and blockades, all carried out at maximum speed. He introduced a gold cup for the ship which performed best at gunnery, and insisted upon shooting at greater range and from battle formations. He found that he too was learning some of the complications and difficulties of controlling a large fleet in complex situations, and immensely enjoyed it. Notes from his lectures indicate that, at the start of his time in the Mediterranean, useful working ranges for heavy guns without telescopic sights were considered to be only 2000 yards, or 3000–4000 yards with such sights, whereas by the end of his time discussion centred on how to shoot effectively at 5000 yards. This was driven by the increasing range of the torpedo, which had now risen to 3000–4000 yards, necessitating ships fighting effectively at greater ranges. At this time he advocated relatively small main armaments on capital ships (some had 15 inch or greater), because the improved technical design of the relatively small (10 inch) modern guns allowed a much greater firing rate and greater overall weight of broadside. The potentially much greater ranges of large guns was not an issue, because no one knew how to aim them effectively at such ranges. He argued that "the design of fighting ships must follow the mode of fighting instead of fighting being subsidiary to and dependent on the design of ships." As regards how officers needed to behave, he commented, " Think and act for yourself is the motto for the future, not Let us wait for orders." Lord Hankey, then a marine officer serving under Fisher, later commented, "It is difficult for anyone who had not lived under the previous regime to realize what a change Fisher brought about in the Mediterranean fleet. ... Before his arrival, the topics and arguments of the officers messes ... were mainly confined to such matters as the cleaning of paint and brasswork. ... These were forgotten and replaced by incessant controversies on tactics, strategy, gunnery, torpedo warfare, blockade, etc. It was a veritable renaissance and affected every officer in the navy." Lord Charles Beresford, later to become a severe critic of Fisher, gave up a plan to return to Britain and enter parliament, because he had "learnt more in the last week than in the last forty years." Fisher implemented a program of banquets and balls for important dignitaries to improve diplomatic relations. The fleet visited Constantinople, where he had three meetings with the sultan and was awarded the Grand Cordon, Order of Osmanieh in November 1900, and the following year he was promoted to full Admiral on 5 November 1901. He lobbied hard with the Admiralty to obtain additional ships and supplies for the Mediterranean squadron. Beresford, who had established a career in politics alongside his naval one, continued a public campaign for greater funding of the fleet, which caused him to come into conflict with the Admiralty. While Fisher agreed with him as to the need for greater funding and instant readiness for war, he chose to stay out of the public debate. However, he maintained a steady confidential correspondence with the journalist Arnold White, providing him with information and advice for a newspaper campaign promoting the needs of the navy. During the course of the correspondence in 1902, Fisher noted that although France was Britain's historical enemy, Britain had considerable common interest with France as a possible ally, whereas growing German activity abroad made her a much more likely enemy. The correspondence revealed that Fisher remained uncertain how his views were being received at the Admiralty and an uncertainty on his part whether he would receive further promotions. He had already received approaches to become a director of Armstrong Whitworth, of Elswick (then Britain's largest armaments firm), at a considerably larger salary than that of an admiral and with the possibility of building privately new designs of ship which he believed would be needed to maintain the strength of the fleet. Second Sea Lord: reform of officer training (1902–1904) In early June 1902 Fisher handed over the command of the Mediterranean Squadron to Admiral Sir Compton Domvile, and returned to the UK to take up the appointment as Second Naval Lord in charge of personnel. He was read in at the Admiralty on 9 June, and took up his duties the following day. At this time engineering officers, who had become increasingly important in the fleet as it became steadily more dependent upon machinery, were still largely looked down upon by executive (command) officers. Fisher considered it would be better for the navy if the two branches could be merged, as had been done in the past with navigation officers who had similarly once been a completely separate speciality. His solution was to merge the cadet training of ordinary and engineer officers and revise the curriculum so that it provided a suitable grounding to later go on to either path. The proposal was initially resisted by the remainder of the Board of Admiralty, but Fisher convinced them of the benefits of the changes. Objections within the navy as a whole were harder to quell and a campaign once again broke out in newspapers. Fisher was thoroughly aware of the benefits of getting the press on his side and continued to leak information to friendly journalists. Beresford was approached by officers objecting to the changes to act as champion of their cause, but sided with Fisher on this issue. Training was extended from under two years to four, with the resulting need for more accommodation for cadets. A second cadet establishment, the Royal Naval College, Osborne, was constructed at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight for the first two years of training, with the last two remaining at Dartmouth. All cadets now received an education in science and technology as it related to life on board a ship as well as navigation and seamanship. Those who went on to be command officers would now have the benefit of improved understanding of their ships while those who became engineers would be better equipped for command. Physical education and sport were to be taught, not only for the benefit of the cadets but also for the future training of ships' crews which were expected to produce sporting teams on good-will visits in foreign ports. Entrance by examination, which biased the intake to those who could obtain special tuition, was replaced with an interview committee tasked with determining the general knowledge of candidates and their reaction to the questions as much as their answers. After the four years, cadets were posted to special training ships for final practical experience before being posted to real command positions. The results of the final examination affected the seniority allotted to each cadet and his chance of future early promotion. Fisher had described his Selborne-Fisher scheme as "unstoppable by prejudice, Parliament, Satan or even, beyond all these, the Treasury itself". However his original inclusion of the Royal Marines caused a drastic fall in the number of cadets opting to become officers in that branch of the service. Fisher accordingly was obliged to modify his reforms to exclude the Royal Marines in 1912. He was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) in the 1902 Coronation Honours list on 26 June 1902, and invested as such by King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on 24 October 1902. In 1903 he became Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth, with as his flagship. First Sea Lord (1904–1910) After spending September and the first half of October on the continent Fisher took office as First Sea Lord on 20 October 1904. The appointment came with a house in Queen Anne's Gate, but Fisher also leased Langham House, Ham where the family lived until his retirement. In June 1905 he was appointed to the Order of Merit (OM), in December he was promoted Admiral of the Fleet. Fisher was brought into the Admiralty to reduce naval budgets, and to reform the navy for modern war. Amidst massive public controversy, he ruthlessly sold off 90 obsolete and small ships and put a further 64 into reserve, describing them as "too weak to fight and too slow to run away", and "a miser's hoard of useless junk". This freed up crews and money to increase the number of large modern ships in home waters. The navy estimate for 1905 was reduced by £3.5 million on the previous year's total of £36.8 million despite new building programs and greatly increased effectiveness. Naval expenditure fell from 1905 to 1907, before rising again. By the end of Fisher's tenure as First Sea Lord expenditure had returned to 1904 levels. He was a driving force behind the development of the fast, all-big-gun battleship, and chaired the Committee on Designs which produced the outline design for the first modern battleship, . His committee also produced a new type of cruiser in a similar style to Dreadnought with a high speed achieved at the expense of armour protection. This became the battlecruiser, the first being . He also encouraged the introduction of submarines into the Royal Navy, and the conversion from a largely coal-fuelled navy to an oil-fuelled one. He had a long-running public feud with another admiral, Charles Beresford. In his capacity as First Sea Lord, Fisher proposed multiple times to King Edward VII that Britain should take advantage of its naval superiority to "Copenhagen" the German fleet at Kiel – that is, to destroy it with a pre-emptive surprise attack without declaration of war, as the Royal Navy had done against the Danish Navy during the Napoleonic Wars. In his memoirs, Fisher records a conversation where he was informed that "by all from the German Emperor downwards [he] was the most hated man in Germany", as the Emperor "had heard of [Fisher's] idea for the "Copenhagening" of the German Fleet." Fisher further added that he doubted that the suggestion had leaked out, and believed that "[the Emperor] only said it because he knew it was what [the British] ought to have done." In 1908, he predicted that war between Britain and Germany would occur in October 1914, which later proved accurate, basing his statement on the projected completion of the widening of the Kiel Canal, which would allow Germany to move its large warships safely from the Baltic to the North Sea. He was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) that year. On 7 December 1909, he was created Baron Fisher. He took the punning motto "Fear God and dread nought" on his coat of arms as a reference to Dreadnought. Before the war (1911–1914) He retired to Kilverstone Hall on 25 January 1911, his 70th birthday. In 1912, Fisher was appointed chairman of the Royal Commission on Fuel and Engines, with a view to converting the entire fleet to oil. Classified "Secret", Fisher's Commission reported in on 27 November 1912, with two follow-up reports on 27 February 1913 and 10 February 1914. Once the First World War broke out in August 1914, Fisher was a 'constant' visitor to Churchill at the Admiralty. First Sea Lord (1914–1915) In October 1914 Lord Fisher was recalled as First Sea Lord, after Prince Louis of Battenberg had been forced to resign because of his German name. The Times reported that Fisher "was now entering the close of his 74th year but he was never younger or more vigorous". He resigned on 15 May 1915 amidst bitter arguments with the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, over Gallipoli, causing Churchill's resignation too. Fisher was never entirely enthusiastic about the campaign—going back and forth in his support, to the consternation and frustration of members of the cabinet—and all in all preferred an amphibious attack on the German Baltic Sea coastline (the Baltic Project), even having the shallow-draft battlecruisers , and constructed for the purpose. As the Gallipoli campaign failed, relations with Churchill became increasingly acrimonious. One of Fisher's last contributions to naval construction was the projected , a mammoth battlecruiser which took the principles of the Courageous class another step further; mounting 20-inch guns, but still with minimal armour, Incomparable was never approved for construction. Fisher's resignation was initially not taken seriously: "Fisher is always resigning" commented the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith. However, when Fisher vacated his room at the Admiralty with the announced intention of retiring to Scotland, the Prime Minister sent him an order in the King's name to continue his duties. Senior naval officers and the press made appeals to the now elderly (74) First Sea Lord to remain in his position. Fisher responded with an eccentric letter to Asquith setting out six demands that would "guarantee the successful termination of the war". These would have given him unprecedented sole authority over the fleet, including all promotions and construction. After commenting that Fisher's behaviour indicated signs of mental aberration, Asquith responded with a brusque acceptance of Fisher's original resignation. Last years (1915–1920) Fisher was made chairman of the Government's Board of Invention and Research, serving in that post until the end of the war. In 1917 he was awarded the Japanese Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers, Grand Cordon, the highest of eight classes associated with the award. Notice of the King's permission to accept and to display this honour was duly published in The London Gazette. Admiral Fisher's wife, Frances, died in July 1918. She was cremated and her ashes were interred in St Andrew's churchyard, adjacent to Kilverstone Hall, on 22 July. Her coffin was draped with Fisher's flag as Admiral of the Fleet and topped by a coronet. Fisher died of cancer at St James Square, London, on 10 July 1920, aged 79, and he was given a national funeral at Westminster Abbey. His coffin was drawn on a gun-carriage through the streets of London to Westminster Abbey by bluejackets, with six admirals as pall-bearers and an escort of Royal Marines, their arms reversed, to the slow beat of muffled drums. That evening the body was cremated at the Golders Green Crematorium. The following day, Fisher's ashes were taken by train to Kilverstone, escorted by a Royal Navy guard of honour, and were placed in the grave of his wife, underneath a chestnut tree, overlooking the figurehead of his first seagoing ship, . In folklore and popular culture A reference to Fisher was hidden as an encrypted message, the Smithy code, by Mr Justice Peter Smith in the April 2006 judgement on the Da Vinci Code plagiarism case. Smith's biography in Who's Who stated that he was a "Jackie Fisher fan". Fisher is credited by the Oxford English Dictionary with the earliest known use of the phrase "OMG" as an abbreviation for "Oh my God", in a letter to Winston Churchill on 9 September 1917. In Fisher's case it was "Oh! My God!" Fisher coined the phrase "Buggins' turn" to describe the practice of making appointments by rotation or seniority rather than by merit, which he saw as a problem within the navy. The song "Old Admirals" on the Al Stewart album Past, Present, and Future is based largely on Fisher's life. Fisher makes an appearance as a midshipman during the Taiping Rebellion in George MacDonald Fraser's novel Flashman and the Dragon (1985). Fisher makes an appearance in the television mini-series Reilly: Ace of Spies (1983), Episode 1, portrayed by actor Denis Holmes. Honours Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (1894) Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (1902) Order of Merit (1905) Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (1908) Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (1906) Order of Osmanieh (1900) Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers, Grand Cordon (1917) Notes Bibliography One section of Fisher's service records form part of the document piece ADM 196/15 at The National Archives. A full PDF is available (fee required) Documents Online—Image Details—Lord Fisher of Kilverstone, John Further reading Massie, Robert K. Dreadnought: Britain, Germany, and the coming of the Great War (Random House, 1991) excerpt see Dreadnought (book), popular history; pp 401–432. External links Transcription of Service Record on admirals.org.uk Royal Navy Museum short biography The Papers of John Fisher, 1st Lord Fisher of Kilverstone held at the Churchill Archives Centre |- |- |- |- Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom First Sea Lords and Chiefs of the Naval Staff Lords of the Admiralty Royal Navy admirals of the fleet 1841 births 1920 deaths British people of World War I Royal Navy personnel of the Second Opium War Royal Navy personnel of the Anglo-Egyptian War Royal Navy personnel of the Crimean War Royal Navy admirals of World War I Members of the Order of Merit Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers People educated at King Henry VIII School, Coventry People from British Ceylon Deaths from cancer in England Peers created by Edward VII
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanny%20Kemble
Fanny Kemble
Frances Anne "Fanny" Kemble (27 November 180915 January 1893) was a British actress from a theatre family in the early and mid-19th century. She was a well-known and popular writer and abolitionist whose published works included plays, poetry, eleven volumes of memoirs, travel writing, and works about the theatre. Kemble's "lasting historical importance...derives from the private journal she kept during her time in the Sea Islands" on her husband's plantations, where she wrote a journal documenting the conditions of the slaves on the plantation and her growing abolitionist feelings. She was also an early adopter of spoken word performances combined with music. Early life and education A member of the famous Kemble theatrical family, Fanny was the eldest daughter of the actor Charles Kemble and his Viennese-born wife, the former Marie Therese De Camp. She was a niece of the noted tragedienne Sarah Siddons and of the famous actor John Philip Kemble. Her younger sister was the opera singer Adelaide Kemble. Fanny was born in London and educated chiefly in France. In 1821, Fanny Kemble departed to boarding school in Paris to study art and music as befitted the child of the most celebrated artistic family in England at that time. In addition to literature and society, at Mrs. Lamb's Academy in the Rue d'Angoulême, Champs Elysées, Fanny received her first real personal exposure to the stage performing staged readings for students' parents during her time at school. As an adolescent, Kemble spent time studying literature and poetry, in particular the work of Lord Byron. One of her teachers was Frances Arabella Rowden (1774 – c. 1840), who had been associated with the Reading Abbey Girls' School since she was 16. Rowden was an engaging teacher with a particular enthusiasm for the theatre. She was not only a poet but according to Mary Russell Mitford, "she had a knack of making poetesses of her pupils" In 1827, Kemble wrote her first five-act play, Francis the First. It was met with critical acclaim from multiple quarters. Nineteenth-century critics wrote that the script "displays so much spirit and originality, so much of the true qualities which are required in dramatic composition, that it may fairly stand upon its own intrinsic worth, and that the author may fearlessly challenge a comparison with any other modern dramatist." Acting career On 26 October 1829, at the age of 19, Kemble first appeared on the stage as Juliet in Romeo and Juliet at Covent Garden Theatre, after only three weeks of rehearsals. Her attractive personality immediately made her a great favourite, and her popularity enabled her father to recoup his losses as a manager. She played all the principal women's roles of the time, notably Shakespeare's Portia and Beatrice (Much Ado about Nothing), and Lady Teazle in Richard Brinsley Sheridan's The School for Scandal. Kemble disliked the artificiality of stardom in general but appreciated the salary which she accepted to help her family in their frequent financial troubles. In 1832, Kemble accompanied her father on a theatrical tour of the United States. While in Boston in 1833, she journeyed to Quincy to witness the revolutionary technology of the first commercial railroad in the United States. She had previously accompanied George Stephenson on a test of the Liverpool and Manchester before its opening in England and described this in a letter written in early 1830. The Granite Railway was among many sights she recorded in her journal. Kemble retired from her acting career upon her marriage in 1834, but after her separation, she returned to acting as a solo platform performer, beginning her first American tour in 1849. During her readings, she rose to focus on presenting edited works of Shakespeare, though, unlike others, she insisted on representing his entire canon, ultimately building her repertoire to 25 of his plays. She performed in Britain and the United States, concluding her career as a platform performer in 1868. Marriage On 7 June 1834, Kemble retired from the stage to marry a wealthy Philadelphian, Pierce Mease Butler, grandson of U.S. Senator Pierce Butler, whom she had met on an American acting tour with her father in 1832. Although they met and lived in Philadelphia, Pierce's mother was a daughter of Pierce Butler, a Founding Father who represented South Carolina at the Constitutional Convention. By agreeing to change his last name from Mease to Butler - as his grandfather's will had demanded, Butler became heir to the cotton, tobacco, and rice plantations of his grandfather on Butler Island, just south of Darien, Georgia, and to the hundreds of slaves who worked them. By the time the couple's daughters, Sarah and Frances, were born, Butler had inherited three of his grandfather's plantations on Butler Island, just south of Darien, Georgia, and the hundreds of people who were enslaved on them. He made trips to the plantations during the early years of their marriage but never took Kemble or their children with him. At Kemble's insistence, they finally spent the winter of 1838–1839 at the plantations at Butler and St. Simons islands, in conditions primitive compared to their house in Philadelphia, and Kemble kept a diary of her observations, later published as Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839, flavored strongly by abolitionist sentiment. Kemble was shocked by the living and working conditions of the slaves and their treatment by the overseers and managers. She tried to improve matters, complaining to her husband about slavery and about the mixed-race slave children attributed to the overseer, Roswell King Jr. Butler disapproved of Kemble's outspokenness, forbidding her to publish. Marital tensions had emerged when the family returned to Philadelphia in the spring of 1839. Apart from their disagreements over slave treatment on Butler's plantations, Kemble was "embittered and embarrassed" by Butler's marital infidelities. Butler threatened to deny Kemble access to their daughters if she published any of her observations about the plantations. By 1845–1847, the marriage had failed irretrievably, and Kemble returned to England. Separation and divorce Butler filed for a divorce in 1847, after they had been separated for some time, citing abandonment and misdeed by Kemble. The couple endured a bitter and protracted divorce in 1849, with Butler retaining custody of their two daughters. Other than brief visits, Kemble was not reunited with her daughters until each came of age at 21. Her ex-husband squandered a fortune estimated at $700,000 but was saved from bankruptcy by a sale on 2–3 March 1859 of 436 people he held in slavery. The Great Slave Auction, at Ten Broeck racetrack outside Savannah, Georgia, was the largest single slave auction in United States history. As such, it was covered by national reporters. After the American Civil War, Butler tried to run his plantations with free labour but failed to make a profit. He died of malaria in Georgia in 1867. Neither Butler nor Kemble remarried. Later stage career In England, she began to act on the stage again - at first in plays and then as a "reader" of Shakespeare's plays in lecture rooms and concert halls. She returned to the theatre and toured major US cities, giving successful readings of Shakespeare plays. Following her father's example, she succeeded as a Shakespearean reader rather than acting in plays. She toured the United States. Kemble's success as a Shakespearean reader enabled her to buy a home in Lenox, Massachusetts. In 1877, she returned to London to join her younger daughter Frances, who had moved there with her British husband and child. Using her maiden name, Kemble lived there until her death. During this period, she was a prominent and popular figure in London society and became a great friend of the American writer Henry James during her later years. His novel, Washington Square (1880), was based on a story Kemble told him about one of her relatives. Literary career Kemble wrote two plays, Francis the First (1832) and The Star of Seville (1837). She also published a volume of poems (1844). She published the first volume of her memoirs, Journal, in 1835, shortly after her marriage. She waited until 1863, during the American Civil War, to publish her anti-slavery Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839. It became her best-known work in the United States: she published several other volumes of journals. It included her observations of slavery and life on her husband's Southern plantation in the winter of 1838–1839. It contains the earliest-known written use of the word "vegetarian": "The sight and smell of raw meat are especially odious to me, and I have often thought that if I had had to be my own cook, I should inevitably become a vegetarian, probably, indeed, return entirely to my green and salad days." After separating from Butler in the 1840s, Kemble travelled in Italy and wrote a two-volume book on this time, A Year of Consolation (1847). In 1863, Kemble also published a volume of plays, including translations from Alexandre Dumas, père and Friedrich Schiller. Other memoirs followed these: Records of a Girlhood (1878); Records of Later Life (1882); Far Away and Long Ago (1889); and Further Records (1891). Her various reminiscences contain much valuable material about the social and theatrical history of the period. She also published Notes on Some of Shakespeare's Plays (1882), based on her long experience in acting and reading his works. In 2000, Harvard University Press published an edited compilation from her journals. These included Record of a Girlhood (1878) and Records of Later Life (1882). Descendants Kemble's older daughter, Sarah Butler, married Owen Jones Wister, an American doctor. Their one child, Owen Wister, grew up to become a popular American novelist, writing in 1902 a popular western, The Virginian. Fanny's other daughter Frances met James Leigh in Georgia. He was a minister born in England. The couple married in 1871, and their one child, Alice Leigh, was born in 1874. An attempt was made to run Frances's father's plantations there with free labour, but no profit could be made. Leaving Georgia in 1877, they moved permanently to England. Frances Butler Leigh defended her father in the continuing post-war dispute over slavery as an institution. Based on her experience, Leigh published Ten Years on a Georgian Plantation since the War (1883), a rebuttal to her mother's account. Death Her granddaughter Alice Leigh was present when Fanny Kemble died in London in 1893. Controversy According to Encyclopedia.com, Kemble's "lasting historical importance...derives from the private journal she kept during her time in the Sea Islands", documenting the conditions of the slaves on the plantation and her growing abolitionist feelings. While Kemble's account of the plantations has been criticised, it is seen as notable for voicing the slaves, especially enslaved black women, and has been drawn on by many historians. As noted earlier, her daughter published a rebuttal account. Margaret Davis Cate published a strong critique in the Georgia Historical Quarterly in 1960. In the early 21st century, historians Catherine Clinton and Deirdre David studied Kemble's Journal and raised questions about her portrayal of Roswell King, father, and son, who successively managed Pierce Butler's plantations, and about Kemble's racial sentiments. On Kemble's racial views, David notes she described slaves as stupid, lazy, filthy, and ugly. Such views were then common and compatible with opposing slavery and outrage at its cruelties. Clinton noted that in 1930, Julia King, granddaughter of Roswell King Jr., stated that Kemble had falsified her account of him after he spurned her affections. There is little evidence in Kemble's Journal that she encountered Roswell King Jr. on more than a few occasions, and none that she knew his wife, the former Julia Rebecca Maxwell. But she criticized Maxwell as "a female fiend" because a slave named Sophy told her that Mrs. King had ordered the flogging of Judy and Scylla, "of whose children Mr. K[ing] was the father." Roswell King Jr. was no longer employed by her husband when Pierce Butler and Kemble began their short residency in Georgia. King had resigned due to "growing uneasiness... born of a dispute between the Kings and the Butlers over fees the elder King thought were owed him as co-administrator of Major Butler's estate." Before arriving in Georgia, Kemble had written, "It is notorious that almost every Southern planter has a family more or less numerous of illegitimate coloured children." Her statements about Roswell King Sr. and Roswell King Jr. and their alleged status as white fathers of enslaved mulatto children are based on what other slaves told her. Individuals sometimes relied on hearsay accounts of their paternity, although European ancestry was visible. The mulatto Renty, for example, was "ashamed" to ask his mother about the identity of his father. He believed he was the son of Roswell King Jr. because "Mr. C[ouper]'s children told me so, and I 'spect they know it." John Couper, the Scottish-born owner of a rival plantation adjacent to Pierce Butler's Hampton Point on St. Simon's Island, had marked disagreements with the Roswell Kings. Clinton suggests that Kemble favored Couper's accounts. Biographies Numerous books have appeared on Fanny Kemble and her family, including Deirdre David's A Performed Life (2007) and Vanessa Dickerson's passage on Kemble in Dark Victorians (2008). Earlier works were Fanny Kemble (1933) by Leota Stultz Driver, Fanny Kemble: A Passionate Victorian (1939) by Margaret Armstrong, Fanny Kemble: Actress, Author, Abolitionist (1967) by Winifred Wise, and Fanny Kemble: Leading Lady of the Nineteenth-century Stage : A Biography (1982) by J.C. Furnas. Some recent biographies that focus on Kemble's role as an abolitionist include Catherine Clinton's Fanny Kemble's Civil Wars: The Story of America's Most Unlikely Abolitionist (2000). Others have studied the theatrical careers of Kemble and her family. One of these, Henry Gibbs' Affectionately Yours, Fanny: Fanny Kemble and the Theatre, appeared in eight editions between 1945 and 1947. Works Available through Harvard University Library's Open Collections Program: Women Working 1800–1930:Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839. New York: Harper & Bros, 1863; Record of a Girlhood. London: R. Bentley and Son, 1878Records of Later Life. New York: H. Holt and Co., 1882Further Records, 1848–1883: a series of letters. London: R. Bentley and Son, 1890 Other publications:Francis the First, a drama (London, 1832; New York, 1833)Journal (2 vols., London, 1835; Philadelphia and Boston, 1835)The Star of Seville, a drama (London and New York, 1837)Poems (London and Philadelphia, 1844; Boston, 1859)A Year of Consolation, a book of Italian travel (2 vols, London and New York, 1847)Plays, including translations from Dumas and Schiller (London, 1863)Notes on Some of Shakespeare's Plays (London, 1882)Far Away and Long Ago (1889)Works by Fanny Kemble at Project Gutenberg. Several editions of her journals have been published in the twenty-first century: Kemble, Fanny. Fanny Kemble's Journals, Edited and with an Introduction by Catherine Clinton, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000. Kemble, Fanny. (1835). Journal, edited by Murray (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ) Kemble, Fanny (1863). Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839. Longman Green (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ) Other mediaPeople & Events: Fanny Kemble and Pierce Butler: 1806–1893, PBS Enslavement: The True Story of Fanny Kemble (1999), a made-for-TV movie adapted from her Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839, starring Jane Seymour as Kemble and Keith Carradine as ButlerFanny Kemble, directed and created by Peter Hinton with Domini Blythe, Stratford Festival, Canada, Ontario, (2006) See also History of slavery in the United States References Sources Margaret Armstrong, Fanny Kemble: A Passionate Victorian, New York: The Macmillan Company, 1938 Malcolm Jr. Bell, Major Butler's Legacy: Five Generations of a Slaveholding Family, Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1987 Clements Brown and Grundy, ed. Orlando Women's Writing in the British Isles: From the Beginnings to the Present. Cambridge University Press: 2006–2018. Margaret Davis Cate, "Mistakes in Fanny Kemble's Georgia Journal", Georgia Historical Quarterly 44 (March 1960). Catherine Clinton, Fanny Kemble's Civil Wars, Simon and Schuster, 2000 Deirdre David, Kemble: 'A Performed Life', Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2007 Vanessa D. Dickerson, Dark Victorians, Urbana: University of Illinois, 2008 Leota Stultz Driver, Fanny Kemble, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1933 Julia King, Julia King to , 24 October 1930. Julia King letters and clippings, MS 1070, Georgia Historical Society, Savannah, Georgia. Frances Butler Leigh, Ten Years on a Georgian Plantation since the War (1883) in Principles and Privilege: Two Women's Lives on a Georgia Plantation, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994 James Parton, "Mrs. Frances Anne Kemble," in Eminent Women of the Age; Being Narratives of the Lives and Deeds of the Most Prominent Women of the Present Generation, Hartford, Conn.: S. M. Betts & Company, 1868. External links Theater Arts Manuscripts: An Inventory of the Collection at the Harry Ransom Center Fanny Kemble at History of American Women Harvard University Library Open Collections Program. Women Working, 1870–1930, Fanny Kemble (1809–1893), full-text searchable online database with complete access to publications written by Fanny Kemble Enslavement: The True Story of Fanny Kemble (TV movie, 2000), IMDB.com, starring Jane Seymour; based on Fanny Kemble's Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839'' People & Events: Fanny Kemble and Pierce Butler: 1806–1893 at pbs.org. The Writer's Almanac with Garrison Keillor marking her birthday on 27 November. 1809 births 1893 deaths 19th-century English actresses 19th-century English dramatists and playwrights 19th-century English diarists 19th-century English poets 19th-century English women writers Actresses from London English abolitionists Kemble family English stage actresses English travel writers English women dramatists and playwrights British Shakespearean actresses Victorian women writers Victorian writers British women travel writers Writers from London British women memoirists Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery People from Lenox, Massachusetts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transnistria
Transnistria
Transnistria, officially the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (PMR), is an unrecognised state internationally considered to be part of Moldova. Transnistria controls most of the narrow strip of land between the Dniester river and the Moldovan–Ukrainian border, as well as some land on the other side of the river's bank. Its capital and largest city is Tiraspol. Transnistria has been recognised only by three other unrecognised or partially recognised breakaway states: Abkhazia, Artsakh and South Ossetia. Transnistria is officially designated by the Republic of Moldova as the Administrative-Territorial Units of the Left Bank of the Dniester () or as ("Left Bank of the Dniester"). In March 2022, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted a resolution that defines the territory as under military occupation by Russia. The region's origins can be traced to the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, which was formed in 1924 within the Ukrainian SSR. During World War II, the Soviet Union took parts of the Moldavian ASSR, which was dissolved, and of the Kingdom of Romania's Bessarabia to form the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1940. The present history of the region dates to 1990, during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, when the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was established in hopes that it would remain within the Soviet Union should Moldova seek unification with Romania or independence, the latter occurring in August 1991. Shortly afterwards, a military conflict between the two parties started in March 1992 and concluded with a ceasefire in July that year. As part of the ceasefire agreement, a three-party (Russia, Moldova, Transnistria) Joint Control Commission supervises the security arrangements in the demilitarised zone, comprising 20 localities on both sides of the river. Although the ceasefire has held, the territory's political status remains unresolved: Transnistria is an unrecognised but de facto independent presidential republic with its own government, parliament, military, police, postal system, currency, and vehicle registration. Its authorities have adopted a constitution, flag, national anthem, and coat of arms. After a 2005 agreement between Moldova and Ukraine, all Transnistrian companies that seek to export goods through the Ukrainian border must be registered with the Moldovan authorities. This agreement was implemented after the European Union Border Assistance Mission to Moldova and Ukraine (EUBAM) took force in 2005. In addition to the unrecognised Transnistrian citizenship, most Transnistrians have Moldovan citizenship, but many also have Russian, Romanian, or Ukrainian citizenship. The main ethnic groups are Russians, Moldovans/Romanians, and Ukrainians. Transnistria, along with Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and Artsakh, is a post-Soviet "frozen conflict" zone. These four partially recognised or unrecognised states maintain friendly relations with each other and form the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations. Names The region can also be referred to in English as Trans-Dniester, Transdniester or Transdniestria. These names are adaptations of the Romanian colloquial name of the region, Transnistria, meaning "beyond the Dniester River". The term Transnistria was used in relation to eastern Moldova for the first time in 1989, in the election slogan of the deputy and member of the Popular Front of Moldova Leonida Lari: The documents of the government of Moldova refer to the region as (in full, ) meaning "Left Bank of the Dniester" (in full, "Administrative-territorial unit(s) of the Left Bank of the Dniester"). According to the Transnistrian authorities, the name of the state is the "Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic" (PMR) (, ; , Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet: ; , ). The short form is (, ; , Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet: , ; , , ), meaning "[land] by the Dniester". History Soviet and Romanian administration In 1924, the Moldavian ASSR was proclaimed within the Ukrainian SSR. The ASSR included today's Transnistria () and an area () to the northeast around the city of Balta, but nothing from Bessarabia, which at the time formed part of Kingdom of Romania. One of the reasons for the creation of the Moldavian ASSR was the desire of the Soviet Union at the time to eventually incorporate Bessarabia. On 28 June 1940, the USSR annexed part of Bessarabia from Romania under the terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, and on 2 August 1940 the Supreme Soviet of the USSR created the Moldavian SSR by combining the annexed territory with part of the former Moldavian ASSR roughly equivalent to present-day Transnistria. In 1941, after Axis forces invaded the Soviet Union in the Second World War, they defeated the Soviet troops in the region and occupied it. Romania controlled the entire region between Dniester and Southern Bug rivers, including the city of Odesa as local capital. The Romanian-administered territory, known as the Transnistria Governorate, with an area of and a population of 2.3 million inhabitants, was divided into 13 counties: Ananiev, Balta, Berzovca, Dubasari, Golta, Jugastru, Movilau, Oceacov, Odesa, Ovidiopol, Rîbnița, Tiraspol, and Tulcin. This expanded Transnistria was home to nearly 200,000 Romanian-speaking residents. The Romanian administration of Transnistria attempted to stabilise the situation in the area under Romanian control, implementing a process of Romanianization. During the Romanian occupation of 1941–44, between 150,000 and 250,000 Ukrainian and Romanian Jews were deported to Transnistria; the majority were executed or died from other causes in the ghettos and concentration camps of the Governorate. After the Red Army advanced into the area in 1944, Soviet authorities executed, exiled or imprisoned hundreds of inhabitants of the Moldavian SSR in the following months on charges of collaboration with the Romanian occupiers. A later campaign directed against rich peasant families deported them to Kazakhstan and Siberia. Over the course of two days, 6–7 July 1949, a plan named "Operation South" saw the deportation of over 11,342 families by order of the Moldavian Minister of State Security, Iosif Mordovets. Secession In the 1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost in the Soviet Union allowed political liberalisation at a regional level. This led to the creation of various informal movements all over the country, and to a rise of nationalism within most Soviet republics. In the Moldavian SSR in particular, there was a significant resurgence of pro-Romanian nationalism among Moldovans. The most prominent of these movements was the Popular Front of Moldova (PFM). In early 1988, the PFM demanded that the Soviet authorities declare Moldovan the only state language, return to the use of the Latin alphabet, and recognise the shared ethnic identity of Moldovans and Romanians. The more radical factions of the PFM espoused extreme anti-minority, ethnocentric and chauvinist positions, calling for minority populations, particularly the Slavs (mainly Russians and Ukrainians) and Gagauz, to leave or be expelled from Moldova. On 31 August 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the Moldavian SSR adopted Moldovan as the official language with Russian retained only for secondary purposes, returned Moldovan to the Latin alphabet, and declared a shared Moldovan-Romanian linguistic identity. As plans for major cultural changes in Moldova were made public, tensions rose further. Ethnic minorities felt threatened by the prospects of removing Russian as the official language, which served as the medium of interethnic communication, and by the possible future reunification of Moldova and Romania, as well as the ethnocentric rhetoric of the PFM. The Yedinstvo (Unity) Movement, established by the Slavic population of Moldova, pressed for equal status for both the Russian and Moldovan languages. Transnistria's ethnic and linguistic composition differed significantly from most of the rest of Moldova. The proportion of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians was especially high and an overall majority of the population, some of them Moldovans, spoke Russian as their mother tongue. The nationalist PFM won the first free parliamentary elections in the Moldavian SSR in early 1990, and its agenda started slowly to be implemented. On 2 September 1990, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (PMSSR) was proclaimed as a Soviet republic by an ad hoc assembly, the Second Congress of the Peoples' Representatives of Transnistria, following a successful referendum. Violence escalated when in October 1990 the PFM called for volunteers to form armed militias to stop an autonomy referendum in Gagauzia, which had an even higher proportion of ethnic minorities. In response, volunteer militias were formed in Transnistria. In April 1990, nationalist mobs attacked ethnic Russian members of parliament, while the Moldovan police refused to intervene or restore order. In the interest of preserving a unified Moldavian SSR within the USSR and preventing the situation escalating further, then Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev, while citing the restriction of civil rights of ethnic minorities by Moldova as the cause of the dispute, declared the Transnistria proclamation to be devoid of a legal basis and annulled it by presidential decree on 22 December 1990. Nevertheless, no significant action was taken against Transnistria and the new authorities were slowly able to establish control of the region. Following the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian SSR declared its independence from the Soviet Union. On 5 November 1991 Transnistria abandoned its socialist ideology and was renamed "Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic". Transnistria War The Transnistria War followed armed clashes on a limited scale that broke out between Transnistrian separatists and Moldova as early as November 1990 at Dubăsari. Volunteers, including Cossacks, came from Russia to help the separatist side. In mid-April 1992, under the agreements on the split of the military equipment of the former Soviet Union negotiated between the former 15 republics in the previous months, Moldova created its own Defence Ministry. According to the decree of its creation, most of the 14th Guards Army's military equipment was to be retained by Moldova. Starting from 2 March 1992, there was concerted military action between Moldova and Transnistria. The fighting intensified throughout early 1992. The former Soviet 14th Guards Army entered the conflict in its final stage, opening fire against Moldovan forces; approximately 700 people were killed. Moldova has since then exercised no effective control or influence on Transnistrian authorities. A ceasefire agreement, signed on 21 July 1992, has held to the present day. Further negotiations The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is trying to facilitate a negotiated settlement. Under OSCE auspices, on 8 May 1997, Moldovan President Petru Lucinschi and Transnistrian President Igor Smirnov, signed the "Memorandum on the principles of normalization of relations between the Republic of Moldova and Transnistria", also known as the "Primakov Memorandum", sustaining the establishment of legal and state relations, although the memorandum's provisions were interpreted differently by the two governments. In November 2003, Dmitry Kozak, a counselor of Russian president Vladimir Putin, proposed a memorandum on the creation of an asymmetric federal Moldovan state, with Moldova holding a majority and Transnistria being a minority part of the federation. Known as "the Kozak memorandum", it did not coincide with the Transnistrian position, which sought equal status between Transnistria and Moldova, but gave Transnistria veto powers over future constitutional changes, thus encouraging Transnistria to sign it. Moldovan President Vladimir Voronin was initially supportive of the plan, but refused to sign it after internal opposition and international pressure from the OSCE and US, and after Russia had endorsed the Transnistrian demand to maintain a Russian military presence for the next 20 years as a guarantee for the intended federation. The 5+2 format (or 5+2 talks, comprising Transnistria, Moldova, Ukraine, Russia and the OSCE, plus the United States and the EU as external observers) for negotiation was started in 2005 to deal with the problems, but without results for many years as it was suspended. In February 2011, talks were resumed in Vienna, continuing through to 2018 with some minor agreements being reached. Moldova had, by 2023, dropped the term 5+2 in diplomatic discussions. After the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation in March 2014, the head of the Transnistrian parliament asked to join Russia. Geography Transnistria is landlocked and borders Bessarabia (the region the Republic of Moldova is based on, for ) to the west, and Ukraine (for ) to the east. It is a narrow valley stretching north-south along the bank of the Dniester river, which forms a natural boundary along most of the de facto border with Moldova. The territory controlled by the PMR is mostly, but not completely, conterminous with the left (eastern) bank of Dniester. It includes ten cities and towns, and 69 communes, with a total of 147 localities (including here those unincorporated). Six communes on the left bank (Cocieri, Molovata Nouă, Corjova, Pîrîta, Coșnița, and Doroțcaia) remained under the control of the Moldovan government after the Transnistria War of 1992, as part of the Dubăsari District. They are situated north and south of the city of Dubăsari, which itself is under PMR control. The village of Roghi of Molovata Nouă Commune is also controlled by the PMR (Moldova controls the other nine of the 10 villages of the six communes). On the west bank, in Bessarabia, the city of Bender (Tighina) and four communes (containing six villages) to its east, south-east, and south, on the opposite bank of the river Dniester from the city of Tiraspol (Proteagailovca, Gîsca, Chițcani, and Cremenciug) are controlled by the PMR. The localities controlled by Moldova on the eastern bank, the village of Roghi, and the city of Dubăsari (situated on the eastern bank and controlled by the PMR) form a security zone along with the six villages and one city controlled by the PMR on the western bank, as well as two (Varnița and Copanca) on the same west bank under Moldovan control. The security situation inside it is subject to the Joint Control Commission rulings. The main transportation route in Transnistria is the road from Tiraspol to Rîbnița through Dubăsari. North and south of Dubăsari it passes through the lands of the villages controlled by Moldova (Doroțcaia, Cocieri, Roghi, while Vasilievca is located entirely to the east of the road). Conflict erupted on several occasions when the PMR prevented the villagers from reaching their farmland east of the road. Transnistrians are able to travel (normally without difficulty) in and out of the territory under PMR control to neighbouring Moldovan-controlled territory and to Ukraine. International air travellers rely on the airport in the Moldovan capital Chișinău, or the airport in Odesa, in Ukraine. The climate is humid continental with subtropical characteristics. Transnistria has warm summers and cool to cold winters. Precipitation is unvarying all year round, although with a slight increase in the summer months. Administrative divisions Transnistria is subdivided into five districts (raions) and one municipality, the city of Tiraspol (which is entirely surrounded by but administratively distinct from Slobozia District), listed below from north to south (Russian names and transliterations are appended in parentheses). In addition, another municipality, the City of Bender, situated on the western bank of the Dniester, in Bessarabia, and geographically outside Transnistria, is not part of the territorial unit of Transnistria as defined by the Moldovan central authorities, but it is controlled by the PMR authorities, which consider it part of PMR's administrative organisation: Each of the districts is further divided into cities and communes. Political status All UN member states consider Transnistria a legal part of the Republic of Moldova. Only the partially recognised or unrecognised states of South Ossetia, Artsakh, and Abkhazia have recognised Transnistria as a sovereign entity after it declared independence from Moldova in 1990 with Tiraspol as its declared capital. Between 1929 and 1940, Tiraspol functioned as the capital of the Moldavian ASSR, an autonomous republic that existed from 1924 to 1940 within the Ukrainian SSR. Although exercising no direct control over the territory of Transnistria, the Moldovan government passed the "Law on Basic Provisions of the Special Legal Status of Localities from the Left Bank of the Dniester" on 22 July 2005, which established part of Transnistria (territory of Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic without Bender and without territories, which are under control of Moldova) as an autonomous territorial unit within the Republic of Moldova. the population of Transnistria comprised about 555,000 people. 90% of the population of Transnistria are citizens of Transnistria. Transnistrians may have dual, triple or even quadruple citizenship of internationally recognised countries, including: Citizens of Moldova: around 300,000 people (including dual citizens of Moldova and Russia, around 20,000) or of Moldova and the EU states (around 80%) of Romania, Bulgaria, or the Czech Republic Citizens of Romania: unknown number Citizens of Russia: around 150,000 people (including around 15,000 dual citizens of Belarus, Israel, Turkey); excluding those holding dual citizenship of Russia and of Moldova (around 20,000) Citizens of Ukraine: around 100,000 people There are around 20,000–30,000 people with dual citizenship (Moldova and Ukraine, or Russia and Ukraine) or triple citizenship (Moldova, Russia and Ukraine). They are included in the number of Ukrainian citizens. Persons without citizenship: around 20,000–30,000 people There are unsettled border issues between Transnistria and Moldova. Fifteen villages from the 11 communes of Dubăsari District, including Cocieri and Doroțcaia that geographically belong to Transnistria, have been under the control of the central government of Moldova after the involvement of local inhabitants on the side of Moldovan forces during the War of Transnistria. These villages, along with Varnița and Copanca, near Bender and Tiraspol, are claimed by the PMR. One city (Bender) and six villages on the west bank are controlled by the PMR, but are considered by Moldova as a separate municipality (Bender and village of Proteagailovca) or part of the Căușeni District (five villages in three communes). Tense situations have periodically surfaced due to these territorial disputes, such as in 2005, when Transnistrian forces entered Vasilievca, in 2006 around Varnița, and in 2007 in the Dubăsari-Cocieri area, when a confrontation between Moldovan and Transnistrian forces occurred, though without any casualties. June 2010 surveys indicated that 13% of Transnistria's population desired the area's reintegration into Moldova in the condition of territorial autonomy, while 46% wanted Transnistria to be part of the Russian Federation. International relations Nina Shtanski served as Transnistria's Minister of Foreign Affairs from 2012 to 2015; succeeded her as minister. Only three states recognise Transnistria as independent from MoldovaAbkhazia, Artsakh and South Ossetia, all of whom are themselves states with limited recognition. Government and politics Transnistria is a presidential republic. The president is directly elected for a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. The current President is Vadim Krasnoselsky. The Supreme Council is a unicameral legislature. It has 43 members who are elected for 5-year terms. Elections take place within a multi-party system. The majority in the Parliament of Transnistria belongs to the Renewal movement that defeated the Republic party affiliated with Igor Smirnov in 2005 and performed even better in the 2010 and 2015 elections. Elections in Transnistria are not recognised by international bodies such as the European Union, as well as numerous individual countries, who called them a source of increased tensions. There is disagreement over whether elections in Transnistria are free and fair. The political regime has been described as one of "super-presidentialism". During the 2006 presidential election, the registration of opposition candidate Andrey Safonov was delayed until a few days before the vote, so that he had little time to conduct an election campaign. Some sources consider election results suspect. In 2001, in one region it was reported that Igor Smirnov collected 103.6% of the votes. The PMR government said "the government of Moldova launched a campaign aimed at convincing international observers not to attend" an election held on 11 December 2005but monitors from the Russian-led Commonwealth of Independent States election monitors ignored that and declared the ballot democratic. The opposition Narodovlastie party and Power to the People movement were outlawed at the beginning of 2000 and eventually dissolved. A list published by the European Union bans travel to the EU for some members of the Transnistrian leadership. In 2007, the registration of a Social Democratic Party was allowed. This party, led by a former separatist leader and member of the PMR government Andrey Safonov, allegedly favours a union with Moldova. In September 2007, the leader of the Transnistrian Communist Party, Oleg Khorzhan, was sentenced to a suspended sentence of 1½ years' imprisonment for organising unsanctioned actions of protest. According to the 2006 referendum, carried out by the PMR government, 97.2% of the population voted in favour of "independence from Moldova and free association with Russia". EU and several other countries refused to recognise the referendum results. Transnistria border customs dispute On 3 March 2006, Ukraine introduced new customs regulations on its border with Transnistria. Ukraine declared that it would import goods from Transnistria only with documents processed by Moldovan customs offices as part of the implementation of the joint customs protocol agreed between Ukraine and Moldova on 30 December 2005. Transnistria and Russia termed the act an "economic blockade". The United States, the European Union, and the OSCE approved the Ukrainian move, while Russia saw it as a means of political pressure. On 4 March, Transnistria responded by blocking the Moldovan and Ukrainian transport at the borders of Transnistria. The Transnistrian block was lifted after two weeks. However, the Moldovan/Ukrainian block remains in place and holds up progress in status settlement negotiations between the sides. In the months after the regulations, exports from Transnistria declined drastically. Transnistria declared a "humanitarian catastrophe" in the region, while Moldova called the declaration "deliberate misinformation". Cargoes of humanitarian aid were sent from Russia in response. Russian military presence in Transnistria The 1992 cease-fire agreement between Moldova and Transnistria established a Russian "peacekeeper" presence in Transnistria and a 1,200-member Russian military contingent is present in Transnistria. Russian troops stationed in parts of Moldova except Transnistria since the time of the USSR were fully withdrawn to Russia by January 1993. In April 1995, the Soviet 14th Guards Army became the Operational Group of Russian Forces, which by the 2010s had shrunk to two battalions and no more than 1,500 troops. On 21 October 1994, Russia and Moldova signed an agreement that committed Russia to the withdrawal of the troops in three years from the date of entry into force of the agreement; this did not come into effect, however, because the Russian Duma did not ratify it. The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) included a paragraph about the removal of Russian troops from Moldova's territory and was introduced into the text of the OSCE Summit Declaration of Istanbul (1999) in which Russia had committed itself to pulling out its troops from Transnistria by the end of 2002. However, even after 2002, the Russian parliament did not ratify the Istanbul accords. On 19 July 2004, after it finally passed through parliament President Vladimir Putin signed the Law on the ratification of the CFE Treaty in Europe, which committed Russia to remove the heavy armaments limited by this Treaty. During 2000–2001, although the CFE Treaty was not fully ratified, to comply with it, Moscow withdrew 125 pieces of Treaty Limited Equipment (TLE) and 60 railway wagons containing ammunition from the Transnistrian region of Moldova. In 2002, Russia withdrew three trainloads (118 railway wagons) of military equipment and two (43 wagons) of ammunition from the Transnistrian region of Moldova, and in 2003, 11 rail convoys transporting military equipment and 31 transporting ammunition. According to the OSCE Mission to Moldova, of a total of 42,000 tons of ammunition stored in Transnistria, 1,153 tons (3%) was transported back to Russia in 2001, 2,405 tons (6%) in 2002 and 16,573 tons (39%) in 2003. Andrei Stratan, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Moldova, stated in his speech during the 12th OSCE Ministerial Council Meeting in Sofia on 6–7 December 2004 that "The presence of Russian troops on the territory of the Republic of Moldova is against the political will of Moldovan constitutional authorities and defies the unanimously recognized international norms and principles, being qualified by Moldovan authorities as a foreign military occupation illegally deployed on the territory of the state". however, Russia insists that it has already fulfilled those obligations. It states the remaining troops are serving as peacekeepers authorised under the 1992 ceasefire, are not in violation of the Istanbul accords and will remain until the conflict is fully resolved. On the other hand, Moldova believes that fewer than 500 soldiers are authorised pursuant to the ceasefire and, in 2015, began to arrest and deport Russian soldiers who are part of the excess forces and attempt to use Moldovan airports. In a NATO resolution on 18 November 2008, Russia was urged to withdraw its military presence from the "Transdnestrian region of Moldova". In 2011, US Senator John McCain claimed in a visit to Moldova that Moscow is violating the territorial integrity of Moldova and Georgia and one of the "fundamental norms" of "international behavior". On 21 May 2015, the Ukrainian parliament passed a law terminating five co-operation agreements with Russia. This law effectively terminates the "Agreement on transit of Russian military units temporarily located on the territory of the Republic of Moldova through the territory of Ukraine" dated 4 December 1998. One point of access for Russian soldiers travelling to Transnistria remains Chișinău International Airport and the short overland journey from there to Tiraspol. Over the years, Moldova has largely permitted Russian officers and soldiers to transit the airport on their way to Transnistria, though occasionally it blocked those that were not clearly identified as international peacekeepers or who failed to give sufficient advance notice. Chișinău Airport would likely only ever agree to the possibility of moving employees, officers, and soldiers of the stationed forces. The passage of soldiers of the 14th Guards Army would be illegal. On 27 June 2016, a new law entered in force in Transnistria, punishing actions or public statements, including through the usage of mass media, networks of information and telecommunications or the Internet, criticising the military mission of the Russian Army stationed in Transnistria, or presenting interpretations perceived to be "false" by the Transnistrian government of the Russian Army's military mission. The punishment is up to three years of jail for ordinary people or up to seven years of jail if the crime was committed by a person of responsibility or a group of persons by prior agreement. Russian invasion of Ukraine After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Transnistria declared it would maintain its neutrality in the situation and denied claims that it would assist in the attack on Ukraine. During the prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Ukrainian military intelligence stated on 14 January 2022 that they had evidence that the Russian government was covertly planning false flag "provocations" against Russian soldiers stationed in Transnistria, which would be used to justify a Russian invasion of Ukraine. The Russian government denied the claims. In that prelude, similar unattributed clashes happened in Donbas in February 2022: Ukraine denied being involved in those incidents and called them a false flag operation as well. On 15 March 2022, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe recognised Transnistria as a Moldovan territory occupied by Russia. On 14 April 2022, one of Ukraine's deputy defence ministers, Hanna Maliar, stated that Russia was massing its troops along the borders with Transnistria but the Transnistrian authorities denied it. According to the Transnistrian authorities, on April 25 there was an attack on the premises of the Ministry for State Security and on the next day two transmitting antennas broadcasting Russian radio programs at Grigoriopol transmitter near the Ukrainian border were blown up. The Moldovan authorities called these events a provocation aimed at destabilising the situation in the region. The Russian army has a military base, a large ammunition dump and about 1,500 soldiers stationed in Transnistria, stating that they are there as "peacekeepers". Since the invasion of Ukraine, Transnistria has lost its economic connections with Ukraine and has had to rely and become more dependent on Moldova and trade links to the EU, resulting in an intensification of dialogue and collaboration, such as the help provided to Ukrainian refugees. Military , the armed forces and the paramilitary of Transnistria were composed of around 4,500–7,500 soldiers, divided into four motorised infantry brigades in Tiraspol, Bender, Rîbnița, and Dubăsari. They have 18 tanks, 107 armoured personnel carriers, 73 field guns, 46 anti-aircraft installations, and 173 tank destroyer units. The airforce is composed of 1 Mi-8T and 1 Mi-24 helicopter. Previous aircraft operated were Antonov An-26, Antonov An-2, and Yakovlev Yak-52 fixed wing and Mil Mi-2 and other Mi-8T and Mi-24 helicopters. Demographics 2015 census In October 2015, Transnistrian authorities organised another separate census from the 2014 Moldovan census. According to the 2015 census, the population of the region was 475,373, a 14.5% decrease from the figure recorded in the 2004 census. The urbanisation rate was 69.9%. By ethnic composition, the population of Transnistria was distributed as follows: Russians – 29.1%, Moldovans – 28.6%, Ukrainians – 22.9%, Bulgarians – 2.4%, Gagauzians – 1.1%, Belarusians – 0.5%, Transnistrian – 0.2%, other nationalities – 1.4%. About 14% of the population did not declare their nationality. Also, for the first time, the population had the option to identify as "Transnistrian". According to another source, the largest ethnic groups in 2015 were 161,300 Russians (34%), 156,600 Moldovans (33%), and 126,700 Ukrainians (26.7%). Bulgarians comprised 13,300 (2.8%), Gagauz 5,700 (1.2%) and Belarusians 2,800 (0.6%). Germans accounted for 1,400 or 0.3% and Poles for 1,000 or 0.2%. Others accounted for 5,700 people or 1.2%. 2004 census In 2004, Transnistrian authorities organised a separate census from the 2004 Moldovan Census. As per 2004 census, in the areas controlled by the PMR government, there were 555,347 people, including 177,785 Moldovans (32.1%) 168,678 Russians (30.4%) 160,069 Ukrainians (28.8%) 13,858 Bulgarians (2.5%) 4,096 Gagauzians (0.7%), 1,791 Poles (0.3%), 1,259 Jews (0.2%), 507 Roma (0.1%) and 27,454 others (4.9%). Of these, 439,243 lived in Transnistria itself, and 116,104 lived in localities controlled by the PMR government, but formally belonging to other districts of Moldova: the city of Bender (Tighina), the communes of Proteagailovca, Gîsca, Chițcani, Cremenciug, and the village of Roghi of commune Molovata Nouă. Moldovans were the largest ethnic group, representing an overall majority in the two districts in the central Transnistria (Dubăsari District, 50.2%, and Grigoriopol District, 64.8%) a 47.8% relative majority in the northern Camenca District, and a 41.5% relative majority in the southern (Slobozia District). In Rîbnița District they were a 29.9% minority, and in the city of Tiraspol, they constituted a 15.2% minority of the population. As per last census, Russians were the second largest ethnic group, representing a 41.6% relative majority in the city of Tiraspol, a 24.1% minority in Slobozia, a 19.0% minority in Dubăsari, a 17.2% minority in Râbnița, a 15.3% minority in Grigoriopol, and a 6.9% minority in Camenca. Ukrainians were the third largest ethnic group, representing a 45.41% relative majority in the northern Rîbnița District, a 42.6% minority in Camenca, a 33.0% minority in Tiraspol, a 28.3% minority in Dubăsari, a 23.4% minority in Slobozia, and a 17.4% minority in Grigoriopol. A substantial number of Poles clustered in northern Transnistria were Ukrainianised during Soviet rule. Bulgarians were the fourth largest ethnic group in Transnistria, albeit much less numerous than the three larger ethnicities. Most Bulgarians in Transnistria are Bessarabian Bulgarians, descendants of expatriates who settled in Bessarabia in the 18th–19th century. The major centre of Bulgarians in Transnistria is the large village of Parcani (situated between the cities of Tiraspol and Bender), which had an absolute Bulgarian majority and a total population of around 10,000. In Bender (Tighina) and the other non-Transnistria localities under PMR control, ethnic Russians represented a 43.4% relative majority, followed by Moldovans at 26.2%, Ukrainians at 17.1%, Bulgarians at 2.9%, Gagauzians at 1.0%, Jews at 0.3%, Poles at 0.2%, Roma at 0.1%, and others at 7.8%. 1989 census At the census of 1989, the population was 679,000 (including all the localities in the security zone, even those under Moldovan control). The ethnic composition of the region has been unstable in recent history, with the most notable change being the decreasing share of Moldovan and Jewish population segments and increase of the Russian. For example, the percentage of Russians grew from 13.7% in 1926 to 25.5% in 1989 and further to 30.4% in 2004, while the Moldovan population decreased from 44.1% in 1926 to 39.9% in 1989 and 31.9% in 2004. Only the proportion of Ukrainians remained reasonably stable27.2% in 1926, 28.3% in 1989 and 28.8% in 2004. Religion PMR official statistics show that 91% of the Transnistrian population adhere to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, with 4% adhering to Roman Catholicism. Roman Catholics are mainly located in northern Transnistria, where a notable Polish minority lives. Transnistria's government has supported the restoration and construction of new Orthodox churches. It affirms that the republic has freedom of religion and states that 114 religious beliefs and congregations are officially registered. However, as recently as 2005, registration hurdles were met with by some religious groups, notably the Jehovah's Witnesses. In 2007, the US-based Christian Broadcasting Network denounced the persecution of Protestants in Transnistria. Economy Transnistria has a mixed economy. Following a large scale privatisation process in the late 1990s, most of the companies in Transnistria are now privately owned. The economy is based on a mix of heavy industry (steel production), electricity production, and manufacturing (textile production), which together account for about 80% of the total industrial output. Transnistria has its own central bank, the Transnistrian Republican Bank, which issues its national currency, the Transnistrian ruble. It is convertible at a freely floating exchange rate but only in Transnistria. Transnistria's economy is frequently described as dependent on contraband and gunrunning. Some commentators, including Zbigniew Brzezinski, have even labelled it a mafia state. These allegations are denied by the Transnistrian government, and sometimes downplayed by the officials of Russia and Ukraine. Economic history After World War II, Transnistria was heavily industrialised, to the point that, in 1990, it was responsible for 40% of Moldova's GDP and 90% of its electricity, although it accounted for only 17% of Moldova's population. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Transnistria wanted to return to a "Brezhnev-style planned economy". However, several years later, it decided to head toward a market economy. Macroeconomics According to the government of Transnistria, the 2007 GDP was 6789 mln ruble (appx US$799 million) and the GDP per capita was about US$1,500. The GDP increased by 11.1% and inflation rate was 19.3% with the GDP per capita now being $2,140, higher than Moldova's GDP per capita that is $2,040. Transnistria's government budget for 2007 was US$246 million, with an estimated deficit of about US$100 million that the government planned to cover with income from privatisations. The budget for 2008 is US$331 million, with an estimated deficit of about US$80 million. In 2004, Transnistria had debts of US$1.2 billion (two-thirds are with Russia) that was per capita about six times higher than in Moldova (without Transnistria). In March 2007 the debt to Gazprom for the acquisition of natural gas increased to US$1.3 billion. On 22 March 2007 Gazprom sold Transnistria's gas debt to the Russian businessman Alisher Usmanov, who controls Moldova Steel Works, the largest enterprise in Transnistria. Transnistria's president Igor Smirnov has announced that Transnistria will not pay its gas debt because "Transnistria has no legal debt to Gazprom". In November 2007, the total debt of Transnistria's public sector was up to US$1.64 billion. According to a 2007 interview with Yevgeny Shevchuk, the then-speaker of the Transnistrian Supreme Council, Transnistria is in a difficult economic situation. Despite a 30% tax increase in 2007, the pension fund is still lacking money and emergency measures must be taken. However, Shevchuk mentioned that the situation is not hopeless and it cannot be considered a crisis, as a crisis means three-month delays in payment of pensions and salaries. In the first half of 2023 the economic situation worsened with imports increasing 12% to $1.32 billion and exports falling by 10% to just $346m, the trade deficit of $970m, almost equal to the GDP of Transnistria in the whole of 2021, being financed by the non-payment of natural gas supplies from Russia. External trade In 2020, the Transnistrian Customs reported exports of US$633.1 million and imports of US$1,052.7 million. In the early 2000s over 50% of the export went to the CIS, mainly to Russia, but also to Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova (which Transnistrian authorities consider foreign). Main non-CIS markets for the Transnistrian goods were Italy, Egypt, Greece, Romania, and Germany. The CIS accounted for over 60% of the imports, while the share of the EU was about 23%. The main imports were non-precious metals, food products, and electricity. After Moldova signed the Association Agreement with the EU in 2014, Transnistriabeing claimed as part of Moldovaenjoyed the tariff-free exports to the EU. As a result, in 2015, 27% of Transnistria's US$189 million exports went to the EU, while exports to Russia went down to 7.7%. This shift towards the EU market continued to grow in 2016. From March 2022, with the Ukrainian border closed to Transnistria, all trade goods to and from Transnistria have needed to flow through Moldova, Transnistria now has to comply with Moldovan and EU standards when exporting products. Transnistria reported on trade in the first half of 2023. 48% of exports were to the rest of Moldova, over 33% went to the EU and 9% to Russia. 68% of imports came from Russia, 14% from the EU and 7% from Moldova. Economic sectors The leading industry is steel, due to the Moldova Steel Works (part of the Russian Metalloinvest holding) in Rîbnița, which accounts for about 60% of the budget revenue of Transnistria. The largest company in the textile industry is Tirotex, which claims to be the second largest textile company in Europe. The energy sector is dominated by Russian companies. The largest power company Moldavskaya GRES (Cuciurgan power station) is in Dnestrovsc and owned by Inter RAO UES, and the gas transmission and distribution company Tiraspoltransgas is probably controlled by Gazprom, although Gazprom has not confirmed the ownership officially. The banking sector of Transnistria consists of 8 commercial banks, including Gazprombank. The oldest alcohol producer KVINT, located in Tiraspol, produces and exports brandy, wines and vodka. Education Transnistria has kept to the Russian educational standards, mainly using the Russian curriculum. Higher education diplomas issued by Transnistria are not recognised in many countries, resulting in graduates being unable to obtain well-paid jobs in Moldova or Western countries, leaving Russia as the default location for students and graduates. Human rights The human rights record of Transnistria has been criticised by several governments and international organisations. The 2007 Freedom in the World report, published by the U.S.-based Freedom House, described Transnistria as a "non-free" territory, having an equally bad situation in both political rights and civil liberties. According to a 2006 U.S. Department of State report: Media There is a regular mix of modern news media in Transnistria with a number of television stations, newspapers, and radio stations. According to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) the media climate in Transnistria is restrictive and the authorities continue a long-standing campaign to silence independent opposition voices and groups. According to a US Department of State report for 2006, "Both of the region's major newspapers were controlled by the authorities. There was one independent weekly newspaper in Bender and another in the northern city of Rîbnița... Separatist authorities harassed independent newspapers for critical reporting of the Transnistrian regime... Most television and radio stations and print publication were controlled by Transnistrian authorities, which largely dictated their editorial policies and finance operations. Some broadcast networks, such as the TSV television station and the INTER-FM radio station, were owned by Transnistria's largest monopoly, Sheriff, which also holds a majority in the region's legislature... In July 2005 the Transnistrian Supreme Council amended the election code to prohibit media controlled by the Transnistrian authorities from publishing results of polls and forecasts related to elections." Romanian-language schools Public education in the Romanian language (officially called Moldovan language in Transnistria) is done using the Soviet-originated Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet. The usage of the Latin script was restricted to only six schools. Four of these schools were forcibly closed by the authorities, for alleged refusal of the schools to apply for official accreditation. These schools were later registered as private schools and reopened, a development which may have been accelerated by pressure from the European Union. The OSCE mission to Moldova has urged local authorities in the Transnistrian city of Rîbnița to return a confiscated building to the Moldovan Latin script school in the city. The unfinished building was nearing completion in 2004 when Transnistria took control of it during that year's school crisis. In November 2005 Ion Iovcev, the principal of a Romanian-language school in Transnistria and active advocate for human rights as well as a critic of the Transnistrian leadership, received threatening calls that he attributed to his criticism of the separatist regime. In August 2021, the Transnistrian government refused to register the Lucian Blaga High School at Tiraspol and forced it to suspend its activities for three months, which will affect the school year of the students of the school and constitutes a violation of several articles of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Arms control and disarmament Following the collapse of the former Soviet Union, the Russian 14th Army left 40,000 tons of weaponry and ammunition in Transnistria. In later years there were concerns that the Transnistrian authorities would try to sell these stocks internationally, and intense pressure was applied to have these removed by Russia. In 2000 and 2001, Russia withdrew by rail 141 self-propelled artillery pieces and other armoured vehicles and destroyed locally, 108 T-64 tanks and 139 other pieces of military equipment limited by the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE). During 2002 and 2003 Russian military officials destroyed a further 51 armoured vehicles, all of which were types not limited by the CFE Treaty. The OSCE also observed and verified the withdrawal of 48 trains with military equipment and ammunition in 2003. However, no further withdrawal activities have taken place since March 2004 and a further 20,000 tons of ammunition, as well as some remaining military equipment, are still to be removed. In the autumn of 2006, the Transnistrian leadership agreed to let an OSCE inspectorate examine the munitions and further access was agreed moving forward. Recent weapons inspections were permitted by Transnistria and conducted by the OSCE. The onus of responsibility rests on Russia to remove the rest of the supplies. Transnistrian authorities declared that they are not involved in the manufacture or export of weapons. OSCE and European Union officials stated in 2005 that there is no evidence that Transnistria "has ever trafficked arms or nuclear material" and much of the alarm is due to the Moldovan government's attempts to pressure Transnistria. In 2007, foreign experts working on behalf of the United Nations said that the historically low levels of transparency and continued denial of full investigations to international monitors have reinforced negative perceptions of the Transnistrian government, although recent co-operation by Transnistrian authorities may have reflected a shift in the attitude of Transnistria. Their report stated that the evidence for the illicit production and trafficking of weapons into and from Transnistria, has in the past been exaggerated, although the trafficking of light weapons is likely to have occurred before 2001 (the last year when export data showed US$900,000 worth of 'weapons, munitions, their parts and accessories' exported from Transnistria). The report also states that the same holds true for the production of such weapons, which is likely to have been carried out in the 1990s, primarily to equip Transnistrian forces. The OSCE mission spokesman Claus Neukirch spoke about this situation: "There is often talk about sale of armaments from Transnistria, but there is no convincing evidence". In 2010, Viktor Kryzhanivsky, Ukraine's special envoy on Transnistria, stated that there was no ongoing arms or drug trafficking through the Transnistrian section of the Ukrainian-Moldovan border at the time. See also List of active separatist movements in Europe Notes References Further reading Beyer, John, and Stefan Wolff. "Linkage and leverage effects on Moldova's Transnistria problem." East European Politics 32.3 (2016): 335–354 online. Blakkisrud, Helge, and Pål Kolstø. "From secessionist conflict toward a functioning state: processes of state-and nation-building in Transnistria." Post-Soviet Affairs 27.2 (2011): 178–210 online. Cojocaru, Natalia. "Nationalism and identity in Transnistria." Innovation 19.3–4 (2006): 261–272 online . Lucas, Edward. (May 3, 2007) The black hole that ate Moldova. The Economist. Retrieved January 17, 2023. Lynch, Dov. Russian peacekeeping strategies in the CIS: the case of Moldova, Georgia and Tajikistan (Springer, 1999). Maksymiuk, J. (September 15, 2006). Transdniester Conflict: Long in the making. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Protsyk, Oleh. "Representation and democracy in Eurasia's unrecognized states: The case of Transnistria." Post-Soviet Affairs 25.3 (2009): 257–281 online. External links Profile of Trans-Dniester, BBC News. Disputed territories in Europe Countries and territories where Romanian is an official language Russian-speaking countries and territories Countries and territories where Ukrainian is an official language Landlocked countries Regions of Europe with multiple official languages States and territories established in 1990 1990 establishments in the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic 1990 establishments in Europe Neo-Sovietism Russian irredentism States with limited recognition Frozen conflict zones
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recep%20Tayyip%20Erdo%C4%9Fan
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (born 26 February 1954), commonly referred by his initials RTE, is a Turkish politician serving as the 12th and current president of Turkey since 2014. He previously served as prime minister of Turkey from 2003 to 2014 and as mayor of Istanbul from 1994 to 1998. He also co-founded the Justice and Development Party (AKP) in 2001. Born in Güneysu, Rize, Erdoğan moved with his family to Istanbul at the age of 13. He studied business administration at the Aksaray Academy of Economic and Commercial Sciences, before working as a consultant and senior manager in the private sector. During this time, Erdoğan became active in parties led by veteran Islamist politician Necmettin Erbakan, starting as his party's Beyoğlu district chair in 1984 and Istanbul chair in 1985. Following the 1994 local elections, Erdoğan was elected mayor of Istanbul, where he implemented a series of reforms that modernized the city's infrastructure and economy. In 1998 he was convicted for inciting religious hatred and banned from politics after reciting a poem by Ziya Gökalp that compared mosques to barracks and the faithful to an army. Erdoğan was released from prison in 1999 and subsequently abandoned openly Islamist politics, breaking with Erbakan to form the AKP, a party designed to follow the example of the European Christian democratic parties. Erdoğan led the AKP to a landslide victory in the election for the Grand National Assembly in 2002, only a year after founding the party. After his political ban was lifted by prime minister Abdullah Gül, Erdoğan became prime minister after winning a by-election in Siirt in 2003. Erdoğan led the AKP to two more election victories in 2007 and 2011. Reforms made in the early years of Erdoğan's tenure as prime minister granted Turkey the start of EU membership negotiations. Furthermore, Turkey experienced an economic recovery from the economic crisis of 2001 and saw investments in infrastructure including roads, airports, and a high-speed train network. He also won two successful constitutional referendums in 2007 and 2010. Erdoğan reduced the military influence on politics, withstood the criticism of the armed forces' e-memorandum documents and remained controversial for his close links with the Gülen movement, with whom the AKP was accused of orchestrating purges against military officers through the Balyoz and Ergenekon trials. In late 2012, his government began peace negotiations with the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) to end the Kurdish–Turkish conflict, negotiations which ended three years later. In 2014, Erdoğan became the nation's first popularly elected president. Erdoğan's presidency has been marked by democratic backsliding and a shift towards a more authoritarian style of government and has faced allegations of human rights abuses, suppression of dissents and suppression of freedom of speech. He has been criticized for his handling of several issues, including the 2013 Gezi Park protests, the 2016 failed coup attempt, his economic policies and the ongoing conflict in Syria, which is believed to have contributed to the bad results of the 2019 local elections, in which his party lost power in large cities to opposition parties for the first time in 15 years. Erdoğan supported the 2017 referendum, changing Turkey's parliamentary system into a presidential system, introducing term limit for the head of government (two full five-year terms), and greatly expanding executive powers. This new system of government formally came into place after the 2018 general election, where Erdoğan became an executive president. His party however lost the majority in the parliament since then and is currently in a coalition (People's Alliance) with the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP). Especially starting from 2018, he has decreased the independence of the Central Bank and pursued a highly unorthodox monetary policy, leading to high inflation rates and the depreciation of the value of the Turkish lira. From 2020, he led Turkey's response to the COVID-19 pandemic and vaccination rollout. In foreign policy, as a result of the Syrian civil war, Turkey became the world's largest refugee hosting country since 2014 and launched operations against the Islamic State, Syrian Democratic Forces and Assad's forces. Following the ratification of the Libya–Turkey maritime deal, Turkey has sent military assistance in support of the United Nations-recognized government. He responded to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine by closing the Bosphorus to Russian naval reinforcements, brokering a deal between Russia and Ukraine regarding export of grain, and mediating a prisoner exchange. Early life and education Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was born on 26 February 1954 in a poor conservative Muslim family. According to historian M. Hakan Yavuz, Erdoğan was born in Güneysu, Rize, and later his family moved to Kasımpaşa, a poor neighborhood of Istanbul. Erdoğan's family is originally from Adjara, a region in Georgia. Although Erdoğan was reported to have said in 2003 that he was of Georgian origin and that his origins were in Batumi, he later denied this. His parents were Ahmet Erdoğan (1905–1988) and Tenzile Erdoğan (née Mutlu; 1924–2011). Erdoğan spent his early childhood in Rize, where his father was a captain in the Turkish Coast Guard. His summer holidays were mostly spent in Güneysu, Rize, where his family originates. Throughout his life he often returned to this spiritual home, and in 2015 he opened a vast mosque on a mountaintop near this village. The family returned to Istanbul when Erdoğan was 13 years old. As a teenager, Erdoğan's father provided him with a weekly allowance of 2.5 Turkish lira, less than a dollar. With it, Erdoğan bought postcards and resold them on the street. He sold bottles of water to drivers stuck in traffic. Erdoğan also worked as a street vendor selling simit (sesame bread rings), wearing a white gown and selling the simit from a red three-wheel cart with the rolls stacked behind glass. In his youth, Erdoğan played semi-professional football in Camialtispor FC, a local club. Fenerbahçe wanted him to transfer to the club but his father prevented it. The stadium of the local football club in the district where he grew up, Kasımpaşa S.K. is named after him. Erdoğan is a member of the Community of İskenderpaşa, a Turkish Sufistic community of Naqshbandi tariqah. Education Erdoğan graduated from Kasımpaşa Piyale primary school in 1965, and İmam Hatip school, a religious vocational high school, in 1973. The same educational path was followed by other co-founders of the AK Party. One quarter of the curriculum of İmam Hatip schools involves study of the Quran, the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and the Arabic language. Erdoğan studied the Quran at an İmam Hatip, where his classmates began calling him hoca (teacher). Erdoğan attended a meeting of the nationalist student group National Turkish Student Union (Milli Türk Talebe Birliği), who sought to raise a conservative cohort of young people to counter the rising movement of leftists in Turkey. Within the group, Erdoğan was distinguished by his oratorical skills, developing a penchant for public speaking and excelling in front of an audience. He won first place in a poetry-reading competition organized by the Community of Turkish Technical Painters, and began preparing for speeches through reading and research. Erdoğan would later comment on these competitions as "enhancing our courage to speak in front of the masses". Erdoğan wanted to pursue advanced studies at Mekteb-i Mülkiye, but Mülkiye accepted only students with regular high school diplomas, and not İmam Hatip graduates. Mülkiye was known for its political science department, which trained many statesmen and politicians in Turkey. Erdoğan was then admitted to Eyüp High School, a regular state school, and eventually received his high school diploma from Eyüp. According to his official biography, he subsequently studied business administration at the Aksaray School of Economics and Commercial Sciences (), now known as Marmara University's Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences. His degree has been subject of dispute and controversy over whether it should be considered sufficient to make him eligible as a candidate for the presidency. Early political career In 1976, Erdoğan engaged in politics by joining the National Turkish Student Union, an anti-communist action group. In the same year, he became the head of the Beyoğlu youth branch of the Islamist National Salvation Party (MSP), and was later promoted to chair of the Istanbul youth branch of the party. Holding this position until 1980, he served as consultant and senior executive in the private sector during the era following the 1980 military coup when political parties were closed down. In 1983, Erdoğan followed most of Necmettin Erbakan's followers into the Islamist Welfare Party. He became the party's Beyoğlu district chair in 1984, and in 1985 he became the chair of the Istanbul city branch. Erdoğan entered the parliamentary by-elections of 1986 as a 6th district candidate of Istanbul, but gained no seat as his party ended as the fifth largest party in the by-elections. Three years later, Erdoğan ran for mayor of Beyoğlu district. He finished second in the election with 22.8% of the votes. Erdoğan was elected to parliament in 1991, but he was barred from taking his seat due to preferential voting. Mayor of Istanbul (1994–1998) In the local elections of 1994, Erdoğan ran as a candidate for Mayor of Istanbul. He was a 40-year-old dark horse candidate who had been mocked by the mainstream media and treated as a country bumpkin by his opponents. He won the election with 25.19% of the popular vote, making it the first time a mayor of Istanbul got elected from his political party. He was pragmatic in office, tackling many chronic problems in Istanbul including water shortage, pollution and traffic chaos. The water shortage problem was solved with the laying of hundreds of kilometers of new pipelines. The garbage problem was solved with the establishment of state-of-the-art recycling facilities. While Erdoğan was in office, air pollution was reduced through a plan developed to switch to natural gas. He changed the public buses to environmentally friendly ones. The city's traffic and transportation jams were reduced with more than fifty bridges, viaducts, and highways built. He took precautions to prevent corruption, using measures to ensure that municipal funds were used prudently. He paid back a major portion of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality's two-billion-dollar debt and invested four billion dollars in the city. He also opened up City Hall to the people, gave out his e-mail address and established municipal hot lines. Erdoğan initiated the first roundtable of mayors during the Istanbul conference, which led to a global, organized movement of mayors. A seven-member international jury from the United Nations unanimously awarded Erdoğan the UN-Habitat award. Imprisonment In December 1997 in Siirt, Erdoğan recited a poem from a work written by Ziya Gökalp, a pan-Turkish activist of the early 20th century. His recitation included verses translated as "The mosques are our barracks, the domes our helmets, the minarets our bayonets and the faithful our soldiers...." which are not in the original version of the poem. Under article 312/2 of the Turkish penal code his recitation was regarded by the judge as an incitement to violence and religious or racial hatred. In his defense, Erdoğan said that the poem was published in state-approved books. How this version of the poem ended up in a book published by the Turkish Standards Institution remained a topic of discussion. Erdoğan was given a ten-month prison sentence. He was forced to give up his mayoral position due to his conviction. The conviction also stipulated a political ban, which prevented him from participating in elections. He had appealed for the sentence to be converted to a monetary fine, but it was reduced to four months instead (24 March 1999 to 27 July 1999). He was transferred to Pınarhisar prison in Kırklareli. The day Erdoğan went to prison, he released an album called This Song Doesn't End Here. The album features a tracklist of seven poems and became the best-selling album of Turkey in 1999, selling over one million copies. In 2013, Erdoğan visited the Pınarhisar prison again for the first time in fourteen years. After the visit, he said "For me, Pınarhisar is a symbol of rebirth, where we prepared the establishment of the Justice and Development Party". Justice and Development Party Erdoğan was member of political parties that kept getting banned by the army or judges. Within his Virtue Party, there was a dispute about the appropriate discourse of the party between traditional politicians and pro-reform politicians. The latter envisioned a party that could operate within the limits of the system, and thus not getting banned as its predecessors like National Order Party, National Salvation Party and Welfare Party. They wanted to give the group the character of an ordinary conservative party with its members being Muslim Democrats following the example of the Europe's Christian Democrats. When the Virtue Party was also banned in 2001, a definitive split took place: the followers of Necmettin Erbakan founded the Felicity Party (SP) and the reformers founded the Justice and Development Party (AKP) under the leadership of Abdullah Gül and Erdoğan. The pro-reform politicians realized that a strictly Islamic party would never be accepted as a governing party by the state apparatus and they believed that an Islamic party did not appeal to more than about 20 percent of the Turkish electorate. The AK party emphatically placed itself as a broad democratic conservative party with new politicians from the political center (like Ali Babacan and Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu), while respecting Islamic norms and values, but without an explicit religious program. This turned out to be successful as the new party won 34% of the vote in the general elections of 2002. Erdoğan became prime minister in March 2003 after the Gül government ended his political ban. Premiership General elections The elections of 2002 were the first elections in which Erdoğan participated as a party leader. All parties previously elected to parliament failed to win enough votes to re-enter the parliament. The AKP won 34.3% of the national vote and formed the new government. Turkish stocks rose more than 7% on Monday morning. Politicians of the previous generation, such as Ecevit, Bahceli, Yılmaz and Çiller, resigned. The second largest party, the CHP, received 19.4% of the votes. The AKP won a landslide victory in the parliament, taking nearly two-thirds of the seats. Erdoğan could not become Prime Minister as he was still banned from politics by the judiciary for his speech in Siirt. Gül became the Prime Minister instead. In December 2002, the Supreme Election Board canceled the general election results from Siirt due to voting irregularities and scheduled a new election for 9 February 2003. By this time, party leader Erdoğan was able to run for parliament due to a legal change made possible by the opposition Republican People's Party. The AKP duly listed Erdoğan as a candidate for the rescheduled election, which he won, becoming Prime Minister after Gül handed over the post. On 14 April 2007, an estimated 300,000 people marched in Ankara to protest against the possible candidacy of Erdoğan in the 2007 presidential election, afraid that if elected as president, he would alter the secular nature of the Turkish state. Erdoğan announced on 24 April 2007 that the party had nominated Abdullah Gül as the AKP candidate in the presidential election. The protests continued over the next several weeks, with over one million people reported to have turned out at a 29 April rally in Istanbul, tens of thousands at separate protests on 4 May in Manisa and Çanakkale, and one million in İzmir on 13 May. The stage of the elections of 2007 was set for a fight for legitimacy in the eyes of voters between his government and the CHP. Erdoğan used the event that took place during the ill-fated Presidential elections a few months earlier as a part of the general election campaign of his party. On 22 July 2007, the AKP won an important victory over the opposition, garnering 46.7% of the popular vote. 22 July elections marked only the second time in the Republic of Turkey's history whereby an incumbent governing party won an election by increasing its share of popular support. On 14 March 2008, Turkey's Chief Prosecutor asked the country's Constitutional Court to ban Erdoğan's governing party. The party escaped a ban on 30 July 2008, a year after winning 46.7% of the vote in national elections, although judges did cut the party's public funding by 50%. In the June 2011 elections, Erdoğan's governing party won 327 seats (49.83% of the popular vote) making Erdoğan the only prime minister in Turkey's history to win three consecutive general elections, each time receiving more votes than the previous election. The second party, the Republican People's Party (CHP), received 135 seats (25.94%), the nationalist MHP received 53 seats (13.01%), and the Independents received 35 seats (6.58%). A US$100 billion corruption scandal in 2013 led to the arrests of Erdoğan's close allies, and incriminated Erdoğan. Referendums After the opposition parties deadlocked the 2007 presidential election by boycotting the parliament, the ruling AKP proposed a constitutional reform package. The reform package was first vetoed by President Ahmet Necdet Sezer. Then he applied to the Turkish constitutional court about the reform package, because the president is unable to veto amendments for the second time. The Turkish constitutional court did not find any problems in the packet and 68.95% of the voters supported the constitutional changes. The reforms consisted of electing the president by popular vote instead of by parliament; reducing the presidential term from seven years to five; allowing the president to stand for re-election for a second term; holding general elections every four years instead of five; and reducing from 367 to 184 the quorum of lawmakers needed for parliamentary decisions. Reforming the Constitution was one of the main pledges of the AKP during the 2007 election campaign. The main opposition party CHP was not interested in altering the Constitution on a big scale, making it impossible to form a Constitutional Commission (Anayasa Uzlaşma Komisyonu). The amendments lacked the two-thirds majority needed to become law instantly, but secured 336 votes in the 550-seat parliament – enough to put the proposals to a referendum. The reform package included a number of issues such as the right of individuals to appeal to the highest court, the creation of the ombudsman's office; the possibility to negotiate a nationwide labour contract; gender equality; the ability of civilian courts to convict members of the military; the right of civil servants to go on strike; a privacy law; and the structure of the Constitutional Court. The referendum was agreed by a majority of 58%. Domestic policy Kurdish issue In 2009, Prime Minister Erdoğan's government announced a plan to help end the quarter-century-long Turkey–Kurdistan Workers' Party conflict that had cost more than 40,000 lives. The government's plan, supported by the European Union, intended to allow the Kurdish language to be used in all broadcast media and political campaigns, and restored Kurdish names to cities and towns that had been given Turkish ones. Erdoğan said, "We took a courageous step to resolve chronic issues that constitute an obstacle along Turkey's development, progression and empowerment." Erdoğan passed a partial amnesty to reduce penalties faced by many members of the Kurdish guerrilla movement PKK who had surrendered to the government. On 23 November 2011, during a televised meeting of his party in Ankara, he apologized on behalf of the state for the Dersim massacre, where many Alevis and Zazas were killed. In 2013 the government of Erdoğan began a peace process between the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) and the Turkish Government, mediated by parliamentarians of the Peoples' Democratic party (HDP). In 2015, following AKP electoral defeat, the rise of a social democrat, pro-Kurdish rights opposition party, and the minor Ceylanpınar incident, he decided that the peace process was over and supported the lift of the parliamentary immunity of the HDP parliamentarians. Violent confrontation resumed in 2015–2017, mainly in the South East of Turkey, resulting in higher death tolls and several external operations on the part of the Turkish military. Representatives and elected HDP have been systematically arrested, removed, and replaced in their offices, this tendency being confirmed after the 2016 Turkish coup attempt and the following purges. 6,000 additional deaths occurred in Turkey alone for 2015–2022. Yet, the intensity of the PKK-Turkey conflict did decrease in recent years. In the past decade, Erdogan and the AKP government used anti-PKK, martial rhetoric and external operations to raise Turkish nationalist votes before elections. Armenian genocide Erdoğan has said multiple times that Turkey would acknowledge the mass killings of Armenians during World War I as genocide only after a thorough investigation by a joint Turkish-Armenian commission consisting of historians, archaeologists, political scientists and other experts. In 2005, Erdoğan and the main opposition party leader Deniz Baykal wrote a letter to President of Armenia Robert Kocharyan, proposing the creation of a joint Turkish-Armenian commission. Armenian Foreign Minister Vartan Oskanian rejected the offer because he asserted that the proposal itself was "insincere and not serious". He added: "This issue cannot be considered at historical level with Turks, who themselves politicized the problem." In December 2008, Erdoğan criticized the I Apologize campaign by Turkish intellectuals to recognize the Armenian genocide, saying, "I neither accept nor support this campaign. We did not commit a crime, therefore we do not need to apologise ... It will not have any benefit other than stirring up trouble, disturbing our peace and undoing the steps which have been taken." In 2011, Erdoğan ordered the tearing-down of the Monument to Humanity, a Turkish–Armenian friendship monument in Kars, which was commissioned in 2006 and represented a metaphor of the rapprochement of the two countries after many years of dispute over the events of 1915. Erdoğan justified the removal by stating that the monument was offensively close to the tomb of an 11th-century Islamic scholar, and that its shadow ruined the view of that site, while Kars municipality officials said it was illegally erected in a protected area. However, the former mayor of Kars who approved the original construction of the monument said the municipality was destroying not just a "monument to humanity" but "humanity itself". The demolition was not unopposed; among its detractors were several Turkish artists. Two of them, the painter Bedri Baykam and his associate, Pyramid Art Gallery general coordinator Tugba Kurtulmus, were stabbed after a meeting with other artists at the Istanbul Akatlar cultural center. On 23 April 2014, Erdoğan's office issued a statement in nine languages (including two dialects of Armenian), offering condolences for the mass killings of Armenians and stating that the events of 1915 had inhumane consequences. The statement described the mass killings as the two nations' shared pain and said: "Having experienced events which had inhumane consequences – such as relocation – during the First World War, (it) should not prevent Turks and Armenians from establishing compassion and mutually humane attitudes among one another." Pope Francis in April 2015, at a special mass in St. Peter's Basilica marking the centenary of the events, described atrocities against Armenian civilians in 1915–1922 as "the first genocide of the 20th century". In protest, Erdoğan recalled the Turkish ambassador from the Vatican, and summoned the Vatican's ambassador, to express "disappointment" at what he called a discriminatory message. He later stated "we don't carry a stain or a shadow like genocide". US President Barack Obama called for a "full, frank and just acknowledgement of the facts", but again stopped short of labelling it "genocide", despite his campaign promise to do so. Human rights During Erdoğan's time as Prime Minister, the far-reaching powers of the 1991 Anti-Terror Law were reduced. In 2004, the death penalty was abolished for all circumstances. The Democratic initiative process was initiated, with the goal to improve democratic standards in general and the rights of ethnic and religious minorities in particular. In 2012, the Human Rights and Equality Institution of Turkey and the Ombudsman Institution were established. The UN Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture was ratified. Children are no longer prosecuted under terrorism legislation. The Jewish community were allowed to celebrate Hanukkah publicly for the first time in modern Turkish history in 2015. The Turkish government approved a law in 2008 to return properties confiscated in the past by the state to non-Muslim foundations. It also paved the way for the free allocation of worship places such as synagogues and churches to non-Muslim foundations. However, European officials noted a return to more authoritarian ways after the stalling of Turkey's bid to join the European Union notably on freedom of speech, freedom of the press and Kurdish minority rights. Demands by activists for the recognition of LGBT rights were publicly rejected by government members. Reporters Without Borders reported a continuous decrease in Freedom of the Press during Erdoğan's later terms, with a rank of around 100 on its Press Freedom Index during his first term and a rank of 153 out of a total of 179 countries in 2021. Freedom House reported a slight recovery in later years and awarded Turkey a Press Freedom Score of 55/100 in 2012 after a low point of 48/100 in 2006. In 2011, Erdoğan's government made legal reforms to return properties of Christian and Jewish minorities which were seized by the Turkish government in the 1930s. The total value of the properties returned reached $2 billion (USD). Under Erdoğan, the Turkish government tightened the laws on the sale and consumption of alcohol, banning all advertising and increasing the tax on alcoholic beverages. Economy In 2002, Erdoğan inherited a Turkish economy that was beginning to recover from a recession as a result of reforms implemented by Kemal Derviş. Erdoğan supported Finance Minister Ali Babacan in enforcing macro-economic policies. Erdoğan tried to attract more foreign investors to Turkey and lifted many government regulations. The cash-flow into the Turkish economy between 2002 and 2012 caused a growth of 64% in real GDP and a 43% increase in GDP per capita; considerably higher numbers were commonly advertised but these did not account for the inflation of the US dollar between 2002 and 2012. The average annual growth in GDP per capita was 3.6%. The growth in real GDP between 2002 and 2012 was higher than the values from developed countries, but was close to average when developing countries are also taken into account. The ranking of the Turkish economy in terms of GDP moved slightly from 17 to 16 during this decade. A major consequence of the policies between 2002 and 2012 was the widening of the current account deficit from US$600 million to US$58 billion (2013 est.) Since 1961, Turkey has signed 19 IMF loan accords. Erdoğan's government satisfied the budgetary and market requirements of the two during his administration and received every loan installment, the only time any Turkish government has done so. Erdoğan inherited a debt of $23.5 billion to the IMF, which was reduced to $0.9 billion in 2012. He decided not to sign a new deal. Turkey's debt to the IMF was thus declared to be completely paid and he announced that the IMF could borrow from Turkey. In 2010, five-year credit default swaps for Turkey's sovereign debt were trading at a record low of 1.17%, below those of nine EU member countries and Russia. In 2002, the Turkish Central Bank had $26.5 billion in reserves. This amount reached $92.2 billion in 2011. During Erdoğan's leadership, inflation fell from 32% to 9.0% in 2004. Since then, Turkish inflation has continued to fluctuate around 9% and is still one of the highest inflation rates in the world. The Turkish public debt as a percentage of annual GDP declined from 74% in 2002 to 39% in 2009. In 2012, Turkey had a lower ratio of public debt to GDP than 21 of 27 members of the European Union and a lower budget deficit to GDP ratio than 23 of them. In 2003, Erdoğan's government pushed through the Labor Act, a comprehensive reform of Turkey's labor laws. The law greatly expanded the rights of employees, establishing a 45-hour workweek and limiting overtime work to 270 hours a year, provided legal protection against discrimination due to sex, religion, or political affiliation, prohibited discrimination between permanent and temporary workers, entitled employees terminated without "valid cause" to compensation, and mandated written contracts for employment arrangements lasting a year or more. Education Erdoğan increased the budget of the Ministry of Education from 7.5 billion lira in 2002 to 34 billion lira in 2011, the highest share of the national budget given to one ministry. Before his prime ministership the military received the highest share of the national budget. Compulsory education was increased from eight years to twelve. In 2003, the Turkish government, together with UNICEF, initiated a campaign called "Come on girls, [let's go] to school!" (). The goal of this campaign was to close the gender gap in primary school enrollment through the provision of a quality basic education for all girls, especially in southeast Turkey. In 2005, the parliament granted amnesty to students expelled from universities before 2003. The amnesty applied to students dismissed on academic or disciplinary grounds. In 2004, textbooks became free of charge and since 2008 every province in Turkey has its own university. During Erdoğan's Premiership, the number of universities in Turkey nearly doubled, from 98 in 2002 to 186 in October 2012. The Prime Minister kept his campaign promises by starting the Fatih project in which all state schools, from preschool to high school level, received a total of 620,000 smart boards, while tablet computers were distributed to 17 million students and approximately one million teachers and administrators. In June 2017 a draft proposal by the ministry of education was approved by Erdoğan, in which the curriculum for schools excluded the teaching of the theory of evolution of Charles Darwin by 2019. From then on the teaching will be postponed and start at undergraduate level. Infrastructure Under Erdoğan's government, the number of airports in Turkey increased from 26 to 50 in the period of 10 years. Between the founding of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 and 2002, there had been 6,000 km of dual carriageway roads created. Between 2002 and 2011, another 13,500 km of expressway were built. Due to these measures, the number of motor accidents fell by 50 percent. For the first time in Turkish history, high speed railway lines were constructed, and the country's high-speed train service began in 2009. In 8 years, 1,076 km of railway were built and 5,449 km of railway renewed. The construction of Marmaray, an undersea rail tunnel under the Bosphorus strait, started in 2004. It was inaugurated on the 90th anniversary of the Turkish Republic 29 October 2013. The inauguration of the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, the third bridge over the Bosphorus, was on 26 August 2016. Justice In March 2006, the Supreme Board of Judges and Prosecutors (HSYK) held a press conference to publicly protest the obstruction of the appointment of judges to the high courts for over 10 months. The HSYK said Erdoğan wanted to fill the vacant posts with his own appointees. Erdoğan was accused of creating a rift with Turkey's highest court of appeal, the Yargıtay, and high administrative court, the Danıştay. Erdoğan stated that the constitution gave the power to assign these posts to his elected party. In May 2007, the head of Turkey's High Court asked prosecutors to consider whether Erdoğan should be charged over critical comments regarding the election of Abdullah Gül as president. Erdoğan said the ruling was "a disgrace to the justice system", and criticized the Constitutional Court which had invalidated a presidential vote because a boycott by other parties meant there was no quorum. Prosecutors investigated his earlier comments, including saying it had fired a "bullet at democracy". Tülay Tuğcu, head of the Constitutional Court, condemned Erdoğan for "threats, insults and hostility" towards the justice system. Civil–military relations The Turkish military has had a record of intervening in politics, having removed elected governments four times in the past. During the Erdoğan government, civil–military relationship moved towards normalization in which the influence of the military in politics was significantly reduced. The ruling Justice and Development Party has often faced off against the military, gaining political power by challenging a pillar of the country's laicistic establishment. The most significant issue that caused deep fissures between the army and the government was the midnight e-memorandum posted on the military's website objecting to the selection of Foreign Minister Abdullah Gül as the ruling party's candidate for the Presidency in 2007. The military argued that the election of Gül, whose wife wears an Islamic headscarf, could undermine the laicistic order of the country. Contrary to expectations, the government responded harshly to former Chief of General Staff Gen. Yaşar Büyükanıt's e-memorandum, stating the military had nothing to do with the selection of the presidential candidate. Health care After assuming power in 2003, Erdoğan's government embarked on a sweeping reform program of the Turkish healthcare system, called the Health Transformation Program (HTP), to greatly increase the quality of healthcare and protect all citizens from financial risks. Its introduction coincided with the period of sustained economic growth, allowing the Turkish government to put greater investments into the healthcare system. As part of the reforms, the "Green Card" program, which provides health benefits to the poor, was expanded in 2004. The reform program aimed at increasing the ratio of private to state-run healthcare, which, along with long queues in state-run hospitals, resulted in the rise of private medical care in Turkey, forcing state-run hospitals to compete by increasing quality. In April 2006, Erdoğan unveiled a social security reform package demanded by the International Monetary Fund under a loan deal. The move, which Erdoğan called one of the most radical reforms ever, was passed with fierce opposition. Turkey's three social security bodies were united under one roof, bringing equal health services and retirement benefits for members of all three bodies. The previous system had been criticized for reserving the best healthcare for civil servants and relegating others to wait in long queues. Under the second bill, everyone under the age of 18 years was entitled to free health services, irrespective of whether they pay premiums to any social security organization. The bill also envisages a gradual increase in the retirement age: starting from 2036, the retirement age will increase to 65 by 2048 for both women and men. In January 2008, the Turkish Parliament adopted a law to prohibit smoking in most public places. Erdoğan is outspokenly anti-smoking. Foreign policy Turkish foreign policy during Erdoğan's tenure as prime minister has been associated with the name of Ahmet Davutoğlu. Davutoğlu was the chief foreign policy advisor of Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan before he was appointed foreign minister in 2009. The basis of Erdoğan's foreign policy is based on the principle of "don't make enemies, make friends" and the pursuit of "zero problems" with neighboring countries. Erdoğan is co-founder of United Nations Alliance of Civilizations (AOC). The initiative seeks to galvanize international action against extremism through the forging of international, intercultural and inter-religious dialogue and cooperation. European Union When Erdoğan came to power, he continued Turkey's long ambition of joining the European Union. Turkey, under Erdoğan, made many strides in its laws that would qualify for EU membership. On 3 October 2005 negotiations began for Turkey's accession to the European Union. Erdoğan was named "The European of the Year 2004" by the newspaper European Voice for the reforms in his country in order to accomplish the accession of Turkey to the European Union. He said in a comment that "Turkey's accession shows that Europe is a continent where civilisations reconcile and not clash." On 3 October 2005, the negotiations for Turkey's accession to the EU formally started during Erdoğan's tenure as Prime Minister. The European Commission generally supports Erdoğan's reforms, but it remains critical of his policies. Negotiations about a possible EU membership came to a standstill in 2009 and 2010, when Turkish ports were closed to Cypriot ships. The Turkish government continues its refusal to recognize EU member state Cyprus. Greece and Cyprus dispute Relations between Greece and Turkey were normalized during Erdoğan's tenure as prime minister. In May 2004, Erdoğan became the first Turkish Prime Minister to visit Greece since 1988, and the first to visit the Turkish minority of Thrace since 1952. In 2007, Erdoğan and Greek Prime Minister Kostas Karamanlis inaugurated the Greek-Turkish natural gas pipeline giving Caspian gas its first direct Western outlet. Turkey and Greece signed an agreement to create a Combined Joint Operational Unit within the framework of NATO to participate in Peace Support Operations. Erdoğan and his party strongly supported the EU-backed referendum to reunify Cyprus in 2004. Negotiations about a possible EU membership came to a standstill in 2009 and 2010, when Turkish ports were closed to Cypriot ships as a consequence of the economic isolation of the internationally unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the failure of the EU to end the isolation, as it had promised in 2004. The Turkish government continues its refusal to recognize the Republic of Cyprus. Armenia Armenia is Turkey's only neighbor which Erdoğan has not visited during his premiership. The Turkish-Armenian border has been closed since 1993 because of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict with Turkey's close ally Azerbaijan. Diplomatic efforts resulted in the signing of protocols between Turkish and Armenian Foreign Ministers in Switzerland to improve relations between the two countries. One of the points of the agreement was the creation of a joint commission on the issue. The Armenian Constitutional Court decided that the commission contradicts the Armenian constitution. Turkey responded saying that Armenian court's ruling on the protocols is not acceptable, resulting in a suspension of the rectification process by the Turkish side. Erdoğan has said that Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan should apologize for calling on school children to re-occupy eastern Turkey. When asked by a student at a literature contest ceremony if Armenians will be able to get back their "western territories" along with Mt. Ararat, Sarksyan said, "This is the task of your generation". Russia In December 2004, President Putin visited Turkey, making it the first presidential visit in the history of Turkish-Russian relations besides that of the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, Nikolai Podgorny in 1972. In November 2005, Putin attended the inauguration of a jointly constructed Blue Stream natural gas pipeline in Turkey. This sequence of top-level visits has brought several important bilateral issues to the forefront. The two countries consider it their strategic goal to achieve "multidimensional co-operation", especially in the fields of energy, transport and the military. Specifically, Russia aims to invest in Turkey's fuel and energy industries, and it also expects to participate in tenders for the modernization of Turkey's military. The relations during this time are described by President Medvedev as "Turkey is one of our most important partners with respect to regional and international issues. We can confidently say that Russian-Turkish relations have advanced to the level of a multidimensional strategic partnership". In May 2010, Turkey and Russia signed 17 agreements to enhance cooperation in energy and other fields, including pacts to build Turkey's first nuclear power plant and further plans for an oil pipeline from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. The leaders of both countries also signed an agreement on visa-free travel, enabling tourists to get into the other country for free and stay there for up to 30 days. United States When Barack Obama became President of United States, he made his first overseas bilateral meeting to Turkey in April 2009. At a joint news conference in Turkey, Obama said: "I'm trying to make a statement about the importance of Turkey, not just to the United States but to the world. I think that where there's the most promise of building stronger U.S.-Turkish relations is in the recognition that Turkey and the United States can build a model partnership in which a predominantly Christian nation, a predominantly Muslim nation – a Western nation and a nation that straddles two continents," he continued, "that we can create a modern international community that is respectful, that is secure, that is prosperous, that there are not tensions – inevitable tensions between cultures – which I think is extraordinarily important." Iraq Turkey under Erdoğan was named by the Bush Administration as a part of the "coalition of the willing" that was central to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. On 1 March 2003, a motion allowing Turkish military to participate in the U.S-led coalition's invasion of Iraq, along with the permission for foreign troops to be stationed in Turkey for this purpose, was overruled by the Turkish Parliament. After the fall of Saddam Hussein, Iraq and Turkey signed 48 trade agreements on issues including security, energy, and water. The Turkish government attempted to mend relations with Iraqi Kurdistan by opening a Turkish university in Erbil, and a Turkish consulate in Mosul. Erdoğan's government fostered economic and political relations with Irbil, and Turkey began to consider the Kurdistan Regional Government in northern Iraq as an ally against Maliki's government. Israel Erdoğan visited Israel on 1 May 2005, a gesture unusual for a leader of a Muslim majority country. During his trip, Erdoğan visited the Yad Vashem, Israel's official memorial to the victims of the Holocaust. The President of Israel Shimon Peres addressed the Turkish parliament during a visit in 2007, the first time an Israeli leader had addressed the legislature of a predominantly Muslim nation. Their relationship worsened at the 2009 World Economic Forum conference over Israel's actions during the Gaza War. Erdoğan was interrupted by the moderator while he was responding to Peres. Erdoğan stated: "Mister Peres, you are older than I am. Maybe you are feeling guilty and that is why you are raising your voice. When it comes to killing you know it too well. I remember how you killed the children on beaches..." Upon the moderator's reminder that they needed to adjourn for dinner, Erdoğan left the panel, accusing the moderator of giving Peres more time than all the other panelists combined. Tensions increased further following the Gaza flotilla raid in May 2010. Erdoğan strongly condemned the raid, describing it as "state terrorism", and demanded an Israeli apology. In February 2013, Erdoğan called Zionism a "crime against humanity", comparing it to Islamophobia, antisemitism, and fascism. He later retracted the statement, saying he had been misinterpreted. He said "everyone should know" that his comments were directed at "Israeli policies", especially as regards to "Gaza and the settlements". Erdoğan's statements were criticized by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, among others. In August 2013, the Hürriyet reported that Erdoğan had claimed to have evidence of Israel's responsibility for the removal of Morsi from office in Egypt. The Israeli and Egyptian governments dismissed the suggestion. In response to the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, Erdoğan accused Israel of conducting "state terrorism" and a "genocide attempt" against the Palestinians. He also stated that "If Israel continues with this attitude, it will definitely be tried at international courts." Syria During Erdoğan's term of office, diplomatic relations between Turkey and Syria significantly deteriorated. In 2004, President Bashar al-Assad arrived in Turkey for the first official visit by a Syrian President in 57 years. In late 2004, Erdoğan signed a free trade agreement with Syria. Visa restrictions between the two countries were lifted in 2009, which caused an economic boom in the regions near the Syrian border. However, in 2011 the relationship between the two countries was strained following the outbreak of conflict in Syria. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said he was trying to "cultivate a favorable relationship with whatever government would take the place of Assad". However, he began to support the opposition in Syria, after demonstrations turned violent, creating a serious Syrian refugee problem in Turkey. Erdoğan's policy of providing military training for anti-Damascus fighters has also created conflict with Syria's ally and a neighbour of Turkey, Iran. Saudi Arabia In August 2006, King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz as-Saud made a visit to Turkey. This was the first visit by a Saudi monarch to Turkey in the last four decades. The monarch made a second visit, on 9 November 2007. Turk-Saudi trade volume has exceeded 3.2 billion in 2006, almost double the figure achieved in 2003. In 2009, this amount reached 5.5 billion and the goal for the year 2010 was 10 billion. Erdoğan condemned the Saudi-led intervention in Bahrain and characterized the Saudi movement as "a new Karbala". He demanded withdrawal of Saudi forces from Bahrain. Egypt Erdoğan had made his first official visit to Egypt on 12 September 2011, accompanied by six ministers and 200 businessmen. This visit was made very soon after Turkey had ejected Israeli ambassadors, cutting off all diplomatic relations with Israel because Israel refused to apologize for the Gaza flotilla raid which killed eight Turkish and one Turco-American. Erdoğan's visit to Egypt was met with much enthusiasm by Egyptians. CNN reported some Egyptians saying "We consider him as the Islamic leader in the Middle East", while others were appreciative of his role in supporting Gaza. Erdoğan was later honoured in Tahrir Square by members of the Egyptian Revolution Youth Union, and members of the Turkish embassy were presented with a coat of arms in acknowledgment of the Prime Minister's support of the Egyptian Revolution. Erdoğan stated in a 2011 interview that he supported secularism for Egypt, which generated an angry reaction among Islamic movements, especially the Freedom and Justice Party, which was the political wing of the Muslim Brotherhood. However, commentators suggest that by forming an alliance with the military junta during Egypt's transition to democracy, Erdoğan may have tipped the balance in favor of an authoritarian government. Erdoğan condemned the sit-in dispersals conducted by Egyptian police on 14 August 2013 at the Rabaa al-Adawiya and al-Nahda squares, where violent clashes between police officers and pro-Morsi Islamist protesters led to hundreds of deaths, mostly protesters. In July 2014, one year after the removal of Mohamed Morsi from office, Erdoğan described Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi as an "illegitimate tyrant". Somalia Erdoğan's administration maintains strong ties with the Somali government. During the drought of 2011, Erdoğan's government contributed over $201 million to humanitarian relief efforts in the impacted parts of Somalia. Following a greatly improved security situation in Mogadishu in mid-2011, the Turkish government also re-opened its foreign embassy with the intention of more effectively assisting in the post-conflict development process. It was among the first foreign governments to resume formal diplomatic relations with Somalia after the civil war. In May 2010, the Turkish and Somali governments signed a military training agreement, in keeping with the provisions outlined in the Djibouti Peace Process. Turkish Airlines became the first long-distance international commercial airline in two decades to resume flights to and from Mogadishu's Aden Adde International Airport. Turkey also launched various development and infrastructure projects in Somalia including building several hospitals and helping renovate the National Assembly building. Protests The 2013 Gezi Park protests were held against the perceived authoritarianism of Erdoğan and his policies, starting from a small sit-in in Istanbul in defense of a city park. After the police's intense reaction with tear gas, the protests grew each day. Faced by the largest mass protest in a decade, Erdoğan made this controversial remark in a televised speech: "The police were there yesterday, they are there today, and they will be there tomorrow". After weeks of clashes in the streets of Istanbul, his government at first apologized to the protestors and called for a plebiscite, but then ordered a crackdown on the protesters. Presidency Erdoğan took the oath of office on 28 August 2014 and became the 12th president of Turkey. He administered the new Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu's oath on 29 August. When asked about his lower-than-expected 51.79% share of the vote, he allegedly responded, "there were even those who did not like the Prophet. I, however, won 52%". Assuming the role of President, Erdoğan was criticized for openly stating that he would not maintain the tradition of presidential neutrality. Erdoğan has also stated his intention to pursue a more active role as president, such as utilizing the President's rarely used cabinet-calling powers. The political opposition has argued that Erdoğan will continue to pursue his own political agenda, controlling the government, while his new Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu would be docile and submissive. Furthermore, the domination of loyal Erdoğan supporters in Davutoğlu's cabinet fuelled speculation that Erdoğan intended to exercise substantial control over the government. Presidential elections On 1 July 2014, Erdoğan was named the AKP's presidential candidate in the Turkish presidential election. His candidacy was announced by the Deputy President of the AKP, Mehmet Ali Şahin. Erdoğan made a speech after the announcement and used the 'Erdoğan logo' for the first time. The logo was criticized because it was very similar to the logo that U.S. President Barack Obama used in the 2008 presidential election. Erdoğan was elected as the President of Turkey in the first round of the election with 51.79% of the vote, obviating the need for a run-off by winning over 50%. The joint candidate of the CHP, MHP and 13 other opposition parties, former Organisation of Islamic Co-operation general secretary Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu won 38.44% of the vote. The pro-Kurdish HDP candidate Selahattin Demirtaş won 9.76%. The 2018 Turkish presidential election took place as part of the 2018 general election, alongside parliamentary elections on the same day. Following the approval of constitutional changes in a referendum held in 2017, the elected President will be both the head of state and head of government of Turkey, taking over the latter role from the to-be-abolished office of the Prime Minister. Incumbent president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan declared his candidacy for the People's Alliance (Turkish: Cumhur İttifakı) on 27 April 2018, being supported by the MHP. Erdoğan's main opposition, the Republican People's Party, nominated Muharrem İnce, a member of the parliament known for his combative opposition and spirited speeches against Erdoğan. Besides these candidates, Meral Akşener, the founder and leader of Good Party, Temel Karamollaoğlu, the leader of the Felicity Party and Doğu Perinçek, the leader of the Patriotic Party, have announced their candidacies and collected the 100,000 signatures required for nomination. The alliance which Erdoğan was candidate for won 52.59% of the popular vote. For the presidential election 2023 his candidacy is in dispute as he has launched his campaign in June 2022, but the opposition contends a third presidential term would violate the constitution. During the first round of ballots in the 2023 Presidential Election, Erdoğan failed to cross the 50% threshold, resulting in a second runoff election against Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu. On 28 May 2023 Erdoğan won the second round with 52.14% of the vote, with over 99% of the total vote counted. Referendum In April 2017, a constitutional referendum was held, where the voters in Turkey (and Turkish citizens abroad) approved a set of 18 proposed amendments to the Constitution of Turkey. The amendments included the replacement of the existing parliamentary system with a presidential system. The post of Prime Minister would be abolished, and the presidency would become an executive post vested with broad executive powers. The parliament seats would be increased from 550 to 600 and the age of candidacy to the parliament was lowered from 25 to 18. The referendum also called for changes to the Supreme Board of Judges and Prosecutors. Local elections In the 2019 local elections, the ruling party AKP lost control of Istanbul and Ankara for the first time in 25 years, as well as 5 of Turkey's 6 largest cities. The loss has been widely attributed to Erdoğan's mismanagement of the Turkish economic crisis, rising authoritarianism as well as the alleged government inaction on the Syrian refugee crisis. Soon after the elections, Supreme Electoral Council of Turkey ordered a re-election in Istanbul, cancelling Ekrem İmamoğlu's mayoral certificate. The decision led to a significant decrease of Erdoğan's and AKP's popularity and his party lost the elections again in June with a greater margin. The result was seen as a huge blow to Erdoğan, who had once said that if his party 'lost Istanbul, we would lose Turkey. The opposition's victory was characterised as 'the beginning of the end' for Erdoğan', with international commentators calling the re-run a huge government miscalculation that led to a potential İmamoğlu candidacy in the next scheduled presidential election. It is suspected that the scale of the government's defeat could provoke a cabinet reshuffle and early general elections, currently scheduled for June 2023. The New Zealand and Australian governments and opposition CHP party have criticized Erdoğan after he repeatedly showed video taken by the Christchurch mosque shooter to his supporters at campaign rallies for 31 March local elections and said Australians and New Zealanders who came to Turkey with anti-Muslim sentiments "would be sent back in coffins like their grandfathers" at Gallipoli. Domestic policy Presidential palace Erdoğan has also received criticism for the construction of a new official residence called the Presidential Complex, which takes up approximately 50 acres of Atatürk Forest Farm (AOÇ) in Ankara. Since the AOÇ is protected land, several court orders were issued to halt the construction of the new palace, though building work went on nonetheless. The opposition described the move as a clear disregard for the rule of law. The project was subject to heavy criticism and allegations were made; of corruption during the construction process, wildlife destruction and the complete obliteration of the zoo in the AOÇ in order to make way for the new compound. The fact that the palace is technically illegal has led to it being branded as the 'Kaç-Ak Saray', the word kaçak in Turkish meaning 'illegal'. Ak Saray was originally designed as a new office for the Prime Minister. However, upon assuming the presidency, Erdoğan announced that the palace would become the new Presidential Palace, while the Çankaya Mansion will be used by the Prime Minister instead. The move was seen as a historic change since the Çankaya Mansion had been used as the iconic office of the presidency ever since its inception. The Presidential Complex has almost 1,000 rooms and cost $350 million (€270 million), leading to huge criticism at a time when mining accidents and workers' rights had been dominating the agenda. On 29 October 2014, Erdoğan was due to hold a Republic Day reception in the new palace to commemorate the 91st anniversary of the Republic of Turkey and to officially inaugurate the Presidential Palace. However, after most invited participants announced that they would boycott the event and a mining accident occurred in the district of Ermenek in Karaman, the reception was cancelled. The media President Erdoğan and his government continue to press for court action against the remaining free press in Turkey. The latest newspaper that has been seized is Zaman, in March 2016. After the seizure Morton Abramowitz and Eric Edelman, former U.S. ambassadors to Turkey, condemned President Erdoğan's actions in an opinion piece published by The Washington Post: "Clearly, democracy cannot flourish under Erdoğan now". "The overall pace of reforms in Turkey has not only slowed down but in some key areas, such as freedom of expression and the independence of the judiciary, there has been a regression, which is particularly worrying", rapporteur Kati Piri said in April 2016 after the European Parliament passed its annual progress report on Turkey. On 22 June 2016, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said that he considered himself successful in "destroying" Turkish civil groups "working against the state", a conclusion that had been confirmed some days earlier by Sedat Laçiner, Professor of International Relations and rector of the Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University: "Outlawing unarmed and peaceful opposition, sentencing people to unfair punishment under erroneous terror accusations, will feed genuine terrorism in Erdoğan's Turkey. Guns and violence will become the sole alternative for legally expressing free thought". After the coup attempt, over 200 journalists were arrested and over 120 media outlets were closed. Cumhuriyet journalists were detained in November 2016 after a long-standing crackdown on the newspaper. Subsequently, Reporters Without Borders called Erdoğan an "enemy of press freedom" and said that he "hides his aggressive dictatorship under a veneer of democracy". In 2014, Turkey temporarily blocked access to Twitter. In April 2017, Turkey blocked all access to Wikipedia over a content dispute. The Turkish government lifted a two-and-a-half-year ban on Wikipedia on 15 January 2020, restoring access to the online encyclopedia a month after Turkey's top court ruled that blocking Wikipedia was unconstitutional. On 1 July 2020, in a statement made to his party members, Erdoğan announced that the government would introduce new measures and regulations to control or shut down social media platforms such as YouTube, Twitter and Netflix. Through these new measures, each company would be required to appoint an official representative in the country to respond to legal concerns. The decision came after a number of Twitter users insulted his daughter Esra after she gave birth to her fourth child. State of emergency and purges On 20 July 2016, President Erdoğan declared the state of emergency, citing the coup d'état attempt as justification. It was first scheduled to last three months. The Turkish parliament approved this measure. The state of emergency was later continuously extended until 2018 amidst the ongoing 2016 Turkish purges including comprehensive purges of independent media and detention of tens of thousands of Turkish citizens politically opposed to Erdoğan. More than 50,000 people have been arrested and over 160,000 fired from their jobs by March 2018. In August 2016, Erdoğan began rounding up journalists who had been publishing, or who were about to publish articles questioning corruption within the Erdoğan administration, and incarcerating them. The number of Turkish journalists jailed by Turkey is higher than any other country, including all of those journalists currently jailed in North Korea, Cuba, Russia, and China combined. In the wake of the coup attempt of July 2016 the Erdoğan administration began rounding up tens of thousands of individuals, both from within the government, and from the public sector, and incarcerating them on charges of alleged "terrorism". As a result of these arrests, many in the international community complained about the lack of proper judicial process in the incarceration of Erdoğan's opposition.  In April 2017 Erdoğan successfully sponsored legislation effectively making it illegal for the Turkish legislative branch to investigate his executive branch of government. Without the checks and balances of freedom of speech, and the freedom of the Turkish legislature to hold him accountable for his actions, many have likened Turkey's current form of government to a dictatorship with only nominal forms of democracy in practice. At the time of Erdoğan's successful passing of the most recent legislation silencing his opposition, United States President Donald Trump called Erdoğan to congratulate him for his "recent referendum victory". On 29 April 2017 Erdoğan's administration began an internal Internet block of all of the Wikipedia online encyclopedia site via Turkey's domestic Internet filtering system. This blocking action took place after the government had first made a request for Wikipedia to remove what it referred to as "offensive content". In response, Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales replied via a post on Twitter stating, "Access to information is a fundamental human right. Turkish people, I will always stand with you and fight for this right." In January 2016, more than a thousand academics signed a petition criticizing Turkey's military crackdown on ethnic Kurdish towns and neighborhoods in the east of the country, such as Sur (a district of Diyarbakır), Silvan, Nusaybin, Cizre and Silopi, and asking an end to violence. Erdoğan accused those who signed the petition of "terrorist propaganda", calling them "the darkest of people". He called for action by institutions and universities, stating, "Everyone who benefits from this state but is now an enemy of the state must be punished without further delay". Within days, over 30 of the signatories were arrested, many in dawn-time raids on their homes. Although all were quickly released, nearly half were fired from their jobs, eliciting a denunciation from Turkey's Science Academy for such "wrong and disturbing" treatment. Erdoğan vowed that the academics would pay the price for "falling into a pit of treachery". On 8 July 2018, Erdoğan sacked 18,000 officials for alleged ties to US based cleric Fethullah Gülen, shortly before renewing his term as an executive president. Of those removed, 9000 were police officers with 5000 from the armed forces with the addition of hundreds of academics. Economic policy Under his presidency, Erdoğan has decreased the independence of the Central Bank and pushed it to pursue a highly unorthodox monetary policy, decreasing interest rates even with high inflation. He has pushed the theory that inflation is caused by high interest rates, an idea universally rejected by economists. This, along with other factors such as excessive current account deficit and foreign-currency debt, in combination with Erdoğan's increasing authoritarianism, caused an economic crisis starting from 2018, leading to large depreciation of the Turkish lira and very high inflation. Economist Paul Krugman described the unfolding crisis as "a classic currency-and-debt crisis, of a kind we've seen many times", adding: "At such a time, the quality of leadership suddenly matters a great deal. You need officials who understand what's happening, can devise a response and have enough credibility that markets give them the benefit of the doubt. Some emerging markets have those things, and they are riding out the turmoil fairly well. The Erdoğan regime has none of that". Foreign policy Europe In February 2016, Erdoğan threatened to send the millions of refugees in Turkey to EU member states, saying: "We can open the doors to Greece and Bulgaria anytime and we can put the refugees on buses ... So how will you deal with refugees if you don't get a deal?" In an interview to the news magazine , German minister of defence Ursula von der Leyen said on 11 March 2016 that the refugee crisis had made good cooperation between EU and Turkey an "existentially important" issue. "Therefore it is right to advance now negotiations on Turkey's EU accession". In its resolution "The functioning of democratic institutions in Turkey" from 22 June 2016, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe warned that "recent developments in Turkey pertaining to freedom of the media and of expression, erosion of the rule of law and the human rights violations in relation to anti-terrorism security operations in south-east Turkey have ... raised serious questions about the functioning of its democratic institutions". In January 2017, Erdoğan said that the withdrawal of Turkish troops from Northern Cyprus is "out of the question" and Turkey will be in Cyprus "forever". In September 2020, Erdoğan declared his government's support for Azerbaijan following a major conflict between Armenian and Azeri forces over a disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh. He dismissed demands for a ceasefire. In 2022, Erdoğan and Russian President Vladimir Putin planned for Turkey to become an energy hub for all of Europe through the TurkStream and Blue Stream gas pipelines. In October 2023 Erdoğan canceled attendance at the third European Political Community (EPC) meeting. Finnish and Swedish NATO accession In May 2022, Erdoğan voiced his opposition to Finland and Sweden joining NATO, accusing the two countries of tolerating groups which Turkey classifies as terrorist organizations, including the Kurdish militant groups PKK, PYD and YPG and the supporters of Fethullah Gülen. Following a protest in Sweden where a Quran was burned, Erdogan re-iterated that he would not support Sweden's bid to join NATO. President of Finland Sauli Niinistö visited Erdogan in Istanbul and Ankara in March 2023. During the visit, Erdogan confirmed that he supported Finnish NATO membership and declared that the Turkish parliament would confirm Finnish membership before the Turkish Presidential elections in May 2023. On 23 March 2023, the Turkish parliament's foreign relations committee confirmed the Finnish NATO membership application and sent the process to the Turkish Parliament's plenary session. On 1 April 2023, Erdogan confirmed and signed the Turkish Grand National Assembly's ratification of Finnish NATO membership. This decision sealed Finland's entry to NATO. In June 2023, Erdoğan again voiced his opposition to Sweden joining NATO. Just prior to the NATO summit in Vilnius in July 2023, Erdoğan linked Sweden's accession to NATO membership to Turkey's application for EU membership. Turkey had applied for EU membership in 1999, but talks made little progress since 2016. In September 2023, Erdoğan announced that the European Union was well into a rupture in its relations with Turkey and that they would part ways during Turkey's European Union membership process. Greece There is a long-standing dispute between Turkey and Greece in the Aegean Sea. Erdoğan warned that Greece will pay a "heavy price" if Turkey's gas exploration vessel – in what Turkey said are disputed waters – is attacked. He deemed the readmission of Greece into the military alliance NATO a mistake, claiming they were collaborating with terrorists. Diaspora In March 2017, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan stated to the Turks in Europe, "Make not three, but five children. Because you are the future of Europe. That will be the best response to the injustices against you." This has been interpreted as an imperialist call for demographic warfare. According to The Economist, Erdoğan is the first Turkish leader to take the Turkish diaspora seriously, which has created friction within these diaspora communities and between the Turkish government and several of its European counterparts. The Balkans In February 2018, President Erdoğan expressed Turkish support of the Republic of Macedonia's position during negotiations over the Macedonia naming dispute saying that Greece's position is wrong. In March 2018, President Erdoğan criticized the Kosovan Prime Minister Ramush Haradinaj for dismissing his Interior Minister and Intelligence Chief for failing to inform him of an unauthorized and illegal secret operation conducted by the National Intelligence Organization of Turkey on Kosovo's territory that led to the arrest of six people allegedly associated with the Gülen movement. On 26 November 2019, an earthquake struck the Durrës region of Albania. President Erdoğan expressed his condolences. and citing close Albanian-Turkish relations, he committed Turkey to reconstructing 500 earthquake destroyed homes and other civic structures in Laç, Albania. In Istanbul, Erdoğan organised and attended a donors conference (8 December) to assist Albania that included Turkish businessmen, investors and Albanian Prime Minister Edi Rama. Azerbaijan In September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a large-scale military offensive to recapture the Armenian-populated Nagorno-Karabakh. Addressing the United Nations General Assembly, Erdoğan stated "As everyone now acknowledges, Karabakh is Azerbaijani territory. Imposition of another status [to the region] will never be accepted," and that "[Turkey] support[s] the steps taken by Azerbaijan — with whom we act together with the motto of one nation, two states — to defend its territorial integrity." Erdoğan also met with Azerbaijan's President Ilham Aliyev in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. United Kingdom In May 2018, British Prime Minister Theresa May welcomed Erdoğan to the United Kingdom for a three-day state visit. Erdoğan declared that the United Kingdom is "an ally and a strategic partner, but also a real friend. The cooperation we have is well beyond any mechanism that we have established with other partners." Israel Relations between Turkey and Israel began to normalize after Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu officially apologized for the death of the nine Turkish activists during the Gaza flotilla raid. However, in response to the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, Erdoğan accused Israel of being "more barbaric than Hitler", and conducting "state terrorism" and a "genocide attempt" against the Palestinians. In December 2017, President Erdoğan issued a warning to Donald Trump, after the U.S. President acknowledged Jerusalem as Israel's capital. Erdoğan stated, "Jerusalem is a red line for Muslims", indicating that naming Jerusalem as Israel's capital would alienate Palestinians and other Muslims from the city, undermining hopes at a future capital of a Palestinian State. Erdoğan called Israel a "terrorist state". Naftali Bennett dismissed the threats, claiming "Erdoğan does not miss an opportunity to attack Israel". In April 2019, Erdoğan said the West Bank belongs to Palestinians, after Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said he would annex Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories if he is re-elected. Erdoğan condemned the Israel–UAE peace agreement, stating that Turkey was considering suspending or cutting off diplomatic relations with the United Arab Emirates in retaliation. The relations shifted back to normality since 2021, when the two countries started improving relations. In March 2022, Israeli president Isaac Herzog visited Turkey, meeting Erdoğan. The two countries agreed to restore diplomatic relations in August 2022. Erdoğan condemned the Israeli attacks in the Gaza strip during 2023 Israel–Hamas war, saying they are a violation of human rights, what led to accusations of hypocrisy as Turkey itself severely bombed Kurdish areas at the same time, including many civilian targets. Erdoğan said that Israel's bombing and blockade of the Gaza Strip in retaliation for Hamas’ attack was a disproportionate response amounting to a "massacre." On 25 October 2023, Erdoğan said that Hamas was not a terrorist organisation but a liberation group fighting to protect Palestinian lands and people. Syrian Civil War Diplomatic relations between Turkey and Syria significantly deteriorated due to the Syrian civil war. Initially, while tens of thousand of Syrian refugees already crossed the border to Turkey, Turkish officials tried to convince Syrian President Bashar al-Assad to make significant reforms to alleviate the conflict and calm down the protests. The last of such meetings happened on 9 August 2011, during a seven-hour meeting between Assad and Turkey's Ahmet Davutoğlu, giving the latter the title of 'the last European leader who visited Assad'. Turkey got involved in a violent conflict with Islamic State (IS) as part of the spillover of the Syrian Civil War. IS executed a series of attacks against Turkish soldiers and civilians. In an ISIS-video, where two Turkish soldiers were burned alive, Turkish President Erdoğan was verbally attacked by ISIS and threatened with the destruction of Turkey. Turkey joined the international military intervention against the Islamic State in 2015. The Turkish Armed Forces' Operation Euphrates Shield was aimed at IS, and areas around Jarabulus and al-Bab were conquered from IS. In January 2018, the Turkish military and its allies Syrian National Army and Sham Legion began Operation Olive Branch in Afrin in Northern Syria, against the Kurdish armed group YPG. In October 2019, the United States gave the go-ahead to the 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria, despite recently agreeing to a Northern Syria Buffer Zone. U.S. troops in northern Syria were withdrawn from the border to avoid interference with the Turkish operation. After the U.S. pullout, Turkey proceeded to attack the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria. Rejecting criticism of the invasion, Erdoğan claimed that NATO and European Union countries "sided with terrorists, and all of them attacked us". Erdoğan then filed a criminal complaint against French magazine Le Point after it accused him of conducting ethnic cleansing in the area. With Erdogan's control of the media fanning local nationalism, a poll by Metropoll Research found that 79% of Turkish respondents expressed support for the operation. China Bilateral trade between Turkey and China increased from $1 billion a year in 2002 to $27 billion annually in 2017. Erdoğan has stated that Turkey might consider joining the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation instead of the European Union. In 2009, Erdoğan accused China of "genocide" against the Uyghurs in Xinjiang. In 2019, the Turkish Foreign Ministry issued a statement condemning what it described as China's "reintroduction of concentration camps in the 21st century" and "a great cause of shame for humanity". Later that year, while visiting China, Erdoğan said that there were those who "exploited" the Uyghur issue to strain relations between China and Turkey. Since then the Turkish government has largely toned down its criticisms of China's treatment of Uyghurs, and cracked down on Uyghur activists at China's behest, and has expanded deportations of Uyghurs to China. Japan Qatar blockade In June 2017 during a speech, Erdoğan called the isolation of Qatar as "inhumane and against Islamic values" and that "victimising Qatar through smear campaigns serves no purpose". Myanmar In September 2017, Erdoğan condemned the persecution of Muslims in Myanmar and accused Myanmar of "genocide" against the Muslim minority. United States Over time, Turkey began to look for ways to buy its own missile defense system and also to use that procurement to build up its own capacity to manufacture and sell an air and missile defense system. Turkey got serious about acquiring a missile defense system early in the first Obama administration when it opened a competition between the Raytheon Patriot PAC 2 system and systems from Europe, Russia, and even China. Taking advantage of the new low in U.S.-Turkish relations, Putin saw his chance to use an S-400 sale to Turkey, so in July 2017, he offered the air defense system to Turkey. In the months that followed, the United States warned Turkey that a S-400 purchase jeopardized Turkey's F-35 purchase. Integration of the Russian system into the NATO air defense net was also out of the question. Administration officials, including Mark Esper, warned that Turkey had to choose between the S-400 and the F-35, that they could not have both. The S-400 deliveries to Turkey began on 12 July. On 16 July, Trump mentioned to reporters that withholding the F-35 from Turkey was unfair. Said the president, "So what happens is we have a situation where Turkey is very good with us, very good, and we are now telling Turkey that because you have really been forced to buy another missile system, we're not going to sell you the F-35 fighter jets". The U.S. Congress made clear on a bipartisan basis that it expected the president to sanction Turkey for buying Russian equipment. Out of the F-35, Turkey considered buying Russian fifth-generation jet fighter Su-57. On 1 August 2018, the U.S. Department of Treasury sanctioned two senior Turkish government ministers who were involved in the detention of American pastor Andrew Brunson. Erdoğan said that U.S. behavior would force Turkey to look for new friends and allies. The U.S.–Turkey tensions appeared to be the most serious diplomatic crisis between the NATO allies in years. Trump's former national security adviser John Bolton claimed that President Donald Trump told Erdoğan he would 'take care' of the investigation against Turkey's state-owned bank Halkbank, accused of bank fraud charges and laundering up to $20 billion on behalf of Iranian entities. Turkey criticized Bolton's book, saying it included misleading accounts of conversations between Trump and Erdoğan. In August 2020, the former vice president and presidential candidate Joe Biden called for a new U.S. approach to the "autocrat" President Erdoğan and support for Turkish opposition parties. In September 2020, Biden demanded that Erdoğan "stay out" of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War between Azerbaijan and Armenia, in which Turkey supported the Azeris. Meanwhile, Erdoğan wants to realize the Zangezur corridor land route in the southern Caucasus, a geopolitical corridor from Europe through Central Asia, all the way to China. Venezuela Relations with Venezuela were strengthened with recent developments and high level mutual visits. The first official visit between the two countries at presidential level was in October 2017 when Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro visited Turkey. In December 2018, Erdoğan visited Venezuela for the first time and expressed his will to build strong relations with Venezuela and expressed hope that high-level visits "will increasingly continue". Reuters reported that in 2018 23 tons of mined gold were taken from Venezuela to Istanbul. In the first nine months of 2018, Venezuela's gold exports to Turkey rose from zero in the previous year to US$900 million. During the Venezuelan presidential crisis, Erdoğan voiced solidarity with Venezuela's President Nicolás Maduro and criticized U.S. sanctions against Venezuela, saying that "political problems cannot be resolved by punishing an entire nation." Following the 2019 Venezuelan uprising attempt, Erdoğan condemned the actions of lawmaker Juan Guaidó, tweeting "Those who are in an effort to appoint a postmodern colonial governor to Venezuela, where the President was appointed by elections and where the people rule, should know that only democratic elections can determine how a country is governed". Ukraine and Russian invasion of Ukraine In 2016, Erdoğan told his Ukrainian counterpart Petro Poroshenko that Turkey would not recognize the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea; calling it "Crimea's occupation". During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Erdoğan functioned as a mediator and peace broker. On 10 March 2022, Turkey hosted a trilateral meeting with Ukraine and Russia on the margins of Antalya Diplomacy Forum, making it the first high-level talks since the invasion. Following the peace talks in Istanbul on 29 March 2022, Russia decided to leave areas around Kyiv and Chernihiv. On 22 July 2022, together with United Nations, Turkey brokered a deal between Russia and Ukraine about clearing the way for the export of grain from Ukrainian ports, following the 2022 food crises. On 21 September 2022, a record-high of 215 Ukrainian soldiers, including fighters who led the defence of the Azovstal steelworks in Mariupol, had been released in a prisoner exchange with Russia after mediation by Turkish President Erdoğan. As part of the agreement, the freed captives stay in Turkey until the war is over. While Turkey has closed the Bosphorus to Russian naval reinforcements, enforced United Nations sanctions and supplied Ukraine with military equipment such as Bayraktar TB2 drones and BMC Kirpi vehicles, it didn't participate in certain sanctions like closing the Turkish airspace for Russian civilians and continued the dialogue with Russian President Vladimir Putin. Erdoğan reiterated his stance on Crimea in 2022 saying that international law requires that Russia must return Crimea to Ukraine. Events Coup d'état attempt On 15 July 2016, a coup d'état was attempted by the military, with aims to remove Erdoğan from government. By the next day, Erdoğan's government managed to reassert effective control in the country. Reportedly, no government official was arrested or harmed, which, among other factors, raised the suspicion of a false flag event staged by the government itself. Erdoğan, as well as other government officials, has blamed an exiled cleric, and a former ally of Erdoğan, Fethullah Gülen, for staging the coup attempt. Süleyman Soylu, Minister of Labor in Erdoğan's government, accused the US of planning a coup to oust Erdoğan. Erdoğan, as well as other high-ranking Turkish government officials, has issued repeated demands to the US to extradite Gülen. Following the coup attempt, there has been a significant deterioration in Turkey-US relations. European and other world leaders have expressed their concerns over the situation in Turkey, with many of them warning Erdoğan not to use the coup attempt as an excuse to crack down on his opponents. The rise of ISIS and the collapse of the Kurdish peace process had led to a sharp rise in terror incidents in Turkey until 2016. Erdoğan was accused by his critics of having a 'soft corner' for ISIS. However, after the attempted coup, Erdoğan ordered the Turkish military into Syria to combat ISIS and Kurdish militant groups. Erdoğan's critics have decried purges in the education system and judiciary as undermining the rule of law however Erdoğan supporters argue this is a necessary measure as Gulen-linked schools cheated on entrance exams, requiring a purge in the education system and of the Gulen followers who then entered the judiciary. Erdoğan's plan is "to reconstitute Turkey as a presidential system. The plan would create a centralized system that would enable him to better tackle Turkey's internal and external threats. One of the main hurdles allegedly standing in his way is Fethullah Gulen's movement ..." In the aftermath of the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, a groundswell of national unity and consensus emerged for cracking down on the coup plotters with a National Unity rally held in Turkey that included Islamists, secularists, liberals and nationalists. Erdoğan has used this consensus to remove Gulen's followers from the bureaucracy, curtail their role in NGOs, Turkey's Ministry of Religious Affairs and the Turkish military, with 149 Generals discharged. In a foreign policy shift Erdoğan ordered the Turkish Armed Forces into battle in Syria and has liberated towns from IS control. As relations with Europe soured over in the aftermath of the attempted coup, Erdoğan developed alternative relationships with Russia, Saudi Arabia and a "strategic partnership" with Pakistan, with plans to cultivate relations through free trade agreements and deepening military relations for mutual co-operation with Turkey's regional allies. 2023 earthquake On 6 February 2023, a catastrophic earthquake occurred during his administration in southeastern Turkey and northwestern Syria, killing more than 50,000 people. Ideology and public image Early during his premiership, Erdoğan was praised as a role model for emerging Middle Eastern nations due to several reform packages initiated by his government which expanded religious freedoms and minority rights as part of accession negotiations with the European Union. However, his government underwent several crises including the Sledgehammer coup and the Ergenekon trials, corruption scandals, accusations of media intimidation, as well as the pursuit of an increasingly polarizing political agenda; the opposition accused the government of inciting political hatred throughout the country. He has also been described as having "long championed Islamist causes". Ziya Gökalp In 2019, Erdoğan once again publicly recited Ziya Gökalp's Soldier's Prayer poem, as he had done in 1997. According to Hans-Lukas Kieser, these recitations betray Erdoğan's desire to create Gökalp's pre-1923 ideal, that is, "a modern, leader-led Islamic-Turkish state extending beyond the boundaries of the Treaty of Lausanne". Ottomanism As President, Erdoğan has overseen a revival of Ottoman tradition, greeting Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas with an Ottoman-style ceremony in the new presidential palace, with guards dressed in costumes representing founders of 16 Great Turkish Empires in history. While serving as the Prime Minister of Turkey, Erdoğan's AKP made references to the Ottoman era during election campaigns, such as calling their supporters 'grandsons of Ottomans' (Osmanlı torunu). This proved controversial, since it was perceived to be an open attack against the republican nature of modern Turkey founded by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In 2015, Erdoğan made a statement in which he endorsed the old Ottoman term külliye to refer to university campuses rather than the standard Turkish word kampüs. Many critics have thus accused Erdoğan of wanting to become an Ottoman sultan and abandon the secular and democratic credentials of the Republic. One of the most cited scholars alive, Noam Chomsky, said that "Erdogan in Turkey is basically trying to create something like the Ottoman Caliphate, with him as caliph, supreme leader, throwing his weight around all over the place, and destroying the remnants of democracy in Turkey at the same time". When pressed on this issue in January 2015, Erdoğan denied these claims and said that he would aim to be more like Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom rather than like an Ottoman sultan. In July 2020, after the Council of State annulled the Cabinet's 1934 decision to establish the Hagia Sophia as museum and revoking the monument's status, Erdoğan ordered its reclassification as a mosque. The 1934 decree was ruled to be unlawful under both Ottoman and Turkish law as Hagia Sophia's waqf, endowed by Sultan Mehmed II, had designated the site a mosque; proponents of the decision argued the Hagia Sophia was the personal property of the sultan. This redesignation is controversial, invoking condemnation from the Turkish opposition, UNESCO, the World Council of Churches, the Holy See, and many other international leaders. In August 2020, he also signed the order that transferred the administration of the Chora Church to the Directorate of Religious Affairs to open it for worship as a mosque. Initially converted to a mosque by the Ottomans, the building had then been designated as a museum by the government since 1934. In August 2020, Erdoğan gave a speech saying that "in our civilization, conquest is not occupation or looting. It is establishing the dominance of the justice that Allah commanded in the region. First of all, our nation removed the oppression from the areas that it conquered. It established justice. This is why our civilization is one of conquest. Turkey will take what is its right in the Mediterranean Sea, in the Aegean Sea, and in the Black Sea." In October 2020, he made a statement before the Grand National Assembly that "Jerusalem is ours", referring to the period of Ottoman rule over the city and the rebuilding of its Old City by Suleiman the Magnificent. In October 2023 the first church built with government backing in Turkey's 100-year history as a post-Ottoman state was inaugurated. Authoritarianism Erdoğan has served as the de facto leader of Turkey since 2002. In the more recent years of Erdoğan's rule, Turkey has experienced increasing authoritarianism, democratic backsliding, and corruption, as well as expansionism, censorship, and banning of parties or dissent. In response to criticism, Erdoğan made a speech in May 2014 denouncing allegations of dictatorship, saying that the leader of the opposition, Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu, who was there at the speech, would not be able to "roam the streets" freely if he were a dictator. Kılıçdaroğlu responded that political tensions would cease to exist if Erdoğan stopped making his polarizing speeches for three days. One observer said it was a measure of the state of Turkish democracy that Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu could openly threaten, on 20 December 2015, that, if his party did not win the election, Turkish Kurds would endure a repeat of the era of the "white Toros", the Turkish name for the Renault 12, "a car associated with the gendarmarie's fearsome intelligence agents, who carried out thousands of extrajudicial executions of Kurdish nationalists during the 1990s". In April 2014, the President of the Constitutional Court, Haşim Kılıç, accused Erdoğan of damaging the credibility of the judiciary, labelling Erdoğan's attempts to increase political control over the courts as 'desperate'. During the chaotic 2007 presidential election, the military issued an E-memorandum warning the government to keep within the boundaries of secularism when choosing a candidate. Regardless, Erdoğan's close relations with Fethullah Gülen and his Cemaat Movement allowed his government to maintain a degree of influence within the judiciary through Gülen's supporters in high judicial and bureaucratic offices. Shortly after, an alleged coup plot codenamed Sledgehammer became public and resulted in the imprisonment of 300 military officers including İbrahim Fırtına, Çetin Doğan and Engin Alan. Several opposition politicians, journalists and military officers also went on trial for allegedly being part of an ultra-nationalist organization called Ergenekon. Both cases were marred by irregularities and were condemned as a joint attempt by Erdoğan and Gülen to curb opposition to the AKP. The original Sledgehammer document containing the coup plans, allegedly written in 2003, was found to have been written using Microsoft Word 2007. Despite both domestic and international calls for these irregularities to be addressed in order to guarantee a fair trial, Erdoğan instead praised his government for bringing the coup plots to light. When Gülen publicly withdrew support and openly attacked Erdoğan in late 2013, several imprisoned military officers and journalists were released, with the government admitting that the judicial proceedings were unfair. When Gülen withdrew support from the AKP government in late 2013, a government corruption scandal broke out, leading to the arrest of several family members of cabinet ministers. Erdoğan accused Gülen of co-ordinating a "parallel state" within the judiciary in an attempt to topple him from power. He then removed or reassigned several judicial officials in an attempt to remove Gülen's supporters from office. Erdoğan's 'purge' was widely questioned and criticized by the European Union. In early 2014, a new law was passed by parliament giving the government greater control over the judiciary, which sparked public protest throughout the country. International organizations perceived the law to be a danger to the separation of powers. Several judicial officials removed from their posts said that they had been removed due to their secularist credentials. The political opposition accused Erdoğan of not only attempting to remove Gülen supporters, but supporters of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's principles as well, in order to pave the way for increased politicization of the judiciary. Several family members of Erdoğan's ministers who had been arrested as a result of the 2013 corruption scandal were released, and a judicial order to question Erdoğan's son Bilal Erdoğan was annulled. Controversy erupted when it emerged that many of the newly appointed judicial officials were actually AKP supporters. İslam Çiçek, a judge who ejected the cases of five ministers' relatives accused of corruption, was accused of being an AKP supporter and an official investigation was launched into his political affiliations. On 1 September 2014, the courts dissolved the cases of 96 suspects, which included Bilal Erdoğan. Suppression of dissent Erdoğan has been criticized for his politicization of the media, especially after the 2013 protests. The opposition Republican People's Party (CHP) alleged that over 1,863 journalists lost their jobs due to their anti-government views in 12 years of AKP rule. Opposition politicians have also alleged that intimidation in the media is due to the government's attempt to restructure the ownership of private media corporations. Journalists from the Cihan News Agency and the Gülenist Zaman newspaper were repeatedly barred from attending government press conferences or asking questions. Several opposition journalists such as Soner Yalçın were controversially arrested as part of the Ergenekon trials and Sledgehammer coup investigation. Veli Ağbaba, a CHP politician, has called the AKP the 'biggest media boss in Turkey.' In 2015, 74 US senators sent a letter to US Secretary of State, John Kerry, to state their concern over what they saw as deviations from the basic principles of democracy in Turkey and oppressions of Erdoğan over media. Notable cases of media censorship occurred during the 2013 anti-government protests, when the mainstream media did not broadcast any news regarding the demonstrations for three days after they began. The lack of media coverage was symbolised by CNN International covering the protests while CNN Türk broadcast a documentary about penguins at the same time. The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) controversially issued a fine to pro-opposition news channels including Halk TV and Ulusal Kanal for their coverage of the protests, accusing them of broadcasting footage that could be morally, physically and mentally destabilizing to children. Erdoğan was criticized for not responding to the accusations of media intimidation, and caused international outrage after telling a female journalist (Amberin Zaman of The Economist) to know her place and calling her a 'shameless militant' during his 2014 presidential election campaign. While the 2014 presidential election was not subject to substantial electoral fraud, Erdoğan was again criticized for receiving disproportionate media attention in comparison to his rivals. The British newspaper The Times commented that between 2 and 4 July, the state-owned media channel TRT gave 204 minutes of coverage to Erdoğan's campaign and less than a total of 3 minutes to both his rivals. Erdoğan also tightened controls over the Internet, signing into law a bill which allows the government to block websites without prior court order on 12 September 2014. His government blocked Twitter and YouTube in late March 2014 following the release of a recording of a conversation between him and his son Bilal, where Erdoğan allegedly warned his family to 'nullify' all cash reserves at their home amid the 2013 corruption scandal. Erdoğan has undertaken a media campaign that attempts to portray the presidential family as frugal and simple-living; their palace electricity-bill is estimated at $500,000 per month. In November 2016, the Turkish government blocked access to social media in all of Turkey as well as sought to completely block Internet access for the citizens in the southeast of the country. Since the 2016 coup attempt, authorities arrested or imprisoned more than 90,000 Turkish citizens. Insulting the President lawsuits In February 2015, a 13-year-old was charged by a prosecutor after allegedly insulting Erdoğan on Facebook. In 2016, a waiter was arrested for insulting Erdoğan by allegedly saying "If Erdoğan comes here, I will not even serve tea to him.". Between 2016 and 2023 there were trials for insulting the president for having compared Erdogan to Gollum, a fictional character of J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings. In May 2016, former Miss Turkey model Merve Büyüksaraç was sentenced to more than a year in prison for allegedly insulting the president. Between 2014 and 2019, 128,872 investigations were launched for insulting the president and prosecutors opened 27,717 criminal cases. Mehmet Aksoy lawsuit In 2009, Turkish sculptor Mehmet Aksoy created the Statue of Humanity in Kars to promote reconciliation between Turkey and Armenia. When visiting the city in 2011, Erdoğan deemed the statue a "freak", and months later it was demolished. Aksoy sued Erdoğan for "moral indemnities", although his lawyer said that his statement was a critique rather than an insult. In March 2015, a judge ordered Erdoğan to pay 10,000 liras. Erdoğanism The term Erdoğanism first emerged shortly after Erdoğan's 2011 general election victory, where it was predominantly described as the AKP's liberal economic and conservative democratic ideals fused with Erdoğan's demagoguery and cult of personality. Views on minorities LGBT In 2002, Erdoğan said that "homosexuals must be legally protected within the framework of their rights and freedoms. From time to time, we do not find the treatment they get on some television screens humane", he said. However, in 2017 Erdoğan has said that empowering LGBT people in Turkey was "against the values of our nation". In 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, Turkey's top Muslim scholar and President of Religious Affairs, Ali Erbaş, said in a Friday Ramadan announcement that the country condemns homosexuality because it "brings illness", insinuating that same sex relations are responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan backed Erbaş, saying that what Erbaş "said was totally right." Starting from 2023, Erdoğan began openly speaking against LGBT people, openly saying that his Coalition "are against the LGBT", and accusing the Turkish opposition of being LGBT. In 2023, Erdogan blamed LGBTQ+ people for "undermining family values" in Turkey and called his political opponents "gays" in a derogatory manner. Third-party sources have criticized this; seeing it as a bid to distract the public from the ruling party's failings — particularly on the country's economy; according to these sources, by targeting Turkey's minority groups, he rallies his base amid the country's ongoing economic troubles to raise the prospects of winning the 2023 general elections in his country, which are seen as critical for his nearly 20-year rule. Jews While Erdoğan has declared several times being against antisemitism, he has been accused of invoking antisemitic stereotypes in public statements. Personal life Erdoğan married Emine Erdoğan (née Gülbaran; b. 1955, Siirt) on 4 July 1978. They have two sons, Ahmet Burak (b. 1979) and Necmettin Bilal (b. 1981), and two daughters, Esra (b. 1983) and Sümeyye (b. 1985). His father, Ahmet Erdoğan, died in 1988 and his mother, Tenzile Erdoğan, died in 2011 at the age of 87. Erdoğan has a brother, Mustafa (b. 1958), and a sister, Vesile (b. 1965). From his father's first marriage to Havuli Erdoğan (d. 1980), he had two half-brothers: Mehmet (1926–1988) and Hasan (1929–2006). Electoral history Honours and accolades Foreign honours Russia: Medal "In Commemoration of the 1000th Anniversary of Kazan" (1 June 2006) Pakistan: Nishan-e-Pakistan, the highest civilian award in Pakistan (26 October 2009) Georgia: Recipient of the Order of Golden Fleece, awarded for his contribution to development of bilateral relations (17 May 2010) Kosovo: Golden Medal of the Order of Independence (4 November 2010) Kyrgyzstan: Recipient of the Danaker Order in Bishkek (2 February 2011) Kazakhstan: Recipient of the Order of the Golden Eagle (11 October 2012) Niger: Grand Commander of the Order of the Federal Republic (9 January 2013) Azerbaijan: Recipient of the Heydar Aliyev Order (3 September 2014) Afghanistan: Amir Amanullah Khan Award (18 October 2014) Somalia: Recipient of the Order of the Somali Star, awarded for his contributions to Somalia (25 January 2015). Albania: National Flag Decoration (13 May 2015) Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (5 October 2015) Ivory Coast: Grand Cordon of the National Order of the Ivory Coast (29 February 2016) Guinea: Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (3 March 2016) Madagascar: Grand Cross of the National Order of Madagascar (25 January 2017) Bahrain: Member Exceptional Class of the Order of Sheikh Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa (12 February 2017) Kuwait: Collar of the Order of Mubarak the Great (21 March 2017) Sudan: Collar of Honour of Sudan (24 December 2017) Tunisia: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Republic (27 December 2017) Senegal: Grand Cross of the National Order of the Lion (1 March 2018) Mali: Grand Cordon of the National Order of Mali (2 March 2018) Gagauzia: Recipient of the Order of Gagauz-Yeri in Comrat (17 October 2018) Moldova: Recipient of the Order of the Republic (18 October 2018) Paraguay: Recipient of the Order of State (2 December 2018) Venezuela: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Liberator (3 December 2018) Ukraine: Member 1st Degree of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise (16 October 2020) Turkmenistan: Recipient of the Order for Contribution to the Development of Cooperation (27 November 2021) Malaysia: Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (16 August 2022) Kazakhstan: Member 1st Class of the Order of Friendship (12 October 2022) United Arab Emirates: Collar of the Order of Zayed (19 July 2023) Supranational Organization of Turkic States: Supreme Order of Turkic World (11 November 2022) Other awards 29 January 2004: Profile of Courage Award from the American Jewish Congress, for promoting peace between cultures. Returned at the request of the A.J.C. in July 2014. 13 June 2004: Golden Plate award from the Academy of Achievement during the conference in Chicago. 3 October 2004: German Quadriga prize for improving relationships between different cultures. 2 September 2005: Mediterranean Award for Institutions (). This was awarded by the Fondazione Mediterraneo. 8 August 2006: Caspian Energy Integration Award from the Caspian Integration Business Club. 1 November 2006: Outstanding Service award from the Turkish humanitarian organization Red Crescent. 2 February 2007: Dialogue Between Cultures Award from the President of Tatarstan Mintimer Shaimiev. 15 April 2007: Crystal Hermes Award from the German Chancellor Angela Merkel at the opening of the Hannover Industrial Fair. 11 July 2007: Agricola Medal, the highest award of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, in recognition of his contribution to agricultural and social development in Turkey. 11 May 2009: Avicenna award from the Avicenna Foundation in Frankfurt, Germany. 9 June 2009: Prix de la Fondation and guest of honour at the 20th Crans Montana Forum in Brussels, for democracy and freedom. 25 June 2009: Key to the City of Tirana on the occasion of his state visit to Albania. 29 December 2009: Award for Contribution to World Peace from the Turgut Özal Thought and Move Association. 12 January 2010: King Faisal International Prize for "service to Islam" from the King Faisal Foundation. 23 February 2010: Nodo Culture Award from the mayor of Seville for his efforts to launch the Alliance of Civilizations initiative. 1 March 2010: United Nations–HABITAT award in memorial of Rafik Hariri. A seven-member international jury unanimously found Erdoğan deserving of the award because of his "excellent achievement and commendable conduct in the area of leadership, statesmanship and good governance. Erdoğan also initiated the first roundtable of mayors during the Istanbul conference, which led to a global, organized movement of mayors." 27 May 2010: Medal of honour from the Brazilian Federation of Industry for the State of São Paulo (FIESP) for his contributions to industry 31 May 2010: World Health Organization 2010 World No Tobacco Award for "his dedicated leadership on tobacco control in Turkey." 29 June 2010: 2010 World Family Award from the World Family Organization which operates under the umbrella of the United Nations. 4 November 2010: Golden Medal of Independence, an award conferred upon Kosovo citizens and foreigners that have contributed to the independence of Kosovo. 25 November 2010: "Leader of the Year" award presented by the Union of Arab Banks in Lebanon. 11 January 2011: "Outstanding Personality in the Islamic World Award" of the Sheikh Fahad al-Ahmad International Award for Charity in Kuwait. 25 October 2011: Palestinian International Award for Excellence and Creativity (PIA) 2011 for his support to the Palestinian people and cause. 21 January 2012: 'Gold Statue 2012 Special Award' by the Polish Business Center Club (BCC). Erdoğan was awarded for his systematic effort to clear barriers on the way to economic growth, striving to build democracy and free market relations. Bibliography Books Articles See also List of international prime ministerial trips made by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan List of international presidential trips made by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Notes References Further reading Cagaptay, Soner. The new sultan: Erdogan and the crisis of modern Turkey (2nd ed. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020). online review Cagaptay, Soner. "Making Turkey Great Again." Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 43 (2019): 169–78. online Kirişci, Kemal, and Amanda Sloat. "The rise and fall of liberal democracy in Turkey: Implications for the West" Foreign Policy at Brookings (2019) online Tziarras, Zenonas. "Erdoganist authoritarianism and the 'new' Turkey." Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 18.4 (2018): 593–598. online Yavuz, M. Hakan. "A framework for understanding the Intra-Islamist conflict between the AK party and the Gülen movement." Politics, Religion & Ideology 19.1 (2018): 11–32. online Yesil, Bilge. Media in New Turkey: The Origins of an Authoritarian Neoliberal State (University of Illinois Press, 2016) online review External links Official of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Other Welcome to demokrasi: how Erdoğan got more popular than ever by The Guardian 1954 births Living people 21st-century presidents of Turkey 21st-century prime ministers of Turkey Deniers of the Armenian genocide Deputies of Istanbul Deputies of Siirt Recep Tayyip Imam Hatip school alumni Justice and Development Party (Turkey) politicians Leaders of political parties in Turkey Marmara University alumni Mayors of Istanbul Members of the 22nd Parliament of Turkey Members of the 23rd Parliament of Turkey Members of the 24th Parliament of Turkey Naqshbandi order People involved in the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt People of the Syrian civil war Politicians from Istanbul Politicians arrested in Turkey Presidents of Turkey Recipients of the Heydar Aliyev Order Recipients of the Order of the Golden Fleece (Georgia) Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class Turkish anti-communists Turkish Islamists Turkish Sunni Muslims Turkish people of Georgian descent Turkish reformers Chairmen of the Organization of Turkic States Recipients of the Gagauz-Yeri Order Foreign recipients of the Nishan-e-Pakistan Turkish political party founders Recipients of the Supreme Order of Turkic World Recipients of the Collar of Honour 21st-century Turkish politicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lismore%2C%20Scotland
Lismore, Scotland
Lismore (, possibly meaning "great enclosure" or "garden") is an island of some in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. The climate is damp and mild, with over of rain recorded annually. This fertile, low-lying island was once a major centre of Celtic Christianity, with a 6th-century monastery associated with Saint Moluag, and later became the seat of the medieval Bishop of Argyll. There are numerous ruined structures including a broch and two 13th-century castles. During the 19th century various new industries were introduced, including lime quarrying. During the early decades of the 20th century the population exceeded 1,000; but this was followed by a lengthy decline. Although resident numbers are now less than 200, there was a small increase from 2001 to 2011. About a third of the population were recorded as Gaelic-speaking at the former date. The modern economy is largely based on farming, fishing and tourism and the largest settlement is Achnacroish. Various shipwrecks have been recorded in the vicinity. Etymology In the Gaelic name, lios means "garden" or "enclosure", and mòr is simply "big" or "great", reflecting either the fertility of the island amidst mountainous surroundings, or the presence of a defined area surrounding the early monastery. One of the earliest English language references is to "Lismoir", recorded in the 16th century. Achnacroish is from Achadh na Croise and means "the field of the cross". The other small settlements are Clachan (village with a church) and Port Ramsay opposite Eilean Ramsay (Ramsay's isle). Most of the surrounding islets have descriptive names such as Eilean Dubh (black island), Eilean nan Gamhna (isle of the stirks) and Pladda (flat island, from Old Norse). Geology Lismore is formed almost wholly from rocks of the Neoproterozoic age Lismore Limestone Formation which is ascribed to the Blair Atholl Subgroup of the Appin Group within the Dalradian sequence. There are also some minor graphitic pelites (sometimes described as 'interbedded black slate', within the formation. The limestone country rock is intruded by a handful of NE-SW aligned lamprophyre dykes of Silurian to early Devonian age associated with the Strontian Granite Complex and by large numbers of NW-SE aligned dykes of dolerite and basalt of Palaeogene age along with a rather fewer number assigned to the ‘Loch Scridain Suite. Quaternary deposits include glacial till and peat alongside some small patches of alluvium (clay, silt, sand and gravel) which occupy lower ground. Around the margins of Lismore are modern beach deposits and raised marine deposits of clay, silt and sand, the latter being a product of varying relative sea-levels during the Holocene epoch. The whole of Scotland was subjected to glaciation during the Pleistocene epoch. A sign of this on Lismore is the presence of rock-cut platforms close to the seashore that indicate the changing sea-levels; in some areas of the northern coast they also betray the presence of ice by the striation marks on the rocks. Geography The island of Lismore lies in Loch Linnhe, north east of Mull, in the Argyll and Bute council area. It is long and about wide, and oriented from SW to NE, roughly parallel to the Great Glen Fault. To the east is an arm of Loch Linnhe known as the Lynn of Lorn. Composed almost entirely of limestone, Lismore has fertile soil and an abundance of trees and shrubs including ash and sycamore. The topography consists of sheltered furrows of land between raised areas that run longitudinally up the island's spine. The area of the island is and the highest elevation is Barr Mòr in the south above Kilcheran, which reaches only . (Haswell-Smith ranks Lismore as the 50th offshore Scottish island by height). There are several small lochs on the island, the largest of which are Loch Fiart in the southwest, Kilcheran Loch further northeast, and Loch Baile a' Ghobhainn another northeast, north of Achnacroish. These three water bodies form the Lismore Lochs Special Area of Conservation, a status which is accorded as they are amongst the best examples in Scotland of lochs on a limestone substrate. The alkaline waters are very clear and low in nutrients and support the rare Chara stoneworts C. rudis and C. curtis. C. pedunculata has also been recorded. The lochs lie longitudinally down the island and are of roughly similar size. The total surface area of all three combined is about and they are inhabited by trout. Lismore is part of the ancient district of Lorne and is said to lie "in the cockpit" of this territory. In the modern day it is at the heart of the Lynn of Lorn National Scenic Area, one of forty such areas in Scotland, which have been defined so as to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure its protection from inappropriate development. The national scenic areas cover 15,726 ha, of which 10,088 ha are marine seascape, and includes the whole of Lismore, along with neighbouring areas on the mainland such as Benderloch and Port Appin, and the Shuna Island. The views from Barr Mòr, the island's highest point, are superlative. Although only of modest size, from there "the skyscape is vast and made so not by its emptiness, but by the throng of high and pointed hills lifting out of the glittering seas and islands. Nowhere else on the Highland coast can you enjoy a view of the mountainous mainland to equal this one." The offshore islets of Eilean na Cloich and Eilean Dubh in the Lynn of Lorn and Bernera and Dubh Sgeir in the Lynn of Morvern to the west and Eilean Gainimh to the NE, are extensively used by common seals and form the Eileanan agus Sgeirean Lios mòr Special Area of Conservation. The whole island of Bernera is also a SSSI, its limestone maritime cliffs being a key feature along with the presence of the nationally scarce rock whitebeam. Creag Island and Pladda are other islets in the Lynn of Lorn. Eilean nan Caorach, Inn Island, Eilean Droineach and Eilean Ramsay are amongst another cluster of small islands off the north coast, and Eilean Loch Oscair is to the NW. Lismore Lighthouse, built by Robert Stevenson, lies on the small island of Eilean Musdile to the south west, with Lady's Rock a kilometre further away in the same direction. Climate Lismore has a maritime climate with cool summers and mild winters. The nearest official Met Office weather station for which online records are available is Dunstaffnage on the mainland north of Oban. Prehistory There are various Bronze Age cairns on the island. Tirefour Castle is an Iron Age broch of an uncertain date that is a prominent landmark on Lismore's east coast. The walls have an average thickness of , enclosing a circular court about in diameter. The wall still stands high and reaches in the south east. There is a second possible broch site at An Dùn, SW of Loch Fiart and these are amongst the most southerly examples of these enigmatic fortifications. There are also various duns on the island that may date to the 1st or 2nd centuries AD. History Early Christianity and Scandinavian influence Lismore was an important centre of Celtic Christianity from an early date. The Iona Chronicle records the death of Mo-Luóc (also known as Moluag), who was probably abbot of the Lismore monastery in 594, and of his successors Neman in 613 and Eochaid in 637. There is, however, no reason to suppose that this was a daughter house of Columba's abbey on Iona itself. Lismore probably maintained its status as the principal religious house of the Cenél Loairn during the remainder of the 7th century and the deaths of abbots Iarnlaigh c. 700, Colmán in 704 and Crónán ua Eoain in 718 are recorded in the Annals of Ulster. Five further such obituaries are recorded in the latter half of the 8th century. Lismore was part of the kingdom of Dalriada in the 6th century and probably thereafter until the arrival of the Vikings in the late 8th century, after which it is likely the island was absorbed into the Norse-Gael Kingdom of the Isles. Magnus Barelegs had established direct Norwegian overlordship over this sprawling sea kingdom by 1098. In that year, Edgar of Scotland signed a treaty with Magnus which settled much of the boundary between the Scots and Norwegian claims in these islands. Edgar formally acknowledged the existing situation by giving up his claims to the Hebrides but there were a few exceptions including Luing and Lismore, which were retained by the Scots. Medieval period Lismore later became the seat of the medieval Bishopric of Argyll. Before the late 12th century the Bishopric of Dunkeld included all of Argyll, but sometime between 1183 and 1193 they were separated, as apparently the then Bishop John Scotus was unable to speak Gaelic. Lismore became the seat of the new bishop, and he and his successors were known as Episcopi Lismorenses but a papal mandate in 1249 proposed that the see be transferred to "some more secure and accessible place". At least by 1268, Laurence de Ergadia became Bishop of Argyll and served in that position until his death in 1299. In the event St Moluag's cathedral at Clachan maintained its position until 1507, when the diocese's centre was moved to Saddell in Kintyre. It was burned down during the Reformation and only the choir survives in greatly altered form, the nave and western tower having been reduced to their foundations. There is also evidence of an enclosure, probably medieval. The ruins of Coeffin Castle stand on the summit of a rocky promontory on the coast west of Clachan. There is the outline of an oblong hall-house, which may be 13th century, and an irregularly shaped bailey, likely of a later date. A tidal fish trap, of unknown age, is located in the small bay to the south-east of the castle. To the north-east of the castle are the remains of a stone-walled fort. The remains of Achanduin Castle west of Achnacroish is also thought to date back to the 13th century. Built by the MacDougalls around 1290, who held it throughout the 14th century, the castle is then thought to have been held by the Bishops of Argyll until the mid 16th century. The castle overlooks the island of Bernera. In the 16th century Donald Monro provided a brief description of the island in Scots: ("Lismore, an isle where lead ore is, opposite Duart. This isle is four miles long, with a parish church on it".) Monro's Description of the Western Isles of Scotland also mentions Eilean Droineach and Eilean Ramsay. He stated that both were "good for corn and store" and had many "Elders and thorns" and that Eilean Droineach was the "habitation of Bishops and Nobles in auld times". However, the view of Munro (1961) is that this last comment more properly applies to the larger "Ramsay Isle". Lismore is the home of the Clan MacLea, who claim kinship with the Livingstone family, and who were recognised by the Lord Lyon in 2002. The Plod nam Baran, which is adjacent to the site of Saint Moluag's church, may be the burial ground of its clan chiefs, or "barons". The current chief, Niall Livingstone of Bachuil, is the "Coarb of Saint Moluag" and since the 16th century or earlier, the chiefs have been hereditary keepers of the saint's crozier or pastoral staff known as the Bachuil Mòr. 18th to 20th centuries In 1707, the Acts of Union merged England and Scotland, and Lismore became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain. Thereafter taxes on whisky distillation rose dramatically, and much of Scotland's distillation was either shut down or forced underground until the 1823 Excise Act provided a legal framework for the industry. The remains of at least two illicit stills from this period have been found on Lismore. In 1749 the ruins of the old cathedral were trimmed down from their remaining height, given a roof and turned into a parish church with a bell tower. In the 19th century lime was quarried, particularly on the west coast. The ruined remains of the quarriers' cottages can still be seen on Eilean nan Caorach and Inn Island, and old lime kilns can be seen at Sailean, Port na Moralachd and Port Ramsay; the last lime was produced in 1934. The remains of another two kilns can be seen at Kilcheran near Lismore Seminary, a Roman Catholic divinity school that was in operation from 1803 to 1828 at a time when the other inhabitants of the island were staunchly Presbyterian. John Stuart McCaig, the architect of McCaig's Tower in Oban, was born on Lismore in the 19th century as was the folklorist Alexander Carmichael. Overlooking Lismore Bay is a Celtic Cross, a memorial to Waverley Arthur Cameron, the son of Duncan Cameron, inventor of the "Waverley" nib pen and the owner of The Oban Times newspaper. Waverley was drowned in 1891 when his yacht foundered off the coast nearby. There have been various other shipwrecks in the vicinity. In 1889 the paddle steamer Mountaineer lived up to its name by clambering onto Lady's Rock, the damage to which was still visible in 1995. In 1905 the MacBrayne steamship Clydesdale hit the same obstruction in a Force 6 wind. The harbour patrol craft Appletree was sunk in a collision with an RAF pinnace east of the Lismore light in October 1940 with, according to one report, the loss of two lives. The trawler MFV Solway Firth foundered south of this position in 1977. Lismore, like other Hebridean islands, has suffered from depopulation since the 19th century, in large part due to the Clearances. In 1798 there were 900 people living on the island and 1399 by 1841. Over the next 40 years the population more than halved to 621. By 1961 there were only 155 residents, and by the time of the 1991 census there were just 140. There are various examples of abandoned townships, such as Coille nam Bard. In the 2001 census, the population had risen slightly to 146, over 45% of whom were over 60 years old, making it the Scottish island with the oldest population. Present day The island's population was recorded as 192 at the 2011 census, an increase of over 30% since 2001. During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4% to 103,702. The majority of the resident working population are engaged in farming or fishing, and sheep raised on the island have a reputation for quality. Majority of the land is owner occupied. Prior to 2007 there was no mains supply of drinking water on the island, water being supplied instead from wells and springs. In that year the then Scottish Executive announced plans for a mains supply to be provided at a cost of £1 million: a pipe was laid under Loch Linnhe and work was to begin on laying about of pipes across Lismore. However, Scottish Water later decided to supply water from boreholes instead. The island is linked to the mainland by two ferries: a Caledonian MacBrayne vehicle ferry making the crossing to Oban and a council passenger ferry making the shorter crossing from Point, at the north-eastern tip of the island, to Port Appin. The B8045 is the main road on the island, which it traverses from beyond Kilcheran in the SW, to Point in the NE. There are various tourist facilities on Lismore, including a cafe and a post office. Bicycles may be hired at Point. Explore Lismore provide Land Rover Tours and the island's only taxi service. There is no petrol filling station. In 2001 29% of the population of the island spoke Gaelic and maintaining this heritage is one of the aims of the Comann Eachdraidh Lios Mòr, the Lismore Gaelic Heritage Centre. Lismore is part of the multi-member ward of Oban, Lorn and the Isles in the Argyll and Bute council area. The island is represented by Jenni Minto of the SNP at the Holyrood Parliament in Edinburgh who was elected for the Argyll and Bute constituency in 2011, and by Brendan O'Hara of the SNP at the Westminster parliament in London. Myths and culture "The Piper's Cave" is a local story about a piper and his dog. According to Alexander Carmichael, the piper entered the Uamh-Chraidh (the "cave of pain") and intended to exit through the Uamh-an-duine (the "cave of the man"). The sounds of his bagpipes could be heard throughout the island. When the piping ceased the dog emerged sightless and hairless but the piper was presumed to have drowned in one of the cave's impassable pools and was never seen again. His lament is recorded as: Mis air airin baidh 'us burrail            I was drowning and howling Measg nan glumag eagalaich             Amongst the horrid pools Another story has St Moluag and St Mulhac conducting a boat race across the Lynn of Lorn with the first to land on Lismore having the right to found a monastery there. Realising that he was going to lose, Moluag cut off his finger and threw it ashore north of the broch of Tirefour, enabling him to claim victory. The Book of the Dean of Lismore was compiled by the titular dean, James MacGregor, in the 15th century. Held in the National Library of Scotland, it is "one of the greatest treasures" of early Gaelic writing. However it was written in Fortingall, Perthshire and its connection with Lismore itself, if any, is uncertain. See also List of islands of Scotland References Notes Footnotes General references Baird, Bob (1995) Shipwrecks of the West of Scotland. Glasgow. Nekton Books. Cregeen, E. R. (April 1976) "Review of Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland: Inventory of the Ancient Monuments of Argyll. Vol. II: Lorn". The Scottish Historical Review. Vol. 55 No. 159. JSTOR. Retrieved 3 August 2013. Duncan, P. J. "The Industries of Argyll: Tradition and Improvement" in Omand, Donald (ed.) (2006) The Argyll Book. Edinburgh. Birlinn. Dwelly, Edward (1911), Faclair Gàidhlig gu Beurla le Dealbhan/The Illustrated [Scottish] Gaelic- English Dictionary (10th ed.), Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, Gray, J. M. (March 1974) "The Main Rock Platform of the Firth of Lorn, Western Scotland". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. No. 61. JSTOR/The Royal Geographical Society. Retrieved 1 August 2013. Hay, Robert (2009) Lismore: The Great Garden. Edinburgh. Birlinn. McCann, S. B. (Oct. 1966) "The Main Post-Glacial Raised Shoreline of Western Scotland from the Firth of Lorne to Loch Broom". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. No. 39. JSTOR/The Royal Geographical Society. Retrieved 1 August 2013. Macdonald, Aidan (1974) "Two major early monasteries of Scottish Dalriata: Lismore and Eigg". Scottish Archaeological Forum 5 pp. 47–70 Munro, R. W. (1961) Monro's Western Isles of Scotland and Genealogies of the Clans. Edinburgh and London. Oliver and Boyd. Murray, Sir John and Pullar, Laurence (1910) Bathymetrical Survey of the Fresh-Water Lochs of Scotland, 1897-1909. London. Challenger Office. Murray, W.H. (1977) The Companion Guide to the West Highlands of Scotland. London. Collins. Richards, Eric (1982) The History of the Highland Clearances: Agrarian Transformation and the Elections, 1746-1886. Croom Helm. London. Stephenson, David and Merritt, Jon (2010) "Argyll and the Islands". (pdf) Scottish Natural Heritage. Retrieved 1 August 2013. Watson, John N. "Agriculture" in Omand, Donald (ed.) (2006) The Argyll Book. Edinburgh. Birlinn. External links Am Faclair Beag: An English - Scottish Gaelic dictionary incorporating Dwelly Faclair.com. Retrieved 1 December 2012. Isle of Lismore Community Website Lismore Landscape Project Lismore Historical Society Clan MacLea/Livingstone Society Walks on the Isle of Lismore Extract from The Isle of Lismore by Hector Macpherson Islands of Argyll and Bute Islands of the Inner Hebrides
376676
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Park%2C%20Houston
South Park, Houston
South Park is a broad post-World War II development in the south-central area of Houston, Texas, a few miles south of MacGregor Park and directly south of the 610 Loop. According to the 2000 Census, the community has a population of 22,282. 81% of the South Park population is African American, compared to 25% for the city as a whole. Houston's Martin Luther King Boulevard (formerly South Park Boulevard) runs through the area. Reflecting its postwar origins, many streets in South Park are named after World War II battle sites and persons. In the 1980s and 1990s crime became a key issue for South Park. Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press said "South Park is an overgrown garden these days, its soil only able to be tilled by the most determined or the most desperate. It shows no sign that it will grow again any time in the near future." History South Park, a post-World War II development, had mostly middle class White American families during the 1950s and early 1960s. Many of the homebuyers were veterans of World War II, and streets were named after battles and people that the homebuyers knew from personal experience. When South Park served as a suburb, lawns were neatly trimmed and area children traveled to places by bicycle. The 610 Loop opened in the 1960s. Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press stated that some residents believed that the opening of 610 marked the beginning of South Park's decline. Ralph Gonzales, a former resident quoted by Shilcutt, said that the opening of 610 caused traffic to increase in the area and allowed residents of other sections of the city to more easily reach South Park. Shilcutt added that the forced integration of Jones High School and nearby Sterling High School hastened demographic changes; White families began to move to newer suburbs, such as Pasadena and Pearland. Dave Straughan, a former sergeant of the Houston Police Department's robbery division who served his rookie beat in South Park, said that several factors caused South Park to decline as a neighborhood; by the 1970s crime was beginning to increase. In 1977 the Houston City Council voted to honor Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. by renaming South Park Boulevard, a major area thoroughfare, to Martin Luther King Boulevard. The renaming was effective on April 5, 1978. Shilcutt said that South Park was no longer considered a suburb by the late 1980s, and that crime became a major concern. In 1987 South Park was still considered to be a mixed race neighborhood. Schilcutt said that when the White population in South Park became insignificant in the 1990s, the City of Houston government began to ignore the remaining residents. By 1993 the infrastructure of the neighborhood had severely declined, with the sewer and water lines beginning to rust and buckle. Al Calloway, a member of the Houston City Council proposed spending a $57.5 million cash surplus on improving the sewer and water lines of South Park; Calloway said "residents in neighborhoods such as South Park or Sunnyside may die before the projects are done." The City of Houston never spent the surplus. In October 1994 of rain fell in one day, causing flooding that caused the displacement of over 10,000 people in Greater Houston. The Sims Bayou overfilled, flooding businesses and houses in South Park. Few of the residents had flood insurance. Some businesses and houses were abandoned as a result of the flood. As time passed, Hispanic residents moved into South Park, as part of a trend of Hispanics in the Houston area moving into black majority neighborhoods. Between 1990 and 2000, the Hispanic population of South Park increased by between 5 and 10 percent. In the same period, the black population of both South Park and Sunnyside declined by 4,225, or 11% as majority African-American neighborhoods in Houston had declines in their black populations. In 2000 82% of the neighborhood was Black, and 16% of the area population was Hispanic. In 2005 Lori Rodriguez of the Houston Chronicle said that South Park was among a group of mostly African American neighborhoods that could become as much as 25% Hispanic and Latino by the end of the decade of the 2000s. In 2009 almost 20% of the neighborhood was Hispanic. As of the 2010 census South Park does not have any White residents. In 2011 the projected percentages for 2016 were 81% Black and 22% Hispanic. In 2007 South Park was one of several Houston neighborhoods with a high concentration of felons. As of 2011 the median yearly income is $33,196, a 15% decrease from 2000's number. As of the same year the median housing price is $50,400, a 15% increase from 2000's number. In a 10-year span ending in 2011, the foreign-born population of South Park increased by almost 10%. Demographics The City of Houston-defined South Park Super Neighborhood had 21,208 people in 2015. 67% were non-Hispanic black, 31% were Hispanic, 1% were non-Hispanic white, and 2% were non-Hispanic others. The percentage of non-Hispanic Asians was zero. In 2000 the super neighborhood had 22,282 people. 81% were non-Hispanic black, 16% were Hispanic, and 1% each were non-Hispanic white and other. The percentage of non-Hispanic Asians was zero. Cityscape The South Park subdivision has four sections. Section 1 is bounded by Calhoun Road, a line south of Pershing Boulevard, a line east of St. Lo Road, and a line north of Doolittle Road. One part of Sections 2-4 is bounded by the 610 Loop, a line south and west of Burma Road, a line south of St. Lo Road, and a line east of Kassarine Pass. Another portion of Sections 2-4 is bound by Calhoun, 18th, Jutland, and a line north of Southwind Avenue. Another portion is wedged between St. Lo and Martin Luther King Boulevard (formerly named South Park Boulevard). The wider South Park area is bounded by the 610 Loop, Cullen Boulevard, the Sims Bayou, and Mykawa Road. Several small and well-maintained houses share the area with mostly deteriorating properties and vacant lots. By 2000 many houses adjacent to MLK Boulevard became converted to house commercial usage. In 2005 Lori Rodriguez of the Houston Chronicle said that South Park had several abandoned businesses. As of 2011 trash is present in some front yards in South Park. As of 2011 the median yearly income is $33,196, a 15% decrease from 2000's number. As of the same year the median housing price is $50,400, a 15% increase from 2000's number. As of 2011 the most expensive house in South Park listed on HAR.com, a Houston real estate website, was a remodeled 1955 three bedroom house listed for less than $78,000; by January 12 of the year, the house's price was reduced in order to attract potential homeowners. Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press said that "abandoned businesses, junked-out cars and empty houses crest the landscape" of Martin Luther King Boulevard. The housing in South Park includes many small two bedroom houses. Most of them have cedar shank siding, while more expensive houses have aluminum siding. When South Park was newly built, hamburger stands were located throughout the neighborhood including one that offered "secret sauce". Other major features included Palm Center, a shopping center, and King Center Twin Drive-In, a two screen movie theater, which was open from 1952 to 1981. The area also had family-owned businesses and Boy Scout troops. Very few liquor stores or pawn shops were present. Shilcutt said that the schools,churches and the Scout troops,reflected "the rock solid nature of the residents." Many of the streets are named after World War II military events, such as Bataan, Dunkirk, Iwo Jima, and Kassarine Pass. One name, Remagen, was misspelled as "Remagan" on the Houston street name. Tony Gelat, an engineer, made attempts to make the city government change the name. As of 1997 they have not been successful. Crime Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press said "South Park became the stuff of legend as it almost cannibalized itself in the '80s and '90s with violent robberies and drive-by shootings." Crime was not originally a factor in South Park. Dave Straughan, a former sergeant of the Houston Police Department's robbery division who served his rookie beat in South Park, said that several factors caused South Park to decline as a neighborhood, with the decline beginning in 1971. Straughn stated that many Whites were very fearful of racial integration, so they very quickly left the neighborhood when African Americans moved in. The neighborhood began to receive residents who were poorer than the ones they replaced. The houses began to age and required increasing maintenance, of which the newer low-income residents generally would not be able to afford. Straughn also cited South Park's proximity to Telephone Road, which he said "had a national reputation for being pretty wild." Shilcutt said that, by the late 1980s, South Park "was dominated by drive-by shootings and drug dealers, especially along Burger Park's street: Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard." Shilcutt said that many South Park residents did not attend the area's Neighborhood Nights Out as they were too afraid to leave their homes. Shilcutt added that "Violence pervaded the entire community. Deaths grew increasingly random and senseless." Ralph Gonzales, a former resident quoted by Shilcutt, said "In the '80s and '90s, it was bad. HPD was chasing guys up and down Bellfort and MLK. Folks were knocking over liquor stores, hijacking people." Between January 1990 and December 1991 16 people had been killed along MLK Boulevard. Chuck Philips of the Los Angeles Times said in 1993 that South Park was "a tough Houston ghetto dominated by drug-dealing, prostitution and gang warfare-where automatic rifles can be purchased almost as easily as rap cassettes." In 1993 Ronald Ray Howard, a convicted killer and drug dealer, said, in the words of Houston Chronicle reporter Roy Bragg, that South Park was "a war zone, a place of nightly shootings, fistfights, police harassment and strife. There, the right amount of money could buy any weapon, even hand grenades. Seven-year-old children knew how to handle pistols." Gonzales said that the South Park criminal element imploded because the criminals depleted the wealth that was left in the neighborhood. According to Gonzales, the criminals moved to Alief and the Hiram Clarke area. In 2011 Gonzales said "Pickins is slim" in South Park. In 2005 Lori Rodriguez of the Houston Chronicle said that South Park had an obvious drug dealer presence. Culture A ten block section of Martin Luther King Boulevard/South Park Boulevard, since the 1970s and by 2001, became a cruising scene, with cruising habitually occurring on Sunday evenings. On Sunday nights, within a three to four hour periods, speeds of automobiles were at 15 to 20 miles per hour, with about 2,000 to 4,000 people traveling through the ten blocks. Friends socialized and rap music played in the area. Most of the participants were black youth. In 2001 police officers attempted to stifle the scene by flooding the 10 block stretch with water. The police said that businesses had wanted the crowds to be dissipated. After black activists protested, C. O. Bradford, the chief of the Houston Police Department, apologized. The following weekend, the cruising scene had reappeared. Thirty-two police officers were on the street, and traffic cones and barricades manipulated the vehicle traffic. Peggy O'Hare of the Houston Chronicle said "It worked reasonably well, taking only five minutes to travel the 10-block area with restricted lane use." Because some police patrols appeared, some activists argued that the police were discriminating against African-American people and not giving proportionate attention to white partygoers in the Richmond Strip. Lt. S.K. Boyce. of the Houston Police Department stated that they made more arrests in the Richmond Strip than on MLK Boulevard, and most of those arrested were White. Quanell X said that he supported the police using a different crowd control tactics on MLK Boulevard. Some business owners supported the cruising scene, while some opposed the scene. Education As of 2011 55% of South Park's residents have graduated from high school. Katharine Shilcutt said that the low rate is explained by an increasing number of immigrants and the "disappointing graduation rates" at Jones High School and Sterling High School. Elementary schools, Middle schools, and High schools Public schools Original owners of the property which is now known as Candy Stripe Academy were Frank and Joyce Gonzales. The original structure has been demolished and the new building now faces Martin Luther King Blvd (Formally Southpark Blvd). South Park children are zoned to schools in the Houston Independent School District. The community is within Trustee District IV, represented by Paula M. Harris as of 2008. Elementary schools serving sections of South Park include Alcott, Bastian, and Kelso. All residents of the South Park subdivision are zoned to Attucks Middle School. Residents east of Martin Luther King Boulevard are zoned to Sterling High School while other residents are zoned to Worthing High School. The Jones Futures Academy, formerly Jones High School, is an alternative secondary school in South Park. Sterling, Worthing, and Jones serve the larger South Park area. In 2007 a study determined that 60% of the entering first year classes at Jones and Sterling advanced to their fourth year, and a portion of those students graduated. Because of this, the Associated Press and Johns Hopkins University labeled Jones and Sterling "dropout factories." The study stated that over half of the high school students zoned to Jones and Worthing instead chose to attend other HISD schools. Kandy Stripe Academy, an early education to 8th grade HISD-affiliated charter school, is in the subdivision. Jesse Jackson Academy, a state charter school, is located north of South Park, inside the 610 Loop. On Thursday March 13, 2014, the HISD board voted 6-3 to keep the Jones campus open and convert it into an alternative career readiness school for students throughout HISD. At that time Jones was no longer be a zoned school, and its athletics programs were discontinued. Residents east of Martin Luther King Boulevard were rezoned to Sterling, and residents west of MLK were rezoned to Worthing, both for the 2014-2015 school year. Private schools A Kindergarten through 5 Roman Catholic school called St. Philip Neri School, of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston, was in the area. It closed Spring 2009. The school was consolidated with St. Peter the Apostle Middle School. Public libraries The area is served by the Young Neighborhood Library of the Houston Public Library, which is located north of 610 in Palm Center. Government and infrastructure South Park is in Houston City Council District D. Houston Fire Department operates Fire Station 35 South Park, a part of Fire District 46. The station was originally built at Holmes at South Park. The station had to move due to the construction of Interstate 610. The current station near Martin Luther King Boulevard and Van Fleet opened in 1965. The neighborhood is within the Houston Police Department's Southeast Patrol Division, headquartered at 8300 Mykawa. The Harris Health System (formerly Harris County Hospital District) designated the Martin Luther King Health Center in southeast Houston for the ZIP code 77033. The designated public hospital is Ben Taub General Hospital in the Texas Medical Center. Parks St. Lo Park is located at 7335 St. Lo Road. Pershing Park is located at 5500 Pershing/St Lo Road. Notable residents Megan Thee Stallion, a rapper and songwriter from the Dead End neighborhood of South Park Carlos Coy (South Park Mexican), a Mexican-American rapper who is currently in prison, convicted of sexual assault. Clyde Drexler (basketball player) Brad Jordan (Scarface), a member of the Geto Boys From South Acres Region of Houston TX JoBeth Williams (actress) Lil' Keke, a rapper from the Herschelwood region of South Park Ganksta NIP, a rapper from the South Park Coalition Booker T, Professional wrestler Robert Wilson, NFL player Dre Murray, a rapper currently signed to Collision Records Corey Paul, a rapper currently signed to Collision Records Travis Scott K-Rino, founder of the South Park Coalition See also List of Houston neighborhoods The South Park Psycho Notes References External links Census 2000: Demographic Data by Super Neighborhood Neighborhoods in Houston
376694
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson%20Memorial
Jefferson Memorial
The Jefferson Memorial is a presidential memorial built in Washington, D.C., between 1939 and 1943 in honor of Thomas Jefferson, the principal author of the United States Declaration of Independence, a central intellectual force behind the American Revolution, founder of the Democratic-Republican Party, and the nation's third president. The memorial features multiple quotes from Jefferson intended to capture his ideology and philosophy, known as Jeffersonian democracy, which was staunchly supportive of American republicanism, individual rights, religious freedom, states' rights, virtue and prioritized and valued what he saw as the undervalued independent yeoman. Jefferson was simultaneously deeply skeptical of cities and financiers and hostile to aristocracy, elitism, and corruption. He is widely considered among the most influential political minds of his age and one of the most consequential intellectual forces behind the American Revolution. The Jefferson Memorial is built in neoclassical style and is situated in West Potomac Park on the shore of the Potomac River. It was designed by John Russell Pope, a New York City architect, and built by Philadelphia contractor John McShain. Construction on it began in 1939 and was completed in 1943, though the bronze statue of Jefferson was not completed and added until four years after its dedication and opening, in 1947. Pope made references to the Roman Pantheon, whose designer was Apollodorus of Damascus, and to Jefferson's own design for the rotunda at the University of Virginia as inspirations for the memorial's aesthetics. The Jefferson Memorial and the White House form anchor points to the National Mall in Washington, D.C. The Washington Monument, initially intended to be built at the intersection of the White House and the Jefferson Memorial's site, was ultimately built further east because the ground at that location was deemed too soft and swampy. The Jefferson Memorial is a designated national memorial and is managed by the National Park Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior's National Mall and Memorial Parks division. In 1966, the Jefferson Memorial was named to the National Register of Historic Places. In 2007, it ranked fourth on the "list of America's favorite architecture", published by the American Institute of Architects. History Early considerations The site ultimately selected for the Jefferson Memorial's construction was appealing at least partly because it was located directly south of, and in view of, the White House. By 1901, the Senate Park Commission, known as the McMillan Plan, proposed building a Pantheon-like structure on the site that would host "the statues of the illustrious men of the nation, or whether the memory of some individual shall be honored by a monument of the first rank may be left to the future," but no action was taken by Congress on the commission's recommendation. The completion of the Tidal Basin Inlet Bridge in 1908 helped facilitate and expand recreational usage of East and West Potomac Parks. In 1918, large liquid chlorine dispensers were installed under the bridge to treat the water, which made the Tidal Basin, also known as Twining Lake, suitable for swimming. The Tidal Basin Beach, on the site of the future Jefferson Memorial, opened in May 1918, operating as a "Whites Only" facility until 1925, when it was permanently closed to avoid addressing the question of whether or not it should be racially integrated. The same year, however, a design competition was held for a memorial to Theodore Roosevelt. The winning design, submitted by John Russell Pope, consisted of a half-circle memorial situated next to a circular basin. Like the McMillan Plan in 1901, however, the plan was never funded by Congress or acted upon. Funding and authorization Another opportunity for the Memorial's development emerged in 1934 when then President Franklin Roosevelt, who admired Jefferson (in large part because of a book on Jefferson by his friend Claude G. Bowers) inquired with the Commission of Fine Arts about erecting a memorial to Jefferson. Roosevelt included plans for the Jefferson Memorial in the Federal Triangle project, which was then under construction. Later the same year, Congressman John J. Boyland followed Roosevelt's lead, urging Congress to create the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Commission to explore the memorial's development. Boylan was appointed the Commission's first chairman, and Congress eventually appropriated $3 million for the Jefferson Memorial. The following year, in 1935, the Commission chose John Russell Pope as architect for the Jefferson Memorial. Pope had served previously as architect for the National Archives Building and the original West Building of the National Gallery of Art. He prepared four different plans for the project, each on a different site. One was on the Anacostia River at the end of East Capitol Street; one at Lincoln Park; one on the south side of the National Mall across from the National Archives administration building; and one was situated on the Tidal Basin, directly south of the White House. The Commission preferred the site on the Tidal Basin mainly because it was the most prominent site of those proposed and completed the four-point plan called for by the McMillan Commission, which encompassed the region including the Lincoln Memorial to the Capitol and from the White House to the Tidal Basin site. Pope designed a large pantheon-like structure designed to be situated on a square platform, flanked by two smaller, rectangular, colonnaded buildings. Construction Construction on the Jefferson Memorial began December 15, 1938. The cornerstone was laid roughly eleven months later, on November 15, 1939, by Roosevelt himself. By this point, Pope had died in 1937 and his surviving partners, Daniel P. Higgins and Otto R. Eggers, assumed leadership for the Jefferson Memorial's construction. At the request of the Commission of Fine Arts, a slightly more conservative design for the memorial was agreed upon. The memorial's cost was approximately $3 million. Construction commenced amid some opposition. The Commission of Fine Arts never actually approved any design for the memorial and even published a pamphlet in 1939 opposing both the proposed design and site for the memorial. Additionally, some Washingtonians opposed the proposed location for it because it did not align with L'Enfant's original plan for the city, and many established elm and cherry trees, including rare stock donated by Japan in 1912, would be removed under the memorial's original plan. Construction continued amid the opposition, which included women protestors chaining themselves to cherry trees around the construction site. Opposition to the memorial proved dismaying to Roosevelt, but the opposition diminished notably once revised plans identified a means for maintaining the surrounding cherry trees amidst the memorial's construction. In 1939, the Memorial Commission hosted a competition to select a sculptor for the planned Jefferson statue to be placed in the center of the memorial. They received 101 entries and chose six finalists. Of the six, Rudulph Evans was chosen as the main sculptor, and Adolph A. Weinman was chosen to sculpt the pediment relief situated above the memorial's entrance. Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. designed the memorial landscape, which featured a simple design within a circular driveway including primarily Evergreen trees with limited flowering trees or shrubs. The design was perceived as too thin, so white pines and some other plantings were later added before the memorial's dedication in 1943. In the 1970s, nearly three decades after the memorial's opening, additional changes to Olmsted's landscaping were implemented. But in 1993 and 2000, attempts to restore the integrity of Olmsted's initial design were made. Roosevelt ordered trees be cut so that the Jefferson Memorial was clearly visible from the White House; additional tree pruning was also completed to create an unobstructed view between the Jefferson Memorial and Lincoln Memorial. On April 13, 1943, the 200th anniversary of Jefferson's birthday, the Jefferson Memorial was officially dedicated and opened by Roosevelt. At the time, Evans' statue had not yet been finished due to material shortages that emerged during World War II. Instead, the memorial opened with a temporary plaster cast statue similar to the bronze statue that Evans ultimately completed four years later, in 1947. The statue's cast was developed by Roman Bronze Works in New York City. On October 15, 1966, in recognition of the Jefferson Memorial's historical and artistic significance, the Jefferson Memorial was named to the National Register of Historic Places. Description and features Exterior The Jefferson Memorial is composed of circular marble steps, a portico, a circular colonnade of Ionic order columns, and a shallow dome. The building is open to the elements. It has a diameter of approximately . The memorial is constructed with white Imperial Danby marble taken from Vermont, which rests on a series of granite and marble-stepped terraces. A flight of granite and marble stairs and platforms, flanked by granite buttresses, leads up to the memorial from the Tidal Basin to a portico with a triangular pediment. The pediment features a sculpture by Adolph Alexander Weinman depicting the Committee of Five, the five members of the committee charged with drafting the U.S. Declaration of Independence. In addition to Jefferson, who was the primary author, committee members included John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman. A cornice with an egg and dart molding surrounds this pediment, and below that is a plain frieze. Interior The memorial's interior has a tall, bronze statue of Jefferson developed by sculptor Rudulph Evans. The statue was added four years after the dedication. Among many Jefferson quotes inside the memorial, one of the most prominently situated are those inscribed in the frieze below the dome: "I have sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man." This sentence is taken from a letter written by Jefferson on September 23, 1800, to Dr. Benjamin Rush in which Jefferson defends the constitutional refusal to recognize a state religion. On the panel of the southwest interior wall are excerpts from the Declaration of Independence: We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, that to secure these rights governments are instituted among men. We...solemnly publish and declare, that these colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent states...And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine providence, we mutually pledge our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. The inscription uses the word "inalienable", as appears in Jefferson's draft rather than "unalienable" as ultimately appeared in the final Declaration. On the panel of the northwest interior wall is a quote from the 1777 Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, which excludes the quote's final sentence and is taken from an August 28, 1789, letter Jefferson wrote to James Madison: Almighty God hath created the mind free...All attempts to influence it by temporal punishments or burthens...are a departure from the plan of the Holy Author of our religion...No man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship or ministry or shall otherwise suffer on account of his religious opinions or belief, but all men shall be free to profess and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion. I know but one code of morality for men whether acting singly or collectively. The Jefferson quotes from the panel on the northeast interior wall come from multiple sources. The first, which begins "God who gave us life gave us liberty" is from A Summary View of the Rights of British America. The second, third, and fourth sentences are from Notes on the State of Virginia. The fifth quote, which begins "Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate than that these people are to be free" is from Jefferson's autobiography. The sixth sentence, beginning "Establish the law...", is from a letter of August 13, 1786, to George Wythe. The final sentence is from a letter of January 4, 1786, to George Washington: God who gave us life gave us liberty. Can the liberties of a nation be secure when we have removed a conviction that these liberties are the gift of God? Indeed I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just, that his justice cannot sleep forever. Commerce between master and slave is despotism. Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate than these people are to be free. Establish the law for educating the common people. This it is the business of the state to effect and on a general plan. The inscription on the panel of the southeast interior wall is excerpted from Jefferson's July 12, 1816, letter to Samuel Kercheval: I am not an advocate for frequent changes in laws and constitutions. But laws and institutions must go hand in hand with the progress of the human mind. As that becomes more developed, more enlightened, as new discoveries are made, new truths discovered and manners and opinions change, with the change of circumstances, institutions must advance also to keep pace with the times. We might as well require a man to wear still the coat which fitted him when a boy as civilized society to remain ever under the regimen of their barbarous ancestors. A lower level of the structure contains a gift shop and a museum focusing on Jefferson's life and political career. Location The monument is located in West Potomac Park in Washington, D.C., on the shore of the Potomac River's Tidal Basin. The park is enhanced with the massed planting of Japanese cherry blossom trees, which pre-dated the memorial's construction and were a 1912 gift from the people of Japan. Although the Jefferson Memorial is geographically removed from other buildings and monuments in Washington, D.C., the National Mall, and Washington Metro, the memorial plays host to many events and ceremonies each year, including memorial exercises, the Easter Sunrise Service, and the annual National Cherry Blossom Festival, and ranks highly among destinations for visitors to the city each year. Controversy On September, 2, 2020, a task force known as the District of Columbia Facilities and Commemorative Expressions (DCFACES), created in response to the George Floyd protests by Mayor Muriel Bowser, published a report which "recommended renaming, relocating or adding context to dozens of monuments, schools, parks and buildings in [Washington, D.C.] because of their namesakes’ participation in slavery or racial oppression". In the report, DCFACES advised Bower to request the federal government to "remove, relocate, or contextualize" the Jefferson Memorial due to Jefferson's ownership of slaves. Earlier on July 6 in the same year, writer and journalist Lucian K. Truscott IV, a descendant of Jefferson, wrote an op-ed for The New York Times arguing for the memorial to be removed, writing that it was "a shrine to a man who famously wrote that ‘all men are created equal’ in the Declaration of Independence that founded this nation — and yet never did much to make those words come true". Gallery See also Monticello List of statues of Thomas Jefferson Adams Memorial (proposed) Benjamin Franklin National Memorial James Madison Memorial Building George Mason Memorial Washington Monument Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence Architecture of Washington, D.C. List of national memorials of the United States List of sculptures of presidents of the United States Presidential memorials in the United States References Bibliography Bedford, Steven McLeod, John Russell Pope: Architect of Empire, Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., New York, NY 1998 Goode, James M. The Outdoor Sculpture of Washington D.C., Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. 1974 The National Parks: Index 2001–2003. Washington: U.S. Department of the Interior. External links Trust for the National Mall: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Official NPS website: Thomas Jefferson Memorial "Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate..." in its original context Three-dimensional rendering of Jefferson Memorial (without plugin; in English, Spanish, German) Jefferson Memorial History and Fun Facts 1943 establishments in Washington, D.C. 1947 sculptures Artworks in the collection of the National Park Service Bronze sculptures in Washington, D.C. Buildings and structures completed in 1943 Domes Jeffersonian democracy John Russell Pope buildings Monuments and memorials on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C. Monuments and memorials to Thomas Jefferson National Mall and Memorial Parks National Memorials of the United States National Park Service areas in Washington, D.C. Neoclassical architecture in Washington, D.C. Southwest (Washington, D.C.) Statues of Thomas Jefferson United States Declaration of Independence in art Works by Adolph Weinman
376707
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%20%28programming%20language%29
R (programming language)
R is a programming language for statistical computing and graphics supported by the R Core Team and the R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Created by statisticians Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman, R is used among data miners, bioinformaticians and statisticians for data analysis and developing statistical software. The core R language is augmented by a large number of extension packages containing reusable code and documentation. According to user surveys and studies of scholarly literature databases, R is one of the most commonly used programming languages in data mining. R ranks 16th in the TIOBE index, a measure of programming language popularity, in which the language peaked in 8th place in August 2020. The official R software environment is an open-source free software environment released as part of the GNU Project and available under the GNU General Public License. It is written primarily in C, Fortran, and R itself (partially self-hosting). Precompiled executables are provided for various operating systems. R has a command line interface. Multiple third-party graphical user interfaces are also available, such as RStudio, an integrated development environment, and Jupyter, a notebook interface. History R was started by professors Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman as a programming language to teach introductory statistics at the University of Auckland. The language took heavy inspiration from the S programming language with most S programs able to run unaltered in R as well as from Scheme's lexical scoping allowing for local variables. The name of the language comes from being an S language successor and the shared first letter of the authors, Ross and Robert. Ihaka and Gentleman first shared binaries of R on the data archive StatLib and the s-news mailing list in August 1993. In June 1995, statistician Martin Mächler convinced Ihaka and Gentleman to make R free and open-source under the GNU General Public License. Mailing lists for the R project began on 1 April 1997 preceding the release of version 0.50. R officially became a GNU project on 5 December 1997 when version 0.60 released. The first official 1.0 version was released on 29 February 2000. The Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN) was founded in 1997 by Kurt Hornik and Fritz Leisch to host R's source code, executable files, documentation, and user-created packages. Its name and scope mimics the Comprehensive TeX Archive Network and the Comprehensive Perl Archive Network. CRAN originally had three mirrors and 12 contributed packages. As of December 2022, it has 103 mirrors and 18,976 contributed packages. The R Core Team was formed in 1997 to further develop the language. , it consists of Chambers, Gentleman, Ihaka, and Mächler, plus statisticians Douglas Bates, Peter Dalgaard, Kurt Hornik, Michael Lawrence, Friedrich Leisch, Uwe Ligges, Thomas Lumley, Sebastian Meyer, Paul Murrell, Martyn Plummer, Brian Ripley, Deepayan Sarkar, Duncan Temple Lang, Luke Tierney, and Simon Urbanek, as well as computer scientist Tomas Kalibera. Stefano Iacus, Guido Masarotto, Heiner Schwarte, Seth Falcon, Martin Morgan, and Duncan Murdoch were members. In April 2003, the R Foundation was founded as a non-profit organization to provide further support for the R project. Features Data processing R's data structures include vectors, arrays, lists, data frames and environments. Vectors are ordered collections of values and can be mapped to arrays of one or more dimensions in a column major order. That is, given an ordered collection of dimensions, one fills in values along the first dimension first, then fills in one-dimensional arrays across the second dimension, and so on. R supports array arithmetics and in this regard is like languages such as APL and MATLAB. The special case of an array with two dimensions is called a matrix. Lists serve as collections of objects that do not necessarily have the same data type. Data frames contain a list of vectors of the same length, plus a unique set of row names. R has no scalar data type. Instead, a scalar is represented as a length-one vector. R and its libraries implement various statistical techniques, including linear, generalized linear and nonlinear modeling, classical statistical tests, spatial and time-series analysis, classification, clustering, and others. For computationally intensive tasks, C, C++, and Fortran code can be linked and called at run time. Another of R's strengths is static graphics; it can produce publication-quality graphs that include mathematical symbols. Programming R is an interpreted language; users can access it through a command-line interpreter. If a user types 2+2 at the R command prompt and presses enter, the computer replies with 4. R supports procedural programming with functions and, for some functions, object-oriented programming with generic functions. Due to its S heritage, R has stronger object-oriented programming facilities than most statistical computing languages. Extending it is facilitated by its lexical scoping rules, which are derived from Scheme. R uses S syntax (not to be confused with S-expressions) to represent both data and code. R's extensible object system includes objects for (among others): regression models, time-series and geo-spatial coordinates. Advanced users can write C, C++, Java, .NET or Python code to manipulate R objects directly. Functions are first-class objects and can be manipulated in the same way as data objects, facilitating meta-programming that allows multiple dispatch. Function arguments are passed by value, and are lazy—that is to say, they are only evaluated when they are used, not when the function is called. A generic function acts differently depending on the classes of the arguments passed to it. In other words, the generic function dispatches the method implementation specific to that object's class. For example, R has a generic print function that can print almost every class of object in R with print(objectname). R is highly extensible through the use of packages for specific functions and specific applications. Packages R's capabilities are extended through user-created packages, which offer statistical techniques, graphical devices, import/export, reporting (RMarkdown, knitr, Sweave), etc. These packages and their easy installation and use has been cited as driving the language's widespread adoption in data science. The packaging system is also used by researchers to organize research data, code, and report files in a systematic way for sharing and archiving. Multiple packages are included with the basic installation. Additional packages are available on CRAN, Bioconductor, R-Forge, Omegahat, GitHub, and other repositories. The "Task Views" on the CRAN website lists packages in fields including Finance, Genetics, High-Performance Computing, Machine Learning, Medical Imaging, Meta-Analysis, Social Sciences and Spatial Statistics. R has been identified by the FDA as suitable for interpreting data from clinical research. Microsoft maintains a daily snapshot of CRAN that dates back to Sept. 17, 2014. Other R package resources include R-Forge, a platform for the collaborative development of R packages. The Bioconductor project provides packages for genomic data analysis, including object-oriented data handling and analysis tools for data from Affymetrix, cDNA microarray, and next-generation high-throughput sequencing methods. A group of packages called the Tidyverse, which can be considered a "dialect" of the R language, is increasingly popular among developers. It strives to provide a cohesive collection of functions to deal with common data science tasks, including data import, cleaning, transformation, and visualisation (notably with the ggplot2 package). Dynamic and interactive graphics are available through additional packages. Interfaces Early developers preferred to run R via the command line console, succeeded by those who prefer an IDE. IDEs for R include (in alphabetical order) R.app (OSX/macOS only), Rattle GUI, R Commander, RKWard, RStudio, and Tinn-R. R is also supported in multi-purpose IDEs such as Eclipse via the StatET plugin, and Visual Studio via the R Tools for Visual Studio. Of these, RStudio is the most commonly used. Statistical frameworks which use R in the background include Jamovi and JASP. Editors that support R include Emacs, Vim (Nvim-R plugin), Kate, LyX, Notepad++, Visual Studio Code, WinEdt, and Tinn-R. Jupyter Notebook can also be configured to edit and run R code. R functionality is accessible from scripting languages including Python, Perl, Ruby, F#, and Julia. Interfaces to other, high-level programming languages, like Java and .NET C# are available. Implementations The main R implementation is written in R, C, and Fortran. Several other implementations are aimed at improving speed or increasing extensibility. A closely related implementation is pqR (pretty quick R) by Radford M. Neal with improved memory management and support for automatic multithreading. Renjin and FastR are Java implementations of R for use in a Java Virtual Machine. CXXR, rho, and Riposte are implementations of R in C++. Renjin, Riposte, and pqR attempt to improve performance by using multiple cores and deferred evaluation. Most of these alternative implementations are experimental and incomplete, with relatively few users, compared to the main implementation maintained by the R Development Core Team. TIBCO, who previous sold the commercial implementation S-PLUS, built a runtime engine called TERR, which is part of Spotfire. Microsoft R Open (MRO) is a fully compatible R distribution with modifications for multi-threaded computations. As of 30 June 2021, Microsoft started to phase out MRO in favor of the CRAN distribution. Community The R community hosts many conferences and in-person meetups. Some of these groups include: R-Ladies: an organization to promote gender diversity in the R community UseR!: an annual international R user conference SatRdays: R-focused conferences held on Saturdays R Conference Posit::conf (formerly known as Rstudio::conf) The R Foundation supports two conferences, useR! and Directions in Statistical Computing (DSC), and endorses several others like R@IIRSA, ConectaR, LatinR, and R Day. The R Journal The R Journal is an open access, refereed journal of the R project. It features short to medium-length articles on the use and development of R, including packages, programming tips, CRAN news, and foundation news. Comparison with alternatives SAS In January 2009, the New York Times ran an article charting the growth of R, noting its extensibility with user-created packages as well as R's open-source nature in contrast to SAS. SAS supports Windows, UNIX, and z/OS. R has precompiled binaries for Windows, macOS, and Linux with the option to compile and install R from source code. SAS can only store data in rectangular data sets while R's more versatile data structures allow it to perform difficult analysis more flexibly. Completely integrating functions in SAS requires a developer's kit but, in R, user-defined functions are already on equal footing with provided functions. In a technical report authored by Patrick Burns in 2007, respondents found R more convenient for periodic reports but preferred SAS for big data problems. Stata Stata and R are designed to be easily extendable. Outputs in both software are structured to become inputs for further analysis. They hold data in main memory giving a performance boost but limiting data both can handle. R is free software while Stata is not. Python Python and R are interpreted, dynamically typed programming languages with duck typing that can be extended by importing packages. Python is a general-purpose programming language while R is specifically designed for doing statistical analysis. Python has a BSD-like license in contrast to R's GNU General Public License but still permits modifying language implementation and tools. Commercial support Although R is an open-source project, some companies provide commercial support and extensions. In 2007, Richard Schultz, Martin Schultz, Steve Weston, and Kirk Mettler founded Revolution Analytics to provide commercial support for Revolution R, their distribution of R, which includes components developed by the company. Major additional components include ParallelR, the R Productivity Environment IDE, RevoScaleR (for big data analysis), RevoDeployR, web services framework, and the ability for reading and writing data in the SAS file format. Revolution Analytics offers an R distribution designed to comply with established IQ/OQ/PQ criteria that enables clients in the pharmaceutical sector to validate their installation of REvolution R. In 2015, Microsoft Corporation acquired Revolution Analytics and integrated the R programming language into SQL Server, Power BI, Azure SQL Managed Instance, Azure Cortana Intelligence, Microsoft ML Server and Visual Studio 2017. In October 2011, Oracle announced the Big Data Appliance, which integrates R, Apache Hadoop, Oracle Linux, and a NoSQL database with Exadata hardware. , Oracle R Enterprise became one of two components of the "Oracle Advanced Analytics Option" (alongside Oracle Data Mining). IBM offers support for in-Hadoop execution of R, and provides a programming model for massively parallel in-database analytics in R. TIBCO offers a runtime-version R as a part of Spotfire. Mango Solutions offers a validation package for R, ValidR, to comply with drug approval agencies, such as the FDA. These agencies required the use of validated software, as attested by the vendor or sponsor. Examples Basic syntax The following examples illustrate the basic syntax of the language and use of the command-line interface. (An expanded list of standard language features can be found in the R manual, "An Introduction to R".) In R, the generally preferred assignment operator is an arrow made from two characters <-, although = can be used in some cases. > x <- 1:6 # Create a numeric vector in the current environment > y <- x^2 # Create vector based on the values in x. > print(y) # Print the vector’s contents. [1] 1 4 9 16 25 36 > z <- x + y # Create a new vector that is the sum of x and y > z # Return the contents of z to the current environment. [1] 2 6 12 20 30 42 > z_matrix <- matrix(z, nrow=3) # Create a new matrix that turns the vector z into a 3x2 matrix object > z_matrix [,1] [,2] [1,] 2 20 [2,] 6 30 [3,] 12 42 > 2*t(z_matrix)-2 # Transpose the matrix, multiply every element by 2, subtract 2 from each element in the matrix, and return the results to the terminal. [,1] [,2] [,3] [1,] 2 10 22 [2,] 38 58 82 > new_df <- data.frame(t(z_matrix), row.names=c('A','B')) # Create a new data.frame object that contains the data from a transposed z_matrix, with row names 'A' and 'B' > names(new_df) <- c('X','Y','Z') # Set the column names of new_df as X, Y, and Z. > print(new_df) # Print the current results. X Y Z A 2 6 12 B 20 30 42 > new_df$Z # Output the Z column [1] 12 42 > new_df$Z==new_df['Z'] && new_df[3]==new_df$Z # The data.frame column Z can be accessed using $Z, ['Z'], or [3] syntax and the values are the same. [1] TRUE > attributes(new_df) # Print attributes information about the new_df object $names [1] "X" "Y" "Z" $row.names [1] "A" "B" $class [1] "data.frame" > attributes(new_df)$row.names <- c('one','two') # Access and then change the row.names attribute; can also be done using rownames() > new_df X Y Z one 2 6 12 two 20 30 42 Structure of a function One of R's strengths is the ease of creating new functions. Objects in the function body remain local to the function, and any data type may be returned. Example: # Declare function “f” with parameters “x”, “y“ # that returns a linear combination of x and y. f <- function(x, y) { z <- 3 * x + 4 * y return(z) ## the return() function is optional here } > f(1, 2) [1] 11 > f(c(1,2,3), c(5,3,4)) [1] 23 18 25 > f(1:3, 4) [1] 19 22 25 Modeling and plotting The R language has built-in support for data modeling and graphics. The following example shows how R can easily generate and plot a linear model with residuals. > x <- 1:6 # Create x and y values > y <- x^2 > model <- lm(y ~ x) # Linear regression model y = A + B * x. > summary(model) # Display an in-depth summary of the model. Call: lm(formula = y ~ x) Residuals: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3.3333 -0.6667 -2.6667 -2.6667 -0.6667 3.3333 Coefficients: Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|) (Intercept) -9.3333 2.8441 -3.282 0.030453 * x 7.0000 0.7303 9.585 0.000662 *** --- Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1 Residual standard error: 3.055 on 4 degrees of freedom Multiple R-squared: 0.9583, Adjusted R-squared: 0.9478 F-statistic: 91.88 on 1 and 4 DF, p-value: 0.000662 > par(mfrow = c(2, 2)) # Create a 2 by 2 layout for figures. > plot(model) # Output diagnostic plots of the model. Mandelbrot set Short R code calculating Mandelbrot set through the first 20 iterations of equation z = z2 + c plotted for different complex constants c. This example demonstrates: use of community-developed external libraries (called packages), such as the caTools package handling of complex numbers multidimensional arrays of numbers used as basic data type, see variables C, Z, and X. install.packages("caTools") # install external package library(caTools) # external package providing write.gif function jet.colors <- colorRampPalette(c("green", "pink", "#007FFF", "cyan", "#7FFF7F", "white", "#FF7F00", "red", "#7F0000")) dx <- 1500 # define width dy <- 1400 # define height C <- complex(real = rep(seq(-2.2, 1.0, length.out = dx), each = dy), imag = rep(seq(-1.2, 1.2, length.out = dy), dx)) C <- matrix(C, dy, dx) # reshape as square matrix of complex numbers Z <- 0 # initialize Z to zero X <- array(0, c(dy, dx, 20)) # initialize output 3D array for (k in 1:20) { # loop with 20 iterations Z <- Z^2 + C # the central difference equation X[, , k] <- exp(-abs(Z)) # capture results } write.gif(X, "Mandelbrot.gif", col = jet.colors, delay = 100) See also R package Comparison of numerical-analysis software Comparison of statistical packages List of numerical-analysis software List of statistical software Rmetrics Notes References External links of the R project R Technical Papers Array programming languages Cross-platform free software Data mining and machine learning software Data-centric programming languages Dynamically typed programming languages Free plotting software Free statistical software Functional languages GNU Project software Literate programming Numerical analysis software for Linux Numerical analysis software for macOS Numerical analysis software for Windows Programming languages created in 1993 Science software Statistical programming languages Articles with example R code
376725
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnley%20F.C.
Burnley F.C.
Burnley Football Club () is an English association football club based in Burnley, Lancashire, that competes in the Premier League, the first tier of English football. Founded on 18 May 1882, the club was one of the first to become professional (in 1883) and subsequently put pressure on the Football Association to permit payments to players. The club entered the FA Cup for the first time in 1885–86 and was one of the 12 founder members of the Football League in 1888–89. From the 1950s until the 1970s, under chairman Bob Lord, the club became renowned for its youth policy and scouting system, and was one of the first to set up a purpose-built training ground. Burnley have been champions of England twice, in 1920–21 and 1959–60, have won the FA Cup once, in 1913–14, and have won the FA Charity Shield twice, in 1960 and 1973. They have been runners-up in the First Division twice, in 1919–20 and 1961–62, and FA Cup runners-up twice, in 1946–47 and 1961–62. Burnley are one of only five sides to have won all four professional divisions of English football, along with Wolverhampton Wanderers, Preston North End, Sheffield United and Portsmouth. During the 1920–21 season, Burnley embarked on a 30-match unbeaten league run, setting an English record. When the team won the 1959–60 Football League, the town of Burnley—with 80,000 inhabitants—became one of the smallest to have an English first-tier champion. The team have played home games at Turf Moor since 1883, after they had moved from their original premises at Calder Vale. The club colours of claret and blue were adopted before the 1910–11 season in tribute to the then Football League champions Aston Villa. The club is nicknamed "the Clarets" because of the dominant colour of its home shirts. Burnley's current emblem is based on the town's coat of arms. The team have a long-standing rivalry with nearby club Blackburn Rovers, with whom they contest the East Lancashire Derby. History Beginnings and the first major honours (1882–1946) The club was founded on 18 May 1882 by members of rugby team Burnley Rovers, who voted for a shift to association football, since several other sports clubs in the area had changed their codes to football. The suffix "Rovers" was dropped a few days later. The side won their first silverware in 1883: the Dr Dean's Cup, a knockout competition between amateur clubs in the Burnley area. By the end of the year, the club turned professional and signed many Scottish players. Burnley refused to join the Football Association (FA) and its FA Cup, since the association barred professional players. In 1884, Burnley led a group of 35 other clubs in the formation of the breakaway British Football Association (BFA) to challenge the FA's supremacy. The FA changed its rule in 1885, allowing professionalism, and Burnley made their first appearance in the FA Cup in 1885–86. In October 1886, Burnley's Turf Moor became the first professional ground to be visited by a member of the Royal Family, when Prince Albert Victor attended a friendly between Burnley and Bolton Wanderers. The club was among the twelve founders of the Football League in 1888–89 and one of the six based in Lancashire. In the second match, William Tait became the first player to score a league hat-trick, when his three goals gave Burnley their inaugural win in the competition. In 1889–90, they claimed their first Lancashire Cup, after beating local rivals Blackburn Rovers in the final. Burnley were relegated to the Second Division for the first time in 1896–97. The team won the division the next season; only two of thirty matches were lost before promotion was gained through a four-team play-off series called test matches, although the last game against First Division club Stoke was controversial. The tie finished 0–0 as both needed only a draw for a top flight place; it was later named "[t]he match without a shot at goal". Burnley were relegated again in 1899–1900 and found themselves at the centre of controversy when their goalkeeper, Jack Hillman, attempted to bribe opponents Nottingham Forest in the last match of the season. It is possibly the earliest recorded case of match fixing in football. The side continued to play in the Second Division and even finished in bottom place in 1902–03—but were re-elected—as the club got into financial difficulties. Harry Windle was named chairman in 1909, after which the club's finances turned around. The directors appointed John Haworth as the new manager in 1910, who changed the club's colours from green to the claret and blue of Aston Villa, the then First Division champions, as Haworth and the Burnley committee believed it might bring a change of fortune. In 1912–13, the side won promotion to the first tier; the following season, Burnley won their first major honour, beating Liverpool in the 1914 FA Cup Final. Bert Freeman scored the only goal, as Burnley became the first club to defeat five top tier sides in one cup season. Tommy Boyle became the first captain to receive the trophy from a reigning monarch, King George V. The team finished second to West Bromwich Albion in 1919–20, before winning their first ever First Division championship in 1920–21. Burnley lost the opening three games but went unbeaten in the following 30 league matches, setting an English record. Nine seasons later, the team were relegated to the Second Division. They struggled in the second tier and avoided a further relegation in 1931–32 by two points. The years through to the outbreak of the Second World War were characterised by mid-table league finishes. Progressive and golden era (1946–1976) In the first season of post-war League football, Burnley gained promotion and reached the 1947 FA Cup Final but were defeated by Charlton Athletic after extra time. The team's defence was nicknamed "The Iron Curtain", since they only conceded 29 goals in 42 league matches. Alan Brown was appointed manager in 1954, and Bob Lord chairman a year later. The club became one of the most progressive around under their tenures. Burnley were one of the first to set up a purpose-built training ground, at Gawthorpe, and they became renowned for their youth policy and scouting system, which yielded many young talents. In 1958, former Burnley player Harry Potts was appointed manager. His squad mainly revolved around the duo of captain Jimmy Adamson and Jimmy McIlroy, the team's playmaker. Potts often employed the then unfashionable 4–4–2 formation and he implemented a Total Football playing style. Burnley clinched a second First Division title in 1959–60. They had not topped the table until the last match was played out. The squad cost only £13,000 (equivalent to £ in ) in transfer fees—£8,000 on McIlroy in 1950 and £5,000 on left-back Alex Elder in 1959. The other players came from their youth academy. With 80,000 inhabitants, the town of Burnley became one of the smallest to have an English first tier champion. They travelled to the United States after the season ended to represent England in the International Soccer League, the first modern international American soccer tournament. The following season, Burnley played in European competition for the first time in the 1960–61 European Cup. They defeated former finalists Stade de Reims in the first round, but went out against Hamburger SV in the quarter-finals. The team finished the 1961–62 First Division as runners-up to newcomers Ipswich Town after winning only one of the last ten matches, and had a run to the 1962 FA Cup Final but lost against Tottenham Hotspur. Adamson was named FWA Footballer of the Year, however, with McIlroy as runner-up. The maximum wage in the Football League was abolished in 1961, which meant that clubs from small towns like Burnley could no longer compete financially with sides from bigger towns and cities. The controversial departure of McIlroy to Stoke City in 1963 and Adamson's retirement in 1964 also damaged the club's fortunes. Burnley retained their place in the First Division throughout the decade, however, finishing third in 1965–66 to qualify for the 1966–67 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. Potts was replaced by Adamson as manager in 1970. Adamson hailed his squad as the "Team of the Seventies", but he was unable to halt the slide as relegation followed in 1970–71. Burnley won the Second Division title in 1972–73, and were invited to play in the 1973 FA Charity Shield, where they emerged as winners against Manchester City. In 1975, the team were victims of one of the great FA Cup shocks of all time when Wimbledon, then in the Southern League, won 1–0 at Turf Moor. Adamson left the club in January 1976, and relegation from the First Division followed later that year. During this period, a drop in home attendances combined with an enlarged debt forced Burnley to sell star players such as Martin Dobson and Leighton James, which caused a rapid decline. Near oblivion and recovery (1976–2009) The team were relegated to the Third Division for the first time in 1979–80. Under the management of former Burnley player Brian Miller, they returned to the second tier as champions in 1981–82. However, this return was short-lived and lasted only one year. Managerial changes continued to be made in a search for success; Miller was replaced by Frank Casper in early 1983, he by John Bond before the 1983–84 season and Bond himself by John Benson a season later. Bond was the first manager since Frank Hill (1948–1954) without a previous playing career at the club. He was criticised by the fans for signing expensive players increasing Burnley's debt, and for selling the young talents Lee Dixon, Brian Laws and Trevor Steven. Benson was in charge when Burnley were relegated to the Fourth Division for the first time at the end of the 1984–85 season. The team avoided relegation to the Football Conference, the highest level of non-League football, on the last day in 1986–87, after they won against Orient and their rivals drew or lost. In 1988, Burnley played Wolverhampton Wanderers in the Final of the Associate Members' Cup but lost 2–0. The match was attended by 80,000 people, a record for a match between two sides from the fourth tier. The team won the Fourth Division in 1991–92 under manager Jimmy Mullen. He had succeeded Casper in October 1991 and won his first nine league matches as manager. By winning the fourth tier, Burnley became only the second club to win all four professional divisions of English football, after Wolverhampton Wanderers. Burnley won the Second Division play-offs in 1993–94 and gained promotion to the second tier. Relegation followed after one season, and in 1997–98 only a last-day victory over Plymouth Argyle prevented relegation back into the fourth tier. Under manager Stan Ternent, Burnley finished second in 1999–2000 and won promotion to the second tier. In early 2002, financial problems caused by the collapse of ITV Digital brought the club close to administration. Ternent was sacked in 2004, after he avoided relegation with a squad composed of several loaned players and some players who were not entirely fit. The 2008–09 campaign, with Owen Coyle in charge, ended with promotion to the Premier League. Sheffield United were defeated in the Championship play-off Final, which meant a return to the top flight after 33 years. Burnley also reached the semi-final of the League Cup for the first time in over 25 years but were beaten on aggregate by Tottenham in the last minutes of the second leg. Premier League football and back in Europe (2009–present) Promotion made the town of Burnley one of the smallest to host a Premier League club. The team started the season well and became the first newly promoted side in the competition to win their first four home games. However, Coyle left the club in January 2010 to manage local rivals Bolton Wanderers. He was replaced by former Burnley player Brian Laws, but the team's form plummeted and they were relegated after a single season. Sean Dyche was appointed manager in October 2012. In his first full season in charge, Dyche guided Burnley back to the Premier League in 2013–14 on a tight budget and with a small squad. The team went down after one season but won the Championship title on their return in 2015–16, when they equaled their 2013–14 tally of 93 points, and ended the season with a run of 23 league games undefeated. In 2017, the club completed construction of Barnfield Training Centre—the replacement of Gawthorpe—with Dyche being involved in the training ground's design. Burnley finished seventh in 2017–18, which meant qualification for the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League and a return to European football after 51 years. The team failed to reach the group stage, as they were eliminated in the play-off round by Greek club Olympiacos. In December 2020, American investment company ALK Capital acquired an 84% stake in Burnley for £170 million. It was the first time the club was run by anyone other than local businessmen and Burnley supporters. In 2021–22, Burnley were relegated back to the Championship after they lost on the final matchday and finished in 18th place. In June 2022, the Belgian Vincent Kompany was appointed Burnley's manager, becoming the first person from outside the British Isles to manage the club. During his first months in charge, he signed 16 players—mostly young and foreign—as he rebuilt the squad on a budget. Kompany also implemented a possession-based, attacking style of play. Burnley secured promotion back to the Premier League with seven matches remaining—a Championship record—before winning the Championship title following a 1–0 victory at local rivals Blackburn Rovers. Club identity Kits and colours In the early years, Burnley used various kit designs and colours. Throughout the first eight years, there were various permutations of blue and white, the colours of the club's forerunners Burnley Rovers. Before the start of the 1890–91 season, the club adopted an all-blue shirt, but changed it to all-white mid-season. After several years of claret and amber stripes, for much of the mid-1890s a combination of black with amber was used, although the team wore a shirt with pink and white stripes during the 1894–95 season. Between 1897 and 1900, the club used an all-red shirt and from 1900 until 1910 it wore an all-green jersey. In 1910, Burnley changed their colours to claret and blue, which they have had for most of their history, save for a spell in white shirts during the second half of the 1930s and the Second World War. The adoption of the claret and blue combination paid homage to Football League champions Aston Villa, who wore those colours. Burnley's committee and manager John Haworth believed it might bring a change of fortune. The club decided to re-register its colours as claret and blue in 1946, partly due to readers' letters to the Burnley Express. Burnley's jerseys were manufactured by local companies until 1975, when Umbro became the first to have its logo on the club's shirt. Since 1975, the team have had a variety of kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors. The club's first kit sponsor was POCO in 1982, while the mobile game Golf Clash became its first sleeve sponsor in 2017. Crest Burnley's first use of a crest was in December 1887, when they wore the royal arms on the shirt. Prince Albert Victor had watched the team play against Bolton Wanderers at Turf Moor in October 1886—the first visit to a professional football ground by a member of the royal family. To commemorate the visit, the club received a set of white jerseys featured with a blue sash and embellished with the royal coat of arms. The crest was regularly worn on the shirts until 1895, when it disappeared. During the 1914 FA Cup Final, watched by King George V, it featured again on the kits. From 1914, the team played in unadorned shirts, although they wore the coat of arms of Burnley during the 1934–35 FA Cup semi-final and the 1947 FA Cup Final. After winning the First Division in 1960, Burnley were allowed to wear the town's crest on their shirts. From 1969 to 1975, the team bore the letters "BFC" running downwards from left to right. In 1975, the club adopted a horizontal "BFC" cypher lettered in gold. Burnley used a designed badge with elements from the town and the club on their home shirts from 1979, before they adopted a simple horizontal "B.F.C." in 1983, lettered in white. In 1987, the club reinstated the crest used from 1979 to 1983. To celebrate the 50th anniversary of the 1959–60 First Division title win in 2009, Burnley reintroduced the logo used from 1960 to 1969. The following season, its Latin motto "Pretiumque et Causa Laboris" (English: "The prize and the cause of [our] labour") was replaced with the inscription "Burnley Football Club". In 2023, Burnley coloured the elements in white and placed them on a claret shield. The club's current badge is based on the town's coat of arms. The stork at the top of the crest refers to the Starkie family, who were prominent in the Burnley area. In its mouth it holds a Lacy knot, of the de Lacy family, who held Burnley in the Middle Ages. The stork stands on a hill and cotton plants—which represents the town's cotton heritage. Beneath, the hand represents the town's motto "Hold to the Truth", derived from the Towneley family. The two bees refer to the town's hard work ethic, while the lion represents royalty. The chevron is a reference to the River Brun, which runs through the town. Stadium The team have played their home games at Turf Moor since February 1883, which replaced their original premises at Calder Vale. The Turf Moor site has been used for sport since at least 1843, when Burnley Cricket Club moved to the area. In 1883, they invited Burnley to a field adjacent to the cricket pitch. Both clubs have remained there since, and only Lancashire rivals Preston North End have continuously occupied their stadium—Deepdale—for longer. The ground originally consisted of only a pitch and the initial grandstand was not built until 1885. In 1888, the first league match at Turf Moor saw Burnley emerge as 4–1 winners over Bolton Wanderers, Fred Poland netting the first league goal at the stadium. Turf Moor's capacity was increased to 50,000 under the chairman Harry Windle during the 1910s. The ground hosted its only FA Cup semi-final in 1922, between Huddersfield Town and Notts County, and five years later it hosted its only full international match, between England and Wales for the British Home Championship. From the end of the Second World War until the mid-1960s, crowds in the stadium averaged in the 20,000–35,000 range, and Burnley averaged a club-record attendance of 33,621 in the 1947–48 First Division. The attendance record for a single match was already set in 1924 against Huddersfield Town in an FA Cup third round tie, when 54,775 spectators attended. In 1960, in an FA Cup fifth round replay game against Bradford City, there was an official attendance of 52,850. Some of the gates were broken down, however, and many uncounted fans poured into the ground. Turf Moor consists of four stands: the North Stand (formerly the Longside), the Jimmy McIlroy Stand (formerly the Bee Hole End), the Bob Lord Stand, and the Cricket Field Stand for home and away fans. The current capacity is 21,944 all-seated. Turf Moor's field had a slope until 1974, when the pitch was raised to minimise it. During the mid-1990s, the ground underwent further refurbishment when the Longside and Bee Hole End terraces were replaced by all-seater stands as a result of the Taylor Report. In 2019, the club built two corner stands for disabled home supporters between the Jimmy McIlroy and both the North and Bob Lord Stands to meet the Accessible Stadium Guide regulations. Supporters and rivalries Supporters Burnley's supporters are mainly drawn from East Lancashire and West Yorkshire. The club is one of the best supported sides in English football per capita, with average attendances of 20,000 in the Premier League in a town of approximately 73,000 inhabitants. Burnley have numerous supporters' clubs across the United Kingdom and overseas. The club's fans have had a long-standing friendship with supporters of Dutch team Helmond Sport since the 1990s. Several Burnley and Helmond fans regularly make an overseas journey to visit each other's matches. For 2022–23 and 2023–24, Helmond Sport adopted a claret and blue away kit in tribute to Burnley. A frequently sung chant since the early 1970s is "No Nay Never", an adaptation of the song "The Wild Rover", which has lyrics to offend main rivals Blackburn Rovers. In the early 1980s, a hooligan firm known as the Suicide Squad emerged from within Burnley's fanbase. The group later featured on the 2006 hooligan documentary series The Real Football Factories. In 2011, 12 members were sentenced to jail for a total of 32 years, after a high-profile incident with Blackburn Rovers supporters in 2009. The firm disbanded after the verdict. Notable Burnley fans have included football pioneer Jimmy Hogan, who was a regular attendee at Turf Moor; journalist Alastair Campbell, who has been regularly involved in events with the club; and cricketer James Anderson, who also worked in Burnley's ticket office on a part-time basis. King Charles III is also a supporter of the club. In 2019, Burnley fan Scott Cunliffe was honoured by the UEFA with the #EqualGame Award "for his work as a role model highlighting diversity, inclusion and accessibility in football"; he ran to every away Premier League ground during Burnley's 2018–19 campaign and raised more than £55,000 for Premier League clubs' community trusts and community projects in Burnley. A popular drink served at home matches since the First World War is "Béné & Hot"—the French liqueur Bénédictine topped up with hot water. The East Lancashire Regiment soldiers acquired a taste for the drink while stationed at the birthplace of the beverage in Fécamp, Normandy, during the war. They drank it with hot water to keep warm in the trenches, and the surviving soldiers later returned to the East Lancashire area with the liqueur. In excess of 30 bottles are sold at each home game, which makes the club one of the world's biggest sellers of Bénédictine; Turf Moor is the only British football ground to sell it. Rivalries Burnley's main rivals are Blackburn Rovers, with whom they contest the East Lancashire derby, named after the region both clubs hail from. Games between these sides from mill towns are also known under the name "Cotton Mills derby". Both are founder members of the Football League and have won the First Division and the FA Cup. The two clubs are separated by only and besides the geographical proximity, they also have a long-standing history of rivalry; the earliest competitive clash was a Football League match in 1888. Four years earlier, however, they had met for the first time in a friendly, "with considerable pride at stake". Burnley hold the better head-to-head record, as the side have won 44 games to Blackburn's 41. Burnley's closest geographic rivals are actually Accrington Stanley, but as they have never competed at the same level—although defunct club Accrington did—there is no significant rivalry between them. Other rivalries include those with nearby clubs Blackpool, Bolton Wanderers and Preston North End. Burnley also share a Roses rivalry with West Yorkshire sides Bradford City and Leeds United. The team contested heated matches with Halifax Town, Plymouth Argyle, Rochdale and Stockport County in the 1980s and 1990s during their time in the lower leagues, although feelings of animosity were mainly one-sided; according to the Football Fans Census in 2003, Halifax and Stockport supporters considered Burnley to be their main rivals. Players First-team squad Out on loan Academy Management Football management Source: Managers Burnley-born Harry Bradshaw was Burnley's first manager—he was appointed in August 1894—and was the first to win a league title with the club, taking them to the top of the Second Division at the end of the 1897–98 season. John Haworth was the first manager in the club's history to win a major honour, the FA Cup in 1914; under Haworth, Burnley also became champions of England for the first time in 1920–21. Harry Potts led the club to its second First Division title during the 1959–60 campaign. Jimmy Adamson (1972–73 Second Division), Brian Miller (1981–82 Third Division), Jimmy Mullen (1991–92 Fourth Division), Sean Dyche (2015–16 Football League Championship), and Vincent Kompany (2022–23 EFL Championship) also led Burnley to league titles. Owners In 1897, the club incorporated as a limited company. From their establishment until 2020, Burnley were run by local businessmen and supporters. In December 2020, Velocity Sports Partners (VSP), the sports investment arm of American management firm ALK Capital, acquired an 84% stake in Burnley for £170 million. Alan Pace, managing partner of ALK Capital, subsequently replaced Mike Garlick as the club's chairman. ALK borrowed much of the takeover money, and the loan debts were transferred to the club. As a result of this leveraged takeover, Burnley went from being debt-free to being saddled with debts of around £100 million, at interest rates of about 8 per cent. However, in January 2023, Burnley were one of only two Championship clubs to score a "good" rating on Fair Game's "sustainability index", which included calculations of financial stability. In May 2023, J. J. Watt, a retired defensive end in American football's National Football League, and his wife, former United States women's national soccer team international Kealia Watt, were announced as new minority investors. In August 2023, YouTube group Dude Perfect also became minority investors in the club. Board of directors Source: Chairmen The following have been chairman of the club's board of directors: Honours and achievements Burnley were the second, and are one of only five teams to have won all four professional divisions of English football, along with Wolverhampton Wanderers, Preston North End, Sheffield United and Portsmouth. The club's honours include the following: League First Division (Tier 1) Winners: 1920–21, 1959–60 Runners–up: 1919–20, 1961–62 Second Division/Championship (Tier 2) Winners: 1897–98, 1972–73, 2015–16, 2022–23 Promoted: 1912–13, 1946–47, 2013–14 Play–off winners: 2008–09 Third Division/Second Division (Tier 3) Winners: 1981–82 Promoted: 1999–2000 Play–off winners: 1993–94 Fourth Division (Tier 4) Winners: 1991–92 Cup FA Cup Winners: 1913–14 Runners–up: 1946–47, 1961–62 FA Charity Shield Winners: 1960 (shared), 1973 Runners–up: 1921 Texaco Cup Runners–up: 1973–74 Anglo-Scottish Cup Winners: 1978–79 Associate Members' Cup Runners–up: 1987–88 Regional Lancashire Cup Winners: (13) 1889–90, 1914–15, 1949–50, 1951–52, 1959–60, 1960–61, 1961–62, 1964–65, 1965–66, 1969–70, 1971–72, 1992–93, 2022–23 Records and statistics The record for the most first team appearances in all competitions for Burnley is held by goalkeeper Jerry Dawson, who played 569 games between 1907 and 1929. The club's top goal scorer is George Beel, who scored 188 goals from 1923 to 1932. In 1962, Jimmy Adamson won the FWA Footballer of the Year award, the first and to date only time a Burnley player achieved this. Willie Irvine became top goal scorer in the first tier in 1965–66 with 29 goals, a unique feat in the club's history. Jimmy McIlroy is the most capped player while at the club, as he made 51 appearances for Northern Ireland between 1951 and 1962. The first Burnley player to play in a full international match was John Yates, who took to the field for England against Ireland in March 1889. He scored a hat-trick but was never called up again. In January 1957, 17-year-old Ian Lawson netted a record four goals on his debut against Chesterfield in the FA Cup third round. The youngest player to play for the club is Tommy Lawton, who was aged 16 years and 174 days on his debut against Doncaster Rovers in the Second Division on 28 March 1936. His debut made him the then youngest centre-forward ever to play in the Football League. The oldest player is Len Smelt, who played his last match aged 41 years and 132 days against Arsenal in the First Division on 18 April 1925. The club's largest win in league football was a 9–0 victory against Darwen in the 1891–92 Football League. Burnley's largest victories in the FA Cup have been 9–0 wins over Crystal Palace (1908–09), New Brighton (1956–57) and Penrith (1984–85). The largest defeat is an 11–0 loss to Darwen Old Wanderers in the 1885–86 FA Cup first round, when Burnley fielded their reserve side, as most professionals were still prohibited entry due to rules of the FA that season. The team's longest unbeaten run in the league was between 6 September 1920 and 25 March 1921, to which they remained unbeaten for 30 games on their way to the First Division title. It stood as the longest stretch without defeat in a single English professional league season until Arsenal bettered it in 2003–04. The club's highest home attendance is 54,775, for an FA Cup third round match against Huddersfield Town on 23 February 1924; Burnley's record home attendance in the league is 52,869, for a First Division game against Blackpool on 11 October 1947. The highest transfer fees received are the £25 million from Everton and Newcastle United for Michael Keane and Chris Wood in 2017 and 2022 respectively. The highest transfer fee paid by Burnley is the £16.1 million paid to FC Basel for striker Zeki Amdouni in 2023. Bob Kelly broke the world transfer record in 1925, when he moved from Burnley to Sunderland for £6,500 (equivalent to £ in ). Notes References Specific General External links Burnley F.C. on BBC Sport: Club news – Recent results and fixtures Burnley F.C. at Sky Sports Burnley F.C. at Premier League Burnley F.C. at UEFA Clarets Mad The Longside – Your Online Clarets Encyclopedia (archived) Clarets Trust Sport in Burnley Football clubs in Lancashire Football clubs in England Association football clubs established in 1882 1882 establishments in England Premier League clubs English Football League clubs The Football League founder members FA Cup winners
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavian%20Soviet%20Socialist%20Republic
Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic
The Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic or Moldavian SSR (, Moldovan Cyrillic: ), also known as the Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic, Moldovan SSR, or simply Moldavia or Moldova, was one of the 15 republics of the Soviet Union which existed from 1940 to 1991. The republic was formed on 2 August 1940 from parts of Bessarabia, a region annexed from Romania on 28 June of that year, and parts of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, an autonomous Soviet republic within the Ukrainian SSR. After the Declaration of Sovereignty on 23 June 1990, and until 23 May 1991, it was officially known as the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova. From 23 May 1991 until the declaration of independence on 27 August 1991, it was renamed the Republic of Moldova while remaining a constituent republic of the USSR. Its independence was recognized on 26 December of that year when the USSR was dissolved. Geographically, the Moldavian SSR was bordered by the Socialist Republic of Romania to the west and the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic to the north, east, and south. History Background After the failure of the Tatarbunary Uprising, the Soviets promoted the newly created Moldavian Autonomous Oblast existing within the Ukrainian SSR on part of the territory between the Dniester and Bug rivers, to a Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Moldavian ASSR), on 12 October 1924, as a way to primarily prop up the Soviet propaganda effort in Bessarabia, but also to exert pressure on Bucharest in the negotiations on Bessarabia, and even to help a possible Communist revolution in Romania. On 24 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression treaty, called the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact. The pact contained a secret protocol, revealed only after Germany's defeat in 1945, according to which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet spheres of influence. The secret protocol placed the province of Bessarabia, at the time controlled by Romania, in the Soviet "sphere of influence." Thereafter, both the Soviet Union and Germany invaded their respective portions of Poland, while the Soviet Union occupied and annexed Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia in June 1940, and waged war upon Finland. Establishment On 26 June 1940, four days after the battle of France, the Soviet Union issued an ultimatum to the Romanian Kingdom, demanding the latter cede Bessarabia and Bukovina. After the Soviets agreed with Germany that they would limit their claims in Bukovina, which was outside the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact's secret protocols, to Northern Bukovina, Germany urged Romania to accept the ultimatum, which Romania did two days later. On 28 June, Soviet troops entered the area, and on 9 July the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was formed and applied to the Supreme Soviet for formal incorporation into the Soviet Union. On 2 August 1940, the Supreme Soviet unanimously approved to dissolve the old Moldavian ASSR and organize the Moldavian SSR, from six full counties and small parts of three other Moldavian counties of Bessarabia (about 65 percent of its territory), and the six westernmost rayons of the Moldavian ASSR (about 40 percent of its territory). Ninety percent of the territory of MSSR was west of the river Dniester, which had been the border between the USSR and Romania prior to 1940, and 10 percent east. Northern and southern parts of the territories occupied by the Soviet Union in June 1940 (the current Chernivtsi Oblast and Budjak), which were more heterogeneous ethnically, were transferred to the Ukrainian SSR, although their population also included 337,000 Moldovans. As such, the strategically important Black Sea coast and Danube frontage were given to the Ukrainian SSR, considered more reliable than the Moldavian SSR, which could have been claimed by Romania.In the summer of 1941, Romania joined Hitler's Axis in the invasion of the Soviet Union, recovering Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, as well as occupying the territory to the east of the Dniester it dubbed "Transnistria". Soviet partisans continued to be active in both regions. By the end of World War II, the Soviet Union had reconquered all of the lost territories, reestablishing Soviet authority there. Stalinist period Repressions and deportations On June 22, 1941, during the first day of the German invasion of the Soviet Union, 10 people were killed in Răzeni by Soviet authorities and buried in a mass graves. In July 1941 after Operation Barbarossa, a commemorative plaque was installed in Răzeni: "Aici odihnesc robii lui Dumnezeu Diomid, Niculai, Dănila, Nichita, Alexandru, Jurian, Alexandru, Ilie, doi necunoscuți. Omorâți mișelește de bolșevici comuniști. 12.VII.1941". The memorial to victims of Răzeni Massacre was opened in 2009. The Soviet authorities targeted several socio-economic groups due to their economic situation, political views, or ties to the former regime. They were deported to or resettled in Siberia and northern Kazakhstan; some were imprisoned or executed. According to a report by the Presidential Commission for the Study of the Communist Dictatorship in Romania, no less than 86,604 people were arrested and deported in 1940 and 1941 alone, comparable to the estimative number of 90,000 repressed put forward by Russian historians. Immediately after the Soviet reoccupation, in 1944, a so-called "repatriation" of the Bessarabians who fled to Romania before the advancing Red Army was organized by the Soviet security forces; many were shot or deported, blamed as collaborators of Romania and Nazi Germany. NKVD/MGB also struck at anti-Soviet groups, which were most active from 1944 to 1952. Anti-Soviet organizations such as Democratic Agrarian Party, Freedom Party, Democratic Union of Freedom, Arcașii lui Ștefan, Vasile Lupu High School Group, Vocea Basarabiei were severely reprimanded and their leaders were persecuted. A de-kulakisation campaign was directed towards the rich Moldavian peasant families, which were deported to Kazakhstan and Siberia as well. For instance, in just two days, from 6 to 7 July 1949, over 11,342 Moldavian families were deported by the order of the Minister of State Security, Iosif Mordovets under a plan named "Operation South". Religious persecutions during the Soviet occupation targeted numerous priests. After the Soviet occupation, the religious life underwent a persecution similar to the one in Russia between the two World Wars. Religious minorities, 700 families, especially Jehovah's Witnesses, were deported to Siberia in Operation North of April 1951. The number of the ethnic Bessarabia Germans also decreased from over 81,000 in 1930 to under 4,000 in 1959 due to voluntary wartime migration (90,000 were transferred in 1940 to German-occupied Poland) and forced removal as collaborators after the war. Collectivisation Collectivisation was implemented between 1949 and 1950, although earlier attempts were made since 1946. During this time, a large-scale famine occurred: some sources give a minimum of 115,000 peasants who died of famine and related diseases between December 1946 and August 1947. According to Charles King, there is no evidence that it was provoked by Soviet requisitioning of large amounts of agricultural products and directed towards the largest ethnic group living in the countryside, the Moldovans. Contributing factors were the recent war and the drought of 1946. Khrushchev and Brezhnev With the regime of Nikita Khrushchev replacing that of Joseph Stalin, the survivors of Gulag camps and of the deportees were gradually allowed to return to the Moldavian SSR. The political thaw ended the unchecked power of the NKVD–MGB, and the command economy gave rise to development in the areas such as education, technology and science, health care, and industry. Between 1969 and 1971, a clandestine National Patriotic Front was established by several young intellectuals in Chișinău by Mihail Munteanu, vowing to fight for the secession of Moldavia from the Soviet Union and union with Romania. In December 1971, following an informative note from Ion Stănescu, the President of the Council of State Security of the Romanian Socialist Republic, to Yuri Andropov, the chief of KGB, three of the leaders of the National Patriotic Front, Alexandru Usatiuc-Bulgăr, Gheorghe Ghimpu and Valeriu Graur, as well as a fourth person, Alexandru Șoltoianu, the leader of a similar clandestine movement in Northern Bukovina, were arrested and later sentenced to long prison terms. In the 1970s and 1980s, Moldavia received substantial investment from the budget of the USSR to develop industrial, scientific facilities, as well as housing. In 1971, the Soviet Council of Ministers adopted a decision "About the measures for further development of Kishinev city" that secured more than one billion roubles of investment from the USSR budget. Subsequent decisions directed enormous wealth and brought highly qualified specialists from all over the USSR to develop the Soviet republic. Such an allocation of USSR assets was partially influenced by the fact that Leonid Brezhnev, the effective ruler of the USSR from 1964 to 1982, was the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Moldavia from 1950 to 1952. These allocations stopped in 1991 with the Belavezha Accords, when the nation became independent. Perestroika Although Brezhnev and other CPM first secretaries were largely successful in suppressing Moldavian nationalism, Mikhail Gorbachev's administration facilitated the revival of the movement in the region. His policies of glasnost and perestroika created conditions in which national feelings could be openly expressed and in which the Soviet republics could consider reforms independently from the central government. The Moldavian SSR's drive towards independence from the USSR was marked by civil strife as conservative activists in the east —especially in Tiraspol—as well as communist party activists in Chișinău worked to keep the Moldavian SSR within the Soviet Union. The main success of the national movement from 1988 to 1989 was the official adoption of the Moldovan language on 31 August 1989, by the Supreme Soviet of Moldova, the declaration in the preamble of the declaration of independence of a Moldavian–Romanian linguistic unity, and the return of the language to the pre-Soviet Latin alphabet. In 1990, when it became clear that Moldavia was eventually going to secede, a group of nationalist pro-Soviet activists in Gagauzia and Transnistria proclaimed themselves as separate from the Moldavian SSR in order to remain within the USSR. The Gagauz Republic was eventually peacefully incorporated into Moldavia as the Autonomous Territorial Unit of Gagauzia, but relations with Transnistria soured. Its sovereignty was declared on 23 June 1990 on its territory. Independence On 17 March 1991, Moldova, the Baltic states, the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, and the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic boycotted the 1991 Soviet Union referendum with 98.72% in favor without any official sanction. On 23 May 1991, the Moldavian parliament changed the name of the republic to the Republic of Moldova. The Gagauz declared the Gagauz Republic on 19 August 1990. They had previously declared a Gagauz ASSR within Moldova on 12 November 1989. Independence was quickly followed by civil war in Transnistria, where the central government in Chișinău battled with separatists, who were supported by pro-Soviet forces and later by different forces from Russia. The conflict left the breakaway regime (Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic) in control of Transnistria – a situation that persists today. The Soviet Union ceased to exist on December 26, 1991, and Moldova was officially recognized as an independent state. Relationship with Romania In the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty, the Soviet Union and Romania reaffirmed each other's borders, recognizing Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and the Herza region as territory of the respective Soviet republics. Throughout the Cold War, the issue of Bessarabia remained largely dormant in Romania. In the 1950s, research on history and of Bessarabia was a banned subject in Romania, as the Romanian Communist Party tried to emphasise the links between the Romanians and Russians, the annexation being considered just a proof of Soviet Union's internationalism. Starting in the 1960s, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej and Nicolae Ceaușescu began a policy of distancing from the Soviet Union, but the debate over Bessarabia was discussed only in scholarship fields such as historiography and linguistics, not at a political level. As Soviet–Romanian relations reached an all-time low in the mid-1960s, Soviet scholars published historical papers on the "Struggle of Unification of Bessarabia with the Soviet Motherland" (Artiom Lazarev) and the "Development of the Moldovan Language" (Nicolae Corlăteanu). On the other side, the Romanian Academy published some notes by Karl Marx which talk about the "injustice" of the 1812 annexation of Bessarabia and Nicolae Ceaușescu in a 1965 speech quoted a letter by Friedrich Engels in which he criticized the Russian annexation, while in another 1966 speech, he denounced the pre-World War II calls of the Romanian Communist Party for the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia and Bukovina. The issue was brought to light whenever the relationships with the Soviets were waning, but never became a serious subject of high-level negotiations in itself. On 22 June 1976, Ștefan Andrei, a member on the Permanent Bureau of the Political Executive Committee of Romania and a future Minister of Foreign Affairs, underscored that the republic harbored no territorial claims and recognized "the Moldavian Socialist Republic as an integral part of the USSR," yet that it "cannot accept the idea that Moldavians are not Romanians." On 1 August 1976, Nicolae Ceaușescu, Elena Ceaușescu, Nicu Ceaușescu, Ștefan Andrei, and Ambassador Gheorghe Badrus were the first high-level Romanian visitors to Moldova since World War II. On 1 August, they came from Iași, and the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Moldavia Ivan Bodiul, Kiril Iliashenko, and N. Merenișcev escorted them from the border until they left for Crimea at the Chișinău International Airport on 2 August. The move was widely interpreted as a sign of improved relations. During a meeting, Brezhnev insisted that Ceaușescu himself had the opportunity to see that the Moldavians existed as a separate people with a separate language during his 1976 visit. "Yes," Ceaușescu replied, "I did, but they spoke with me in Romanian." In December 1976, Bodiul and his wife Claudia arrived for a return visit of five days at Ceaușescu's invitation. Bodiul's visit was a "first" in the history of postwar bilateral relations. At one of his meetings in Bucharest, Bodiul said that "the good relationship was initiated by Ceaușescu's visit to Soviet Moldavia, which led to the expansion of contacts and exchanges in all fields. A visit was paid from 14 to 16 June 1979, to the Moldavian SSR by a Romanian Communist Party delegation headed by Ion Iliescu, Political Executive Committee alternate member and Iași County Party Committee First Secretary. As late as November 1989, as Russian support decreased, Ceaușescu brought up the Bessarabian question once again and denounced the Soviet invasion during the 14th Congress of the Romanian Communist Party. After the fall of communism in Romania, on 5 April 1991, its president Ion Iliescu, and Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev signed a political treaty which among other things recognized the Soviet-Romanian border. However, the Parliament of Romania refused to ratify it. Romania and Russia eventually signed and ratified a treaty in 2003, after the independence of Moldova and Ukraine. Leadership The Communist Party of Moldavia was a component of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Communist Party was the sole legal political organization until perestroika. It had supreme power in the land, as all state and public organizations were its subordinates. Until the 1978 Constitution of the Moldavian SSR (15 April 1978), the republic had four cities directly subordinated to the republican government: Chișinău, Bălți, Bender, and Tiraspol. By the new constitution, the following cities were added to this category: Orhei, Rîbnița, Soroca, and Ungheni. The former four cities, and 40 raions were the first-tier administrative units of the land. Economy Although it was the most densely populated republic of the USSR, the Moldavian SSR was meant to be a rural country specialized in agriculture. Kyrgyzstan was the only Soviet Republic to hold a larger percentage of rural population. While holding just 0.2% of the Soviet territory, it accounted for 10% of the canned food production, 4.2% of its vegetables, 12.3% of its fruits and 8.2% of its wine production. At the same time, most of the Moldavian industry was built in Transnistria. While accounting for roughly 15% of the population of Moldavian SSR, Transnistria was responsible for 40% of its GDP and for 90% of electricity production. Major factories included the Rîbnița steel mill, Dubăsari and Moldavskaia power station and the factories near Tiraspol, producing refrigerators, clothing and alcohol. Society Education and language Beginning with the early 1950s, the government gradually abandoned the language standard based on the central Bessarabian speech, established as official during the Moldavian ASSR, in favour of the Romanian standard. Hence, Mihai Eminescu and Vasile Alecsandri were again allowed, and the standard written language became the same as Romanian, except that it was written with Cyrillic script. Access to Romanian authors born outside the medieval Principality of Moldavia was restricted, as was the case with works by authors such as Eminescu, Mihail Kogălniceanu, Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, Constantin Stere that promoted a Romanian national sentiment. Contacts with Romania were not severed and, after 1956, people were slowly allowed to visit or receive relatives in Romania. Romanian press became accessible, and cross-border Romanian TV and radio programmes could be easily received. Nevertheless, the Soviet–Romanian border along the Prut river, separating Bessarabia from Romania, was closed for the general public. Culture The little nationalism which existed in the Moldavian elite manifested itself in poems and articles in literary journals, before their authors were purged in campaigns against "anti-Soviet feelings" and "local nationalism" organized by Bodiul and Grossu. The official stance of the Soviet government was that Moldavian culture was distinct from Romanian culture, but they had a more coherent policy than the previous one from the Moldavian ASSR. There were no more attempts in creating a Moldovan language that is different from Romanian, the literary Romanian written with the Cyrillic alphabet being accepted as the linguistic standard for Moldavia. The only difference was in some technical terms borrowed from Russian. Moldavians were encouraged to adopt the Russian language, which was required for any leadership job (Russian was intended to be the Lingua Franca of interethnic communication in the Soviet Union). In the early years, political and academic positions were given to members of non-Moldavian ethnic groups (only 14% of the Moldavian SSR's political leaders were ethnic Moldavians in 1946), although this gradually changed as time went on. Demographics In the aftermath of World War II, many Russians and Ukrainians, along with a smaller number of other ethnic groups, migrated from the rest of the USSR to Moldavia in order to help rebuild the heavily war-damaged economy. They were mostly factory and construction workers who settled in major urban areas, as well as military personnel stationed in the region. From a socio-economic point of view, this group was quite diverse: in addition to industrial and construction workers, as well as retired officers and soldiers of the Soviet army, it also included engineers, technicians, a handful of scientists, but mostly unqualified workers. Access of native Bessarabians to positions in administration and economy was limited, as they were considered untrustworthy. The first local to become minister in the Moldavian SSR was only in the 1960s as minister of health. The antagonism between "natives", and "newcomers" persisted until the dissolution of the Soviet Union and was clear during the anti-Soviet and anti-Communist events from 1988 to 1992. The immigration affected mostly the cities of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, as well as the countryside of Budjak where the Bessarabia Germans previously were, but also the cities of Transnistria. All of these saw the proportion of ethnic Moldavians slowly drop throughout the Soviet rule. Legacy The widespread nostalgia for the Soviet Union influences electoral choice in the Republic of Moldova. According to a 2017 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center, nostalgia for the USSR is common with 70% of Moldovans stating that the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 was a bad thing for their country. In the region of Gagauzia, the main street of Etulia is named after Vladimir Lenin and a statue of Karl Marx is still preserved in front of the village hall. References Footnotes Bibliography External links The New Constitution Of The Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic by George Cioranescu and R. Flers Moldavia; a flourishing orchard by Aleksandr Diorditsa Photogallery of Chișinău (1950s–1980s), the capital of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic 1940 establishments in the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic 1940 establishments in the Soviet Union 1991 disestablishments in the Soviet Union 20th century in Moldova Communism in Moldova Eastern Bloc Former socialist republics Republics of the Soviet Union States and territories established in 1940 States and territories disestablished in 1991
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian%20Soviet%20Socialist%20Republic
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (; ), abbreviated as the Ukrainian SSR, UkSSR, and also known as Soviet Ukraine or just Ukraine, was one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union from 1922 until 1991. Under the Soviet one-party model, the Ukrainian SSR was governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union through its republican branch, the Communist Party of Ukraine. The first iterations of the Ukrainian SSR were established during the Russian Revolution, particularly after the Bolshevik Revolution. The outbreak of the Ukrainian–Soviet War in the former Russian Empire saw the Bolsheviks defeat the independent Ukrainian People's Republic, during the conflict against which they founded the Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets, which was governed by the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), in December 1917; it was later succeeded by the Ukrainian Soviet Republic in 1918, also under the Russian SFSR. Simultaneously with the Russian Civil War, the Ukrainian War of Independence was being fought among the different Ukrainian republics founded by Ukrainian nationalists, Ukrainian anarchists, and Ukrainian separatists – primarily against Soviet Russia and the Ukrainian SSR, with either help or opposition from neighbouring states. As a Soviet quasi-state, the newly established Ukrainian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 alongside the Byelorussian SSR, in spite of the fact that they were legally represented by the Soviet Union in foreign affairs. In 1922, it was one of four Soviet republics (with the Russian SFSR, the Byelorussian SSR, and the Transcaucasian SFSR) that signed the Treaty on the Creation of the Soviet Union. Upon the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Ukrainian SSR emerged as the present-day independent state of Ukraine, although the modified Soviet constitution remained in use until the adoption of the modern Ukrainian constitution in June 1996. Throughout its 72-year history, the republic's borders changed many times, with a significant portion of what is now western Ukraine having been acquired via the Soviet-German Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, with the annexation of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia in 1939, significant portions of Romania in 1940, alongside another annexation of territory in 1945 from Carpathian Ruthenia in Czechoslovakia. From the 1919 establishment of the Ukrainian SSR until 1934, the city of Kharkov served as its capital; however, the republic's seat of government was subsequently relocated in 1934 to the city of Kiev, the historic Ukrainian capital, and remained at Kiev for the remainder of its existence. Geographically, the Ukrainian SSR was situated in Eastern Europe, to the north of the Black Sea, and was bordered by the Soviet republics of Moldavia (since 1940), Byelorussia, and Russia, and the countries of Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Poland. The republic's border with Czechoslovakia formed the Soviet Union's westernmost border point. According to the 1989 Soviet census, the republic of Ukraine had a population of 51,706,746 (second after Russia), which fell sharply after the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991 due to high emigration rates, environmental pollution caused by the Chernobyl disaster of 1986 and male alcoholism. Name Its original names in 1919 were both Ukraine and Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic (, abbreviated ). After the ratification of the 1936 Soviet Constitution, full official names of all Soviet republics were changed, transposing the second (socialist) and third (sovietskaya in Russian or radianska in Ukrainian) words. In accordance, on 5 December 1936, the 8th Extraordinary Congress Soviets in Soviet Union changed the name of the republic to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was ratified by the 14th Extraordinary Congress of Soviets in Ukrainian SSR on 31 January 1937. The name Ukraine () is a subject of debate. It is often perceived as being derived from the Slavic word "okraina", meaning "border land". It was first used to define part of the territory of Kievan Rus' (Ruthenia) in the 12th century, at which point Kiev (now Kyiv) was the capital of Rus'. The name has been used in a variety of ways since the twelfth century. For example, Zaporozhian Cossacks called their hetmanate "Ukraine". Within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the name carried unofficial status for larger part of Kiev Voivodeship. "The Ukraine" used to be the usual form in English, despite Ukrainian not having a definite article. Since the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine, this form has become less common in the English-speaking world, and style-guides warn against its use in professional writing. According to U.S. ambassador William Taylor, "The Ukraine" now implies disregard for the country's sovereignty. The Ukrainian position is that the usage of "'The Ukraine' is incorrect both grammatically and politically." History After the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II during the February Revolution of 1917 in Petrograd, many people in Ukraine wished to establish an autonomous Ukrainian Republic. During a period of the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1923, many factions claiming themselves governments of the newly born republic were formed, each with supporters and opponents. The two most prominent of them were an independent government in Kiev called the Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR) and a Soviet Russia-aligned government in Kharkov called the Ukrainian Soviet Republic (USR). The Kiev-based UNR was internationally recognized and supported by the Central Powers following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, whereas the Kharkov-based USR was solely supported by the Soviet Russian forces, while neither the UNR nor the USR were explicitly supported by the White Russian forces that remained, although there were attempts to establish cooperation during the closing stages of the war with the former. The conflict between the two competing governments, known as the Ukrainian–Soviet War, was part of the ongoing Russian Civil War, as well as a struggle for national independence (known as the Ukrainian War of Independence), which ended with the territory of pro-independence Ukrainian People's Republic being annexed into a new Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic, western Ukraine being annexed into the Second Polish Republic, and the newly stable Ukrainian SSR becoming a founding member of the Soviet Union. The government of the Ukrainian Soviet Republic was founded on 24–25 December 1917. In its publications, it named itself either the Republic of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies or the Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets. The 1917 republic was only recognised by another non-recognised country, the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. With the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty by Russia, it was ultimately defeated by mid-1918 and eventually dissolved. The last session of the government took place in the Russian city of Taganrog. In July 1918, the former members of the government formed the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine, the constituent assembly of which took place in Moscow. With the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I, Bolshevik Russia resumed its hostilities towards the Ukrainian People's Republic fighting for Ukrainian independence and organised another Soviet "Ukrainian" government in Kursk, Russia. On 10 March 1919, the Third All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets ratified the constitution of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, explicitly on the basis of the constitution of Soviet Russia. Founding: 1917–1922 After the Russian Revolution of 1917, several factions sought to create an independent Ukrainian state, alternately cooperating and struggling against each other. Numerous more or less socialist-oriented factions participated in the formation of the Ukrainian People's Republic among which were Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, Socialists-Revolutionaries and many others. The most popular faction was initially the local Socialist Revolutionary Party that composed the local government together with Federalists and Mensheviks. Immediately after the October Revolution in Petrograd, Bolsheviks instigated the Kiev Bolshevik Uprising to support the revolution and secure Kiev. Due to a lack of adequate support from the local population and governing anti-communist Central Rada, however, the Kiev Bolshevik group split. Most moved to Kharkov and received the support of the eastern Ukrainian cities and industrial centers. Later, this move was regarded as a mistake by some of the People's Commissars (Yevgenia Bosch). They issued an ultimatum to the Central Rada on 17 December to recognise the Soviet government of which the Rada was very critical. The Bolsheviks convened a separate congress and declared the first Soviet Republic of Ukraine on 24 December 1917 claiming the Central Rada and its supporters outlaws that need to be eradicated. Warfare ensued against the Ukrainian People's Republic for the installation of the Soviet regime in the country, and with the direct support from Soviet Russia the Ukrainian National forces were practically overrun. The government of Ukraine appealed to foreign capitalists, finding support in the face of the Central Powers as the others refused to recognise it. After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Russian SFSR yielded all the captured Ukrainian territory as the Bolsheviks were forced out of Ukraine. The government of Soviet Ukraine was dissolved after its last session on 20 November 1918. After re-taking Kharkov in February 1919, a second Soviet Ukrainian government was formed. The government enforced Russian policies that did not adhere to local needs. A group of three thousand workers were dispatched from Russia to take grain from local farms to feed Russian cities and were met with resistance. The Ukrainian language was also censured from administrative and educational use. Eventually fighting both White forces in the east and Ukrainian forces in the west, Lenin ordered the liquidation of the second Soviet Ukrainian government in August 1919. Eventually, after the creation of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine in Moscow, a third Ukrainian Soviet government was formed on 21 December 1919 that initiated new hostilities against Ukrainian nationalists as they lost their military support from the defeated Central Powers. Eventually, the Red Army ended up controlling much of the Ukrainian territory after the Polish-Soviet Peace of Riga. On 30 December 1922, along with the Russian, Byelorussian and Transcaucasian republics, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Interwar years: 1922–1939 During the 1920s, a policy of so-called Ukrainization was pursued in the Ukrainian SSR, as part of the general Soviet korenization policy; this involved promoting the use and the social status of the Ukrainian language and the elevation of ethnic Ukrainians to leadership positions (see Ukrainization – early years of Soviet Ukraine for more details). In 1932, the aggressive agricultural policies of Joseph Stalin's regime resulted in one of the largest national catastrophes in the modern history for the Ukrainian nation. A famine known as the Holodomor caused a direct loss of human life estimated between 2.6 million to 10 million. Some scholars and the World Congress of Free Ukrainians assert that this was an act of genocide. The International Commission of Inquiry Into the 1932–1933 Famine in Ukraine found no evidence that the famine was part of a preconceived plan to starve Ukrainians, and concluded in 1990 that the famine was caused by a combination of factors, including Soviet policies of compulsory grain requisitions, forced collectivization, dekulakization, and Russification. The General Assembly of the UN has stopped shy of recognizing the Holodomor as genocide, calling it a "great tragedy" as a compromise between tense positions of United Kingdom, United States, Russia, and Ukraine on the matter, while some nations went on to individually categorize it as genocide, including France, Germany, and the United States after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. World War II: 1939–1945 In September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland and occupied Galician lands inhabited by Ukrainians, Poles and Jews adding it to the territory of the Ukrainian SSR. In 1940, the Soviet Union occupied Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and the Hertsa region, lands inhabited by Romanians, Ukrainians, Russians, Jews, Bulgarians and Gagauz, adding them to the territory of the Ukrainian SSR and the newly formed Moldavian SSR. In 1945, these lands were permanently annexed, and the Transcarpathia region was added as well, by treaty with the post-war administration of Czechoslovakia. Following eastward Soviet retreat in 1941, Ufa became the wartime seat of the Soviet Ukrainian government. Post-war years: 1945–1953 While World War II (called the Great Patriotic War by the Soviet government) did not end before May 1945, the Germans were driven out of Ukraine between February 1943 and October 1944. The first task of the Soviet authorities was to reestablish political control over the republic which had been entirely lost during the war. This was an immense task, considering the widespread human and material losses. During World War II the Soviet Union lost about 8.6 million combatants and around 18 million civilians, of these, 6.8 million were Ukrainian civilians and military personnel. Also, an estimated 3.9 million Ukrainians were evacuated to the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic during the war, and 2.2 million Ukrainians were sent to forced labour camps by the Germans. The material devastation was huge; Adolf Hitler's orders to create "a zone of annihilation" in 1943, coupled with the Soviet military's scorched-earth policy in 1941, meant Ukraine lay in ruins. These two policies led to the destruction of more than 28,000 villages and 714 cities and towns. 85 percent of Kiev's city centre was destroyed, as was 70 percent of the city centre of the second-largest city in Ukraine, Kharkov. Because of this, 19 million people were left homeless after the war. The republic's industrial base, as so much else, was destroyed. The Soviet government had managed to evacuate 544 industrial enterprises between July and November 1941, but the rapid German advance led to the destruction or the partial destruction of 16,150 enterprises. 27,910 collective farms, 1,300 machine tractor stations and 872 state farms were destroyed by the Germans. While the war brought to Ukraine an enormous physical destruction, victory also led to territorial expansion. As a victor, the Soviet Union gained new prestige and more land. The Ukrainian border was expanded to the Curzon Line. Ukraine was also expanded southwards, near the area Izmail, previously part of Romania. An agreement was signed by the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia whereby Carpathian Ruthenia was handed over to Ukraine. The territory of Ukraine expanded by and increased its population by an estimated 11 million. After World War II, amendments to the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR were accepted, which allowed it to act as a separate subject of international law in some cases and to a certain extent, remaining a part of the Soviet Union at the same time. In particular, these amendments allowed the Ukrainian SSR to become one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN) together with the Soviet Union and the Byelorussian SSR. This was part of a deal with the United States to ensure a degree of balance in the General Assembly, which, the USSR opined, was unbalanced in favor of the Western Bloc. In its capacity as a member of the UN, the Ukrainian SSR was an elected member of the United Nations Security Council in 1948–1949 and 1984–1985. Khrushchev and Brezhnev: 1953–1985 When Stalin died on 5 March 1953, the collective leadership of Khrushchev, Georgy Malenkov, Vyacheslav Molotov and Lavrentiy Beria took power and a period of de-Stalinization began. Change came as early as 1953, when officials were allowed to criticise Stalin's policy of russification. The Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine (CPU) openly criticised Stalin's russification policies in a meeting in June 1953. On 4 June 1953, Aleksey Kirichenko succeeded Leonid Melnikov as First Secretary of the CPU; this was significant since Kyrychenko was the first ethnic Ukrainian to lead the CPU since the 1920s. The policy of de-Stalinization took two main features, that of centralisation and decentralisation from the centre. In February 1954, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) transferred Crimea to Ukraine during the celebrations of the 300th anniversary of Ukraine's reunification with Russia (Soviet name for the Pereiaslav Agreement). The massive festivities lasted throughout 1954, commemorating (), the treaty which brought Ukraine under Russian rule three centuries before. The event was celebrated to prove the old and brotherly love between Ukrainians and Russians, and proof of the Soviet Union as a "family of nations"; it was also another way of legitimising Marxism–Leninism. On 23 June 1954, the civilian oil tanker Tuapse of the Black Sea Shipping Company based in Odessa was hijacked by a fleet of Republic of China Navy in the high sea of 19°35′N, 120°39′E, west of Balintang Channel near Philippines, whereas the 49 Ukrainian, Russian and Moldovan crew were detained by the Kuomintang regime in various terms up to 34 years in captivity with 3 deaths. The "Thaw"the policy of deliberate liberalisationwas characterised by four points: amnesty for some convicted of state crime during the war or the immediate post-war years; amnesties for one-third of those convicted of state crime during Stalin's rule; the establishment of the first Ukrainian mission to the United Nations in 1958; and the steady increase of Ukrainians in the rank of the CPU and government of the Ukrainian SSR. Not only were the majority of CPU Central Committee and Politburo members ethnic Ukrainians, three-quarters of the highest ranking party and state officials were ethnic Ukrainians too. The policy of partial Ukrainisation also led to a cultural thaw within Ukraine. In October 1964, Khrushchev was deposed by a joint Central Committee and Politburo plenum and succeeded by another collective leadership, this time led by Leonid Brezhnev, born in Ukraine, as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. Brezhnev's rule would be marked by social and economic stagnation, a period often referred to as the Era of Stagnation. The new regime introduced the policy of rastsvet, sblizhenie and sliianie ("flowering", "drawing together" and "merging"/"fusion"), which was the policy of uniting the different Soviet nationalities into one Soviet nationality by merging the best elements of each nationality into the new one. This policy turned out to be, in fact, the reintroduction of the russification policy. The reintroduction of this policy can be explained by Khrushchev's promise of communism in 20 years; the unification of Soviet nationalities would take place, according to Vladimir Lenin, when the Soviet Union reached the final stage of communism, also the final stage of human development. Some all-Union Soviet officials were calling for the abolition of the "pseudosovereign" Soviet republics, and the establishment of one nationality. Instead of introducing the ideologic concept of the Soviet Nation, Brezhnev at the 24th Party Congress talked about "a new historical community of people – the Soviet people", and introduced the ideological tenant of Developed socialism, which postponed communism. When Brezhnev died in 1982, his position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was succeeded by Yuri Andropov, who died quickly after taking power. Andropov was succeeded by Konstantin Chernenko, who ruled for little more than a year. Chernenko was succeeded by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985. Gorbachev and dissolution: 1985–1991 Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost (English: restructuring and openness) failed to reach Ukraine as early as other Soviet republics because of Volodymyr Shcherbytsky, a conservative communist appointed by Brezhnev and the First Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party, who resigned from his post in 1989. The Chernobyl disaster of 1986, the russification policies, and the apparent social and economic stagnation led several Ukrainians to oppose Soviet rule. Gorbachev's policy of perestroika was also never introduced into practice, 95 percent of industry and agriculture was still owned by the Soviet state in 1990. The talk of reform, but the lack of introducing reform into practice, led to confusion which in turn evolved into opposition to the Soviet state itself. The policy of glasnost, which ended state censorship, led the Ukrainian diaspora to reconnect with their compatriots in Ukraine, the revitalisation of religious practices by destroying the monopoly of the Russian Orthodox Church and led to the establishment of several opposition pamphlets, journals and newspapers. Following the failed August Coup in Moscow on 19–21 August 1991, the Supreme Soviet of Ukraine declared independence on 24 August 1991, which renamed the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic to Ukraine. The result of the 1991 independence referendum held on 1 December 1991 proved to be a surprise. An overwhelming majority, 92.3%, voted for independence. The referendum carried in the majority of all oblasts. Notably, the Crimea, which had originally been a territory of the RSFSR until 1954, supported the referendum by a 54 percent majority. Over 80 percent of the population of Eastern Ukraine voted for independence. Ukraine's independence was almost immediately recognized by the international community. Ukraine's new-found independence was the first time in the 20th century that Ukrainian independence had been attempted without either foreign intervention or civil war. In the 1991 Ukrainian presidential election 62 percent of Ukrainians voted for Leonid Kravchuk, who had been vested with presidential powers since the Supreme Soviet's declaration of independence. The secession of the second most powerful republic in the Soviet Union ended any realistic chance of the Soviet Union staying together even on a limited scale. A week after Kravchuk's victory, on 8 December, he and his Russian and Belarusian counterparts signed the Belovezh Accords, which declared that the Soviet Union had effectively ceased to exist and forming the Commonwealth of Independent States as a replacement. They were joined by eight of the remaining 12 republics (all except Georgia) on 21 December in signing the Alma-Ata Protocol, which reiterated that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist. The Soviet Union formally dissolved on 26 December. Politics and government The Ukrainian SSR's system of government was based on a one-party communist system ruled by the Communist Party of Ukraine, a branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (KPSS). The republic was one of 15 constituent republics composing the Soviet Union from its entry into the union in 1922 until its dissolution in 1991. All of the political power and authority in the USSR was in the hands of Communist Party authorities, with little real power being concentrated in official government bodies and organs. In such a system, lower-level authorities directly reported to higher level authorities and so on, with the bulk of the power being held at the highest echelons of the Communist Party. Originally, the legislative authority was vested in the Congress of Soviets of Ukraine, whose Central Executive Committee was for many years headed by Grigory Petrovsky. Soon after publishing a Stalinist constitution, the Congress of Soviets was transformed into the Supreme Soviet (and the Central Executive Committee into its Presidium), which consisted of 450 deputies. The Supreme Soviet had the authority to enact legislation, amend the constitution, adopt new administrative and territorial boundaries, adopt the budget, and establish political and economic development plans. In addition, parliament also had to authority to elect the republic's executive branch, the Council of Ministers as well as the power to appoint judges to the Supreme Court. Legislative sessions were short and were conducted for only a few weeks out of the year. In spite of this, the Supreme Soviet elected the Presidium, the Chairman, 3 deputy chairmen, a secretary, and couple of other government members to carry out the official functions and duties in between legislative sessions. Chairman of the Presidium was a powerful position in the republic's higher echelons of power, and could nominally be considered the equivalent of head of state, although most executive authority would be concentrated in the Communist Party's politburo and its First Secretary. Full universal suffrage was granted for all eligible citizens aged 18 and over, excluding prisoners and those deprived of freedom. Although they could not be considered free and were of a symbolic nature, elections to the Supreme Soviet were contested every five years. Nominees from electoral districts from around the republic, typically consisting of an average of 110,000 inhabitants, were directly chosen by party authorities, providing little opportunity for political change, since all political authority was directly subordinate to the higher level above it. With the beginning of Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika reforms towards the mid-late 1980s, electoral reform laws were passed in 1989, liberalising the nominating procedures and allowing multiple candidates to stand for election in a district. Accordingly, the first relatively free elections in the Ukrainian SSR were contested in March 1990. 111 deputies from the Democratic Bloc, a loose association of small pro-Ukrainian and pro-sovereignty parties and the instrumental People's Movement of Ukraine (colloquially known as Rukh in Ukrainian) were elected to the parliament. Although the Communist Party retained its majority with 331 deputies, large support for the Democratic Bloc demonstrated the people's distrust of the Communist authorities, which would eventually boil down to Ukrainian independence in 1991. Ukraine is the legal successor of the Ukrainian SSR and it stated to fulfill "those rights and duties pursuant to international agreements of Union SSR which do not contradict the Constitution of Ukraine and interests of the Republic" on 5 October 1991. After Ukrainian independence the Ukrainian SSR's parliament was changed from Supreme Soviet to its current name Verkhovna Rada, the Verkhovna Rada is still Ukraine's parliament. Ukraine also has refused to recognize exclusive Russian claims to succession of the Soviet Union and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which was stated in Articles 7 and 8 of On Legal Succession of Ukraine, issued in 1991. Following independence, Ukraine has continued to pursue claims against the Russian Federation in foreign courts, seeking to recover its share of the foreign property that was owned by the Soviet Union. It also retained its seat in the United Nations, held since 1945. Foreign relations On the international front, the Ukrainian SSR, along with the rest of the 15 republics, had virtually no say in their own foreign affairs. It is, however, important to note that in 1944 the Ukrainian SSR was permitted to establish bilateral relations with countries and maintain its own standing army. This clause was used to permit the republic's membership in the United Nations, alongside the Byelorussian SSR. Accordingly, representatives from the "Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic" and 50 other nations founded the UN on 24 October 1945. In effect, this provided the Soviet Union (a permanent Security Council member with veto powers) with another two votes in the General Assembly. The latter aspect of the 1944 clauses, however, was never fulfilled and the republic's defense matters were managed by the Soviet Armed Forces and the Defense Ministry. Another right that was granted but never used until 1991 was the right of the Soviet republics to secede from the union, which was codified in each of the Soviet constitutions. Accordingly, Article 69 of the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR stated: "The Ukrainian SSR retains the right to willfully secede from the USSR." However, a republic's theoretical secession from the union was virtually impossible and unrealistic in many ways until after Gorbachev's perestroika reforms. The Ukrainian SSR was a member of the UN Economic and Social Council, UNICEF, International Labour Organization, Universal Postal Union, World Health Organization, UNESCO, International Telecommunication Union, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, World Intellectual Property Organization and the International Atomic Energy Agency. It was not separately a member of the Warsaw Pact, Comecon, the World Federation of Trade Unions and the World Federation of Democratic Youth, and since 1949, the International Olympic Committee. Administrative divisions Legally, the Soviet Union and its fifteen union republics constituted a federal system, but the country was functionally a highly centralised state, with all major decision-making taking place in the Kremlin, the capital and seat of government of the country. The constituent republics were essentially unitary states, with lower levels of power being directly subordinate to higher ones. Throughout its 72-year existence, the administrative divisions of the Ukrainian SSR changed numerous times, often incorporating regional reorganisation and annexation on the part of Soviet authorities during World War II. The most common administrative division was the oblast (province), of which there were 25 upon the republic's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Provinces were further subdivided into raions (districts) which numbered 490. The rest of the administrative division within the provinces consisted of cities, urban-type settlements, and villages. Cities in the Ukrainian SSR were a separate exception, which could either be subordinate to either the provincial authorities themselves or the district authorities of which they were the administrative center. Two cities, the capital Kiev, and Sevastopol in Crimea, treated separately because it housed an underground nuclear submarine base, were designated "cities with special status." This meant that they were directly subordinate to the central Ukrainian SSR authorities and not the provincial authorities surrounding them. Historical formation However, the history of administrative divisions in the republic was not so clear cut. At the end of World War I in 1918, Ukraine was invaded by Soviet Russia as the Russian puppet government of the Ukrainian SSR and without official declaration it ignited the Ukrainian–Soviet War. Government of the Ukrainian SSR from very start was managed by the Communist Party of Ukraine that was created in Moscow and was originally formed out of the Bolshevik organisational centers in Ukraine. Occupying the eastern city of Kharkov, the Soviet forces chose it as the republic's seat of government, colloquially named in the media as "Kharkov – Pervaya Stolitsa (the first capital)" with implication to the era of Soviet regime. Kharkov was also the city where the first Soviet Ukrainian government was created in 1917 with strong support from Russian SFSR authorities. However, in 1934, the capital was moved from Kharkov to Kiev, which remains the capital of Ukraine today. During the 1930s, there were significant numbers of ethnic minorities living within the Ukrainian SSR. National Districts were formed as separate territorial-administrative units within higher-level provincial authorities. Districts were established for the republic's three largest minority groups, which were the Jews, Russians, and Poles. Other ethnic groups, however, were allowed to petition the government for their own national autonomy. In 1924 on the territory of Ukrainian SSR was formed the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Upon the 1940 conquest of Bessarabia and Bukovina by Soviet troops the Moldavian ASSR was passed to the newly formed Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic, while Budzhak and Bukovina were secured by the Ukrainian SSR. Following the creation of the Ukrainian SSR significant numbers of ethnic Ukrainians found themselves living outside the Ukrainian SSR. In the 1920s the Ukrainian SSR was forced to cede several territories to Russia in Severia, Sloboda Ukraine and Azov littoral including such cities like Belgorod, Taganrog and Starodub. In the 1920s the administration of the Ukrainian SSR insisted in vain on reviewing the border between the Ukrainian Soviet Republics and the Russian Soviet Republic based on the 1926 First All-Union Census of the Soviet Union that showed that 4.5 millions of Ukrainians were living on Russian territories bordering Ukraine. A forced end to Ukrainisation in southern Russian Soviet Republic led to a massive decline of reported Ukrainians in these regions in the 1937 Soviet Census. Upon signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Nazi Germany and Soviet Union partitioned Poland and its Eastern Borderlands were secured by the Soviet buffer republics with Ukraine securing the territory of Eastern Galicia. The Soviet September Polish campaign in Soviet propaganda was portrayed as the Golden September for Ukrainians, given the unification of Ukrainian lands on both banks of Zbruch River, until then the border between the Soviet Union and the Polish communities inhabited by Ukrainian speaking families. Economy Before 1945 After 1945 Agriculture In 1945, agricultural production stood at only 40 percent of the 1940 level, even though the republic's territorial expansion had "increased the amount of arable land". In contrast to the remarkable growth in the industrial sector, agriculture continued in Ukraine, as in the rest of the Soviet Union, to function as the economy's Achilles heel. Despite the human toll of Collectivisation of agriculture in the Soviet Union, especially in Ukraine, Soviet planners still believed in the effectiveness of collective farming. The old system was reestablished; the numbers of collective farms in Ukraine increased from 28 thousand in 1940 to 33 thousand in 1949, comprising 45 million hectares; the numbers of state farms barely increased, standing at 935 in 1950, comprising 12.1 million hectares. By the end of the Fourth Five-Year Plan (in 1950) and the Fifth Five-Year Plan (in 1955), agricultural output still stood far lower than the 1940 level. The slow changes in agriculture can be explained by the low productivity in collective farms, and by bad weather-conditions, which the Soviet planning system could not effectively respond to. Grain for human consumption in the post-war years decreased, this in turn led to frequent and severe food shortages. The increase of Soviet agricultural production was tremendous, however, the Soviet-Ukrainians still experienced food shortages due to the inefficiencies of a highly centralised economy. During the peak of Soviet-Ukrainian agriculture output in the 1950s and early-to-mid-1960s, human consumption in Ukraine, and in the rest of the Soviet Union, actually experienced short intervals of decrease. There are many reasons for this inefficiency, but its origins can be traced back to the single-purchaser and -producer market system set up by Joseph Stalin. Khrushchev tried to improve the agricultural situation in the Soviet Union by expanding the total crop size – for instance, in the Ukrainian SSR alone "the amount of land planted with corn grew by 600 percent". At the height of this policy, between 1959 and 1963, one-third of Ukrainian arable land grew this crop. This policy decreased the total production of wheat and rye; Khrushchev had anticipated this, and the production of wheat and rye moved to Soviet Central Asia as part of the Virgin Lands Campaign. Khrushchev's agricultural policy failed, and in 1963 the Soviet Union had to import food from abroad. The total level of agricultural productivity in Ukraine decreased sharply during this period, but recovered in the 1970s and 1980s during Leonid Brezhnev's rule. Industry During the post-war years, Ukraine's industrial productivity doubled its pre-war level. In 1945 industrial output totalled only 26 percent of the 1940 level. The Soviet Union introduced the Fourth Five-Year Plan in 1946. The Fourth Five-Year Plan would prove to be a remarkable success, and can be likened to the "wonders of West German and Japanese reconstruction", but without foreign capital; the Soviet reconstruction is historically an impressive achievement. In 1950 industrial gross output had already surpassed 1940-levels. While the Soviet régime still emphasised heavy industry over light industry, the light-industry sector also grew. The increase in capital investment and the expansion of the labour force also benefited Ukraine's economic recovery. In the prewar years, 15.9 percent of the Soviet budget went to Ukraine, in 1950, during the Fourth Five-Year Plan this had increased to 19.3 percent. The workforce had increased from 1.2 million in 1945 to 2.9 million in 1955; an increase of 33.2 percent over the 1940-level. The result of this remarkable growth was that by 1955 Ukraine was producing 2.2 times more than in 1940, and the republic had become one of the leading producers of certain commodities in Europe. Ukraine was the largest per-capita producer in Europe of pig iron and sugar, and the second-largest per-capita producer of steel and of iron ore, and was the third largest per-capita producer of coal in Europe. From 1965 until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, industrial growth in Ukraine decreased, and by the 1970s it started to stagnate. Significant economic decline did not become apparent before the 1970s. During the Fifth Five-Year Plan (1951–1955), industrial development in Ukraine grew by 13.5 percent, while during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (1981–1985) industry grew by a relatively modest 3.5 percent. The double-digit growth seen in all branches of the economy in the post-war years had disappeared by the 1980s, entirely replaced by low growth-figures. An ongoing problem throughout the republic's existence was the planners' emphasis on heavy industry over consumer goods. The urbanisation of Ukrainian society in the post-war years led to an increase in energy consumption. Between 1956 and 1972, to meet this increasing demand, the government built five water reservoirs along the Dnieper River. Aside from improving Soviet-Ukrainian water transport, the reservoirs became the sites for new power stations, and hydroelectric energy flourished in Ukraine in consequence. The natural-gas industry flourished as well, and Ukraine became the site of the first post-war production of gas in the Soviet Union; by the 1960s Ukraine's biggest gas field was producing 30 percent of the USSR's total gas production. The government was not able to meet the people's ever-increasing demand for energy consumption, but by the 1970s, the Soviet government had conceived an intensive nuclear power program. According to the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, the Soviet government would build 8 nuclear power plants in Ukraine by 1989. As a result of these efforts, Ukraine became highly diversified in energy consumption. Religion Many churches and synagogues were destroyed during the existence of the Ukrainian SSR. Urbanization Urbanisation in post-Stalin Ukraine grew quickly; in 1959 only 25 cities in Ukraine had populations over one hundred thousand, by 1979 the number had grown to 49. During the same period, the growth of cities with a population over one million increased from one to five; Kiev alone nearly doubled its population, from 1.1 million in 1959 to 2.1 million in 1979. This proved a turning point in Ukrainian society: for the first time in Ukraine's history, the majority of ethnic Ukrainians lived in urban areas; 53 percent of the ethnic Ukrainian population did so in 1979. The majority worked in the non-agricultural sector, in 1970 31 percent of Ukrainians engaged in agriculture, in contrast, 63 percent of Ukrainians were industrial workers and white-collar staff. In 1959, 37 percent of Ukrainians lived in urban areas, in 1989 the proportion had increased to 60 percent. Notes References Citations Sources Adams, Arthur E. Bolsheviks in the Ukraine: The Second Campaign, 1918–1919 (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1963). Armstrong, John A. The Soviet Bureaucratic Elite: A Case Study of the Ukrainian Apparatus (New York: Praeger, 1959). Dmytryshyn, Basil. Moscow and the Ukraine, 1918–1953: A Study of Russian Bolshevik Nationality Policy (New York: Bookman Associates, 1956). Manning, Clarence A. Ukraine under the Soviets (New York: Bookman Associates, 1953). Sullivant, Robert S. Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, 1917–1957 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962). Further reading External links Republics of the Soviet Union Communism in Ukraine Former socialist republics Modern history of Ukraine Post–Russian Empire states Russian Revolution in Ukraine Russian-speaking countries and territories States and territories established in 1919 States and territories disestablished in 1991 20th century in Ukraine Soviet Union–Ukraine relations Former member states of the United Nations Soviet military occupations Countries and territories where Ukrainian is an official language
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikheil%20Saakashvili
Mikheil Saakashvili
Mikheil Saakashvili ( ; ; born 21 December 1967) is a Georgian and Ukrainian politician and jurist. He was the third president of Georgia for two consecutive terms from 25 January 2004 to 17 November 2013. From May 2015 until November 2016, Saakashvili was the governor of Ukraine's Odesa Oblast. He is the founder and former chairman of the United National Movement party. Saakashvili heads the executive committee of Ukraine's National Reform Council since 7 May 2020. In 2021 he began serving a six-year prison sentence in Georgia on charges of abuse of power and organization of an assault occasioning grievous bodily harm against an opposition lawmaker Valery Gelashvili. Saakashvili entered Georgian politics in 1995. He served as member of parliament and minister of justice under President Eduard Shevardnadze. Saakashvili later moved to opposition, establishing the United National Movement party. In 2003, Saakashvili became a leading opposition figure who accused the government of rigging the 2003 Georgian parliamentary election, spearheading mass protests which saw President Shevardnadze resign from his post in the bloodless Rose Revolution. Saakashvili's key role in the protests led to him being elected as the President in 2004. He was later reelected as President in 2008. However, his party suffered defeat in the 2012 Georgian parliamentary election, while Saakashvili was barred by the constitution of Georgia from seeking a third term in the 2013 presidential election, which was also won by the opposition candidate. During his tenure as president, Saakashvili oversaw police, military, economic and government reforms. As the new Patrol Police department was established, the entire police force was fired and replaced with new one in an effort to root out corruption. The bureaucratic spendings were decreased as several ministries were abolished to cut the government size. Military budget rose to 9.2% of GDP by 2007 to strengthen the nation's defense capability. The government pursued a zero-tolerance policy towards crime. Saakashvili appointed Kakha Bendukidze as the Minister of Economy to implement economic liberalization and rapid privatization. Georgia's economy grew 70% between 2003 and 2013, and per capita income roughly tripled. However, poverty only marginally declined. At the end of Saakashvili's second term, about a quarter of the population was still living below the absolute poverty rate. Georgia's ranking in the Corruption Perceptions Index by Transparency International improved dramatically from rank 133 in 2004 to 67 in 2008 and further to 51 in 2012, surpassing several EU countries. The World Bank ranked the country 8th in terms of ease of doing business and named it as the leading economic reformer in the world. The Abkhaz–Georgian and Georgian-Ossetian conflicts continued during Saakashvili's presidency and saw a major escalation in 2008, which saw Russia officially announcing its support for separatists in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Saakashvili led Georgia through the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, which ended after five days of fighting by a ceasefire agreement negotiated by the French president Nicolas Sarkozy. The war resulted in Georgia losing all of its possessions in the disputed territories. Russia subsequently recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, while Georgia responded with breaking diplomatic relations. During Saakashvili's tenure, Georgia went through several political crises. In 2007, mass demonstrations erupted demanding resignation of Saakashvili. The protests, which were triggered by detention of Georgian politician Irakli Okruashvili, were violently dispersed by the special forces on 7 November 2007. The largest opposition media Imedi TV was raided by the police and transformed into a pro-government channel. Another wave of protests erupted in 2009. In May 2011, the government again violently responded to the opposition protests staged by Saakashvili's former ally Nino Burjanadze. Saakashvili was embroiled in a number of scandals, the most important ones relating to the beating of the opposition politician Valery Gelashvili and the murder of Sandro Girgvliani. In September 2012, the leaked video footage of systemic torture and rape in the Georgian prison system came to light during the Gldani prison scandal. Saakashvili was accused of being behind the inhuman treatment of inmates and police brutality. Shortly after the 2013 presidential election, Saakashvili left Georgia. In 2014, the Prosecutor's Office of Georgia filed criminal charges against Saakashvili. In 2018, the Tbilisi City Court sentenced him in absentia to six years in prison for ordering the beating of Valeri Gelashvili and pardoning in prior agreement the individuals tried for Sandro Girgvliani's murder. Saakashvili continued to manage his party from abroad while accusing the Georgian government of using the legal system as a tool of political retribution. Saakashvili supported Ukraine's Euromaidan movement and the Revolution of Dignity. On 30 May 2015, Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko appointed Saakashvili as Governor of Odesa Oblast. He was also granted Ukrainian citizenship, and due to restrictions on dual nationality under Georgian law, was stripped of his Georgian citizenship. On 7 November 2016, Saakashvili resigned as governor while blaming President Poroshenko personally for enabling corruption in Odesa and in Ukraine overall. Four days later, he announced his goal to create a new political party called Movement of New Forces. On 26 July 2017, Saakashvili (at the time staying in the US) was stripped of his Ukrainian citizenship by Petro Poroshenko, and became a stateless person. He reentered Ukraine with a group of supporters through Poland but was arrested in February 2018 and deported. Saakashvili moved to the Netherlands, where he was granted permanent residency. On 29 May 2019, he returned to Ukraine after newly elected President Volodymyr Zelenskyy restored his citizenship. On 1 October 2021, Saakashvili announced via Facebook his return to Georgia after an eight-year absence, on the eve of the local elections. Later on the same day Prime Minister of Georgia Irakli Garibashvili held a press briefing announcing that Saakashvili was arrested in Tbilisi. According to the investigation, Saakashvili entered the country secretly, hiding in a semi-trailer truck loaded with milk products. He illegally crossed the state border of Georgia, bypassing the customs control. He was placed in the No. 12 penitentiary facility in Rustavi. President of Georgia Salome Zourabichvili stated that she would "never" pardon Saakashvili. He has been transferred to hospital numerous times due to his health condition and since May 2022 he is being treated in a civilian clinic in Tbilisi. Early life and education Saakashvili was born to a Georgian family in Tbilisi on 21 December 1967, capital of the then Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in the Soviet Union. His father, Nikoloz Saakashvili, is a physician who practises medicine in Tbilisi and directs a local balneological centre. His mother, Giuli Alasania, is a historian who lectures at Tbilisi State University. During university, he served his shortened military service in 1989–1990 with the Soviet Border Troops' checkpoint unit in the Boryspil Airport in Ukraine (then as Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, also a part of the Soviet Union). Saakashvili graduated from the Institute of International Relations (Department of International Law) of the Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv (in then independent Ukraine) in 1992. At this university, he was friends with later President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko. While in Ukraine Saakashvili participated in the October 1990 student protest known as the "Revolution on Granite". Saakashvili briefly worked as a human rights officer for the interim State Council of Georgia following the overthrow of President Zviad Gamsakhurdia before receiving a fellowship from the United States State Department (via the Edmund S. Muskie Graduate Fellowship Program). He received an LL.M. from Columbia Law School in 1994 and took classes at the School of International and Public Affairs and The George Washington University Law School the following year. In 1995, he also received a diploma from the International Institute of Human Rights in Strasbourg, France. Election to Georgian Parliament Saakashvili interned at the United Nations. After graduation, while on internship in the New York law firm of Patterson Belknap Webb & Tyler in early 1995, he was approached by Zurab Zhvania, an old friend from Georgia who was working on behalf of President Eduard Shevardnadze to enter politics. He stood in the December 1995 elections along with Zhvania, and both men won seats in parliament, standing for the Union of Citizens of Georgia, Shevardnadze's party. Saakashvili was chairman of the parliamentary committee which was in charge of creating a new electoral system, an independent judiciary and a non-political police force. Opinion surveys recognised him to be the second most popular person in Georgia, behind Shevardnadze. He was named "man of the year" by a panel of journalists and human rights advocates in 1997. In January 2000, Saakashvili was appointed vice-president of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe. On 12 October 2000, Saakashvili became Minister of Justice for the government of President Shevardnadze. He initiated major reforms in the Georgian criminal justice and prisons system. This earned praise from international observers and human rights activists. But, in mid-2001, he became involved in a major controversy with the State Security Minister Vakhtang Kutateladze and Tbilisi police chief Ioseb Alavidze, accusing them of profiting from corrupt business deals. Saakashvili resigned on 5 September 2001, saying that "I consider it immoral for me to remain as a member of Shevardnadze's government." He declared that corruption had penetrated to the very centre of the Georgian government and that Shevardnadze lacked the will to deal with it, warning that "current developments in Georgia will turn the country into a criminal enclave in one or two years." In the United National Movement Having resigned from the government and quit the Shevardnadze-run Union of Citizens of Georgia party, Saakashvili founded the United National Movement (UNM) in October 2001, a centre-right political party with a touch of nationalism, to provide a focus for part of the Georgian reformists leaders. In June 2002, he was elected as the Chairman of the Tbilisi Assembly ("Sakrebulo") following an agreement between the United National Movement and the Georgian Labour Party. This gave him a powerful new platform from which to criticize the government. Georgia held parliamentary elections on 2 November 2003 which were denounced by local and international observers as being grossly rigged. Saakashvilli claimed that he had won the elections (a claim supported by independent exit polls), and urged Georgians to demonstrate against Shevardnadze's government and engage in nonviolent civil disobedience against the authorities. Saakashvili's UNM and Burdjanadze-Democrats united to demand the ouster of Shevardnadze and the rerun of the elections. Massive political demonstrations were held in Tbilisi in November, with over 100,000 people participating and listening to speeches by Saakashvili and other opposition figures. The Kmara ("Enough!") youth organization (a Georgian counterpart of the Serbian "Otpor!") and several NGOs, like Liberty Institute, were active in all protest activities. After an increasingly tense two weeks of demonstrations, Shevardnadze resigned as president on 23 November, to be replaced on an interim basis by parliamentary speaker Nino Burjanadze. While the revolutionary leaders did their best to stay within the constitutional norms, many called the change of government a popular coup dubbed by Georgian media as the Rose Revolution. Saakashvili's "storming of Georgia's parliament" in 2003 "put U.S. diplomats off guard... [Saakashvili] ousted a leader the U.S. had long backed, Eduard Shevardnadze." Seeking support, Saakashvili went outside the U.S. State Department. He hired Randy Scheunemann, then Sen. John McCain's top foreign-policy adviser, as a lobbyist and used Daniel Kunin of USAID and the NDI as a full-time adviser. On 24 February 2004, the United National Movement and the United Democrats had amalgamated. The new political movement was named the National Movement - Democrats (NMD). The movement's main political priorities include raising pensions and providing social services to the poor, its main base of support; fighting corruption; and increasing state revenue. First presidency The 2004 presidential election were carried out on 4 January 2004. The election was an outcome of the bloodless Rose Revolution and a consequent resignation of President Eduard Shevardnadze. It is well known for a very high level of electoral turnout and also for the number of votes cast for one particular presidential candidate – Mikheil Saakashvili (96%). All other candidates received less than 2% of the votes. In total, 1,763,000 eligible voters participated in the election. On 4 January 2004, Saakashvili won the presidential elections in Georgia with more than 96% of the votes cast, making him at 36 years old, the youngest national president in Europe at the time. On a platform of opposing corruption and improving pay and pensions, he promised to improve relations with the outside world. Although he is strongly pro-Western and intended to seek Georgian membership of NATO and the European Union, he had also spoken of the importance of better relations with Russia. He faced major problems, however, particularly Georgia's difficult economic situation and the still unresolved question of separatism in the regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Abkhazia regards itself as independent of Georgia and did not take part in the elections, while South Ossetia favours union with its northern counterpart in Russia. Saakashvili was sworn in as president in Tbilisi on 25 January 2004. Immediately after the ceremony he signed a decree establishing a new state flag. On 26 January, in a ceremony held at the Tbilisi Kashueti Church of Saint George, he promulgated a decree granting permission for the return of the body of the first president of Georgia, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, from Grozny (Chechen Republic) to Tbilisi and renaming a major road in the capital after Gamsakhurdia. He also released 32 Gamsakhurdia supporters (political prisoners) imprisoned by the Shevardnadze government in 1993–94. As well as a new national flag, Saakashivili authorised the adoption of a new national anthem on 20 May 2004 and the establishment of a new state arms on 1 October 2004. In the first months of his presidency, Saakashvili faced a major political crisis in the southwestern Autonomous Republic of Adjara run by an authoritarian regional leader, Aslan Abashidze, who largely ignored the central Georgian government and was viewed by many as a pro-Russian politician. The crisis threatened to develop into an armed confrontation, but Saakashvili's government managed to resolve the conflict peacefully, forcing Abashidze to resign on 6 May 2004. Success in Adjara encouraged the new president to intensify his efforts towards bringing the breakaway South Ossetia back under the Georgian jurisdiction. The separatist authorities responded with intense militarization in the region, that led to armed clashes in August 2004. A stalemate ensued, and despite a peace plan proposed by the Georgian government in 2005, the conflict remains unresolved. In late July 2006, Saakashvili's government dealt successfully with another major crisis, this time in Abkhazia's Kodori Gorge where Georgia's police forces disarmed a defiant militia led by a local warlord Emzar Kvitsiani. In his foreign policy, Saakashvili maintained close ties with the US, as well as other NATO countries, and remains one of the key partners of the GUAM organization. The Saakashvili-led Rose Revolution has been described by the White House as one of the most powerful movements in the modern history that has inspired others to seek freedom. Economic and government reforms At the time Saakashvili took office, Georgia suffered from a stagnant economy, widespread corruption by police and state officials to the point where bribery was needed for any kind of commercial transaction, high crime rates, and severe infrastructure problems, including widespread power outages, and schools and medical facilities falling into disrepair. Saakashvili set out on a massive reform programme. He systematically fired politicians, public officials, and police officers suspected of corruption and significantly raised the salaries of state employees to the point where they could depend on their salaries rather than bribes for a living. Many oligarchs who had dominated the economy were arrested, with most agreeing to pay massive fines into the state budget in exchange for their freedom. Saakashvili reformed the economy by cutting red tape which had made business difficult, courting foreign investment, simplifying the tax code, launching a privatization campaign, and tackling widespread tax evasion. Due to the establishment of a functioning taxation and customs infrastructure, the state budget increased by 300% within three years. The government massively upgraded infrastructure and public services. In particular, water and power infrastructure was improved to the point where it functioned effectively, schools and hospitals were renovated, more roads were laid, and new housing developments were built. As a result, the rate of corruption in the country was drastically reduced and the business environment was improved significantly. The economy began growing and the standard of living rose. Georgia's ranking in the Corruption Perceptions Index by Transparency International improved dramatically from rank 133 in 2004 to 67 in 2008 and further to 51 in 2012, surpassing several EU countries. The World Bank named Georgia as the leading economic reformer in the world, and the country ranked 8th in terms of ease of doing business- while most of the country's neighbours are ranked somewhere in the hundreds. The World Bank noted a significant improvement in living conditions in Georgia, reporting that "Georgia's transformation since 2003 has been remarkable. The lights are on, the streets are safe, and public services are corruption free." Doing Business report founder Simeon Dyankov has given Georgia as an example to other reformers during the annual Reformer Awards. Under Saakashvili's term, Georgia became involved in international market transactions to a small extent, and in 2007 Bank of Georgia sold bonds at premium, when $200m five-year bond was priced with a coupon of 9 per cent at par, or 100 per cent of face value, after initially being priced at 9.5 per cent and investors pushed orders up to $600m. In 2009, he introduced The Economic Liberty Act of Georgia, which was adopted by the Parliament of Georgia in 2011. The Act restricted the state's ability to interfere in the economy, and was aimed at reducing the state expenses and debt by 30% and 60%, respectively. It also explicitly prohibited the Government from changing taxes without a popular referendum on rates and structure. Due to his government's economic reforms, Georgia's economy grew 70% between 2003 and 2013, and per capita income roughly tripled. However, poverty only marginally declined. At the end of his second term, about a quarter of the population was still poor, and unemployment was at 15%. Law and order On 27 March 2006, the government announced that it had prevented a nationwide prison riot plotted by criminal kingpins. The police operation ended with the deaths of 7 inmates and at least 17 injuries. While the opposition cast doubts over the official version and demanded an independent investigation, the ruling party was able to vote down such initiatives. Despite this, Saakashvili's government also eased the legal system in some respects. His government decriminalized libel and pushed through legislation upholding freedom of speech, although he was accused of stifling the media and using the judicial system to go after his political opponents in spite of this. In December 2006, Saakashvili signed a constitutional amendment completely abolishing the death penalty in law. Military reforms Saakashvili's government massively increased military spending to modernize the Georgian Armed Forces, which were small and poorly equipped and trained at the time he entered office. By 2007, the military budget had increased twenty-fold since 1999. New weapons and vehicles were purchased, military salaries were raised, new bases were built, and Georgian soldiers engaged in joint training exercises with the US military. Education reform When Saakashvili took office, the university entrance system was bribe-based, with a university spot costing up to $50,000 in 2003. His government introduced a common entrance exam, replacing the bribe-based system with a merit-based one. The quality of university education also improved. Despite this, Saakashvili was accused of failing to reform the quality of primary and secondary-level school education, which reportedly remained low at the end of his term in office. Health reforms After Georgian independence, the government found that its Soviet-style centralized healthcare system was underfunded and failing. State-run centralized medical facilities were typically inefficient and in need of renovation and technological upgrades. As a result, the government privatized almost all public hospitals and clinics, and the insurance system was deregulated, with private insurance companies able to offer coverage. Only a few specialized facilities for mental health and infectious diseases remained in government hands, and the state continued to provide health insurance for those below the poverty line, whose insurance was paid for by public funds and provided by private insurers, and some civil servants, amounting to about 40% of the population. As a result, the level of healthcare greatly improved, with new hospitals and clinics beginning to replace older facilities. However, a portion of the population was left uninsured, as it could not afford private insurance and did not qualify for public insurance. Foreign relations Saakashvili sees membership of the NATO as a premise of stability for Georgia and offered an intensified dialogue with the de facto Abkhaz and Ossetian authorities. Until the 2008 South Ossetia war, a diplomatic solution was thought to be possible. Saakashvili's administration doubled the number of its troops in Iraq, making Georgia one of the biggest supporters of Coalition Forces, and keeping its troops in Kosovo and Afghanistan to "contribute to what it describes as global security". Saakashvili's government maintained diplomatic relations with other Caucasian states and Eastern European countries with Western orientation, such as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Turkey and Ukraine. In 2004, Saakashvili visited Israel to attend the official opening of the Modern Energy Problems Research Center, and Dr. Brenda Schaffer, the director of the centre, described Saakashvili as the Nelson Mandela of the 21st century. In August of the same year, Saakashvili, who holds an honorary doctorate from the University of Haifa, travelled to Israel to attend the opening of the official Week of Georgian-Jewish Friendship, held under the auspices of the Georgian president, for which the Jewish leaders were invited as honoured guests. Relations with the United States were good, but were complicated by Saakashvili's "volatile" behaviour. Former and current US officials characterized the Georgian president as "difficult to manage". They criticized his "risky moves", moves that have often "caught the U.S. unprepared" while leaving it "exposed diplomatically". Saakashvili's ties with the US go back to 1991 (see Early life and career). Biographies of Thomas Jefferson and John F. Kennedy can be found in his office, next to biographies of Joseph Stalin and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and books on war. Seeking US support, Saakashvili went outside the United States Department of State and established contacts with Sen. John McCain and forces seeking NATO expansion. Saakashvili believes that the long-term priority for the country is to advance its membership in the European Community and during a meeting with Javier Solana, he said that in contrast with new and old European states, Georgia is an Ancient European state. Assassination attempt On 10 May 2005, while U.S. President George W. Bush was giving a speech in Tbilisi's Freedom Square, Vladimir Arutyunian threw a live hand grenade at where Saakashvili and Bush were sitting. It landed in the crowd about from the podium after hitting a girl and did not detonate. Arutyunian was arrested in July of that year, but before his capture, he managed to kill one law enforcement agent. He was convicted of the attempted assassinations of Saakashvili and Bush and the murder of the agent, and given a life sentence. 2007 crisis The late Georgian businessman Badri Patarkatsishvili claimed that pressure had been exerted on his financial interests after Imedi Television broadcast several accusations against officials. On 25 October 2007, former defence minister Irakli Okruashvili accused the president of planning Patarkatsishvili's murder. Okruashvili was detained two days later on charges of extortion, money laundering, and abuse of office. However, in a videotaped confession released by the General Prosecutor's Office on 8 October 2007, in which Okruashvili pleaded guilty to large-scale bribery through extortion and negligence while serving as minister, he retracted his accusations against the president and said that he did so to gain some political benefit and that Badri Patarkatsishvili told him to do so. Okruashvili's lawyer and other opposition leaders said his retraction had been made under duress. Georgia faced the worst crisis since the Rose Revolution. A series of anti-government demonstration were sparked, in October, by accusations of murders and corruption levelled by Irakli Okruashvili, Saakashvili's erstwhile associate and former member of his government, against the president and his allies. The protests climaxed early in November 2007, and involved several opposition groups and the influential media tycoon Badri Patarkatsishvili. Although the demonstrations rapidly went downhill, the government's decision to use police force against the remaining protesters evolved into clashes in the streets of Tbilisi on 7 November. The declaration of state of emergency by the president (7–16 November) and the restriction imposed on some mass media sources led to harsh criticism of the Saakashvili government both in the country and abroad. Human Rights Watch criticized the Georgian government for using "excessive" force against protesters in November and International Crisis Group warned of growing authoritarianism. Patarkatsishvili's opposition television station Imedi was shut down in November 2007 after the authorities accused it of complicity with the plot to overthrow the elected government. The channel resumed broadcasts a few weeks after the incident, but did not cover news or talk shows until after the election. Subsequently, the station was sold to supporters of the Saakashvili government and some Georgian journalists have called for the station to be handed back. On 8 November 2007, President Saakashvili announced a compromise solution to hold early presidential elections for 5 January 2008. He also proposed to hold a plebiscite in parallel to snap presidential elections about when to hold parliamentary polls – in spring as pushed for by the opposition parties, or in late 2008. Several concessions in the election code were also made to the opposition. On 23 November 2007, the ruling United National Movement party officially nominated Saakashvili as its candidate for the upcoming elections. Pursuant to the Constitution of Georgia, Saakashvili resigned on 25 November to launch his pre-election campaign for early presidential polls. Second presidency 2008 presidential election On 5 January 2008, an early presidential election was held nationwide, with the exception of the highland village of Shatili, where the polling station was not opened due to high levels of snowfall. In a televised address, President Saakashvili had proposed to hold the election earlier than called for by the Georgian constitution in order to resolve the political tension surrounding opposition-led demonstrations, their suppression by the government on 7 November 2007, and the closure of the most popular opposition television network, Imedi. Saakashvili said in his presidential address that "these elections will be held according to our timing, and not that of our ill-wishers." Changes in the Cabinet Saakashvili publicly announced his plans of modernising the Cabinet of Georgia well before Georgian presidential elections. Shortly after being re-elected, the president formally re-appointed the Prime Minister of Georgia Lado Gurgenidze and asked him to present a renewed cabinet to the Parliament of Georgia for final approval. Gurgenidze changed most ministers, leaving Ivane Merabishvili, controversial Minister for Home Affairs, Defence Minister David Kezerashvili and Minister of Finance Nika Gilauri on their former positions. Gia Nodia was appointed as the Minister of Education and Science. Zaza Gamcemlidze, former director of Tbilisi Botanic Garden, took over the position of the Minister of Natural Resources and Nature Protection. Famous archaeologist, and already the eldest minister in the cabinet, Iulon Gagoshidze was appointed on a newly designated position of the Minister of State for Diasporas. Parliamentary elections held during Saakashvili's second term were condemned by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe election monitoring mission for being marred by ballot stuffing, violence against opposition campaigners, uncritical coverage of the president and his party from the state-controlled media, and public officials openly campaigning for the president's party. On 28 October 2008, Saakashvili proposed Grigol Mgaloblishvili, Georgian ambassador to Turkey for the premiership. According to the President, Gurgenidze had initially agreed to serve only for a year and that Georgia was facing new challenges which needed new approach. The Parliament of Georgia approved Mgaloblishvili as the premier on 1 November 2008. Demonstrations against Saakashvili spread across Georgia in 2009, 2011 and 2012. Russo-Georgian War On 22 February 2008, Saakashvili held an official meeting with the President of Russia Vladimir Putin, in his residence in Novo-Ogaryovo. The presidents discussed the issues of aviation regulations between the two countries. This was Putin's last meeting in his second term as the President of Russia, being succeeded by Dimitry Medvedev shortly thereafter. However, after a series of clashes between Georgians and South Ossetians, Russian military forces intervened on the side of the South Ossetian separatists in response to the Georgian attack on Tskhinvali and invaded Gori in Shida Kartli. The two counterparts were led to a ceasefire agreement and a six-point peace plan, due to the French President's mediation. On 26 August 2008, the Russian president, Dmitry Medvedev, signed a decree recognizing Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states. Also on 26 August, in response to Russia's recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, Deputy Foreign Minister Grigol Vashadze announced that Georgia had broken diplomatic relations with Russia. Medvedev held Saakashvili responsible for the Russo-Georgian War, and states that Saakashvili is responsible for the collapse of the Georgian state. The Georgian military's capabilities were severely damaged by the war, and Saakashvili's government moved to rebuild them, massively increasing military spending. By late 2010, the Georgian military reached a strength greater than that of pre-war levels, after which military spending declined again. Although the Georgian government bought large amounts of arms and military equipment from abroad, it also began to seriously invest in an indigenous military industry. Starting in 2010, Georgia began to manufacture its own line of armoured vehicles, artillery systems, small arms, and unmanned aerial vehicles. 2009 opposition demonstrations and armed mutiny The pressure against Saakashvili intensified in 2009, when the opposition launched mass demonstrations against Saakashvili's rule. On 5 May 2009, Georgian police said large-scale disorders were planned in Georgia of which the failed army mutiny was part. According to the police, Saakashvili's assassination had also been plotted. Opposition figures dispute the claim of an attempted mutiny and instead say that troops refused an illegal order to use force against opposition demonstrators. End of presidency On 2 October 2012, Saakashvili admitted defeat in Georgia's parliamentary election against Bidzina Ivanishvili in the election the day before. He was barred from seeking a third term in the 2013 presidential election. Saakashvili left Georgia shortly after the election. In December 2013, Saakashvili accepted the position of lecturer and senior statesman at Tufts University in the United States. Legal prosecution (in Georgia) since the end of presidency On 23 March 2014, when Saakashvili was summoned to give testimony to the main prosecutor's office of Georgia, the office planned to interrogate him about the pardoning in 2008 of four high-ranking officials of the Department of Constitutional Security of the Georgian Ministry of Internal Affairs – Gia Alania, Avtandil Aptsiauri, Alexander Gachava and Mikhail Bibiluridze, who were convicted for causing the death of bank employee Sandro Girgvliani on 28 January 2006, as well as for unlawful actions against his friend Levan Bukhaidze. He was also to be questioned as a witness for nine criminal cases, including the death of the Prime Minister of Georgia Zurab Zhvania in 2005. On 28 July 2014, criminal charges were filed by the Georgian prosecutor's office against Saakashvili over allegedly "exceeding official powers" during the 2007 Georgian demonstrations, as well as a police raid on and "seizure" of Imedi TV and other assets owned by the late tycoon Badri Patarkatsishvili. Saakashvili, then in Hungary, responded by accusing the Georgian authorities of political score-settling and attempts at appeasing Russia. The United States expressed concerns over the case and warned that "the legal system should not be used as a tool of political retribution". The European Union stated that it took "note with concern" and it will "closely monitor these and other legal proceedings against members of the former government and current opposition in Georgia". On 2 August 2014, Tbilisi City Court ordered pre-trial detention in absentia for Saakashvili and the co-accused Zurab Adeishvili (chief prosecutor in 2007) and Davit Kezerashvili (defense minister in 2007), with a preliminary hearing appointed for September 2014. On 13 August 2014, Saakashvili was charged with embezzling budget funds. On 14 August, an internal search was declared, and on 31 August, the procedure for declaring an international search was launched. On 1 August 2015, Interpol refused to declare Saakashvili on the international wanted list, as the Georgian authorities demanded. In September, the property of the Saakashvili family was seized. His personal bank accounts in Georgia were also seized. In March 2015, Ukraine denied a Georgian request to extradite Saakashvili, as it deemed the criminal cases against him politically motivated. Saakashvili stated on 1 June 2015 that he had given up (three days before) Georgian citizenship to avoid "guaranteed imprisonment" in Georgia. The Constitution of Ukraine forbids the extradition of Ukrainians to other states. On 8 August 2017, the Georgian General Prosecutor's Office claimed Saakashvili would face up to 11 years of imprisonment (charges included the spending of public funding on personal needs, abuse of power during the dispersal of a demonstration on 7 November 2007, the beating of former MP Valery Gelashvili and the raid of Imedi TV). On 18 August 2017, Georgia requested Ukraine to extradite Saakashvili. On 5 September, the Ukrainian authorities confirmed that they had received the request from Georgia. On 5 January 2018, the Tbilisi City Court sentenced Saakashvili to three-year imprisonment in absentia for abusing power in pardoning the former Interior Ministry officials convicted in the 2006 Sandro Girgvliani murder case. On 28 June 2018, the Tbilisi City Court found Saakashvili guilty of abusing his authority as president by trying to cover up evidence related to the 2005 beating of opposition lawmaker Valery Gelashvili and sentenced him in absentia to six years in prison. Saakashvili and his supporters denounced the verdict as politically motivated. After returning to Georgia in 2021, Saakashvili was additionally charged for illegal border crossing. Ukraine Saakashvili energetically supported Ukraine's Euromaidan movement and its Revolution of Dignity. On 7 March 2014, Saakashvili authored an op-ed piece entitled "When Putin invaded my country", in the context of the turmoil in Ukraine after the ouster on 22 February of President Viktor Yanukovych and before the 16 March referendum in the 2014 Crimean crisis. In September 2014, Saakashvili moved to Williamsburg, Brooklyn, New York. Governor of Odesa On 13 February 2015, Saakashvili was appointed by the president of Ukraine, Petro Poroshenko, as head of the International Advisory Council on Reforms—an advisory body whose main task is working out proposals and recommendations for implementation and introduction of reforms in Ukraine based on best international practices. On 30 May 2015, Poroshenko appointed Saakashvili Governor of Odesa Oblast (region). On the previous day, 29 May 2015, he was granted Ukrainian citizenship. A month before this appointment, Saakashvili had stated that he had turned down the post of First Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine because in order to fulfill that post, he would have had to become a Ukrainian citizen and renounce his Georgian citizenship. Saakashvili stated on 1 June 2015 that he had now changed his mind to avoid "guaranteed imprisonment" in Georgia and to defend Georgian interest through his governorship in Odesa. Also on 1 June, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia stated that the appointment of Saakashvili would not have a negative impact on the relations between Georgia and Ukraine. But in reality, after this appointment, relations between the two countries soured. On 4 December 2015, Saakashvili was stripped of his Georgian citizenship due to restrictions on dual nationality under Georgian law. Saakashvili claimed that this was done to prevent him from leading the United National Movement in the 2016 Georgian parliamentary election. A poll by Sociological group "RATING" showed that in October 2015, Saakashvili was the most popular politician in Ukraine (43% viewed him positively). In December 2015, Saakashvili started an anti-corruption NGO Movement for Purification. Among rumours that this NGO would be transformed into a political force, Saakashvili stated he did not have the intention to create a new political party. In the autumn of 2015, informal attempts and negotiations were launched to form a political party around Saakashvili with members of the parliamentary group Interfactional Union "Eurooptimists", Democratic Alliance and possibly Self Reliance, but this project collapsed in June 2016. Saakashvili submitted his resignation as governor on 7 November 2016 citing corruption in Ukraine as a main reason. In a press conference this same day, he claimed that President Poroshenko personally supported "corruption clans in the Odesa region" and that the "Odesa region is being handed over not only to corrupt people, but also to enemies of Ukraine." On 9 November 2016, President Poroshenko accepted Saakashvili's resignation (as governor) and dismissed him as his freelance adviser. Movement of New Forces On 11 November 2016, Saakashvili announced his goal to create a new political party called "Movement of New Forces" and that "our goal is early parliamentary elections to be carried out as quickly as possible in the shortest possible time." In late February 2017, the Ministry of Justice of Ukraine registered Movement of New Forces officially as a political party. According to a poll by Sociological group "RATING", 18% viewed Saakashvili positively in April 2017. In Ukraine, only Ukrainian citizens can lead political parties or be elected to its parliament. Stripping of Ukrainian citizenship On 26 July 2017, President Poroshenko issued a decree stripping Saakashvili of his Ukrainian citizenship, but without a reason for his doing so being stated. Ukraine's migration service said in a statement that "according to the Constitution of Ukraine, the president takes decisions on who is stripped of Ukrainian citizenship based on the conclusions of the citizenship commission". Saakashvili, in response to his being stripped of citizenship, replied: "I have only one citizenship, that of Ukraine, and I will not be deprived of it! Now there is an attempt under way to force me to become a refugee. This will not happen! I will fight for my legal right to return to Ukraine!" A Ukrainian legislator from the Petro Poroshenko Bloc faction in parliament, Serhiy Leshchenko, said that Saakashvili was (when Poroshenko issued his decree) in the United States, but that if he sought to return to Ukraine, he would face extradition to Georgia to face charges for alleged crimes that occurred during his presidency there. According to The Economist, most observers saw Poroshenko's stripping Saakashvili of his citizenship "simply as the sidelining of a political rival" (at the time political polls gave Saakashvili's political party Movement of New Forces around 2% in a hypothetical early election). On 28 July 2017, Saakashvili told Newshour he wanted to return to Ukraine to "get rid of the old corrupt elite" there. On 4 August, Saakashvili appeared in Poland; he left the country 4 days later travelling to Lithuania claiming "I'll be travelling across Europe." Saakashvili announced on 16 August that he will return to Ukraine on 10 September (2017) through the Krakovets checkpoint and urged people to meet him at the checkpoint. On 10 September, the train on which Saakashvili tried to enter Ukraine was held at a railway station in Przemysl, Poland. Then, on the same day, he travelled by bus to the Medyka-Shehyni border crossing, where he was allowed to pass through a Polish checkpoint on the border with Ukraine, but then temporarily blocked from reaching the Ukrainian checkpoint by a line of border guards standing arm-in-arm. Finally, a crowd broke through from the Ukrainian side and took Saakashvili into Ukraine. On 12 September, in the Leopolis Hotel in Lviv, the State Border Guard Service of Ukraine acquainted Saakashvili with the protocol on the administrative violation of "Illegal crossing or attempted illegal crossing of the state border of Ukraine." At a rally in the western Ukrainian city of Chernivtsi on 13 September, Saakashvili announced that he would return to Kyiv on 19 September after travelling to several other cities to rally support. On 22 September, the Mostysky District Court of the Lviv region found Saakashvili guilty of illegally crossing the state border. Under the court's decision, he must pay a fine of 200 non-taxable minimums (3400 hryvni). In the first half of 2017, and in December 2018 and January 2019, Saakashvili hosted political talk shows on the TV channel "Zik". Saakashvili claims his programme was axed in 2019 because his view on Yulia Tymoshenko's candidacy for the 2019 Ukrainian presidential election was distorted (he claimed to support her candidacy while his TV show suggested the exact opposite). Legal prosecution (in Ukraine) On 5 December 2017, Saakashvili (who was leading anti-government protests at the time) was temporarily detained by Ukraine's Security Service on the roof of his apartment building in central Kyiv and his apartment was searched. He was freed from police by a large group of protesters. Saakashvili's lawyer reported that the politician had been detained for attempting to overthrow Ukraine's constitutional system, whilst the SBU accused Saakashvili of receiving financing from a "criminal group" linked to ousted (during the Revolution of Dignity) Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych. On 8 December, General Prosecutor of Ukraine Yuriy Lutsenko announced that National Police officers had found the location of Saakashvili, detained him and placed him in a temporary detention centre. The following day, Saakashvili began an indefinite hunger strike, claiming to oppose any attempts at compulsory feeding. On 11 December, a Ukrainian court released him from detention. On 12 February 2018, Saakashvili was deported to Poland. The Ukrainian border service stated "This person was on Ukrainian territory illegally and therefore, in compliance with all legal procedures, he was returned to the country from where he arrived". Saakashvili was subsequently banned from entering Ukraine until 2021 by the Ukrainian border service. Saakashvili claimed that his Georgian bodyguards and supporters had in recent months been kidnapped, tortured and deported to Georgia. On 14 February 2018, Saakashvili showed up in the Netherlands, having been granted permanent residency there on the basis of family reunification. Return to Ukraine In May 2019, Ukraine's new president, Volodymyr Zelenskyy, restored Saakashvili's Ukrainian citizenship. On 29 May 2019, Saakashvili returned to Ukraine; but he soon stated that he had no political ambitions in Ukraine. On 4 June, Kyiv Mayor Vitali Klitschko offered Saakashvili to join the leadership of his UDAR party and to take part in the July 2019 early parliamentary elections. Saakashvili turned down the offer. In these elections Saakashvili headed the party list of Movement of New Forces. The party received 0.46% of the total votes and no seats. Two days before the election, Saakashvili had called on his supporters to vote for the Servant of the People party at the election. (Servant of the People won the election with 43.16% of the votes.) Saakashvili wrote on his Facebook page on 22 April 2020 that he had received a proposal from President Zelenskyy to become Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine for reforms in the Shmyhal Government. Saakashvili told the Financial Times newspaper: "The president wants me to be in charge of talks with the IMF … I have experience." The Ukrainian parliament did not consider the issue at its meetings on 24 and 30 April 2020. On 7 May 2020, President Zelenskyy appointed Saakashvili head of the executive committee of the . Coup plot accusation On September 18, 2023, the State Security Service of Georgia (SSG) accused Saakashvili and his followers of plotting with the Ukrainian government and Georgian volunteers in Ukraine of planning a Coup d'état against the ruling Georgian Dream. The SSG claim that anti-government protests are being planned by Ukrainian intelligence for October and December of 2023. At the same time, the Georgian government has levied 8 criminal cases against the Georgian Legion's commander Mamuka Mamulashvili, and the SSG has placed a bounty on him. Mamulashvili retorted that the claims of a coup were baseless, but proves that Georgian Dream is a Russophilic party. Political activity in Georgia since the end of presidency After stepping down as President in 2013, Saakashvili still remained an influential figure in Georgian politics. He continued to manage the United National Movement party from abroad, while accusing the Georgian government of using the legal system as a tool of political retribution. Ahead of the 2016 Georgian parliamentary election, Saakashvili said that he was confident that "we [the United National Movement] are winning the election" and promised to return to Georgia and take part in forming a new government. Founder of the ruling Georgian Dream party Bidzina Ivanishvili accused Saakashvili of planning to stir disorders, which Saakashvili denied and in turn accused Ivanishvili of "blaming opponents for what he himself is planning". On 26 September 2016, Saakashvili addressed his supporters at the United National Movement's campaign rally in Zugdidi via video link from Odesa, telling them that "the victory is inevitable". Saakashvili's wife Sandra Roelofs said that Saakashvili would return to Georgia to celebrate the victory. Meanwhile, members of the UNM-affiliated group, Free Zone, held press briefing in Tbilisi, accusing Saakashvili of instructing the leader of the organization Koba Khabazi to prepare for staging disorders. In response to allegations, the State Security Service of Georgia launched an investigation into charges of sabotage. Other members of the Free Zone distanced themselves from these claims and in turn accused the defecting group of being under influence of the State Security Service. On 27 September 2016, a recording was uploaded on YouTube, purportedly of a call between Mikheil Saakashvili and other UNM leaders discussing the need to pursue a "revolutionary scenario". The State Security Service launched an investigation into charges of "conspiracy to overthrow or to seize state power". Saakashvili denied the authenticity of the conversation and accused Bidzina Ivanishvili of trying to "avoid unavoidable defeat". On 4 October 2016, Saakashvili accused Ivanishvili of being behind the explosion of car belonging to United National Movement MP Givi Targamadze, alleging that Ivanishvili was trying to "get rid of" Targamadze because he "has been keeping active contacts with the law enforcement [officers], which scares Ivanishvili very much". On 5 October 2016, Saakashvili addressed his supporters via video link in Tbilisi, saying that three days were left before his return to Georgia. After elections, Saakashvili said that they were held "with gross violations", calling his supporters to protest. Saakashvili also expressed his support for boycotting the Parliament, a step which other leaders of the United National Movement described as a "suicide for the party". On 4 November, the UNM's political council rejected Saakashvili's calls to boycott. Saakashvili slammed the decision and said that he had no desire to maintain contact with "one or two whimsical persons" from UNM, accusing them of "prescribing defeat" for the party. On 1 December, the political council voted to hold a congress in January to elect a new chairman. Saakashvili lost his right to be UNM's chairman in June 2015, when he was deprived of Georgian citizenship because under Georgian legislation only Georgian citizens can chair political parties in Georgia. Since then, this position remained vacant. Some influential members of the party expressed support for further leaving the position vacant to avoid distancing the party from Mikheil Saakashvili and said that they would raise the issue on congress. Saakashvili supported the idea of holding congress, while some members of the party, under the leadership of Giga Bokeria and Davit Bakradze, accused Saakashvili of "hijacking" the congress organization in circumvention of the political council. On 12 January 2017, one week before the congress, the United National Movement officially announced splitting. Members of the party who opposed boycotting the parliament and supported electing a new party chair opted to set up their own party. The breakaway entity took the largely unknown legal vehicle of a previous party European Georgia. A majority of the UNM's electoral list defected to European Georgia faction in the parliament, leaving the UNM with six members in parliament. Saakashvili thanked loyal members of the party for opposing efforts to "distance me from the party" and what he called "Ivanishvili's attempt to take over the United National Movement". He voiced the common belief among the UNM voters that these defections were encouraged by the ruling Georgian Dream Coalition in order to weaken its opposition. On 20 January, the UNM congress supported the proposal not to elect the party chairman until Mikheil Saakashvili would return to Georgia. The European Georgia members accused the UNM of "betraying the values of Rose Revolution" and turning to populism. In an interview with the online news website Netgazeti, Giorgi Ugulava distinguished the EG as being more liberal than the UNM, specifically describing the UNM as populist and communitarian. The UNM had no official chairman until 24 March 2019, when Saakashvili was succeeded as the UNM party's chairman by his own nominee, Grigol Vashadze. Return to Georgia Prior to 2021 Georgian local elections, Saakashvili promised his supporters to return to Georgia. Such promises were made by Saakashvili numerous times, including prior to 2016 Georgian parliamentary election and 2020 parliamentary election, thus they were not perceived seriously by some political actors. Many alleged that Saakashvili regularly made such announcements to remain relevant among his supporters and mobilize them to vote in the elections. Nevertheless, Saakashvili's statements stirred significant controversy in Georgia, with high-ranking Georgian officials saying that Saakashvili would be arrested and sent to prison for his crimes. These statements were made on the basis of Tbilisi City Court decisions in 2018, which condemned Saakashvili for six years in prison for abuse of power, embezzlement and his role in the organization of a grievous bodily injury against an opposition lawmaker Valery Gelashvili. Saakashvili and his supporters denounced these verdicts as politically motivated. On 1 October 2021, Saakashvili claimed to have returned to Georgia after an eight-year absence, and called on his followers to march on the capital, Tbilisi. He published a video on Facebook, claiming that he was in Batumi. The Georgian police, however, claimed that Saakashvili had not crossed the country's border. Irakli Kobakhidze, chairman of the Georgian ruling party Georgian Dream, said that the video was "deepfake" and urged the voters to remain calm. Mamuka Mdinaradze, one of the leaders of Georgian Dream, claimed: "He [Saakashvili] is in Ukraine, we have specific information that this person did not leave Ukraine, did not go to another country, this person is in Ukraine, he is trapped somewhere in a hole, he hides from everyone to create the illusion that he is in Georgia". The video was shared and discussed on social media, before the story began to appear on Georgia's TV channels. For several hours, both pro-government and opposition TV channels actively engaged in the debate over Saakashvili's alleged homecoming video and whereabouts. At the same time, pro-Saakashvili Mtavari Arkhi TV featured a news program titled "Saakashvili is in Georgia", while pro-government Imedi TV featured a news program titled "Saakashvili is in Ukraine". Georgia's Ministry of Internal Affairs reported that special forces were sent to Batumi in operation to detain Saakashvili. A few moments later, Georgian Prime Minister Irakli Gharibashvili announced at a briefing together with the Minister of Internal Affairs Vakhtang Gomelauri and the head of the State Security Service Grigol Liluashvili that Mikheil Saakashvili was under arrest. Soon a video was published featuring handcuffed Saakashvili being taken into prison N12 in Rustavi. According to the investigation, Saakashvili entered the country secretly, hiding in a semi-trailer truck loaded with milk products. He illegally crossed the state border of Georgia, bypassing the customs control. He was arrested in Tbilisi by the police and taken to the prison in Rustavi. President of Georgia Salome Zourabichvili stated that she would "never" pardon Saakashvili. On 3 November 2021 Zourabichvili confirmed her first statement again. Saakashvili began a hunger strike in protest of what he considered as the state's refusal to give him a fair trial on charges which he thought would "destroy him and Georgia". On 10 October 2021, his personal doctor asked authorities to move him to hospital as he continued with his hunger strike since his arrest and his health condition had allegedly worsened. On 14 October 2021, tens of thousands protested on Tbilisi's Rustaveli Avenue, demanding the release of Saakashvili from prison. Nika Melia, a leader of the United National Movement, came under criticism for ending a demonstration without presenting a plan of action or scheduling further protests, some even questioning his ability to lead the party and his loyalty to Saakashvili, pointing at the alleged internal power struggle within the party between Melia and Saakashvili. Melia responded to criticism by denying the existence of any conflict. Georgia's rights ombudsman stated that Saakashvili was not being given proper medical care and was being abused by fellow inmates. The State Inspector's Service of Georgia launched a criminal investigation into alleged inhuman treatment of Mikheil Saakashvili. Since 1 March 2022, the Special Investigation Service of Georgia has continued investigating instead of the State Inspector's Service. On 8 November 2021, Saakashvili was moved to Gldani penitentiary hospital. On 19 November 2021, Saakashvili was transferred to a Gori military hospital. Saakashvili's doctor Nokoloz Kipshidze and lawyer Nika Gvaramia stated that Saakashvili would end the 50-day hunger strike. On 12 December 2021, Otar Toidze, a doctor with Georgia's human rights commissioner said Saakashvili was in need of specialist treatment abroad. On 29 December 2021, he was taken from hospital to prison of Rustavi, according to oppositional leaders and media his health conditions were still bad, and he was still continuing decreasing weight, according to his lawyer Nika Gvaramia. On 12 May 2022, Saakashvili was transferred to a civilian hospital in Tbilisi. On 1 December 2022, Saakashvili's lawyers appealed the court to either postpone Saakashvili's sentence or release him from prison on medical grounds. On 24 January 2023, Saakashvili tested positive for COVID-19. On 1 February, Saakashvili testified before the court remotely. He appeared to have lost a lot of weight, as evidenced by protruding ribs and stomach. According to his lawyer, Saakashvili, who is 195 cm in height, weighs only 69.7 kilograms, has lost 52 kilograms since 1 October 2021, and cannot move without a wheelchair. Despite this, the Court did not deem this sufficient and did not satisfy the motion of the defence in the case on the postponement of Saakashvili's sentence or his release. While in prison, Saakashvili has remained politically active. In August 2023, Newsweek published an extensive opinion piece by Saakashvili, in which he reflected on his decision to return to Georgia and the challenges he had faced in prison, writing:There was a time a year ago, as my health was declining dramatically and death felt imminent, when I regretted coming back to Georgia. I thought to myself that if I survived this ordeal, if I tasted freedom again, I would leave Georgian politics behind for good. I felt my sacrifice had been a miscalculation, a folly. But even when I tried to turn my back on Georgian politics, Georgian politics kept returning to me. I have come to recognize that even as a prisoner with limited contact with the outside, I have a crucial role to play in Georgia's future, a role I cannot just walk away from. International reaction to Saakashvili's arrest Saakashvili's arrest led to major criticism from the Ukrainian government, European Parliament, U.S. State Department and international organizations. International criticism was focused on alleged violation of Saakashvili's human rights in prison, as well as on allegedly politically motivated legal proceedings against him. On 1 October 2021, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy also stated he would work to ensure Saakashvili's release, as Saakashvili is a Ukrainian citizen who was stripped of his Georgian citizenship in 2015. This was criticized by Georgian authorities. Georgian Prime Minister Irakli Garibashvili said that Saakashvili would leave Georgia only after serving his time in prison. On 9 November, after Saakashvili was transferred to Gldani prison hospital, Amnesty International uploaded statement on Twitter, about Saakashvili: "#Georgia: ex-President #Saakashvili (5th week of hunger strike) violently transferred to prison hospital; allegedly threatened; denied dignity, privacy & adequate healthcare. Not just selective justice but apparent political revenge." On 18 November 2021, the U.S. State Department urged the Government of Georgia to treat Saakashvili fairly and guarantee his right to a fair trial, and also praised the independent medical team that criticized the prison conditions. On 28 June 2022, Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has published declaration, in which they have said that Mikheil Saakashvili has to be treated immediately in a special institution abroad. On 14 December 2022, the European Parliament passed a resolution which urged the Georgian government to release Saakashvili on medical grounds to be treated abroad, while threatening to sanction Bidzina Ivanishvili, a founder of Georgian Dream party, for his role in "deteriorating the democratic political process in Georgia" . On 14 February 2023, the European Parliament adopted a third non-binding resolution, accusing the Georgian government and Bidzina Ivanishvili of mistreating Mikheil Saakashvili in prison, once again calling for his release from prison and personal sanctions on Ivanishvili. On 4 December 2022, Moldovan President Maia Sandu stated that she is “deeply concerned” about imprisoned ex-President Mikheil Saakashvili's "rapidly deteriorating state of health." President Sandu also emphasized, "every human life is priceless and the gravity of the situation requires immediate transfer of Saakashvili to an appropriate hospital to save his life." Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko also expressed his concerns about Saakashvili's health. Following Saakashvili's hearing in the court in February 2023, President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy accused the Georgian government of "publicly torturing" Ukrainian citizen Saakashvili and he claimed that "Russia is killing Ukrainian citizen Mikheil Saakashvili with the hands of the Georgian authorities." According to Zelenskyy, Ukraine had "repeatedly called on official Tbilisi to stop this mockery and agree on the return of Saakashvili to Ukraine." President Zelensky has instructed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to summon the Georgian Ambassador to Ukraine, expressing a strong protest and requesting his departure within 48 hours for consultations with his capital in Tbilisi about transferring Saakashvili in Ukraine. Zelensky has uploaded statement on Twitter: On 12 July 2023 Former US Ambassadors to Georgia issued a statement urging the Government of Georgia to allow “imprisoned and emaciated former president Mikheil Saakashvili to obtain life-saving medical treatment”. With their letter, the Ambassadors William Harrison Courtney (1995-1997), Kenneth Spencer Yalowitz (1998-2001), Richard Monroe Miles (2002-2005), John F. Tefft (2005-2009), and Ian C. Kelly (2015-2018), joined the international concerns which have escalated following the frail and decimated appearance of former President Mikheil Saakashvili during a remote court hearing. On 14 July 2023, 44 Members of European Parliament has written a letter addressed to President Zurabishvili, Parliamentary Speaker Papuashvili, and Prime Minister Garibashvili urging to transfer former Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili to one of the European Union member states. The MEPs stressed the need for Saakashvili to receive the necessary and appropriate medical care. Reaction of Georgian government Criticism led to heavy squabbles between Georgian government and Ukrainian and European leadership, as well as Western and international organizations. Georgian officials argued that legal proceedings against Saakashvili met all necessary legal standarts and accused Saakashvili of using "international lobbysts" to pressure the government to realize him. They have based their claims on documents published on U.S. Foreign Agents Registration Unit website, which contained information about Saakashvili's and his family members' spendings on lobbyists in the US, which were tasked with working on convincing U.S. congressmen and senators to impose sanctions against Georgia. In response to criticism about Saakashvili's deteriorating health, Georgian officials claimed Saakashvli was trying to evade prison through self-harm. In particular, Georgian Justice Minister Rati Bregadze said that Saakashvili is trying to evade prison through self-harm. He stated that there is no relevant evidence of Saakashvili being tortured and noted that the state "can not be held responsible for self-harm by the inmate, including his refusal to follow medical prescriptions". Georgian officials claimed that this was part of a plan to pressure the government to release Saakashvili. Georgian Prime Minister Irakli Garibashvili accused Ukraine of sending Saakashvili from Ukraine to overthrow Georgian government. However, according to Garibashvili, Saakashvili was arrested and the Ukrainian Government asked Tbilisi to release Saakashvili to Kyiv. Georgian Prime Minister claimed at a speech in parliament that the Ukrainian Government and the Georgian opposition are close ideological partners. In response to criticism from the European Parliament, Georgia's Prime Minister Irakli Garibashvili said that Saakashvili is "agent of the European Parliament". "The European Parliament has explicitly recognised with its shameful resolution that Saakashvili is their agent and they are doing everything to save their agent and get him out of prison. This is not going to happen. We told them and many of our international partners that Saakashvili committed many serious crimes and now the illegal border crossing has been added", said Garibashvili. The Georgian officials often justified their positions based on the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights. In 2011, the European Court ruled on the ENUKIDZE AND GIRGVLIANI v. GEORGIA case, a high-profile murder case of head of the United Georgian Bank's Foreign Department Sandro Girgvliani, for which Saakashvili has been convicted, saying that the state violated Girgvliani's right to life and that the government, the courts and the parliament coordinated to obstruct the justice and free the criminals of their liability. In 2023, Saakashvili appealed to European Court of Human Rights, claiming that his rights had been violated in prison and calling the Court to order his transferring to a hospital in Warsaw, Poland. The Court rejected Saakashvili's appeal. In response, Georgian officials praised the Court. The ruling party chairman Irakli Kobakhidze said that the European Court remained a bastion of justice, unlike the European Parliament, who became trapped in corruption. Controversies Ordering beating of Valery Gelashvili On 14 July 2005, businessman and Republican member of parliament Valery Gelashvili was beaten by unknown people. Gelashvili suffered skull trauma, numerous fractures of facial bones, lacerations in the nose and forehead, and fractures of the bones of the upper and lower jaw. The incident occurred after daily newspaper Rezonansi published interview with Gelashvili, in which he talked about a conflict between him and Saakashvili over the former's house and made comments about Saakashvili's personal life. In 2004, Gelashvili was requested by authorities to hand over his apartment building to the state after the government decided to transform the nearby Road Traffic Police building into the new presidential residence. Gelashvili agreed but requested the construction works of the new presidential residence to be carried out by his construction firm Evra. Gelashvili alleged in the interview that the government had not paid the firm for construction. He later blamed authorities and Saakashvili for ordering his attack. When the new government came into power in 2012, they promised to start investigation. On 28 June 2018, Tbilisi City Court sentenced former President Mikheil Saakashvili to six years in prison in absentia for, among other crimes, ordering the attack on Valeri Gelashvili in 2005. Saakashvili was also banned from taking any state post for two years and three months. Violent dispersal of 2007 protests Saakashvili received widespread criticism for his handling of the 2007 Georgian demonstrations, which were violently dispersed by the police using heavy-handed tactics. Saakashvili came under criticism for using rubber bullets and tear gas against protesters who were blocking Tbilisi's main transport artery, Rustaveli Avenue. Allegations of corruption Saakashvili has been accused of corruption and amassing wealth after coming into power by his political opponents. Although petty corruption in Georgia has been largely eliminated by the Saakashvili administration, it was alleged that elite corruption remained a significant problem. Alleged corruption in Saakashvili's inner circle was one of the main causes of 2007 Georgian demonstrations. Former Georgian Minister of Defense Irakli Okruashvili after his resignation accused Saakashvili of corruption and lobbying the interests of his own family. Okruashvili claimed that he caught the president's uncle with a $200,000 bribe but had to hush up the scandal at the president's request. It was alleged that Saakashvili's family members have acquired large number of state property by president's orders, and as a result, Saakashvili's family has emerged as one of the richest families in Georgia by the end of his second term. According to allegations, Saakashvili's family has taken over much of the higher education sector (his mother owning shares in several universities in Tbilisi), the spa industry and the advertisement sector. The opposition also accused then president Saakashvili of overseeing a system of elite corruption encompassing oil and minerals. Saakashvili denied accusations of his political opponents, claiming that his administration has been one of the most successful in eliminating corruption. He accused his opponents of spreading lies and not being honest. After leaving presidential post, Saakashvili has been charged by Prosecutor's Office of Georgia with illegal seizure of property and embezzlement of state funds. He and his supporters have denounced charges as politically motivated. Personal life Saakashvili is married to Dutch linguist Sandra Roelofs, whom he met in Strasbourg in 1993. The couple have two sons, Eduard and Nikoloz. A few days before Saakashvili's October 2021 return to Georgia he recorded a video on Facebook with Ukrainian MP Yelyzaveta Yasko in which they disclosed they were having a romantic relationship. A few days later Yasko remarked that Sandra Roelofs was Saakashvili's "ex-wife". There had been no media reports that Saakashvili and his spouse Roelofs had divorced. Roelofs had been "caught by surprise" by Yasko's and Saakashvili's video announcement and remarked on Facebook (on 7 October 2021) that "its form was absolutely unacceptable." On 31 December 2021, Saakashvili recognized to have an extramarital daughter, Elis-Maria, with singer Sofia Nizharadze calling her "my most lovely girl and youngest child". On 1 June 2023 Yasko revealed that she and Saakashvili had become parents, the gender and birthdate of the baby were not announced. At the time of birth Saakashvili was imprisoned. Apart from his native Georgian, Saakashvili speaks fluent English, French, Russian and Ukrainian, and has some command of Ossetian and Spanish. Some non-Georgian sources spell Saakashvili's first name using the Russian spelling, Mikhail. In Georgia, he is commonly known as Misha, a hypocorism for Mikheil. Saakashvili enjoys exercise and has in the past often been seen in public on his bicycle. Appraisal In the 2010 study Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War, political scientists Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way cite various media and human rights reports to describe Saakashvili's Georgia as a "competitive authoritarian" (i.e., a formally democratic but essentially non-democratic) state. Saakashvili's government has been lauded by the World Bank for making "striking improvements" in the fight against corruption. In addition, the US State Department noted that during 2005 "the government amended several laws and increased the amount of investigations and prosecutions reducing the amount of abuse and ill-treatment in pre-trial detention facilities". The status of religious freedom also improved due to increased investigation and prosecution of those harassing followers of non-traditional faiths. The scrupulousness of Patarkatsishvili's political opposition toward the Georgian president has been questioned by the Jamestown Foundation's political analyst Vladimir Socor who attributed the businessman's discontent to Saakashvili's anti-corruption reforms, which "had severely curtailed Patarkatsishvili's scope for doing business in his accustomed, post-Soviet 1990s-style ways." Patarkatsishvili—who had fled the Russian authorities after allegations of fraud—was called "a state criminal" by Saakashvili, who accused him of treason while refusing to admit to any of his accusations. Saakashvili was portrayed by Cuban-American Hollywood actor Andy García in the 2010 Hollywood film 5 Days of War by Finnish-American film director Renny Harlin. The film tells the story of Saakashvili and the events during the Russo-Georgian War. Electoral history Notes References Further reading Asmus, Ronald. A Little War that Shook the World : Georgia, Russia, and the Future of the West. NYU (2010). External links Mikheil Saakashvili Full Biography 1st inauguration of Mikheil Saakashvili (2004) 2nd inauguration of Mikheil Saakashvili (2008) |- 1967 births 21st-century politicians from Georgia (country) 21st-century Ukrainian politicians Columbia Law School alumni Democracy activists from Georgia (country) Expatriates from Georgia (country) in the Netherlands Fugitives George Washington University Law School alumni Emigrants from Georgia (country) to Ukraine Nationalists from Georgia (country) Anti-communists from Georgia (country) Governors of Odesa Oblast Jurists from Georgia (country) Politicians from Tbilisi Living people Movement of New Forces politicians Naturalized citizens of Ukraine People of the Russo-Georgian War Lawyers from Tbilisi People who lost Ukrainian citizenship Presidents of Georgia Prisoners and detainees of Ukraine Pro-Europeanism in Georgia (country) Pro-Europeanism in Ukraine Pro-Ukrainian people of the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine Recipients of the Collar of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana Rose Revolution Stateless people Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv alumni Ukrainian expatriates in the Netherlands Ukrainian television presenters United National Movement (Georgia) politicians Prisoners and detainees of Georgia (country) Heads of government who were later imprisoned Hunger strikers Justice ministers of Georgia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanced%20ternary
Balanced ternary
Balanced ternary is a ternary numeral system (i.e. base 3 with three digits) that uses a balanced signed-digit representation of the integers in which the digits have the values −1, 0, and 1. This stands in contrast to the standard (unbalanced) ternary system, in which digits have values 0, 1 and 2. The balanced ternary system can represent all integers without using a separate minus sign; the value of the leading non-zero digit of a number has the sign of the number itself. The balanced ternary system is an example of a non-standard positional numeral system. It was used in some early computers and also in some solutions of balance puzzles. Different sources use different glyphs used to represent the three digits in balanced ternary. In this article, T (which resembles a ligature of the minus sign and 1) represents −1, while 0 and 1 represent themselves. Other conventions include using '−' and '+' to represent −1 and 1 respectively, or using Greek letter theta (Θ), which resembles a minus sign in a circle, to represent −1. In publications about the Setun computer, −1 is represented as overturned 1: "1". Balanced ternary makes an early appearance in Michael Stifel's book Arithmetica Integra (1544). It also occurs in the works of Johannes Kepler and Léon Lalanne. Related signed-digit schemes in other bases have been discussed by John Colson, John Leslie, Augustin-Louis Cauchy, and possibly even the ancient Indian Vedas. Definition Let denote the set of symbols (also called glyphs or characters), where the symbol is sometimes used in place of Define an integer-valued function by and where the right hand sides are integers with their usual values. This function, is what rigorously and formally establishes how integer values are assigned to the symbols/glyphs in One benefit of this formalism is that the definition of "the integers" (however they may be defined) is not conflated with any particular system for writing/representing them; in this way, these two distinct (albeit closely related) concepts are kept separate. The set together with the function forms a balanced signed-digit representation called the balanced ternary system. It can be used to represent integers and real numbers. Ternary integer evaluation Let be the Kleene plus of , which is the set of all finite length concatenated strings of one or more symbols (called its digits) where is a non-negative integer and all digits are taken from The start of is the symbol (at the right), its end is (at the left), and its length is . The ternary evaluation is the function defined by assigning to every string the integer The string represents (with respect to ) the integer The value may alternatively be denoted by The map is surjective but not injective since, for example, However, every integer has exactly one representation under that does not end (on the left) with the symbol i.e. If and then satisfies: which shows that satisfies a sort of recurrence relation. This recurrence relation has the initial condition where is the empty string. This implies that for every string which in words says that leading symbols (to the left in a string with 2 or more symbols) do not affect the resulting value. The following examples illustrate how some values of can be computed, where (as before) all integer are written in decimal (base 10) and all elements of are just symbols. and using the above recurrence relation Conversion to decimal In the balanced ternary system the value of a digit n places left of the radix point is the product of the digit and 3n. This is useful when converting between decimal and balanced ternary. In the following the strings denoting balanced ternary carry the suffix, bal3. For instance, 10bal3 = 1 × 31 + 0 × 30 = 3dec 10𝖳bal3 = 1 × 32 + 0 × 31 + (−1) × 30 = 8dec −9dec = −1 × 32 + 0 × 31 + 0 × 30 = 𝖳00bal3 8dec = 1 × 32 + 0 × 31 + (−1) × 30 = 10𝖳bal3 Similarly, the first place to the right of the radix point holds 3−1 = , the second place holds 3−2 = , and so on. For instance, −dec = −1 + = −1 × 30 + 1 × 3−1 = 𝖳.1bal3. An integer is divisible by three if and only if the digit in the units place is zero. We may check the parity of a balanced ternary integer by checking the parity of the sum of all trits. This sum has the same parity as the integer itself. Balanced ternary can also be extended to fractional numbers similar to how decimal numbers are written to the right of the radix point. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Decimal ! style="text-align: right" | −0.9 ! style="text-align: right" | −0.8 ! style="text-align: right" | −0.7 ! style="text-align: right" | −0.6 ! style="text-align: right" | −0.5 ! style="text-align: right" | −0.4 ! style="text-align: right" | −0.3 ! style="text-align: right" | −0.2 ! style="text-align: right" | −0.1 ! style="text-align: right" | 0 |- ! Balanced Ternary | 𝖳.||𝖳.|| 𝖳.|| 𝖳.|| 0. or 𝖳. || 0. || 0. || 0. || 0. || 0 |- ! Decimal ! style="text-align: right" | 0.9 ! style="text-align: right" | 0.8 ! style="text-align: right" | 0.7 ! style="text-align: right" | 0.6 ! style="text-align: right" | 0.5 ! style="text-align: right" | 0.4 ! style="text-align: right" | 0.3 ! style="text-align: right" | 0.2 ! style="text-align: right" | 0.1 ! style="text-align: right" | 0 |- ! Balanced Ternary | 1.||1.|| 1.|| 1.|| 0. or 1. || 0. || 0. || 0. || 0. || 0 |} In decimal or binary, integer values and terminating fractions have multiple representations. For example, = 0.1 = 0.1 = 0.0. And, = 0.12 = 0.12 = 0.02. Some balanced ternary fractions have multiple representations too. For example, = 0.1bal3 = 0.0bal3. Certainly, in the decimal and binary, we may omit the rightmost trailing infinite 0s after the radix point and gain a representations of integer or terminating fraction. But, in balanced ternary, we can't omit the rightmost trailing infinite −1s after the radix point in order to gain a representations of integer or terminating fraction. Donald Knuth has pointed out that truncation and rounding are the same operation in balanced ternary—they produce exactly the same result (a property shared with other balanced numeral systems). The number is not exceptional; it has two equally valid representations, and two equally valid truncations: 0. (round to 0, and truncate to 0) and 1. (round to 1, and truncate to 1). With an odd radix, double rounding is also equivalent to directly rounding to the final precision, unlike with an even radix. The basic operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division—are done as in regular ternary. Multiplication by two can be done by adding a number to itself, or subtracting itself after a-trit-left-shifting. An arithmetic shift left of a balanced ternary number is the equivalent of multiplication by a (positive, integral) power of 3; and an arithmetic shift right of a balanced ternary number is the equivalent of division by a (positive, integral) power of 3. Conversion to and from a fraction The conversion of a repeating balanced ternary number to a fraction is analogous to converting a repeating decimal. For example (because of 111111bal3 = ()dec): Irrational numbers As in any other integer base, algebraic irrationals and transcendental numbers do not terminate or repeat. For example: {| class="wikitable" !Decimal !! Balanced ternary |- | || |- | || |- | || |- | || |- | || |- | || |- | || |} The balanced ternary expansions of is given in OEIS as , that of in . Conversion from ternary Unbalanced ternary can be converted to balanced ternary notation in two ways: Add 1 trit-by-trit from the first non-zero trit with carry, and then subtract 1 trit-by-trit from the same trit without borrow. For example, 0213 + 113 = 1023, 1023 − 113 = 1T1bal3 = 7dec. If a 2 is present in ternary, turn it into 1T. For example, 02123 = 0010bal3 + 1T00bal3 + 001Tbal3 = 10TTbal3 = 23dec If the three values of ternary logic are false, unknown and true, and these are mapped to balanced ternary as T, 0 and 1 and to conventional unsigned ternary values as 0, 1 and 2, then balanced ternary can be viewed as a biased number system analogous to the offset binary system. If the ternary number has n trits, then the bias b is which is represented as all ones in either conventional or biased form. As a result, if these two representations are used for balanced and unsigned ternary numbers, an unsigned n-trit positive ternary value can be converted to balanced form by adding the bias b and a positive balanced number can be converted to unsigned form by subtracting the bias b. Furthermore, if x and y are balanced numbers, their balanced sum is when computed using conventional unsigned ternary arithmetic. Similarly, if x and y are conventional unsigned ternary numbers, their sum is when computed using balanced ternary arithmetic. Conversion to balanced ternary from any integer base We may convert to balanced ternary with the following formula: where, anan−1...a1a0.c1c2c3... is the original representation in the original numeral system. b is the original radix. b is 10 if converting from decimal. ak and ck are the digits k places to the left and right of the radix point respectively. For instance, −25.4dec = −(1T×1011 + 1TT×1010 + 11×101−1) = −(1T×101 + 1TT + 11÷101) = −10T1. = T01T. 1010.12 = 1T10 + 1T1 + 1T−1 = 10T + 1T + 0. = 101. Addition, subtraction and multiplication and division The single-trit addition, subtraction, multiplication and division tables are shown below. For subtraction and division, which are not commutative, the first operand is given to the left of the table, while the second is given at the top. For instance, the answer to 1 − T = 1T is found in the bottom left corner of the subtraction table. {| | :{| class="wikitable" style="width: 8em; text-align: center;" |+ Addition |- align="right" ! + !! T !! 0 !! 1 |- |- ! T | T1 || T || 0 |- ! 0 | T || 0 || 1 |- ! 1 | 0 || 1 || 1T |} | :{| class="wikitable" style="width: 8em; text-align: center;" |+ Subtraction |- align="right" ! − !! T !! 0 !! 1 |- ! T | 0 || T || T1 |- ! 0 | 1 || 0 || T |- ! 1 | 1T || 1 || 0 |} | :{| class="wikitable" style="width: 8em; text-align: center;" |+ Multiplication |- align="right" ! × !! T !! 0 !! 1 |- |- ! T | 1 || 0 || T |- ! 0 | 0 || 0 || 0 |- ! 1 | T || 0 || 1 |} | :{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Division |- align="right" ! ÷ !! T !! 1 |- |- ! T | 1 || T |- ! 0 | 0 || 0 |- ! 1 | T || 1 |} |} Multi-trit addition and subtraction Multi-trit addition and subtraction is analogous to that of binary and decimal. Add and subtract trit by trit, and add the carry appropriately. For example: 1TT1TT.1TT1 1TT1TT.1TT1 1TT1TT.1TT1 1TT1TT.1TT1 + 11T1.T − 11T1.T − 11T1.T → + TT1T.1 __ __ ___ 1T0T10.0TT1 1T1001.TTT1 1T1001.TTT1 + 1T + T T1 + T T __ 1T1110.0TT1 1110TT.TTT1 1110TT.TTT1 + T + T 1 + T 1 __ 1T0110.0TT1 1100T.TTT1 1100T.TTT1 Multi-trit multiplication Multi-trit multiplication is analogous to that of binary and decimal. 1TT1.TT × T11T.1 _ 1TT.1TT multiply 1 T11T.11 multiply T 1TT1T.T multiply 1 1TT1TT multiply 1 T11T11 multiply T _ 0T0000T.10T Multi-trit division Balanced ternary division is analogous to that of binary and decimal. However, 0.5dec = 0.1111...bal3 or 1.TTTT...bal3. If the dividend over the plus or minus half divisor, the trit of the quotient must be 1 or T. If the dividend is between the plus and minus of half the divisor, the trit of the quotient is 0. The magnitude of the dividend must be compared with that of half the divisor before setting the quotient trit. For example, 1TT1.TT quotient 0.5 × divisor T01.0 _ divisor T11T.1 ) T0000T.10T dividend T11T1 T000 < T010, set 1 ___ 1T1T0 1TT1T 1T1T0 > 10T0, set T ___ 111T 1TT1T 111T > 10T0, set T ___ T00.1 T11T.1 T001 < T010, set 1 1T1.00 1TT.1T 1T100 > 10T0, set T 1T.T1T 1T.T1T 1TT1T > 10T0, set T 0 Another example, 1TTT 0.5 × divisor 1T ___ Divisor 11 )1T01T 1T = 1T, but 1T.01 > 1T, set 1 11 _ T10 T10 < T1, set T TT __ T11 T11 < T1, set T TT __ TT TT < T1, set T TT 0 Another example, 101.TTTTTTTTT... or 100.111111111... 0.5 × divisor 1T _ divisor 11 )111T 11 > 1T, set 1 11 _ 1 T1 < 1 < 1T, set 0 ___ 1T 1T = 1T, trits end, set 1.TTTTTTTTT... or 0.111111111... Square roots and cube roots The process of extracting the square root in balanced ternary is analogous to that in decimal or binary. As in division, we should check the value of half the divisor first. For example, 1. 1 1 T 1 T T 0 0 ... _ √ 1T 1<1T<11, set 1 − 1 _ 1×10=10 1.0T 1.0T>0.10, set 1 1T0 −1.T0 11×10=110 1T0T 1T0T>110, set 1 10T0 −10T0 111×10=1110 T1T0T T1T0T<TTT0, set T 100T0 −T0010 _ 111T×10=111T0 1TTT0T 1TTT0T>111T0, set 1 10T110 −10T110 __ 111T1×10=111T10 TT1TT0T TT1TT0T<TTT1T0, set T 100TTT0 −T001110 ___ 111T1T×10=111T1T0 T001TT0T T001TT0T<TTT1T10, set T 10T11110 −T01TTTT0 111T1TT×10=111T1TT0 T001T0T TTT1T110<T001T0T<111T1TT0, set 0 − T Return 1 ___ 111T1TT0×10=111T1TT00 T001T000T TTT1T1100<T001T000T<111T1TT00, set 0 − T Return 1 _ 111T1TT00*10=111T1TT000 T001T00000T ... Extraction of the cube root in balanced ternary is similarly analogous to extraction in decimal or binary: Like division, we should check the value of half the divisor first too. For example: 1. 1 T 1 0 ... _ ³√ 1T − 1 1<1T<10T,set 1 ___ 1.000 1×100=100 −0.100 borrow 100×, do division ___ 1TT 1.T00 1T00>1TT, set 1 1×1×1000+1=1001 −1.001 __ T0T000 11×100 − 1100 borrow 100×, do division _ 10T000 TT1T00 TT1T00<T01000, set T 11×11×1000+1=1TT1001 −T11T00T 1TTT01000 11T×100 − 11T00 borrow 100×, do division ___ 1T1T01TT 1TTTT0100 1TTTT0100>1T1T01TT, set 1 11T×11T×1000+1=11111001 − 11111001 __ 1T10T000 11T1×100 − 11T100 borrow 100×, do division __ 10T0T01TT 1T0T0T00 T01010T11<1T0T0T00<10T0T01TT, set 0 11T1×11T1×1000+1=1TT1T11001 − TT1T00 return 100× _ 1T10T000000 ... Hence = 1.259921dec = 1.1T1 000 111 001 T01 00T 1T1 T10 111bal3. Applications In computer design In the early days of computing, a few experimental Soviet computers were built with balanced ternary instead of binary, the most famous being the Setun, built by Nikolay Brusentsov and Sergei Sobolev. The notation has a number of computational advantages over traditional binary and ternary. Particularly, the plus–minus consistency cuts down the carry rate in multi-digit multiplication, and the rounding–truncation equivalence cuts down the carry rate in rounding on fractions. In balanced ternary, the one-digit multiplication table remains one-digit and has no carry and the addition table has only two carries out of nine entries, compared to unbalanced ternary with one and three respectively. Knuth wrote that "Perhaps the symmetric properties and simple arithmetic of this number system will prove to be quite important some day," noting that, Other applications The theorem that every integer has a unique representation in balanced ternary was used by Leonhard Euler to justify the identity of formal power series Balanced ternary has other applications besides computing. For example, a classical two-pan balance, with one weight for each power of 3, can weigh relatively heavy objects accurately with a small number of weights, by moving weights between the two pans and the table. For example, with weights for each power of 3 through 81, a 60-gram object (60dec = 1T1T0bal3) will be balanced perfectly with an 81 gram weight in the other pan, the 27 gram weight in its own pan, the 9 gram weight in the other pan, the 3 gram weight in its own pan, and the 1 gram weight set aside. Similarly, consider a currency system with coins worth 1¤, 3¤, 9¤, 27¤, 81¤. If the buyer and the seller each have only one of each kind of coin, any transaction up to 121¤ is possible. For example, if the price is 7¤ (7dec = 1T1bal3), the buyer pays 1¤ + 9¤ and receives 3¤ in change. They may also provide a more natural representation for the qutrit and systems that use it. See also Signed-digit representation Methods of computing square roots Numeral system Qutrit Salamis Tablet Ternary computer Setun, a ternary computer Ternary logic Generalized balanced ternary References External links Development of ternary computers at Moscow State University Representation of Fractional Numbers in Balanced Ternary "Third base", ternary and balanced ternary number systems The Balanced Ternary Number System (includes decimal integer to balanced ternary converter) Balanced (Signed) Ternary Notation by Brian J. Shelburne (PDF file) The ternary calculating machine of Thomas Fowler by Mark Glusker Computer arithmetic Non-standard positional numeral systems Ternary computers Numeral systems de:Ternärsystem#Balanciert
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Christmas%20dishes
List of Christmas dishes
Albania Byrek me kungull dhe arre – Traditional Albanian pumpkin and walnut pie cooked usually on Christmas Eve, especially in Catholic families. Argentina Panettone (known locally as pan dulce) and turrón are the most popular Christmas sweets in Argentina regardless of socioeconomic status, with 76% of Argentines choosing the former and 59% the latter in 2015. Mantecol, a typical peanut dessert, is also popular, being favored by 49% of Argentines in the same survey. Sparkling wines, ciders and frizzantes concentrate most of their sales during Christmas season; sparkling wine is mostly consumed by small families with high and medium socioeconomic status living in Greater Buenos Aires and the country's largest cities, while cider and frizzantes are popular among lower classes and large families. Vitel toné Turrón Pan dulce Asado (beef, chicken, calf, lamb, suckling pig) Clericó (or ), a sangria-like beverage that combines wine with chopped fruit. Cider (apple, pineapple) and sparkling wine Budín Salads Russian salad Waldorf salad Fruit salad Pionono Matambre Lengua a la vinagreta Garrapiñadas, dried fruits and comfits Mantecol Sandwiches de miga Pavita Australia White Christmas, a sweet slice made of copha and mixed fruit Cold ham and cold turkey Seafood and salads Roast chicken, ham and turkey Stuffing Christmas cake or Christmas pudding Custard Gingerbread in Christmas shapes Christmas damper – in wreath or star shape, served with butter, jam, honey or golden syrup. Made in the Australian bush in the 19th century. Lollies, such as rocky road; rum balls; candy canes Champagne Eggnog Trifle Pavlova Prawns Mince pie Christmas cookies Bangladesh Pitha Nankhatai Pulao Rôst Musallam Cha Homemade Christmas cake Shobji Mishti (Bengali sweets) Nakshi Pitha Chunga pitha Patishapta Pith Bhapa pitha Tel pitha Belarus Borscht Kutya Belgium Cougnou (with various like cougnolle), sweet bread in the form of the infant Jesus Brazil Lombo à Califórnia – pork loins Rabanada – French toast Leitão assado – roasted piglet Peru – roast turkey Farofa Pavê – trifle Ham Bacalhau – codfish Brazil nut Arroz à grega Potato salad Salpicão – chicken salad with raisins Panettone Crème caramel Mousse Cider Grape juice Wine Canada Bûche de Noël Butter tarts Candy canes Christmas pudding Eggnog Fruitcake Mince pie Cranberry sauce Roasted turkey Brussels Sprouts Mashed Potatoes and Gravy, Shortbread Stuffing (also known as Trimming or Dressing) Trifle Tourtière Ragoût de Boulettes (Meatball Stew) Ragoût de Pattes de Cochon (Stewed Pig's Feet) Salted Beef (commonly known as Corned Beef) Fish and Brewis Gingerbread cookies (or Ginger and Molasses cookies) Figgy duff (pudding) Christmas slush (made from a mixture of fruit juices, vodka, ginger ale, or lemon-lime soda) Roasted chestnuts Christmas cookies Snowball dessert (made with cocoa, rolled oats & coconut) Nanaimo Bar Mulled Wine Christmas Ham Tarte au sucre Hot chocolate (also known as "hot cocoa", in various flavours like peppermint, white chocolate, etc.) Candy cane Gingerbread house Sweet potatoes or Yam Hot Apple cider Raw Caribou, Seal meat, and Muktuk (eaten in Nunuvut by the local Indigenous communities) Arctic char (raw or cooked) Chile Cola de mono – (literally, "monkey's tail") a Chilean Christmas beverage, with aguardiente, milk, coffee, and flavoured with vanilla and cloves Pan de Pascua – Chilean Christmas sponge cake flavoured with cloves and with bits of candied fruits, raisins, walnuts and almonds. Roasted turkey Ponche a la romana – eggnog-style beverage made of champagne and pineapple-flavoured icecream. China and Taiwan Hotpot Jiaozi Colombia Colombian Christmas dishes are mostly sweets and desserts. Some of the most popular dishes include: Buñuelos Natilla Manjar blanco Hojaldres Brevas dessert with cheese Christmas cookies Sweet bread filled with fruits like raisins and raspberries. Lechona (rice baked inside a pig, with peas, the meat of the pig and other delicacies) Tamales Ponqué envinado (red wine cake) Turkey Pernil de Cerdo (pork leg, usually roasted) Potato salad Panettone Cuba Crema De Vie – Eggnog made with rum, lemon rind, and spices. Majarete – A pudding made with corn, cornstarch, milk, lemon rind, spices, and sugar Platillo Moros y Cristianos Lechon asado Turrón Czech Republic and Slovakia Kapustnica – Christmas cabbage soup Fish soup Fried carp Potato salad with mayonnaise, hard-boiled eggs and boiled vegetables Kuba – groats and mushrooms Grilled white sausage Vánoční cukroví – Christmas cookies Christmas bread (vánočka) Fruitcake Gingerbread Before the Christmas holidays, many kinds of sweet biscuits are prepared. These sweet biscuits are then served during the whole Christmas period and exchanged among friends and neighbours. Also very popular are a preparation of small gingerbreads garnished by sugar icing. Denmark Æbleskiver – traditional Danish dough ball made in a special pan (a type of doughnut with no hole), sprinkled with powdered sugar and served with raspberry or strawberry jam Sylte – a form of head cheese, a terrine or meat jelly made from pork, traditionally pig's head was used Julesild – spiced pickled herring often flavoured with Christmas spices such as cloves and allspice Boiled whole potatoes Brun sovs (brown sauce) – a traditional dark gravy, used to cover meat dishes like roasted pork and duck (flæskesteg, andesteg) and the boiled potato Brunede kartofler – caramelised potatoes Julebryg – Christmas beer Gløgg – mulled red wine combined with spices, sugar, raisins and chopped almonds typically served warm Risalamande – rice pudding. A dish made from rice, whipped cream and almonds, served cold with cherry sauce (kirsebærsauce) Flæskesteg – roast pork with cracklings Andesteg – roast duck with apple and prune stuffing Rødkål – red cabbage pickled, sweet-sour red cabbage served hot as a side dish Christmas cookies – Vaniljekranse, klejner, jødekager, pebernødder, honningkager, brunkager and finskbrød Konfekt, marzipan, caramelised fruits, nougat and chocolate-covered nuts Ground nuts Dominican Republic Croquette Empanada Ensalada Rusa – Olivier salad (Russian potato salad) Ensalada verde – iceberg lettuce, onions, cucumber, and tomatoes salad Moro de guandules con coco – rice with pigeon peas and coconut milk Pasteles de hojas – Puerto Rican tamales Pastelon – casserole Pig roast Pollo al horno – roasted chicken Telera – Dominican bread similar to Mexican telera Drinks: Anisette – anise-flavored liquor Guavaberry – a drink from the Lesser Antilles historic Saint Martin natives now a part of the Dominican Republics Christmas tradition Ponche crema – eggnog Jengibre – ginger tea with spices and lemon Mandarin Liqueur – Mandarin peels fermented with rum and sugar Desserts: Buñuelos – fried cassava dough balls covered in spiced flavored syrup Turrón – honey and almond nougat. Tradition from Spain Vaniljekranse – Danish butter cookies Fruits and nuts – a variety of nuts, fresh, and dried fruit Finland Christmas smorgasbord from Finland, "Joulupöytä", (translated "Yule table"), a traditional display of Christmas food served at Christmas in Finland, similar to the Swedish smörgåsbord, including: Christmas ham with mustard (almost every family has one for Christmas) Freshly salted salmon (gravlax graavilohi) and whitefish graavisiika Pickled herring in various forms (tomato, mustard, matjes or onion sauces) Rosolli (cold salad dish with diced beetroot, potato and carrot – some varieties also incorporate apple) Lutefisk and Béchamel sauce Whitefish and pikeperch Potato casserole (sweetened or not, depending on preference) Boiled potatoes Carrot casserole Rutabaga casserole (lanttulaatikko) Various sauces Assortment of cheese, most commonly (leipäjuusto) and Aura (aura-juusto) Christmas bread, usually sweet bread (Joululimppu) Karelian pasties, rice pasties, served with egg-butter (Karjalanpiirakka) Other meat dishes could be: Karelian hot pot, traditional meat stew originating from the region of Karelia (Karjalanpaisti) Desserts: Rice pudding or rice porridge topped with cinnamon, sugar and cold milk or with mixed fruit soup (riisipuuro) Joulutorttu, traditionally a star-shaped piece of puff-pastry with prune marmalade in the middle Gingerbread, sometimes in the form of a gingerbread house or gingerbread man (piparkakut) Mixed fruit soup or prune soup, kissel (sekahedelmäkiisseli, luumukiisseli) Drinks: Glögg or mulled wine (glögi) Christmas beer (Jouluolut); local manufacturers produce Christmas varieties "Home beer" (non-alcoholic beer-like drink, similar to the Russian beverage kvass) (kotikalja) France Oysters Foie gras Smoked salmon Scallops Champagne Crêpes (Brittany) chapon (roasted chicken) dinde aux marrons (chestnut-stuffed turkey) Ganzeltopf (goose) (Alsace) Goose (Normandy) Bûche de Noël. Kouglof (Alsace) Thirteen desserts (Provence): The thirteen desserts are the traditional Christmas dessert in the French region of Provence. The Christmas supper ends with 13 dessert items, representing Jesus Christ and the 12 apostles. The desserts are traditionally set out Christmas Eve and remain on the table three days until December 27. Walnut Quince cheese Almond Raisin Calisson of Aix-en-Provence Nougat blanc Nougat noir au miel Apple Pear Orange Winter melon Fougasse (Provençal bread) Germany Christstollen – Stollen is a fruitcake with bits of candied fruits, raisins, walnuts and almonds and spices such as cardamom and cinnamon; sprinkled with confectioners sugar. Often there's also a core of marzipan. Pfefferkuchenhaus – a gingerbread house decorated with candies, sweets and sugar icing (in reference to the gingerbread house of the fairy tale Hänsel and Gretel) Printen Oblaten Lebkuchen Springerle Weihnachtsplätzchen (Christmas cookies) Carp Roast goose, often paired with kartoffelklosse Venison – e.g. meat of roe deer usually served with red cabbage, brussels sprout and lingonberry sauce Herring salad – salad of pickled or soused herring, beetroot, potatoes, apple Kartoffelsalat (potato salad) with Wurst (sausages) is traditionally eaten in northern Germany for supper on Christmas Eve Schäufele (a corned, smoked ham) usually served with potato salad in southern Germany for dinner on Christmas Eve Weisswurst – sausages with veal and bacon, usually flavored with parsley, lemon, mace, onions, ginger and cardamom Feuerzangenbowle Glühwein (hot spiced wine) Greece and Cyprus Kourabiedes Melomakarono Diples Christopsomo (Christmas bread) Pork or turkey Greenland Kiviak Guatemala Tamales Ponche (Christmas fruit punch served hot with much fruit) pavo (turkey) Buñuelos (fluffy sweet dessert made with corn with maple syrup) chicken (prepared with different stuffings and accompanied with various side dishes such as salads or rice) Hong Kong and Macau Dim sum Hungary Fish soup (halászlé) various recipes Stuffed cabbage (töltött káposzta) Roast goose Roast duck Pastry roll filled with walnut or poppy seed (bejgli) Bread pudding with poppy seed (mákos guba or bobájka) Szaloncukor Cheesy Garlic Bread Sticks Iceland Hamborgarhryggur – a smoked, cured pork roast. Lambalæri - heated or smoked sheep meat from a sheep's foot. Ptarmigan – gamebird in the grouse family Hangikjöt Oven-roasted turkey Beverage combination of Malt and Appelsín. Jarðarberjagrautur Möndlugrautur – a Christmas rice pudding with an almond hidden inside (the same as the Swedish Julgröt) Caramelised potatoes Pickled red cabbage Smákökur – small cookies of various sorts Jólasúkkulaðibitakökur Loftkökur Mömmukökur Sörur Spesiur Gyðingakökur Piparkökur Marens Kornflexkökur Laufabrauð – round, very thin flat cakes with a diameter of about 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 inches), decorated with leaf-like, geometric patterns and fried briefly in hot fat or oil India Indian Christians in Indian subcontinent celebrate Christmas by enjoying several dishes, such as Allahabadi cake, Candy canes, Plum cakes etc. Some of the popular dishes eaten during Christmas in India are: Allahabadi cake. Christmas cake – a type of fruit cake. Mathri – a traditional flaky biscuit. Gulab Jamun – a traditional sweet prepared with khoa. Walnut fudge Jalebi Mincemeatpie Kheer – boiled rice cooked with milk, sugar, saffron and is garnished with nuts such as almonds and pistachios. It can also be made with barley. Chhena Poda – a dessert made with Chhena (cottage cheese) which is slightly roasted and soaked in sugar syrup. It is garnished with cashew nuts and served. Chhena Poda is popular in the Odisha state of India. It is eaten during the Christmas season but is available throughout the year. Ghee cookies Rose cookies Bolinhas de coco _ a type of coconut cookies Chocolate covered fruit Marzipan Dumplings – dumplings filled with Indian spices with a sweet or savoury filling. Tarts Nankhatai Neureos – a kind of dumpling made of semolina, khoa and nutlet. Roast chicken Dates roll- a type of Christmas cookies with dates Bebinca – a dessert popular in Goa which is eaten during Christmas season. Biryani Stew – stews prepared with chicken, mutton, fish. Candy canes Cormolas Milk cream _ milk fudge Chocolate candies Vindaloo – a spicy Goan curry with pork made during Christmas. Fruits, such as apple, orange, guava. Mixed nuts Kulkuls Pilaf Duck curry Jujubee Cupcakes Drinks, such as cider, ginger ale, etc. Church services are also held in churches throughout India, in which Christmas dinners are held which include dishes such as Allahabadi cake, candy canes, christmas cookies. The Koswad is a set of sweets and snacks prepared in the Christmastide by people of the Konkan region. South Indian states such as Kerala have traditions observed of home-brewed wine, mostly grapes but sometimes other fruits as well like Apple & Rose Apple; ethnic recipes of slow-cooked beef fry, Rice & Coconut Hoppers, Lamb stew, Fried Rice Indian and Fusion Style; Desserts such as Falooda, pastry, and a whole array of steamed, boiled or baked sweets, often with coconut, jaggery, sugar and spices such as cardamom & cloves (Achappam, Murukku, Tapioca chip, Sukiyan, Neyyappam). Indonesia Klappertaart Poffertjes Ayam rica-rica Lampet Kohu-kohu Kidney bean soup Italy Panettone (Milan) Pandoro (Verona) Panforte (Tuscany) Prosecco (Veneto) Spumante (Piedmont) Struffoli (Naples) Pastiera (Naples) Duck a L'Orange Jamaica Christmas (fruit) cake or black cake – a heavy fruit cake made with dried fruit, wine and rum. Sorrel – often served to guests with Christmas cake; Sorrel is made from the same sepals as Latin American drink "Jamaica," but is more concentrated and usually flavored with ginger. Adding rum is traditional at Christmas time. Curry goat Rice and peas – a Sunday staple, at Christmas dinner is usually made with green (fresh) gungo (pigeon) peas instead of dried kidney beans or other dried legumes. Christmas ham Chicken Pine and ginger Japan Christmas cake – the Japanese style Christmas cake is often a white cream cake, sponge cake frosted with whipped cream, topped with strawberries and with a chocolate plate that says Merry Christmas. Yule Logs are also available. Christmas cookies - A Christmas sugar cookie's main ingredients are sugar, flour, butter, eggs, vanilla, and baking powder. Sugar cookies may be formed by hand, dropped, or rolled and cut into shapes. They are commonly decorated with additional sugar, icing, Christmas sprinkles. Decorative shapes and figures can be cut into the rolled-out dough using a cookie cutter. Christmas cupcakes Crème caramel pudding in Japan - a crème caramel ubiquitous in Japanese convenience stores under the name custard pudding. Made with eggs, sugar and milk, sometimes served with whipped cream and a cherry on top. French fries Fruit parfait - Made by boiling cream, egg, sugar and syrup to create layers differentiated by the inclusion of such ingredients as corn flakes and vanilla ice cream. Topped with melon, banana, peach, orange, apple, kiwi, cherries and strawberries and whipped cream. Gingerbread house Ice cream KFC fried chicken – turkey as a dish is virtually unknown in Japan and the popularity of KFC's fried chicken at Christmas is such that orders are placed as much as two months in advance. Nabemono Poached egg salad Shōyu ramen Tamagoyaki - Japanese Omelette Yakiniku Korea Gogigui Korean royal cuisine Lithuania Twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper – twelve dishes representing the twelve Apostles or twelve months of the year – plays the main role in Lithuanian Christmas tradition. The traditional dishes are served on December 24. Poppy milk (aguonų pienas) Slizikai ( or kūčiukai) – slightly sweet small pastries made from leavened dough and poppy seed Auselės (Deep fried dumplings) Herring with carrots (silkė su morkomis) Herring with mushrooms (silkė su grybais) Cranberry Kissel - thickened & sweetened juice normally served warm Malaysia Bolo Rei – a type of cake Chap chye – a vegetable stew Steamboat – a hotpot dish for communal Devil's curry – from the Eurasian tradition Egg salad Vindaloo – a spicy Goan curry made usually with pork Semur (Indonesian stew) Christmas pudding Candy canes Kue semprong Pineapple tart Christmas cake Jiaozi Malta Panettone – from the Italian tradition Fruitcake – from British Influence Christmas/Yule log (cake) – a log (similar to a tree's) that is made from chocolate and candied fruits Mince Pies – from British Influence Timpana – traditionally served as a starter Roast Turkey – from British Influence Mexico Meat Roasted turkey – stuffed, roasted turkey served with gravy. Glazed ham – ham glazed with honey or sugar dressed with cherries and pineapples. Jamón (Spanish Dry-Cured Ham) Lechon Seafood Bacalao – cod Basque style. Traditionally eaten in the central and southern states of Mexico. Shrimp – cocktail or prepared in Torrejas (dried shrimp pancakes) Octopus – cocktail Crab Stews Menudo – a Christmas morning tradition in northwestern states, Menudo is a tripe and hominy soup. Menudo is often prepared the night before (Christmas Eve) as its cooking time can take up to 5 hours. Pozole – hominy soup with added pork Salads & other side dishes Tamales – can sometimes replace the traditional turkey or Bacalao with romeritos, particularly in northern and southern parts of Mexico. Ensalada Navideña – Christmas salad with apples, raisins, pecans, and marshmallows. Ensalada de Noche Buena – Christmas Eve salad Ensalada Rusa – potato salad, particularly popular in northern states. Romeritos – also a Christmas tradition of the central region, romeritos are small green leaves similar to Rosemary mixed generally with mole and potatoes. Sweets Buñuelo – fried sweet pastry Capirotada – bread pudding Turrón Cocada – coconut candy Volteado de piña – pineapple upside-down cake. Turned-over cake with cherries and pineapples. Carlota de Chocolate – cake Mantecados and polvorones – crumbly cakes Marzipan, almond cakes Pan dulce – sweet rolls Churros Fresh Fruit Tejocotes Guayabas Caña de azucar Drinks Champurrado – thick hot chocolate Chocolate – hot chocolate Cidra – apple cider Atole – corn based drink Rompope – similar to eggnog Ponche Navideño – a hot, sweet drink made with apples, sugar cane, prunes and tejocotes. For grown-ups, ponche is never complete without its "piquete" – either tequila or rum Netherlands Banket Chocolate coin Chocolate letter Kruidnoten Mandarin orange Marzipan Mixed spice Mulled wine Oliebol Pepernoot Speculaas New Zealand Cherries Christmas pudding Christmas mince pies Ham Hangi Lamb Lollies such as candy canes Pavlova Potato salad Seafood Strawberries Trifle Wine Norway Akevitt – Akvavit, a spirit flavored with spices like caraway and aniseed Gløgg – mulled wine Julepølse – pork sausage made with powdered ginger, cloves, mustard seeds and nutmeg. Served steamed or roasted. Lutefisk – fish preserved with lye that has been washed and boiled Pinnekjøtt/Pinnekjøt – salted, dried, and sometimes smoked lamb's ribs which are rehydrated and then steamed, traditionally over birch branches Svineribbe – pork belly roasted whole with the skin on. Usually served with red or pickled cabbage, gravy and boiled potatoes. Julegrøt – Christmas rice porridge with an almond hidden inside Julebrus – Norwegian soft drink, usually with a festive label on the bottle. It is brewed by most Norwegian breweries, as a Christmas drink for minors. Julekake – Norwegian yeast cake with dried fruits and spices Sossiser – small Christmas sausages Medisterkaker – large meatballs made from a mix of pork meat and pork fat Raudkål/Rødkål – sweet and sour red cabbage, as a side dish Kålrabistappe/Kålrotstappe – Purée of rutabaga, as a side dish Peparkake/Pepperkake – gingerbread-like spice cookies flavoured with black pepper Lussekatter – St. Lucia Buns with saffron Multekrem – a dessert consisting of cloudberries and whipped cream Riskrem – Risalamande Panama Arroz con Pollo Tamales Ham Turkey Grapes Fruit cake Egg nog Potato salad Pan de Rosca Pan Bon Spaghetti Paraguay Apple cider Beef Tongue sometimes covered in vinaigrette Cider Clericó (citric alcoholic Drink made out of a mix of fruits and wine) Roasted chicken Potato salad Roast pork Sopa paraguaya Philippines Bibingka – traditional dessert made with rice flour, sugar, clarified butter and coconut milk. baked in layers and topped with butter and sugar. Caldereta Champorado Churro Crema de fruta Embutido Ham Hamonado Kinutil Lechon Mechado Menudo Morcon Pancit – Filipino style noodle dish made with sliced meat and vegetables Puto bumbong – a purple-coloured Filipino dessert made of sweet rice cooked in hollow bamboo tubes placed on a special steamer-cooker. When cooked, they are spread with margarine and sprinkled with sugar and grated coconut. Queso de bola (edam cheese) Salads (either fruit, coconut or garden) Tsokolate Ube halaya Poland On 24 December, Christmas Eve, twelve dishes are served as a reminder of the Twelve Apostles. Polish people often do not eat meat on this day; instead, they choose from a variety of fish and vegetable dishes. The meal begins when the first star is seen. Barszcz (beetroot soup) with uszka (small dumplings) - a classic Polish Christmas starter. Pierogi with sauerkraut and forest mushrooms; filled with cottage cheese and potatoes Zupa rybna – fish soup Żurek – soup made of soured rye flour and meat Zupa grzybowa – mushroom soup made of various forest mushrooms Bigos – savory stew of cabbage and meat Kompot – traditional drink a light, refreshing drink most often made of dried or fresh fruit boiled in water with sugar and left to cool and infuse. Gołąbki – cabbage rolls Pieczarki marynowane – marinated mushrooms Kartofle gotowane – simple boiled potatoes sparkled with parsley or dill Kulebiak – with fish or cabbage and wild mushrooms filling Ryba smażona or ryba po grecku – fried fish laid under lyers of fried shredded carrots, onions, root celery and leek Sałatka jarzynowa – salad made with boiled potatoes and carrots with fresh peas, sweetcorn, dill cucumber, and boiled egg, mixed with mayonnaise. Łamaniec – type of flat and rather hard pancake that is soaked in warm milk with poppy seeds. Eaten in eastern regions such as around * Białystok Makowiec – poppy seed roll Portugal Bacalhau – codfish Cabrito assado – roasted goat Borrego assado – roasted lamb Polvo cozido – boiled octopus Polvo à lagareiro - dish based on octopus, olive oil, potatoes (batatas a murro), grelos and garlic. Carne de Vinha d' Alhos – mainly served in Madeira – pork dish Bolo de mel – mainly served in Madeira - Cake made with molasses Bolo Rei (king cake) – a beautifully decorated fluffy fruitcake Bolo-Rei escangalhado (broken king cake) – it is like the first one, but has also cinnamon and chilacayote jam (doce de gila) Bolo-Rainha (queen cake) – similar to Bolo-Rei, but with only nuts, raisins and almonds Bolo-Rei de chocolate – it is like the Bolo-Rei, but has less (or no) fruit, nuts, chilacayote jam and many chocolate chips Broa castelar – a small, soft and thin cake made of sweet potato and orange Fatias douradas – slices of pan bread, soaked in egg with sugar, fried and sprinkled with powdered sugar and cinnamon Rabanadas – they are like fatias douradas, but made with common bread Aletria – composed of pasta, milk, butter, sugar, eggs, lemon peel, cinnamon powder and salt Formigos – a delicious dessert made with sugar, eggs, pieces of bread, almonds, port wine and cinnamon powder Filhós / Filhozes / Filhoses – depending on the region, they may be thin or fluffy pieces of a fried dough made of eggs, honey, orange, lemon, flour and anise, sprinkled - or not with icing sugar Coscorões – thin squares of a fried orange flavoured dough Azevias de grão, batata-doce ou gila – deep fried thin dough pastries filled with a delicious cream made of chickpea, sweet potato or chilacayote, powdered with sugar and cinnamon Tarte de amêndoa – almond pie Tronco de Natal – Christmas log – a Swiss roll, resembling a tree's trunk, filled with chocolate cream, decorated with chocolate and mini – 2 cm Christmas trees Lampreia de ovos – a sweet made of eggs, well decorated Sonhos – an orange flavoured fried yeast dough, powdered with icing sugar Velhoses – they are like the sonhos, but made with pumpkin Bolo de Natal – Christmas cake Pudim de Natal – Christmas pudding, similar to flan Vinho quente – mulled wine made with boiled wine, egg yolk, sugar and cinnamon Turkey – on the island of Terceira, turkey has recently taken over as the traditional Christmas dish over Bacalhau, due to the influence of American culture on the island, home to the United States Air Force's 65th Air Base Wing. Puerto Rico (U.S.) Arroz con gandules – yellow-rice, pigeon peas, olives, capers, pieces of pork, spices and sofrito cooked in the same pot. Escabeche – pickled green bananas or cassava and chicken gizzards. Macaroni salad – with canned tuna and peppers. Morcilla – blood sausage. Pasteles – Puerto Rican tamle made from milk, broth, root vegetables, squash, green banana, plantain dough, stuffed with meat, and wrapped in banana leaves. Hallaca – tamale made from grated cassava and stuffed with meat wrapped in banana leaves. Pastelón – sweet plantain "lasagna". Pig roast – Puerto Rico is famous for their pig roast. It is also a part (along with arroz con gandules) of their national dish. Potato salad – most commonly made with apples, chorizo and hard-boiled eggs. Potatoes are sometimes replaced with cassava. Drinks: Bilí – Spanish limes or cherries fermented in rum with spices, brown sugar, citrus peels, bay leaves, avocado leaves, often cucumber, ginger, and coconut shells. Coquito – spiced coconut eggnog. Coquito de guayaba - spiced guava eggnog with cream cheese or coconut milk added. Piña colada Rum punch – rum, orange liqueur, grenadine, ginger ale, grapefruit juice served with fruit, lemon and lime slices. La Danza – champagne with passion fruit juice, orange liqueur, lime juice, lemon juice, and strawberry juice. Dessert: Arroz con dulce – Spiced coconut and raisin rice pudding. Bread pudding – soaked in coconut milk and served with a guava rum sauce. Dulce de cassabanana – musk cucumber cooked in syrup topped with walnuts and sour cream on the side. Dulce de papaya con queso – Fermented green papaya with spices and sugar syrup served with ausubal cheese or fresh white cheese. Flancocho – Crème caramel with a layer of cream cheese and Puerto Rican style spongecake underneath. Majarete – rice and coconut custard. Made with coconut cream, marshmallows, milk, rice flour, sugar, vanilla and sour orange leaves with cinnamon served on top. Rum cake Tembleque – a pudding made with cornstarch, coconut cream, sugar, milk, orange blossom water and coconut milk. Turrón – Sesame brittle or almond brittle. Mantecaditos – Puerto Rican shortbread cookies. Made with shortening, coconut butter, flour, almond flour, vanilla, nutmeg and almond extract. They are usually filled with guava jam or pineapple jam in the middle. Natilla – Milk, coconut cream and egg yolk custard made with additional cinnamon, cornstarch, sugar, vanilla, lemon zest and orange blossom water. Served in individual ramekins with cinnamon sprinkled on top. Romania Romanian Christmas foods are mostly pork-based dishes. Five days before Christmas, Romanians are celebrating the Ignat Day, a religious holy day dedicated to the Holy Martyr Ignatius Theophorus, associated with a practice that takes place especially on villages scattered around the country: the ritual of slaughtering the pigs. And they are using everything from the pigs: from their blood to their ears. Five days later their tables are filled not only with generous pork roasts but also with: Piftie – pork jelly, made only with pork meat, vegetables and garlic Lebăr – liver sausages, a local variety of liverwurst Caltaboș – sausages made from organs Cârnaţi – pork-based sausages Sângerete – blood sausages Tobă – head cheese made from various cuttings of pork, liver boiled, diced and "packed" in pork stomach like a salami Sarmale – rolls of cabbage pickled in brine and filled with meat and rice (see sarma) Salată de boeuf – a more recent dish, but highly popular, this type of salad uses boiled vegetables and meat (beef, poultry, even ham). It can include potatoes, carrots, pickled red peppers and cucumbers, egg whites bits. Everything is mixed together with mayonnaise and mustard. Cozonac, the Romanian equivalent of panettone or sweet bread. Strong spirits: Palinka, Rachiu, Ţuică Russia Borscht Kutya Samoa, Tonga and Tuvalu Puaa umu San Marino Bustrengo Serbia Česnica – Christmas soda bread with a silver coin to bring health and good luck baked in the bread. Koljivo – boiled wheat which is used liturgically in the Eastern Orthodox and Greek Catholic Churches. Riblja čorba for Christmas Eve South Africa Christmas is in the summer in South Africa, so many summer fruits such as watermelon and cantaloupes are enjoyed at this time. Popular desserts include trifle, melktert and peppermint crisp tart. Many people in South Africa hold Braai barbecues for Christmas or New Year's Day. Beef tongue Gammon Potato salad Garden Salad Turducken Turkey Braaivleis Boerewors Potjiekos Breyani Bobotie Meatballs Fried chicken Trifle Fruitcake Christmas pudding Ice cream Melktert Peppermint crisp tart – fridge tart made with peppermint crisp, caramel treat and tennis biscuits Yogurt tart – fridge tart Cookies Hertzoggies Lamingtons Watermelon Melon Mango Pineapple Strawberries Peanuts Lollies such as candy canes Spain Jamón, jamón ibérico (Spanish dry-cured ham). Fish: oven gilt-head bream, oven sea bass, elvers. Seafood: Langostinos (king prawn), Shrimp, Lobster, Crab. Meat: Roasted turkey, Roasted lamb. Sweets Turrón Yema – egg-based dessert Mantecados and polvorones – crumbly cakes Marzipan – almond cakes King cake known as roscón de Reyes in Spanish and tortell in Catalan. Frutas de Aragón - a confit of fruit covered in chocolate Peladillas - sugared almonds Churros Sweden Julbord - Christmas smorgasbord ("Christmas table"), a catch-all term for all the dishes served during Christmas Eve: Köttbullar – Swedish meatballs Julskinka – Christmas ham Dopp i grytan ("dipping in the kettle") – dipping bread slices in the ham broth after boiling the Christmas ham. Prinskorv – small hot dog sausages Fläskkorv – big pork sausage Isterband – smoked fresh pork sausage Revbensspjäll – spare ribs Inlagd sill – pickled herring (usually of different types) Gravad lax – lox Janssons frestelse ("Jansson's Temptation") – warm, scalloped potato casserole with anchovies Vörtlimpa – Swedish rye bread with grated orange peel made for Christmas, with or without raisins. Knäckebröd – dry crisp bread Rödkål – sweet and sour red cabbage, as a side dish Grönkål – sweet and sour kale as a side dish Brunkål ("brown cabbage") – cabbage flavoured with syrup hence the name Rödbetor – sliced beet root An array of cheeses – bondost, herrgårdsost, prästost, mesost (hard goat milk cheese) Lutfisk – lye-fish (whitefish) that has been boiled served with white gravy Julmust – a traditional, very sweet, stout-like, Christmas soft drink, originally intended as an alternative to alcohol beverage called Mumma Glögg – mulled wine Knäck or Christmas Butterscotch – Christmas toffee Pepparkakor (Gingerbread) – brown cookies flavoured with a variety of traditional Christmas spices Julost – Christmas cheese Julgröt – Christmas rice pudding with an almond hidden inside Lussekatter – Saint Lucy saffron buns Limpa bread – orange and rye spice bread Trinidad and Tobago In Trinidad and Tobago traditional meals consists of generous helpings of baked ham, pastelles, black fruit cake, sweet breads, along with traditional drinks such as sorrel, ginger beer, and ponche de crème. The ham is the main item on the Christmas menu with sorrel to accompany it. Christmas ham Sorrel Pastelles also known as Hallacas Ponche de crème – a version of eggnog Black cake Ukraine Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christians in Ukraine traditionally have two Christmas dinners. The first is a Lent Dinner, it is held on the January 6 and should consist of meatless dishes. The second is a Christmas Festive dinner held on January 7, when the meat dishes and alcohol are already allowed on the table. The dinner normally has 12 dishes which represent Jesus's 12 disciples. Both Christmas dinners traditionally include a number of authentic Ukrainian dishes, which have over thousand-year history and date back to pagan times. Kutya Uzvar Varenyky Borshch Deruny Pampushky Holubtsi Makivnyk United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, what is now regarded as the traditional meal consists of roast turkey with cranberry sauce, served with roast potatoes and parsnips and other vegetables, followed by Christmas pudding, a heavy steamed pudding made with dried fruit, suet, and very little flour. Other roast meats may be served, and in the nineteenth century the traditional roast was goose. The same carries over to Ireland with some variations. Beef Wellington (alternative main course) Brandy butter Bread sauce Brussels sprouts Candy canes Chocolate yule log Christmas cake Christmas ham (usually a honey or marmalade glazed roast or boiled gammon joint) Christmas pudding Cranberry sauce Devils on horseback Dundee cake (traditional Scottish fruit cake) Gingerbread Gravy Hot chocolate Mince pies Mulled wine Nut roast (a popular vegetarian alternative) Pigs in blankets (Chipolata sausages wrapped in bacon) Roast turkey Roast beef Roasted chestnuts Roast duck Roast goose Roast pheasant Roast parsnips and carrots Roast potatoes (occasionally roasted with goose or duck fat) Spiced beef (traditionally served in Ireland and Northern Ireland) Stuffing Trifle Tunis Cake Twelfth Night Cake (traditionally eaten on the final day of Christmas) United States (mainland) Apple cider Boiled custard Candy canes Champagne, or sparkling apple cider Chocolate fudge Christmas cookies Cranberry sauce Eggnog Fish as part of the Feast of the Seven Fishes Fruitcake Gingerbread, often in the form of a gingerbread house or gingerbread man Christmas ham Hawaiian bread Hot buttered rum Hot chocolate Mashed potatoes Mixed nuts, chestnuts, dried figs, dried dates Oyster stew, composed of oysters simmered in cream or milk and butter. Persimmon pudding Pie Apple pie Pecan pie Pumpkin pie Sweet potato pie Yams/sweet potato casserole (with marshmallow) Red velvet cake Russian tea cakes Tom and Jerry Roast turkey, less often roast duck, goose, chicken or pheasant Stuffing, also known as dressing, particularly in the southern U.S. See also: Thanksgiving (the dishes tend to be similar) Venezuela Hallaca – rectangle-shaped meal made of maize, filled with beef, pork, chicken, olives, raisins and caper, and wrapped in plantain leaves and boiled to cook. Pan de jamón – ham-filled bread with olives and raisins and often sliced cheese. Dulce de lechosa – dessert made of cooked sliced unripe papaya in reduced sugar syrup Ensalada de gallina – salad made of potato, carrot, apple and shredded chicken (hen usually home or locally raised as opposed to store bought chicken) Pernil – commonly referred to as roast pork Vietnam Bánh chưng Lẩu See also Christmas dinner References External links Lists of foods World cuisine Lists by country Dishes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waseda%20University
Waseda University
Waseda University (), abbreviated as Waseda(早稲田) or , is a private research university in Shinjuku, Tokyo. Founded in 1882 as the Tōkyō Professional School by the former Prime Minister of Japan, Ōkuma Shigenobu, the school was formally renamed Waseda University in 1902. Waseda is organized into thirty-six departments: thirteen undergraduate schools and twenty-three graduate schools. As of May 2023, there were 38,776 undergraduate students and 8,490 graduate students. In addition to a central campus in Shinjuku, the university operates campuses in Chūō, Nishitōkyō, Tokorozawa, Honjō, and Kitakyūshū. Waseda also operates twenty-one research institutes at its main Shinjuku campus. The Waseda University Library is collectively one of Japan's largest libraries and currently hold some 4.5 million volumes and 46,000 serials. Waseda is regarded as one of the most selective and prestigious universities in Japanese university rankings, particularly for its humanities and social sciences education. It is often ranked alongside Keio University, its rival, as the best private university in Japan. In 2020–2024, Waseda University ranked 189th in the QS World University Rankings. Waseda is selected as one of the “Top Type” (Type A) universities under MEXT's Top Global University Project. The university established dual degree programs with overseas institutions, including National University of Singapore, Peking University, Korea University, and National Taiwan University. Waseda University is one of the few prestigious universities in Japan to receive accreditation from the prestigious AACSB (Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business) of the United States of America which means it is one of the top 5-6% business schools in the world. The university's alumni include 9 prime ministers of Japan, a number of important figures of Japanese literature, including Haruki Murakami, and many CEOs, including Tadashi Yanai, the CEO of UNIQLO, Nobuyuki Idei, the former CEO of Sony, Takeo Fukui, the former president and CEO of Honda, Norio Sasaki, the former CEO of Toshiba, Lee Kun-hee and Lee Byung-chul, the chairman and founder of Samsung Group, Shin Kyuk-ho, the founder of Lotte Group and Lotte World Tower. Mikio Sasaki, the former chairman of Mitsubishi, and Hiroshi Yamauchi and Shuntaro Furukawa, former and current presidents of Nintendo respectively. Waseda was ranked 26th and 48th globally in the QS Graduate Employability Rankings 2017 and Times Higher Education Alma Mater Index 2017, respectively. History Waseda was founded as on 21 October 1882 by samurai scholar and Meiji-era politician and former prime minister Ōkuma Shigenobu. Before the name 'Waseda' was selected, it was known variously as or after the location of the founder's villa in Waseda Village and the school's location in Totsuka Village respectively. It was renamed on 2 September 1902, upon acquiring university status. It started as a college with three departments under the old Japanese system of higher education. In 1882, the university had the department of political science and economics, law, and physical science. Along with these departments, an English language course was established, where the students of all the departments could learn English. Three years later, the department of physical science was closed because it had too few applicants. The department of literature was established in 1890, the department of education in 1903, the department of commerce in 1904, and the department of science and engineering in 1908. Although Waseda formally adopted the term university in its title in 1902 it was not until 1920 that, in common with other Japanese schools and colleges, it received formal government recognition as a university under the terms of the University Establishment Ordinance. Thus Waseda became, with Keio University, the first private university in Japan. Much of the campus was destroyed in the fire bombings of Tokyo during World War II, but the university was rebuilt and reopened by 1949. It has grown to become a comprehensive university with two senior high schools and school of art and architecture. On 12 June 1950, sixty police raided Waseda University and seized copies of a Communist-inspired open letter to General MacArthur. The open letter to MacArthur was once read at a Communist-sponsored rally a week earlier. The letter demanded a peace treaty for Japan that would include Russia and Communist China, withdrawal of occupation forces, and the release of eight Japanese sent to prison for assaulting five U.S. soldiers at a Communist rally. A police official said most Waseda meetings would be banned in the future because "political elements" might try to utilize them. Yuichi Eshima, Vice-chairman of the Students Autonomy Society, said the police action "stupefied" students and professors, and that "This is worse than the prewar peace preservation measures." Academic cap Ōkuma had long desired to create an academic cap so distinctive that someone wearing the cap would immediately be identified as a Waseda student. The chief tailor of Takashimaya, Yashichiro, was called upon to design a cap in three days. Each square cap was stamped on the inside with the student's name, his department, the school seal and the legend, "This certifies that the owner is a student of Waseda". Thus, the cap served as a form of identification, and effectively a status symbol. The cap, with its gold-braided badge, is registered as a trademark. 125th anniversary On 21 October 2007, Waseda University celebrated its 125th anniversary. Ōkuma often talked about the "125 years of life" theory: "The lifespan of a human being can be as long as 125 years. He will be able to live out his natural lifespan as long as he takes proper care of his health", because "physiologists say that every animal has the ability to live five times as long as its growth period. Since a man is said to require about 25 years to become fully mature, it follows that he can live up to 125 years of age." This theory propounded by Ōkuma was very popular and often referred to in the media of the time. In commemorative events relating to Waseda University and Ōkuma, the number 125 is accorded special significance, as it marks an important epoch. The tower of Ōkuma Auditorium, completed on the university's 45th anniversary, is 125 shaku, or about 38 m high. In 1963, there were also events to mark the 125th anniversary of Ōkuma Shigenobu's birth. Ōkuma, who twice served as prime minister of Japan, organized his second cabinet when he was 77 and died when he was 83. He said, "I wish I had understood this '125 years of life' theory 30 years earlier". He did, however, lead a regular life, and lived fairly long compared to other Japanese at the time. Campus Campus Station Waseda University's main campus is located in the Nishi-Waseda district of Shinjuku. The nearest station is , although Waseda is generally associated with on the Yamanote Line. Apart from the main campus in Shinjuku, there are other campuses around the country: Waseda (Main) Campus: Shinjuku, Tokyo (formerly known as the Nishi-Waseda Campus) Toyama Campus: Shinjuku, Tokyo Nishi-Waseda Campus: Shinjuku, Tokyo (formerly known as the Ōkubo Campus) Nihonbashi Campus: Chūō-ku, Tokyo Higashifushimi Campus: Nishitōkyō, Tokyo Tokorozawa Campus: Tokorozawa, Saitama Honjō Campus: Honjō, Saitama Kitakyūshū Campus: Kitakyūshū, Fukuoka Organization Undergraduate programs Waseda's undergraduate schools have a total entrance capacity of 8,800 students. Individual entrance capacities are denoted below. School of Political Science and Economics – 900 School of Law – 740 School of Culture, Media and Society – 860 School of Humanities and Social Sciences – 660 School of Education – 960 School of Commerce – 900 School of Fundamental Science and Engineering – 535 School of Creative Science and Engineering – 595 School of Advanced Science and Engineering – 540 School of Social Sciences – 630 School of Human Sciences – 560 School of Sports Sciences – 400 School of International Liberal Studies – 600 Graduate programs Graduate School of Political Science Graduate School of Economics Graduate School of Law Graduate School of Letters, Arts and Sciences Graduate School of Commerce Graduate School of Fundamental Science and Engineering Graduate School of Creative Science and Engineering Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering Graduate School of Education Graduate School of Human Sciences Graduate School of Social Sciences Graduate School of Asia-Pacific Studies Graduate School of Global Information and Telecommunication Studies Graduate School of Japanese Applied Linguistics Graduate School of Information, Production and Systems Graduate School of Sports Sciences Business School The Okuma School of Public Management Law School Graduate School of Finance, Accounting and Law Graduate School of Accountancy Graduate School of Environment and Energy Engineering Graduate School of Journalism Research institutes Kagami Memorial Laboratory for Materials Science and Technology Institute for Comparative Law The Institute for Research in Business Administration Institute for Research in Contemporary Political and Economic Affairs Advanced Research Center for Human Sciences Advanced Research Institute for Science and Engineering Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies Global Information and Telecommunication Institute Institute for Advanced Studies in Education Center for Japanese Language Media Network Center Environmental Research Institute Environmental Safety Center Center for Finance Research Human Service Center Comprehensive Research Organization (Project Research Institute) Institute for Nanoscience & Nanotechnology Consolidated Research Institute for Advanced Science and Medical Care Information Technology Research Organization Organization for Asian Studies Waseda Institute for Advanced Study (WIAS) Facilities Ōkuma Auditorium The Ōkuma Auditorium is three-story main auditorium that seats 1,435, while the secondary auditorium, located underground, can accommodate 382 people. A seven-story high clock tower stands to the left of the auditorium. Important events and lectures hosted by Waseda University are often held in the Ōkuma Auditorium. Club-sponsored plays, lectures and events are held in the auditorium on days when it is not in use by the university. Many of Waseda University's undergraduate and graduate schools hold their entrance and graduation ceremonies at the Okuma Auditorium. The auditorium opened on 20 October 1927, about five years behind schedule, after the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. A Memorial Hall, constructed in 1957, was used as the fencing venue for the 1964 Summer Olympics. In April 1999, the auditorium along with the old library building were officially designated the first and second historical buildings under the newly passed Tokyo Metropolitan Landscape Regulations, which aim to preserve buildings representative of Tokyo's history and culture. The auditorium was designated as one of the Important Cultural Properties of Japan by the Agency for Cultural Affairs in 2007. Ōkuma Garden Ōkuma Garden is located near Ōkuma Auditorium. It is a half-Japanese, half-Western garden of Edo period feudal lord Matsudaira Sanuki's former mansion, redesigned by Shigenobu Ōkuma. After his death, the garden was donated to Waseda University. Now it is a recreation place for students. Libraries and museums The Waseda University Library, designed by Tachu Naitō, Kenji Imai and Kin'ichi Kiriyama, was completed in 1925. This five-story building, with a total area of , was used initially as the University Library. The reading room was housed in a separate two-story building, with a seating capacity of 500. One of the prominent libraries established at the end of the Taishō period, it has been a symbol of Waseda University to this day, along with the Okuma Auditorium and the Theatre Museum. The Old Library and the administration building were expanded in 1934 and 1955, respectively. After the New Central Library, the Old Library stopped serving as a main library, located where the Abe Stadium used to be, was completed in 1990. It now houses Takata Sanae Memorial Research Library, the University Archives, and Aizu Yaichi Museum. Takata Sanae Memorial Research Library opened in 1994. It is named after former university president Takata Sanae. Historical and cultural materials on Waseda University are exhibited in the University Archives, and the materials related with Ōkuma Shigenobu are exhibited in the Ōkuma Memorial Room at the Archives. Aizu Yaichi Memorial Museum opened in 1998. In the front hall, visitors are greeted by the masterpiece "Meian", which dates back to 1927. It is painted on the world's largest hand-made washi (Japanese paper), which is 4.45 meters in diameter and weighs about 12 kilograms. It was manufactured by Iwano Heisaburō, the founder of the Echizen paper works in Imadachi-cho, Fukui prefecture. The masterpiece was painted free of charge by Yokoyama Taikan and Shimomura Kanzan, two artists who represented the modern Japanese style of painting. President Takata Sanae asked them to paint a picture for the Library. The library possesses a unique collection which survived the Bombing of Tokyo in World War II unlike many of its counterparts. The collection is an important resource for the study of pre-war Japanese history and literature. Other museums and libraries on Waseda campuses include: Waseda University Library Waseda University Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum Aizu Museum Athletics American football Cheerleading The Waseda University Cheerleading Club is the cheerleading club of Waseda University. Baseball Waseda's baseball team is known for their long history of success in Tokyo Big6 Baseball League. As of the end of the 2012 season, Waseda had won 43 championships along with the highest winning percentage. They are also known for their rivalry with Keiō University, highlighted by the Sōkeisen series. The series is held twice a year in the spring and autumn at Meiji-Jingu Stadium, considered one of the most important matches of the year for students from both schools. Football Waseda University football team won the Emperor's Cup, in 1964 and 1967. Rugby union Waseda University Rugby Football Club has reached the final of the All-Japan University Rugby Championship 31 times, and winning fifteen times, most recently in 2008. Its two traditional rivals are Keio University and Meiji University. University championship rugby Karate The Waseda University karate club is one of the oldest in Japan, formed in 1931 under the direction of Gichin Funakoshi. Graduates of the karate club include Shigeru Egami, leader of the Shotokai school, Kazumi Tabata, founder of the North American Karate-do Federation and Tsutomu Ohshima, founder of Shotokan Karate of America. Fencing Waseda's fencing club was established in 1946. In recent years it has achieved impressive intercollegiate and national results. In 2021, Waseda won the men's Epee team division. In 2022, Waseda further strengthened their achievements, claiming victory in all weapon types (Foil, Sabre, Epee) for both men and women's division. Bandy In 2016, the first university bandy team in Japan was founded. With no field of regular size, they play rink bandy. Academic rankings Waseda University is considered one of the most selective and prestigious universities in Japan. The university seeks to promote student and faculty exchange as well as collaborative research through memorandums of agreement signed with 432 partnership institutions in 79 countries. Waseda University has the highest entrance examination difficulty level among private universities in Japan, along with Keio University. General rankings The university ranked 2nd in 2015–2016 in Toyo Keizai's ranking. In another ranking, Japanese prep school Kawaijuku ranked Waseda as the 13th best university in Japan. According to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2016–2017, Waseda University ranked 601–800th worldwide and 121-130th in Asia. In addition, according to the QS World university rankings in 2016–2017, Waseda University was ranked 201st in the world and 41st in Asia. Waseda Business School and Waseda Graduate School of Economics obtained the highest rank – five PALMS – in a Universal Business Ranking in 2013. In 2014, The Center for World University Rankings ranked Waseda University 40th (world). Waseda University was also ranked 20th in the world in the Times Higher Education Alma Mater Index: Global Executives 2013 top 100. Research performance Generally speaking, national universities in Japan have better research standards; however, Waseda is one of the few private universities which compete with top national universities. According to Weekly Diamond, Waseda has the 12th highest research standard in Japan in terms of research fundings per researchers in COE Program, and it is one of only two private universities within the top 15. On 16 February 2004, Nikkei Shimbun ran a survey about research standards in engineering studies based on Thomson Reuters, Grants in Aid for Scientific Research and questionnaires to heads of 93 leading Japanese Research Centers. Waseda ranked 5th overall, 7th in research planning, and 1st in business-academia collaboration. Waseda was the only private university ranked in the top 5. Asahi Shimbun summarized the number of academic papers in Japanese major legal journals by university, and Waseda was ranked 3rd during 2005–2009. Graduate school rankings According to the Asia Top MBA Business Schools Ranking by Asiaweek, Waseda Business School is ranked 2nd in Japan. Eduniversal also ranked Japanese business schools and Waseda is 2nd in Japan (93rd in the world). In this ranking, Waseda is one of only 3 Japanese business schools categorized in "Universal Business schools with major international influence". Waseda Law School is considered one of the top Japanese law schools, as Waseda's successful candidates for bar examination was 5th in 2009 and 2010 in Japan. Alumni rankings According to the Weekly Diamond on 18 February 2006, Waseda got the highest score from the directors of human resource departments in Greater Tokyo in its . Waseda was ranked 1st in Social Science and 2nd in Natural Science and Engineering among all Japanese universities. According to the Weekly Economist's 2010 rankings and the PRESIDENT's article on 16 October 2006, graduates from Waseda have the 11th best employment rate in 400 major companies, and the alumni average salary is the 7th best in Japan. Mines ParisTech : Professional Ranking World Universities ranked Waseda University as 4th in the world in 2010 (8th in 2011) in terms of the number of alumni listed among CEOs in the 500 largest worldwide companies. The university is also ranked 2nd in Japan for the number of alumni holding the position of executive in the listed companies of Japan. The number of lawyers who graduated Waseda has been ranked 3rd in Japan since 1949. Furthermore, Waseda alumni have been the 2nd largest group in the Japanese Parliament. Popularity and selectivity Waseda is one of the most selective and sought after universities in Japan. The number of applicants per place was 20.5 (115515/5630) in the 2011 undergraduate admissions. This number of applicants was 2nd largest in Japan. its entrance difficulty is usually considered top with Keio among 730 private universities. Nikkei BP has been publishing a ranking system called "Brand rankings of Japanese universities" every year, composed by the various indications related to the power of brand, and Waseda was top in 2010 and 3rd in 2009 in Greater Tokyo Area. Evaluation from Business World Alumni There are currently more than 600,000 alumni members. Among the notable alumni of Waseda University have become leading politicians, businessmen, writers, architects, athletes, actors, musicians, scientists, and those that have gained both national and international fame. To develop alumni connections, the Waseda network consists of over 50 alumni groups, or "Tomonkai," on six continents. Among notable alumni are Masaru Ibuka, co-founder of Sony; Shuntaro Furukawa, president of Nintendo; world-renowned novelist Haruki Murakami; Prime Ministers of Japan Tanzan Ishibashi, Noboru Takeshita, Toshiki Kaifu, Keizō Obuchi, Yoshirō Mori, Yasuo Fukuda, Yoshihiko Noda and Fumio Kishida; pioneering video artist and experimental filmmaker Kohei Ando; Li Dazhao, co-founder of the Chinese Communist Party; Palme d'Or winning director Shohei Imamura; Tadashi Yanai, founder and CEO of Fast Retailing and the richest man in Japan; Chiune Sugihara, Japanese diplomat who rescued 5,558 Jews during the Holocaust; Shizuka Arakawa, 2006 Olympic Champion figure skater; famed tanka poet Hakushū Kitahara; Doppo Kunikida, Meiji-era novelist and poet noted as one of the inventors of Japanese naturalism; former mayor of Osaka city Tōru Hashimoto; accomplished Major League Baseball player Nori Aoki; and 2014, 2018 two-time Olympic Champion figure skater Yuzuru Hanyu. Faculty and presidents Faculty Professors who are also Waseda alumni are listed in italics. Yaichi Aizu, poet, scholar of ancient Chinese and Japanese art, and namesake of Aizu Museum Tameyuki Amano, economics scholar and educator Kohei Ando, Professor Emeritus of Cinema Yasunobu Fujiwara, scholar of political science Lafcadio Hearn, novelist, literary scholar, professor of English literature Smimasa Idditti (Sumimasa Idichi ), professor of English Kenji Imai, architect Tokio Kimura, historian Kunitake Kume, historian Tachu Naito, architect Naoyoshi Nakamura, historian Haruo Nishihara, law professor, former president Takayasu Okushima, law professor, former president Hajime Ōnishi, philosopher Ikuo Ōyama, scholar of political science Yaso Saijo, poet Masasada Shiozawa, scholar of economics, former president Sanae Takata, scholar of political science, former president Ōdō Tanaka, philosopher Shoyo Tsubouchi, playwright, critic, translator, educator, professor of English literature, and namesake of Tsubouchi Memorial Theater Museum Sokichi Tsuda, historian, recipient of the Order of Culture Kazutami Ukita, scholar of political science Shujiro Urata, economist Yoshio Yamanouchi, translator, scholar of French literature Akira Yonekura, law professor Takamasa Yoshizaka, architect Shigeaki Sugeta, linguist Principals, de facto presidents (1907–1923), and presidents Principals Hidemaro Ōkuma, 1882–1886 Hisoka Maejima, 1886–1890 Kazuo Hatoyama, 1890–1907 De facto presidents (1907–1923) Sanae Takata, 1907–1915 Tameyuki Amano, 1915–1917 Yoshiro Hiranuma, 1918–1921 Masasada Shiozawa, 1921–1923 Presidents Shigenobu Ōkuma, 1907–1922 Masasada Shiozawa, 1923 Sanae Takata, 1923–1931 Hozumi Tanaka (public finance scholar, Doctor of Laws, 1876–1944), 1931–1944 Tomio Nakano, 1944–1946 Koichi Shimada, 1946–1954 Nobumoto Ōhama, 1954–1966 Kenichi Abe, 1966–1968 Tsunesaburo Tokikoyama, 1968–1970 Sukenaga Murai, 1970–1978 Tsukasa Shimizu, 1978–1982 Haruo Nishihara, 1982–1990 Chūmaru Koyama, 1990–1994 Takayasu Okushima, 1994–2002 Katsuhiko Shirai, 2002–2010 Kaoru Kamata, 2010–2018 Aiji Tanaka, 2018–present Trustees Ryuhoku Narushima, poet, journalist, and one of the first trustees of Waseda Azusa Ono (1852–1886), law scholar and one of the first trustees of Waseda Benefactors Waseda University has had numerous benefactors, including: Eiichi Shibusawa, businessman and philanthropist Ichizaemon Morimura, businessman Koichiro Kagami, businessman Kenkichi Kodera, presenter of over thirty-six thousand foreign books to the Library Kisaku Maekawa, businessman and philanthropist Masaru Ibuka, after whom Masaru Ibuka Auditorium (Hall) is named. Robert J. Shillman, founder & CEO of Cognex Corporation, the namesake of Robert Shillman Hall See also List of National Treasures of Japan (writings) Notes References Kimura, Tokio. Waga Waseda: Ōkuma Shigenobu to sono kengaku seishin, Tokyo, Kobunsha, 1997. Okushima, Takayasu.; and Nakamura, Naoyoshi., eds. Tōmonno gunzo, Tokyo, Waseda University Press, 1992. Further reading ULTIMATE CRUSH: Waseda University Rugby, Leadership and Building the Strongest Winning Team in Japan by Katsuyuki Kiyomiya, translated into English by Ian Ruxton (September 2006, ). The original was published in February 2006 entitled Kyukyoku no Shori: Ultimate Crush (). External links 1882 establishments in Japan Venues of the 1964 Summer Olympics Educational institutions established in 1882 Super Global Universities Olympic fencing venues Olympic modern pentathlon venues Private universities and colleges in Japan American football in Japan Kantoh Collegiate American Football Association Top 8 university Universities and colleges in Tokyo
376818
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Ireland%20Executive
Northern Ireland Executive
The Northern Ireland Executive is the devolved government of Northern Ireland, an administrative branch of the legislature – the Northern Ireland Assembly. It is answerable to the assembly and was initially established according to the terms of the Northern Ireland Act 1998, which followed the Good Friday Agreement (or Belfast Agreement). The executive is referred to in the legislation as the Executive Committee of the assembly and is an example of consociationalist ("power-sharing") government. The Northern Ireland Executive consists of the First Minister and deputy First Minister and various ministers with individual portfolios and remits. The main assembly parties appoint most ministers in the executive, except for the Minister of Justice who is elected by a cross-community vote. It is one of three devolved governments in the United Kingdom, the others being the Scottish and Welsh governments. In January 2017, the then deputy First Minister Martin McGuinness resigned in protest over the Renewable Heat Incentive scandal and the Northern Ireland Executive consequently collapsed. The governing of Northern Ireland fell to civil servants in a caretaker capacity until January 2020, when the parties signed the New Decade, New Approach agreement and an Executive was subsequently established. When Democratic Unionist Party First Minister Paul Givan resigned in line with his party's protest over the Northern Ireland Protocol, The Northern Ireland Executive collapsed again. No agreement on power-sharing was made after the 2022 Assembly election, and since October 2022, Northern Ireland has been governed by civil servants. Legal basis The Executive (and the Assembly) were established in law by the Northern Ireland Act 1998 that followed the Good Friday Agreement and its basis was revised by the Northern Ireland (St Andrews Agreement) Act 2006 that followed the St Andrews Agreement of that year. Ministers On 9 May 2016, the number of ministries and departments of the Northern Ireland Executive was reduced, leaving the following departments: The Executive Office Minister of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs Minister for Communities Minister of Education Minister for the Economy Minister of Finance Minister of Health Minister for Infrastructure Minister of Justice At the same time, various departments were renamed as follows: The Office of the First Minister and deputy First Minister was renamed the Executive Office The Department of Agriculture and Rural Development was renamed the Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs The Department of Enterprise, Trade and Investment was renamed the Department for the Economy The Department of Finance and Personnel was renamed the Department of Finance The Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety was renamed the Department of Health The Department for Regional Development was renamed the Department for Infrastructure The Department for Social Development was renamed the Department for Communities The following departments were dissolved: The Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure The Department of the Environment The Department for Employment and Learning Structure In contrast with Westminster system cabinets, which generally need only be backed by a majority of legislators, ministerial positions in the Northern Ireland Executive are allocated to parties with significant representation in the Assembly. With the exception of justice, the number of ministries to which each party is entitled is determined by the D'Hondt system. In effect, major parties cannot be excluded from participation in government and power-sharing is enforced by the system. The form of government is therefore known as mandatory coalition as opposed to voluntary coalition where parties negotiate an agreement to share power. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland and some Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) members favour a move towards voluntary coalition in the longer term but this is currently opposed by Sinn Féin. The executive cannot function if either of the two largest parties refuse to take part, as these parties are allocated the First Minister and deputy First Minister positions. However, other parties are not required to enter the executive even if they are entitled to do so; instead, they can choose to go into opposition if they wish. There were some calls for the SDLP and the UUP to enter opposition after the 2007 Assembly elections, but ultimately the two parties chose to take the seats in the Executive to which they were entitled. In 2010, an exception to the D'Hondt system for allocating the number of ministerial portfolios was made under the Hillsborough Castle Agreement to allow the cross-community Alliance Party of Northern Ireland to hold the politically contentious policing and justice brief when most of those powers were devolved to the Assembly. Devolution took place on 12 April 2010. Under D'Hondt, the SDLP would have been entitled to the extra ministerial seat on the revised Executive created by the devolution of policing and justice. Accordingly, both the UUP and SDLP protested that Alliance was not entitled, under the rules of the Good Friday Agreement, to fill the portfolio and refused to support this move. However, Alliance leader David Ford was elected Minister with the support of the DUP and Sinn Féin. On 26 August 2015, the UUP announced it would withdraw from the Executive and form an opposition after all, in response to the assassination of Kevin McGuigan. On 25 May 2016 a new executive was announced (three weeks after assembly election). For the first time in the assembly's history, parties that were entitled to ministries (i.e. UUP, SDLP and Alliance) chose instead to go into opposition following a recent bill providing parties with this choice. This meant that the executive was formed only by the two major parties, the DUP and Sinn Féin, and thus giving them more seats in the Executive (with the exception of the Department of Justice which was given to an Independent Unionist MLA, Claire Sugden, due to this appointment needing cross-community support). Procedure The Executive is co-chaired by the First Minister and deputy First Minister. Its official functions are: acting as a forum for the discussion of, and agreement on, issues which cut across the responsibilities of two or more ministers; prioritising executive and legislative proposals; discussing and agreeing upon significant or controversial matters; and recommending a common position where necessary (e.g. in dealing with external relationships). Executive meetings are normally held fortnightly, compared to weekly meetings of the British Cabinet and Irish Government. Under the Executive's Ministerial Code, ministers are obliged to: operate within the framework of the Programme for Government; support all decisions of the Executive and Northern Ireland Assembly; and participate fully in the Executive, the North/South Ministerial Council and the British-Irish Council. The Ministerial Code allows any three ministers to request a cross-community vote. The quorum for voting is seven ministers. The current system of devolution has succeeded long periods of direct rule (1974–1999 and 2002–2007), when the Northern Ireland Civil Service had a considerable influence on government policy. The legislation which established new departments in 1999 affirmed that "the functions of a department shall at all times be exercised subject to the direction and control of the Minister". Ministerial powers can be conferred by an Act of the Assembly and ministers can also exercise executive powers which are vested in the Crown. Ministers are also subject to several limitations, including the European Convention on Human Rights, European Union law, other international obligations of the UK, a requirement not to discriminate on religious or political grounds, and having no power over reserved and excepted matters (which are held by the United Kingdom Government). Ministerial decisions can be challenged by a petition of 30 Northern Ireland Assembly members. This action can be taken for alleged breaches of the Ministerial Code and on "matters of public importance". The Speaker of the Assembly must consult political party leaders in the Assembly (who are often also ministers) before deciding whether the subject is a matter of public importance. Successful petitions will then be considered by the Executive. The number of ministers and their responsibilities can be changed when a department is being established or dissolved. The proposal must be made by the First Minister and the deputy First Minister and be carried by a cross-community vote in the Assembly. The number of departments was initially limited to 10 but this increased to 11 upon the devolution of justice. Ministers are disqualified from holding office if appointed to the Government of Ireland or as the chairman or deputy chairman of an Oireachtas (Irish Parliament) committee. Strategies The Good Friday Agreement states that the Executive will "seek to agree each year, and review as necessary" a Programme for Government incorporating an agreed budget. The following programmes for government have been published to date: Draft Programme for Government (2001–2002) (25 October 2000) Draft Programme for Government (2002–2003) (24 September 2001) Programme for Government 2008–2011 (22 January 2008) Programme for Government 2011–2015 (12 March 2012) The following budgets have been published to date: Budget 2008–11 Budget 2011–15 Under the St Andrews Agreement, the Executive is obliged to adopt strategies on the following policy matters: enhancing and protecting the development of the Irish language; enhancing and developing Ulster Scots language, heritage and culture; and tackling poverty, social exclusion and patterns of deprivation based on objective need. The Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister published a child poverty strategy in March 2011. The wider anti-poverty strategy was carried over from direct rule in November 2006. As of November 2011, neither an Irish language strategy nor an Ulster Scots strategy had been adopted. The Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure states that a Strategy for Indigenous or Regional Minority Languages "will be presented to the Executive in due course". History 1974 The original Northern Ireland Executive was established on 1 January 1974, following the Sunningdale Agreement. It comprised a voluntary coalition between the Ulster Unionist Party, Social Democratic and Labour Party and Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, with the UUP's Brian Faulkner in the position of Chief Executive. It was short-lived, collapsing on 28 May 1974 due to the Ulster Workers' Council strike, and the Troubles continued in the absence of a political settlement. Composition since devolution 1998–2002 The current Executive was provided for in the Belfast Agreement, signed on 10 April 1998. Designates for First Minister and deputy First Minister were appointed on 1 July 1998 by the UUP and SDLP, respectively. A full Executive was nominated on 29 November 1999 and took office on 2 December 1999, comprising the UUP, SDLP, Democratic Unionist Party and Sinn Féin. Devolution was suspended for four periods, during which the departments came under the responsibility of direct rule ministers from the Northern Ireland Office: between 12 February 2000 and 30 May 2000; on 11 August 2001; on 22 September 2001; between 15 October 2002 and 8 May 2007. The 2002–2007 suspension followed the refusal of the Ulster Unionist Party to share power with Sinn Féin after a high-profile Police Service of Northern Ireland investigation into an alleged Provisional Irish Republican Army spy ring. 2007–2011 The second Executive formed in 2007 was led by the DUP and Sinn Féin, with the UUP and SDLP also securing ministerial roles. However, the Executive did not meet between 19 June 2008 and 20 November 2008 due to a boycott by Sinn Féin. This took place during a dispute between the DUP and Sinn Féin over the devolution of policing and justice powers. Policing and justice powers were devolved on 12 April 2010, with the new Minister of Justice won by Alliance in a cross-community vote. 2011–2016 Following the Northern Ireland Assembly election held on 5 May 2011, a third Executive was formed on 16 May 2011 with the same five parties represented. Alliance for the first time gained administration of a department under the D'Hondt system, in addition to the Department of Justice. Peter Robinson of the DUP and Martin McGuinness of Sinn Féin were nominated by their parties and appointed as First Minister and deputy First Minister on 12 May 2011. Traditional Unionist Voice leader Jim Allister opposed the joint appointment. On 16 May 2011, 10 other Executive ministers (with the exception of the Minister of Justice) and two junior ministers were appointed by their political parties. The Minister of Justice was then elected by the Assembly via a cross-community vote. On 26 August 2015, the UUP withdrew from the Executive in protest over the alleged involvement of members of the Provisional IRA in the murder of Kevin McGuigan Sr. Danny Kennedy MLA's position as Minister for Regional Development was later taken over by the DUP, thereby leaving four Northern Irish parties in the power sharing agreement. On 10 September 2015 Peter Robinson stepped down as First Minister, although he did not officially resign. Arlene Foster took over as acting First Minister. Robinson subsequently resumed his duties as First Minister again on 20 October 2015. Following the signing of the Fresh Start Agreement, Peter Robinson announced his intention to stand down as leader of the DUP and First Minister of Northern Ireland. He subsequently resigned as DUP leader on 18 December 2015, being succeeded by Arlene Foster. Foster then took office as First Minister on 11 January 2016. 2016–2017 The fourth Executive was formed following the May 2016 election. The SDLP, UUP and Alliance Party left the Executive and formed the Official Opposition for the first time. Ministerial positions were proportionally allocated between the DUP and Sinn Féin, with independent unionist Claire Sugden serving as Minister of Justice. The government collapsed on 16 January 2017, after Martin McGuinness resigned in protest over the Renewable Heat Incentive scandal. His resignation sparked a snap election as Sinn Féin refused to re-nominate a deputy First Minister. In 2018, Arlene Foster stated that the ongoing political deadlock was caused by Sinn Féin's insistence on an Irish Language Act that would grant legal status to the Irish language in Northern Ireland, which Foster's party refuses to allow. Northern Ireland (Executive Formation) Act 2019 The Northern Ireland (Executive Formation and Exercise of Functions) Act 2019 was passed by the UK parliament on 10 July 2019 and became law on 24 July. The main purpose of the bill was to prevent another election and keep Northern Ireland services running in the absence of a functional devolved government. However, two Labour MPs, Conor McGinn and Stella Creasy, added amendments that would legalize same-sex marriage and liberalize abortion law (both devolved issues) if the DUP and Sinn Féin could not come to an agreement before 21 October. Reformation On 11 January 2020, the Executive was re-formed with Arlene Foster as First Minister and Sinn Féin's Michelle O'Neill as deputy First Minister following the New Decade, New Approach agreement. All five parties joined the government; other ministers include Edwin Poots (DUP); Robin Swann (UUP), Nichola Mallon (SDLP), Gordon Lyons (DUP), and Declan Kearney (SF). Alliance Party leader Naomi Long was appointed justice minister. At the first session of the assembly, Foster stated that it was "time for Stormont to move forward". The new speaker of the assembly is a member of Sinn Féin. The collapse of this executive led to the 2022 Northern Ireland Assembly election. Executive committee No executive has been formed since the 2022 Northern Ireland Assembly election. Before that, members of the last executive were elected on 11 January 2020. Ministers are assisted by backbench "Assembly private secretaries" (equivalent to parliamentary private secretaries). The non-political Attorney General for Northern Ireland is the chief legal advisor to the Executive, appointed by the First Minister and deputy First Minister, and may also attend Executive meetings. See also Devolution in the United Kingdom Government spending in the United Kingdom Northern Ireland peace process References External links Northern Ireland Executive nidirect/tedireach portal 1999 establishments in Northern Ireland Government agencies established in 1999 Political office-holders in Northern Ireland 1999 establishments in the United Kingdom
376823
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel%20Le%20Roy%20Ladurie
Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie
Emmanuel Bernard Le Roy Ladurie (, born 19 July 1929) is a French historian whose work is mainly focused upon Languedoc in the Ancien Régime, particularly the history of the peasantry. One of the leading historians of France, Le Roy Ladurie has been called the "standard-bearer" of the third generation of the Annales school and the "rock star of the medievalists", noted for his work in social history. Early life and career Le Roy Ladurie was born in Les Moutiers-en-Cinglais, Calvados. His father was Jacques Le Roy Ladurie,who would become minister of Agriculture for Marshal Philippe Pétain and subsequently a member of the French resistance after breaking with the Vichy regime. Le Roy Ladurie described his childhood in Normandy growing up on his family estate in the countryside as intensely Catholic and royalist in politics. The Le Roy Ladurie family were originally the aristocratic de Roy Laduries, descended from a Catholic priest who fell in love with one of his parishioners, dropped out of the priesthood to marry her and was then ennobled by the Crown; the family dropped the aristocratic de from their surname at the time of the French Revolution. Le Roy Ladurie's grandfather was a French Army officer of Catholic royalist views who was dishonorably discharged from the Army in 1902 for refusing orders from the anti-clerical government to close Catholic schools. Later, the former Captain Le Roy Ladurie returned to rural Normandy, was elected mayor of Villeray and was active in organising a union for rural workers. During his childhood, Le Roy Ladurie's hero was Marshal Pétain. Marshal Pétain's fall from grace – from the hero of Verdun and one of France's most loved men to the reviled collaborator and one of France's most hated men, sentenced to death for high treason for his collaboration with Germany – had a major influence on Le Roy Ladurie's sense of history. Speaking of the rise and fall of Marshal Pétain from hero to traitor as an example of the vicissitudes of history, Le Roy Ladurie in a 1998 interview stated: "I have remained fascinated since then with what we call decline and fall. France is full of people who became very important, then became nothing. My fascination is probably due to the fact that my own family was once important and then became zero. There was a contrast between my own career and the feelings in my family." Because his father had been a minister in the Vichy government, his son grew up in an atmosphere of family shame and disgrace. The historian was educated in Caen at the Collège Saint-Joseph, in Paris at the Lycée Henri-IV and in Sceaux at the Lycée Lakanal. He was awarded an agrégation in history after studying at the École Normale Supérieure and a doctorat ès lettres from the University of Paris. Le Roy Ladurie has taught at the Lycée de Montpellier, the University of Montpellier, the École Pratique des Haute Études in Paris, the University of Paris and at the Collège de France, where he occupied from 1973 to 1999 the chair of History of Modern Civilization and became emeritus professor. Le Roy Ladurie was a member of the French Communist Party (PCF) between 1945 and 1956. His devoutly Catholic parents had expected him to become a Catholic priest and were scandalized that their son should become an ardent Communist and atheist. The Great Depression of the 1930s together with France's defeat in 1940 at the hands of Germany had caused many people in France to lose faith in both capitalism and liberal democracy. The leading role played by the French Communists in the Resistance during the German occupation and the willingness of many of the traditional French elites to support the Vichy regime together with the apparent success achieved by the Soviet regime's planned economy and its "scientific socialism" led Le Roy Ladurie, like many other people of his generation in France, to embrace Communism as the best hope for humanity. The PCF proudly billed themselves as the "party of 75,000 shot"-a reference to the claim that the Germans had shot 75,000 French Communists between 1941 and 1944 (the true figure was actually 10,000 French Communists executed by the Germans between 1941 and 1944); nevertheless the PCF had acquired tremendous prestige in 1940s France as a result of its role in the Resistance. The German occupation had been a profoundly traumatic experience for the French, not the least because unlike World War I, in which the Union sacrée proclaimed by Raymond Poincaré in 1914 had united the left and the right against the common German enemy, World War II had seen a civil war in France. The Resistance had fought not only the Germans, but also the police, gendarmes and the much feared Milice of the Vichy regime. The Milice were a collection of French fascists, gangsters and assorted adventurers used by the Vichy regime to hunt down and murder résistants, who in their turn assassinated members of the Milice. Given this background, in which many young French people had seen at first-hand the pretty streets, avenues and squares of French cities, towns and villages sullied by acts of outrageous cruelty and violence, Le Roy Ladurie described his generation as a scarred one, saying: "It was dangerous for young people during the war. If we are subjected to violence, we will in turn be violent towards others. It is like someone who is sodomised and then sodomises others." Le Roy Ladurie explained that he became a Communist as a reaction to his war-time experiences. When the Hungarian writer Arthur Koestler's 1940 novel Darkness at Noon was translated into French in 1949, Le Roy Ladurie saw it as confirming the greatness of Stalinism instead of the condemnation that Koestler had intended. Koestler's novel concerned a prominent Soviet Communist and Old Bolshevik named Rubashov who was arrested and charged with crimes against the Soviet Union that he did not commit, but which he willingly confessed to in a show trial after hearing an appeal to Party discipline. The character of Rubashov is generally believed to be modeled by Koestler on Nikolai Bukharin, a prominent Old Bolshevik and the leader of the "rightist" (i.e. moderate) faction in the Communist Party who was shot in 1938 after a show trial in Moscow which Bukharin confessed to a fantastic array of bizarre and improbable charges such as being an agent of foreign powers, sabotage, "wrecking", and working with Leon Trotsky from his exile in Mexico City and the "White Guard" leaders in Paris to overthrow Stalin. Bukharin's real crime had been to oppose Stalin in the post-Lenin succession struggle in the 1920s and to advocate continuing the New Economic Policy - which allocated control of the "commanding heights" of the Soviet economy to the state while allowing free enterprise in the rest of the economy - as a viable model for the future. It was not until 1928 when Stalin brought in the First Five Year Plan that full socialism arrived in the Soviet Union, a policy choice that Bukharin had opposed. The image of the Bukharin-like character Rubashov confessing to crimes that he did not commit in order to uphold the greatness of Communism in Darkness At Noon caused a sensation at the time, but the truth was rather more brutal and sordid: Bukharin had been psychologically "broken" after months of torture by the NKVD, and had been reduced to such a state that he was willing to "confess" to anything. Le Roy Ladurie wrote in a 1949 essay about Darkness At Noon that: "Rubashov was right to sacrifice his life and especially his revolutionary honor so that the best of all possible regimes could be established one day". Le Roy Ladurie was to subsequently admit that he had misunderstood the message of Darkness At Noon. At the height of the Cold War in the early 1950s, Le Roy Ladurie described the atmosphere inside the Party as "une intensité liturgique". In 1955, Le Roy Ladurie married Madeleine Pupponi with whom he had one son and one daughter. Le Roy Ladurie left the PCF after doubts caused by the 1956 Hungarian Revolution became too much for him. Le Roy Ladurie was later to write that the sight of Soviet tanks crushing the ordinary people of Hungary in 1956 who were merely demanding basic human rights led him to abandon his optimism of the late 1940s that the Soviet Union represented the best hope of humanity and instead led him to the conclusion that communism was an inhumane, totalitarian ideology that oppressed people in the Soviet Union, Hungary and elsewhere. Le Roy Ladurie's break with the PCF did not mean a break with the left: he joined the Socialist Party, running as a Socialist candidate in Montpellier in 1957, winning 2.5% of the vote. In 1963, a disillusioned Le Roy Ladurie left the Socialists. Le Roy Ladurie has often written for Le Nouvel Observateur, L'Express, and Le Monde newspapers, and appeared on French television (in France, historians have far more social prestige than they do in the English-speaking world; to be a successful historian in France is to be something of a celebrity). Le Roy Ladurie was a member of both the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1974) and the American Philosophical Society (1979). Les paysans de Languedoc Le Roy Ladurie first attracted attention with his doctoral thesis, Les paysans de Languedoc, which was published as a book in 1966 and translated into English as The Peasants of Languedoc in 1974. In this study of the peasantry of Languedoc over several centuries, Le Roy Ladurie employed a huge range of quantitative information such as tithe records, wage books, tax receipts, rent receipts and profit records, together with the theories of such thinkers as Ernest Labrousse, Michel Foucault, David Ricardo, Fernand Braudel, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Thomas Malthus, François Simiand, Sigmund Freud and Max Weber, to contend that the history of Languedoc was "l'histoire immobile." He argued that the history of Languedoc was marked by waves of growth and decline that in essence changed very little over the passage of time. Le Roy Ladurie acknowledged his debt to Braudel, who had argued that it was climate and geography that shaped the course of history, but felt that Braudel had gone too far in regarding these factors as causal agents in history. Instead, Le Roy Ladurie felt that culture and economics were just as important as the nature of the land and the weather. Influenced by the work of his mentor Fernand Braudel, Le Roy Ladurie set out to write a histoire totale (total history) of Languedoc from the 15th to the 18th centuries that would integrate political, cultural, economic, social history and environmental history. Le Roy Ladurie proposed that the determining feature of life in Languedoc was the culture of the people who lived there, arguing that the people of Languedoc could not break the cycles of advance and decline not so much because of technological factors, but because of the culture that prevented them from developing more progressive technology and farming practices. In Les paysans de Languedoc, Le Roy Ladurie went against the prevailing Marxist view that dominated French historiography at the time that the history of early modern France from the 15th century to the 18th century was the ever-accelerating accumulation of property and wealthy by capitalists. Instead, Le Roy Ladurie contended that in Languedoc there had been cycles of economic advance and decline from the 15th to the 18th centuries. According to Le Roy Ladurie, there were several cycles, namely: "the low water mark" in the 15th century when French society was still recovering from the massive death toll caused by the Black Death of the 14th century which had wiped out much of the population of France. As a consequence, there was social pressure on the survivors to have as many children as possible to repopulate France. With a growing population in the late 14th and 15th centuries, forests were cut down to make room for farms, while poorer land that had been neglected was reclaimed for the growing number of Languedoc peasants. The growing also meant that property was constantly being subdivided while wages declined. The first phase in turn led to the second phase, the "advance" of growing prosperity that lasted until 1530. After 1530, Le Roy Ladurie maintained that the "stubborn inelasticity" of farming practices in Languedoc combined with a growing population led to a period of economic decline that lasted for the rest of the 16th century. Peasants planted more grain, but owing to a combination of cultural conservatism, a shortage of capital and a refusal to innovate, could not increase the productivity of the land to match the increasing population. The growing numbers of mouths to feed together with the "stubborn inelasticity" of Languedoc farming methods led a period of social misery with more and more struggling to survive on less and less. Many peasants moved to other provinces in a search of a better life while those that remained in Languedoc tended to get married at a later age in order to limit family size. In the 16th century, ordinary people in Languedoc were all too aware that they were living in very tough times, but Le Roy Ladurie wrote that they were "preoccupied to the point of self-immolation" with religious issues. The Reformation had badly divided ordinary people, and during the French Wars of Religion, Protestants and Catholics fought one another over the social domination of Languedoc society. Between 1562 and 1598, a series of civil wars took place in France between Catholics and Huguenots to determine whether France would be a Catholic or Calvinist nation: Frenchmen went about killing each other with much passion and fury, both sides being convinced that their faith was the one true faith and that France's salvation was literally in the balance. The Reformed Church had made great gains in the south of France, and as a result Languedoc, like many provinces in the south was the scene of especially vicious fighting during the Wars of Religion. Le Roy Ladurie argued that it was the devastating effect of the civil wars in France that gave birth to both anti-tax revolts as the peasants objected to the increased taxes to which the series of civil wars gave rise and a widespread belief in witchcraft, which held out the promise of a more just society. Le Roy Ladurie wrote that witchcraft represented the lingering survival of the beliefs of the ancient pagan religion before the conversion of Languedoc to Christianity. The ancient Celts had thrown valuable objects into pools and streams to appease the powerful water spirits that were believed to live there while, later, the Romans had imported the belief in Dryads (woodland nymphs) and Naiads (water nymphs). Despite becoming nominally Christian, the people of Languedoc continued to do this for centuries. Peasant folklore had it that certain favored young women could be invited to join the sisterhood of the Naiads and that if they accepted the invitation by diving naked into the magical waters, they would be transformed into a sensuous Naiad who would be forever young. Le Roy Ladurie suggested that these folktales about young women turning into Dryads or Naiads reflected both female fantasies of escape from the patriarchal society of 16th century Languedoc and a way for the peasants to "explain away" young women who had run away. Given the prevalence of such beliefs, many peasants took it for granted that certain women were witches who had magical powers and could talk to the spirits of the forest and the waters. During the period of the Wars of Religion, many ordinary people repulsed in equal measure by the brutal fanaticism of the Catholics and the Huguenots turned to these women, as a rejection both of the bloody mayhem caused by the Wars and of the existing social order which Christianity, whenever it be Protestant or Catholic, upheld. Le Roy Ladurie wrote that the appeal of witchcraft with its glorification of the sensuous pleasures of the human body held out the promise of a "social inversion", which it failed to deliver upon. In studying the cultural and religious history of Languedoc, Le Roy Ladurie was very different from many other Annales historians who usually ignored these aspects of history. Le Roy Ladurie wrote that by the end of the 16th century, the "Malthusian curse" had fallen on Languedoc as the substantial population growth was not matched by increased productivity of the land to provide enough food for all the extra mouths. Starting in 1600, a third phase that Le Roy Ladurie called "maturity" began. In the 17th century, the productivity of the land in Languedoc finally caught up with the growth in the population. Contrary to the claims of Marxist historians, Le Roy Ladurie argued that there was little accumulation of wealth, as continuing agrarian conservatism and a major increase in what Le Roy Ladurie called "parasitic phenomena" both retarded efforts to build up capital. The "parasitic phenomena" were the increasing taxes levied by the French Crown combined with increased tithes demanded by the Catholic Church and increased rents by landlords. Many Languedoc peasants went deeply into debt in an effort to pay all of these. The adverse climate of the 17th century, in which the Little Ice Age was at its height, together with the fact that France was constantly at war in the 17th century further contributed to the increasing misery of the peasantry of Languedoc. In the second half of the 17th century was what Le Roy Ladurie called the fourth phase of "the long period of recession". As the peasants struggled to pay their loans, taxes, tithes and rents, the economy of Languedoc went into a period of steep decline. This period of rising unemployment and poverty together with poor hygiene, unsanitary living conditions, emigration to other provinces of France, late marriages and a rise in birth control – as many men started to use primitive condoms – all led to a dramatic decline in the population of Languedoc. During this period, many wealthier families were able to embark upon land consolidation as they were able to buy the land of less successful families on the cheap. At the beginning of the 18th century, Languedoc society was, in Le Roy Ladurie's opinion, not far from where it had been two centuries earlier, thus making this entire period one of "l'historie immobile". Le Roy Ladurie saw this as the result of the inability of the farmers of Languedoc to increase the productivity of the land, writing: "Some have spoken of a natural ceiling on productive resources. But 'nature' in this case is actually culture; it is the customs, the way of life, the mentality of the people; it is a whole formed by technical knowledge and a system of values, by the means employed and the ends pursued". Le Roy Ladurie argued that, as a result, the unwillingness of the peasants of Languedoc to engage in technologically innovative farming techniques to increase the productivity of the land (as was happening during the same period in England) was the result of the "lack of the conscience, the culture, the morals, the politics, the education, the reformist spirit, and the unfettered longing for success" that characterized the entire culture of Languedoc during these centuries. However, Le Roy Ladurie pointed out that what he had traced was not a cycle in the proper sense as Languedoc did not return in the 18th century to where it had been in the 15th. Even though this was overall a period of economic stagnation, Le Roy Ladurie noted that were "islands" of growth and change in Languedoc. Some of the more enterprising farmers started to grow silk and vines, the latter laying the foundations of the Languedoc wine industry. Others switched over to cloth manufacture. In conclusion, Le Roy Ladurie argued that these economic changes together with the beginning of elementary schools in which the sons of farmers acquired some literacy, the decline of religious fanaticism and a "a general improvement in behavior" all come together to bring about the "economic takeoff" of the 18th century, when the cycles of decline and advance were finally broken. In Le Roy Ladurie's view, there were "structures" comprising long-term and slowly changing material and mental patterns which underlined the more dramatic and, in his opinion, less important "conjoncture" of trends and events, upon which historians have traditionally focused. Le Roy Ladurie wrote that what he was exploring in Les paysans de Languedoc was the relationship between the vie culturelle that was the "superstructure" of beliefs, politics and thought as it was changed slowly by the vie matérielle of the environment and geography that was the "base" on which the superstructure rested. Like Braudel, Le Roy Ladurie believes that it is the history of the "structures" that really mattered, but unlike Braudel, Le Roy Ladurie has expressed an interest in biography and the histoire événementielle (history of events), which Braudel dismissed as irrelevant. However, Le Roy Ladurie stated that while studying histoire événementielle is interesting, it is the "structures" of French society that explain the course of French history. Montaillou Le Roy Ladurie's best-known work is Montaillou, village occitan de 1294 à 1324 (1975), a study of the village of Montaillou in the region of Languedoc in the south of France during the age of the Cathar heresy. Montaillou was a bestseller in both France and after its translation into English in the United States and Great Britain, and remains Le Roy Ladurie's most popular book by far. As a result of the book, the previously little-known village of Montaillou became a popular tourist destination. In Montaillou, Le Roy Ladurie used the records of the Inquisition of Jacques Fournier, Bishop of Pamiers, to develop a multi-layered study of life in a small French village over the course of several years. Le Roy Ladurie used the records of interrogations conducted by Fournier to offer a picture of both the material and mental worlds of the inhabitants of Montaillou. Montaillou was much praised by reviewers in both France and the English-speaking world for its vivid, atmospheric recreation of the everyday life of the people of Montaillou in the early 14th century. Many critics have noted that for Le Roy Ladurie, the village priest Father Pierre Clergue, an ardent womanizer whose vow of celibacy meant nothing and who apparently slept with most of the women of Montaillou seemed to be something of a hero for the historian. Clergue's affair with the local aristocrat and noted beauty, the Countess Béatrice de Planisoles formed one of the central stories that Le Roy Ladurie related in Montaillou with much sympathy for the doomed couple. Critics of Le Roy Ladurie have argued that the Holy Inquisition was an instrument of judicial repression for whom torture or the threat of torture were routine methods. The Canadian historian Norman Cantor argued that none of the people questioned by Fournier had appeared willingly before the Holy Inquisition, and that therefore the Fournier Register which Le Roy Ladurie had used as his main source for Montaillou is not reliable. Other critics have noted that the people questioned by Fournier spoke in Occitan, had their remarks written down in Latin and that Le Roy Ladurie had translated the text into French and have wondered if something has been lost in the translation. Resisting the "totalitarian temptation" In France, the intelligentsia has more prestige than does the intelligentsia in the English-speaking world and as such, intellectuals are expected to take stands on the major issues of the day. In January 1978, Le Roy Ladurie was a founding member of the Comité des intellectuals pour l'Europe des libertés (Committee of Intellectuals for a Europe of liberties), an anti-communist group of liberal French intellectuals opposed to the powerful influence of the French Communist Party on French intellectual life and the alliance of the Socialists and the Communists which they saw as a threat to French democracy. The Comité des intellectuals pour l'Europe des libertés was not a conservative group, and instead was opposed to Communism from a liberal vantage-point, declaring itself opposed to both "the unarticulated cry and pure revolt on one hand and absolute knowledge and totalizing ideology on the other", damning the "fatal socialist-statist equation" as offering the end of the Republic and everything it stood for. In its founding manifesto, the Comité des intellectuals pour l'Europe des libertés declared its intention "to defend the synonymy of these three words: Europe, culture, freedom". Significantly, the committee did not limit its remit to France or even Western Europe, instead proclaiming its intention to defend liberty in all of Europe, Western and Eastern. He analysed his political engagement and Communism in Ouverture, société, pouvoir: de l’Édit de Nantes à la chute du communisme (2004) and Les grands procès politiques, ou la pédagogie infernale (2002). Carnaval de Romans Another work was Le Carnaval de Romans: de la chandeleur au mercredi des cendres (translated into English as Carnival in Romans) which dealt with the 1580 massacre of about twenty artisans at the annual carnival in the town of Romans-sur-Isère, France. In this book, Le Roy Ladurie used the only two surviving eyewitness accounts of the massacre (one of which was hostile towards to the victims of the massacre by Guérin, the other sympathetic yet often inaccurate by Piémond), together with such information as plague lists and tax lists, to treat the massacre as a microcosm of the political, social and religious conflicts of rural society in the latter half of the 16th century in France. This book provides an example of a micro-historical approach to the social structure of the town of Romans and tax rebellions in early modern France. Social history Other more recent treatments of social history by Le Roy Ladurie have included La sorcière de Jasmin (translated into English as Jasmin's Witch) and Le siècle des Platter, 1499-1628 (translated into English as The Beggar and the Professor: A Sixteenth Century Family Drama). In Jasmin's Witch, Le Roy Ladurie following the lead of Carlo Ginzburg, who argued that the idea of witchcraft as held by peasants was very different from the idea of witchcraft held by judges and churchmen. To understand the "total social fact of witchcraft," Le Roy Ladurie used the 1842 poem Françouneto written by Jacques Boè and based on a traditional French peasant folk tale. Le Roy Ladurie contended that the poem contains many authentic traces of popular beliefs about witchcraft in rural France during the 17th and 18th centuries. Le Roy Ladurie argued that the "crime" of the "witch" Françouneto was the violation of the unwritten social code of "limited wealth," namely that she increased her own wealth at the expense of others. In The Beggar and the Professor, Le Roy Ladurie used the letters and memoirs of the Platter family to examine the social values of the 16th century, especially in regards to religion, medicine, crime, learning, and taxes. Another work of social history by Le Roy Ladurie was his 1982 book Love, Death, and Money in the Pays d'Oc, The French Peasantry: 1450-1660, which as it title indicates examined the views held by French peasants about love, death and money. Political history Though best known for his work in "microhistory", Le Roy Ladurie has also examined the political history of France between 1460 and 1774 in a two-volume history. The first volume was L'Etat royal: de Louis XI à Henri IV, 1460-1610 (translated into English as The French Royal State: 1460-1610). In this book, Le Roy Ladurie argued that the major concerns of the French Crown were the economy, the Reformation and aristocratic politics, and that the main reasons for the growth of the French state was the need to raise revenue to pay for military expansion into Italy, Provence and Burgundy and its rivalry with Spain over mastery of western Europe. In the second volume, Ancien Régime: de Louis XIII à Louis XV, 1610-1774 (translated into English as The Ancien Régime), Le Roy Ladurie argued that there was a close connection between the domestic and foreign policies of the French Crown. In particular, Le Roy Ladurie argued that periods of authoritarianism in domestic policy coincided with periods of aggression in foreign policy, and that periods of liberalism in domestic policy coincided with periods of a pacific foreign policy. In order to pay for war, the French state had to increase taxation to raise the necessary funds. In Ancien Régime France, society was divided into three legal categories; the First Estate (the Catholic Church), the Second Estate (the nobility) and the Third Estate (the commoners). The first two estates, which comprised the more wealthier elements of French society were exempt from taxation and to make up the shortfall in revenue, the Third Estate was taxed more heavily than what had been the case if the tax burden in French society was spread with greater equality. Le Roy Ladurie argued that because war was so expensive, the French state always had to drastically increase taxation in times of conflict. And that because of the highly unequal nature of the French tax system, the increased taxes had to be accompanied with increased repression to crush the social resistance generated by the higher taxes. The three men who dominated French politics in the 17th century, namely the Cardinal Richelieu, Cardinal Mazarin and King Louis XIV were all obsessed with winning la gloire (the glory) of making France into the world's greatest power, which meant that the 17th century was a period of constant warfare where France was almost always at war with some other power to win la gloire. As a result, anti-tax revolts frequently broke out all over France in the 17th century as the Third Estate attempted to reject the oppressively heavy taxation needed to pay for the wars intended to win la gloire. All of the anti-tax revolts were crushed with ferocious brutality by the Crown to send the message that it was folly on the part of ordinary people to challenge the might of the French state. Despite certain lapses in the 1750s, Le Roy Ladurie argued that the reign of King Louis XV was characterized by liberalism at home and peace abroad while the rule of Cardinal Richelieu and King Louis XIV was marked by aggression and authoritarianism. At the end of his two-volume history, Le Roy Ladurie stated that the growth of popularity of Enlightenment ideas, anti-clericalism, and liberalism had by 1774 already placed France on the road to the French Revolution. The American historian Stuart Carroll commented that in these books of the 1990s, Le Roy Ladurie was according the decisions individuals and histoire événementielle a level of importance in influencing history that he had rejected in his 1973 book Le Territoire de l'historien where he had claimed the quantitative methodology and the study of long-term structural changes had replaced histoire événementielle and biographies as the main focus of the work of a historian. Historiography Ladurie's mentor was Fernand Braudel, a prominent member of the Annales School and one of the most prolific contemporary historians. At the beginning of the 1970s, Ladurie founded the movement of the "Nouvelle histoire" (New History). Le Roy Ladurie is a leading champion of "microhistory," in which a historian uses the study of an event, locality, family or life to reveal the "structures" which underlie life in the particular period under study. Some, like Niall Ferguson, have questioned the value of "microhistory," arguing that it is wrong to assume that the study of one village or one incident in one town or one family reveals wider patterns of life in France, let alone the rest of Europe. Another line of criticism has centered around Le Roy Ladurie's use of the term "structures." His critics contend that he has never clearly defined the term, nor explained why "structures" change over time, or even whether the "structures" Le Roy Ladurie purports to find exist. Le Roy Ladurie has also worked on the history of French regions (Histoire de France des régions, 2004) and on anthropometric history as well as on the impact of climate changes on human history. Besides writing books, Le Roy Ladurie is a prolific essayist writing on variety of subjects such as the utility of computers as method of historical research, rates of delinquency in the French Army in the 19th century, the spread of global diseases and the belief of French peasants that magic could be used to generate impotence. The latter was a reference to the widespread practice of French peasant men in the Middle Ages and the early modern period of paying witches to use their (supposed) magical powers to make their rivals in love go impotent. Le Roy Ladurie is also known as one of the first modern environmental historians because his work focused on human agency in environmental change, as well as environmental factors in human history. Works Les Paysans de Languedoc, Paris, ed. SEVPEN, 1966. Histoire du climat depuis l'an mil, Paris, ed. Flammarion, 1967. Anthropologie du conscrit français (with J.-P. Aron et al.), Paris, ed. EHESS, 1972. Médecins, climat, épidémies (with J.-P. Desaive et al.), Paris, ed. EHESS, 1972. Le Territoire de l'historien, Paris, ed. Gallimard, 1973. Montaillou, village occitan de 1294 à 1324, Paris, ed. Gallimard, 1975. Histoire économique et sociale de la France, Paris, ed. PUF, 1976. Le Carnaval de Romans : de la Chandeleur au Mercredi des cendres (1579–1580), Paris, ed. Gallimard, 1979. L’Argent, l'amour et la mort en pays d'Oc, Paris, ed. Seuil, 1980. La Sorcière de Jasmin, Paris, ed. Seuil, 1980. Inventaire des campagnes, Paris, ed. JC Lattès, 1980. Histoire de la France urbaine, Paris, ed. JC Lattès, 1981. Parmi les historiens, Paris, ed. Seuil, 1983. Pierre Prion, scribe, Paris, ed. Gallimard, 1987. L’État royal 1460-1610, Paris, ed. Hachette, 1987. L'Ancien Régime, 1610-1770, Paris, ed. Hachette, 1991. Histoire de la Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, ed. Collège de France 1995. Le Siècle des Platter, Paris, ed. Fayard, 1997. L'Historien, le Chiffre et le Texte, Paris, ed. Fayard, 1997. Saint-Simon ou Le système de la Cour, Paris, ed. Fayard, 1997. Histoire du Languedoc, Toulouse, ed. Privat, 2000. Histoire de France des régions : la périphérie française, des origines à nos jours, Paris, ed. Seuil, 2001. Autour de Montaillou, un village occitan : histoire et religiosité d'un village au Moyen Âge, Paris, ed. Hydre, 2001. Histoire des paysans français : de la peste noire à la Révolution, Paris, ed. Seuil, 2002. Les Grands Procès politiques, Paris, ed. Rocher, 2002. La Dîme royale, Paris, ed. Imprimerie nationale, 2002. Abrégé d'histoire du climat du Moyen Âge à nos jours (with Anouchka Vasak), Paris, ed. Fayard, 2007. Histoire humaine et comparée du climat, Paris, ed. Fayard, 2009. Histoire et système (dir.), Paris ed. Le Cerf, 2010. Les fluctuations du climat de l'an mil à aujourd'hui, Paris, ed. Fayard, 2011. La Civilisation rurale, Paris, ed. Allia, 2012. Une vie avec l'histoire. Mémoires, Paris, ed. Tallandier, 2014. Les Paysans français d'Ancien Régime, Paris, ed. Seuil, 2015. Huit leçons d'histoire, Paris, ed. Fayard, 2016. Brève histoire de l'Ancien Régime, Paris, ed. Fayard, 2017. Honours and awards Honours Grand Officier of the Legion of Honour (France) Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (France) Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (France) Prize Prize Pierre-Lafue (1978) Acknowledgement Member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Member of the Academia Europaea Member of the Polish Academy of Sciences Member of the Japan Academy Member of the Académie de Nîmes Foreign honorary member of the National Academy of Sciences Honorary degrees University of Oxford University of Leicester Durham University University of Leeds University of York University of Hull University of Sussex University of Michigan University of Pennsylvania Carnegie Mellon University University at Albany, SUNY Université de Montréal University of Dublin University of Geneva HEC Paris University of Haifa Endnotes References Barzun, Jacques Clio and the Doctors: Psycho-history, Quanto-history and History, Chicago, II: University of Chicago Press, 1974. Burke, Peter The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School, 1929-1989, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990. Cantor, Norman Inventing the Middle Ages: the Lives, Works and Ideas of the Great Medievalists in the Twentieth Century, New York: W. Morow, 1991. Carrard, P. "The New History and the Discourse of the Tentative: Le Roy Ladurie's Question Marks" pages 1–14 from Clio, Volume 15, Issue #1, 1985. Carrard, P. Poetics of the New History: French Historical Discourse from Braudel to Chartier, Baltimore, M.D.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. Hartigan, F.X. "Montaillou" pages 275-283 from Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History, Volume 21, 1994. Himmelfarb, Gertrude The New History and the Old: Critical Essays and Reappraisals, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Lloyd, Christopher The Structures of History, Blackwell, Oxford, 1993. Newman, E.L. "Le Roy Ladurie's Magic: Jasmin's Witch" pages 285-292 from The Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History, Volume 21, 1994. Sonnino, P. "Les paysans de Languedoc: vingt-sept ans après" pages 293-300 from The Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History, Volume 21, 1994. Stone, Lawrence "In the Alleys of Mentalité" pages 20–23 from New York Review of Books, Volume 26, Issue #17, November 8, 1979. Willis, F.R. "The Contribution of the Annales School to Agrarian History: a Review Essay" pages 538-548 from Agricultural History, Volume 52, Issue #4, 1978. 1929 births Living people People from Calvados (department) École Normale Supérieure alumni Academic staff of the Collège de France French Communist Party members 20th-century French historians Historiographers Historians of France Microhistorians Members of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques Lycée Henri-IV alumni Lycée Lakanal alumni Environmental historians French male writers Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy Historians of Catharism Members of the American Philosophical Society University of Paris alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw%20Uprising
Warsaw Uprising
The Warsaw Uprising (; ), shortly after the war also known as the August Uprising (), was a major World War II operation by the Polish underground resistance to liberate Warsaw from German occupation. It occurred in the summer of 1944, and it was led by the Polish resistance Home Army (). The uprising was timed to coincide with the retreat of the German forces from Poland ahead of the Soviet advance. While approaching the eastern suburbs of the city, the Red Army halted combat operations, enabling the Germans to regroup and defeat the Polish resistance and to destroy the city in retaliation. The Uprising was fought for 63 days with little outside support. It was the single largest military effort taken by any European resistance movement during World War II. The Uprising began on 1 August 1944 as part of a nationwide Operation Tempest, launched at the time of the Soviet Lublin–Brest Offensive. The main Polish objectives were to drive the Germans out of Warsaw while helping the Allies defeat Germany. An additional, political goal of the Polish Underground State was to liberate Poland's capital and assert Polish sovereignty before the Soviet-backed Polish Committee of National Liberation could assume control. Other immediate causes included a threat of mass German round-ups of able-bodied Poles for "evacuation"; calls by Radio Moscow's Polish Service for uprising; and an emotional Polish desire for justice and revenge against the enemy after five years of German occupation. Recent scholarship since the fall of the Soviet Union, combined with eye witness accounts have called into question Soviet motives and suggest their lack of support for the Warsaw Uprising represented Soviet ambitions in Eastern Europe. The Red Army did not reinforce resistance fighters or provide air support. Recently declassified documents show Joseph Stalin tactically halted his forces to let the operation fail and allow the Polish resistance to be crushed. In fact scholars note the two month period of the Warsaw Uprising marked the start of the Cold War. According to the historian Alexandra Richie, for instance, the Warsaw Uprising “laid bare the differences between Poland’s desire for a Western style democracy and freedom, and Stalin’s brutal ambitions to Sovietize postwar Central and Eastern Europe.” Casualties during the Warsaw Uprising were catastrophic. Although the exact number of casualties is unknown, it is estimated that about 16,000 members of the Polish resistance were killed and about 6,000 badly wounded. In addition, between 150,000 and 200,000 Polish civilians died, mostly from mass executions. Jews being harboured by Poles were exposed by German house-to-house clearances and mass evictions of entire neighbourhoods. The defeat of the Warsaw Uprising also further decimated urban areas of Poland. Background In 1944, Poland had been occupied by Nazi Germany for almost five years. The Polish Home Army planned some form of rebellion against German forces. Germany was fighting a coalition of Allied powers, led by the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States. The initial plan of the Home Army was to link up with the invading forces of the Western Allies as they liberated Europe from the Nazis. However, when the Soviet Army began its offensive in 1943, it became clear that Poland would be liberated by it instead of the Western Allies. The Soviets and the Poles had a common enemy—Germany—but were working towards different post-war goals: the Home Army desired a pro-Western, capitalist Poland, but the Soviet leader Stalin intended to establish a pro-Soviet, socialist Poland. It became obvious that the advancing Soviet Red Army might not come to Poland as an ally but rather only as "the ally of an ally". The Soviets and the Poles distrusted each other and Soviet partisans in Poland often clashed with a Polish resistance increasingly united under the Home Army's front. Stalin broke off Polish–Soviet relations on 25 April 1943 after the Germans revealed the Katyn massacre of Polish army officers, and Stalin refused to admit to ordering the killings and denounced the claims as German propaganda. Afterwards, Stalin created the Rudenko Commission, whose goal was to blame the Germans for the war crime at all costs. The Western alliance accepted Stalin's words as truth in order to keep the Anti-Nazi alliance intact. On 26 October, the Polish government-in-exile issued instructions to the effect that, if diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union were not resumed before the Soviet entry into Poland, Home Army forces were to remain underground pending further decisions. However, the Home Army commander, Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski, took a different approach, and on 20 November, he outlined his own plan, which became known as Operation Tempest. On the approach of the Eastern Front, local units of the Home Army were to harass the German Wehrmacht in the rear and co-operate with incoming Soviet units as much as possible. Although doubts existed about the military necessity of a major uprising, planning continued. General Bór-Komorowski and his civilian advisor were authorised by the government in exile to proclaim a general uprising whenever they saw fit. Eve of the battle The situation came to a head on 13 July 1944 as the Soviet offensive crossed the old Polish border. At this point the Poles had to make a decision: either initiate the uprising in the current difficult political situation and risk a lack of Soviet support, or fail to rebel and face Soviet propaganda describing the Home Army as impotent or worse, Nazi collaborators. They feared that if Poland was liberated by the Red Army, then the Allies would ignore the London-based Polish government in the aftermath of the war. The urgency for a final decision on strategy increased as it became clear that, after successful Polish-Soviet co-operation in the liberation of Polish territory (for example, in Operation Ostra Brama), Soviet security forces behind the frontline shot or arrested Polish officers and forcibly conscripted lower ranks into the Soviet-controlled forces. On 21 July, the High Command of the Home Army decided that the time to launch Operation Tempest in Warsaw was imminent. The plan was intended both as a political manifestation of Polish sovereignty and as a direct operation against the German occupiers. On 25 July, the Polish government-in-exile (without the knowledge and against the wishes of Polish Commander-in-Chief General Kazimierz Sosnkowski) approved the plan for an uprising in Warsaw with the timing to be decided locally. In the early summer of 1944, German plans required Warsaw to serve as the defensive centre of the area and to be held at all costs. The Germans had fortifications constructed and built up their forces in the area. This process slowed after the failed 20 July plot to assassinate the Nazi leader Adolf Hitler, and around that time, the Germans in Warsaw were weak and visibly demoralized. However, by the end of July, German forces in the area were reinforced. On 27 July, the Governor of the Warsaw District, Ludwig Fischer, called for 100,000 Polish men and women to report for work as part of a plan which envisaged the Poles constructing fortifications around the city. The inhabitants of Warsaw ignored his demand, and the Home Army command became worried about possible reprisals or mass round-ups, which would disable their ability to mobilize. The Soviet forces were approaching Warsaw, and Soviet-controlled radio stations called for the Polish people to rise in arms. On 25 July, the Union of Polish Patriots, in a broadcast from Moscow, stated: The Polish Army of Polish Patriots ... calls on the thousands of brothers thirsting to fight, to smash the foe before he can recover from his defeat ... Every Polish homestead must become a stronghold in the struggle against the invaders ... Not a moment is to be lost. On 29 July, the first Soviet armoured units reached the outskirts of Warsaw, where they were counter-attacked by two German Panzer Corps: the 39th and 4th SS. On 29 July 1944 Radio Station Kosciuszko located in Moscow emitted a few times its "Appeal to Warsaw" and called to "Fight The Germans!": No doubt Warsaw already hears the guns of the battle which is soon to bring her liberation. ... The Polish Army now entering Polish territory, trained in the Soviet Union, is now joined to the People's Army to form the Corps of the Polish Armed Forces, the armed arm of our nation in its struggle for independence. Its ranks will be joined tomorrow by the sons of Warsaw. They will all together, with the Allied Army pursue the enemy westwards, wipe out the Hitlerite vermin from Polish land and strike a mortal blow at the beast of Prussian Imperialism. Bór-Komorowski and several officers held a meeting on that day. Jan Nowak-Jeziorański, who had arrived from London, expressed the view that help from the Allies would be limited, but his views received no attention. Believing that the time for action had arrived, on 31 July, the Polish commanders General Bór-Komorowski and Colonel Antoni Chruściel ordered full mobilization of the forces for 17:00 the following day. Opposing forces Polish forces The Home Army forces of the Warsaw District numbered between 20,000, and 49,000 soldiers. Other underground formations also contributed; estimates range from 2,000 in total, to about 3,500 men including those from the National Armed Forces and the communist People's Army. Most of them had trained for several years in partisan and urban guerrilla warfare, but lacked experience in prolonged daylight fighting. The forces lacked equipment, because the Home Army had shuttled weapons to the east of the country before the decision to include Warsaw in Operation Tempest. Other partisan groups subordinated themselves to Home Army command, and many volunteers joined during the fighting, including Jews freed from the Gęsiówka concentration camp in the ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto. Morale among Jewish fighters was hurt by displays of antisemitism, with several former Jewish prisoners in combat units even killed by antisemitic Poles. Colonel Antoni Chruściel (codename "Monter") who commanded the Polish underground forces in Warsaw, divided his units into eight areas: the Sub-district I of Śródmieście (Area I) which included Warszawa-Śródmieście and the Old Town; the Sub-district II of Żoliborz (Area II) comprising Żoliborz, Marymont, and Bielany; the Sub-district III of Wola (Area III) in Wola; the Sub-district IV of Ochota (Area IV) in Ochota; the Sub-district V of Mokotów (Area V) in Mokotów; the Sub-district VI of Praga (Area VI) in Praga; the Sub-district VII of Warsaw suburbs (Area VII) for the Warsaw West County; and the Autonomous Region VIII of Okęcie (Area VIII) in Okęcie; while the units of the Directorate of Sabotage and Diversion (Kedyw) remained attached to the Uprising Headquarters. On 20 September, the sub-districts were reorganized to align with the three areas of the city held by the Polish units. The entire force, renamed the Warsaw Home Army Corps () and commanded by General Antoni Chruściel – who was promoted from Colonel on 14 September – formed three infantry divisions (Śródmieście, Żoliborz and Mokotów). The exact number of the foreign fighters (obcokrajowcy in Polish), who fought in Warsaw for Poland's independence, is difficult to determine, taking into consideration the chaotic character of the Uprising causing their irregular registration. It is estimated that they numbered several hundred and represented at least 15 countries – Slovakia, Hungary, the United Kingdom, Australia, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Greece, Italy, the United States, the Soviet Union, South Africa, Romania, Germany, and even Nigeria. These people – emigrants who had settled in Warsaw before the war, escapees from numerous POW, concentration and labor camps, and deserters from the German auxiliary forces – were absorbed in different fighting and supportive formations of the Polish underground. They wore the underground's red-white armband (the colors of the Polish national flag) and adopted the Polish traditional independence fighters' slogan 'Za naszą i waszą wolność' (For our and your freedom). Some of the 'obcokrajowcy' showed outstanding bravery in fighting the enemy and were awarded the highest decorations of the AK and the Polish government in exile. During the fighting, the Poles obtained additional supplies through airdrops and by capture from the enemy, including several armored vehicles, notably two Panther tanks and two Sd.Kfz. 251 armored personnel carriers. Also, resistance workshops produced weapons throughout the fighting, including submachine guns, K pattern flamethrowers, grenades, mortars, and even an armored car (). As of 1 August, Polish military supplies consisted of 1,000 guns, 1,750 pistols, 300 submachine guns, 60 assault rifles, 7 heavy machine guns, 20 anti-tank guns, and 25,000 hand grenades. "Such collection of light weapons might have been sufficient to launch an urban terror campaign, but not to seize control of the city". Germans In late July 1944 the German units stationed in and around Warsaw were divided into three categories. The first and the most numerous was the garrison of Warsaw. As of 31 July, it numbered some 11,000 troops under General Rainer Stahel. These well-equipped German forces prepared for the defence of the city's key positions for many months. Several hundred concrete bunkers and barbed wire lines protected the buildings and areas occupied by the Germans. Apart from the garrison itself, numerous army units were stationed on both banks of the Vistula river and in the city. The second category was composed of police and SS, under SS and Police Leader SS-Oberführer Paul Otto Geibel, numbering initially 5,710 men, including Schutzpolizei and Waffen-SS. The third category was formed by various auxiliary units, including detachments of the Bahnschutz (rail guard), Werkschutz (factory guard) and the Polish Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans in Poland) and Soviet former POW of the Sonderdienst and Sonderabteilungen paramilitary units. During the uprising the German side received reinforcements on a daily basis. Stahel was replaced as overall commander by SS-General Erich von dem Bach in early August. As of 20 August 1944, the German units directly involved with fighting in Warsaw comprised 17,000 men arranged in two battle groups: Battle Group Rohr (commanded by Major General Rohr), which included 1,700 soldiers of the anti-communist S.S. Sturmbrigade R.O.N.A. Russkaya Osvoboditelnaya Narodnaya Armiya (Russian National Liberation Army, also known as Kaminski Brigade) under German command made up of Russian, Belorussian and Ukrainian collaborators, and Battle Group Reinefarth commanded by SS-Gruppenführer Heinz Reinefarth, which consisted of Attack Group Dirlewanger (commanded by Oskar Dirlewanger), which included Aserbaidschanische Legion (part of the Ostlegionen), Attack Group Reck (commanded by Major Reck), Attack Group Schmidt (commanded by Colonel Schmidt) and various support and backup units. The Nazi forces included about 5,000 regular troops; 4,000 Luftwaffe personnel (1,000 at Okęcie airport, 700 at Bielany, 1,000 in Boernerowo, 300 at Służewiec and 1,000 in anti-air artillery posts throughout the city); as well as about 2,000 men of the Sentry Regiment Warsaw (Wachtregiment Warschau), including four infantry battalions (Patz, Baltz, No. 996 and No. 997), and an SS reconnaissance squadron with ca. 350 men. Uprising W-hour or "Godzina W" After days of hesitation, at 17:00 on 31 July, the Polish headquarters scheduled "W-hour" (from the Polish wybuch, "explosion"), the moment of the start of the uprising for 17:00 on the following day. The decision was a strategic miscalculation because the under-equipped resistance forces were prepared and trained for a series of coordinated surprise dawn attacks. In addition, although many units were already mobilized and waiting at assembly points throughout the city, the mobilization of thousands of young men and women was hard to conceal. Fighting started in advance of "W-hour", notably in Żoliborz, and around Napoleon Square and Dąbrowski Square. The Germans had anticipated the possibility of an uprising, though they had not realized its size or strength. At 16:30 Governor Fischer put the garrison on full alert. That evening the resistance captured a major German arsenal, the main post office and power station and the Prudential building. However, Castle Square, the police district, and the airport remained in German hands. The first days were crucial in establishing the battlefield for the rest of the fight. The resistance fighters were most successful in the City Centre, Old Town and Wola districts. However, several major German strongholds remained, and in some areas of Wola the Poles sustained heavy losses that forced an early retreat. In other areas such as Mokotów, the attackers almost completely failed to secure any objectives and controlled only the residential areas. In Praga, on the east bank of the Vistula, the Poles were sent back into hiding by a high concentration of German forces. Most crucially, the fighters in different areas failed to link up with each other and with areas outside Warsaw, leaving each sector isolated from the others. After the first hours of fighting, many units adopted a more defensive strategy, while civilians began erecting barricades. Despite all the problems, by 4 August the majority of the city was in Polish hands, although some key strategic points remained untaken. First four days The uprising was intended to last a few days until Soviet forces arrived; however, this never happened, and the Polish forces had to fight with little outside assistance. The results of the first two days of fighting in different parts of the city were as follows: Area I (city centre and the Old Town): Units captured most of their assigned territory, but failed to capture areas with strong pockets of resistance from the Germans (the Warsaw University buildings, PAST skyscraper, the headquarters of the German garrison in the Saxon Palace, the German-only area near Szucha Avenue, and the bridges over the Vistula). They thus failed to create a central stronghold, secure communication links to other areas, or a secure land connection with the northern area of Żoliborz through the northern railway line and the Citadel. Area II (Żoliborz, Marymont, Bielany): Units failed to secure the most important military targets near Żoliborz. Many units retreated outside of the city, into the forests. Although they captured most of the area around Żoliborz, the soldiers of Colonel Mieczysław Niedzielski ("Żywiciel") failed to secure the Citadel area and break through German defences at Warsaw Gdańsk railway station. Area III (Wola): Units initially secured most of the territory, but sustained heavy losses (up to 30%). Some units retreated into the forests, while others retreated to the eastern part of the area. In the northern part of Wola the soldiers of Colonel Jan Mazurkiewicz ("Radosław") managed to capture the German barracks, the German supply depot at Stawki Street, and the flanking position at the Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery. Area IV (Ochota): The units mobilized in this area did not capture either the territory or the military targets (the Gęsiówka concentration camp, and the SS and Sipo barracks on Narutowicz Square). After suffering heavy casualties most of the Home Army forces retreated to the forests west of Warsaw. Only two small units of approximately 200 to 300 men under Lieut. Andrzej Chyczewski ("Gustaw") remained in the area and managed to create strong pockets of resistance. They were later reinforced by units from the city centre. Elite units of the Kedyw managed to secure most of the northern part of the area and captured all of the military targets there. However, they were soon tied down by German tactical counter-attacks from the south and west. Area V (Mokotów): The situation in this area was very serious from the start of hostilities. The partisans aimed to capture the heavily defended Police Area (Dzielnica policyjna) on Rakowiecka Street, and establish a connection with the city centre through open terrain at the former airfield of Mokotów Field. As both of the areas were heavily fortified and could be approached only through open terrain, the assaults failed. Some units retreated into the forests, while others managed to capture parts of Dolny Mokotów, which was, however, severed from most communication routes to other areas. Area VI (Praga): The Uprising was also started on the right bank of the Vistula, where the main task was to seize the bridges on the river and secure the bridgeheads until the arrival of the Red Army. It was clear that, since the location was far worse than that of the other areas, there was no chance of any help from outside. After some minor initial successes, the forces of Lt.Col. Antoni Żurowski ("Andrzej") were badly outnumbered by the Germans. The fights were halted, and the Home Army forces were forced back underground. Area VII (Powiat warszawski): this area consisted of territories outside Warsaw city limits. Actions here mostly failed to capture their targets. An additional area within the Polish command structure was formed by the units of the Directorate of Sabotage and Diversion or Kedyw, an elite formation that was to guard the headquarters and was to be used as an "armed ambulance", thrown into the battle in the most endangered areas. These units secured parts of Śródmieście and Wola; along with the units of Area I, they were the most successful during the first few hours. Among the most notable primary targets that were not taken during the opening stages of the uprising were the airfields of Okęcie and Mokotów Field, as well as the PAST skyscraper overlooking the city centre and the Gdańsk railway station guarding the passage between the centre and the northern borough of Żoliborz. The leaders of the uprising counted only on the rapid entry of the Red Army in Warsaw ('on the second or third or, at the latest, by the seventh day of the fighting') and were more prepared for a confrontation with the Russians. At this time, the head of the government in exile Mikolajczyk met with Stalin on 3 August 1944 in Moscow and raised the questions of his imminent arrival in Warsaw, the return to power of his government in Poland, as well as the Eastern borders of Poland, while categorically refusing to recognize the Curzon Line as the basis for negotiations. In saying this, Mikolajczyk was well aware that the USSR and Stalin had repeatedly stated their demand for recognition of the Curzon Line as the basis for negotiations and categorically refused to change their position. 23 March 1944 Stalin said 'he could not depart from the Curzon Line; in spite of Churchill's post-Teheran reference to his Curzon Line policy as one 'of force', he still believed it to be the only legitimate settlement'. Thus, the Warsaw uprising was actively used to achieve political goals. The question of assistance to the insurrection was not raised by Mikolajczyk, apparently for reasons that it might weaken the position in the negotiations. 'The substance of the two-and-a-half-hour discussion was a harsh disagreement about future of Poland, the Uprising – considered by the Poles as a bargaining chip – turned to be disadvantageous for Mikolajczyk's position since it made him seem like a supplicant (...) Nothing was agreed about the Uprising.' The question of helping the "Home Army" with weapons was only raised, but Stalin refused to discuss this question until the formation of a new government was decided. Wola massacre The Uprising reached its apogee on 4 August when the Home Army soldiers managed to establish front lines in the westernmost boroughs of Wola and Ochota. However, it was also the moment at which the German army stopped its retreat westwards and began receiving reinforcements. On the same day SS General Erich von dem Bach was appointed commander of all the forces employed against the Uprising. German counter-attacks aimed to link up with the remaining German pockets and then cut off the Uprising from the Vistula river. Among the reinforcing units were forces under the command of Heinz Reinefarth. On 5 August Reinefarth's three attack groups started their advance westward along Wolska and Górczewska streets toward the main east–west communication line of Jerusalem Avenue. Their advance was halted, but the regiments began carrying out Heinrich Himmler's orders: behind the lines, special SS, police and Wehrmacht groups went from house to house, shooting the inhabitants regardless of age or gender and burning their bodies. Estimates of civilians killed in Wola and Ochota range from 20,000 to 50,000, 40,000 by 8 August in Wola alone, or as high as 100,000. The main perpetrators were Oskar Dirlewanger and Bronislav Kaminski, whose forces committed the cruelest atrocities. The policy was designed to crush the Poles' will to fight and put the uprising to an end without having to commit to heavy city fighting. With time, the Germans realized that atrocities only stiffened resistance and that some political solution should be found, as the thousands of men at the disposal of the German commander were unable to effectively counter the resistance in an urban guerrilla setting. They aimed to gain a significant victory to show the Home Army the futility of further fighting and induce them to surrender. This did not succeed. Until mid-September, the Germans shot all captured resistance fighters on the spot, but from the end of September, some of the captured Polish soldiers were treated as POWs. Stalemate Despite the loss of Wola, the Polish resistance strengthened. Zośka and Wacek battalions managed to capture the ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto and liberate the Gęsiówka concentration camp, freeing about 350 Jews. The area became one of the main communication links between the resistance fighting in Wola and those defending the Old Town. On 7 August German forces were strengthened by the arrival of tanks using civilians as human shields. After two days of heavy fighting they managed to bisect Wola and reach Bankowy Square. However, by then the net of barricades, street fortifications, and tank obstacles were already well-prepared; both sides reached a stalemate, with heavy house-to-house fighting. Between 9 and 18 August pitched battles raged around the Old Town and nearby Bankowy Square, with successful attacks by the Germans and counter-attacks from the Poles. German tactics hinged on bombardment through the use of heavy artillery and tactical bombers, against which the Poles were unable to effectively defend, as they lacked anti-aircraft artillery weapons. Even clearly marked hospitals were dive-bombed by Stukas. Although the Battle of Stalingrad had already shown the danger a city can pose to armies which fight within it and the importance of local support, the Warsaw Uprising was probably the first demonstration that in an urban terrain, a vastly under-equipped force supported by the civilian population can hold its own against better-equipped professional soldiersthough at the cost of considerable sacrifice on the part of the city's residents. The Poles held the Old Town until a decision to withdraw was made at the end of August. On successive nights until 2 September, the defenders of the Old Town withdrew through the sewers, which were a major means of communication between different parts of the Uprising. Thousands of people were evacuated in this way. Those that remained were either shot or transported to concentration camps like Mauthausen and Sachsenhausen once the Germans regained control. Berling's landings Soviet attacks on the 4th SS Panzer Corps east of Warsaw were renewed on 26 August, and the Germans were forced to retreat into Praga. The Soviet army under the command of Konstantin Rokossovsky captured Praga and arrived on the east bank of the Vistula in mid-September. By 13 September, the Germans had destroyed the remaining bridges over the Vistula, signalling that they were abandoning all their positions east of the river. In the Praga area, Polish units under the command of General Zygmunt Berling (thus sometimes known as berlingowcy – "the Berling men") fought on the Soviet side. Three patrols of his First Polish Army () landed in the Czerniaków and Powiśle areas and made contact with Home Army forces on the night of 14/15 September. The artillery cover and air support provided by the Soviets was unable to effectively counter enemy machine-gun fire as the Poles crossed the river, and the landing troops sustained heavy losses. Only small elements of the main units made it ashore (I and III battalions of 9th infantry regiment, 3rd Infantry Division). The limited landings by the 1st Polish Army represented the only external ground force which arrived to physically support the uprising; and even they were curtailed by the Soviet High Command due to the losses they took. The Germans intensified their attacks on the Home Army positions near the river to prevent any further landings, but were not able to make any significant advances for several days while Polish forces held those vital positions in preparation for a new expected wave of Soviet landings. Polish units from the eastern shore attempted several more landings, and from 15 to 23 September sustained heavy losses (including the destruction of all their landing boats and most of their other river crossing equipment). Red Army support was inadequate. After the failure of repeated attempts by the 1st Polish Army to link up with the resistance, the Soviets limited their assistance to sporadic artillery and air support. Conditions that prevented the Germans from dislodging the resistance also acted to prevent the Poles from dislodging the Germans. Plans for a river crossing were suspended "for at least 4 months", since operations against the 9th Army's five panzer divisions were problematic at that point, and the commander of the 1st Polish Army, General Berling was relieved of his duties by his Soviet superiors. On the night of 19 September, after no further attempts from the other side of the river were made and the promised evacuation of wounded did not take place, Home Army soldiers and landed elements of the 1st Polish Army were forced to begin a retreat from their positions on the bank of the river. Out of approximately 900 men who made it ashore only a handful made it back to the eastern shore of the Vistula. Berling's Polish Army losses in the attempt to aid the Uprising were 5,660 killed, missing or wounded. From this point on, the Warsaw Uprising can be seen as a one-sided war of attrition or, alternatively, as a fight for acceptable terms of surrender. The Poles were besieged in three areas of the city: Śródmieście, Żoliborz and Mokotów. Life behind the lines In 1939 Warsaw had roughly 1,350,000 inhabitants. Over a million were still living in the city at the start of the Uprising. In Polish-controlled territory, during the first weeks of the Uprising, people tried to recreate the normal day-to-day life of their free country. Cultural life was vibrant, both among the soldiers and civilian population, with theatres, post offices, newspapers and similar activities. Boys and girls of the Polish Scouts acted as couriers for an underground postal service, risking their lives daily to transmit any information that might help their people. Near the end of the Uprising, lack of food and medicine, overcrowding and indiscriminate German air and artillery assault on the city made the civilian situation more and more desperate. Booby traps, such as thermite-laced candy pieces, may have also been used in German-controlled districts of Warsaw; targeting Polish youth. Food shortages As the Uprising was supposed to be relieved by the Soviets in a matter of days, the Polish underground did not predict food shortages would be a problem. However, as the fighting dragged on, the inhabitants of the city faced hunger and starvation. A major break-through took place on 6 August, when Polish units recaptured the Haberbusch i Schiele brewery complex at Ceglana Street. From that time on the citizens of Warsaw lived mostly on barley from the brewery's warehouses. Every day up to several thousand people organized into cargo teams reported to the brewery for bags of barley and then distributed them in the city centre. The barley was then ground in coffee grinders and boiled with water to form a so-called spit-soup (). The "Sowiński" Battalion managed to hold the brewery until the end of the fighting. Another serious problem for civilians and soldiers alike was a shortage of water. By mid-August most of the water conduits were either out of order or filled with corpses. In addition, the main water pumping station remained in German hands. To prevent the spread of epidemics and provide the people with water, the authorities ordered all janitors to supervise the construction of water wells in the backyards of every house. On 21 September the Germans blew up the remaining pumping stations at Koszykowa Street and after that the public wells were the only source of potable water in the besieged city. By the end of September, the city centre had more than 90 functioning wells. Polish media Before the Uprising the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of the Home Army had set up a group of war correspondents. Headed by Antoni Bohdziewicz, the group made three newsreels and over 30,000 meters of film tape documenting the struggles. The first newsreel was shown to the public on 13 August in the Palladium cinema at Złota Street. In addition to films, dozens of newspapers appeared from the very first days of the uprising. Several previously underground newspapers started to be distributed openly. The two main daily newspapers were the government-run Rzeczpospolita Polska and military Biuletyn Informacyjny. There were also several dozen newspapers, magazines, bulletins and weeklies published routinely by various organizations and military units. The Błyskawica long-range radio transmitter, assembled on 7 August in the city centre, was run by the military, but was also used by the recreated Polish Radio from 9 August. It was on the air three or four times a day, broadcasting news programmes and appeals for help in Polish, English, German and French, as well as reports from the government, patriotic poems and music. It was the only such radio station in German-held Europe. Among the speakers appearing on the resistance radio were Jan Nowak-Jeziorański, Zbigniew Świętochowski, Stefan Sojecki, Jeremi Przybora, and John Ward, a war correspondent for The Times of London. Outside support According to many historians, a major cause of the eventual failure of the uprising was the almost complete lack of outside support and the late arrival of that which did arrive. The Polish government-in-exile carried out frantic diplomatic efforts to gain support from the Western Allies prior to the start of battle but the allies would not act without Soviet approval. The Polish government in London asked the British several times to send an allied mission to Poland. However, the British mission did not arrive until December 1944. Shortly after their arrival, they met up with Soviet authorities, who arrested and imprisoned them. In the words of the mission's deputy commander, it was "a complete failure". Nevertheless, from August 1943 to July 1944, over 200 British Royal Air Force (RAF) flights dropped an estimated 146 Polish personnel trained in Great Britain, over 4,000 containers of supplies, and $16 million in banknotes and gold to the Home Army. The only support operation which ran continuously for the duration of the Uprising were night supply drops by long-range planes of the RAF, other British Commonwealth air forces, and units of the Polish Air Force, which had to use distant airfields in Italy, reducing the amount of supplies they could carry. The RAF made 223 sorties and lost 34 aircraft. The effect of these airdrops was mostly psychological—they delivered too few supplies for the needs of the resistance, and many airdrops landed outside Polish-controlled territory. Airdrops From 4 August the Western Allies began supporting the Uprising with airdrops of munitions and other supplies. Initially the flights were carried out mostly by the 1568th Polish Special Duties Flight of the Polish Air Force (later renamed No. 301 Polish Bomber Squadron) stationed in Bari and Brindisi in Italy, flying B-24 Liberator, Handley Page Halifax and Douglas C-47 Dakota planes. Later on, at the insistence of the Polish government-in-exile, they were joined by the Liberators of 2 Wing –No.31 and No. 34 Squadrons of the South African Air Force based at Foggia in Southern Italy, and Halifaxes, flown by No. 148 and No. 178 RAF Squadrons. The drops by British, Polish and South African forces continued until 21 September. The total weight of allied drops varies according to source (104 tons, 230 tons or 239 tons), over 200 flights were made. The Soviet Union did not allow the Western Allies to use its airports for the airdrops for several weeks, so the planes had to use bases in the United Kingdom and Italy which reduced their carrying weight and number of sorties. The Allies' specific request for the use of landing strips made on 20 August was denied by Stalin on 22 August. Stalin referred to the Polish resistance as "a handful of criminals" and stated that the Uprising was inspired by "enemies of the Soviet Union". Thus, by denying landing rights to Allied aircraft on Soviet-controlled territory the Soviets vastly limited effectiveness of Allied assistance to the Uprising, and even fired at Allied airplanes which carried supplies from Italy and strayed into Soviet-controlled airspace. American support was also limited. After Stalin's objections to supporting the uprising, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill telegraphed U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 25 August and proposed sending planes in defiance of Stalin, to "see what happens". Unwilling to upset Stalin before the Yalta Conference, Roosevelt replied on 26 August: "I do not consider it advantageous to the long-range general war prospect for me to join you". Finally on 18 September the Soviets allowed a USAAF flight of 107 B-17 Flying Fortresses of the Eighth Air Force's 3rd Division to re-fuel and reload at Soviet airfields used in Operation Frantic, but it was too little too late. The planes dropped 100 tons of supplies but only 20 were recovered by the resistance due to the wide area over which they were spread. The vast majority of supplies fell into German-held areas. The USAAF lost two B-17s with a further seven damaged. The aircraft landed at the Operation Frantic airbases in the Soviet Union, where they were rearmed and refueled, and the next day 100 B-17s and 61 P-51s left the USSR to bomb the marshalling yard at Szolnok in Hungary on their way back to bases in Italy. Soviet intelligence reports show that Soviet commanders on the ground near Warsaw estimated that 96% of the supplies dropped by the Americans fell into German hands. From the Soviet perspective, the Americans were supplying the Nazis instead of aiding the Polish resistance. The Soviets refused permission for any further American flights until 30 September, by which time the weather was too poor to fly, and the Uprising was nearly over. Between 13 and 30 September Soviet aircraft commenced their own re-supply missions, dropping arms, medicines and food supplies. Initially these supplies were dropped in canisters without parachutes which led to damage and loss of the contents. Also, a large number of canisters fell into German hands. The Soviet Air Forces flew 2,535 re-supply sorties with small bi-plane Polikarpov Po-2's, delivering a total of 156 50-mm mortars, 505 anti-tank rifles, 1,478 sub-machine guns, 520 rifles, 669 carbines, 41,780 hand grenades, 37,216 mortar shells, over 3 million cartridges, 131.2 tons of food and 515 kg of medicine. Although German air defence over the Warsaw area itself was almost non-existent, about 12% of the 296 planes taking part in the operations were lost because they had to fly out and the same distance back over heavily defended enemy territory (112 out of 637 Polish and 133 out of 735 British and South African airmen were shot down). Most of the drops were made during the night, at no more than altitude, and poor accuracy left many parachuted packages stranded behind German-controlled territory (only about 50 tons of supplies, less than 50% delivered, was recovered by the resistance). The level of losses during the operation was very high, especially for the conditions of mid-1944. In the first flight on 4–5 August, 5 out of 7 aircraft were lost. In subsequent flights, the level of losses decreased, but remained very high. For example, on 13–14 August, 3 planes out of 28 were shot down, and 4 planes were forced to make forced landings in territories occupied by the USSR due to damage. Soviet stance The role of the Red Army during the Warsaw Uprising remains controversial and is still disputed by historians. The Uprising started when the Red Army appeared on the city's doorstep, and the Poles in Warsaw were counting on Soviet front capturing or forwarding beyond the city in a matter of days. This basic scenario of an uprising against the Germans, launched a few days before the arrival of Allied forces, played out successfully in a number of European capitals, such as Paris and Prague. However, despite easy capture of area south-east of Warsaw barely from the city centre and holding these positions for about 40 days, the Soviets did not extend any effective aid to the resistance within Warsaw. At that time city outskirts were defended by the under-manned and under-equipped German 73rd Infantry Division which was destroyed many times on the Eastern Front and was yet-again being reconstituted. The weak German defence forces did not experience any significant Soviet pressure during that period, which effectively allowed them to strengthen German forces fighting against uprising in the city itself. The Red Army was fighting intense battles further to the south of Warsaw, to seize and maintain bridgeheads over the Vistula river, and to the north of the city, to gain bridgeheads over the river Narew. The best German armoured divisions were fighting on those sectors. Despite the fact, both of these objectives had been mostly secured by September. Yet the Soviet 47th Army did not move into Praga on the right bank of the Vistula, until 11 September (when the Uprising was basically over). In three days the Soviets quickly gained control of the suburb, a few hundred meters from the main battle on the other side of the river, as the resistance by the German 73rd Division collapsed quickly. Had the Soviets done this in early August, the crossing of the river would have been easier, as the Poles then held considerable stretches of the riverfront. However, by mid-September a series of German attacks had reduced the Poles to holding one narrow stretch of the riverbank, in the district of Czerniaków. The Poles were counting on the Soviet forces to cross to the left bank where the main battle of the uprising was occurring. Though Berling's communist 1st Polish Army did cross the river, their support from the Soviets was inadequate and the main Soviet force did not follow them. One of the reasons given for the collapse of the Uprising was the reluctance of the Soviet Red Army to help the Polish resistance. On 1 August, the day of Uprising, the Soviet advance was halted by a direct order from the Kremlin. Soon afterwards the Soviet tank units stopped receiving any oil from their depots. Soviets knew of the planned outbreak from their agents in Warsaw and, more importantly, directly from the Polish Prime Minister Stanisław Mikołajczyk, who informed them of the Polish Home Army uprising plans: The Soviet side was informed post-factum. "The Russians learned about possibility for the first time from Mikolajczyk, at about 9 p.m. on 31 July, that is about 3 hours after Bor-Komorowski had given the order for the insurrection to begin". One way or the other, the presence of Soviet tanks in nearby Wołomin 15 kilometers to the east of Warsaw had sealed the decision of the Home Army leaders to launch the Uprising. However, as a result of the initial battle of Radzymin in the final days of July, these advance units of the Soviet 2nd Tank Army were pushed out of Wołomin and back about . On 9 August, Stalin informed Premier Mikołajczyk that the Soviets had originally planned to be in Warsaw by 6 August, but a counter-attack by four Panzer divisions had thwarted their attempts to reach the city. By 10 August, the Germans had enveloped and inflicted heavy casualties on the Soviet 2nd Tank Army at Wołomin. On 1 August 1944, the underground Polish Home Army, being in contact with and loyal to the Polish government-in-exile in London, began offensive operations in Warsaw, in an attempt to free the city from the occupying German forces before the Red Army could secure the capital. Zygmunt Berling became the deputy commander of the Polish Army in the USSR on 22 July 1944. With his own army stopped on the Vistula River and facing Warsaw itself, and without first consulting his Soviet superiors, Berling may have independently issued orders to engage the German enemy and to come to the aid of the Polish resistance but it was a small landing without any tactical support from Berling or other Soviet units that could not make a difference in the situation of Warsaw. Yet this behaviour may have caused Berlings' dismissal from his post soon after. When Stalin and Churchill met face-to-face in October 1944, Stalin told Churchill that the lack of Soviet support was a direct result of a major reverse in the Vistula sector in August, which had to be kept secret for strategic reasons. All contemporary German sources assumed that the Soviets were trying to link up with the resistance, and they believed it was their defence that prevented the Soviet advance rather than a reluctance to advance on the part of the Soviets. Nevertheless, as part of their strategy the Germans published propaganda accusing both the British and Soviets of abandoning the Poles. The Soviet units which reached the outskirts of Warsaw in the final days of July 1944 had advanced from the 1st Belorussian Front in Western Ukraine as part of the Lublin–Brest Offensive, between the Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive on its left and Operation Bagration on its right. These two flanking operations were colossal defeats for the German army and completely destroyed a large number of German formations. As a consequence, the Germans at this time were desperately trying to put together a new force to hold the line of the Vistula, the last major river barrier between the Red Army and Germany proper, rushing in units in various stages of readiness from all over Europe. These included many infantry units of poor quality, and 4–5 high quality Panzer Divisions in the 39th Panzer Corps and 4th SS Panzer Corps pulled from their refits. Other explanations for Soviet conduct are possible. The Red Army geared for a major thrust into the Balkans through Romania in mid-August and a large proportion of Soviet resources was sent in that direction, while the offensive in Poland was put on hold. Stalin had made a strategic decision to concentrate on occupying Eastern Europe, rather than on making a thrust toward Germany. The capture of Warsaw was not essential for the Soviets, as they had already seized a series of convenient bridgeheads to the south of Warsaw, and were concentrating on defending them against vigorous German counterattacks. Finally, the Soviet High Command may not have developed a coherent or appropriate strategy with regard to Warsaw because they were badly misinformed. Propaganda from the Polish Committee of National Liberation minimized the strength of the Home Army and portrayed them as Nazi sympathizers. Information submitted to Stalin by intelligence operatives or gathered from the frontline was often inaccurate or omitted key details. Possibly because the operatives were unable, due to the harsh political climate, to express opinions or report facts honestly, they "deliberately resorted to writing nonsense". According to David Glantz (military historian and a retired US Army colonel, as well as a member of the Russian Federation's Academy of Natural Sciences), the Red Army was simply unable to extend effective support to the uprising, which began too early, regardless of Stalin's political intentions. German military capabilities in August—early September were sufficient to halt any Soviet assistance to the Poles in Warsaw, were it intended. In addition, Glantz argued that Warsaw would be a costly city to clear of Germans and an unsuitable location as a start point for subsequent Red Army offensives. Declassified documents from Soviet archives reveal that Stalin gave instructions to cut off the Warsaw resistance from any outside help. The urgent orders issued to the Red Army troops in Poland on 23 August 1944 stipulated that the Home Army units in Soviet-controlled areas should be prevented from reaching Warsaw and helping the Uprising, their members apprehended and disarmed. Only from mid-September, under pressure from the Western Allies, did the Soviets began to provide some limited assistance to the resistance. Modern Russian historians generally hold the view that the failure of the uprising in Warsaw was caused primarily by the mistakes of the leadership of the uprising. They argue that in July 1944, according to the Directive of the command, the Soviet troops did not have the goal of attacking Warsaw, but only to the suburbs of Warsaw – Praga with access to the Vistula river line. Since the Soviet command understood that it was unlikely to be possible to capture the bridges over the Vistula and the Germans would blow them up. The Soviet forces aimed to advance in the northern direction with the capture of East Prussia and with the priority task of reaching the line of the Vistula and Narew rivers and capturing bridgeheads. Then the offensive against East Prussia was to begin from these bridgeheads. ("on the West Bank of the Narew river in the area of Pultusk, Serotsk and South and North of Warsaw – on the West Bank of the Vistula river in the area of Demblin, Zvolen, Solec. In the future keep in mind to advance in the General direction of Thorn and Lodz"). According to this argument, the Home Army leadership mistook the left flank of the 2nd Tank army, which was advancing to north, for the vanguard, which was allegedly advancing on Warsaw and the order was given to start the uprising, which led to defeat. Modern Russian historians generally blame this lack of coordination on the Home Army's desire to liberate Warsaw before the Soviets arrived there. Aftermath Capitulation By the first week of September both German and Polish commanders realized that the Soviet army was unlikely to act to break the stalemate. The Germans reasoned that a prolonged Uprising would damage their ability to hold Warsaw as the frontline; the Poles were concerned that continued resistance would result in further massive casualties. On 7 September, General Rohr proposed negotiations, which Bór-Komorowski agreed to pursue the following day. Over 8, 9 and 10 September about 20,000 civilians were evacuated by agreement of both sides, and Rohr recognized the right of Home Army soldiers to be treated as military combatants. The Poles suspended talks on the 11th, as they received news that the Soviets were advancing slowly through Praga. A few days later, the arrival of the 1st Polish army breathed new life into the resistance and the talks collapsed. However, by the morning of 27 September, the Germans had retaken Mokotów. Talks restarted on 28 September. In the evening of 30 September, Żoliborz fell to the Germans. The Poles were being pushed back into fewer and fewer streets, and their situation was ever more desperate. On the 30th, Hitler decorated von dem Bach, Dirlewanger and Reinefarth, while in London General Sosnkowski was dismissed as Polish commander-in-chief. Bór-Komorowski was promoted in his place, even though he was trapped in Warsaw. Bór-Komorowski and Prime Minister Mikołajczyk again appealed directly to Rokossovsky and Stalin for a Soviet intervention. None came. According to Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov, who was by this time at the Vistula front, both he and Rokossovsky advised Stalin against an offensive because of heavy Soviet losses. The capitulation order of the remaining Polish forces was finally signed on 2 October. All fighting ceased that evening. According to the agreement, the Wehrmacht promised to treat Home Army soldiers in accordance with the Geneva Convention, and to treat the civilian population humanely. The next day the Germans began to disarm the Home Army soldiers. They later sent 15,000 of them to POW camps in various parts of Germany. Between 5,000 and 6,000 resistance fighters decided to blend into the civilian population hoping to continue the fight later. The entire civilian population of Warsaw was expelled from the city and sent to a transit camp Durchgangslager 121 in Pruszków. Out of 350,000–550,000 civilians who passed through the camp, 90,000 were sent to labour camps in the Third Reich, 60,000 were shipped to death and concentration camps (including Ravensbrück, Auschwitz, and Mauthausen, among others), while the rest were transported to various locations in the General Government and released. The Eastern Front remained static in the Vistula sector, with the Soviets making no attempt to push forward, until the Vistula–Oder Offensive began on 12 January 1945. Almost entirely destroyed, Warsaw was liberated from the Germans on 17 January 1945 by the Red Army and the First Polish Army. Destruction of the city The destruction of the Polish capital was planned before the start of World War II. On 20 June 1939, while Adolf Hitler was visiting an architectural bureau in Würzburg am Main, his attention was captured by a project of a future German town – "Neue deutsche Stadt Warschau". According to the Pabst Plan Warsaw was to be turned into a provincial German city. It was soon included as a part of the great Germanization plan of the East; the genocidal Generalplan Ost. The failure of the Warsaw Uprising provided an opportunity for Hitler to begin the transformation. After the remaining population had been expelled, the Germans continued the destruction of the city. Special groups of German engineers were dispatched to burn and demolish the remaining buildings. According to German plans, after the war Warsaw was to be turned into nothing more than a military transit station, or even an artificial lake – the latter of which the Nazi leadership had already intended to implement for the Soviet/Russian capital of Moscow in 1941. The Brandkommandos (arson squads) used flamethrowers and Sprengkommandos (demolition squads) explosives to methodically destroy house after house. They paid special attention to historical monuments, Polish national archives and places of interest. By January 1945, 85% of the buildings were destroyed: 25% as a result of the Uprising, 35% as a result of systematic German actions after the uprising, and the rest as a result of the earlier Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, and the September 1939 campaign. Material losses are estimated at 10,455 buildings, 923 historical buildings (94%), 25 churches, 14 libraries including the National Library, 81 primary schools, 64 high schools, University of Warsaw and Warsaw University of Technology, and most of the historical monuments. Almost a million inhabitants lost all of their possessions. The exact amount of losses of private and public property as well as pieces of art, monuments of science and culture is unknown but considered enormous. Studies done in the late 1940s estimated total damage at about US$30 billion. In 2004, President of Warsaw Lech Kaczyński, later President of Poland, established a historical commission to estimate material losses that were inflicted upon the city by German authorities. The commission estimated the losses as at least US$31.5 billion at 2004 values. Those estimates were later raised to US$45 billion 2004 US dollars and in 2005, to $54.6 billion. Casualties (including both Uprising civilian soldiers and civilians) The exact number of casualties on both sides is unknown. Estimates of Polish casualties fall into roughly similar ranges. Estimates of German casualties differ widely. Though the figure of 9,000 German WIA is generally accepted and generates no controversy, there is little agreement as to German irrecoverable losses (KIA+MIA). Until the 1990s the Eastern and the Western historiography stuck to two widely different estimates, the former claiming 17,000 and the latter 2,000. The 17,000 figure was first coined by a 1947 issue of a Warsaw historical journal Dzieje Najnowsze, allegedly based on estimates made by Bach Zelewski when interrogated by his Polish captors (and divided into 10,000 KIA and 7,000 MIA). This figure was initially repeated in West Germany. However, in 1962 a scholarly monograph by Hanns Krannhals coined the 2,000 estimate. Until the late 20th century the 17,000 figure was consistently and unequivocally quoted in the Polish, though also in the East German and Soviet historiography, be it encyclopedias, scientific monographs or more popular works. It was at times paired or otherwise related to the figure of 16,000 German Warsaw KIA+MIA listed by the so-called Gehlen report of April 1945. The 2,000 figure was accepted in West Germany and generally spilled over to Western historiography; exceptions were studies written in English by the Poles and some other works. Komorowski, who in 1995 opted for 16,000, changed his mind and 10 years later cautiously subscribed to the 2,000 figure; also scholars like Sawicki and Rozwadowski tentatively followed suit. A popular work of Bączyk, who concludes that 3,000 is the maximum conceivable (though not the most probable) figure. In his 2016 analysis Sowa dismissed the 17,000 figure as "entirely improbable" and suggested that its longevity and popularity resulted from manipulation on part of apologists of the Rising. In the Russian historiography it is given clear preference, be it in encyclopedias and dictionaries or general works; the same opinion might be found in Belorussia. The 17,000 estimate made it also to the English literature, quoted with no reservations in popular compendia, warfare manuals and a handful of other works. The figure is advanced also by established institutions like BBC. Other works in English offer a number of approaches; some quote both sides with no own preference, some provide ambiguous descriptions, some set 17,000 irrecoverable losses as an upper limit, some provide odd numbers perhaps resulting from incompetent quotations and some remain silent on the issue altogether, which is the case of the only major English monograph. A key argument supporting the 17,000 figure – apart from quotations from Bach and Gehlen – are total (KIA+MIA+WIA) losses sustained by Kampfgruppe Dirlewanger, one of a few operational units forming German troops fighting the Poles. They are currently calculated at some 3,500; if extrapolated, they might support the overall 25,000 German casualty estimate. After the war Most soldiers of the Home Army (including those who took part in the Warsaw Uprising) were persecuted after the war; captured by the NKVD or UB political police. They were interrogated and imprisoned on various charges, such as that of fascism. Many of them were sent to Gulags, executed or disappeared. Between 1944 and 1956, all of the former members of Battalion Zośka were incarcerated in Soviet prisons. In March 1945, a staged trial of 16 leaders of the Polish Underground State held by the Soviet Union took place in Moscow – (the Trial of the Sixteen). The Government Delegate, together with most members of the Council of National Unity and the C-i-C of the Armia Krajowa, were invited by Soviet general Ivan Serov with agreement of Joseph Stalin to a conference on their eventual entry to the Soviet-backed Provisional Government. They were presented with a warrant of safety, yet they were arrested in Pruszków by the NKVD on 27 and 28 March. Leopold Okulicki, Jan Stanisław Jankowski and Kazimierz Pużak were arrested on the 27th with 12 more the next day. A. Zwierzynski had been arrested earlier. They were brought to Moscow for interrogation in the Lubyanka. After several months of brutal interrogation and torture, they were presented with the forged accusations of collaboration with Nazis and planning a military alliance with Germany. Many resistance fighters, captured by the Germans and sent to POW camps in Germany, were later liberated by British, American and Polish forces and remained in the West. Among those were the leaders of the uprising Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski and Antoni Chruściel. The Soviet government labelled all S.S. Sturmbrigade R.O.N.A. Russkaya Osvoboditelnaya Narodnaya Armiya soldiers as traitors, and those who were repatriated were tried and sentenced to detention in Soviet prisons or executed. In the 1950s and 1960s in the USSR, dozens of other former R.O.N.A. members were found, some of them also sentenced to death. The facts of the Warsaw Uprising were inconvenient to Stalin, and were twisted by propaganda of the People's Republic of Poland, which stressed the failings of the Home Army and the Polish government-in-exile, and forbade all criticism of the Red Army or the political goals of Soviet strategy. In the immediate post-war period, the very name of the Home Army was censored, and most films and novels covering the 1944 Uprising were either banned or modified so that the name of the Home Army did not appear. From the 1950s on, Polish propaganda depicted the soldiers of the Uprising as brave, but the officers as treacherous, reactionary and characterized by disregard of the losses. The first publications on the topic taken seriously in the West were not issued until the late 1980s. In Warsaw no monument to the Home Army was built until 1989. Instead, efforts of the Soviet-backed People's Army were glorified and exaggerated. By contrast, in the West the story of the Polish fight for Warsaw was told as a tale of valiant heroes fighting against a cruel and ruthless enemy. It was suggested that Stalin benefited from Soviet non-involvement, as opposition to eventual Soviet control of Poland was effectively eliminated when the Nazis destroyed the partisans. The belief that the Uprising failed because of deliberate procrastination by the Soviet Union contributed to anti-Soviet sentiment in Poland. Memories of the Uprising helped to inspire the Polish labour movement Solidarity, which led a peaceful opposition movement against the Communist government during the 1980s. 1989 to present In December 1989, the Polish Constitution was revised to remove reference to the socialist order. Marxist references from the Soviet Occupation were removed and the name of the country was changed back to the Polish Republic. For the first time since 1944 the Waraw Uprising could be discussed, researched, and memorialized. Numerous issues have made Research into the Warsaw Uprising difficult. Understanding was boosted by the revolutions of 1989, due to the abolition of censorship and increased access to state archives. Yet Access to some material in British, Polish and ex-Soviet archives was still restricted until recently with some records still Classified. Other records of the Polish government, according to the Brisitsh Government were destroyed, On 1 August 1994, Poland held a ceremony commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Uprising to which both the German and Russian presidents were invited. Guests included German President Roman Herzog and U.S. Vice President Al Gore. The Russian President Boris Yeltsin declined the invitation. At the 1994 President Herzog, on behalf of Germany, was the first German statesman to apologize for German atrocities committed against the Polish nation during the Uprising. During the 60th anniversary of the Uprising in 2004, official delegations included: German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, UK deputy Prime Minister John Prescott and US Secretary of State Colin Powell; Pope John Paul II sent a letter to the mayor of Warsaw, Lech Kaczyński on this occasion. Russia once again did not send a representative. A day before, 31 July 2004, the Warsaw Uprising Museum opened in Warsaw. Warsaw Uprising Memorial Day Efforts by President Lech Kaczyński in 2009 led to recognition of August 1 as a State holiday, Narodowy Dzień Pamięci Powstania Warszawskiego,. The preamble of the act reads: In honour of the heroes of the Warsaw Uprising - those who, in defence of the state, fought for the liberation of the capital city with weapons in their hands, strived to recreate the institutions of an independent Polish state, opposed the German occupation and the spectre of Soviet slavery threatening the next generations of Poles A moment of silence is observed at 5:00 pm to symbolize the sires of August 1, 1944 at 5:00pm that marked the start of the battle as a signal to resistance fighters. Torches get lit in Warsaw's main square amidst rows of national white and red flags while honorary guards at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at Piłsudski Square present arms. Varsovians light firecrackers. Past memorials observers have linked arms to form a human kotwica in front of the Royal Castle. Photo gallery Popular culture: music, television and cinema Numerous works have been influenced by and devoted to the Uprising. In literature, they include: Kolumbowie. Rocznik 20 novel by Polish writer Roman Bratny. In television, they include documentary film The Ramparts of Warsaw 1943–44, produced for the 70th anniversary of the Warsaw Uprising with support from the European Commission. The Warsaw Uprising is often confused with the revolt in the Warsaw Ghetto which took place a year earlier in the spring of 1943. Three young Europeans, Alexandra (France), Maria (Poland) and Roman (Germany) meet in Warsaw to enquire into these events; here they meet witnesses who took part in the Warsaw Uprising or lived in the ghetto. Beneath their white hair we can recognise the men and women who formed the living ramparts of freedom in the face of Nazism. Meanwhile, the Polish World War II TV drama series Time of Honor (; Series 7), which aired in 2014, was entirely devoted to the Warsaw Uprising. In cinema, they include: Kanał, a 1956 Polish film directed by Andrzej Wajda. It was the first film made about the Warsaw Uprising, telling the story of a company of Home Army resistance fighters escaping the Nazi onslaught through the city's sewers. A 2014 film, Warsaw Uprising, directed by Jan Komasa and produced by the Warsaw Uprising Museum, was created entirely from restored and colourised film footage taken during the uprising. Komasa followed this up with Warsaw 44 (also known as Miasto 44, "City 44"), a story of love, friendship and the pursuit of adventure during the bloody and brutal reality of the uprising, which was a huge box office success in Poland in 2014. Roman Polanski's film The Pianist also briefly shows the uprising through the eyes of its main character Władysław Szpilman. Polish director Małgorzata Brama stated he intends to shoot a docudrama about the Warsaw Uprising. Niki Caro's 2017 film The Zookeeper's Wife depicts the Warsaw Uprising and Jan Żabiński's participation in it. At the end of the film, the viewer is informed that Warsaw was destroyed during the war and that only six percent of the Polish capital's prewar population was still in the city after the uprising. Warsaw, a 2019 turn-based tactical role-playing videogame developed and published by Polish studio Pixelated Milk, set during the uprising. The second film of Yuri Ozerov's epic Soldiers of Freedom of 1977 is mostly devoted to the uprising in Warsaw. The presentation of historical events is given from the Soviet point of view. Notable people Stanisław Bóbr-Tylingo (1919–2001), Polish-born historian See also Chronicles of Terror Cross of the Warsaw Uprising Cultural representations of the Warsaw Uprising Kraków Uprising (1944) Monument to Victims of the Wola Massacre Ochota massacre Polish contribution to World War II Polish material losses during World War II Robinson Crusoes of Warsaw Tchorek plaques Verbrennungskommando Warschau Wola massacre Wola Massacre Memorial on Górczewska Street Notes and references Further reading Stanislas Likiernik By Devik's luck Mainstream publishing edinburgh and London, 2001, External links Warsaw Rising Museum in Warsaw The Warsaw Rising The Warsaw Uprising – 1.VIII.1944 Warsaw Uprising CNN Special Warsaw Uprising of 1944 at Polonia Today Warsaw Rising: The Forgotten Soldiers of World War II. Educator Guide Warsaw Uprising 1944 A source for checking data used in this page and offers of material and help. Polish Resistance page provides information and maps which may be freely copied with attribution. Warsaw Life: A detailed account of the 1944 Warsaw Rising, including the facts, the politics and first-hand accounts Polish Boy Scouts Deliver "AK" Mail The Warsaw Uprising daily diary, written in English by Eugenuisz Melech, on the events as they happened. Anglo-Polish Radio ORLA.fm Has broadcast several historical programmes on the Warsaw Uprising Website summarizing many publications against decision to initiate Warsaw Uprising Dariusz Baliszewski, Przerwać tę rzeź! Tygodnik "Wprost", Nr 1132 (8 August 2004) Warschau – Der letzte Blick German aerial photos of Warsaw taken during the last days before the Warsaw Uprising Count Ralph Smorczewski – Daily Telegraph obituary Interview with Warsaw Uprising veteran Stefan Bałuk The State We're in from Radio Netherlands Worldwide 'Chronicles of Terror' – collection of civilian testimonies concerning Warsaw Uprising Battles and operations of World War II Battles of Operation Tempest Conflicts in 1944 Mass murder in 1944 Military history of Warsaw Uprisings during World War II
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Indian%20film%20actresses
List of Indian film actresses
This is an alphabetical list of notable Indian film actresses. A Aaditi Pohankar Aahana Kumra Aakanksha Singh Aamna Sharif Aanchal Munjal Aarathi Aarti Agarwal Aarti Chhabria Aashka Goradia Abhirami Adah Sharma Aditi Arya Aditi Ravi Aditi Sharma Aditi Govitrikar Aditi Rao Hydari Aditi Sarangdhar Advani Lakshmi Devi Ahaana Krishna Ahsaas Channa Aimee Baruah Aindrita Ray Aisha Sharma Aishwarya Aishwarya Arjun Aishwarya Devan Aishwarya Nag Aishwarya Rai Bachchan Aishwarya Rajesh Aishwarya Sakhuja Akanksha Juneja Aksha Pardasany Akshara Gowda Akshara Haasan Akshara Menon Alia Bhatt Alaya Furniturewala Amala Akkineni Amala Paul Ambika Ameeta Ameesha Patel Amoolya Amrita Arora Amrita Prakash Amrita Puri Amrita Rao Amrita Raichand Amrita Singh Amrutha Iyengar Amruta Khanvilkar Amruta Subhash Amyra Dastur Amy Jackson Anaika Soti Ananya Ananya Panday Ananya Kasaravalli Anaswara Kumar Anaswara Rajan Andrea Jeremiah Andria D'Souza Anindita Nayar Angira Dhar Annie Anita Hassanandani Reddy Anita Guha Anita Raj Anjala Zhaveri Anjali Anjali Devi Anjali Sudhakar Anjana Bhowmick Anjana Sukhani Anju Mahendru Ankita Lokhande Ann Augustine Ansiba Hassan Antara Mali Anu Aggarwal Anu Prabhakar Anu Sithara Anupama Parameswaran Anupriya Goenka Anuradha Mehta Anurita Jha Anusha Dandekar Anushka Ranjan Anushka Sen Anushka Sharma Anushka Shetty Anuya Bhagvath Anya Singh Aparnaa Bajpai Aparna Balamurali Aparna Sen Apoorva Arora Archana Archana Jose Kavi Archana Puran Singh Archana Gupta Archita Sahu Aruna Balraj Aruna Irani Aruna Shields Arundathi Nag Asawari Joshi Asha Negi Asha Bhat Asha Parekh Asha Saini Ashima Bhalla Ashnoor Kaur Ashwini Bhave Ashwini Kalsekar Asin Thottumkal Athiya Shetty Athulya Ravi Ayesha Jhulka Ayesha Raza Ayesha Takia Akanksha Puri Avani Modi Avantika Mishra Avneet Kaur Auritra Ghosh B Babita Barkha Bisht Barkha Singh Bala Hijam Barsha Priyadarshini Barsha Rani Bishaya Beena Banerjee Bhagyashree Patwardhan Bhairavi Goswami Bhama Bhanumathi Bhanupriya Bharathi Vishnuvardhan Bhargavi Narayan Bhavana Bhavana (actress) Bhavana Rao Bhavani Prakash Bhavya Bhoomika Chawla Bhumi Pednekar Bijoya Ray Bianca Desai Bidita Bag Bindu Bindu Madhavi Bipasha Basu Bina Rai Bobby Darling Bruna Abdullah B. V. Radha C Carol Gracias Celina Jaitley Chahat Khanna Chandrakala Chandrika Charmila Charmy Kaur Charu Asopa Chaya Singh Chetana Das Chetna Pande Chhavi Mittal Chippy Chithra Chitrangada Singh Chitrashi Rawat Catherine Tresa Claudia Ciesla D Deepti Sati Daisy Bopanna Daisy Shah Daisy Irani Debashree Roy Deeksha Seth Deepa Sahi Deepa Sannidhi Deepal Shaw Deepika Amin Deepika Chikhalia Deepika Padukone Deepti Naval Deepti Bhatnagar Delnaaz Paul Devayani Devika Devika Rani Roerich Dharti Bhatt Dia Mirza Diana Hayden Diana Penty Digangana Suryavanshi Dimple Jhangiani Dimple Kapadia Dipannita Sharma Disha Parmar Disha Patani Disha Vakani Divya Bharati Divya Dutta Divya Khosla Kumar Divyanka Tripathi Drashti Dhami Durga Khote E Elli Avram Esha Deol Esha Gupta Ena Saha Eesha Rebba Evelyn Sharma Elina Samantray Erica Fernandes F Farah Naaz Farida Jalal Fatima Sana Shaikh Fatma Begum Freida Pinto Feryna Wazheir G Gabriela Bertante Gajala Gauahar Khan Gauri Karnik Gautami Gayathri Raguram Gayathrie Gayatri Gayatri Jayaraman Gayatri Joshi Gayatri Patel Geeta Bali Geeta Basra Geeta Dutt Geetanjali Thapa Geetha Geetu Mohandas Genelia D'Souza Girija Girija Lokesh Girija Shettar Giselli Monteiro Gopika Gowri Pandit Gowri Munjal Gul Panag Gunjan Malhotra H Hansika Motwani Harini Haripriya Harshika Poonacha Hasleen Kaur Hazel Keech Heera Rajagopal Helen Hema Bellur Hema Prabhath Hema Malini Honey Rose Hrishitaa Bhatt Huma Qureshi Humaima Malik Hebah Patel Hina Khan Hiba Nawab I Ilene Hamann Indrani Haldar Iniya Iravati Harshe Isha Chawla Isha Sharvani Isha Koppikar Isha Talwar Ishita Chauhan Ishita Dutta Ishita Raj Sharma Izabelle Leite Ileana D'Cruz J Jacqueline Fernandez Jannat Zubair Rahmani Janhvi Kapoor Jasmin Bhasin Jayabharathi Jayachitra J. Jayalalithaa Jaya Bachchan Jaya Prada Jaya Seal Jayasudha Jayamala Jayamalini Jayshree Gadkar Jennifer Kotwal Jennifer Winget Jharana Bajracharya Jhataleka Malhotra Jiya Khan Jugnu Ishiqui Juhi Chawla Juhi Babbar Jyothika Jonita Gandhi K Kainaat Arora Kajal Aggarwal Kajal Kiran Kajjanbai Kajol Kalki Koechlin Kalpana (Kannada actress) Kalpana (Hindi Film actress) Kalpana (Malayalam actress) Kalpana Iyer Kalpana Kartik Kalyani Priyadarshan Kamini Kaushal Kamini Kadam Kamalinee Mukherjee Kamna Jethmalani Kanaka Kanakam Kanchana Kangana Ranaut Kanika Subramaniam Kareena Kapoor Karishma Kapoor Karishma Kotak Karishma Sharma Karishma Tanna Karunya Ram Karthika Mathew Karthika Nair Katrina Kaif Kashmira Irani Kashmira Shah Kausalya Kaviyoor Ponnamma Kavya Madhavan Keerthi Bhat Keerthi Reddy Keerthi Suresh Kiara Advani Kimi Katkar Kimi Verma Kim Sharma Kim Yashpal Kiran Rathod Kirron Kher Kirat Bhattal Kiran Juneja Kirti Kulhari Kitu Gidwani Koel Mallick Koel Purie Koena Mitra Komal Komal Jha Konkona Sen Sharma K. R. Vijaya Krishna Kumari Kriti Kharbanda Kriti Sanon Kritika Kamra Krystle D'Souza Kubbra Sait Khushbu Sundar Kumari Kumkum Kuljeet Randhawa Kulraj Randhawa Kyra Dutt L Laila Mehdin Lalita Pawar Zayn Lalitha (KPAC) Lalitha Lara Dutta Lakshmi Lakshmi Chandrashekar Lakshmidevi Laxmi Chhaya Lakshmi Gopalaswamy Lakshmi Manchu Lakshmi Menon Lakshmi Rai Latha Lauren Gottlieb Lavanya Tripathi Laya Leela Chitnis Leelavathi Leena Chandavarkar Leena Jumani Lekha Washington Lena Leslie Tripathy Lilette Dubey Lisa Ray Lisa Haydon M Madhavi Madhoo (now Madhoo Shah) Madhubala Madhumitha Madhuri Bhattacharya Madhuri Dixit Madhuri Itagi Madhurima Tuli Madhuurima Madhu Shalini Madhura Naik Madonna Sebastian Mahasweta Ray Mahalakshmi Mahek Chahal Mahie Gill Mahika Sharma Mahima Chaudhry Mahira Khan Mahua Roychoudhury Mala Sinha Malashri Malavika Malaika Arora Malavika Avinash Malavika Mohanan Malavika Nair Malavika Nair Malavika Wales Mallika Kapoor Mallika Sherawat Mamta Kulkarni Mamta Mohandas Mansi Parekh Manasvi Mamgai Mandakini Mandana Karimi Mandira Bedi Manini Mishra Manisha Koirala Manjari Phadnis Manjima Mohan Manju Bhargavi Manju Warrier Manjula Manjula Vijayakumar Manorama Mantra Manushi Chhillar Manya Manya Pathak Masumeh Makhija Mawra Hocane Mayuri Kango Meena Meena Kumari Meenakshi Meenakshi Meenakshi Dixit Meenakshi Seshadri Meenakshi Shirodkar Meera Meera Chopra Meera Jasmine Meera Nandan Meera Syal Meera Vasudevan Mehreen Pirzada Megha Akash Meghana Gaonkar Meghna Naidu Meghana Raj Meher Vij Merle Oberon Mia Uyeda Minissha Lamba Mini Mathur Mink Brar Mita Vashisht Mishti Mithila Palkar Mithra Kurian Moloya Goswami Momal Sheikh Monalisa Mona Singh Monali Thakur Monica Monica Bedi Monisha Unni Moon Moon Sen Mouni Roy Moushumi Chatterji Mrinal Dev-Kulkarni Mrinalini Sharma Mrunal Thakur Mrunmayee Deshpande Mukta Barve Mumaith Khan Mumtaj Mumtaz Shanti Mumtaz Mumtaz Sorcar Mugdha Godse Munmun Dutta Mugdha Chaphekar Muskaan Mihani Mynavathi N Nabha Natesh Nadira Nadiya Moidu Nagma Nalini Nalini Jaywant Namrata Shirodkar Namrata Thapa Namitha Namitha Pramod Nanda Nandana Sen Nandita Chandra Nandita Swetha Nandita Das Nargis (Now Nargis Dutt) Nargis Fakhri Nathalia Kaur Nauheed Cyrusi Nausheen Sardar Ali Navaneet Kaur Navneet Kaur Dhillon Navya Nair Nayanthara Nazriya Nazim Neelam Neelam Verma Neelima Azeem Neena Gupta Neena Kulkarni Neha Bamb Neha Dhupia Neha Hinge Neha Khan Neha Mahajan Neha Oberoi Neha Sharma Neeru Bajwa Neethu Neetu Chandra Neetu Singh Nethra Raghuraman Nia Sharma Nicolette Bird Nidhhi Agerwal Nidhi Subbaiah Niharika Konidela Niharika Singh Niharica Raizada Nikesha Patel Niki Aneja Nikita Anand Nikita J Palekar Nikita Dutta Nikita Thukral Nikki Galrani Meera Chopra (credited as Nila) Nimisha Sajayan Nimmi Nirmala Chennappa Nirupa Roy Nirmalamma Nirosha Nisha Agarwal Nisha Kothari Nisha Ravikrishnan Shantipriya (credited as Nishanthi) Nishi Nishita Goswami Nithya Das Nithya Menen Nivedita Jain Nivedita Joshi Saraf Nivetha Thomas Nivetha Pethuraj Noor Jehan Nora Fatehi Nutan Nimrat Kaur Nushrat Bharucha Nathalia Kaur Nyla Usha O Oviya Helen P Padmapriya Padma Khanna Padma Kumta Padma Lakshmi Padma Vasanthi Padmaja Rao Padmini Kolhapure Padmini Padmavati Rao Pallavi Joshi Pallavi Kulkarni Pallavi Subhash Pallavi Sharda Panchi Bora Pandari Bai Pankhuri Awasthy Pakhi Tyrewala Paoli Dam Parineeti Chopra Parminder Nagra Parul Chauhan Parul Gulati Parul Yadav Parvathy Jayaram Parvathy Nair Parvathy Omanakuttan Parvati Melton Parvathy Thiruvothu Parveen Babi Patience Cooper Patralekha Payal Rohatgi Payel Sarkar Payal Ghosh Perizaad Zorabian Pia Bajpai Plabita Borthakur Pooja Batra Pooja Bedi Pooja Bhatt Pooja Chopra Pooja Gandhi Pooja Gor Pooja Hegde Pooja Kanwal Pooja Lokesh Pooja Sawant Pooja Umashankar Poonam Bajwa Poonam Dhillon Poonam Kaur Poonam Pandey Poornima Bhagyaraj Prayaga Martin Prachi Desai Prachi Shah Pramila Joshai Pratibha Sinha Pranitha Subhash Pranutan Bahl Prarthana Behere Prastuti Parashar Preetha Vijayakumar Preeti Jhangiani Preity Zinta Prema Prema Narayan Priti Sapru Priya Anand Priya Bapat Priya Gill Priya Lal Priya Raman Priya Rajvansh Priya Bhavani Shankar Priya Wal Priyamani Priyanka Bassi Priyanka Chopra Jonas Priyanka Arul Mohan Priyanka Nair Priyanka Trivedi Preetika Rao Puja Gupta Puja Banerjee Purbi Joshi R Raakhee (Now Raakhi Gulzar) Radhika Apte Radhika Madan Raadhika Sarathkumar Rachana Narayanankutty Rachna Banerjee Radha Radha Saluja Radhika Chaudhari Radhika Kumaraswamy Radhika Pandit Ragini Travancore Sisters Ragini Dwivedi Ragini Khanna Raima Sen Rajisha Vijayan Rajshree Rajshri Deshpande Rakhi Sawant Rakul Preet Singh Rakshita Raashi Khanna Rambha Rameshwari Ranjeeta Kaur Ranjitha Rajini Rani Mukerji Ramya (born Divya Spandana) Ramya Barna Ramya Krishnan Ramya Sri Ramya Nambaseean Rashi Khanna Rashi Mal Rashmi Rashmi Desai Rashmi Gautam Rashmika Mandanna Ratan Rajput Rati Agnihotri Rati Pandey Ratna Pathak Shah Raveena Tandon Reena Roy Reema Lagoo Reema Sen Regina Cassandra Rekha Rekha, also known as Josephine Rekha Das Rekha Rana Rekha Vedavyas Reenu Mathews Renuka Menon Renukamma Murugodu Renuka Shahane Revathi Rhea Chakraborty Richa Ahuja Richa Chaddha Richa Gangopadhyay Richa Pallod Richa Panai Richa Sharma Ridhi Dogra Rima Kallingal Rimi Sen Rimi Tomy Rinke Khanna Rinku Rajguru Rita Bhaduri Ritika Singh Rituparna Sengupta Riya Sen Rohini Hattangadi Rohini Roja Roja Ramani Roma Roopa Ganguly Roopa Iyer Roshni Chopra R.T. Rama Ruby Parihar Rucha Gujarathi Rupini Ranjana Deshmukh S Sabitri Chatterjee Saba Qamar Saba Azad Shivaleeka Oberoi Sobhita Dhulipala S. Varalakshmi Sadha Sadhana Shivdasani Sagarika Ghatge Sagarika Mukherjee Sajal Aly Sana Althaf Sana Makbul Sandhya Sai Lokur Saiyami Kher Samskruthy Shenoy Samyuktha Hegde Sandeepa Dhar Sandhya Sandhya Mridul Sandhya Roy Sanaya Irani Sanya Malhotra Saniya Anklesaria Sanjeeda Sheikh Sakshi Shivanand Sakshi Tanwar Sai Pallavi Sai Tamhankar Saira Banu Salma Agha Saloni Aswani Samantha Ruth Prabhu Samiksha Sameera Reddy Samvrutha Sunil Sana Amin Sheikh Sana Khan Sana Saeed Sanchita Padukone Sandeepa Dhar Sangeeta Bijlani Sandra Amy Sanober Kabir Sandali Sinha Sanghavi Sanjjanaa Sanjana Gandhi (now Pooja Gandhi) Santoshi Sara Ali Khan Sarah Jane Dias Sara Loren Saranya Mohan Saranya Ponvannan Sarayu (actress) Sarika Saritha Saroja Devi Satarupa Pyne Sathyabhama Saumya Tandon Savitri Sayali Bhagat Sayani Gupta Sayyeshaa Saigal Seerat Kapoor Seema Biswas Seema Pahwa Seema Shinde Seetha Shabana Azmi Shalini (Baby Shalini) Shamili (Baby Shamili) Shahana Goswami Sakshi Tanwar Sharmila Mandre Sharmilee Shibani Dandekar Shreya Narayan Shakeela Shalini Pandey Shamita Shetty Shanthamma Shantipriya (also Nishanthi) Sharmila Tagore Shashikala Shazahn Padamsee Sheeba Chadha Sheela Sheela Sheena Bajaj Sheena Chohan Sheena Shahabadi Shenaz Treasurywala Sherin Sherlyn Chopra (Mona Chopra) Shilpa Shetty Shilpa Shukla Shilpa Shirodkar Shilpa Tulaskar Shilpa Anand Shilpi Sharma Shivani Raghuvanshi Shivangi Khedkar Shivangi Joshi Shreya Dhanwanthary Shruti Naidu Shylaja Nag Shweta Basu Prasad Shweta Bhardwaj Shweta Menon Shweta Gulati Shweta Tiwari Shweta Tripathi Shobhana Shobhna Samarth Shraddha Arya Shraddha Das Shraddha Kapoor Shraddha Srinath Shruthi Haasan Shruti Sodhi Shruti Shruti Seth Shruti Sharma Shritha Sivadas Shriya Saran Shriya Pilgaonkar Shriya Sharma Shubha Poonja Shubha Khote Shyama (Khurshid Akhtar) Shylashri Sihi Kahi Geetha Sija Rose Simi Garewal Simone Singh Simple Kapadia Simple Kaur Simran Mundi Simran Bagga Sindhu Sindhu Tolani Sindhu Menon Silk Smitha Sithara Smita Patil Smriti Irani (Smriti Malhotra) Smriti Kalra Sneha Ullal Sneha Snigdha Akolkar Soha Ali Khan Sonakshi Sinha Sonali Bendre Sonali Kulkarni Sonali Raut Sonalee Kulkarni Sonal Chauhan Sonam (actress) Sonam Bajwa Sonam Kapoor Sonalika Joshi Sonarika Bhadoria Sonia Agarwal Soniya Bansal Sonnalli Seygall Sonu Sonu Walia Sophia Chaudhary Soundarya Sowcar Janaki Spruha Joshi Srabanti Chatterjee Sridevi (Now Sridevi Kapoor) Sriti Jha Sri Divya Srividya Sripriya Subbulakshmi Subhashri Suchitra Suchitra Krishnamurthy Suchitra Pillai Suchitra Sen Sunitha / Vidhyasri Sudha Belawadi Sudha Chandran Sudha Rani Sudha Narasimharaju Sudharani Jena Sudipta Chakraborty Suhasi Goradia Dhami Suhasini Sujatha Sukirti Kandpal Sukumari Sulakshana Pandit Sulochana Devi Sulochana Latkar Sumalatha Suman Nagarkar Suman Ranganathan Sumithra Sumitra Devi Sunaina Sunny Leone Surbhi Chandna Surbhi Jyoti Supriya Devi Supriya Pathak Supriya Pilgaonkar Supriya Shukla Suraiya Surveen Chawla Suryakantham Sushma Reddy Sushmita Sen Sumalatha Suvalakshmi Swati Reddy Swapna Swaroop Sampat Swastika Mukherjee Srinidhi Shetty Swara Bhaskar Suzanna Mukherjee T Tabu Tahira Kochhar Tanaaz Irani Tanisha Tanushree Dutta Tanuja Tanu Roy Tanvi Azmi Tamannaah Bhatia Tannishtha Chatterjee Taapsee Pannu Tara Tara Anuradha Tara Deshpande Tara D'Souza Tara Sharma Tarana Raja Taruni Sachdev Tejaswi Madivada Tena Desae Tia Bajpai Tillotama Shome Tina Munim (now Tina Ambani) Tina Dutta Tisca Chopra Tripuramba Trisha Krishnan Tulip Joshi Tun Tun Twinkle Khanna Tara Alisha Berry Tara Sutaria U Udhayathara Udaya Chandrika Udita Goswami Ujjwala Raut Uma Uma Padmanabhan Umasashi Umashree Usha Chavan Urmila Matondkar Urmila Kanitkar Urvashi Urvashi Dholakia Urvashi Sharma Usha Kiran Usha Nadkarni Usha Naik Ulka Gupta Upasna Singh Urvashi Rautela V Vaani Kapoor Vanitha Vijayakumar Vadivukkarasi Vaidehi Parashurami Vaishali Desai Vaishali Kasaravalli Vandana Gupte Vanishree Vanisri Vani Bhojan Vani Viswanath Vanitha Vasu Vaishnavi Mahant Vrushika Mehta Varalaxmi Sarathkumar Varsha Bollamma Varsha Usgaonkar Vasundhara Das Vedhika Veda Sastry Veena Malik Veena Sundar Veena Vega Tamotia Vibha Chibber Vidhubala Vidya Balan Vithika Sheru Vidya Malvade Vidya Sinha Vishakha Singh Vijeta Pandit Vijayalakshmi Vijayalakshmi Singh Vijayashanti Vimala Raman Vinaya Prasad Vyjayantimala W Waheeda Rehman Wamiqa Gabbi Warina Hussain Waluscha De Sousa Y Yagna Shetty Yami Gautam Yamuna (actress) Yashaswini Dayama Yogeeta Bali Yana Gupta Yukta Mookhey Yuvika Chaudhary Z Zaheera Zaira Wasim Zarina Wahab Zarine Khan Zoya Afroz Zoa Morani Zeenat Aman Zubeida Zaheeda See also List of Hindi film actresses List of Marathi film actresses List of Tamil film actresses List of Kannada film actresses List of Punjabi cinema actresses List of Bengali actresses List of Indian television actresses List of Indian film actors List of Hindi film actors Lists of actresses References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Fort%20Henry
Battle of Fort Henry
The Battle of Fort Henry was fought on February 6, 1862, in Stewart County, Tennessee, during the American Civil War. It was the first important victory for the Union and Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant in the Western Theater. On February 4 and 5, Grant landed two divisions just north of Fort Henry on the Tennessee River. (The troops serving under Grant were the nucleus of the Union's successful Army of the Tennessee, although that name was not yet in use.) Grant's plan was to advance upon the fort on February 6 while it was being simultaneously attacked by Union gunboats commanded by Flag Officer Andrew Hull Foote. A combination of accurate and effective naval gunfire, heavy rain, and the poor siting of the fort, nearly inundated by rising river waters, caused its commander, Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman, to surrender to Foote before the Union Army arrived. The surrender of Fort Henry opened the Tennessee River to Union traffic south of the Alabama border. In the days following the fort's surrender, from February 6 through February 12, Union raids used ironclad boats to destroy Confederate shipping and railroad bridges along the river. On February 12, Grant's army proceeded overland to engage with Confederate troops in the Battle of Fort Donelson. Background In early 1861 the critical border state of Kentucky had declared neutrality in the American Civil War. This neutrality was first violated on September 3, when Confederate Brig. Gen. Gideon J. Pillow, acting on orders from Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk, occupied Columbus, Kentucky. The riverside town was situated on 180 foot high bluffs that commanded the river at that point, where the Confederates installed 140 large guns, underwater mines and a heavy chain that stretched a mile across the Mississippi River to Belmont, while occupying the town with 17,000 Confederate troops, thus cutting off northern commerce to the south and beyond. Two days later, Union Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, displaying the personal initiative that would characterize his later career, seized Paducah, Kentucky, a major transportation hub of rail and port facilities at the mouth of the Tennessee River. Henceforth, neither adversary respected Kentucky's proclaimed neutrality, and the Confederate advantage was lost. The buffer zone that Kentucky provided between the North and the South was no longer available to assist in the defense of Tennessee. By early 1862, a single general, Albert Sidney Johnston, commanded all the Confederate forces from Arkansas to the Cumberland Gap, but his forces were spread too thinly over a wide defensive line. Johnston's left flank was Polk, in Columbus with 12,000 men; his right flank was Brig. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner, in Bowling Green, Kentucky, with 4,000 men; the center consisted of two forts, Forts Henry and Donelson, under the command of Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman, also with 4,000 men. Forts Henry and Donelson were the sole positions defending the important Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, respectively. If these rivers were opened to Union military traffic, two direct invasion paths would lead into Tennessee and beyond. The Union military command in the West suffered from a lack of unified command, and were organized into three separate departments: the Department of Kansas, under Maj. Gen. David Hunter; the Department of Missouri, under Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck; and the Department of the Ohio, under Brig. Gen. Don Carlos Buell. By January 1862, the disunity was apparent because they could not agree on a strategy for operations in the Western Theater. Buell, under political pressure to invade and hold pro-Union eastern Tennessee, moved slowly in the direction of Nashville. In Halleck's department, Grant moved up the Tennessee River to divert attention from Buell's intended advance, which did not occur. Halleck and the other generals in the West were coming under political pressure from President Abraham Lincoln to participate in a general offensive by Washington's birthday (February 22). Despite his tradition of caution, Halleck eventually reacted positively to Grant's proposal to move against Fort Henry. Halleck hoped that this would improve his standing in relation to his rival, Buell. Halleck and Grant were also concerned about rumors that Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard would soon arrive with 15 Confederate regiments. On January 30, 1862, Halleck authorized Grant to take Fort Henry. Grant wasted no time, leaving Cairo, Illinois, at the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, on February 2. His invasion force, which arrived on the Tennessee River on February 4 and 5, consisted of 15–17,000 men in two divisions, commanded by Brig. Gens. John A. McClernand and Charles F. Smith, and the Western Gunboat Flotilla, commanded by United States Navy Flag Officer Andrew Hull Foote. The flotilla included four ironclad gunboats (flagship , USS Carondelet, USS St. Louis, and USS Essex) under Foote's direct command, and three timberclad (wooden) gunboats (USS Conestoga, USS Tyler, and USS Lexington) under Lt. Seth Ledyard Phelps. Insufficient transport ships this early in the war to deliver all of the army troops in a single operation required two trips upriver to reach the fort. Fort Henry Fort Henry was a five-sided, open-bastioned earthen structure covering on the eastern bank of the Tennessee River, near Kirkman's Old Landing. The site was about one mile above Panther Creek and about six miles below the mouth of the Big Sandy River and Standing Rock Creek. In May 1861, Isham G. Harris, the governor of Tennessee, appointed the state's attorney, Daniel S. Donelson, as a brigadier general and directed him to build fortifications on the rivers of Middle Tennessee. Donelson found suitable sites, but they were within the borders of Kentucky, still a neutral state at that time. Moving upriver, just inside the Tennessee border, Donelson selected the site of the fort on the Cumberland River that would bear his name. Colonel Bushrod Johnson of the Tennessee Corps of Engineers approved of the site. As construction of Fort Donelson began, Donelson moved west, to the Tennessee River, and selected the site of Fort Henry, naming it after Tennessee Senator Gustavus Adolphus Henry Sr. With Fort Donelson on the west bank of the Cumberland, Donelson selected the east bank of the Tennessee for the second fort so one garrison could travel between them and defend both positions. (Donelson thought it unlikely that the two forts would be attacked simultaneously.) Unlike its counterpart on the Cumberland, Fort Henry was situated on low, swampy ground and dominated by hills across the river. To its advantage, it had an unobstructed field of fire downriver. Donelson's surveying team—Adna Anderson, a civil engineer, and Maj. William F. Foster from the 1st Tennessee Infantry—objected strongly to the site and appealed to Colonel Johnson, who inexplicably approved it. The fort was designed to stop traffic on the river, not to withstand large-scale infantry assaults that armies would use during the war. Construction began in mid-June, using men from the 10th Tennessee Infantry and slaves. The first cannon was test fired on July 12, 1861. After this flurry of activity, the remainder of 1861 saw little action because forts on the Mississippi River had a higher priority for receiving men and artillery. General Polk also neglected Forts Henry and Donelson in favor of defending Columbus, Kentucky. In late December, additional men from the 27th Alabama Infantry arrived along with 500 slaves to construct a small fortification across the river on Stewart's Hill, within artillery range of Fort Henry, and named it Fort Heiman. In January 1862, Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman assumed command of both Forts Henry and Donelson, with a combined force of 4,900 men. At Fort Henry, approximately 3,000–3,400 men in two brigades were commanded by Colonels Adolphus Heiman and Joseph Drake. The men were armed primarily with antique flintlock rifles from the War of 1812. Seventeen guns were mounted in Fort Henry by the time of the battle, eleven covering the river and the other six positioned to defend against a land attack (18-pounder smoothbores). There were two heavy guns, a Columbiad and a 24-pounder rifled cannon, with the remainder being 32-pounder smoothbores. There were also two 42-pounders, but no ammunition of that caliber was available. When the river was at normal levels, the fort's walls rose above it and were thick at the base, sloping upward to a width of nearly at the parapet. However, in February 1862, heavy rains caused the river to rise and most of the fort was underwater, including the powder magazine. The Confederates deployed one additional defensive measure, which was then unique in the history of warfare: several torpedoes (in modern terminology, a naval minefield) were anchored below the surface in the main shipping channel, rigged to explode when touched by a passing ship. (This measure turned out to be ineffective, due to high water levels and leaks in the torpedoes' metal containers.) Battle On February 4 and 5, Grant landed his divisions in two different locations. McClernand's division was north of the fort, on the east bank of the Tennessee River, to prevent the garrison's escape. C.F. Smith's division would seize Fort Heiman on the Kentucky side of the river and turn its artillery on Fort Henry. When heavy rains the night of February 5 slowed the progress of Union troops toward the forts, the battle turned on naval actions, which concluded before the infantry saw action. Tilghman realized that it was only a matter of time before Fort Henry fell. Only nine guns remained above the water to mount a defense. While leaving artillery in the fort to hold off the Union gunboats, he ordered the majority of his force to march, under the command of Col. Adolphus Heiman, on the overland route to Fort Donelson, 12 miles (19 km) away. Fort Heiman was abandoned on February 4; gunfire from the gunboats on Fort Henry garrison caused 4 Confederate casualties [1 killed 3 wounded] on the afternoon of February 5. All but a part of Company B,1st Tennessee Artillery CSA [54 men] left Fort Henry on February 5. (Union cavalry pursued the retreating Confederates, but poor road conditions prevented any serious confrontation and they took few captives.) Tilghman, as was his custom, spent the night of February 5–6 on the steamer Dunbar, upstream from the fort. Around midnight he sent an update on the situation to Johnston, then returned to Fort Henry just before dawn. On the morning of February 6, Foote's seven Union gunboats arrived at Fort Henry and established their position around 12:30 p.m. They soon opened fire from a distance at 1,700 yards (around 1,554 meters), beginning an exchange of gunfire with Fort Henry that continued for over an hour. After Tilghman rejected an initial call to surrender, the fleet continued to bombard the fort. This was its first engagement using newly designed and hastily constructed ironclads. Foote deployed the four ironclad gunboats in a line abreast, followed by the three timberclads, under the command of Seth Ledyard Phelps, which were held back for long-range, but less effective fire against the fort. The high water level of the river and the low elevation of Fort Henry's guns allowed Foote's fleet to escape serious destruction. The Confederate fire was able to hit the ironclads only where their armor was strongest. During the bombardment, all four of the Union ironclads were repeatedly hit by Confederate fire. The USS Essex was seriously damaged when a 32-pound shot from Fort Henry penetrated the ironclad, hitting the middle boiler and sending scalding steam through half the ship. Thirty-two crewmen were killed or wounded, including commander William D. Porter. The ship was out of action for the remainder of the campaign. Aftermath and the timberclad raid After the bombardment had lasted 75 minutes, Tilghman surrendered to Foote's fleet, which had closed to within for a close-range bombardment. Before the battle, Tilghman told his men that he would offer an hour of resistance to allow his men additional time to escape. With only one cannon still working, down to the last few rounds due to the powder magazine being underwater, and the rest of the guns destroyed or knocked out, Tilghman ordered the Confederate flag at Fort Henry lowered and a white sheet raised on the fort's flagpole. Upon seeing the white flag, the Union gunboats immediately ceased fire. A small launch from the flotilla sailed through the sally port of the fort and picked up Tilghman for the surrender conference and ceremony on Cincinnati. Twelve officers and 82 men of the garrison surrendered; other casualties from the fort's garrison were estimated to be 15 men killed and 20 wounded. The evacuating Confederate force left all of its artillery and equipment behind. Tilghman was imprisoned, but exchanged on August 15. Tilghman wrote bitterly in his report that Fort Henry was in a "wretched military position. ... The history of military engineering records no parallel to this case." Grant sent a brief dispatch to Halleck: "Fort Henry is ours. ... I shall take and destroy Fort Donelson on the 8th and return to Fort Henry." Halleck wired Washington, D.C.: "Fort Henry is ours. The flag is reestablished on the soil of Tennessee. It will never be removed." Grant and his troops arrived at Fort Henry at around 3 p.m. on February 6 to see that the garrison had already surrendered. McClernand's division arrived at the fort about 30 minutes later. In the meantime, Smith's division had reached the deserted Fort Heiman. If Grant had been cautious and delayed his departure by two days, the battle would have never occurred. By February 8, Fort Henry was completely underwater. On February 7, the Union gunboats Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Essex returned to Cairo with whistles blowing and flying Fort Henry's captured Confederate flags upside down. The Chicago Tribune proclaimed the battle as "one of the most complete and signal victories in the annals of the world's warfare." Fort Henry's fall quickly opened the Tennessee River to Union gunboats and shipping south of the Alabama border. Immediately after the surrender, Foote sent Lieutenant Phelps with the three timberclads, Tyler, Conestoga, and Lexington, on a mission upriver to destroy installations and supplies of military value. (The flotilla's ironclads had sustained damage in the bombardment of Fort Henry and were slower and less maneuverable for the mission at hand, which included pursuit of Confederate ships.) The raid reached as far as Muscle Shoals, just past Florence, Alabama, the river's navigable limit. The Union timberclads and their raiding parties destroyed supplies and an important bridge of the Memphis and Ohio Railroad, upriver. They also captured a variety of southern ships, including Sallie Wood, Muscle, and Eastport, an ironclad under construction. The citizens of Florence asked Phelps to spare their town and its railroad bridge. Phelps agreed, seeing no military importance to the bridge. One 19th century source described Phelps’ raid as “a perfect success. It discovered the real weakness of the Confederacy in that direction, the feasibility of marching an army into the heart of the Confederacy, and, better than all, it developed the most gratifying evidences of genuine Union feeling in Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama.” According to the same account, Phelps recruited several pro-Union Southerners to assist him during the raid. The Union gunboats returned safely to Fort Henry on February 12. After the fall of Fort Donelson to Grant's army on February 16, the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, two major water routes in the Confederate west, became Union waterways for movement of troops and material. As Grant suspected, the Union capture of the two forts and the rivers flanked the Confederate forces at Columbus, and soon caused them to withdraw from that city and from western Kentucky. Preservation Although closely associated with Fort Donelson, the Fort Henry site is not managed by the U.S. National Park Service as part of the Fort Donelson National Battlefield. It is currently part of the Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area. When the Tennessee River was dammed in the 1930s, creating Kentucky Lake, the remains of Fort Henry were permanently submerged. A small navigation beacon, far from the Kentucky shoreline, marks the location of the northwest corner of the former fort. Fort Heiman was on privately owned land until October 2006, when the Calloway County, Kentucky, executive office transferred associated with that fort to the National Park Service for management as part of the Fort Donelson National Battlefield. Some of the entrenchments are still visible. See also List of American Civil War battles Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant Bibliography of the American Civil War Notes References Cooling, Benjamin Franklin. The Campaign for Fort Donelson. National Park Service Civil War series. Fort Washington, PA: U.S. National Park Service and Eastern National, 1999. . Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. . Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. . The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website. Gott, Kendall D. Where the South Lost the War: An Analysis of the Fort Henry—Fort Donelson Campaign, February 1862. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003. . Knight, James R. The Battle of Fort Donelson: No Terms but Unconditional Surrender. Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2011. . Lossing, Benson. The Pictorial History of the Civil War in the United States of America. Hartford: Thomas Belknap, Publisher, 1880. McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. . Nevin, David, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. The Road to Shiloh: Early Battles in the West. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1983. . Simon, John Y., ed. Papers of Ulysses S. Grant: January 8 - March 31, 1862. Vol. 4. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1972. . Stephens, Gail. The Shadow of Shiloh: Major General Lew Wallace in the Civil War. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society Press, 2010. . Woodworth, Steven E. Nothing but Victory: The Army of the Tennessee, 1861–1865. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. . National Park Service battle description Further reading Grant, Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. 2 vols. Charles L. Webster & Company, 1885–86. . Simpson, Brooks D. Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph over Adversity, 1822–1865. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. . Smith, Timothy B. Grant Invades Tennessee: The 1862 Battles for Forts Henry and Donelson. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2016. . External links Animated history of the Battles of Forts Henry and Donelson Kentucky Lake website Pictures of Fort Heiman CWSAC Report Update and Resurvey: Individual Battlefield Profiles Newspaper coverage of the Battle of Fort Henry Letter from H. B. Hillen, a Union soldier in an Indiana regiment, written shortly after the Battle of Fort Henry, 1862 Fort Henry Fort Henry Fort Henry Fort Henry Fort Henry Henry Fort Henry Henry County, Tennessee Calloway County, Kentucky 1862 in the American Civil War 1862 in Tennessee Fort Henry February 1862 events Battles commanded by Ulysses S. Grant
376870
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perry%20Rhodan
Perry Rhodan
Perry Rhodan is a West German/German space opera franchise, named after its hero. It commenced in 1961 and has been ongoing for decades, written by an ever-changing team of authors. Having sold approximately two billion copies (in novella format) worldwide (including over one billion in Germany alone), it is the most successful science fiction book series ever written. The first billion of worldwide sales was celebrated in 1986. The series has spun off into comic books, audio dramas, video games and the like. A reboot, Perry Rhodan NEO, was launched in 2011 and began publication in English in April 2021. Print publication The series has spun off into many different forms of media, but originated as a serial novella published weekly since 8 September 1961 in the Romanhefte format. These are digest-sized booklets, usually containing 66 pages, the German equivalent of the now-defunct (and generally longer) American pulp magazine. They are published by Pabel-Moewig Verlag, a subsidiary of Bauer Media Group. As of February 2019, 3000 booklet novels of the original series, 850 spinoff novels of the sister series Atlan and over 400 paperbacks and 200 hardcover editions have been published, totalling over 300,000 pages. English translation The first 126 novels (plus five novels of the spinoff series Atlan) were translated into English and published by Ace Books between 1969 and 1978, with the same translations used for the British edition published by Futura Publications which issued only 39 novels. When Ace cancelled its translation of the series, translator Wendayne Ackerman self-published the following 19 novels (under the business name 'Master Publications') and made them available by subscription only. Financial disputes with the German publishers led to the cancellation of the American translation in 1979. An attempt to revive the series in English was made in 1997–1998 by Vector Publications of the US which published translations of four issues (1800–1803) from the current storyline being published in Germany at the time. The series and its spin-offs have captured a substantial fraction of the original German science fiction output and exert influence on many German writers in the field. Structure The series is told in an arc storyline structure. An arc—called a "cycle"—would have anywhere from 25 to 100 issues devoted to it, similar subsequent cycles are referred to as a "grand-cycle". History ‘Perry Rhodan, der Erbe des Universums’ (Eng: ‘The Heir to the Universe’, though the American/British editions instead used the subtitle 'Peacelord of the Universe') was created by German science fiction authors K. H. Scheer and Walter Ernsting and launched in 1961 by German publishing house Arthur Moewig Verlag (now Pabel-Moewig Verlag). Originally planned as a 30 to 50 volume series, it has been published continuously every week since, celebrating the 3000th issue in 2019. Written by an ever-changing team of authors, many of whom, however, remained with the series for decades or life, Perry Rhodan is issued in weekly novella-size installments in the traditional German Heftroman (pulp booklet) format. Unlike most German Heftromane, Perry Rhodan consists not of unconnected novels but is a series with a continuous, increasingly complex plotline, with frequent back references to events. In addition to its original Heftroman form, the series now also appears in hardcovers, paperbacks, e-books, comics and audiobooks. Over the decades there have also been comic strips, numerous collectibles, several encyclopedias, audio plays, inspired music, etc. The series has seen partial translations into several languages. It also spawned the 1967 movie Mission Stardust (aka …4 …3 …2 …1 …morte), which is widely considered so terrible that many fans of the series pretend it never existed. Coinciding with the 50th-anniversary World Con, on 30 September 2011, a new series named Perry Rhodan Neo began publication, attracting new readers with a reboot of the story, starting in the year 2036 instead of 1971, and a related but independent story-line. On April 2, 2021, light novel and manga publisher J-Novel Club announced Perry Rhodan NEO as a launch title for its new J-Novel Pulp imprint, making this the first ongoing English release of new Perry Rhodan serials in over 20 years. Overview Premise The story begins in 1971. During the first human Moon landing by US Space Force Major Perry Rhodan and his crew, they discover a marooned extraterrestrial space ship from the fictional planet Arkon, located in the (real) M13 cluster. Appropriating the Arkonide technology, they proceed to unify Terra and carve out a place for humanity in the galaxy and the cosmos. Two of the accomplishments that enable them to do so are positronic brains and starship drives for near-instantaneous hyperspatial translation. These were directly borrowed from Isaac Asimov's science fiction. As the series progresses, major characters, including the title character, are granted relative immortality. They are immune to age and disease, but not to violent death. The story continues over the course of millennia and includes flashbacks thousands and even millions of years into the past. The scope widens to encompass other galaxies, even more remote regions of space, parallel universes and cosmic structures, time travel, paranormal powers, a variety of aliens ranging from threatening to endearing, and bodiless entities, some of which have godlike powers. Universe and multiverse The universe in which the plot regularly takes place is called the Einstein Universe (and occasionally "Meekorah"). Its laws are nearly identical to those of our real universe, in terms of late 20th century science. Newer theories about dark matter and dark energy are currently not used in the series. The laws of nature follow old theories that have been disproven, in order to protect series continuity. This Einstein Universe is but one of many universes, each to a greater or lesser extent different from it, for example one in which time runs slower, an anti-matter universe, a shrinking universe, etc. Each universe possesses a large ensemble of parallel timelines, which are usually unreachable from each other but may be accessed by special means, thereby itself creating many more parallel timelines. The Einstein Universe is embedded in a high-dimensional manifold, called Hyperspace. This hyperspace consists of several subspaces that different technologies use for faster-than-light travel. The exact traits of those higher dimensions are not much explained. The border of the universe is a dimension called the deep, once used for construction of the gigantic disc-shaped world Deepland. Psionic Web and Moralic Code The Psionic Web crosses invisibly through the whole universe, constantly emitting "vital energy" and "psionic energy", guaranteeing normal (organic among others) life and the well-being of higher entities. The Moralic Code crosses through all universes, and is linked to the Psionic Web. It is subdivided into the Cosmogenes, which are again subdivided into the Cosmonucleotids. (These names and associations to DNA were given by the cosmocrats, and should not be misunderstood as having ethical meanings.) The Cosmonucleotids determine reality and fate themselves for their respective parts of a given universe, via messengers. Higher beings are trying to gain control of this possibility to rule reality. The Moralic Code itself was not installed by the higher beings, the higher powers by themselves have no clue why or by whom the Code was made. Once the cosmocrats ordered Perry Rhodan to find the answer to the third ultimate question: "Who initiated the LAW and what does it cause?". Perry Rhodan had the chance to receive the answer at the mountain of creation, but refused, as he knew that the answer would destroy his mind. The negative Superintelligence Koltoroc had received the answer to the last ultimate question, 69 million years BC at Negane Mountain, but it is not known if it made any use of the information. Onion-shell model An evolutionary schema, similar to the Great Chain of Being, called the "onion-shell model" is employed in relationship to all life. Here, continuous evolution is from lower to higher life-forms, culminating in bodiless entities. Later in the series, further life-forms, representing stages between the known shells, were introduced. The main shells are: Life-less matter Bacteria Higher animals Intelligent species Intelligent species that have contacted other species Superintelligences (SI) Matter-fountains / Matter-sinks Cosmocrats / Chaotarchs (High Powers) Powers close to the "Horizon of the LAW", the essence of the Multiverse The superintelligences are the next step above normal minds. They can be born, for example, when a species collectively gives up its bodies and unites their spirits. Those superintelligences claim a domain as theirs, consisting of up to several galaxies (the entity known as "ES ('IT')" has the Local Group as personal domain). The superintelligence nourishes mentally on the species in its domain, sometimes symbiotically (positive SI), sometimes parasitically (negative SI). Again, these attributes should not be treated as ethical description, although negative superintelligences are in general described as being more sinister. The matter-fountains/matter-sinks are born, when a superintelligence fuses with all life and matter in its domain while shrinking. Little more is known, except that the process is gradual and that the resulting object lacks the gravitational pull possessed if the contraction produced a black hole. The "high powers" were long known to be the highest known life-forms. They live in an unimaginable, distant dimension and have great powers in ruling over lower beings. However they are not omniscient and they are unable to directly interact with lower beings. To enter a regular universe, they have to assume a mortal shape, thus reducing their powers and sometimes their knowledge and memory. This is known as the transform syndrome. As a consequence, they rarely interact with lower beings and instead enlist individuals, organizations or entire species. Conflict between the high powers Among the high powers are two factions known as the cosmocrats and the chaotarchs. The cosmocrats wish to transform all universes into a state of absolute order (a state of utmost entropy, usual symbol S). The chaotarchs wish to do the opposite and remake all universes into absolute chaos (or negative entropy). They are engulfed in a cataclysmic neverending war, stretching nearly all known universes. They manipulate and doom whole species for their actions. Open warfare is just one tool among many. In the previous cycle (2300–2499) the Milky Way galaxy was subjected to open military assault by the forces of chaos trying to establish a bastion of chaos, a negasphere, in the nearby galaxy Hangay. Recent stories have revealed to the protagonists that life itself has become a rival to the higher powers. Spreading uncontrollably among the universe, it can be found in nearly every niche. The cosmocrats and chaotarchs both use life for their own directed goals of order and disorder, but life's unplanned and unregulated cosmological actions are a disturbance for and to both. The Pangalactic Statisticians (a neutral organization of observers) have while some cosmological manipulation is caused by the cosmocrat servants and a lesser amount by the chaos servants, the majority is caused by the uncontrollable power of life itself. To reduce the influence of life, the cosmocrats have stopped their programs that encourage the development of life and intelligence. They have increased the hyper-impedance in order to reduce the effectivity and durability of most forms of hyper-technology. At least one power, called Thez, higher than either cosmocrats and chaotarchs has been recently identified. Thez is said to live close to the "Horizon of the LAW" so that both cosmocrats and powers have problems understanding it. Critical reaction In the introduction to the first English-language edition of Perry Rhodan in 1969, editor Forrest J Ackerman (who, as detailed above, had the series translated into English) said that "[i]n Germany, all serious SF buffs claim to hate Perry Rhodan, but somebody (in unprecedented numbers) is certainly reading him." Many American SF fans agreed with the first part of that statement, feeling the series was an embarrassment and too "juvenile". Tom Doherty, the new head of Ace Books in the mid-to-late '70s, concurred and ended the series in the US, even though it was profitable. This decision meant that by 1980, when the original German versions of Perry Rhodan were becoming "more sophisticated and less aimed at younger readers", the series was no longer available in English. Critic Robert Reginald has described the series as the "ultimate soap opera of science fiction" and standard "pulp science fiction, action stories with minimal characterization, awful dialog, but relatively complex plot development. The emphasis is always on man's expanding horizons, the wonder of science and space, the great destiny of the human race." The series' beginnings were often criticized for their description of an expansive mankind and frequent space battles; after William Voltz took over the position of storyline planner for the series in 1975 (a post he held until his death in 1984), the series developed a broader ethical scope and evolved in terms of storytelling style. While many Anglophone critics dismiss the series, many others praise it. In the US, the newer, more complex parts of the series have never been published, so critical review tends to be concentrated on the simple origins of the series. Editor John O'Neill has called Perry Rhodan "one of the richest — if not the richest — Space Operas ever written." Publication In English In the 1960s, Forrest J Ackerman organized the publication in the US of an English translation of the series. His wife Wendayne handled translation. Other translators on the series included Sig Wahrmann, Stuart J. Byrne, and Dwight Decker. Number 1, containing German issues 1 and 2, was published by Ace Books starting in 1969. As Managing Editor, Ackerman soon incorporated elements reminiscent of the science fiction pulp magazines of his youth, such as unrelated short stories, serialized novels and a film review section. The series was a commercial success and was eventually being published three times per month. Ace ended its regular run of Perry Rhodan in August 1977 with double issue #117/118. This was followed by the publication of three novellas from earlier in the series which had not been translated and left out of the series by editorial decision. These were accompanied by three novellas from the Perry Rhodan spinoff series Atlan. Ace concluded its run of translations with two more Atlan novels and a novel-length In the Center of the Galaxy [German: Im Zentrum der Galaxis] ' by Clark Darlton, which had appeared in German as issue 11 of the "Perry Rhodan Planet Novels" (or Planetenromane) spin-off series. When Ace cancelled its publication of the series in 1978, translator Wendayne Ackerman self-published the following 19 novels (numbered #119 – 137) under the business name Master Publications in a subscription-only edition. This was also cancelled in 1979. In the 1990s, Vector Enterprises restarted an American version. This version lasted for four printed issues and one electronic issue and translated #1800 to #1804. In 2006, Pabel-Moewig Verlag licensed FanPro to publish an English translation of Perry Rhodan: Lemuria. (Some material present in the German version, such as a history of generation spaceships in science fiction, was dropped from the American version.) Only the first volume was released. In 2015–16, Perry Rhodan Digital published English translations of the full six volume Perry Rhodan: Lemuria story arc in ebook format, making these available via iTunes and other digital platforms. Perry Rhodan NEO in English In April 2021, light novel and manga publisher J-Novel Club announced Perry Rhodan NEO as one of three launch titles for its J-Novel Pulp imprint, dedicated to the best of European pulp fiction. Eight volumes, each containing two original German Hefte, or "episodes", have been announced. J-Novel Club's release uses the cover art by toi8 created for Hayakawa Publishing's 2017 release. In line with J-Novel Club's light novel releases, new instalments are first serialized on J-Novel Club's website over a number of weeks for subscribers. The first part of each volume is free for all visitors and requires no membership or subscription to read. Following web serialization, each volume is released as an Ebook at all major digital book retailers. J-Novel Club members who purchase the books directly receive textless versions of the cover art as a bonus. Beginning with Volume 13, the English edition features newly commissioned art by toi8. In other countries Translations of Perry Rhodan are currently available in Brazil (#1 to #536 and #650 to #847 as of August 2011), and also from 537 to 649; 1400 in before (at present, in December 2014), including the series Atlan, Planetary Novels and Perry Rhodan NEO (at present in the n. 28), all launched by the "Project Translation", Russia, China, Japan(#1 to #800 as of May 2011), France, the Czech Republic, and the Netherlands (#1 to #2000 as of September 2009). Apart from the US version, there were also editions in Canada, Great Britain (#1 to #39), Italy and Finland. However, the latter have been discontinued. The first language into which Perry Rhodan was translated was Hebrew. In 1965, the first four episodes appeared in Tel Aviv in a pirated translation, and which for unknown reasons ceased before publication of the fifth (it was not because it was detected by the German publishers, who only heard about it many years later). The few surviving copies of this 1965 translation are highly valued by Israeli collectors. Cycles The original series is divided into the following cycles and "grand cycles". Only the grandcycles the Great Cosmic Mystery and Thoregon have official names. The other grandcycles were not planned as such. They were named by the readers in retrospect. American publication history Ace Books #1 to #5—Double issues. Each volume contains two episodes. The German novel between episodes 4a and 4b, #0009 Hilfe fuer die Erde/Help for Earth, was initially skipped, but later printed as a Special Edition (The Atom-Men Attack). #6 to #108—Single issues. "Maga-book" format, or the style of a magazine in the format of a book. Two more skipped novels ("lost") were 0021, Der Atomkrieg findet nicht statt/The atomic war doesn't take place (between 014 Venus in Danger and 015 Thora's Flight) and 0031 Der Kaiser von New York/The Ruler of New York (between 023 Peril on Ice Planet and 024 Infinity Flight). 0021 was finally printed as a Special, Menace of Atomigeddon, and 0031 as Robot Threat: New York. Letter page and film reviews began in #6. Would later include short stories—old and new—and reprints of classic serialized novels such as Edison's Conquest of Mars by Garrett P. Serviss (reprinted as Pursuit to Mars). Of special note is a lost chapter of the H.G. Wells novel The Time Machine that was published in this manner. Also serialized was William Ellern's New Lensman novel. #109 to #118—double issues again, each one still separate. Perry Rhodan Specials #1 to #5—Double issues. #1 to #3 are skipped episodes ("lost") published with an Atlan episode. #4 are two Atlan episodes and #5 (unnumbered) is a Planetenroman. Master Publications #119 to #136—Magazine size and format. #137—Book format. To fill out remaining subscription orders, the book format also printed Stuart J. Byrne's Star Man series (expanded into novellas from Byrne's novel of the same name). #137 was published with the first five episodes of Star Man in one volume. The remaining Star Man episodes were published as a separate volume. Vector Enterprises #1800 to #1803—Magazine format. #1800 is published in a manner similar to the German series. 1801 to 1803 are large-sized magazine format. #1804—Electronic format only. FanPro Games (American operation of German company FanPro) Lemuria #1 "The Star Ark." Copies of the Ace books and the rarer magazine versions can be found in online auction sites such as eBay and fixed-price online stores like Amazon.com. Used bookstores often have some of the Ace books, but rarely the magazine versions. Cultural impact In current events Matthias Rust, the then-18 year old aviator who landed his Cessna 172 aircraft on the Bolshoy Moskvoretsky Bridge which connects the Red Square in Moscow in 1987, cited Perry Rhodan's adventures as his main inspiration for penetrating Soviet airspace. Dutch ESA astronaut André Kuipers was inspired to become an astronaut from an early age by the Perry Rhodan albums his grandmother had bought for him, and that he eventually started buying himself from his allowance. When he finally went into space, on 18 April 2004, he brought his very first booklet along with him. It was number ten in the red series, Ruimteoorlog in de Wegasector (Space War in the Vega Sector or Raumschlacht im Wega-Sektor). In music Christopher Franke, former member of German electronica group Tangerine Dream and soundtrack composer for US science-fiction television series Babylon 5, released Perry Rhodan Pax Terra in 1996, composed of music inspired by the Perry Rhodan epic. The German group The Psychedelic Avengers have said that they were inspired by Perry Rhodan on their 2004 release And the Curse of the Universe. Another group, Sensus, released a song "Perry Rhodan .. More Than A Million Lightyears From Home" in 1986 a presented it at the Worldcon in Saarbrücken. In science fiction fandom Bubonicon, an annual science fiction convention in Albuquerque, New Mexico, US, adopted as its mascot Perry Rhodent, a rat wearing only one shoe (or boot). Perry's image is reinvented each year for the convention's program and T-shirts, often by the convention's Artist Guest of Honor. Selected writers Past writers Kurt Brand Clark Darlton Andreas Findig H. G. Francis Hanns Kneifel Kurt Mahr K. H. Scheer Guest writers Andreas Eschbach Gisbert Haefs Markus Heitz See also Dolan (bioship) References External links Perry Rhodan Official Homepage Perry Rhodan Official Homepage Another Official Perry Rhodan Page Perry Rhodan Encyclopedia »Perrypedia« Series summary Mission Stardust (aka …4…3…2…1…morte) at the Internet Movie Database Perry Rhodan - The Adventure, Computer Game site Technology of the Perry Rhodan Universe Cédric Beust's Issue Summaries Official French Homepage Ancient astronauts in fiction Book series introduced in 1961 Literary characters introduced in 1961 Fictional United States Space Force personnel German science fiction novels Fiction set around Messier 13 Novels about parallel universes Science fiction book series Space opera Space opera novels Soft science fiction Science fantasy Pulp fiction Fiction about artificial intelligence Artificial wormholes in fiction Mutants in fiction Cyborgs in fiction Fiction about robots Biorobotics in fiction Brain–computer interfacing in fiction Genetic engineering in fiction Nanotechnology in fiction Fiction about consciousness transfer Fiction about immortality Fiction about telepathy Fiction set in the 7th millennium or beyond Fiction about megastructures Exploratory engineering Terraforming in fiction Retrofuturism Novels about time travel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television%20in%20the%20Netherlands
Television in the Netherlands
Television in the Netherlands was officially introduced in 1951. In the Netherlands, the television market is divided between a number of commercial networks, such as RTL Nederland, and a system of public broadcasters sharing three channels, NPO 1, NPO 2, and NPO 3. Imported programmes (except those for children), as well as news interviews with responses in a foreign language, are almost always shown in their original language, with subtitles. Reception In the Netherlands, television can be watched analog or digital (the latter with the option of HDTV or UHD). Over 2018, 89.2% of Dutch viewers received television digitally. Analogue television is only available via some cable operators and some fiber to the home providers, since the Dutch government ended analogue reception via airwaves in 2006. Dutch largest cable company Ziggo began to phase out the analogue signal in 2018. Watching digital television is possible through a variety of ways, the most common being: Digital television over cable (in most cases through a set-top box with a smart card or through a Conditional-access module). Ziggo is the major supplier of cable television in the Netherlands. Other companies are Caiway, DELTA, Kabelnoord and a few smaller local companies. Satellite television Canal Digitaal is the only satellite provider. Digital terrestrial television KPN Digitenne is the only terrestrial provider. Internet television (IPTV) KPN, Tele2 and T-Mobile are the major suppliers of IPTV. Fiber to the home KPN is the major operator of FTTH with its subsidiaries KPN Glasvezel, Glashart and Reggefiber. Other companies are Caiway and DELTA. Which television channels can be received is heavily dependent on the operator and in most cases also the channel package that is paid for. However, there is a small selection of channels that every operator must carry. Since 2014, these are the following channels: NPO 1 NPO 2 NPO 3 VRT 1 (Flanders (Belgium)) Canvas (Flanders (Belgium)) Ketnet (Flanders (Belgium)) Regional (provincial) broadcasters (when available) Local broadcaster (when available) Public channels The Netherlands has three nationwide channels for publicly funded television (NPO). These channels can only make a fixed maximum amount of money from commercials. These commercials never interrupt broadcasts, and are only shown in between shows. The broadcasting organisations that use these channels are basically representative of the Dutch society. Every broadcasting company has members and the number of members gives them a status that is connected to the number of hours of broadcasting. Acceptance or refusal of entry is decided politically on the guidance of public opinion. In 2005, there was a sharp political debate over government plans to cut funding to public broadcasters and to abolish statutory broadcaster NPS. National The three national television channels are: NPO 1 NPO 2 NPO 3 NPO Zapp NPO Zappelin Thematic The three digital television channels that are provided by the Nederlandse Publieke Omroep organisation, are: NPO 1 Extra NPO 2 Extra NPO Politiek en Nieuws International There is also an international public channel: BVN, It shows the best of Dutch public television for Dutch viewers abroad. It was also formerly shared with Belgium's publicly funded Flemish television channel VRT. Regional Most regions and provinces have their own television channel as well. These also receive government funding: AT5 (Greater Amsterdam) Omrop Fryslân (Friesland), in West Frisian and Dutch RTV Noord (Groningen) RTV Drenthe (Drenthe) RTV Oost (Overijssel) Omroep Flevoland (Flevoland) TV Gelderland (Gelderland) RTV Utrecht (Utrecht) NH (North Holland) RTV Rijnmond (Rotterdam) TV West (South Holland) (Limburg) Omroep Brabant TV (North Brabant) Omroep Zeeland (Zeeland) Commercial channels RTL Nederland RTL 4 RTL 5 RTL 7 RTL 8 RTL Z RTL Crime RTL Lounge RTL Telekids Talpa Network Talpa TV Net5 SBS6 Veronica SBS9 TV 538 Paramount Networks EMEAA Comedy Central MTV MTV 80s MTV 90s MTV 00s MTV Hits MTV Live Nickelodeon Nick Jr. Nicktoons NickMusic Paramount Network Warner Bros. Discovery Animal Planet Cartoon Network Cartoonito CNN International Discovery Channel Discovery Science Eurosport 1 Eurosport 2 Investigation Discovery TLC The Walt Disney Company 24Kitchen BabyTV (Distribution only) Disney XD, formerly known as Jetix. Disney Channel ESPN (through Eredivisie Media & Marketing CV) Star Channel (through Eredivisie Media & Marketing CV) National Geographic National Geographic Wild VodagoneZiggo Ziggo Sport Ziggo Sport Select Ziggo Sport Voetbal Ziggo Sport Golf Ziggo Sport Racing Ziggo Sport Docu Ziggo Sport Tennis Ziggo TV AMC Networks International AMC Networks International UK CBS Reality, joint venture of AMC and CBS Extreme Sports Channel ShortsTV, joint venture of AMC and Shorts International NBCUniversal International Networks CNBC Europe DreamWorks Channel E! Sky News SPI International DocuBox FightBox Film1 Film1 Premiere Film1 Action Film1 Family Film1 Drama FilmBox BBC Studios BBC Entertainment BBC First BBC News A&E Networks Crime & Investigation History Stingray Digital Stingray Classica Stingray Djazz Stingray iConcerts Stingray Lite TV Muziekkiosk Nashville TV SchlagerTV TV Oranje RadioCorp BV 100% NL TV Slam!TV Other The following (international) commercial channels broadcast localized versions of their programs: 192TV Curiosity Channel DanceTelevision Duck TV Euronews Family 7, conservative Christian channel FashionTV Horse & Country TV Love Nature Njam! ONS, Dutch Nostalgia Channel OutTV, gay lifestyle Pebble TV, Dutch Children's Channel Tommy TV Xite, Dutch Music Channel AFTV-African Television (English), available in The Hague and online, targeting Africans in the Netherlands NOS TV (Papiamento), available on Bonaire and online; local Bonaire TV station. RTV-7, (Papiamento, English); Rebroadcast of Antillian TV Channels in the Netherlands Foreign domestic channels While there are many localised versions of international channels meant for the Dutch market, many television providers also broadcast 'domestic television' networks as part of the basic subscription package. Other 'domestic' channels may be received as part of extended packages. Many basic subscriptions include: Belgium VRT 1 (Flanders) VRT Canvas (Flanders) Ketnet Junior (Flanders) Ketnet (Flanders) La Une (Wallonia) Tipik (Wallonia) La Trois (Wallonia) Ouftivi (Wallonia) United Kingdom BBC One BBC Two BBC Three CBBC BBC Four Cbeebies Germany Das Erste ZDF WDR Fernsehen NDR Fernsehen RTL Sat.1 3sat Arte Deutschland France France 2 France 3 France 4 Okoo Culturebox France 5 TV5 Monde Europe Arte France Mezzo Italy Mediaset Italia Rai 1 Rai 2 Rai 3 Spain Antena 3 TVE Internacional Other TRT Türk (Turkey) Al Jazeera English CGTN Utsav Gold Utsav Plus High-definition In the Netherlands customers can receive high-definition television channels by cable or satellite. Until 2018 there was no terrestrial HD service available. KPN started to switch its digital terrestrial television platform to the DVB-T2 HEVC standard in October 2018, this transition completed on 9 July 2019. The first trials with high-definition television in the Netherlands began in 2006 with the broadcast of the 2006 World Cup in HD. After the trial the larger cable companies continued a HD service with a small number of channels such as National Geographic Channel HD, Discovery HD Showcase, History HD, Film1 HD and Sport1 HD. The demand for HD was low because no Dutch network had made the move to HD. Broadcasting in widescreen and the quality of the standard-definition PAL signal was good enough for most people. Since the 2006 trials, none of the main Dutch networks made the move to HD. This changed in the summer of 2008 when from 1 June 2008 until 24 August 2008, the Netherlands Public Broadcasting (NPO) organisations made their primary channel, Nederland 1 temporary available in HD. This made it possible to broadcast Euro 2008, the 2008 Tour de France, and the 2008 Summer Olympics in HD and additionally allowed them to test their systems before the scheduled launch of their permanent HD service in early 2009. The NPO planned to launch their permanent HD service with HD versions of their three channels Nederland 1, Nederland 2, and Nederland 3. Most of the programming in the early stages consisted of upscaled material from their SD channels as in time more programs became available in HD. , the company responsible for the technical realisation of the broadcasts of the NPOs television and radio channels, began the summer 2008 test broadcast of Nederland 1 HD in 720p/50 as the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) recommends. During the test period an additional 1080i/25 version of the channel was made available to the cable companies because of quality complaints from viewers. In 2009 the NPO decided to adopt the 1080i/25 HD standard. The main commercial broadcasting organizations in the Netherlands the SBS Broadcasting Group (NET 5, SBS 6, Veronica) and the channels of RTL Nederland followed in HD via cable and satellite, using the same HD standard as the NPO. Ultra-high-definition The first television channels in 4K UHD were officially launched in the Netherlands in 2017. In April 2017, satellite provider CanalDigitaal added Insight TV 4K UHD in its channel line-up. After more than a year of testing, KPN launched ultra-high-definition television on 1 July 2017, with Xite 4K and Hispasat 4K TV. Eurosport 4K launched in the Netherlands on 5 June 2018. NPO 1 launched its first trials with ultra-high-definition television through KPN, CanalDigitaal and some minor networks on 14 June 2018, using the HLG standard. Ziggo Sport is available in UHD from March 2021. Defunct or rebranded channels 13th Street (30 May 2007 – 1 July 2016) Action Now! (16 May 2006 – 31 May 2009) Adventure One (1999–2007), replaced by National Geographic Wild (2007–present) BBC Prime (1995–2009), replaced by BBC Entertainment (2009–present) Boomerang (5 June 2005–18 March 2023), replaced by Cartoonito (18 March 2023–present) The Box/The Box Comedy (1995 – 30 April 2007), replaced by Comedy Central (30 April 2007 – present) CineNova (18 May 2000 – 18 May 2005) CMT Europe (October 1992 – 31 March 1998) Comedy Central Extra (1 November 2011 – 31 December 2022) Comedy Central Family (1 October 2008 – 31 May 2018), its programmes merged with Comedy Central Extra Consumenten 24 (formerly Consumenten TV) DanceTrippin TV (2011 – May 2018), rebranded by DanceTelevision (May 2018 – present) Discovery Civilisation (1 October 1998 - 18 April 2008), rebranded by Discovery World (18 April 2008 - 31 December 2020) Discovery Travel & Living (September 1999 – 4 July 2011), replaced by Investigation Discovery and TLC (4 July 2011 – present) Disney Junior (3 May 2010 – 1 April 2019), formerly known as Playhouse Disney. ESPN America (5 December 2002 – 1 August 2013) ESPN Classic (13 March 2006 – 1 August 2013) Euro 7 (19 October 1994 – 28 March 1997) Family 24 Film1 Sundance (1 March 2012 – 31 August 2017) / Film1 Festival (1 February 2006 – 1 March 2012) Filmnet (1984–1997), replaced by Canal+ (1997–2006), followed by Film1 (1 February 2006 – present) Fine Living (1 September 2015 – 31 January 2019) Food Network (22 April 2010 – 31 January 2019) Fox (19 August 2013 - 31 October 2023), rebranded by Star Channel (1 November 2023 - present) Fox Kids (2 August 1997 – 12 February 2005), rebranded by Jetix (13 February 2005 – 31 December 2009) followed by Disney XD (1 January 2010 – present) Fox Life (7 September 2009 – 31 December 2016) Fox Sports Eredivisie, 3 pay-TV channels (29 August 2008 – 1 January 2021), rebranded by ESPN Fox Sports International 3 pay-TV channels (17 August 2013 – 1 January 2021), rebranded by ESPN Geschiedenis 24 (formerly Geschiedenis) GoedTV (April 2006 – 6 December 2015) Hallmark Channel (June 1995 – 20 July 2011) HBO 1/2/3 (9 February 2012 – 31 December 2016) Het Gesprek (2 October 2007 – 21 August 2010) JimJam (10 October 2006 – 1 March 2018) Kindernet (1 March 1988 – 1 September 2003, 4 April 2011 – 1 November 2013) MGM Channel (2001 – 5 November 2014), replaced by AMC (5 November 2014 – 31 December 2018) MisdaadNet (1 July 2008 – 1 September 2011), replaced by RTL Crime (1 September 2011 – present) Motors TV (1 September 2000 – 28 February 2017), rebranded by Motorsport.tv (1 March 2017 – 30 September 2018) MTV Brand New (1 August 2006 - 31 January 2021), replaced by MTV Hits (1 February 2021 - present) MTV Music 24 (1 September 2011 - 25 May 2021), replaced by MTV 90s (26 May 2021 - present) NBC Super Channel (30 January 1987 – 30 June 1998), replaced by National Geographic (1 July 1998 – present) NostalgieNet (1 January 2006 – 13 September 2015), rebranded by ONS (13 September 2015 – present) NPO 3 Extra (31 October 2006 – 25 December 2018), between 2006 and 2014 named 101 TV and between 2014 and 2018 named NPO 101. NPO Doc (1 December 2004 as Holland Doc 24 – 1 July 2016) NPO Humor TV (15 November 2006 as Humor TV 24 – 1 July 2016) NPO Nieuws (1 December 2004 as Journaal 24 - 15 December 2021) NPO Zappelin Extra (30 May 2009 as Z@ppelin / Z@pp 24, renamed by NPO Zapp Xtra between 2014 and 2018, ceased on 15 December 2021) Revolt (1 November 2019 - 31 January 2021) RTL-Véronique (2 October 1989 – 17 September 1990), rebranded by RTL 4 (18 September 1990 – present) Spike (1 October 2015 - 24 May 2022), rebranded by Paramount Network (24 May 2022 - present) Spirit 24 (formerly Geloven) Sport 7 (18 August 1996 – 8 December 1996) Sportnet (29 March 1984 – 1 March 1993), merged with Eurosport (5 February 1989 – present) Sterren 24 (formerly Sterren.nl) Stingray Brava (2007 – 1 March 2019), replaced by Stingray Classica (1 March 2019 – present) SuperSport (1995–1997), replaced by Canal+ (1997–2006) followed by Sport1 (1 February 2006 – 12 November 2015), rebranded by Ziggo Sport Totaal (12 November 2015 – present) Syfy (30 May 2007 – 1 July 2016) Talpa (13 August 2005 – 15 December 2005), rebranded by Tien (16 December 2005 – 17 August 2007) followed by RTL 8 (18 August 2007 – present) TMF (1 May 1995 – 1 September 2011) TMF Dance (1 May 2005 – 31 December 2011) TMF NL (1 May 2005 – 31 December 2011) TMF Pure (1 May 2005 – 31 December 2011) TNT Classic Movies (17 September 1993 – 15 October 1999) rebranded by TCM (15 October 1999 – 1 January 2014) TNT (24 January 2013 – 1 January 2014) Travel Channel (1996 – 31 January 2019) TV10 (never launched due to license problems, 1989) TV10 Gold (1 May 1995 – 31 January 1996), rebranded a couple of times afterwards. First by TV10 (1 February 1996 – 18 December 1998) followed by FOX (19 December 1998 - August 1999), Fox 8 (September 1999 – 30 April 2001), V8 (1 May 2001 – 19 September 2003) and finally by Veronica (20 September 2003 – present) Veronica (1 September 1995 – 1 April 2001), rebranded by Yorin (2 April 2001 – 11 August 2005), and again rebranded by RTL 7 (12 August 2005 – present) VH1 (June 1999 - 2 August 2021), rebranded by MTV 00s (2 August 2021 - present) VH1 Classic (30 November 2004 – 5 October 2020), rebranded by MTV 80s (5 October 2020 – present) Viceland (1 March 2017 – 31 October 2019), rebranded by VICEtv (1 November 2019 – 24 August 2020) Vesta TV (October 1995 – July 1996) Weerkanaal (15 February 2006 – December 2008), rebranded by Weer en Verkeer (December 2008 – 1 October 2013) Ziggo Sport Extra (12 November 2015 - 28 February 2021), rebranded by Ziggo Sport Tennis (1 March 2021 - present) Zone Club (1998 – 1 April 2010) Zone Horror (30 October 2006 – 1 July 2009) Zone Reality (10 October 2002 – 2 December 2012), rebranded by CBS Reality (2 December 2012 – present) Television in other languages To serve those who have another native language than Dutch, there are few television channels in the Netherlands broadcasting in one of the regional languages of The Netherlands. Those broadcasting in English usually target an international audience as well. Most of these channels broadcast through the internet only or have a very limited broadcasting area, with Omrop Fryslân as most notable exception. These channels are: Omrop Fryslân (Frisian), public access regional broadcaster in the province of Friesland Froeks.tv (Frisian), web-only channel for Friesland Radio Netherlands Worldwide (English), produces vodcasts on their website in English ThreeNL (English), reruns of Dutch public access programmes either English subtitled or dubbed AFTV-African Television (English), available in The Hague and online, targeting Africans in The Netherlands NOS TV (Papiamento), available on Bonaire and online; local Bonaire TV station. RTV-7 (Papiamento, English), available on Ziggo, XS4ALL and KPN. Rebroadcast of Antillian TV Channels in the Netherlands Timeline See also Digital television in the Netherlands History of Dutch television Lists of television channels List of cable companies in the Netherlands Media in the Netherlands References External links http://gids.omroep.nl (in Dutch) shows programming of Dutch and other stations of surrounding countries http://www.uitzendinggemist.nl (in Dutch) Web site archive of internet-streaming TV programs from the Netherlands Dutch public access programmes in English to be watched on YouTube
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emin%20Pasha%20Relief%20Expedition
Emin Pasha Relief Expedition
The Emin Pasha Relief Expedition of 1887 to 1889 was one of the last major European expeditions into the interior of Africa in the nineteenth century. Led by Henry Morton Stanley, its goal was ostensibly the relief of Emin Pasha, the besieged Egyptian governor of Equatoria (part of modern-day South Sudan), who was threatened by Mahdist forces. Stanley set out to traverse the continent with a force of nearly 700 men, navigating up the Congo River and then through the Ituri rainforest to reach East Africa. The arduous journey caused Stanley to split the expedition into two columns; the advance column eventually reached Emin Pasha in July 1888. A series of mutinies, disagreements, and miscommunications forced Stanley and Emin to withdraw from Equatoria in early 1889. The expedition was initially celebrated for its ambition in crossing "Darkest Africa". However, soon after Stanley returned to Europe, it gained notoriety for the deaths of so many of its members, widespread reports of brutality, and the disease unwittingly left in its wake. It was the last large-scale private expedition undertaken as part of the Scramble for Africa. Background With the capture of Khartoum by the Mahdists (followers of Islamic religious leader Muhammad Ahmad) in 1885, the Ottoman-Egyptian administration of Sudan collapsed. Equatoria, the extreme southern province of the Sudan, was nearly cut off from the outside world, as it was located on the upper reaches of the Nile near Lake Albert. Emin Pasha was a German Jewish-born Ottoman doctor and naturalist who had been appointed Governor of Equatoria by Charles George Gordon, the British general who himself had attempted to relieve Khartoum. Emin, able to send and receive letters via Buganda and Zanzibar, had been informed in February 1886 that the Egyptian government would abandon Equatoria. In July, he was encouraged by missionary Alexander Mackay to invite the British government to annex Equatoria itself. The government was not interested in such a doubtful venture, but the British public came to see Emin as a second General Gordon, in mortal danger from the Mahdists. Scottish businessman and philanthropist William Mackinnon had been involved in various colonial ventures, and by November he had approached Stanley about leading a relief expedition. Stanley declared himself ready "at a moment's notice" to go. Mackinnon then approached J. F. Hutton, a business acquaintance also involved in colonial activities, and together they organized the "Emin Pasha Relief Committee", mostly consisting of Mackinnon's friends, whose first meeting was on 19 December 1886. The Committee raised a total of about £32,000. Stanley was officially still in the employment of Leopold II of Belgium, by whom he had been employed in carving out Leopold's 'Congo Free State'. As a compromise for letting Stanley go, it was arranged in a meeting in Brussels between Stanley and the king, that the expedition would take a longer route up the Congo River, contrary to plans for a shorter route inland from the eastern African coast. In return, Leopold would provide his Free State steamers for the transportation of the expedition up the river, from Stanley Pool (now Pool Malebo) as far as the mouth of the Aruwimi River. By 1 January 1887, Stanley was back in London preparing the expedition to widespread public acclaim. Stanley himself was intent that the expedition be one of humanitarian assistance rather than of military conquest. He declared: Purpose of expedition In a number of publications made after the expedition, Stanley asserted that the singular purpose of the effort was to offer relief to Emin Pasha. However, Stanley's other writings point to a secondary goal — territorial annexation. In his account of the expedition, he implied that his meeting with the Sultan of Zanzibar was in regards to British interests in East Africa. These interests were threatened not only by the Mahdists, but also by German imperial ambitions in the region; Germany would not recognize British suzerainty over Zanzibar (and its continental holdings) until 1890. The records at the National Archives at Kew, London, offer an even deeper insight and show that annexation was a purpose he had been aware of for the expedition. This is because there are a number of treaties curated there (and gathered by Stanley himself from what is present day Uganda during the Emin Pasha Expedition), ostensibly gaining British protection for a number of African chiefs. Amongst these were a number that have long been identified as possible frauds. A good example is treaty number 56, supposedly agreed upon between Stanley and the people of "Mazamboni, Katto, and Kalenge". These people had signed over to Stanley "the Sovereign Right and Right of Government over our country for ever in consideration of value received and for the protection he has accorded us and our Neighbours against KabbaRega and his Warasura". Preparations The expedition was planned to go to Cairo, then to Zanzibar to hire porters, then south of Africa, around the Cape to the mouth of the Congo, up the Congo by Leopold's steamers, branching off at the Aruwimi River. Stanley intended to establish a camp on the Aruwimi, then go east overland through unknown territory to reach Lake Albert and Equatoria. He then expected that Emin would send the families of Emin's Egyptian employees back along the just-pioneered route, along with a large store of ivory accumulated in Equatoria, while Stanley, Emin, and Emin's soldiers would proceed eastward to Zanzibar. Coincidentally, public doubts over the plan centered around whether it could be achieved; the possibility that Emin might not want to leave seems not to have been considered. The expedition was the largest and best-equipped to go to Africa; a 28-foot steel boat named the Advance was designed to be divided into 12 sections for carrying over land, and Hiram Maxim presented the expedition with one of his recently invented Maxim guns, which was the first to be brought to Africa. Merely 'exhibiting' the gun was thought to be a scare, which would spare the expedition problems with hostile natives. The Relief Committee received 400 applications by hopeful participants. From these, Stanley chose the officers who were to accompany him to Africa: James Sligo Jameson, John Rose Troup, and Herbert Ward had all travelled in Africa before, Jameson as a big game hunter, artist, and traveller, and Troup and Ward as employees of the Congo Free State. Robert H. Nelson, William Bonny, William G. Stairs, and Edmund Barttelot were all military men. Barttelot had been doing service in India. A. J. Mounteney-Jephson was a young 'gentleman of leisure' coming from the merchant marine who was hired on the quality of his face only, but he paid £1,000 to the Relief Committee, as did Jameson, in order to participate in the expedition. The expedition's doctor Thomas Heazle Parke was hired at the last minute, while the expedition was already en route, in Alexandria, where he was doing military service. William Hoffmann was Stanley's personal servant, curiously enough scarcely mentioned at all in Stanley's own account of the events. Stanley departed London on 21 January 1887 and arrived in Cairo on 27 January. Egyptian objections to the Congo route were overridden by a telegram from Lord Salisbury, and the expedition was permitted to march under the Egyptian flag. Stanley also met with Mason Bey, Schweinfurth, and Junker, who had more up-to-date information about Equatoria. Stanley left Cairo on 3 February, joined up with expedition members during stops in Suez and Aden, and arrived in Zanzibar on 22 February. The next three days were spent packing for the expedition, loading the Madura, and negotiating. Stanley acted as a representative of Mackinnon in convincing the Sultan of Zanzibar to grant a concession for what later became the Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC), and made two agreements with Tippu Tib. The first included appointing him as Governor of Stanley Falls, an arrangement much criticized in Europe as a deal with a slave-trader, and the second agreement regarded the provisions of carriers for the expedition. In addition to transporting stores, the carriers were now also expected to bring out some 75 tons of ivory stored in Equatoria. Stanley posted letters to Emin predicting his arrival on Lake Albert around August. Up the Congo The expedition left Zanzibar on 25 February and, rounding the Cape of Good Hope, arrived at Banana at the mouth of the Congo on 18 March. Their arrival was somewhat unexpected, because a telegraph cable had broken and local officials had received no instructions. Chartered steamers brought the expedition to Matadi, where the carriers took over, bringing some 800 loads of stores and ammunition to Leopoldville on the Stanley Pool. Progress was slow, since the rainy season was at its height, and food was short – a problem that was to be persistent throughout the expedition (the area along the route rarely had spare food for 1,000 hardworking men, as it was a subsistence economy). On 21 April, the expedition arrived at Leopoldville. King Leopold had promised a flotilla of river steamers, but only one worked: the Stanley. Stanley requisitioned two (Peace and Henry Reed) from missionaries of the Baptist Mission and the Livingstone Inland Mission, whose protests were overridden, as well as the Florida, which was still under construction and so used as a barge. Even these were insufficient, so many of the stores were left at Leopoldville and more at Bolobo. At this point, Stanley also announced the division of the expedition: a "Rear Column" would encamp at Yambuya on the Aruwimi, while the "Advance Column" pressed on to Equatoria. The voyage up the Congo started 1 May and was generally uneventful. At Bangala Station, Barttelot and Tippu Tib continued up to Stanley Falls in the Henry Reed, while Stanley took the Aruwimi to Yambuya. The inhabitants of Yambuya refused permission to reside in their village, so Stanley attacked and drove the villagers away, turning the deserted village into a fortified camp. Meanwhile, at Stanley Falls, Tippu Tib attempted to acquire carriers, but he believed that Stanley had broken his part of their agreement by leaving ammunition behind, and Barttelot came to Yambuya with only an indefinite promise that carriers would arrive in several weeks. Traversing the Ituri Rainforest Stanley, however, insisted on speed, and left for Lake Albert on 28 June, originally expecting to take two months. The Advance Column, however, was unprepared for the extreme difficulties of travel through the Ituri rainforest and did not reach the lake until December. Only 169 of the 389 who set out from Yambuya were still alive. The trees of the forest were so tall and dense that little light reached the floor, food was scarcely to be found, and the local Pygmies took the expedition for an Arab raiding party, shooting at them with poisoned arrows. The expedition stopped at two Arab settlements, Ugarrowwa's and Ipoto, in each case leaving more of their equipment behind in exchange for food. The forest eventually gave way to grassland, and on 13 December the expedition was looking down on Lake Albert. However, Emin was not there, and the locals had not seen a European in many years. Stanley decided to return to the village of Ibwiri on the plateau above the lake, where they built Fort Bodo. Stairs went back to Ipoto to collect men and equipment, and returned 12 February. A second trip went back to Ugarrowwa's to collect more equipment. Meanwhile, on 2 April Stanley returned to Lake Albert, this time with the Advance. On 18 April they received a letter from Emin, who had heard about the expedition a year earlier, and had come down the lake in March after hearing rumors of Stanley's arrival. Stanley meets Emin Jephson was sent on ahead to the lake with the Advance, took the boat up to Mswa, and met Emin on 27 April 1888. Emin brought his steamer to the south end of the lake, and met Stanley there on the 29th, who was surprised to find the figure of Emin to have "not a trace on it of ill-health or anxiety", and celebrated with three bottles of champagne that had been carried all the way up the Congo. Emin provided Stanley with food and other supplies, thus rescuing the rescuers. At this point things became difficult. Emin was primarily interested in ammunition and other supplies, and a communications route, all of which would assist him in remaining in Equatoria, while Stanley's main goal was to bring Emin out. A month of discussion produced no agreement, and on 24 May Stanley went back to Fort Bodo, arriving there 8 June and meeting Stairs, who had returned from Ugarrowwa's with just fourteen surviving men. On the way Stanley saw the Ruwenzori Mountains for the first time (although Parke and Jephson had seen them on 20 April). Fate of the Rear Column On 16 June, Stanley left the fort in search of the Rear Column; no word of or from them had been received in a long time. Finally, on 17 August at Banalya, 90 miles upstream from Yambuya, Stanley found Bonny, the sole European left in charge of the Column, along with a handful of starving carriers. Barttelot had been shot in a dispute, Jameson was at Bangala dying of a fever, Troup had been invalided home, and Herbert Ward had gone back down the Congo a second time to telegraph the Relief Committee in London for further instructions (the Column had not heard from Stanley in over a year). The original purpose of the Rear Column – to wait for the additional carriers from Tippu Tib – had not been accomplished, since without the ammunition supplied by the expedition, Tippu Tib had nothing with which to recruit. After several side trips, Barttelot decided to send Troup and the others on the sick list down the Congo, and 11 June 1888, after the arrival of a group of Manyema bringing Barttelot's total to 560, set off in search of Stanley. But the march soon disintegrated into chaos, with large-scale desertion and multiple trips to try to bring up stores; then on 19 July Barttelot was shot while trying to interfere with a Manyema festival. Jameson decided to go down to Bangala to bring up extra loads and left on 9 August, shortly before Stanley's arrival. Stanley was incensed at the state of the Rear Column, blaming them for lack of motion despite his previous orders that they wait for him at Yambuya. From surviving officers Stanley also heard stories of Barttelot's brutality and of another officer, James Sligo Jameson, who was alleged to have purchased a young female slave and given her to cannibals so he could record her being killed and eaten. In his posthumously published diary, Jameson admitted that he had indeed paid for the girl and watched as she was butchered, but claimed that he considered the whole affair a joke and had not expected her to actually be killed. According to the testimony of Jameson's colleague William Bonny, Jameson must have stayed around to watch while the girl was cooked and consumed, since the last of his six sketches (which he had shown Bonny) "represents the feast." The "six handkerchiefs" Jameson had paid were indeed valuable enough to purchase a child slave, and Jameson's diary also shows that he was well informed of cannibal customs and had even seen remainders of a cannibal meal before, making his line of defense doubtful. After the dispatch of a number of letters down-Congo, the expedition returned to Fort Bodo, taking a different route that proved no better for food supply, and it reached the Fort on 20 December, now reduced to 412 men, of whom 124 were too ill to carry any loads. On 16 January 1889, near Lake Albert, Stanley received letters from Emin and Jephson, who had been made prisoner by Emin's officers for several months, while at the same time the Mahdists had been capturing additional stations of Equatoria. Since Stanley's arrival, numerous rumours had gone around about Emin's intentions and the likely fate of the soldiers, and in August of the previous year matters had come to a head; a number of officers rebelled, deposed Emin as governor, and kept him and Jephson under a sort of house arrest in Dufile until November. Even so, Emin was still reluctant to abandon the province. Withdrawal to the coast By 17 February all the surviving members of the expedition, and Emin with a group of about 65 loyal soldiers, met at Stanley's camp above Lake Albert, and during the subsequent weeks several hundred more of Emin's followers, many of them the families of the soldiers, assembled there. Emin still had not expressed a firm intention to leave Equatoria, and 5 April, after a heated argument, Stanley determined to leave shortly, and the expedition departed Kavalli's for the coast on 10 April. The trip to the coast passed first south, along the western flank of the Ruwenzoris, and Stairs attempted to ascend to a summit, reaching 10,677 ft before having to turn around. They then passed by Lake Edward and Lake George, then across to the southernmost point of Lake Victoria, passing through the kingdoms of Ankole and Karagwe. Stanley made "treaties" with the various rulers; although it is most likely that these were not regarded as such by the locals, they were later used to establish IBEAC claims in the area. Lake Victoria was seen on 15 August, and the expedition reached Mackay's missionary station at Usambiro on 28 August. At this point they began to learn of the complicated changing situation in East Africa, with European colonial powers scrambling to stake their claims, and a second relief expedition under Frederick John Jackson. After waiting fruitlessly for news of the Jackson expedition, Stanley left on 17 September, with a party now reduced to some 700 by a combination of death and desertion. As the expedition approached the coast, they encountered parties of Germans and other signs of German activity in the interior, and were met by commissioner Wissmann on 4 December and escorted into Bagamoyo. That evening a banquet was held, during which an inebriated Emin fell out of a second-storey window he mistook for a balcony, and from which he did not recover until the end of January 1890. In the meantime, the rest of the expedition had dispersed; Stanley went to Zanzibar and then to Cairo, where he wrote the 900 pages of In Darkest Africa in just 50 days. The Zanzibari carriers were paid off or (in the case of prisoners) returned to their masters, the Sudanese and Egyptians were transported back to Egypt, some later returning to work for the IBEAC. Emin took service with the Germans in February, and the other Europeans returned to England. Aftermath Stanley returned to Europe in May 1890 to tremendous public acclaim; both he and his officers received numerous awards, honorary degrees, and speaking engagements. In June alone his newly published book sold 150,000 copies. But the adulation was to be short-lived. By autumn, as the true cost of the expedition became known, and as the families of Barttelot and Jameson reacted to Stanley's accusations of incompetence in the Rear Column, criticism and condemnation became widespread. Samuel Baker called the story of the Rear Column "the most horrible and indecent exposure that I have ever heard of seen in print". Stanley's own use of violence during the expedition also revived old criticisms that he was a "sham explorer" as well as doubts over the supposed humanitarian value of European exploration in Africa. In the end, the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition came to be the last expedition of its type; future African expeditions would be government-run in pursuit of military or political goals, or conducted purely for science. An Anglo-Egyptian force under Lord Kitchener managed to reconquer Sudan from the Mahdists in 1899. Equatoria was incorporated as part of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, nominally under British administration, though it remained isolated and underdeveloped well into the 20th century. From 1898 to 1900, a devastating sleeping sickness epidemic spread into territories that are now Democratic Republic of the Congo, western Uganda and south of Sudan. Native cattle traveling with the expedition may have introduced the parasite into previously-unaffected regions. However, not all authors agree. In popular culture It has been suggested that stories of the expedition — in particular, the disastrous plight of the "rear column" — inspired Joseph Conrad in his 1899 novella Heart of Darkness. Critic Adam Hochschild suggests that the character of Kurtz, the isolated and insane Congo trader, was modeled on Barttelot, who "went mad, began hitting, whipping, and killing people, and was finally murdered". Harold Bloom also connected the portrayal of Kurtz with the figures of Stanley and Tippu Tib. The fate of the Rear Column is the subject of Simon Gray's 1978 play The Rear Column, which features Barttelot, Jameson, Ward, Bonny, Troup and Stanley as characters. References Further reading Primary sources Jephson, A. J. Mounteney (1969). Diary, Edited by Dorothy Middleton, Hakluyt Society. Stanley, Henry Morton (1890). In Darkest Africa. Secondary works Fiction External links 1880s in Africa African expeditions Henry Morton Stanley Mahdist War History of Sudan 19th century in Sudan 1886 in Africa 1889 in Africa 1886 in Sudan 1889 in Sudan 1880s in Sudan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HM%20Customs%20and%20Excise
HM Customs and Excise
HM Customs and Excise (properly known as Her Majesty's Customs and Excise at the time of its dissolution) was a department of the British Government formed in 1909 by the merger of HM Customs and HM Excise; its primary responsibility was the collection of customs duties, excise duties, and other indirect taxes. The payment of customs dues has been recorded in Britain for over one thousand years and HMCE was formed from predecessor bodies with a long history. With effect from 18 April 2005, HMCE merged with the Inland Revenue (which was responsible for the administration and collection of direct taxes) to form a new department: HM Revenue and Customs (HMRC). Activities The three main functions of HMCE were revenue collection, assessment and preventive work, alongside which other duties were performed. Revenue collection On behalf of HM Treasury, officers of HM Customs and Excise levied customs duties, excise duties, and other indirect taxes (such as Air Passenger Duty, Climate Change Levy, Insurance Premium Tax, Landfill Tax, Purchase Tax and Value-added tax (VAT)). Assessment Officers spent significant amounts of time in docks, warehouses and depots and on board newly arrived ships assessing dutiable goods and cargoes. Specialist tools were provided e.g. for the measurement of containers or the specific gravity of alcohol. Preventive work HMCE was responsible for managing the import and export of goods and services into the UK; as such, its officers were active in the detection and prevention of attempts to evade the revenue laws, for example through smuggling or illicit distillation of alcohol. Since the early 17th century, the searching of vessels for illicit goods when undertaken by customs officers has been called 'rummaging'. Other For various reasons HMCE and its predecessors had accrued a variety of other responsibilities over the years, some of which had nothing to do with revenue collection and protection. Many of these additional duties pertained to the regulation of activities in UK coastal waters on behalf of HM Government (not least because HMCE had customs officers stationed all around the UK coast). Thus at various times in the 20th century HMCE was involved in receiving, regulating or recording: import and export licences trade statistics (since 1696) light dues (recorded since 1615) wrecks (statutory by 1713) embargos quarantine and other public health restrictions (since 1663) occupational licensing registration of moneylenders exchange controls ship registration immigration control (in smaller ports and airports) Location In the 1970s Customs & Excise officers were operating from around 2,000 offices located in all parts of the United Kingdom; they ranged in size from large regional centres to small outposts attached to distilleries and the like. Historically, the Board of Customs and the Board of Excise were (along with the General Post Office) 'the only Crown Services organised on a country-wide basis'. Custom houses were to be found in all major ports of entry (as well as some smaller harbours). Excise Offices were located both around the coast and inland (in former centuries, every market town in England had a designated Excise Office, albeit not permanently staffed; often a room in a local inn would be adapted for the purpose when required). The nation's borders were the prime location for much of HMCE's work. Before the 20th century the UK's only border was its coastline and customs activity was focused around the coast. The establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922 gave the United Kingdom a land border, which also required customs checkpoints; later, customs officers were needed at airports as well. As well as administering Customs declarations, HM Customs and Excise staff had responsibility for guarding the borders of the United Kingdom from smugglers. To try to achieve this, HMCE and its predecessors had a history of operating both on land and at sea. Headquarters The historic headquarters of HM Customs was the Custom House on Lower Thames Street in the City of London. This went on to become the headquarters of HMCE when the Excise head office moved there from Somerset House in 1909. Later, however, the Commissioners along with most of the headquarters staff were forced to move out after the building was damaged in a bombing raid in December 1940. They moved initially to Finsbury Square, then in 1952 to the newly built King's Beam House in Mark Lane. (The damaged section of London's Custom House was later rebuilt and the building remained in use by HM Revenue and Customs until 2021.) In 1987 the headquarters staff moved again to New King's Beam House 22 Upper Ground London SE1 in the area of Southwark. Corporate structure The 1909 amalgamation of the (previously separate) Customs and Excise services required a new corporate structure, which substantially remained in place until 1971. The new Board of Customs and Excise had oversight of three inter-linked branches, each with its own management structure: The Headquarters staff (based in London) The Outdoor Service (based at Customs and Excise Offices all around the country) The Waterguard (uniformed preventive service: based at coastal locations, airports and border crossings). The Board of Customs and Excise was made up of eight Commissioners appointed by Letters Patent under the Great Seal and chaired by a Permanent Secretary. The Board was responsible to the Chancellor of the Exchequer for collecting and accounting for all customs and excise revenues and for 'the management of all matters belonging and incidental to such collection'. The Headquarters Staff had oversight of policy implementation and management, as well as providing central accounting, legal and administrative services; its operation was akin to that of a government department. The Outdoor Service was divided into geographical areas called Collections, each overseen by a Collector (a senior official who acted as the Board's representative). Initially there were ninety-two Collections (formed by merging the previously separate Customs Collections and Excise Collections) but these were later reduced: to thirty-nine by 1930, twenty-nine by 1971. The Collections were subdivided into Districts (each overseen by a Surveyor) within which were several Stations, each staffed by one or more Officers of Customs and Excise. In each Collection, the Stations were responsible for assessment of duty while the Collector's Office focused on collection of revenue. The Waterguard carried out preventive work; it worked closely alongside the Outdoor Service but was separately constituted with its own management structure and its own geographical 'Divisions'. After 1971, management structures were streamlined and unified, with Civil Service grades replacing the previous disparate ranking structures in most areas. At the same time the Waterguard ceased to operate as a separate body, although uniformed customs officers continued to be involved in preventive work. Personnel The majority of the Headquarters staff belonged to the Civil Service grades (generally clerical, executive, and secretariat). The main grades in the outfield were: clerical staff, Officer of C&E, Allowanced Officer of C&E (the allowance was for taking on certain administrative duties e.g. rostering), Surveyor of C&E – all of which were at 'district' level and then Assistant Collector, Deputy Collector and Collector (regional management). The regions of London Port and Liverpool (later 'London Airports' was added) were graded as slightly higher than the others. All grades were amalgamated and incorporated into the general Civil Service grades in 1971. Established in the mid-twentieth century to combat fraud and drug smuggling, the Investigation Division was headed by a Chief Investigation Officer, equivalent in rank to a Collector, assisted by a Deputy Chief Investigation Officer and a number of Assistant Chief Investigation Officers. Each team of, usually, six was headed by a Senior Investigation Officer (equivalent to a Surveyor or SEO) and consisted of a mix of Investigation Officers and Higher Investigation Officers. Officers of the Waterguard had their own rank structure, namely: Assistant Preventive Officer (APO), Preventive Officer (PO) and Chief Preventive Officer (CPO); all these routinely wore uniform (see below). Higher grades were the Assistant Superintendent and Superintendent, neither of whom wore a uniform. After 1971 the Waterguard was renamed the Preventive Service and integrated into the main structure of HMCE. POs were renamed Executive Officers (Preventive) and APOs Assistant Officers (Preventive). Customs & Excise officers had authority throughout the country, including the powers of entry to premises and of arrest (though at times requiring the presence of a police constable). HMCE had an overall headcount of 23,000 staff in 2004 before the merger with Inland revenue. Uniform The uniform worn by officers of the Waterguard was identical to Royal Navy officers’ uniform with the exception of the cap badge (a crowned portcullis with flying chains), buttons (a crown rather than the fouled anchor) and the cuff rank lace (which only extended halfway round the cuff, rather than full cuff as in the Royal Navy (this possibly believed to be a WWII cost-cutting measure)). Prior to 1946, Chief Preventive Officers (CPO) wore two and a half gold stripes on their uniform while Preventive Officers (PO) had one stripe and Assistant Preventive Officers (APO) no stripe. After that date CPOs wore three stripes, POs two stripes and APOs one stripe. All uniformed grades wore a Navy curl; CPOs were further distinguished by having a row of gold oak leaves on the peak of the cap. After 1971 the same uniform was adopted by uniformed officers of the Preventive Service. Corporate history The Board of Customs, responsible for collecting duties levied on imported goods, and the Board of Excise, responsible for raising revenue from inland taxes, were both established in the 17th century. The raising of excise duties also dates from this time, but the levying of customs duties has a far longer history, the first written reference being found in an eighth-century charter of King Aethelbald. Following the 1707 Act of Union a separate Scottish Board of Customs and Scottish Excise Board were constituted; a century later separate boards were likewise established for Ireland. By an Act of Parliament dated 2 May 1823, these and the English Boards were consolidated to form a single Board of Excise and a single Board of Customs for the whole United Kingdom. These boards (and their successors) were made up of commissioners, appointed under the Great Seal of the Realm. HM Customs Originally, the term customs meant any customary payments or dues of any kind (for example, to the king, or a bishop, or the church), but later became restricted to duties payable to the king on the import or export of goods. A centralised English customs system can be traced to the Winchester Assize of Customs of 1203, in the reign of King John, from which time customs were to be collected and paid to the State Treasury. HM Customs was established on a more permanent basis with the passing of legislation in the reign of King Edward I: the nova custuma of 1275. Alongside the nova custuma (which was levied on exported wool and leather) duty was levied on imported goods; from the 14th century this became known as tonnage and poundage. The Board of Customs A Board of Customs was effectively created by the Long Parliament on 21 January 1643 under the Ordinance concerning the Customs for the continuance of the ordinance of concerning the subsidy of Tonnage and Poundage from 1 March 1643, to 25 March 1644. Under this act the regulation of the collection of customs was entrusted to a parliamentary committee; however in 1662 Parliament reverted to the farming system, until a permanent Board was finally established in 1671. HM Revenue of Excise His or Her Majesty's Excise duties are inland duties levied on articles at the time of their manufacture, such as alcoholic drinks and tobacco. Excise duties were first levied in England in 1643, during the Commonwealth (initially on beer, cider, spirits and soap); later, duties were levied on such diverse commodities as salt, paper and bricks. For a time, the Excise Board was also responsible for collecting the duty levied on imports of beverages such as rum, brandy and other spirits, as well as tea, coffee, chocolate and cocoa beans. Prior to payment of duty, these items were often stored in a bonded warehouse, where excise officers could assess and measure them. The Board of Excise A Board of Excise was likewise established by the Long Parliament under the "Excise Ordinance" of 1643 (Ordinance for the speedy raising and levying of moneys by way of charge or impost upon several commodities). After 1662 Excise revenue was farmed for the most part, until the Board was established on a permanent footing in 1683. The Board of Inland Revenue In 1849 the Board of Excise was merged with the Board of Stamps and Taxes to create a new Board of Inland Revenue. HM Customs and Excise The combined Board of Customs and Excise was formed in 1909 by the transfer of responsibility for Excise from the Board of Inland Revenue to the Board of Customs. HM Revenue and Customs HM Customs and Excise was not responsible for collecting direct taxes: that was the job of the Inland Revenue. In March 2004, the O'Donnell review called for the merger of Customs and Excise with Inland Revenue; in the 2004 Budget, Gordon Brown, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, announced that the merger would go ahead, and the merged body (HM Revenue and Customs) was implemented by the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005. Border enforcement For centuries, combatting smuggling had been part of the job of revenue officers. In the late 17th century, a concerted effort was made to combat this growing problem; land-based Riding Officers were employed to patrol the coast on horseback, while Revenue cutters were provided to enable officers to intercept vessels involved in smuggling at sea. The Waterguard In 1809 an organisation called the Preventive Water Guard was formed, independent of HM Customs, as a specialist service to combat smuggling. In 1822 it was brought together with the Riding Officers and Cutter service to form a new body (under the authority of HM Customs) named the Coast Guard. In 1856, however, authority over the Coast Guard was transferred from the Customs to the Admiralty. In 1891 a specialist Waterguard service was re-established within HM Customs, dedicated to rummaging vessels and combatting smuggling. The Cutter Service Following the transfer of the Coast Guard to the Admiralty, HM Customs had found itself bereft of sea-going vessels. For the first part of the twentieth century, HMCE made do with a single revenue cruiser, the Vigilant (which served more as a flagship for the Commissioners than as a practical deterrent). After the Second World War, however, the need for active vessels was again recognised and suitable craft were purchased from the Admiralty. By 1962 HMCE had four fast launches in service, crewed by officers of the Waterguard (many of whom had seen active service in the Royal Navy); by 1980 eight further vessels had been acquired. In the 21st century, a fleet of Customs Cutters (latterly 42 metre Damen patrol vessels) continued to operate throughout UK territorial waters inspecting vessels for Prohibited and restricted goods and increasingly immigration matters After the 2005 merger In 2005, the border enforcement functions of HMCE were transferred (along with the organisation responsible for them) to HMRC; but in 2008 they were again transferred (at least in part) to the new UK Border Agency of the Home Office, which due to various failings was itself disbanded in 2012, whereupon a new UK Border Force was established with border enforcement responsibilities and powers. Famous Customs and Excise officers Historically, some of the more well-known figures to have served as Customs officers or Excise men are Robert Burns, Geoffrey Chaucer, William Congreve, Daniel Defoe, John Dryden, Thomas Paine and Adam Smith. Other literary figures included William Allingham, John Oldmixon, Matthew Prior and Maurice Walsh. A number of senior officers in London went on to serve as Lord Mayor, including Sir Nicholas Brembre, Sir William Walworth and Sir Richard ('Dick') Whittington. See also H.M. Customs and Excise Collection. A collection of revenue stamps of H.M.C.E. in the British Library Philatelic Collections. HM Customs & Excise National Museum (part of the Merseyside Maritime Museum) Sovereign Base Areas Customs Prise - an early form of duty paid in kind (e.g. wine prise, which was payable to the king's butler) Butlerage - successor to the above, payable in cash Tunnage and poundage - a further duty on wine (initially 2s per tun) and other items (initially 6d in the £) Cocket - a customs seal signifying that payment of duty has been made and other requirements met References External links HM Customs & Excise National Museum Administrative history of Customs & Excise National Archives. Customs & Excise Officials and Tax Collectors Pathé Newsreels: Customs / Distillers (HMCE officers measuring sizes of casks and proof of spirits, 1958) Customs men at Oil Refinery (HMCE officer assessing crude oil deliveries, 1958) River Customs (ship rummaging by Preventive Officers, 1958) Customs School (Waterguard Training Centre anti-smuggling branch, 1966) Taxation in the United Kingdom Defunct departments of the Government of the United Kingdom Customs services Defunct law enforcement agencies of the United Kingdom 1643 establishments in England 2005 disestablishments in the United Kingdom HM Revenue and Customs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec%20nationalism
Quebec nationalism
Quebec nationalism or Québécois nationalism is a feeling and a political doctrine that prioritizes cultural belonging to, the defence of the interests of, and the recognition of the political legitimacy of the Québécois nation. It has been a movement and a central issue in Quebec politics since the beginning of the 19th century. Québécois nationalism has seen several political, ideological and partisan variations and incarnations over the years. Quebec nationalism plays a central role in the political movement for the independence of Quebec from Canada. Several groups and political parties claim to be Québécois nationalists. The autonomist political parties, which do not want the sovereignty of Quebec but the expansion of its powers and the defence of its specificity within Canada, such as the Coalition Avenir Québec, also claim to be Québécois nationalists. Quebec nationalism was first known as "French Canadian nationalism". The term was replaced by "Québécois nationalism" during the Quiet Revolution. liberal nationalism New France The settlement of New France was made up of 7 regions that spanned from the Maritimes to the Rockies and from the Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. Although this landscape was vast, most efforts were made to colonize what is now present-day Canada. After the 17th century, the newly arrived French settlers adapted to the terrain of New France. Over time, these settlers developed a regional Canadian identity. This could be seen in the developing of new accents, creation of new legends and stories, emerging societal traits and the use of the French language. The latter originated with the loss of the settlers' langue d'oïls and the adoption of standard French, which came to be used by the educated classes of the colony. It further developed from the levelling of many langues d'oïl which led to the creation of a local accent. During this time, the newly arrived immigrants were no longer seen as immigrants but rather people who embodied not only a Canadian identity but also a provincial identity as well. Moreover, this was complemented by the fact that 95% of the colonists were Francophones, while the remaining people were English-speaking. However, this would prove to create contention later on. 1534–1774 Canada was first a French colony. Jacques Cartier claimed it for France in 1534, and permanent French settlement began in 1608. It was part of New France, which constituted all French colonies in North America. Up until 1760, nationalism had developed itself free of all external influences. However, during the Seven Years' War, the British invaded New France as part of the French and Indian War, winning a conclusive victory at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. At the Treaty of Paris, France agreed to abandon its claims over New France in return for the island of Guadeloupe. From the 1760s onward, nationalism developed within a British constitutional context. Despite intense pressure from outside Parliament, the British government drafted the Quebec Act which guaranteed the restoration of French civil law; guaranteed the free practice of the Catholic faith; and returned the territorial extensions that they had enjoyed before the Treaty of Paris. In effect, this "enlightened" action by leaders in the British Parliament allowed French Canada to retain its unique characteristics. Although detrimental to Britain's relationship with the Thirteen Colonies, this has, in its contemporary assessment, been viewed as an act of appeasement and was largely effective at dissolving nationalism in the 18th century (especially considering the threat and proximity of American revolutionary ideology) yet it became less effective with the arrival of Loyalists after the revolutions. With the Loyalists splitting the Province of Quebec into two identities; Upper Canada and Lower Canada, were labelled by the Loyalists as French Canadians. 1800s–1880s From 1776 to the late 1830s, the world witnessed the creation of many new national states with the birth of the United States, the French Republic, Haiti, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Gran Colombia, Belgium, Greece and others. Often accomplished militarily, these national independence movements occurred in the context of complex ideological and political struggles pitting European metropoles against their respective colonies, often assuming the dichotomy of monarchists against republicans. These battles succeeded in creating independent republican states in some regions of the world, but they failed in other places, such as Ireland, Upper Canada, Lower Canada, and Germany. There is no consensus on the exact time of the birth of a national consciousness in French Canada. Some historians defend the thesis that it existed before the 19th century, because the saw themselves as a people culturally distinct from the French even in the time of New France. The cultural tensions were indeed palpable between the governor of New France, the Canadian-born Pierre de Vaudreuil and General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, a Frenchman, during the French and Indian War. However, the use of the expression (the Canadian nation) by French Canadians is a reality of the 19th century. The idea of a was supported by the liberal or professional class in Lower Canada: lawyers, notaries, librarians, accountants, doctors, journalists, and architects, among others. A political movement for the independence of the people slowly took form following the enactment of the Constitutional Act of 1791. This act of the British Parliament created two colonies, Lower Canada and Upper Canada, each of which had its own political institutions. In Lower Canada, the French-speaking and Catholic held the majority in the elected legislative assembly, but were either a small minority or simply not represented in the appointed legislative and executive councils, both appointed by the governor, representing the British Crown in the colony. Most of the members of the legislative council and the executive council were part of the British ruling class, composed of wealthy merchants, judges, militia officers and other members of the elite supportive of the Tory party. From early 1800 to 1837, the government and the elected assembly were at odds on virtually every issue. Under the leadership of Speaker Louis-Joseph Papineau, the (renamed in 1826) initiated a movement of reform of the political institutions of Lower Canada. The party's constitutional policy, summed up in the Ninety-Two Resolutions of 1834, called for the election of the legislative and executive councils. The movement of reform gathered the support of the majority of the representatives of the people among francophones but also among liberal anglophones. A number of the prominent characters in the reformist movement were of British descent, for example John Neilson, Wolfred Nelson, Robert Nelson and Thomas Storrow Brown or of Irish extraction, Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, Daniel Tracey and Jocquelin Waller. Two currents existed within the reformists of the : a moderate wing, whose members were fond of British institutions and wished for Lower Canada to have a government more accountable to the elective house's representative and a more radical wing whose attachment to British institutions was rather conditional to this proving to be as good as to those of the neighbouring American republics. The formal rejection of all 92 resolutions by the Cabinet of the United Kingdom in 1837 led to a radicalization of the patriotic movement's actions. Louis-Joseph Papineau took the leadership of a new strategy which included the boycott of all British imports. During the summer, many popular gatherings () were organized to protest against the policy of Great Britain in Lower Canada. In November, Governor Archibald Acheson ordered the arrest of 26 leaders of the movement, among whom Louis-Joseph Papineau and many other reformists were members of parliament. This instigated an armed conflict which developed into the Lower Canada Rebellion. Following the repression of the insurrectionist movement of 1838, many of the most revolutionary nationalist and democratic ideas of the were discredited. Ultramontane nationalism 1840s–1950s Although it was still defended and promoted up until the beginning of the 20th century, the French-Canadian liberal nationalism born out of the American and French revolutions began to decline in the 1840s, gradually being replaced by both a more moderate liberal nationalism and the ultramontanism of the powerful Catholic clergy as epitomized by Lionel Groulx. In opposition with the other nationalists, ultramontanes rejected the rising democratic ideal that the people are sovereign and that the Church should have limited influence in governance. To protect the power of the Church and prevent the rise of democracy and the separation of church-and-state, Lionel Groulx and other intellectuals engaged in nationalistic 'myth-making' or propaganda, to build a nationalistic French-Canadian identity, in purpose to protect the power of the Church and dissuade the public from popular-rule and secularist views. Groulx propagated French-Canadian nationalism and argued that maintaining a Roman Catholic Quebec was the only means to 'emancipate the nation against English power.' He believed the powers of the provincial government of Quebec could and should be used within Confederation, to bolster provincial autonomy (and thus Church power), and advocated it would benefit the French-Canadian nation economically, socially, culturally and linguistically. Groulx successfully promoted Québécois nationalism and the ultra-conservative Catholic social doctrine, to which the Church would maintain dominance in political and social life in Quebec. In the 1920s–1950s, this form of traditionalist Catholic nationalism became known as clerico-nationalism. 1950s In the time leading up to the radical changes of the Quiet Revolution the people of Quebec placed more importance on traditional values in life which included going back to their nationalistic roots. Nationalism at this time meant restoring the old regime and going back to the concept of a French-Canadian nation built upon Catholicism as it was in the past. The church and state were intertwined and the church greatly dictated legislature falling under the matters of the state. Nationalism also represented conservation, and in that, not being influenced by the outside world but rather staying within their own borders without room for exploration. Quebec was very closed minded wanting to keep their people and province untouched by the more progressive ideas from the rest of the world. Even in terms of careers, the church governed the state in this aspect and people were working conventional jobs such as in the agricultural industry. Quebec did not align with the fast-paced urban life of Western society that was reflected across the nation and other countries. The lack of great progression is believed to be attributed to the premier of the province at this time Maurice Duplessis. Maurice Duplessis returned to win the 1944 election and stayed in the position of premier of Quebec for fifteen years whilst being the leader of the conservative Union Nationale party. The Union Nationale party valued and upheld the traditional definition of nationalism. This meant the province would upkeep its long-established ways of operating with changes being made only within the scope of the conventional values. Because of this, the Union Nationale party was favored by those who wanted to stick to the accustomed lifestyle and disliked by those who wanted a progressive province being brought into the North American culture. Duplessis's main ideas to transform Quebec were through rapid industrialization, urbanization and a greater and faster development of the province's natural resources. English speakers of the province hoped that industrialization and urbanization would replace the outdated French Canadian society. These changes launched French Canadians into the urban and industrial way of life. There were new opportunities created to provide economic and social stability but by doing so, decreased the importance and significance placed upon cultural and linguistic survival. However, the deaths of Maurice Duplessis in September 1959 and his successor Paul Sauve in January 1960 set in motion the final end to the old traditional definition of Quebec nationalism in the 1950s. A new leader, Quebec and ideology of nationalism would emerge and sweep across the province finally providing French-Canadians their greatly awaited need for change. 1960s The events leading up to the 1960s were catalysts that would tear down and reconstruct the foundation of what it meant to be a Quebec Nationalist. Nationalism in the 1960s represented a completely new mantra unlike the aged significance placed upon it in the 1950s. The 1960s in Quebec was a period of the Quiet Revolution, the Liberal Party of Canada the election of the Parti Québécois, a site of a thriving economy and the beginning of a variety of independent movements. During this time, Quebec was a place of enlightenment, there were changes in the society, values, and economy. This was a time of radical thinking, culture and ideologies, one ideology would finally emerge after centuries of dormancy. Quebec would change from its old fashioned roots and be brought into the progressive mainstream century. A main difference was the secularization of the Catholic Church, practiced by most French Canadians from the province itself. Unlike in the 1950s under Duplessis, the church and state were now separate entities removing the strict control the old fashioned ways of the church had over institutions. The shift gained the province its own independence. These ideologies took off after the victory of Jean Lesage's liberal party in the 1960 provincial election. The election of Jean Lesage and his liberal party finally ended the longstanding ancient regime the people of Quebec had been living under. It began the reinstitution of the outdated socioeconomic and political structures to fully modernize them once and for all. This movement would be known as the Quiet Revolution. The Quiet Revolution signified something different for Quebeckers but a common denominator was that both English and French speakers were happy with the end to Maurice Duplessis's conservative party the Union Nationale that brought much social and political repression. The Quiet Revolution beginning in the 1960s gathered momentum with the many reformations carried out by Jean Lesage including changes to the education, social welfare, hospitalization, hydro-electricity, regional development and greater francophone participation in the industrial sector. Quebec nationalism for the Francophones was on the rise at this time not only within the province but on a global scale as well. Quebec nationalism in the 1960s stemmed from the ideology of decolonization; this new type of nationalism was based on ideas happening on a global scale. Because of the new openness of the province, travelers and people of the church were encouraged to go and learn the ways of life in other parts of the world and then return to share, compare, and incorporate the ideologies into their lifestyle. The oppression of Francophones was also something that Lesage wanted to bring to light and change because of the longstanding cultural and society tension between the Francophones and Anglophones. Lesage had the desire to change the role that the state had over the province. He no longer wanted economic inferiority of French Canadians and the Francophone society, but rather evolving organized labor, educational reform, and the modernization of political process. There were many issues that the province had during this time due to the imbalance between the Francophones and Anglophones on a variety of levels. Even though the Francophones outnumbered the Anglophones, the Francophones were still seen as a minority. This oppression however dated further back than just the 1960s. The province has a history of colonization and conquest that is complex and multi layered. The past history of this province can be seen in the city's landscape marked with a variety of memoir commemorating the overtaking powers. The province's Francophones as well as ethnic and racial minority groups did not have any power, they were living in the poorest parts of cities. It was hard for these groups to progress in their careers or climb the socio-economic ladder. For Francophones it was difficult because success was geared towards the English speaker and prestigious institutions were English speaking and devalued the culture and language of the French. By the early 1960s a group of French Canadians from all classes were receiving proper education but only to go into careers in Anglophone dominated institutions. Avocation of the new form of nationalism was used to address the drastic conditions in the work place as well as living conditions. This was most apparent between the Francophones who believed in the new 1960s idea of nationalism and the predominantly English Canadian anti-nationalists. The goal of the new society was to overcome injustices for minority groups in everyday life. This sparked a number of movements such as the Black Power movement and Women's Rights Movement that were mainly seen in working-class neighbourhoods which gained publicity when journals, conferences and advocates fed into these movements. A movement of a new Quebec with a new meaning behind the word Nationalism would continue to change and progress overtime with the 1960s being the start of this change. Contemporary Quebec nationalism Understanding contemporary Quebec nationalism is difficult considering the ongoing debates on the political status of the province and its complex public opinion. No political option (outright independence, sovereignty-association, constitutional reforms, or signing on to the present Canadian constitution) has achieved decisive majority support and contradictions remain within the Quebec polity. One debated subject that has often made the news is whether contemporary Quebec nationalism is still "ethnic" or if it is "linguistic" or "territorial". The notion of "territorial nationalism" (promoted by all Quebec premiers since Jean Lesage) gathers the support of the majority of the sovereigntists and essentially all Quebec federalist nationalists. Debates on the nature of Quebec's nationalism are currently going on and various intellectuals from Quebec or other parts of Canada have published works on the subject, notably Will Kymlicka, professor of philosophy at Queen's University and Charles Blattberg and Michel Seymour, both professors at the . Ethnic nationalism Many people feel that Quebec nationalism and separatism is ethnic have often expressed their opinion that the sentiments of Quebec's nationalists are insular and parochial and concerned with preserving a population of white francophones within the province. Despite these accusations being denounced by many Quebec nationalists who see both the separatist and nationalist movement as multi-ethnic, there is much evidence to suggest that both movements are based on ethnicity, rather than on territory. An example of this is when Premier of Quebec Jacques Parizeau, commenting on the failure of the 1995 Quebec referendum said "It is true, it is true that we were beaten, but in the end, by what? By money and ethnic votes, essentially." (""). Another example of this was the implementation of Quebec's Bill 21, which sparked controversy after it banned people from wearing religious clothing in certain professions. This law hugely impacted the Muslim community in the province, with many citing it as proof of the movement's ethnic origins, and calling it Islamophobic, and discriminatory. Further controversy was sparked when most nationalist parties stated that the law was not Islamophobic, and instead stated that it was secular. Paul Plamondon, leader of the Parti Québécois (PQ) called someone in the Quebec government out for saying the law was "supremacist" while talking about systemic racism, which caused even more controversy and a backlash to the PQ by the Muslim community, and by the federalists. Quebec nationalism and separatism being ethnically based was further evidenced when the PQ held a protest in Montreal on November 23, 2020, which called for the assimilation of immigrants, and for the strengthening on the French Language in the city. Less than 150 people turned out for the occasion, and by the PQ, as well as other nationalist and separatist parties refusing to acknowledge the existence of systemic racism in Quebec. The president of Quebec's human's rights commission, Philippe-André Tessier, a separatist, called the term systemic racism an "attack on the Quebec people". Linguistic nationalism Another primary expression of nationalism in Quebec is the French language. People who feel that Quebec nationalism is linguistic have often expressed their opinion that Quebec nationalism includes a multi-ethnic or multicultural French-speaking majority (either as mother tongue or first language used in public). The entrenchment of the French language in Quebec has been a central goal of Quebec nationalism since the 1970s. In 1974, the Quebec Legislature passed the Official Language Act under Premier Robert Bourassa. This legislation made French the sole official language of Quebec and the primary language of services, commercial signing, labour relations and business, education, and legislation and justice. In 1977, this Official Language Act was superseded by the Charter of the French Language, which expanded and entrenched French within Quebec. This charter was passed by the first Parti Québécois government of Premier René Lévesque, and its goal was "to make French the language of Government and the Law, as well as the normal and everyday language of work, instruction, communication, commerce and business." After a 45-year hiatus in language legislation in Quebec, the provincial legislature passed An Act respecting French, the official and common language of Québec in 2022. This act greatly expanded the requirement to speak French in many public and private settings. The preliminary notes of the bill make its purpose clear: "the purpose of this bill is to affirm that the only official language of Québec is French. It also affirms that French is the common language of the Québec nation." This act amended the Charter of the French language and introduced "new fundamental language rights," such as reinforcing French as the language of legislation, justice, civil administration, professional orders, employers, commerce and business, and educational instruction. Premier François Legault and his Coalition Avenir Québec government justified this as necessary to preserve the French language that is central to Quebec nationalism. Recognition of the nation by Ottawa On October 21, 2006, during the General Special Council of the Quebec wing of the Liberal Party of Canada initiated a national debate by adopting with more than 80% support a resolution calling on the Government of Canada to recognize the Quebec nation within Canada. A month later, the said resolution was taken to Parliament first by the , then by the Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper. On November 27, 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a motion recognizing that the "Québécois form a nation within a united Canada". In 2021, François Legault's government in Quebec proposed to amend the Charter of the French Language and the provincial constitution to more strongly entrench French as the sole official language. In response to this, the initiated a motion in the House of Commons endorsing the constitutionality of Legault's initiatives and reasserting Quebecers' nationhood. The Commons passed the motion 281–2, with 36 abstentions. Present-day nationalism Quebec nationalism today and what it means to , Quebecers, , Canadians, and others differs based on the individual. Nationalism today is more open than what it was in the past in some ways. A common theme that can be seen is the attachment that have towards their province, and the country of Canada. Nationalist groups Political parties and groupings Bloc Québécois (1991–present) Coalition Avenir Québec (2012–present, The party's ideology is mostly nationalist but also promotes Quebec autonomism and some Canadian federalism) Option nationale (2012–2018, later fused with Québec Solidaire) OUI-Québec Parti Indépendantiste (2007–2014) Parti Québécois (1968–present) Québec debout (2018) Québec Solidaire (2006–present) Union Nationale (1936-1981, The party's ideology is half nationalist but also half Quebec autonomist) Civic organizations Mouvement des Jeunes Souverainistes Mouvement national des Québécois Saint-Jean-Baptiste Societies Academic and intellectual associations Centre étudiant de recherche et d'action nationale (CERAN) (Student research and national action centre) Institut de recherche sur l'autodétermination des peuples et les indépendances nationales (IRAI) (Research Institute on Self-Determination of Peoples and National Independence) Les Intellectuels pour la souveraineté (IPSO) (Intellectuals for Sovereignty) Nationalists newspapers and publications Le Devoir Le Jour Le Québécois Extremist, nativist and ultra-nationalist groups Atalante Fédération des Québécois de souche (Federation of native Québécois) La Meute (2015–present) Storm Alliance Left-wing nationalist groups Front de libération du Québec (Quebec Liberation Front) Nationalist Slogans * ("old-stock Quebecker"): Quebecer who can trace their ancestry back to the regime of New France ("Quebec for Québécois", or "Quebec for Quebecers"): slogan sometimes chanted at Quebec nationalist rallies or protests. This slogan can be controversial, as it might be interpreted both as a call for a Quebec controlled by , with possible xenophobic connotations, or as a call for a Quebec controlled by the inhabitants of the province of Quebec, and free from outside interference. ("Masters of our own house" a phrase coined by Le Devoir editor André Laurendeau, and was the electoral slogan of the Liberal Party during the 1962 election. : "true blue" or "dyed-in-the-wool" Quebecker See also 1980 Quebec referendum 1995 Quebec referendum Canadian nationalism Clarity Act French nationalism History of Quebec Lists of active separatist movements Nationalism Partition of Quebec Politics of Canada Politics of Quebec Quebec federalist ideology Quebec sovereignty movement Quiet Revolution Notes References Claude Bélanger Quebec nationalism In English Books Barreto, Amílcar Antonio (1998). Language, Elites, and the State. Nationalism in Puerto Rico and Quebec, Greenwood, 165 p. () (excerpt) Berberoglu, Berch, ed., (1995). The National Question: Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Self-Determination in the 20th Century, Temple University Press, 329 p. () (excerpt) Buchanan, Allen. Secession: The Morality of Political Divorce from Fort Sumter to Lithuania and Quebec (1991) Carens, Joseph H., ed. (1995), Is Quebec Nationalism Just?: Perspectives from Anglophone Canada, Montreal, McGill-Queen's University Press, 225 p. () (excerpt) Clift, Dominique. Quebec nationalism in crisis (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 1982). Cook, Ramsay (2003). Watching Quebec. Selected Essays, Montreal, McGill-Queen's Press, 225 p. () (excerpt) Gagnon, Alain (2004). Québec. State and Society, Broadview Press, 500 p. () (excerpt) Gougeon, Gilles. (1994). A History of Quebec Nationalism, Lorimer, 118 p. () (except) Henderson, Ailsa (2007). Hierarchies of Belonging: National Identity and Political Culture in Scotland and Quebec, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 250 p. () Keating, Michael (1996). Nations Against the State: The New Politics of Nationalism in Quebec, Catalonia, and Scotland, St. Martins Press, 260 p. () Kymlicka, Will, and Kathryn Walker, eds. Rooted cosmopolitanism: Canada and the world (UBC Press, 2012). Mann, Susan (2002). The Dream of Nation: A Social and Intellectual History of Quebec, McGill-Queen's University Press; 2nd edition, 360 p. () (excerpt) McEwen, Nicola (2006). Nationalism and the State: Welfare and Identity in Scotland and Quebec, Brussels: P.I.E.-Peter Lang, 212 p. () Poliquin, Daniel (2001). In the Name of the Father: An Essay on Quebec nationalism, Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 222 p. () Requejo, Ferran. (2001). Democracy and National Pluralism, 182 p. () (excerpt) Rioux, X. Hubert. Small Nations, High Ambitions: Economic Nationalism and Venture Capital in Quebec and Scotland (U of Toronto Press, 2020). Rivault, Fabrice & Hervé Rivet. (2008). "The Quebec Nation: From Informal Recognition to Enshrinement in the Constitution" in Reconquering Canada: Quebec Federalists Speak Up for Change, Edited by André Pratte, Douglas & McIntyre, Toronto, 344 p. () (link) Seymour, Michel (2004). Fate of the Nation State, Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press, 432 p. () (excerpt) Venne, Michel (2001). Vive Quebec! New Thinking and New Approaches to the Quebec Nation, James Toronto: Lorimer & Company, 221 p. () (excerpt) Newspapers and journals Abelson, Donald, et al. "Millennial and Gen Z francophones don't value Quebec nationalism: In stark contrast to baby boomers who not only identify as Quebecers first but also believe the provincial government best represents their interests" Maclean's August 26, 2020 Banting, Keith, and Will Kymlicka. "Canadian Multiculturalism: Global Anxieties and Local Debates." British Journal of Canadian Studies 23.1 (2010) online. Blanchet, Alexandre, and Mike Medeiros. "The secessionist spectre: the influence of authoritarianism, nativism and populism on support for Quebec independence." Nations and nationalism 25.3 (2019): 803–821. Brie, Evelyne, and Catherine Ouellet. "Exposure to English as a determinant of support for Quebec independence in the 2018 Quebec elections." French Politics (2020). Couture Gagnon, Alexandre, and Diane Saint-Pierre. "Identity, Nationalism, and Cultural and Linguistic Policies in Québec." Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society 50.2 (2020): 115–130. Couture, Jocelyne, Kai Nielsen, and Michel Seymour (ed). "Rethinking Nationalism", in Canadian Journal of Philosophy, Supplementary Volume 22, 1996, 704 p. () Ferland, Benjamin, and Luc Turgeon. "Understanding Majority Attitudes toward Minority Nations in Multinational Federations: The Case of Canada." Publius: The Journal of Federalism 50.2 (2020): 188–212. Gareau, Paul L. "The Army of Mary: Quebec Nationalism and Catholic Heterodoxy." in The Mystical Geography of Quebec (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2020) pp. 55–83. Imbert, Patrick. "Francophones, Multiculturalism and Interculturalism in Canada, Quebec and Europe." in Citizenship and Belonging in France and North America (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2020) pp. 33–53. Kymlicka, Will. "Being Canadian." Government and opposition 38.3 (2003): 357-385 online. Kymlicka, Will. "Canadian multiculturalism in historical and comparative perspective: Is Canada unique." Forum Constititionell 13#1 (2003): 1–8. online. Kymlicka, Will. "Multiculturalism and Citizenship-Building in Canada." CPRN Discussion Paper (2001): 47+ online. Kymlicka, Will. "Quebec: a modern, pluralist, distinct society", in Dissent, American Multiculturalism in the International Arena, Fall 1998, p. 73–79 (archived version) McGrane, David, and Loleen Berdahl. "Reconceptualizing Canadian Federal Political Culture: Examining Differences between Quebec and the Rest of Canada." Publius: The Journal of Federalism 50.1 (2020): 109-134 online. Rocher, François. "The Evolving Parameters of Quebec Nationalism", in JMS: International Journal on Multicultural Societies. 2002, vol. 4, no.1, pp. 74–96. UNESCO. (ISSN 1817-4574) Rocher, François. "The Life and Death of an Issue: Canadian Political Science and Quebec Politics." Canadian Journal of Political Science 52.4 (2019): 631–655.(online) Venne, Michel. "Re-thinking the Quebec nation", in Policy Options, January–February 2000, pp. 53–60 (online) In French Books Balthazar, Louis. "L'évolution du nationalisme québécois", in , ed. Gérard Daigle and Guy Rocher, pp. 647 à 667, Montréal: Les Presses de l’Université de Montréal, 1992, 812 p. Bellavance, Marcel (2004). , Montréal: VLB, 250 p. Bernier Arcand, Philippe, , Montréal, Poètes de brousse, 2015, 160 p. Bock-Côté, Mathieu (2007). , Montréal: Boréal, 211 p. () Bock, Michel (2004). , Montréal: Hurtubise HMH, 452 p. Bouchard, Catherine (2002). , Sainte-Foy: Presses de l'Université Laval, 146 p. () Bouchard, Gérard (2004). , Montréal: Boréal, 319 p. () Bourque, Gilles (1996). , Saint-Laurent: Fides, 383 p. () Brière, Marc (2000). , Montréal : Hurtubise HMH, 222 p. () Brière, Marc (2001). , Montréal: Stanké, 325 p. () Denise Helly and Nicolas Van Schendel (2001). , Québec: Les Presses de l'Université Laval (editor) Diane, Lamoureux (2001). , Montréal: Éditions du Remue-ménage () Gougeon, Gilles (1993). , Québec: VLB Éditeur Ignatieff, Michael (1993). Blood & belonging : journeys into the new nationalism, Toronto : Viking, 201 p. () Keating, Michael (1997). , Montréal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal, 296 p. () Lamonde, Yvan (2000). , Montréal: Éditions Fides, 576 p. () (online) Lamonde, Yvan (2004). , Montréal: Éditions Fides, 336 p. () Martel, Marcel (1997). , Ottawa: Presses de l'Université d'Ottawa, 203 p. () Monière, Denis (2001). , Montréal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal 148 pé () Montpetit, Édouard (2005). , Saint-Laurent: Bibliothèque québécoise, 181 p. () Moreau, François (1995). , Hull : Vents d'ouest, 181 p () Paquin, Stéphane (2001). , Montréal: VLB, 219 p. () Roy, Fernande (1993). , Montréal: Boréal, 128 p. () Ryan, Pascale (2006). , Montréal: Leméac, 324 p. () Sarra-Bournet, Michel ed., (1998). , Montréal: VLB Éditeur, 253 p. Sarra-Bournet, Michel ed., (2001). , Québec: Presses de L’Université Laval, 2001 Seymour, Michel (1999). , L'Hexagone, Seymour, Michel, ed. (1999). , Montréal: Liber, 508 p. () Venne, Michel, ed., (2000). , Montréal: Québec Amérique, Collection Débats Newspapers and journals Beauchemin, Jacques. "Nationalisme québécois et crise du lien social", in , n° 25, 1995, pp. 101–123. Montréal: Département de sociologie, UQAM. Courtois, Stéphane. "Habermas et la question du nationalisme : le cas du Québec", in , vol. 27, no 2, Autumn 2000 Dufresne, Jacques. "La cartographie du génome nationaliste québécois", dans , vol. 1, no. 10, July/August 1994. Gueydan-Lacroix, Saël. "Le nationalisme au Canada anglais : une réalité cachée", in , April 10, 2003 Kelly, Stéphane. "De la laine du pays de 1837, la pure et l'impure", in , Cahiers d'histoire du Québec au XX siècle, no 6, 1996 Robitaille, Antoine. "La nation, pour quoi faire?", in , November 25, 2006 Roy-Blais, Caroline. "La montée du pouvoir clérical après l’échec patriote", in , 2006-12-03 Seymour, Michel. "Un nationalisme non fondé sur l'ethnicité", in , 26–27 April 1999 Seymour, Michel. "Une nation peut-elle se donner la constitution de son choix?", in , Numero Special, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Autumn 1992) Unknown. "L'ultramontanisme", in , May 20, 2000 Further reading
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westboro%20Baptist%20Church
Westboro Baptist Church
The Westboro Baptist Church (WBC) is an American, unaffiliated Primitive Baptist church in Topeka, Kansas, that was founded in 1955 by pastor Fred Phelps. It is widely considered a hate group, and is known for its public protests against homosexual people and for its usage of the phrases "God hates fags" and "Thank God for dead soldiers". It also engages in hate speech against atheists, Jews, Muslims, transgender people, and even other Christian denominations. WBC's theology and practices are widely condemned by other Christian churches, including the Baptist World Alliance and the Southern Baptist Convention, and by politicians and public figures, including former President Barack Obama. WBC has been protesting against gay people since 1989. Within a few years, the group expanded to protesting across the country. They often protest at public and private events, including funerals, sports games, and concerts. Notably, the group protested at the funerals for victims of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting and the West Nickel Mines School shooting. The group is known to deface the American flag or fly it upside down while protesting. It also draws counter-protests. Although the group's right to protest and use hate speech in the United States is protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, the group has faced numerous legal challenges over its history. A 2006 Act of Congress called the Respect for America's Fallen Heroes Act, created primarily due to WBC, placed restrictions on protests at some cemeteries. The 2010–2011 US Supreme Court case Snyder v. Phelps shielded the group from tort liability for a 2006 protest at a military funeral. WBC also files its own lawsuits via a Phelps family law firm (eleven of Phelps' children are lawyers), and has won cases that have yielded thousands of dollars for the group. Members of the group have been banned from entering Canada and the United Kingdom after attempting to protest in those countries. In 2016, Forbes stated WBC had about 70 members. The group primarily consists of members of Phelps's extended family, although many of its members have either left and/or been excommunicated. Several Phelps' family members, including Nathan Phelps and Megan Phelps-Roper, have left the church and become activists against it. Fred Phelps himself was excommunicated from the church around August 2013, shortly before his death in 2014. Before Phelps' death, a church spokesperson stated that the group did not have a defined leader "[f]or a very long time". Several former members have accused the group of brainwashing and abusive behavior. History Westboro Baptist Church originated as a branch of the East Side Baptist Church, which was established in 1931 on the east side of Topeka. In 1954, East Side hired Fred Phelps as an associate pastor. By 1955, Phelps was promoted to pastor of a new East Side church plant, Westboro Baptist, on the west side of Topeka. Its first public service was held on November 27, 1955. After Westboro was established, Phelps broke ties with East Side to become independent of any Baptist denomination. His vitriolic preaching alienated most of the original congregation, who either returned to East Side or joined other congregations, leaving him with a small following consisting almost entirely of his own relatives and close friends. Phelps was a veteran of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. He founded the Phelps Chartered law firm in 1964, which has since been used to sue communities that are targets of Westboro's protests. Westboro Baptist first began protesting homosexuality in 1989 after the discovery of what they referred to as a "tearoom", meaning a public lavatory used for homosexual interactions. The group later began picketing Gage Park six blocks northwest of its headquarters in Topeka in 1991, saying it was a den of anonymous homosexual activity. Soon, its protests had spread throughout the city, and within three years WBC was traveling across the country. Phelps explained in 1994 that he considered the negative reaction to the picketing to be proof of his righteousness. On August 20, 1995, a pipe bomb exploded outside the home of Shirley Phelps-Roper, the daughter of Fred Phelps. The blast damaged an SUV, a fence, and part of the house, but no one was injured. In 1996, two men were arrested for the bombing, and both admitted to causing the blast. They had believed Phelps-Roper's house was that of the pastor and wanted to retaliate against Westboro's anti-gay protests at Washburn University. One of the bombers was fined $1,751 and was sentenced to 16 days in prison plus 100 hours of community service. Fred Phelps died of natural causes on March 19, 2014. His daughter Shirley said a funeral would not be held because Westboro does not "worship the dead". He had previously been voted out of his leadership position and, according to representatives, the organization had no defined leader in the time leading up to his death. Positions and views Westboro Baptists believe in five-point Calvinism, as reflected in the TULIP acronym that is displayed prominently at the front of the church sanctuary. They believe in limited atonement, unconditional election, and the double predestination of both the saved and the damned, which can weigh heavily on members as well as those who leave the church. According to Barrett-Fox, they see "moral living as a sign of election" and they say they have a duty to preach to the public, not to "save people" (who are predestined) but to spread a message of obedience to God. In her dissertation on Westboro Baptist, she labels this theology as Hyper-Calvinist. They see themselves as coming from the Primitive Baptist movement. Their Primitive Baptist practices include their style of worship, approach to church discipline, liturgical preferences and seeing themselves as from a "separatist, antiestablishment" lineage (p. 66). Anti-homosexuality WBC is known for its homophobic rhetoric. The Anti-Defamation League describes the group as "virulently homophobic", saying its anti-homosexual rhetoric is often a cover for antisemitism, anti-Americanism, racism and hatred of other Christian groups. The Southern Poverty Law Center has added WBC to a list of hate groups for its homophobia. The group has also expressed transphobic messages in its protests. Its homophobic outlook has led its members to protest LGBT pride events and funerals of those who died due to HIV/AIDS, as well as blame homosexuals for tragedies such as the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Antisemitism In 1996, Phelps began a campaign called "Topeka's Baptist Holocaust", whereby he attempted to draw attention to attacks perpetrated against WBC picketers, saying they were not random but organized attacks orchestrated by Jews and homosexuals. Phelps announced, "Jews killed Christ", and "Fag Jew Nazis are worse than ordinary Nazis. They've had more experience. The First Holocaust was a Jewish Holocaust against Christians. The latest Holocaust is by Topeka Jews against Westboro Baptist Church." In another statement, he said "Topeka Jews today stir up Kansas tyrants in persecuting Westboro Baptists. They whine about the Nazi Holocaust, while they perpetrate the Topeka Holocaust." A March 25, 2006, flier regarding a Jewish adversary of Phelps uses the phrase "bloody Jew" four times and the phrase "evil Jew" more than once every 12 sentences. The Anti-Defamation League has criticized WBC and Phelps, and keeps a sampling of WBC's fliers regarding Judaism on their website. In an interview, Margie Phelps said WBC targeted the American Jewish community because members had "testified" to gentiles for 19 years that "America is doomed" and that "Now it's too late. We're done with them." She also claimed Jews were "one of the loudest voices" in favor of homosexuality and abortion, and that "[Jews] claim to be God's chosen people. Do you think that God is going to wink at that forever?" Phelps concluded by stating, in an apparent reference to the Book of Revelation, that all the nations of the world would soon march on Israel, and that they would be led by President Barack Obama, whom she called the "Antichrist". Islamophobia Jael Phelps said in a 2011 interview that she and the other members of WBC tauntingly and publicly burned a copy of the Quran while being scolded by a Muslim man, calling it an "idolatrous piece of trash" and that they were giving it the "proper respect that it deserves" by doing so. They picketed the funeral of the Muslim man's wife the following week. Jael Phelps said the wife's death was partly due to her Muslim husband having spoken out against WBC, and therefore rejecting God and bringing his "righteous judgement" down upon him. She also commented that "all those angry little Muslims can just shut their mouths." Barack Obama conspiracy theories Margie Phelps, daughter of Fred Phelps and attorney for WBC, said in an interview with Fox News that Barack Obama would "absolutely" be going to Hell and that he was "most likely the Beast spoken of in the Revelation." She also said Obama's presidency was a sign of the Apocalypse. On January 20, 2013, picketers of the Westboro Baptist Church protested Obama's second inauguration. The protesters had a legal permit and used signs with homophobic messages as well as referring to Obama as the Antichrist. Structure and picketing WBC consists primarily of members of Fred Phelps's extended family. According to Forbes, it has roughly 70 members as of 2016, having previously had 80 members in 2011. In her book on Westboro Baptists, religious studies scholar Rebecca Barrett-Fox describes their identification with Primitive Baptists. Members attend a weekly service and believe in a theology of predestination which includes believing all disasters and catastrophes come from the hand of God. Members follow the organization's 'literal' interpretation of the Bible which informs their attitudes towards homosexuality and towards Judaism. The religious justification for active political hate speech has led to much controversy.WBC's travel expenses have exceeded as much as $200,000 annually. One of Westboro's followers estimated the organization spends $250,000 a year on picketing. According to the Southern Poverty Law Center, it is funded entirely from within the organization and accepts no outside donations. WBC has received money from lawsuits and legal fees, through the closely related Phelps Chartered law firm, when its protests have been unlawfully disrupted. For example, the firm sued the city of Topeka several times in the 1990s, and received $16,500 in legal fees for a court case won against a Marine's bereaved father. Because the firm represents WBC in its lawsuits, it can use money from cases it wins to further fund the organization under the Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Award Act of 1976. WBC is considered a nonprofit organization by the federal government, and is therefore exempt from paying taxes. All five of Phelps Chartered's lawyers are Phelps's children, and eleven of his thirteen children are lawyers. Members of the Phelps family are expected to give ten percent of their earnings to WBC. WBC carries out daily picketing in Topeka and travels nationally to picket the funerals of gay victims of murder or gay-bashing, as well as those of people who have died from complications related to AIDS. It also pickets other events related or peripherally related to homosexuality; Kansas City Chiefs football games, and live pop concerts. At its peak, the group was able to picket roughly 15 churches a day, including many in Topeka and some events farther afield. The group has protested a number of high-profile events such as the funerals of victims of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting and the West Nickel Mines School shooting. As well as protesting these high-profile events, WBC protests many local low-profile events. While the messages are widely condemned, it always ensures its protests are legal in nature. Through keeping the protests non-violent and acquiring the proper permits, WBC avoids legal trouble. However, it is the protesting of military funerals that led to the organization receiving much attention. Its public acts have cast a political spotlight on the group that has given it vast attention for its small size. On two occasions, WBC accepted offers for radio air time in exchange for canceling an announced protest. WBC also releases parody songs. According to Steve Drain (WBC's public information officer) in an interview with Vice News, "When we make our choice of songs, that really revolves around mostly popularity. It's mostly mainstream stuff, the whole idea of our doing parodies is to preach." Legal responses Laws limiting funeral protests In response to the protests conducted by Westboro members at Indiana funerals, a bill was introduced in the Indiana General Assembly that would make it a felony to protest within of a funeral. The bill provides penalties of up to three years in prison and a $10,000 fine for those found to be in violation of the law. Shortly before this bill was signed members of the church had threatened to protest in Kokomo, Indiana, at a funeral service that was being held for a soldier who was killed in Iraq. On January 11, 2006, the bill unanimously (11–0) passed a committee vote, and while members of the church had traveled to Kokomo to protest, they were not seen during or after the funeral service. On May 23, 2006, the state of Michigan banned any intentional disruption of funerals within of the ceremony. Violating the statute would be a felony, punishable by up to two years in prison and a $5,000 fine for the first offense and up to four years in prison and a $10,000 fine for a subsequent offense. On May 17, 2006, the state of Illinois enacted Senate Bill 1144, the "Let Them Rest In Peace Act", to shield grieving military families from protests during funerals and memorial services of fallen military service members. A first-time violation of the Act is a Class C misdemeanor, punishable by up to 30 days in jail and a $1,500 fine, and a second or subsequent offense is a Class 4 felony punishable by one to three years in state prison and a fine of up to $25,000. On March 29, 2006, the Respect for America's Fallen Heroes Act was introduced by Mike Rogers, a Republican member of the House. The bipartisan bill received a 408–3 vote in the House, after 21 representatives chose not to vote. The Senate unanimously voted in approval of the law. On May 29, 2006, President George W. Bush signed the bill into law at a Memorial Day ceremony at Arlington National Cemetery. The bill prohibits protests within of the entrance of any cemetery under control of the National Cemetery Administration from 60 minutes before to 60 minutes after a funeral. Failing to adhere to this law can lead to a substantial fine of up to $100,000 or up to a year in prison. On January 11, 2011, the state of Arizona held an emergency legislative session to pass a bill barring protests within of a funeral and within an hour from its beginning or end. The bill was swiftly signed into law ahead of the January 12 funeral of those killed in the 2011 Tucson shooting. On August 2, 2012, Congress passed a bill that included restrictions on demonstrators at military funerals, which became law four days later when signed by President Obama, who condemned WBC. This bill was primarily motivated by WBC's protests at memorial services for victims of the 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. Several petitions to the White House (using the We the People system) were submitted, calling on President Barack Obama to legally recognize WBC as a hate group, revoke its tax exemption for religious organizations, and to ban protests at funerals and memorial services. The bill mandated staying at least 300 feet (91 m) away from funerals and homes of family members for 2 hours before until 2 hours after a funeral. The church condemned the restrictions. Supreme Court case On March 10, 2006, WBC picketed the funeral of Marine Lance Corporal Matthew A. Snyder in Westminster, Maryland. A cordoned off picket was held approximately from the church for about 30 minutes before the funeral began. Snyder's father, Albert, sued for defamation, invasion of privacy, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. The lawsuit alleged Fred Phelps, Rebekah Phelps-Davis, and Shirley Phelps-Roper were responsible for publishing defamatory statements about the Snyder family on the internet, including that Albert and his wife had "raised [Matthew] for the devil" and taught him "to defy his Creator, to divorce, and to commit adultery". Other statements denounced them for raising their son Catholic. Snyder further alleged the defendants had intruded upon and staged protests at his son's funeral. The defamation count was dismissed on First Amendment grounds, but the case proceeded to trial on the remaining two counts. District Judge Richard D. Bennett instructed the jury to decide "whether the defendant's actions would be highly offensive to a reasonable person, whether they were extreme and outrageous and whether these actions were so offensive and shocking as to not be entitled to First Amendment protection". On October 31, 2007, Phelps, Shirley Phelps-Roper and Rebecca Phelps-Davis were found liable for invasion of privacy and intentional infliction of emotional distress. The jury awarded Snyder a total of $10,900,000; $2.9 million in compensatory damages, $6 million in punitive damages for invasion of privacy and $2 million for causing emotional distress. The group unsuccessfully sought a mistrial based on alleged prejudicial statements made by the judge and violations of the gag order by the plaintiff's attorney. On February 4, 2008, Bennett upheld the ruling but reduced the punitive damages to $2.1 million. Liens were ordered on WBC buildings and Phelps's law office in an attempt to ensure the damages would be paid. On September 24, 2009, a federal appeals court reversed the lower court's award. It found the picket near the funeral was protected speech because it involved "matters of public concern, including the issues of homosexuals in the military, the sex-abuse scandal within the Catholic Church, and the political and moral conduct of the United States and its citizens", and did not violate the privacy of the service member's family. On March 30, 2010, the appeals court ordered Snyder to pay WBC's court costs of over $16,000, a move Snyder's attorneys referred to as "adding insult to injury". On March 8, 2010, the Supreme Court granted certiorari in Snyder v. Phelps. On May 28, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid and 42 other senators filed an amicus brief in support of Snyder. On June 1, Kansas Attorney General Stephen Six filed a separate brief supporting Snyder which was joined by the Attorneys General of 47 other states and the District of Columbia. Several news and civil rights organizations filed amicus briefs in support of Phelps. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Phelps on March 2, 2011. Chief Justice John Roberts wrote of the 8–1 decision: "What Westboro said, in the whole context of how and where it chose to say it, is entitled to 'special protection' under the First Amendment and that protection cannot be overcome by a jury finding that the picketing was outrageous." Justice Samuel Alito, the lone dissenter, said Snyder wanted only to "bury his son in peace" and "Our profound national commitment to free and open debate is not a license for the vicious verbal assault that occurred in this case". Entry bans In August 2008, Canadian officials learned of WBC's intent to stage a protest at the funeral of Tim McLean, a Winnipeg resident who was killed on a bus. The protests intended to convey the message that the man's murder was God's response to Canadian laws permitting abortion, homosexuality, divorce and remarriage. In response, Canadian officials barred the organization's members from entering the country. In February 2009, British news sources discovered WBC had announced, via its website, its intent to picket a youth production of The Laramie Project to be held at Central Studio, Queen Mary's College in the town of Basingstoke, Hampshire, on February 20, 2009. This would have been its first picket in the United Kingdom. In the lead-up to the picket, Members of Parliament, LGBT groups, and lobbyists appealed to British Home Secretary, Jacqui Smith, requesting WBC be blocked from entering the UK, on the basis of it inciting hatred towards LGBT people. On February 18, 2009, two days before the intended picket date, the Home Office announced Fred Phelps and Shirley Phelps-Roper would be specifically excluded from entering the UK for having "engaged in unacceptable behaviour by inciting hatred against a number of communities", and also other members "could also be flagged and stopped if they tried to enter Britain". Other legal responses In 1995, Phelps Sr.'s eldest grandson, Benjamin Phelps, was convicted of assault and disorderly conduct after spitting upon the face of a passerby during a picket. In the 1990s, WBC won a series of lawsuits against the City of Topeka and Shawnee County for efforts taken to prevent or hinder WBC picketing, and was awarded approximately $200,000 in attorney's fees and costs associated with the litigation. In 2004, Phelps Sr.'s daughter Margie Phelps and Margie's son Jacob were arrested for trespassing, disorderly conduct and failure to obey after disregarding a police officer's order during an attempted protest. In June 2007 Shirley Phelps-Roper was arrested in Nebraska and charged with contributing to the delinquency of a minor. The arrest resulted from her allowing her ten-year-old son to step on a U.S. flag during the demonstration, which is illegal under Nebraska law. The defense contended that the child's actions were protected speech, and that the state law is unconstitutional. The prosecution claimed the demonstration was not intended as political speech, but as an incitement to violence, and that Phelps-Roper's conduct might also constitute child abuse. Prosecutors later dropped charges against Phelps-Roper. On July 14, 2006, Mundy Township, Michigan billed WBC for $5,000, after it had informed the township authorities on June 28 that a protest was planned at the Swartz Funeral Home. The bill to WBC ensued, according to the local police chief, because the organization failed to keep a verbal contract for security. Fred Phelps's daughter claimed that the Holy Ghost had informed them not to fly to Michigan even though they had already purchased airline tickets. Security at the Webb funeral was high; 15 fire trucks were involved, as well as numerous police officers from nearby jurisdictions. The township has stated that it will not pursue the matter. Criticisms Counter-protests Counter protestors have appeared at some of WBC's protests, sometimes numbering in the hundreds or thousands. Counter-protestors have been known to display humorous signs to mock the group. In particular, the phrase "God hates figs" is commonly used, along with citations to bible verses in which Jesus says that none should eat the fruit of a fig tree, in which Jesus causes a fig tree to wither, and in which God promises as a punishment to make someone like bad figs. The signs have appeared at counter-protests at the University of Chicago, in Spartanburg, South Carolina, and in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. They also appear at non-WBC-related events, such as the Rally to Restore Sanity. The use of these satirical signs has been praised by the American Civil Liberties Union and others. Other phrases include "God Hates Fred Phelps", "God Hates Bags", and "God Hates Shrimp". The dysfunctional Cooper family in Kevin Smith's 2011 film Red State was reportedly inspired by WBC. Criticism from other Christians Baptist churches, Baptist-affiliated seminaries, and Baptist conventions, including the Baptist World Alliance and the Southern Baptist Convention (two of the largest Baptist groups), have denounced WBC over the years. In addition, other mainstream Christian denominations have condemned the actions of WBC. Katherine Weber of The Christian Post states that "Westboro is considered an extremist group by most mainstream Christian churches and secular groups, and is well known for its aggressive protesting style." An alliance of six British religious groups (the Methodist Church of Great Britain, Baptist Union of Great Britain, United Reformed Church, Evangelical Alliance UK, Faithworks, and Bible Society-funded thinktank Theos) made a joint statement on February 19, 2009, in support of the government's entry ban for members of WBC. They condemned the activities of WBC, stating: Evangelist pastor Jerry Falwell Sr. referred to Fred Phelps as "a first-class nut". WBC picketed Falwell's funeral service on May 22, 2007. In 2013, Christian rock band Five Iron Frenzy recorded a song titled "God Hates Flags" condemning the actions of the Westboro Baptist Church and similar organizations, including such lyrics as "If God is love you got it wrong waving all your placards and flags". Other criticisms A number of critics have alleged that the actions of WBC are merely a ploy to receive publicity, and argue that ignoring it completely would be more effective than counter-protests. Political commentator Bill O'Reilly frequently criticizes WBC, and has called them "evil and despicable". During Snyder v. Phelps, he offered to pay the entire amount of Albert Snyder's legal costs. Documentary filmmaker Michael Moore has also criticized WBC. In response to WBC's protests after the Sandy Hook shooting, Rapper Mac Lethal criticized the group in a video entitled "Beatbox + iPhone + Guitar + Fast Rap = Win". Former members Since 2004, over 20 members of WBC, mostly family members, have left the organization and the Phelps family. Several of them have accused WBC of brainwashing. Mark Phelps, estranged son of WBC's founder, Fred Phelps, left the organization in 1973 and began "formal healing therapy in 1988 and worked toward healing and restoration, overcoming the horrible pain and fear from the 19 years of living with" his father. Mark was re-baptized in a local church in 1994 and stated: "If I had to take my family to court and convict them of being followers of Christ, I am not sure where I would find the evidence." Libby Phelps-Alvarez, a granddaughter of the late Fred Phelps and daughter of Fred Phelps Jr. left WBC in 2009. In 2017, she released a book entitled Girl on a Wire: Walking the Line Between Faith and Freedom. The book documents her years in WBC and what lead up to her decision to leave and eventual departure. Phelps-Alvarez is now an advocate for gay equality. Zach Phelps-Roper is the grandson of Fred Phelps and the fourth sibling of the Phelps-Roper family to leave WBC (besides Megan and Grace mentioned below, brothers Joshua and Noah have also left). After attempting to leave the organization five times previously, he finally left in 2014 after his views began to change. He now preaches about a life of empathy and unconditional love. Danielle Phelps, granddaughter of Fred Phelps, left the church in 2014 shortly after her grandfather's death. She is openly gay and joined the US Marine Corps after leaving the church. In an interview with Harry Robinson on the All Out Attack Podcast, Danielle revealed that Steve Drain, father of Lauren Drain and one of the elders of the church after Fred Phelps's passing, and the rest of his family, had reportedly been excommunicated from the church. Nathan Phelps Nathan Phelps is another estranged son of Fred. He left Westboro on his 18th birthday in 1976. He has stated that he never had a relationship with his abusive father when he was growing up, and that WBC is an organization for his father to "vent his rage and anger." He has also stated that, in addition to hurting others, his father used to physically abuse his wife and children by beating them with his fists and with the handle of a mattock to the point of bleeding. Phelps's brother Mark has supported and repeated Nathan's claims of physical abuse by their father. In March 2014, Nathan posted on Facebook that his father was in a hospice in Topeka and was near death, and that Fred was excommunicated from WBC in August 2013, for unclear reasons. These assertions were later reaffirmed by Mark Phelps. Nathan had previously predicted the organization may fall into leadership and theological crises when Fred died, because he had been the binding figure and because their beliefs hold that they are immortal, which would be disproved with the death of a member. WBC spokesperson Steve Drain denied Fred Sr. was on the verge of death and refused to confirm the reported excommunication. Fred Sr. died three days later. Megan Phelps-Roper Megan Phelps-Roper, a grandchild of Fred Phelps, left WBC in 2012 together with her sister Grace, and explained her reasons and experiences in a TED talk. In 2015, Sam Harris published an interview with her. She has written a book entitled Unfollow: A Journey from Hatred to Hope, leaving the Westboro Baptist Church. She has been making a film about her experiences and notes that four of her siblings have also left WBC. Lauren Drain Lauren Drain, another former member of WBC who was excommunicated in 2008, released an autobiography titled Banished in March 2013. She characterizes children, like herself, as being brainwashed into their belief system and describes consequences of questioning their belief system, such as her banishment. Media coverage In 2001, Sundance Channel aired the film A Union in Wait, a documentary about same-sex marriage directed by Ryan Butler. Phelps and members of WBC appeared in the film after Phelps picketed Wake Forest Baptist Church at Wake Forest University over a proposed same-sex union ceremony. In 2005, the British satellite company British Sky Broadcasting produced an investigative piece using hidden cameras, which included footage of two of Phelps's granddaughters, Libby and Jael. In the testimonial, Libby and Jael explain that they hope and pray that no one outside of Westboro becomes "elect", because they want everyone else in the world to die horribly and burn in Hell, and that even if they did not believe their actions were dictated by God, they would still do and enjoy them anyway. On April 1, 2007, British television channel BBC Two broadcast Louis Theroux's The Most Hated Family in America. Theroux has presented a number of documentaries about unusual or unconventional people and groups in the UK, the US and elsewhere. In the documentary, Theroux questioned Shirley Phelps-Roper as to whether she had considered if Westboro's protests were more likely to "put people off the Word of Jesus Christ and the Bible". In response, she said, "You think our job is to win souls to Christ. All we do, by getting in their face and putting these signs in front of them and these plain words, is make what's already in their heart come out of their mouth." Later in the documentary, Phelps-Roper agreed the $200,000 WBC annually spent to fly to funerals to protest was money spent to spread "God's hate". While being filmed by Theroux, it picketed a local appliance store because the store sold Swedish vacuum cleaners, which the group viewed as being supportive of gay people because of Swedish prosecution of Åke Green, a pastor critical of homosexuality. The website godhatesfags.com was prominently featured in The Jeremy Kyle Show, a talk show aired on the ITV network in the United Kingdom on June 5, 2007. Shirley Phelps-Roper and her daughters had been invited to express their beliefs live via satellite. On the show, Kyle criticized the Phelpses for their beliefs and referred to the Phelps children as "completely and utterly brainwashed", and to Phelps-Roper herself as "deranged". In the June 21, 2007, Channel 4 documentary Keith Allen Will Burn in Hell, starring Keith Allen, on which Phelps-Roper and some of her children agreed to appear, Phelps-Roper admitted on camera that her oldest son, Samuel, was born out of wedlock. Allen declared Phelps-Roper's vocal condemnation of strangers having sexual congress outside of marriage to be hypocritical as she was guilty of the same thing. Louis Theroux made a follow-up to his first documentary which was broadcast in the UK on April 3, 2011, America's Most Hated Family in Crisis. Theroux reported that Westboro was in a state of "crisis" and documented the departure of several young members. Since then, two more prominent members have left WBC. Louis returned for a third documentary, Surviving America's Most Hated Family, in 2019. Gallery See also Anti-Catholicism in the United States Antisemitism in the United States Criticism of Christianity Hate speech Islamophobia in the United States List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBT hate groups Societal attitudes toward homosexuality Notes References External links (godhatesfags.com) Funeral Protests: Selected Federal Laws and Constitutional IssuesCongressional Research Service Bullying in the United States 1955 establishments in Kansas Organizations based in Topeka, Kansas Right-wing antisemitism Anti-Zionism in the United States Antisemitism in the United States Islamophobia in the United States Organizations that oppose LGBT rights in the United States Baptist churches in Kansas Calvinist denominations established in the 20th century Criticism of atheism Obscenity controversies Christian organizations established in 1955 Protestantism-related controversies Religious controversies in the United States Late modern Christian antisemitism Organizations that oppose transgender rights in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis%20F.%20Powell%20Jr.
Lewis F. Powell Jr.
Lewis Franklin Powell Jr. (September 19, 1907 – August 25, 1998) was an American lawyer and jurist who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1972 to 1987. Born in Suffolk, Virginia, he graduated from both Washington and Lee Law School and Harvard Law School and served in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II. He worked for Hunton & Williams, a large law firm in Richmond, Virginia, focusing on corporate law and representing clients such as the Tobacco Institute. His 1971 Powell Memorandum became the blueprint for the rise of the American conservative movement and the formation of a network of influential right-wing think tanks and lobbying organizations, such as The Heritage Foundation and the American Legislative Exchange Council. In 1971, President Richard Nixon appointed Powell to succeed Associate Justice Hugo Black. He retired from the Court during the administration of President Ronald Reagan, and was eventually succeeded by Anthony Kennedy. His tenure largely overlapped with that of Chief Justice Warren Burger, and Powell was often a key swing vote on the Burger Court. His majority opinions include First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti and McCleskey v. Kemp, and he wrote an influential opinion in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke. He notably joined the majority in cases such as United States v. Nixon, Roe v. Wade, Plyler v. Doe, and Bowers v. Hardwick. Early life and education Powell was born in Suffolk, Virginia, the son of Mary Lewis (Gwathmey) and Louis Franklin Powell. Powell set out to attend Washington and Lee University where he became president of his fraternity, managing editor of the student newspaper, and a member of the yearbook staff. His major was in commerce, but he also studied law. Powell had always planned on becoming a lawyer because he viewed their roles as shaping history. He graduated in 1929 with a B.A. magna cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa. He also was named recipient of the Algernon Sydney Sullivan Award for "generous service to others". Powell then attended Washington and Lee University School of Law and in 1931 graduated first in his class. He received a Master of Laws degree from Harvard Law School in 1932, wrote a LL.M. thesis entitled "Relation between the Virginia Court of Appeals and the State Corporation Commission", and was one of two U.S. Supreme Court justices to have earned an LL.M. degree. He was elected president of the student body as an undergraduate with the help of Mosby Perrow Jr., and the two served together on the Virginia State Board of Education in the 1960s. Powell was a member of Phi Kappa Sigma fraternity and the Sigma Society. At a leadership conference, he met Edward R. Murrow, and they became close friends. In 1936, he married Josephine Pierce Rucker with whom he had three daughters and one son. She died in 1996. Career Military service, 1939–1945 During World War II, he first tried to join the United States Navy but was rejected because of poor eyesight, so he joined the US Army Air Forces as an Intelligence officer. After receiving his commission as a first lieutenant in 1942, he completed training at bases near Miami, Florida and Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. He was assigned to the 319th Bombardment Group, which moved to England later that year. He served in North Africa during Operation Torch and was later assigned to the Headquarters of the Northwest African Air Forces. There, Powell served in Sicily during the Allied invasion of Sicily. In August 1943, he was assigned to the Intelligence staff of the Army Air Forces in Washington, D.C. Slated for assignment as an instructor at the facility near Harrisburg, he worked instead on several special projects for the AAF headquarters until February 1944. He was then assigned to the Intelligence staff of the Department of War and then the Intelligence staff of United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe. While there Colonel Powell wrote in the aftermath of the 13–15 February 1945 Bombing of Dresden that "Personally, I consider this very fortunate indeed as the German people are being taught for the first time in modern history what it means to have war on their own soil." Powell was assigned to the Ultra project, as one of the officers designated to monitor the use of intercepted Axis communications. He worked in England and in the Mediterranean Theater and ensured that the use of Ultra information was in compliance with the laws of war, and that the use of such information did not reveal the source, which would have alerted that the code had been broken. Powell advanced through the ranks to colonel, and received the Legion of Merit, Bronze Star Medal, and French Croix de Guerre with bronze palm. He was discharged in October 1945. Legal career In 1941, Powell served as Chairman of the American Bar Association's Young Lawyers Division. Powell was a partner for more than a quarter of a century at Hunton, Williams, Gay, Powell and Gibson, a large Virginia law firm, with its primary office in Richmond, now known as Hunton Andrews Kurth. Powell practiced primarily in the areas of corporate law, especially in the fields of mergers and acquisitions and railroad litigation. From 1961 to 1962 Powell served as Chair of the American Bar Association's Standing Committee on the Economics of Law Practice, which later evolved into the ABA Law Practice Division. During his tenure as Chair of the Committee, The Lawyers Handbook was first published and distributed to all attorneys who joined the ABA that year. In its preface, Powell wrote, "The basic concept of freedom under law, which underlies our entire structure of government, can only be sustained by a strong and independent bar. It is plainly in the public interest that the economic health of the legal profession be safeguarded. One of the means toward this end is to improve the efficiency and productivity of lawyers." From 1964 to 1965 he was elected President of the ABA. Powell led the way in attempting to provide legal services to the poor, and he made a key decision to cooperate with the federal government's Legal Services Program. Powell was also involved in the development of Colonial Williamsburg, where he was both a trustee and general counsel. From 1964 until his court appointment in 1971 he was a board member of Philip Morris and acted as a contact point for the tobacco industry with Virginia Commonwealth University. Through his law firm, Powell represented the Tobacco Institute and various tobacco companies in numerous cases. Virginia government, 1951–1970 Powell played an important role in local community affairs. From 1951 he served on the Richmond School Board and was its Chairman from 1952 to 1961. Powell presided over the school board at a time when the Commonwealth of Virginia was locked in a campaign of defiance against the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which desegregated public schools. Powell's law firm, although not Powell himself, represented one of the defendant school districts in Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, which was consolidated later into Brown. The Richmond School Board had no authority at the time to force integration, however, as control over attendance policies had been transferred to the state government. Powell, like most white Southern leaders of his day, did not speak out against the state's defiance, but fostered a close relationship with many black leaders, such as civil rights lawyer Oliver Hill, some of whom offered key support for Powell's Supreme Court nomination. In 1990, Powell swore in Virginia's first black governor, Douglas Wilder. From 1961 to 1969, Powell served on the Virginia Board of Education; he was Chairman from 1968 to 1969. Powell Memorandum, 1971 On August 23, 1971, prior to accepting Nixon's nomination to the Supreme Court, Powell was commissioned by his neighbor Eugene B. Sydnor Jr., a close friend and education director of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, to write a confidential memorandum for the chamber entitled "Attack on the American Free Enterprise System," an anti-Communist and anti-New Deal blueprint for conservative business interests to retake America. It was based in part on Powell's reaction to the work of activist Ralph Nader, whose 1965 exposé on General Motors, Unsafe at Any Speed, put a focus on the auto industry putting profit ahead of safety, which triggered the American consumer movement. Powell saw it as an undermining of the power of private business and a step toward socialism. His experiences as a corporate lawyer and a director on the board of Phillip Morris from 1964 until his appointment to the Supreme Court made him a champion of the tobacco industry who railed against the growing scientific evidence linking smoking to cancer deaths. He argued, unsuccessfully, that tobacco companies' First Amendment rights were being infringed when news organizations were not giving credence to the cancer denials of the industry. The memo called for corporate America to become more aggressive in molding society's thinking about business, government, politics and law in the US. It inspired wealthy heirs of earlier American industrialists, the Earhart Foundation (whose money came from an oil fortune), and the Smith Richardson Foundation (from the cough medicine dynasty) to use their private charitable foundations−which did not have to report their political activities−to join the Carthage Foundation, founded by Richard Mellon Scaife in 1964. The Carthage Foundation pursued Powell's vision of a pro-business, anti-socialist, minimally government-regulated America based on what he thought America had been in the heyday of early American industrialism, before the Great Depression and the rise of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal. The Powell Memorandum ultimately came to be a blueprint for the rise of the American conservative movement and the formation of a network of influential right-wing think tanks and lobbying organizations, such as the Business Roundtable, The Heritage Foundation, the Cato Institute, Manhattan Institute for Policy Research and the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), and inspired the U.S. Chamber of Commerce to become far more politically active. CUNY professor David Harvey traces the rise of neoliberalism in the US to this memo. Historian Gary Gerstle refers to the memo as "a neoliberal call to arms." Political scientist Aaron Good describes it as an "inverted totalitarian manifesto" designed to identify threats to the established economic order following the democratic upsurge of the 1960s. Powell argued, "The most disquieting voices joining the chorus of criticism came from perfectly respectable elements of society: from the college campus, the pulpit, the media, the intellectual and literary journals, the arts and sciences, and from politicians." In the memorandum, Powell advocated "constant surveillance" of textbook and television content, as well as a purge of left-wing elements. He named consumer advocate Nader as the chief antagonist of American business. Powell urged conservatives to undertake a sustained media-outreach program, including funding neoliberal scholars, publishing books, papers, popular magazines, and scholarly journals, and influencing public opinion. This memo foreshadowed a number of Powell's court opinions, especially First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti, which shifted the direction of First Amendment law by declaring that corporate financial influence of elections by independent expenditures should be protected with the same vigor as individual political speech. Much of the future Court opinion in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission relied on the same arguments raised in Bellotti. Although written confidentially for Sydnor at the Chamber of Commerce, it was discovered by Washington Post columnist Jack Anderson, who reported on its content a year later (after Powell had joined the Supreme Court). Anderson alleged that Powell was trying to undermine the democratic system; however, in terms of business's view of itself in relation to government and public interest groups, the memo could be alternatively read to simply convey conventional thinking among businessmen at the time. The explicit goal of the memo was not to destroy democracy, though its emphasis on political institution-building as a concentration of big business power, particularly updating the Chamber's efforts to influence federal policy, has had that effect. Here, it was a major force in motivating the Chamber and other groups to modernize their efforts to lobby the federal government. Following the memo's directives, conservative foundations greatly increased, pouring money into think-tanks. This rise of conservative lobbying led to the conservative intellectual movement and its increasing influence over mainstream political discourse, starting in the 1970s and 1980s, and due chiefly to the works of the American Enterprise Institute and the Heritage Foundation. Copies of the memorandum and related materials are currently available at the Scholarly Commons website of the Washington and Lee University School of Law. Supreme Court tenure, 1972–1987 In 1969, Nixon asked him to join the Supreme Court, but Powell turned him down. In 1971, Nixon asked him again. Powell was unsure, but Nixon and his Attorney General, John N. Mitchell, persuaded him that joining the Court was his duty to the nation. One of the primary concerns that Powell had was the effect leaving his law firm and joining the high court would have on his personal financial status, as he enjoyed a very lucrative private practice at his law firm. Another of Powell's major concerns was that as a corporate attorney, he would be unfamiliar with many of the issues that would come before the Supreme Court, which, as now, heard very few corporate law cases. Powell feared that would place him at a disadvantage and make it unlikely that he would be able to influence his colleagues. Nixon nominated Powell and William Rehnquist to the Court on the same day, October 21, 1971. Powell took over the seat of Hugo Black after being confirmed by the Senate 89-1 on December 7, 1971 (the lone "nay" came from Oklahoma Democrat Fred R. Harris). On the day of Powell's swearing-in, when Rehnquist's wife Nan asked Josephine Powell if this was the most exciting day of her life, Josephine said, "No, it is the worst day of my life. I am about to cry." Lewis Powell served from January 7, 1972 until June 26, 1987, when he retired from the Court. Powell was among the 7–2 majority who legalized abortion in the United States in Roe v. Wade (1973). Powell's pro-choice stance on abortion stemmed from an incident during his tenure at his Richmond law firm, when the girlfriend of one of Powell's office staff bled to death from an illegal self-induced abortion. Powell, who dissented in the case of Furman v. Georgia (1972), striking down capital punishment statutes, was a key mover behind the Court's compromise opinion in Gregg v. Georgia (1976), which allowed the return of capital punishment but only with procedural safeguards. In Coker v. Georgia (1977), a convicted murderer escaped from prison and, in the course of committing an armed robbery and other offenses, raped an adult woman. The State of Georgia sentenced the rapist to death. Justice Powell, acknowledging that the woman had been raped, expressed the view that "the victim [did not] sustain serious or lasting injury" and voted to set the death penalty aside. In that same case, Powell also wrote to rebuke the plurality's statement that "for the rape victim, life may not be nearly so happy as it was, but it is not over and normally is not beyond repair," instead stating that "[s]ome victims are so grievously injured physically or psychologically that life is beyond repair." His opinion in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978), joined by no other justice in full, represented a compromise between the opinions of Justice William J. Brennan, who, joined by three other justices, would have upheld affirmative action programs under a lenient judicial test, and the opinion of John Paul Stevens, joined by three other justices, who would have struck down the affirmative action program at issue in the case under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Powell's opinion striking down the law urged "strict scrutiny" to be applied to affirmative action programs but hinted that some affirmative action programs might pass Constitutional muster. In the controversial case of Snepp v. U.S. (1980), the Court issued a per curiam upholding the lower court's imposition of a constructive trust upon former CIA agent Frank Snepp and its requirement for preclearance of all his published writings with the CIA for the rest of his life. In 1997, Snepp gained access to the files of Justices Thurgood Marshall (who had already died) and William J. Brennan Jr. (who voluntarily granted Snepp access) and confirmed his suspicion that Powell had been the author of the per curiam opinion. Snepp later pointed out that Powell had misstated the factual record and had not reviewed the actual case file (Powell was in the habit of writing opinions based on the briefs alone) and that the only justice who even looked at the case file was John Paul Stevens, who relied upon it in composing his dissent. From his days in counterintelligence during World War II, Powell believed in the need for government secrecy and urged the same position on his colleagues during the Court's consideration of 1974's United States v. Nixon. Powell wrote the majority opinion in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (1978), which overturned a Massachusetts law restricting corporate contributions to referendum campaigns not directly related to their business. Powell joined the 5–4 majority opinion in Plyler v. Doe, holding that a Texas law forbidding undocumented immigrant children from public education was unconstitutional. Powell had a fairly conservative record in deciding cases, but joined the Court's four liberal Justices to declare the law unconstitutional. Powell was the swing vote in Bowers v. Hardwick, , in which the Court upheld Georgia's sodomy laws. He was reportedly conflicted over how to vote. A conservative clerk, Michael W. Mosman, advised him to uphold the ban, and Powell, who believed he had never met a gay person, not realizing that one of his own clerks was a closeted homosexual, voted to uphold Georgia's sodomy law. However, he, in a concurring opinion, expressed concern at the length of the prison terms prescribed by the law. The Court, 17 years later, expressly overruled Bowers in Lawrence v. Texas, . In 1990, after his retirement from the Court, he said, "I think I made a mistake in the Hardwick case," marking one of the few times a justice expressed regret for one of his previous votes. Scholars would later conclude that Powell unknowingly hired more gay clerks than any other Justice. Paul M. Smith, the gay attorney who argued in favor of overturning Bowers is a former clerk for Justice Powell. Powell also expressed post-retirement regret over his majority opinion in McCleskey v. Kemp (1987), where he voted to uphold the death penalty against a study that demonstrated that, except as punishment for the most violent of crimes, murderers sentenced for killing white victims were up to forty times more likely to receive the death penalty than people who killed black victims. In an interview with his biographer, he stated that he would abolish the death penalty altogether. Retirement and death, 1987–1998 Powell was nearly 80 years old when he retired from his position as Supreme Court justice in June 1987. His career on the bench was summed up by Gerald Gunther, a professor of constitutional law at Stanford Law School, as "truly distinguished" because of his "qualities of temperament and character," which "made it possible for him, more than any contemporary, to perform his tasks in accordance with the modest, restrained, yet creative model of judging." He was succeeded by Anthony Kennedy. Kennedy was the third nominee for his position. The first, Robert Bork, was rejected by the United States Senate. The second, Douglas H. Ginsburg, withdrew his name from consideration after admitting to having smoked marijuana both as a college undergraduate and with his students while a law professor. Following his retirement from the high court, he sat regularly on various United States Courts of Appeals around the country. In 1990, Douglas Wilder asked Powell to swear him in as governor of Virginia, and the first elected African-American governor in the United States. Powell died at his home in the Windsor Farms area of Richmond, Virginia, of pneumonia, at 4:30 in the morning of August 25, 1998, at the age of 90. He is buried in Richmond's Hollywood Cemetery. Legacy In her 2002 book, The Majesty of the Law, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor wrote, "For those who seek a model of human kindness, decency, exemplary behavior, and integrity, there will never be a better man." Powell's personal and official papers were donated to his alma mater, Washington and Lee University School of Law, where they are open for research, subject to certain restrictions. A wing at Sydney Lewis Hall, home of W&L Law, which houses his papers, is named for him. J. Harvie Wilkinson, a judge on the Fourth Circuit, and former law clerk for Justice Powell, wrote a book titled Serving Justice: A Supreme Court Clerk's View describing the experience. In 1993, President Bill Clinton signed into law an act of Congress renaming the Federal courthouse at Richmond, Virginia, in his honor, the Lewis F. Powell Jr. United States Courthouse. See also List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 1) List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office United States Supreme Court cases during the Burger Court United States Supreme Court cases during the Rehnquist Court References Bibliography External links FBI file on Lewis F. Powell, Jr. at vault.fbi.gov 1907 births 1998 deaths 20th-century American judges United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II American Presbyterians Deaths from pneumonia in Virginia Harvard Law School alumni Lawyers from Richmond, Virginia Military personnel from Virginia People associated with Hunton Andrews Kurth People from Suffolk, Virginia Presidents of the American Bar Association Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France) Recipients of the Legion of Merit School board members in Virginia United States Army Air Forces officers United States federal judges appointed by Richard Nixon Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States Virginia Democrats Virginia lawyers Washington and Lee University School of Law alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division%20of%20the%20assembly
Division of the assembly
In parliamentary procedure, a division of the assembly, division of the house, or simply division is a method of taking a vote that physically counts members voting. Historically, and often still today, members are literally divided into physically separate groups. This was the method used in the Roman Senate (vote per secessionem), and occasionally in Athenian democracy. Westminster system parliament chambers have separate division lobbies for the "Ayes" and "Noes" to facilitate physical division. In several assemblies, a division bell is rung throughout the building when a division is happening, in order to alert members not present in the chamber. In the United Kingdom, division bells are also present in a number of bars and restaurants near the Palace of Westminster in order to call members to vote who may be outside the building. Australia House of Representatives In the Australian House of Representatives divisions follow a form similar to that of the United Kingdom, but the requirements are generally more stringent. For instance, a Member in the Chamber when the tellers are appointed must vote, while a Member not then present may not. Furthermore, members must vote in accordance to their voice votes. The voice vote is held as in the British House of Commons. If more than one Member objects, then the division bells are rung throughout the Parliamentary estate. When not less than four minutes have elapsed since the question was first put, the Speaker orders that the doors to the Chamber be locked, and directs that the Ayes proceed to the right side of the Chamber, and that the Noes proceed to the left. Members then take seats on the appropriate side of the Chamber, rather than entering a lobby, and then the Speaker appoints tellers for each side, unless fewer than five Members are seated on one side, in which case the Speaker calls off the division and declares the result for the side with the greater number of Members. If the division is still on, the tellers count and record the names of the Members. The Speaker announces the result, but does not vote unless there is an equality of votes. (If only one Member objects, his objection may be noted on the Hansard, but no vote is taken.) Senate In the Australian Senate, a procedure similar to that of the House of Representatives is followed. The voice vote is taken, and, if two Senators object, a division is held. Senators take seats in the right or left of the Chamber as in the House, and the President of the Senate appoints one teller for each side to record the votes. The President may vote by stating to the Senate the side on which he intends to vote. If the result of the division is an equality of votes, then the motion is in all cases disagreed to. Canada The procedure used in the House of Commons of Canada is similar to that in the British House of Commons, with a few differences. The Speaker reads the question aloud, and then asks, "Is it the pleasure of the house to adopt the motion?" If anyone dissents, the Speaker then states "all those in favour of the motion will please say yea." After the cries of 'yea', the Speaker says "all those opposed will please say nay," and all members opposed to the question cry out 'nay' all at once. The Speaker then announces his opinion of the outcome of the vote. If five or more MPs challenge the Speaker's opinion, a formal division follows. A formal division is invoked by the Speaker asking to "call in the members." Bells are rung throughout the Parliament Buildings for either 15 or 30 minutes to allow all present MPs time to enter the chamber and take their seats. The division begins with the whips from both the government and the official opposition bowing to the Speaker and each other before returning to their seats. There are no division lobbies in the House of Commons, so each member votes by simply standing up from his or her seat. "Yea" votes are recorded first, followed by the "Nay" votes, on the Speaker's order. Finally, the clerk of the house reads the result of the vote aloud to the Speaker. Germany In the German Bundestag and some state parliaments the president can call for the so-called (literally, wether’s leap) if an undisputed majority couldn't be established by either MPs raising their hands or standing in order to cast their votes. In this voting procedure the MPs leave the plenary hall and re-enter through one of three doors designated for "yes“, "no", or "abstention". According to the Duden dictionary, the expression refers to the MPs grouping themselves like sheep behind their respective bellwethers before re-entering the chamber. The procedure was introduced in 1874 by a Reichstag vice president. In 1894 the architect of the new Reichstag building made a reference to the : above the door for "yes", he depicted Ulysses and his friends escaping from Polyphemus. Ireland In Dáil Éireann, the lower house of the Oireachtas, a division is a formal count that can be called for if a voice vote is deemed insufficient. The procedure for voting and divisions is specified by standing orders 70–77. In Seanad Éireann, the upper house, a similar procedure is laid out by standing orders 56–63. In the Dáil the Ceann Comhairle (chair) puts the question and TDs (deputies) present say the Irish word tá (yes) or níl (no) respectively if they agree or disagree. The Ceann Comhairle then gives an opinion on the voice vote. Any TD may demand a division by calling Vótáil (vote). Since 2016, in an effort to reduce delays, many divisions are deferred until a weekly division time on Thursdays when they are taken one after another. Previous to this, if the Ceann Comhairle suspected that fewer than ten TDs had called for a division, he asked them to rise; if the number was less than ten, their names were entered in the Dáil record but no division occurred. This process still is still used when holding the Thursday vote on a question, but the deferral of the vote until Thursday happens regardless of how few demand a vote. The Dáil and Seanad division bells are reproductions respectively of the Lough Lene Bell and the Bell of Armagh; At a division, bells sound and bulbs light around Leinster House and the adjoining Oireachtas buildings, calling legislators to the chamber; with differing sounds and lights for Dáil and Seanad votes. The bells ring for between two and six minutes, and the doors to the chamber are locked after a further one to four minutes. The Ceann Comhairle then appoints two tellers for each side and deputies present are given one minute to vote. Voting is usually electronic, with deputies pressing either the (yes) or (no) button on their desks. After the voting time has concluded a Division Paper recording the result and each TD's vote is signed by the four tellers and given to the Ceann Comhairle, who declares the result. Electronic voting was introduced in 2002. The traditional practice of voting by physically entering division lobbies is retained for some symbolically important votes: confidence motions and nominations of Ceann Comhairle, Taoiseach (Prime Minister) and cabinet ministers. A group of at least 20 TDs may demand a non-electronic repeat of an electronic vote. A summer 2016 upgrade to the electronic voting system allowed a change to standing orders such that TDs may have an abstention from voting () formally recorded; for other purposes this is treated the same as not voting. Since 2016, the Ceann Comhairle has been elected in a secret ballot by alternative vote (ranked ballot), with the winner's ensuing nomination uncontested without a division. Secret-ballot single transferable vote elections were used in the 1920s, for the Dáil's 30 nominees to the 1922 Seanad, and for the Dáil and Seanad's separate slates of candidates in the 1925 Seanad election. Ballots were distributed and submitted in the assembly chamber, then removed for counting; Dáil results were announced by the Ceann Comhairle in the chamber, whereas the Seanad adjourned for the day and allowed its Cathaoirleach (chair) to announce the results to the press that evening. Incidents During the renomination of Taoiseach of Fianna Fáil's Jack Lynch after the 1969 election, the division bell continued to ring after the doors had been locked, while several Fianna Fáil deputies entered the chamber through an unlocked door. In October 2019 several TDs admitted having, over previous months, pressed the voting button of an absent party colleague, either by accident or when they believed the colleague was elsewhere in the chamber during the division. News media reported that the Ceann Comhairle would propose suspending electronic voting pending investigation. On 22 October the Dáil committee on procedure commissioned a review by the clerk of the Dáil of the instances first reported, which had occurred on 17 October. The clerk's review and recommended changes to procedure was endorsed and published by the committee on 24 October, and debated in the Dáil chamber the same day. Some politicians described the report as a whitewash. New Zealand In the New Zealand House of Representatives, division of the assembly occurs when the result of a voice vote on a motion is split, and a member disagrees with the Speaker's call. There are two methods for handling a division: a party vote and a personal vote. A party vote is the most common method, and occurs for non-conscience issues and some conscience issues. In this method, the Clerk of the House reads out each party's name in order of the number of seats each party has, starting with the largest party, followed by any independent members and any members wishing to cross the floor. A member of the party (usually a whip) will respond to their party's name by stating how many members of the party are in favour or opposed. The Clerk tallies up the votes and gives the results to the Speaker, who declares the result. A split party vote is a variation of the party vote, used for some conscience issues. The main difference is voting members state how many members of their party are in favour and how many members are opposed, and once the voting is completed, must table a list of the members of the party and how they voted. A personal vote is used mainly for conscience issues, and follows similar procedures to other Westminster systems. In the event of a personal vote, the division bells are rung for seven minutes, and after the bells stops, members are instructed to move to one of two lobbies, "Ayes" or "Noes", to have their vote recorded as such. Once all the votes are tallied, the results are handed to the speaker who declares the result. An unusual division occurred on 30 August 2012, simulating an exhaustive ballot for a three-way conscience vote on New Zealand's legal drinking age. All members were directed to the Noes lobby, where the Clerk of the House recorded each member's vote (either for keeping the age at 18, raising the age to 20, or raising the off-licence age to 20 while keeping the on-licence age at 18) as they passed back into the main debating chamber. The votes were tallied and handed back to the Speaker, who declared the results as 50 votes for 18 years, 38 votes for 20 years, and 33 votes for an 18/20 split. As no option acquired the 61-vote majority needed, the option with the lowest number of votes (18/20 split) was dropped, and the members voted again as per a normal personal vote, using the Ayes lobby for 18 years and Noes lobby for 20 years. United Kingdom House of Commons In the House of Commons, the Speaker says "The Question is that...", states the question and next says "As many as there are of the opinion say Aye". Then, following shouts of "Aye", the Speaker says "Of the contrary, No" and similar shouts of "No" may follow. If one side clearly has more support, the Speaker then announces their opinion as to the winner, stating, for example, "I think the Ayes have it, the Ayes have it". Otherwise, the Speaker declares a division. Any member may object to the Speaker's determination. If feeling that the division is unnecessary, the Speaker may first ask those who support the determination of the voice vote to rise, and then ask those who oppose the opinion to rise. Then, the Speaker may either declare that the ruling on the voice vote stands, or proceed to a division. If a division is to be taken, the Speaker first states, "Division! Clear the lobbies!" Like all parliamentary procedure, there is a historical reason for the tradition. In this case it was a division that took place on 27 February 1771 when a non-MP (known as a 'stranger'), Thomas Hunt, was included in the 'Noes' vote. It subsequently transpired that he had voted several times previously. The division bell then sounds across the Parliamentary Estate as well as several buildings in the vicinity, such as restaurants and pubs. (For a full list see external bells.) The lobbies are cleared of strangers, these days primarily journalists, but historically could have been members of the public. Division bells notify any members not currently in the chamber that a vote is about to start. A recent development has been the use of pagers and mobile phones by party whips, to summon members from further afield. At the beginning of a division, two MPs who intend to vote in favour and two MPs who intend to vote against communicate to the Speaker their intentions to act as tellers. Two minutes into the division the Speaker puts the question to the House again. If it is clear that a division is still required, the Speaker announces the names of the tellers. In order to ensure impartiality, in each lobby there is one teller for the Ayes (i.e. a teller who intends to vote in favour) and one teller for the Noes (i.e. a teller who intends to vote against). If there are tellers for one side but not for the other, the question is decided in favour of the side for which there are tellers (for instance, if there are no tellers for the Noes, the Aye side automatically wins the division, and vice versa). MPs have to walk through one of the two division lobbies on either side of the House, tapping their pass against one of several readers installed in the lobbies, in order to vote. They are then counted by the two tellers as they leave the lobby; the numbers they record are the definitive result of the division. The whips keep check on which MPs enter which lobby and try to persuade them to enter the lobby that the party would like them to enter. Until 2020, the names of Members voting in each lobby were recorded by clerks rather than electronic systems, but this procedure was reformed in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Division List, recording the way in which MPs voted, is automatically made available on the Parliament website soon after a division. In October 2022, then-Prime Minister Liz Truss was erroneously thought to have abstained from her own government's motion against a Labour motion to ban fracking as she had forgotten to swipe her voting card. MPs with a direct financial interest on any matter are prohibited from voting. In order to act as a disqualification, the matter must be immediate and personal and not a general or remote matter. Originally, there was only one lobby. After the fire of 1834, the House of Commons Chamber was rebuilt. At that time, a second lobby was added. Eight minutes after the question has been put for the first time, the Speaker declares, "Lock the doors!" The lobby entrances are locked, and only those within the lobbies may continue to vote. After all members have voted in the lobbies, the vote totals are written on a card and the numbers are read out to the House by one of the tellers of the winning side announcing as follows; "The Ayes to the right: (number of votes), The Noes to the left: (number of votes)". The Speaker then announces these numbers a second time, announcing the final result by saying "The Ayes/Noes have it, the Ayes/Noes have it". The Speaker then adds: "Unlock." Tellers are not included among the numbers announced to the Speaker. The Speaker himself only votes if a tie arises; in that case, he verbally announces his vote, which is cast in accordance with Speaker Denison's rule. Members may signify, but not record, an abstention by remaining in their seats during the division. Though the practice is traditionally frowned upon, MPs can also pass through both lobbies, effectively registering their abstention. It is stipulated that all Members of Parliament are required to stay in or around the premises of the House of Commons until the main business of the day has ended, however long that may be. In the unlikely event that fewer than forty members participate in the division (including the speaker and the tellers), the division is declared 'inquorate', the question at hand is postponed until the next sitting, and the House proceeds to the next business. The nature of divisions in the House of Commons is one which traditionally could go on well into the night, sometimes past midnight. However, in 2000 the House introduced, on an experimental basis, the procedure of "Deferred Divisions." Essentially, some divisions are delayed until the next Wednesday. The procedure is used for very few matters; most divisions still occur normally. There have been suggestions that electronic voting may be easier and quicker to do than physically going through a division lobby. However, MPs have often found that a division is the best way to interact with senior members of the government. There are two variations to the normal practice of an MP voting by walking through the respective lobby. Nodding through There have been cases where Members of Parliament are wheeled from far afield to vote for their party in a crucial vote. For members who are too ill to reach the lobby, there is a procedure called 'nodding through' provided the tellers agree. The whips will ensure that the MP's name is added to the list of those voting. There are only two conditions. The MP must be within the precincts of the Palace of Westminster, and must be alive. Former MP Joe Ashton remembered a case from the final days of James Callaghan's government: Pairing 'Pairing' is an arrangement between two opposing MPs where both agree not to participate in any divisions because their votes would cancel each other out anyway. Pairing agreements can last anything from days to the life of the Parliament. All pairings have to be registered with the party whips so that they know not to pursue their member for failing to vote. House of Lords In the House of Lords, the Lord Speaker proposes the question and announces the result as in the Commons, but substitutes "Content" for "Aye" and "Not-content" for "No". A Lord may object to the Lord Speaker's determination. The Lord Speaker then announces a division by stating, "Clear the Bar!" The Bar of the House is then cleared. Tellers are appointed as in the Commons. Three minutes after the question was first proposed, the Lord Speaker again proposes the question as above. If his opinion is not challenged, then the question is decided without a division. But if his decision is once again disputed, the Lord Speaker may again ask the question. The question may be repeated as many times as the Lord Speaker pleases; the process is referred to as "collecting the voices". But if a single Lord maintains an objection, the Lord Speaker, not having the Commons Speaker's power to declare a division unnecessary, must eventually announce, "The Contents to the right by the Throne, the Not-contents to the left by the Bar". Lords then vote in the lobbies, as it is done in the Commons. Unlike the Speaker, the Lord Speaker may vote during a division; he does so from his seat rather than in a lobby. In the event that the votes are equal, then the following principles apply, but are implemented by the Standing Orders of the House rather than by convention: Legislation remains unchanged unless there is a majority in favour of amendment, Legislation is allowed to proceed to the next stage unless there is a majority in favour of rejection, and All other motions are rejected unless there is a majority in favour of passage. The quorum for divisions is three Lords on a procedural vote and thirty Lords on a substantive one. Northern Ireland Assembly The Northern Ireland Assembly maintains a lobby voting system based on that used in the UK House of Commons, this is in contrast to other devolved legislatures in the United Kingdom and was inherited by the Assembly from the House of Commons of Northern Ireland for whom the current Assembly debating chamber was originally constructed. When a vote is required the Assembly Speaker will state "The Question is put ..." and then note the question that the members are asked to vote upon. The speaker will then conduct a voice vote and if the result of that vote is not conclusive, the Speaker will declare "The Assembly will divide" and call for the lobbies on either side of the chamber to be cleared of non-members and Tellers appointed for both aye and noe. Members vote by entering the appropriate lobby on either side of the chamber, ayes to the Speaker's right, noes to the Speaker's left, with the result reported to the Speaker by the tellers and announced to the Assembly by the Speaker. As in the UK House of Commons, it is possible for members to vote in both lobbies, registering two votes that cancel each other out, in order to signify an active abstention United States In the United States Congress, divisions are used to give a more accurate estimate of a vote than a voice vote. Typically, a division is taken when the result of a voice vote is challenged or when a two-thirds vote is required. A division is also called a rising vote, where members stand up from their seats. According to Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (RONR), the numbers for and against are not counted in a division. However, they may be counted by order of the chairman or by order of the assembly through majority vote. The assembly may also have a rule that the division is counted. Unlike the British Parliament, in Congress, lobbies are not used, and the division is not a final determination of the question. The vote is first taken by voice vote, as is the case in Parliament. Then, any member may demand a division. If a division is demanded, then the Speaker of the House of Representatives (or, more commonly, a Representative of the majority party designated by the Speaker to preside as Speaker pro tempore) or the Presiding Officer of the Senate asks those voting Yea to rise and remain standing until counted, and then asks those voting Nay to do the same. A division is the least common method of voting in the Senate. A recorded vote must take place upon the demand of one-fifth of members present under Article I, Section 5 of the United States Constitution: "the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal." In the Senate, a recorded vote is accomplished by the clerk's call of the roll. In the House, an electronic voting device is typically used to take recorded votes, although occasionally roll calls take place; the House is historically too large to conduct roll calls on a regular basis (435 members versus 100 in the Senate). When voting to override a Presidential veto, the yeas and nays are required under Article I, Section 7 of the Constitution. See also Voting methods in deliberative assemblies References Legislatures Parliamentary procedure
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20of%20two
Power of two
A power of two is a number of the form where is an integer, that is, the result of exponentiation with number two as the base and integer  as the exponent. In a context where only integers are considered, is restricted to non-negative values, so there are 1, 2, and 2 multiplied by itself a certain number of times. The first ten powers of 2 for non-negative values of are: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, ... Base of the binary numeral system Because two is the base of the binary numeral system, powers of two are common in computer science. Written in binary, a power of two always has the form 100...000 or 0.00...001, just like a power of 10 in the decimal system. Computer science Two to the exponent of , written as , is the number of ways the bits in a binary word of length can be arranged. A word, interpreted as an unsigned integer, can represent values from 0 () to  () inclusively. Corresponding signed integer values can be positive, negative and zero; see signed number representations. Either way, one less than a power of two is often the upper bound of an integer in binary computers. As a consequence, numbers of this form show up frequently in computer software. As an example, a video game running on an 8-bit system might limit the score or the number of items the player can hold to 255—the result of using a byte, which is 8 bits long, to store the number, giving a maximum value of . For example, in the original Legend of Zelda the main character was limited to carrying 255 rupees (the currency of the game) at any given time, and the video game Pac-Man famously has a kill screen at level 256. Powers of two are often used to measure computer memory. A byte is now considered eight bits (an octet), resulting in the possibility of 256 values (28). (The term byte once meant (and in some cases, still means) a collection of bits, typically of 5 to 32 bits, rather than only an 8-bit unit.) The prefix kilo, in conjunction with byte, may be, and has traditionally been, used, to mean 1,024 (210). However, in general, the term kilo has been used in the International System of Units to mean 1,000 (103). Binary prefixes have been standardized, such as kibi (Ki) meaning 1,024. Nearly all processor registers have sizes that are powers of two, 32 or 64 being very common. Powers of two occur in a range of other places as well. For many disk drives, at least one of the sector size, number of sectors per track, and number of tracks per surface is a power of two. The logical block size is almost always a power of two. Numbers that are not powers of two occur in a number of situations, such as video resolutions, but they are often the sum or product of only two or three powers of two, or powers of two minus one. For example, , and . Put another way, they have fairly regular bit patterns. Mersenne and Fermat primes A prime number that is one less than a power of two is called a Mersenne prime. For example, the prime number 31 is a Mersenne prime because it is 1 less than 32 (25). Similarly, a prime number (like 257) that is one more than a positive power of two is called a Fermat prime—the exponent itself is a power of two. A fraction that has a power of two as its denominator is called a dyadic rational. The numbers that can be represented as sums of consecutive positive integers are called polite numbers; they are exactly the numbers that are not powers of two. Euclid's Elements, Book IX The geometric progression 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ... (or, in the binary numeral system, 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, ... ) is important in number theory. Book IX, Proposition 36 of Elements proves that if the sum of the first terms of this progression is a prime number (and thus is a Mersenne prime as mentioned above), then this sum times the th term is a perfect number. For example, the sum of the first 5 terms of the series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 31, which is a prime number. The sum 31 multiplied by 16 (the 5th term in the series) equals 496, which is a perfect number. Book IX, Proposition 35, proves that in a geometric series if the first term is subtracted from the second and last term in the sequence, then as the excess of the second is to the first—so is the excess of the last to all those before it. (This is a restatement of our formula for geometric series from above.) Applying this to the geometric progression 31, 62, 124, 248, 496 (which results from 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 by multiplying all terms by 31), we see that 62 minus 31 is to 31 as 496 minus 31 is to the sum of 31, 62, 124, 248. Therefore, the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 31, 62, 124 and 248 add up to 496 and further these are all the numbers that divide 496. For suppose that divides 496 and it is not amongst these numbers. Assume is equal to , or 31 is to as is to 16. Now cannot divide 16 or it would be amongst the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16. Therefore, 31 cannot divide . And since 31 does not divide and measures 496, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic implies that must divide 16 and be amongst the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16. Let be 4, then must be 124, which is impossible since by hypothesis is not amongst the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 31, 62, 124 or 248. Table of values Last digits Starting with 2 the last digit is periodic with period 4, with the cycle 2–4–8–6–, and starting with 4 the last two digits are periodic with period 20. These patterns are generally true of any power, with respect to any base. The pattern continues where each pattern has starting point , and the period is the multiplicative order of 2 modulo , which is (see Multiplicative group of integers modulo n). Powers of 1024 The first few powers of 210 are slightly larger than those same powers of 1000 (103). The powers of 210 values that have less than 25% deviation are listed below: It takes approximately 17 powers of 1024 to reach 50% deviation and approximately 29 powers of 1024 to reach 100% deviation of the same powers of 1000. Powers of two whose exponents are powers of two Because data (specifically integers) and the addresses of data are stored using the same hardware, and the data is stored in one or more octets (), double exponentials of two are common. The first 20 of them are: Also see tetration and lower hyperoperations. Last digits for powers of two whose exponents are powers of two All of these numbers end in 6. Starting with 16 the last two digits are periodic with period 4, with the cycle 16–56–36–96–, and starting with 16 the last three digits are periodic with period 20. These patterns are generally true of any power, with respect to any base. The pattern continues where each pattern has starting point , and the period is the multiplicative order of 2 modulo , which is (see Multiplicative group of integers modulo n). Facts about powers of two whose exponents are powers of two In a connection with nimbers, these numbers are often called Fermat 2-powers. The numbers form an irrationality sequence: for every sequence of positive integers, the series converges to an irrational number. Despite the rapid growth of this sequence, it is the slowest-growing irrationality sequence known. Powers of two whose exponents are powers of two in computer science Several of these numbers represent the number of values representable using common computer data types. For example, a 32-bit word consisting of 4 bytes can represent distinct values, which can either be regarded as mere bit-patterns, or are more commonly interpreted as the unsigned numbers from 0 to , or as the range of signed numbers between and . For more about representing signed numbers see two's complement. Selected powers of two 22 = 4 The number that is the square of two. Also the first power of two tetration of two. 28 = 256 The number of values represented by the 8 bits in a byte, more specifically termed as an octet. (The term byte is often defined as a collection of bits rather than the strict definition of an 8-bit quantity, as demonstrated by the term kilobyte.) 210 = 1,024 The binary approximation of the kilo-, or 1,000 multiplier, which causes a change of prefix. For example: 1,024 bytes = 1 kilobyte (or kibibyte). 212 = 4,096 The hardware page size of an Intel x86-compatible processor. 215 = 32,768 The number of non-negative values for a signed 16-bit integer. 216 = 65,536 The number of distinct values representable in a single word on a 16-bit processor, such as the original x86 processors. The maximum range of a short integer variable in the C#, Java, and SQL programming languages. The maximum range of a Word or Smallint variable in the Pascal programming language. The number of binary relations on a 4-element set. 220 = 1,048,576 The binary approximation of the mega-, or 1,000,000 multiplier, which causes a change of prefix. For example: 1,048,576 bytes = 1 megabyte (or mebibyte). 224 = 16,777,216 The number of unique colors that can be displayed in truecolor, which is used by common computer monitors. This number is the result of using the three-channel RGB system, with 8 bits for each channel, or 24 bits in total. The size of the largest unsigned integer or address in computers with 24-bit registers or data buses. 229 = 536,870,912 The largest power of two with distinct digits in base ten. 230 = 1,073,741,824 The binary approximation of the giga-, or 1,000,000,000 multiplier, which causes a change of prefix. For example, 1,073,741,824 bytes = 1 gigabyte (or gibibyte). 231 = 2,147,483,648 The number of non-negative values for a signed 32-bit integer. Since Unix time is measured in seconds since January 1, 1970, it will run out at 2,147,483,647 seconds or 03:14:07 UTC on Tuesday, 19 January 2038 on 32-bit computers running Unix, a problem known as the year 2038 problem. 232 = 4,294,967,296 The number of distinct values representable in a single word on a 32-bit processor. Or, the number of values representable in a doubleword on a 16-bit processor, such as the original x86 processors. The range of an int variable in the Java, C#, and SQL programming languages. The range of a Cardinal or Integer variable in the Pascal programming language. The minimum range of a long integer variable in the C and C++ programming languages. The total number of IP addresses under IPv4. Although this is a seemingly large number, the number of available 32-bit IPv4 addresses has been exhausted (but not for IPv6 addresses). The number of binary operations with domain equal to any 4-element set, such as GF(4). 240 = 1,099,511,627,776 The binary approximation of the tera-, or 1,000,000,000,000 multiplier, which causes a change of prefix. For example, 1,099,511,627,776 bytes = 1 terabyte or tebibyte. 250 = 1,125,899,906,842,624 The binary approximation of the peta-, or 1,000,000,000,000,000 multiplier. 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes = 1 petabyte or pebibyte. 253 = 9,007,199,254,740,992 The number until which all integer values can exactly be represented in IEEE double precision floating-point format. Also the first power of 2 to start with the digit 9 in decimal. 256 = 72,057,594,037,927,936 The number of different possible keys in the obsolete 56 bit DES symmetric cipher. 260 = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 The binary approximation of the exa-, or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 multiplier. 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes = 1 exabyte or exbibyte. 263 = 9,223,372,036,854,775,808 The number of non-negative values for a signed 64-bit integer. 263 − 1, a common maximum value (equivalently the number of positive values) for a signed 64-bit integer in programming languages. 264 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 The number of distinct values representable in a single word on a 64-bit processor. Or, the number of values representable in a doubleword on a 32-bit processor. Or, the number of values representable in a quadword on a 16-bit processor, such as the original x86 processors. The range of a long variable in the Java and C# programming languages. The range of a Int64 or QWord variable in the Pascal programming language. The total number of IPv6 addresses generally given to a single LAN or subnet. 264 − 1, the number of grains of rice on a chessboard, according to the old story, where the first square contains one grain of rice and each succeeding square twice as many as the previous square. For this reason the number is sometimes known as the "chess number". 264 − 1 is also the number of moves required to complete the legendary 64-disk version of the Tower of Hanoi. 268 = 295,147,905,179,352,825,856 The first power of 2 to contain all decimal digits. 270 = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 The binary approximation of the zetta-, or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 multiplier. 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 bytes = 1 zettabyte (or zebibyte). 280 = 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 The binary approximation of the yotta-, or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 multiplier. 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 bytes = 1 yottabyte (or yobibyte). 286 = 77,371,252,455,336,267,181,195,264 286 is conjectured to be the largest power of two not containing a zero in decimal. 296 = 79,228,162,514,264,337,593,543,950,336 The total number of IPv6 addresses generally given to a local Internet registry. In CIDR notation, ISPs are given a , which means that 128-32=96 bits are available for addresses (as opposed to network designation). Thus, 296 addresses. 2108 = The largest known power of 2 not containing a 9 in decimal. 2126 = The largest known power of 2 not containing a pair of consecutive equal digits. 2128 = The total number of IP addresses available under IPv6. Also the number of distinct universally unique identifiers (UUIDs). 2168 = The largest known power of 2 not containing all decimal digits (the digit 2 is missing in this case). 2192 = The total number of different possible keys in the AES 192-bit key space (symmetric cipher). 2229 = 862,718,293,348,820,473,429,344,482,784,628,181,556,388,621,521,298,319,395,315,527,974,912 2229 is the largest known power of two containing the least number of zeros relative to its power. It is conjectured by Metin Sariyar that every digit 0 to 9 is inclined to appear an equal number of times in the decimal expansion of power of two as the power increases. 2256 = The total number of different possible keys in the AES 256-bit key space (symmetric cipher). 21,024 = The maximum number that can fit in a 64-bit IEEE double-precision floating-point format (approximately 1.797×10308), and hence the maximum number that can be represented by many programs, for example Microsoft Excel. 216,384 = The maximum number that can fit in a 128-bit IEEE quadruple-precision floating-point format (approximately 1.189×104932). 2262,144 = The maximum number that can fit in a 256-bit IEEE octuple-precision floating-point format (approximately 1.611×1078913). 282,589,933 = One more than the largest known prime number . It has 24,862,048 digits. Powers of two in music theory In musical notation, all unmodified note values have a duration equal to a whole note divided by a power of two; for example a half note (1/2), a quarter note (1/4), an eighth note (1/8) and a sixteenth note (1/16). Dotted or otherwise modified notes have other durations. In time signatures the lower numeral, the beat unit, which can be seen as the denominator of a fraction, is almost always a power of two. If the ratio of frequencies of two pitches is a power of two, then the interval between those pitches is full octaves. In this case, the corresponding notes have the same name. Other properties The sum of all -choose binomial coefficients is equal to . Consider the set of all -digit binary integers. Its cardinality is . It is also the sums of the cardinalities of certain subsets: the subset of integers with no 1s (consisting of a single number, written as 0s), the subset with a single 1, the subset with two 1s, and so on up to the subset with 1s (consisting of the number written as 1s). Each of these is in turn equal to the binomial coefficient indexed by and the number of 1s being considered (for example, there are 10-choose-3 binary numbers with ten digits that include exactly three 1s). Currently, powers of two are the only known almost perfect numbers. The number of vertices of an -dimensional hypercube is . Similarly, the number of -faces of an -dimensional cross-polytope is also and the formula for the number of -faces an -dimensional cross-polytope has is The sum of the reciprocals of the powers of two is 1. The sum of the reciprocals of the squared powers of two (powers of four) is 1/3. The smallest natural power of two whose decimal representation begins with 7 is Every power of 2 (excluding 1) can be written as the sum of four square numbers in 24 ways. The powers of 2 are the natural numbers greater than 1 that can be written as the sum of four square numbers in the fewest ways. As a real polynomial, an + bn is irreducible, if and only if n is a power of two. (If n is odd, then an + bn is divisible by a+n, and if n is even but not a power of 2, then n can be written as n=mp, where m is odd, and thus , which is divisible by ap + bp.) But in the domain of complex numbers, the polynomial (where n>=1) can always be factorized as , even if n is a power of two. See also Fermi–Dirac prime Gould's sequence Binary logarithm Power of three Power of 10 References Binary arithmetic Integer sequences Integers 2 (number)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendell%20Phillips
Wendell Phillips
Wendell Phillips (November 29, 1811 – February 2, 1884) was an American abolitionist, advocate for Native Americans, orator, and attorney. According to George Lewis Ruffin, a Black attorney, Phillips was seen by many Blacks as "the one white American wholly color-blind and free from race prejudice". According to another Black attorney, Archibald Grimké, as an abolitionist leader he is ahead of William Lloyd Garrison and Charles Sumner. From 1850 to 1865 he was the "preeminent figure" in American abolitionism. Early life and education Phillips was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on November 29, 1811, to Sarah Walley and John Phillips, a wealthy lawyer, politician, and philanthropist, who was the first mayor of Boston. He was a descendant of Reverend George Phillips, who emigrated from England to Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1630. All of his ancestors migrated to North America from England, and all of them arrived in Massachusetts between the years 1630 and 1650. Phillips was schooled at Boston Latin School, and graduated from Harvard College in 1831. He went on to attend Harvard Law School, from which he graduated in 1833. In 1834, Phillips was admitted to the Massachusetts state bar, and in the same year, he opened a law practice in Boston. His professor of oratory was Edward T. Channing, a critic of flowery speakers such as Daniel Webster. Channing emphasized the value of plain speaking, a philosophy which Phillips took to heart. Marriage to Ann Terry Greene In 1836, Phillips was supporting the abolitionist cause when he met Ann Greene. It was her opinion that this cause required not just support but total commitment. Phillips and Greene were engaged that year and Greene declared Wendell to be her "best three quarters". They were married until Wendell's death, 46 years later. Abolitionism On October 21, 1835, the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society announced that British abolitionist George Thompson would be speaking. Pro-slavery forces posted nearly 500 notices of a $100 reward for the citizen that would first lay violent hands on him. Thompson canceled at the last minute, and Wm. Lloyd Garrison, editor and publisher of the abolitionist newspaper The Liberator, was quickly scheduled to speak in his place. A lynch mob formed, forcing Garrison to escape through the back of the hall and hide in a carpenter's shop. The mob soon found him, putting a noose around his neck to drag him away. Several strong men, including the mayor, intervened and took him to the most secure place in Boston, the Leverett Street Jail. Phillips, watching from nearby Court Street, was a witness to the attempted lynching. After being converted to the abolitionist cause by Garrison in 1836, Phillips stopped practicing law in order to dedicate himself to the movement. Phillips joined the American Anti-Slavery Society and frequently made speeches at its meetings. So highly regarded were Phillips' oratorical abilities that he was known as "abolition's golden trumpet". Like many of Phillips' fellow abolitionists who honored the free-produce movement, he condemned the purchase of cane sugar and clothing made of cotton, since both were produced by the labor of slaves. He was a member of the Boston Vigilance Committee, an organization that assisted fugitive slaves in avoiding slavecatchers. It was Phillips's contention that racial injustice was the source of all of society's ills. Like Garrison, Phillips denounced the Constitution for tolerating slavery. He disagreed with abolitionist Lysander Spooner and maintained that slavery was part of the Constitution, and more generally disputed Spooner's notion that any judge could find slavery illegal. In 1845, in an essay titled "No Union With Slaveholders", he argued that the country would be better off, and not complicit in their guilt, if it let the slave states secede: The experience of the fifty years...shows us the slaves trebling in numbers—slaveholders monopolizing the offices and dictating the policy of the Government—prostituting the strength and influence of the Nation to the support of slavery here and elsewhere—trampling on the rights of the free States, and making the courts of the country their tools. To continue this disastrous alliance longer is madness. The trial of fifty years only proves that it is impossible for free and slave States to unite on any terms, without all becoming partners in the guilt and responsible for the sin of slavery. Why prolong the experiment? Let every honest man join in the outcry of the American Anti-Slavery Society. (Quoted in Ruchames, The Abolitionists p. 196) On December 8, 1837, in Boston's Faneuil Hall, Phillips' leadership and oratory established his preeminence within the abolitionist movement. Bostonians gathered at Faneuil Hall to discuss Elijah P. Lovejoy's murder by a mob outside his abolitionist newspaper's office in Alton, Illinois, on November 7. Lovejoy died defending himself and his press from pro-slavery rioters who set fire to a warehouse storing his press and shot Lovejoy as he stepped outside to tip a ladder being used by the mob. His death engendered a national controversy between abolitionists and anti-abolitionists. At Faneuil Hall, Massachusetts attorney general James T. Austin defended the anti-abolitionist mob, comparing their actions to 1776 patriots who fought against the British and declaring that Lovejoy "died as the fool dieth!" Deeply disgusted, Phillips spontaneously rebutted, praising Lovejoy's actions as a defense of liberty akin to that of the patriots'. Inspired by Phillips' eloquence and conviction, Garrison entered a partnership with him that came to define the beginning of the 1840s abolitionist movement. Trip to Europe The married couple went abroad in 1839 for two years. They spent the summer in Great Britain and the rest of each year in mainland Europe. They made important connections and Ann wrote of them meeting Elizabeth Pease and being particularly impressed by the Quaker abolitionist Richard D. Webb. In 1840 they went to London to join up with other American delegates to the World Anti-Slavery Convention at the Exeter Hall in London. Phillips' new wife was one of a number of female delegates, who included Lucretia Mott, Mary Grew, Sarah Pugh, Abby Kimber, Elizabeth Neall and Emily Winslow. The delegates were astounded to find that female delegates had not been expected and they were not welcome at the convention. Instructed by his wife not to "shilly-shally", Phillips went in to appeal the case. According to the history of the women's rights movement of Susan B. Anthony's and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Phillips spoke as the convention opened, scolding the organizers for precipitating an unnecessary conflict: The efforts of Phillips and others were only partly successful. The women were allowed in but had to sit separately and were not allowed to talk. This event has been taken by Stanton, Anthony, and others as the point at which the women's rights movement began. Before the Civil War In 1854, Phillips was indicted for his participation in the celebrated attempt to rescue Anthony Burns, a captured fugitive slave, from a jail in Boston. Was he tried? Convicted? After John Brown was executed in December of 1859, Phillips attended and spoke at his funeral, at the John Brown Farm in remote North Elba, New York. He met Mary Brown and the coffin in Troy, New York, where she changed trains, and expressed, unsuccessfully, his wish that Brown would be buried, with a monument, in Mt. Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which he felt would help the abolitionist cause. He spoke at the funeral and on the way home, repeated his speech the next night to a wildly enthusiastic audience in Vergennes, Vermont. On the eve of the Civil War, Phillips gave a speech at the New Bedford Lyceum in which he defended the Confederate States' right to secede: In 1860 and 1861, many abolitionists welcomed the formation of the Confederacy because it would end the South's stranglehold over the United States government. This position was rejected by nationalists like Abraham Lincoln, who insisted on holding the Union together while gradually ending slavery. Twelve days after the attack on Fort Sumter, Phillips announced his "hearty and hot" support for the war. Disappointed with what he regarded as Lincoln's slow action, Phillips opposed his reelection in 1864, breaking with Garrison, who supported a candidate for the first time. In the summer of 1862, Phillips' nephew, Samuel D. Phillips, died at Port Royal, South Carolina, where he had gone to take part in the so-called Port Royal Experiment to assist the slave population there in the transition to freedom. Women's rights activism Phillips was also an early advocate of women's rights. In 1840 he led the unsuccessful effort at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London to have America's women delegates seated. In the July 3, 1846, issue of The Liberator he called for securing women's rights to their property and earnings as well as to the ballot. He wrote: In 1849 and 1850, he assisted Lucy Stone in conducting the first woman suffrage petition campaign in Massachusetts, drafting for her both the petition and an appeal for signatures. They repeated the effort the following two years, sending several hundred signatures to the state legislature. In 1853, they directed their petition to a convention charged with revising the state constitution, and sent it petitions bearing five thousand signatures. Together Phillips and Stone addressed the convention's Committee on Qualifications of Voters on May 27, 1853. In 1854, Phillips helped Stone call a New England Woman's Rights convention to expand suffrage petitioning into the other New England states. Phillips was a member of the National Woman's Rights Central Committee, which organized annual conventions throughout the 1850s, published its Proceedings, and executed plans adopted by the conventions. He was a close adviser of Lucy Stone, and a major presence at most of the conventions, for which he wrote resolutions defining the movement's principles and goals. His address to the 1851 convention, later called "Freedom for Woman", was used as a women's rights tract into the twentieth century. In March 1857, Phillips and Stone were granted hearings by the Massachusetts and Maine legislatures on the woman suffrage memorial sent to twenty-five legislatures by the 1856 National Woman's Rights Convention. As the movement's treasurer, Phillips was trustee with Lucy Stone and Susan B. Anthony of a $5,000 fund given anonymously to the movement in 1858, called the "Phillips fund" until the death of the benefactor, Francis Jackson, in 1861, and thereafter the "Jackson Fund". Postbellum activism Phillips's philosophical ideal was mainly self-control of the animal, physical self by the human, rational mind, although he admired martyrs like Elijah Lovejoy and John Brown. Historian Gilbert Osofsky has argued that Phillips's nationalism was shaped by a religious ideology derived from the European Enlightenment, as expressed by Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton. The Puritan ideal of a Godly Commonwealth through a pursuit of Christian morality and justice, however, was the main influence on Phillips' nationalism. He favored getting rid of American slavery by letting the slave states secede, and he sought to amalgamate all the American "races". Thus, it was the moral end which mattered most in Phillips' nationalism. Reconstruction Era activism As Northern victory in the Civil War seemed more imminent, Phillips, like many other abolitionists, turned his attention to the questions of Reconstruction. In 1864, he gave a speech at the Cooper Institute in New York arguing that enfranchisement of freedmen should be a necessary condition for the readmission of Southern states to the Union. Unlike other white abolitionist leaders such as Garrison, Phillips thought that securing civil and political rights for freedmen was an essential component of the abolitionist cause, even after the formal legal end of slavery. Along with Frederick Douglass, Phillips argued that without voting rights, the rights of freedmen would be "ground to powder" by white Southerners. He lamented the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment without provisions for black suffrage, and fervently opposed the Reconstruction regime of President Andrew Johnson, affixing a new masthead to the National Anti-Slavery Standard newspaper which read "Defeat the Amendment–Impeach the President." As Radical Republicans in Congress broke with Johnson and pursued their own Reconstruction policies through the Freedmen's Bureau bills and the Civil Rights Act of 1866, their views converged increasingly with Phillips'. However, most congressional Republicans disagreed with his assertion that "suffrage is nothing but a name because the voter has not...an acre from which he could retire from the persecution of landlordism"; in other words, Phillips and the Republicans diverged on the issue of land redistribution to the freedmen. Despite his belief that Ulysses S. Grant was not suited for the presidential office and dissatisfaction with Grant's and the party's refusal to endorse his comprehensive Reconstruction program of "land, education and the ballot", Phillips supported Grant and the Republican Party in the 1868 election. The Republicans did pass the Fifteenth Amendment constitutionalizing black suffrage in 1870, but the goal of land redistribution was never realized. In 1879, Phillips argued that black suffrage and political participation during Reconstruction had not been a failure, and that the main error of the era had been the failure to redistribute land to the freedmen. He defended black voters as being "less purchasable than the white man," credited black labor and rule for the nascent regrowth of the Southern economy, and commended black bravery against attacks from the first Ku Klux Klan. As the Reconstruction era came to a close, Phillips increased his attention to other issues, such as women's rights, universal suffrage, temperance, and the labor movement. Equal rights for Native Americans Phillips was also active in efforts to gain equal rights for Native Americans, arguing that the Fifteenth Amendment also granted citizenship to Indians. He proposed that the Andrew Johnson administration create a cabinet-level post that would guarantee Indian rights. Phillips helped create the Massachusetts Indian Commission with Indian rights activist Helen Hunt Jackson and Massachusetts governor William Claflin. Although publicly critical of President Ulysses S. Grant's drinking, he worked with Grant's second administration on the appointment of Indian agents. Phillips lobbied against military involvement in the settling of Native American problems on the Western frontier. He accused General Philip Sheridan of pursuing a policy of Indian extermination. Public opinion turned against Native American advocates after the Battle of the Little Bighorn in July 1876, but Phillips continued to support the land claims of the Lakota (Sioux). During the 1870s, Phillips arranged public forums for reformer Alfred B. Meacham and Indians affected by the country's Indian removal policy, including the Ponca chief Standing Bear, and the Omaha writer and speaker Susette LaFlesche Tibbles. Illness and death By late January 1884, Phillips was suffering from heart disease. Phillips delivered his last public address on January 26, 1884, over the objections of his physician. Phillips spoke at the unveiling of a statue to Harriet Martineau. At the time of the speech, he said that he thought it would be his last. Phillips died in his home, on Common Street in Boston's neighborhood of Charlestown, on February 2, 1884. A solemn funeral was held at Hollis Street Church four days later. His body was taken to Faneuil Hall, where it lay in state for several hours. Phillips was then buried at Granary Burying Ground. In April 1886, his remains were exhumed and reburied at Milton Cemetery in Milton. On February 12, a memorial service was held at the Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church on Sullivan Street in New York City. Rev. William B. Derrick gave a eulogy, describing Phillips as a friend of humanity and a citizen of the world. Timothy Thomas Fortune also eulogized Phillips, calling him a reformer who was as bold as a lion, who had reformed a great wrong, and who had left a rejuvenated Constitution. On February 8, in the U.S. House of Representatives, John F. Finerty offered resolutions of respect to the memory of Phillips. William W. Eaton objected to the resolutions. A memorial event was held in Tremont Temple, Boston, on April 9, 1884. Archibald Grimké delivered a eulogy. Irish poet and journalist John Boyle O'Reilly, who was a good friend of Phillips, wrote the poem Wendell Phillips in his honor. Recognition and legacy In 1904, the Chicago Public Schools opened Wendell Phillips High School in the Bronzeville neighborhood on the south side of Chicago in Phillips' honor. In July 1915, a monument was erected in Boston Public Garden to commemorate Phillips, inscribed with his words: "Whether in chains or in laurels, liberty knows nothing but victories." Jonathan Harr's "A Civil Action" refers to the statue in recounting Mark Phillips,' a descendant of Wendell Phillips,' reaction to a legal victory in the case against W.R. Grace & Co. et al. The Phillips Neighborhood of Minneapolis was named after "Wendell Phillips, a 19th century abolitionist." A phrase from his speech of January 20, 1861, "I think the first duty of society is justice," sometimes wrongly attributed to Alexander Hamilton, appears on various courthouses around the United States, including in Nashville, Tennessee. The Wendell Phillips Award, established in 1896, is bestowed annually upon a member of Tufts University's senior class. The Wendell Phillips Prize at Harvard University is awarded to the best orator in the sophomore class. The Wendell Phillips School in Washington, D.C., was named in his honor in 1890. The school closed in 1950 and was turned into the Phillips School Condominium in 2002. The main building of the College of the Pacific at the University of the Pacific is named the Wendell Phillips Center, but it is named for a different Wendell Phillips (archaeologist). Writings See also Dyer Lum, labor activist and abolitionist who ran for Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts on Phillips' ticket. Notes Footnotes Further reading Aisèrithe, A.J. and Donald Yacovone (eds.), Wendell Phillips, Social Justice, and the Power of the Past. Baton Rouge, LA: LSU Press, 2016. Bartlett, Irving H. "The Persistence of Wendell Phillips," in Martin Duberman (ed.), The Antislavery Vanguard: New Essays on the Abolitionists. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965; pp. 102–122. Bartlett, Irving H. Wendell and Ann Phillips: The Community of Reform, 1840–1880. New York: W.W. Norton, 1982. Bartlett, Irving H. Wendell Phillips: Brahmin Radical. Boston: Beacon Press, 1961. Debs, Eugene V., "Wendell Phillips: Orator and Abolitionist," Pearson's Magazine, vol. 37, no. 5 (May 1917), pp. 397–402. Filler, Louis (ed.), "Wendell Phillips on Civil Rights and Freedom," New York: Hill and Wang, 1965. Hofstadter, Richard. "Wendell Phillips: The Patrician as Agitator" in The American Political Tradition: And the Men Who Made It. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948. Osofsky, Gilbert. "Wendell Phillips and the Quest for a New American National Identity" Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, vol. 1, no. 1 (1973), pp. 15–46. Stewart, James Brewer. Wendell Phillips: Liberty's Hero. LSU Press, 1986. 356 pp. Stewart, James B. "Heroes, Villains, Liberty, and License: The Abolitionist Vision of Wendell Phillips" in Antislavery Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Abolitionists Baton Rouge, LA: LSU Press, 1979; pp. 168–191. External links Article from "Impeach Andrew Johnson" 'Toussaint L'Ouverture' A lecture by Wendell Phillips (1861) The Liberator Files, Items concerning Wendell Phillips from Horace Seldon's collection and summary of research of William Lloyd Garrison's The Liberator original copies at the Boston Public Library, Boston, Massachusetts. Letters, 1855, n.d.. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University. The story of The Liberator is retold in the radio drama "The Liberators (Part I)", a presentation from Destination Freedom 1811 births 1884 deaths Abolitionists from Boston Boston Latin School alumni Harvard Law School alumni Harvard College alumni Lawyers from Boston Male feminists Native Americans' rights activists People of Massachusetts in the American Civil War Phillips family (New England) American temperance activists Burials at Granary Burying Ground American lecturers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20history%20of%20France%20during%20World%20War%20II
Military history of France during World War II
From 1939 to 1940, the French Third Republic was at war with Nazi Germany. In 1940, the German forces defeated the French in the Battle of France. The Germans occupied the north and west of French territory and a collaborationist régime under Philippe Pétain established itself in Vichy. General Charles de Gaulle established a government in exile in London and competed with Vichy France to position himself as the legitimate French government, for control of the French overseas empire and receiving help from French allies. He eventually managed to enlist the support of some French African colonies and later succeeded in bringing together the disparate maquis, colonial regiments, legionnaires, expatriate fighters, and Communist snipers under the Free French Forces in the Allied chain of command. In 1944, after the Allies had landed in Normandy and the southern front moved from North Africa across the Mediterranean into Italy and Provence, these forces routed the German Army, and Vichy officials fled into Germany. France and Britain had both declared war on Germany two days after the invasion of Poland in September 1939. To divert German forces from Poland, France invaded the Saarland region of Germany on 7 September 1939, but was forced to retreat. The Phoney War ensued until 1940, when the Germans invaded and overran northern France, forcing the British from the continent. France formally surrendered. Germany sent two million French prisoners of war to forced labor camps in Germany. In August 1943, the forces under de Gaulle and under Giraud merged into a single chain of command under Allied leadership. French forces on the Eastern Front had Soviet or German leadership. These forces of French exiles and the French Forces of the Interior (FFI) played varying roles in the liberation of France and the defeat of Vichy France, Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, and the Imperial Japan. Control of the French colonial empire proved critical. Free French forces won control, helped by Britain and the United States, and used it to attack Nazi-occupied France. All French colonies except Indochina eventually joined the Free French. The number of Free French troops grew with their successes in North Africa and the invasion of Italy by the Army of Africa. The Allies demanded unconditional surrender from the Axis Powers at the Casablanca Conference. On 30 October 1944, Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union officially recognized de Gaulle as head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF), and eventually as elected president of the French Fourth Republic. The GPRF stepped into the vacuum left when the Vichy administration fled to Sigmaringen in Germany. Recruitment in liberated France led to an expansion of the French armies. By the end of the war in Europe in May 1945, France had 1,250,000 troops, 10 divisions of which were fighting in Germany. An expeditionary corps was created to liberate French Indochina, then occupied by the Japanese. During the course of the war, French military losses totaled 212,000 dead, of whom 92,000 were killed through the end of the campaign of 1940, and 58,000 from 1940 to 1945 in other campaigns, 24,000 lost while serving in the French resistance, and a further 38,000 lost while serving with the German Army (including 32,000 "malgré-nous"). Military forces France had lots of armed forces in World War II, in part due to the German occupation. In 1940, General Maurice Gamelin commanded the French Army, headquartered in Vincennes on the outskirts of Paris. It consisted of 117 divisions, with 94 committed to the northeastern front and a commander, General Alphonse Georges, at La Ferte-sous-Jouarre. General Joseph Vuillemin commanded the French Air Force, headquartered in Coulommiers. Following its disastrous loss in the 1940 Battle of France, the French Third Republic that had fought as one of the Allies fell into the hands of an authoritarian regime, Vichy France, that willingly collaborated with Germany and opposed the Allies. The Free French forces who opposed Vichy included the grassroots maquis (made of various rebel factions with ancient regional allegiances), a government in exile, and regiments from the French colonial empire, who at times found themselves fighting other French people. French ground armies, navies, and air forces fought on the Allied side in each theater of World War II before, during, and after the Battle of France. Even though those forces participated in varying degrees, the Allies considered France a World War II victor and did not impose a US-run military occupation (AMGOT). However, United States Air Force bases were maintained in France until 1967, when Charles de Gaulle's government rejected NATO. French colonial units consisted of some non-French mercenaries from the Foreign Legion and conscripted indigenous people recruited by tribe, ethnicity, or region. Free French Forces (1940–1945) The Free French Forces were created in 1940 as a rebel army, refusing both the armistice with Germany and Vichy's authority. Its allegiance was to General de Gaulle in London; later the headquarters moved to Algiers. The Forces started as a limited group of volunteers from metropolitan France, West African colonies, Belgium, and Spain. It evolved to a full army after its merger with Giraud's Army of Africa, which had new recruits from the French Resistance. De Gaulle's appeals on the BBC (June 1940) General Charles de Gaulle was a member of the French cabinet during the Battle of France in 1940. As French defence forces were increasingly overwhelmed, de Gaulle found himself part of a group of politicians who argued against surrender to Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The president of the council, Paul Reynaud, sent de Gaulle as an emissary to Britain, where de Gaulle was working when the French government collapsed. On 18 June 1940, de Gaulle spoke to the French people on BBC Radio. He asked French soldiers, sailors, and airmen to join in the fight against the Nazis. De Gaulle's Appel du 18 juin was not widely heard in France, but his subsequent discourse was heard nationwide. His speech remains one of the most famous orations in French history. Regardless, Pétain's representative signed the armistice on 22 June and Pétain became leader of the new regime, known as Vichy France. De Gaulle was tried in absentia for treason and desertion in Vichy France and sentenced to death. But de Gaulle regarded himself as the last remaining member of the legitimate Reynaud government able to exercise power. He saw Pétain's rise to power as a coup d'état. French SAS (1942–1945) On 15 September 1940, Free French Captain Georges Bergé created the airborne unit called 1re compagnie de l'air, 1re CIA (1st Marine Infantry Paratroopers Regiment) in Great Britain. This unit, later known as 1re compagnie de chasseurs parachutistes, 1re CCP (1st Parachute Light Infantry Company) joined the British Special Air Service airborne unit with Charles de Gaulle in 1942, becoming the SAS Brigade's French Squadron. The 3rd SAS and 4th SAS are also known as 1st Airborne Marine Infantry Regiment (1er RPIMa) and 2e régiment de chasseurs parachutistes (2e RCP) respectively. Composition (1940–1945) From 1940 to 1945, General Charles de Gaulle led the following departments: Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres, FFL) 1st Free French Division (1re Division Française Libre, 1re DFL) Free French Air Force (Forces Aériennes Françaises Libres, FAFL) Free French Naval Forces (Forces Navales Françaises Libres, FNFL) Free French Naval Air Service (Aéronavale française libre, AFL) Naval Commandos (Commandos Marine) the French Resistance branch called French Forces of the Interior (Forces Françaises de l'Intérieur, FFI) the intelligence service Central Bureau of Intelligence and Operations (Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action, BCRA) French Expeditionary Corps (1943–1944) Leclerc's Free French Forces met Giraud's Army of Africa for the first time near Tripoli, Libya, in 1943. Free French Forces and Army of Africa (August 1, 1943) When the Americans landed in Algiers in 1942 as part of Operation Torch, colonial soldiers of the Vichy-controlled Army of Africa surrendered without firing a shot. Charles de Gaulle drew from them to create the Corps Expéditionnaire Français (CEF) under General Alphonse Juin. The CEF was two-thirds Moroccan, Algerian, and Senegalese, and one-third Pied-Noir, totalling 112,000 men in four divisions. This unit took part in the 1943 Italian Campaign and in Operation Dragoon, the August 1944 Allied invasion of southern France. Most African soldiers of the CEF grew up in the Atlas Mountains and were skilled and equipped for mountain warfare. Some units of exclusively Moroccan Goumiers (from Arabic: ) from the Rif mountains were grouped in units called tabors with tribal or direct family ties. There were 7,833 Goumiers. The CEF was equipped with Allied weapons such as the 45 mm Thompson submachine gun and 12.7 mm Browning machine gun. The Moroccan fighters also carried a traditional curved dagger called a koumia. By September 1944, the Free French forces had 560,000 soldiers. They grew to one million by the end of the year. They fought in Alsace, the Alps, and Brittany. When the war in Europe ended in May 1945, the Free French forces numbered 1.25 million, including seven infantry divisions and three armoured divisions fighting in Germany. Other Free French units were directly attached to Allied forces, including the British SAS and RAF, and the Soviet Air Forces. Far East French Expeditionary Forces (1943–1945) The Forces Expéditionnaires Françaises d'Extrême-Orient (FEFEO) was a French expeditionary corps created on 4 October 1943 to fight in the Asian theatre of World War II and liberate French Indochina, which Japan had occupied since 1940. Recruiting posters for the FEFEO depicted a US-built M4 Sherman tank of general Leclerc's Free French 2nd Armoured Division, famous for its role in the 1944 liberation of Paris and Strasbourg. The posters were captioned, "yesterday Strasbourg, tomorrow Saigon: Join the Far East French Expeditionary Forces". In 1945, after Japan surrendered and China was in charge in Indochina, the Provisional French Republic sent the French Far East Expeditionary Corps to Indochina to pacify the Vietnamese liberation movement and to restore French colonial rule. Gaurs and CLI commandos (1943–1945) Free French commando groups called Corps Léger d'Intervention (CLI) were created by de Gaulle in November 1943 as part of the FEFEO. They trained in French Algeria, then in British India after the British Chindits, to fight the Japanese forces in occupied French Indochina. They served in French Indochina under General Roger Blaizot beginning in 1944, and were airdropped by the British Force 136's B-24 Liberator. The first CLI commandos were known as "Gaurs", named after the Indian bison. Allied munitions (1942–1945) British support Free French aircrews formed squadrons under the operational control of the Royal Air Force with British and Lend-Lease equipment. Britain lent warships to the Free French Naval Forces. In addition to providing materiel, the British trained some Free French pilots and airborne commandos such as the 3rd SAS (French) and 4th SAS (French) and the CLI. US support In 1941, while still neutral, the United States began providing Lend-Lease munitions to Britain and China. Some went to the Free French in North Africa, starting in 1942. Among the large inventories of American equipment given to Free French Forces were several versions of the M4 Sherman medium tank. French armored divisions were organized and equipped the same way as US Army armored divisions and were sizable offensive commands. In 1943, the French decided to raise a new army in North Africa and had an agreement with the Americans to equip it with modern American weapons. The French 2nd Armored Division () entered the Battle of Normandy fully equipped with M4A2 medium tanks. The 1st and 5th DB, which entered southern France as part of the First French Army were equipped with a mixture of M4A2 and M4A4 medium tanks. The 3rd DB, which served as a training and reserve organization for the three operational armored divisions, was equipped with roughly 200 medium and light tanks. (Of these, 120 were later returned to the US Army's Delta Base Section for reissue.) Subsequent combat losses for the 1st, 2nd, and 5th Armored Divisions were replaced with standard-issue tanks from US Army stocks. The US Army also supplied the Free French Forces and Army of Africa with hundreds of US-built aircraft and materiel such as vehicles, artillery, helmets, uniforms, and firearms, as well as fuel and rations for many thousands of troops. Units and commands on 8 May 1945 Armies French First Army Atlantic Army Detachment (against the German Atlantic pockets) Alpine Army Detachment Corps I Army Corps II Army Corps III Army Corps (Atlantic Army Detachment ?) XIX Army Corps (remained in Northern Africa) Divisions 1st Free French Division 2nd Moroccan Infantry Division 3rd Algerian Infantry Division 4th Moroccan Mountain Division 9th Colonial Infantry Division 27th Alpine Infantry Division (Alpine Army Detachment) 1st Armoured Division 2nd Armoured Division 3rd Armoured Division (did not see combat) 5th Armoured Division 1st Infantry Division 10th Infantry Division 14th Infantry Division 19th Infantry Division (Atlantic Army Detachment) 23rd Infantry Division (Atlantic Army Detachment) 25th Infantry Division (Atlantic Army Detachment) 36th Infantry Division (Atlantic Army Detachment) 1st Far East Colonial Division 2nd Far East Colonial Division 3rd and 4th Free French S.A.S. (Special Air Service) Battalions Vichy France Vichy French Army (1940-1944) The Armistice Army, the official name of the army of the Vichy régime, had bases throughout the worldwide French colonial empire. It was created in July 1940 after Germany occupied the northern part of the metropolitan French territory under the armistice in June 1940. Apart from the Armistice Army, the French State created irregular forces to fight the French Resistance and internal and external communists, whom both Vichy and German authorities considered enemies. Vichy French Navy (1940-1944) Vichy French Air Force (1940-1944) Legion of French Volunteers French Legion of Fighters The French Legion of Fighters () was the French State's first paramilitary force, created on 29 August 1940 by Xavier Vallat. On 19 November 1941, the force changed its name to French Legion of Fighters and Volunteers of the National Revolution (). The National Revolution was the French State's official ideology. Legion of French Volunteers against Bolshevism The Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism (, or LVF) was a unit of the Wehrmacht army recruited from French collaborationist movements for the German invasion of the Soviet Union in July 1941. Officially designated the 638th Infantry Regiment (), it was one of a number of units formed at the same time in other parts of German-occupied Western Europe. The Legion began as part of a coalition of far-right political factions including Marcel Déat's National Popular Rally, Jacques Doriot's French Popular Party, Eugène Deloncle's Social Revolutionary Movement, and Pierre Costantini's French League, which explicitly supported Nazi ideology and collaborated with Nazi Germany. By contrast, the conservative and authoritarian Vichy regime considered itself neutral and was more ambivalent about its dependence on Germany. However, the Vichy regime tolerated the LVF and gave it some endorsement. Tricolore Legion (1941–1942) The Tricolore Legion () was created by Pierre Laval and Jacques Benoist-Méchin in July 1941 and was disbanded in December 1942. French Milice (1943–44) Originating as the shock unit of the French Legion of Volunteers (), Franc-Garde ("free guard"), la Milice ("the militia") was a Vichy French paramilitary force created on 30 January 1943 by the Vichy régime as an auxiliary of the German occupation. It aimed to hunt down members of the French Resistance and the maquis. Its commander was Joseph Darnand, a veteran of the Battle of France and volunteer brigade; he took an oath of loyalty to Adolf Hitler in October 1943 and received the rank of Sturmbannführer (major) in the Waffen SS. By 1944, the Milice had over 35,000 members. Paramilitary forces (1940–1944) Just like Vichy police agents, the national police forces collaborated with the German authorities. French Youth Workings alumni had to swear allegiance to Marshal Pétain. The gesture was the Nazi salute while saying ("I swear it!") instead of cheering Hitler. French Youth Workings (1940–1944) The Works of the French Youth () were a paramilitary youth organization created on 30 July 1940 by former Scout Movement Chief General of the 42nd Infantry Division as a substitute for a French army draft. Its members acted under Vichy army officers and dressed in military uniforms similar to those of the French Milice (béret included) and had to claim allegiance to Marshal Pétain with an arm salute. The French Youth Workings were available in all French departments, which means they were also in French Algeria and apply to European settlers and Muslim locals. However, advised to reject young Jews, and so they were barred from the French Youth Workings by the decree of 15 July 1942, twenty-four hours before the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup. In November 1942, La Porte du Theil and van Hecke were both in French Algeria when the Allies invaded Algiers and Oran. , loyal to Pétain, flew to metropolitan France, while the second sided with the Free French and joined the Army of Africa. Local French Youth Workings became units of this military force, the most famous being the 7th Africa Light Infantry Regiment (, 7e RCA), created in 1943, which fought the Italians, French, and Germans in Allied campaigns from 1944 to 1945. The famous battle song Le Chant des Africains is dedicated to van Hecke and his 7e RCA. Reserve Mobile Group (1941–1944) The Reserve Mobile Group (, GMR) was a paramilitary force of Vichy France under René Bousquet. It was a police version of the Mobile Gendarmerie that served as French Milice and German Army auxiliary during battles against the French Resistance's maquisards. In December 1944, the GMR were disbanded. Some members joined the French Forces of the Interior. The unit was replaced with the CRS riot police. French Gestapo (1941–1944) Carlingue was the name of the French Gestapo. It was headed by Henri Lafont, Pierre Loutrel, and Pierre Bonny. A famous Vichy French agent of the Gestapo was Scharführer-SS Pierre Paoli, who served in central France's Cher department. Michael Mould wrote, "It was staffed by the dregs of the French underworld." French SS (1942–1945) 8th Sturmbrigade SS Frankreich (1943–44) The 8th Sturmbrigade SS Frankreich ('8th French assault brigade') was created in 1943. Its surviving troops were incorporated into the 286th Security Division in 1944. 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1943–1945) The French State's L.V.F. and the Milice merged to become a full division of the German army. The division's name is a reference to the Frankish emperor Charlemagne, seen as an important Germanic figure in French history. The African Phalange (1942–43) The was created in French Tunisia in November 1942 to fight against the Allies, Free French Forces, and Army of Africa following Operation Torch. This unit, led by Lieutenant-colonel , Lieutenant-colonel Simon Petru Cristofini, and Captain André Dupuis, was also called the Legion of French Volunteers () or Frankonia Company (). North-African Legion (1944) The (LNA), or (BNA), was a paramilitary force of Parisians of Arab and Kabyle descent, created by French Gestapo agent Henri Lafont and Muslim Algerian nationalist Mohamed el-Maadi. French Resistance (1940–1945) Resistance groups (1940–1945) The first French Resistance groups were created in June 1940 following Marshal Pétain's call to stop fighting on 17 June. More groups formed after the signing of the French–German–Italian armistices in July 1940. There were myriad paramilitary groups of various sizes and political ideologies which made it difficult to later unify them under a single chain of command. Famous groups included communist , FTP ('Partisan irregular riflemen') and rebel police force ('Honour of the Police'). The French Resistance gradually grew in strength. Charles de Gaulle set a plan to bring together the different groups under his leadership. He changed the name of his movement to ('Fighting French Forces') and sent Jean Moulin back to France to unite the eight major French Resistance groups into one organisation. Moulin got their agreement to form the ('National Council of the Resistance'). He was eventually captured and killed under torture. French colonial empire (1940–1945) Struggle for the colonies During World War II, the French colonies were administered by the Minister of the Navy and Colonies. On 16 June 1940, Minister César Campinchi resigned and Admiral François Darlan took over authority for the colonies. On 21 June, Campinchi and other government members such as Minister of the Interior Georges Mandel left metropolitan France on the ocean liner SS Massilia from Bordeaux. They arrived on 24 June in Casablanca, French Morocco. Mandel wanted to establish a government-in-exile in French North Africa and continue to fight Nazis with the power of the colonies. However, they were arrested on arrival by the administrator of French Morocco, General Charles Noguès, on orders from General Maxime Weygand and Marshal Philippe Pétain. Pétain had signed a French–German–Italian armistice on 22 June, becoming the chief de facto of state, so the French colonial empire had become a Nazi possession. Inspired by Mandel, General Charles de Gaulle succeeded in creating a French government-in-exile in London. He tried to rally the colonies to his cause, hoping to gain troops and strategic bases to liberate metropolitan France. In 1940, a few colonies joined the Free French, but others remained under Vichy control. De Gaulle's reputation was then as a military man with no political experience or following. His charisma was not sufficient to gather the allegiance of senior colonial administrators or generals. As a result, Free French colonies fought Vichy French colonies, each one siding with the Axis or the Allies. Army of Africa (1942–1943) Created in 1830, the Army of Africa was a colonial expeditionary force that conquered the Regency of Algiers in 1847. It fought in 1939 and 1940 as a force of the French Third Republic. After France surrendered, it became a Vichy force that fought the Allies from 1940 to 1942 at the battle of Mers-el-Kébir and in Operation Torch. It evolved into a rebel faction of the Vichy forces in 1942 and eventually merged with the Free French Forces prior to 1944 operations in mainland Europe. Formed of European settlers and indigenous colonial units of French North Africa, French West Africa, and French Equatorial Africa, the Army of Africa received ample supplies from the United States through a lend-lease plan. This new force, well-equipped with US materiel, was nicknamed the ('New French Army'). On 26 December 1942, Giraud became head of the French Civil and Military High Command of French North Africa forces after the assassination of Vichy admiral François Darlan. Operation Torch aftermath During Operation Torch—the Allied invasion of Vichy-controlled French North Africa in November 1942—many Vichy troops surrendered and joined the Free French. The French Resistance captured Vichy coastal defences. Giraud became head of the Army of Africa, joining the Allies as the French XIX Corps, based in French Algeria. Axis retaliations (1942–1943) The Nazis suspected Vichy involvement after Operation Torch. They occupied the southern French zone libre in November 1942, during Case Anton. The Luftwaffe units based in Libya also several times bombed the harbour of Algiers and cities in eastern French Algeria, including Annaba and Jijel. Free French colonies In the summer of 1940, the French colonies of the New Hebrides, Cameroon, French India, French Equatorial Africa, French Polynesia and New Caledonia joined the Free French. Saint-Pierre and Miquelon joined later in 1941. Vichy French colonies French Indochina was under Vichy control and Japanese oversight from 1940 until 1944, and then under total Japanese rule. Guadeloupe and Martinique in the West Indies remained under Vichy government control until 1942. Allied angary (1940) Operation Catapult and Lend-Lease Starting with Operation Catapult on 3 July 1940, the British pre-emptively seized French vessels. Both combatants and merchant ships docked in British harbours of the English Channel (Plymouth), Mediterranean (Gibraltar), and Canada were abruptly taken over by armed sailors and soldiers. Their crews were interned and the vessels were appropriated and distributed to the British or Polish fleets. Later, if they were willing to recognize Charles de Gaulle as the legitimate leader of the French government-in-exile, the interned personnel were set free and assigned to new ships by the British. American aid under Lend-Lease made possible a rebuilt and expanded French Navy as one of the Western Allies. British capture French ships in British ports were boarded by armed sailors. These included the Surcouf, a submarine in Plymouth for repairs in July 1940. Surcouf'''s repairs were completed and it was turned over to the Free French by August. In 1941, she acted as an escort for trans-Atlantic convoys. In November 1940, she caused four deaths (three British, one French) and the capture of the merchant ship MV Charles Plumier in Gibraltar. This later became , a command ship in several amphibious landings. Axis requisition (1940–1945) In Operation Lila, the Germans attempted to seize the remains of the French navy. In Toulon, the French ships were scuttled rather than surrendered. Seventy-seven vessels, including three battleships, seven cruisers, and fifteen destroyers were deliberately sunk. Some submarines ignored their orders to scuttle themselves and escaped to fight with the Allies. Theatres of World War II European Phoney War (1939) France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939 under the Franco-Polish Military Alliance following the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939. A French force invaded the Saarland in western Germany in the Saar Offensive led by general Louis Faury, who prior to the war had been head of the French Military Mission to Poland. Although tactically successful, as the advance into German territory reached 8 km, the Saar operation was abandoned on 12 September when the Anglo French Supreme War Council decided to halt all offensive actions immediately. This SWC was composed of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and Lord Chatfield as the British delegation while Prime Minister Édouard Daladier and General Maurice Gamelin formed the French delegation. General Gamelin ordered French troops to withdraw to the Maginot Line in France, leaving Poland to face the Germans and Soviets alone; the latter entered Poland on 17 September. On 16 October, German general Erwin von Witzleben started a counter-offensive against France, entering a few kilometers into its territory, and the last French forces left Germany the following day to defend their country. Battle of Belgium (10–28 May 1940) Under the "Dyle plan", the 1st, 7th, and 9th armies with the British Expeditionary Force between the 7th and 9th Armies moved into Belgium and the Netherlands to counter a German attack similar to the Schlieffen Plan in World War I. The unsuccessful defence of Belgium and the surrender of King Leopold III of Belgium on 28 May spurred the creation of the Free Belgian Forces. Battle of the Netherlands (10–14 May 1940) The French 7th Army under General Henri Giraud fought the Germans in support of French ally the Netherlands. Battle of France (10 May – 25 June 1940) Prelude Neither the French nor the British had foreseen the rapid defeat of Poland. The speed of the Nazi victory, relying on blitzkrieg, disturbed some generals in London and Paris. But the Allies still expected to contain the Germans in a war reasonably like the First World War, and that even without an Eastern Front the Germans could be defeated by blockade, as in the previous conflict. Paris had suffered more severely in the First World War and had doubts; Prime Minister of France Édouard Daladier noted the large gap between France's resources and those of Germany. French commander Maurice Gamelin also expected a repeat of World War I's Schlieffen Plan. Much of the French army in the 1930s had been designed for offensive warfare, but the French military staff believed the country was not militarily or economically equipped for a decisive offensive, and that it would be better to wait until 1941, when the combined Allied economic superiority over Germany could be fully exploited. The expected German plan – a move into the Low Countries, outflanking the fortified Maginot Line – could be countered by sending the best units of the French army and the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) to halt the Germans near the river Dyle, east of Brussels, until a decisive victory could be achieved with the support of the united British, Belgian, French, and Dutch armies. The original German plan in fact closely followed Gamelin's expectations. The crash in Belgium of a light plane carrying two German officers with a copy of the then-current invasion plan forced Hitler to scrap the plan and search for an alternative. The final plan of (Case Yellow) had been suggested by General Erich von Manstein, then serving as Chief of Staff to Gerd von Rundstedt, but initially rejected by the German General Staff. It proposed a deep penetration south of the original route, taking advantage of the speed of the Panzer divisions to separate and encircle the opposing forces. It had the advantage of surprising the defenders, as the Ardennes were heavily wooded and implausible as a route for tanks. The plan also was unknown to the Allies, and was dramatic, which seems to have appealed to Hitler. Manstein planned to break through the weak Allied centre with overwhelming force, trap his opponents to the north in a pocket, and drive on to Paris. The plan would benefit from an Allied response close to what they expected; a large part of French and British strength would be drawn north to defend Belgium and Picardy. To help ensure this result, German Army Group B would still attack Belgium and the Netherlands in order to draw Allied forces east into the developing encirclement and secure bases for a later attack on Britain. After capturing the original invasion plans, the Allies were initially jubilant, thinking that they might have won a key victory before the campaign was even fought. But General Gamelin and Lord Gort, the commander of the BEF, were shaken when they realized the Germans would instead not do what they had planned for. Gamelin became convinced that the Germans would try to attempt a breakthrough, concentrating their mechanized forces. They could hardly hope to break the Maginot Line on the right or to overcome the Allied forces on the left. That left only the centre and the river Meuse. Tanks were useless in defeating fortified river positions. However, at Namur, the river made a sharp turn to the east, creating a gap between itself and the river Dyle. This Gembloux Gap, ideal for mechanized warfare, was a very dangerous weak spot. Gamelin decided to concentrate half of his armoured reserves there. The Germans could try to take the Meuse position with infantry, but that could only be achieved by massive artillery support, the build-up of which would give Gamelin ample warning. Campaign in the Low Countries and northern France Germany launched on the night of 9/10 May. German forces occupied Luxembourg and in the morning German Army Group B (Bock) launched a feint into the Netherlands and Belgium. German Fallschirmjäger from the 7th Flieger and 22nd Air Landing divisions under Kurt Student executed surprise landings at The Hague, on the road to Rotterdam, and against the Belgian Fort Eben-Emael to facilitate Army Group B's advance. The Allied command reacted immediately, sending forces north to combat a plan that, for all the Allies could expect, resembled the earlier Schlieffen plan. This move north committed their best forces, diminished their fighting power through loss of readiness, and reduced their mobility through loss of fuel. That evening, French troops crossed the Dutch border. The Luftwaffe quickly obtained air superiority, depriving the Allies of key reconnaissance abilities and disrupting Allied communication and coordination. The German invaders secured all the strategically vital bridges in and toward Rotterdam, penetrating "Fortress Holland" and bypassing the Water Line, but their attempt to seize The Hague ended in complete failure, which later led the Germans to skip paratrooper attacks. The airfields surrounding the city (Ypenburg, Ockenburg, and [[Valkenburg Naval Air Base |Valkenburg]]) were taken with heavy casualties on 10 May, only to be lost on the very same day to furious counterattacks launched by the two Dutch reserve infantry divisions. The French marched north to connect with the Dutch army, which came under attack from German paratroopers, but by simply not understanding German intentions they failed to block German armoured reinforcements from the 9th Panzer Division from reaching Rotterdam on 13 May. The Dutch, their poorly equipped army largely intact, surrendered on 14 May after the Germans bombed Rotterdam. However, the Dutch troops in Zeeland and the colonies continued the fight while Queen Wilhelmina established a government-in-exile in Britain. The centre of the Belgian defensive line, Fort Eben-Emael, had been seized by German paratroopers using gliders on 10 May, allowing their forces to cross the bridges over the Albert Canal, although the arrival of the British Expeditionary Force managed to save the Belgians for a time. Gamelin's plan in the north was achieved when the British army reached the Dyle; then the expected major tank battle took place in the Gembloux Gap between the French 2nd and 3rd Divisions Légères mécaniques, (Mechanized Light Divisions), and the German 3rd and 4th Panzer divisions of Erich Hoepner's XVI Motorized Corps, costing both sides about 100 vehicles. The German offensive in Belgium seemed stalled for a moment; but this was a feint. German breakthrough In the centre, German Army Group A smashed through Belgian infantry regiments and French Light Divisions of the Cavalry () while advancing into the Ardennes, and arrived at the river Meuse near Sedan the night of 12/13 May. On 13 May, the Germans forced three crossings near Sedan. Instead of slowly massing artillery as the French expected, the Germans replaced the need for traditional artillery by using the full might of their bomber force to punch a hole in a narrow sector of the French lines with carpet bombing (punctuated by dive bombing). During the Battle of Sedan, the city was held by the 55th French Infantry Division (55e DI), a grade "B" reserve division. The forward elements of the 55e DI held their positions through most of the 13th, initially repulsing three of the six German crossing attempts; however, German air attacks had disrupted the French supporting artillery batteries and created an impression among the troops of the 55e DI that they were isolated and abandoned. The combination of the psychological impact of the bombing, the slowly expanding German lodgements, deep penetrations by some small German infantry units, and the lack of air or artillery support eventually broke down the 55e DI's resistance and much of the unit went into rout by the evening of 13/14 May. The German aerial attack of 13 May, with 1215 bomber sorties, the heaviest air bombardment the world had yet witnessed, is considered to have been very effective and key to the successful German river crossing. It was the most effective use of tactical air power yet demonstrated in warfare. The disorder begun at Sedan was spread down the French line by groups of haggard retreating soldiers. During the night, some units in the last prepared defence line at Bulson panicked over a false rumour that German tanks were already behind their positions. On 14 May, two French tank battalions and supporting infantry from the 71st Infantry Division (71e DI) counter-attacked the German bridgehead without success. The attack was partially repulsed by the first German armour and anti-tank units which had been rushed across the river as quickly as possible at 7:20 A.M. on pontoon bridges. On 14 May, every available Allied light bomber was employed in an attempt to destroy the German pontoon bridges; but, despite incurring the highest single day action losses in the entire history of the British and French air forces, failed to destroy these targets. Despite the failure of numerous quickly planned counterattacks to collapse the German bridgehead, the French Army was successful in re-establishing a continuous defensive position further south; on the west flank of the bridgehead, however, French resistance began to crumble. The commander of the French Second Army, General Huntziger, immediately took effective measures to prevent a further weakening of his position. An armoured division (3rd Division Cuirassée) and a motorized division blocked further German advances around his flank. However, the commander of XIX Panzer Corps, Heinz Guderian, was not interested in Huntziger's flank. Leaving for the moment the 10th Panzer Division at the bridgehead to protect it from attacks by 3rd DCR, he moved his 1st and 2nd Panzer divisions sharply to the west on the 15th, undercutting the flank of the French Ninth Army by 40 km and forcing the 102nd Fortress Division to leave the positions that had blocked the XVI Panzer Corps at Monthermé. The French Second Army had been seriously mauled and rendered impotent, and the Ninth Army began to disintegrate completely, for in Belgium also its divisions, not having had the time to fortify, had been pushed back from the river by the unrelenting pressure of German infantry, allowing the impetuous Erwin Rommel to break free with his 7th Panzer Division. A French armoured division, the 1st DCR, was sent to block him, but advancing unexpectedly fast, he surprised it while refuelling on the 15th and dispersed it, despite some losses caused by the heavy French tanks. On the 16th, both Guderian and Rommel disobeyed their explicit direct orders to halt in an act of open insubordination against their superiors and moved their divisions many kilometres to the west, as fast as they could push them. Guderian reached Marle, 80 kilometres from Sedan; Rommel crossed the river Sambre at Le Cateau, a hundred kilometres from his bridgehead, Dinant. While nobody knew the whereabouts of Rommel (he had advanced so quickly that he was out of range of radio contact, earning his 7th Panzer Division the nickname ('Ghost Division'), an enraged von Kleist flew to Guderian on the morning of the 17th and after a heated argument relieved him of all duties. However, von Rundstedt blatantly refused to confirm the order. Allied reaction The Panzer Corps slowed their advance considerably but were stretched out, exhausted, and low on fuel; many tanks had broken down. There was now a dangerous gap between them and the infantry. A determined attack by a large, fresh mechanized force could have cut them off and wiped them out. The French high command, however, was reeling from the sudden offensive and stung by defeatism. On the morning of 15 May, French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud telephoned the new British prime minister, Winston Churchill, saying "We have been defeated. We are beaten; we have lost the battle." Churchill reminded him of the times the Germans had broken through Allied lines in World War I, only to be stopped. However, Reynaud was inconsolable. Churchill flew to Paris on 16 May and recognized the gravity of the situation; the French government was already burning its archives and preparing for an evacuation of the capital. In a sombre meeting with the French commanders, Churchill asked General Gamelin, "Where is the strategic reserve?" which had saved Paris in the First World War. "There is none", Gamelin replied. Later, Churchill described hearing this as the single most shocking moment in his life. Churchill asked Gamelin when and where the general proposed to launch a counterattack against the flanks of the German bulge. Gamelin simply replied "inferiority of numbers, inferiority of equipment, inferiority of methods". Gamelin was right; most reserve divisions had by now been committed. The only armoured division still in reserve, 2nd DCR, attacked on the 16th. However, the French armoured infantry divisions, the , were (despite their name) specialized breakthrough units, optimized for attacking fortified positions. They could be quite useful for defence if dug in, but had limited utility for an encounter fight: they could not execute combined infantry-tank tactics as they simply had no large motorized infantry component; they had poor tactical mobility as the heavy Char B1 bis, their main tank in which half of the French tank budget had been invested, had to refuel twice a day. So, 2nd DCR divided itself in a covering screen. Small subunits fought bravely but without strategic effect. Of course, some of the best units in the north had so far seen little fighting. Had they been kept in reserve, they could have been used for a decisive counter strike. But now they had lost much fighting power simply by moving to the north; hurrying south again would cost them even more. The most powerful allied division, the 1st DLM (), deployed near Dunkirk on the 10th, had moved its forward units 220 km to the northeast, beyond the Dutch city of 's-Hertogenbosch, in 32 hours. Finding that the Dutch had already retreated to the north, it had withdrawn and was now moving to the south. When it reached the Germans again, only 3 of its original 80 SOMUA S35 tanks were operational, mostly due to breakdowns. Nevertheless, a radical decision to retreat to the south, avoiding contact, could probably have saved most of the mechanized and motorized divisions, including the BEF. However, that would have meant leaving about thirty infantry divisions to their fate. The loss of Belgium alone would be an enormous political blow. Besides, the Allies were uncertain of German intentions. They threatened in four directions: to the north, to attack the allied main force directly; to the west, to cut it off; to the south, to occupy Paris and even to the east, to move behind the Maginot Line. The French decided to create a new reserve, among which a reconstituted 7th Army, under General , using every unit they could safely pull out of the Maginot Line to block the way to Paris. De Gaulle, in command of France's hastily formed 4th Armoured Division, attempted to launch an attack from the south and achieved a measure of success that would later accord him considerable fame and a promotion to brigadier general. However, de Gaulle's attacks on the 17th and 19th did not significantly alter the overall situation. Channel attacks, battle of Dunkirk, and the Weygand Plan (17–28 May) While the Allies did little either to threaten them or escape from the danger they posed, the Panzer corps used 17 and 18 May to refuel, eat, sleep, and repair some more tanks. On 18 May, Rommel made the French give up Cambrai by merely feinting an armoured attack. On 19 May, the German High Command grew very confident. The Allies seemed incapable of coping with events. There appeared to be no serious threat from the south – indeed General Franz Halder, Chief of Army General Staff, toyed with the idea of attacking Paris immediately to knock France out of the war in one blow. The Allied troops in the north were retreating to the river Scheldt, their right flank giving way to the 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions. It would be foolish to remain inactive any longer, allowing them to reorganize their defence or escape. Now it was time to bring them into even more serious trouble by cutting them off. The next day the Panzer Corps started moving again, smashed through the weak British 12th and 23rd Territorial divisions, occupied Amiens, and secured the westernmost bridge over the river Somme at Abbeville, isolating the British, French, Dutch and Belgian forces in the north. In the evening of 20 May, a reconnaissance unit from 2nd Panzer Division reached Noyelles, to the west, where they could see the estuary of the Somme flowing into The Channel. On 20 May, French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud dismissed Maurice Gamelin for failing to contain the German offensive and replaced him with Maxime Weygand, who immediately attempted to devise new tactics to contain the Germans. More pressing, however, was his strategic task: he formed the Weygand Plan to pinch off the German armoured spearhead by combined attacks from the north and the south. On the map, this seemed feasible: the corridor through which von Kleist's two Panzer Corps had moved to the coast was a mere wide. On paper, Weygand had sufficient forces to execute it: in the north, the three DLM and the BEF; in the south, de Gaulle's 4th DCR. These units had an organic strength of about 1,200 tanks. The Panzer divisions were very vulnerable again. The mechanical condition of their tanks was rapidly deteriorating but the condition of the Allied divisions was far worse. Both in the south and the north they could in reality muster only a handful of tanks. Nevertheless, Weygand flew to Ypres on the 21st, trying to convince the Belgians and the BEF of the soundness of his plan. Also 21 May, a detachment of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) under Major-General Harold Franklyn had already attempted to at least delay the German offensive and, perhaps, to cut off the leading edge of the German army. The resulting Battle of Arras demonstrated the value of the heavily armoured British Matilda tanks, as the German 37 mm anti-tank guns proved ineffective against them, and the limited raid overran two German regiments. The panic that resulted—the German commander at Arras, Erwin Rommel, reported being attacked by 'hundreds' of tanks, though there were only 58 at the battle—temporarily delayed the German offensive. German reinforcements pressed the British back to Vimy Ridge the following day. Although this attack was not part of any coordinated attempt to destroy the Panzer Corps, the German High Command panicked a lot more than Rommel. For a moment they feared they had been ambushed, and a thousand Allied tanks were about to smash their elite forces. But the next day they had regained confidence and ordered Heinz Guderian's XIX Panzer Corps to press north and push on to the Channel ports of Boulogne and Calais, behind the British and Allied forces to the north. That same day, the 22nd, the French tried to attack southwards east of Arras with some infantry and tanks, but the German infantry had begun to catch up and the attack was, with some difficulty, stopped by the 32nd Infantry Division. On the 24th, the first attack from the south was launched when the 7th DIC, supported by a handful of tanks, failed to retake Amiens. On 27 May, part of the British 1st Armoured Division, hastily brought over from England, attacked Abbeville in force but was beaten back with crippling losses. The next day de Gaulle tried again, with the same result. But by now even a complete success could not have saved the forces in the north. In the early hours of 23 May, Gort ordered a retreat from Arras. He had no faith in the Weygand plan nor in the proposal of the latter to at least try to hold a pocket on the Flemish coast, a Réduit de Flandres. The ports needed to supply such a foothold were already threatened. That day, the 2nd Panzer Division assaulted Boulogne and 10th Panzer assaulted Calais. The British garrison in Boulogne surrendered on 25 May, although 4,368 troops were evacuated. Calais, though strengthened by the arrival of the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment equipped with cruiser tanks and the 30th Motor Brigade, fell to the Germans on 27 May. While the 1st Panzer Division was ready to attack Dunkirk on the 25th, Hitler ordered it to halt on 24 May. This remains one of the most controversial decisions of the entire war. Hermann Göring had convinced Hitler the Luftwaffe could prevent an evacuation; Rundstedt had warned him that any further effort by the armoured divisions would lead to a very long refitting period. Attacking cities was not part of the normal task for armoured units under any operational doctrine. Also, the terrain around Dunkirk was thought unsuitable for armour. Allied evacuations (26 May – 25 June) Encircled, the British, Belgians, and French launched Operation Dynamo (26 May – 4 June) and later Operation Aerial (14–25 June), evacuating Allied forces from the northern pocket in Belgium and Pas-de-Calais, beginning on 26 May. The Allied position was complicated by King Leopold III of Belgium's surrender the following day, which was postponed until 28 May. Confusion still reigned however, as after the evacuation at Dunkirk and while Paris was enduring its short-lived siege, the First Canadian Division and a Scottish division were sent to Normandy and penetrated 200 miles inland toward Paris before they heard that Paris had fallen and France had capitulated. They retreated and re-embarked for England. At the same time as the Canadian 1st division landed in Brest, the Canadian 242 Squadron of the RAF flew their Hawker Hurricanes to Nantes, 100 miles south-east, and set up there to provide air cover. British retreat, French defeat (5–10 June 1940) The best and most modern French armies had been sent north and lost in the resulting encirclement; the French had lost their best heavy weaponry and armoured formations. Maxime Weygand was faced with a hemorrhage in the front stretching from Sedan to the English Channel, and the French government had begun to doubt that the Germans could still be defeated, particularly as the remaining British forces were retreating from the battlefield and returning to Great Britain, a particularly symbolic event for French morale, intensified by the German anti-British propaganda slogan "The British will fight to the last Frenchman". The Germans renewed their offensive on 5 June on the Somme. A panzer-led attack on Paris broke the scarce reserves that Weygand had put between the Germans and the capital, and on 10 June the French government fled to Bordeaux, declaring Paris an open city. Italy's declaration of war, French-Italian air battles, UK ends French support (10–11 June 1940) On 10 June, Italy declared war on France and Britain; Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica) started its bomb raids over France. On 13 June, French ace pilot Pierre Le Gloan shot down two Fiat BR.20 bombers with his Dewoitine D.520 fighter. On 15 June, Le Gloan, along with another pilot, attacked a group of twelve Italian Fiat CR.42 Falco fighters, and shot down three of them, while Cpt. Assolent shot down another. While returning to the airfield, Le Gloan shot down another CR.42 and another BR.20 bomber. For this achievement of destroying five aircraft in one flight, he was promoted to 2nd Lieutenant. The following week, an Italian army crossed the Alps and fought with the French Chasseurs Alpins (Alpine Hunters), the Regia Aeronautica carried out 716 bombing missions in support of the invasion of France by the Italian Royal Army (). Italian aircraft dropped a total of 276 tons of bombs. Churchill returned to France on 11 June, meeting the French War Council in Briare. The French, in a panic, wanted Churchill to give every available fighter to the air battle over France; with only 25 squadrons remaining, Churchill refused to further help his ally, believing that the decisive battle would be fought over Britain (the Battle of Britain started on 10 July). The British ended their support and left France to its fate, facing the Germans and Italians alone. Concerned about an upcoming German invasion of his own country, Churchill, at the meeting, obtained promises from French admiral François Darlan that the French Navy fleet would not fall into German hands. French-German negotiations, Pétain's appeal (16–17 June) Paul Reynaud resigned because he believed a majority of his government favoured an armistice. He was succeeded by a patriarchal figure: 84-year-old World War I veteran Maréchal Philippe Pétain. On 16 June, the new French President of the council, Philippe Pétain (the President of the Republic office was vacant 11 July 1940 – 16 January 1947), began to negotiate with Axis officials. On 17 June 1940, Marshal Pétain delivered an infamous radio appeal to the French people urging them "we must stop fighting" (). Italian invasion of France (20–22 June) French–German and French–Italian armistices (22 June 1940) On 21 June, Italian troops crossed the border in three places. Roughly thirty-two Italian divisions faced just four French divisions. Fighting continued in the east until General Prḗtelat, commanding the French Second Army group, was forced by the armistice to surrender on June 22. France formally surrendered to the Germans on June 22 in the same railroad car at Compiègne in which Germany had been forced to surrender in 1918. This railway car was lost in Allied air raids on the German capital of Berlin later in the war. Nazi occupation, Vichy France, and Armistice Army Metropolitan France was divided into a German occupation zone in the north and west and an unoccupied zone libre in the south. Pétain set up a collaborationist government based in the spa town of Vichy. The authoritarian French State, replacing the abolished French Third Republic, came to be known as Vichy France. Formation of Free France and the French Resistance Charles de Gaulle, who had been made an Undersecretary of National Defense by Paul Reynaud, was in London at the time of the surrender: having made his Appeal of 18 June as an answer to Pétain's appeal of 17 June, he refused to recognize the Vichy government as legitimate – the position of President of France was vacant – and began organizing the Free French Forces. A number of French colonies like French Equatorial Africa joined de Gaulle's fight. Others, like French Indochina, were attacked by the Japanese or remained loyal to the Vichy government. Italy occupied a small area of France, essentially the Alpes-Maritimes and Corsica. Free French airmen in RAF (June 1940–1945) The first Free French pilots flew from Bordeaux to rally de Gaulle in England on 17 June 1940. These individuals served in British squadrons until there were sufficient pilots to create All-Free French RAF flights. Free French pilots in the battle of Britain (10 July – 31 October 1940) Thirteen Free French pilots (from France) fought in the Battle of Britain against the German Luftwaffe. Among these men were Adjutant Émile Fayolle, son of an admiral and grandson of French Marshal Marie Émile Fayolle. When the Armistice was signed on 22 June 1940, Fayolle was at the Fighter School at Oran, French Algeria. On 30 June, he and a comrade flew to the British base at Gibraltar and from there sailed to Liverpool where they arrived on 13 July and joined the RAF. Flying with other squadrons from September 1940, in November 1941 Fayolle joined No. 340 (Free French) Squadron RAF, the first all-French fighter unit. Another pilot with a similar course was Adjutant René Mouchotte. Eleven Free French pilots were posted to No.1 School of Army Co-operation, Old Sarum, on 29 July. Mouchotte was posted to Turnhouse, Scotland, as Deputy 'A' Flight Commander with 340 Squadron on 10 November. On 18 January 1943, Captain Mouchotte returned to Turnhouse to form and command the 341 Free French Squadron. All-Free French RAF Squadrons (1941–1945) In the summer of 1941, the British commander of the Fighter Command accepted the creation of the No. 340 Free French (Fighter) Squadron (also known as ), a Free French unit attached to the No. 13 Group RAF, equipped with Spitfire aircraft and formed at Turnhouse. Other notable All-Free French RAF flights were the No. 327 Squadron RAF and No. 341 Squadron RAF. Battle of Dieppe (19 August 1942) French on the Eastern front (1941–1945) Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism (1941–1943) The French State sent an expeditionary force, called Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism () (LVF), to fight the Soviet Red Army alongside the German Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front. This volunteer unit, including old men and 15-year-old children as evidenced by Nazi propaganda archives, took part in Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, beginning November 1941. The German designation for the LVF was Infanterie-Regiment 638 ("638th Infantry Regiment") and it served under Field Marshal Günther von Kluge, commander of the German 4th Army. It fought in the Battle of Diut'kovo (maybe Dyatkovo), part of the Battle of Moscow, and the Battle of Berezina, as hinted by its flag. It suffered extremely high casualties due to combat and frostbite. Vichy French Sturmbataillon Charlemagne last defenders of Berlin (April–May 1945) The Vichy French SS battalion Charlemagne (remains of the French SS Division Charlemagne) under Hauptsturmführer (Captain) Henri Fenet was among the last defenders of the Nazi German capital, fighting against Soviet forces during the Battle of Berlin in April–May 1945. Free French Normandie-Niemen (1942–1945) A fighter aviation group named Normandie-Niemen fought on the Eastern Front as part of the Soviet air force. These French volunteers were equipped with first-rate Yakovlev Soviet-built fighters. At de Gaulle's initiative, the Free French Air Force was formed on 1 September 1942, to serve on the Eastern Front. It flew as part of the Soviet 1st Air Army and served with distinction with Soviet aircraft and was awarded the supplementary title Niemen (from the Belarus river) by Joseph Stalin. Its first commander, , was killed in action. Normandie-Niemen evolved from a single squadron called "Normandie" to a full regiment which included Squadron Caen, Squadron Le Havre and Squadron Rouen. Their battle honors were Oryol (1943), Smolensk (1943), Orche (1944), Berezina (1944), Niemen (1944), Chernyakhovsk (1945) and Baltiysk (1945). By the end of World War II, the Free French unit counted 273 certified victories, 37 non-certified victories, and 45 damaged aircraft with 869 fights and 42 dead. On 31 May 1945, Normandie-Niemen squadrons were directed to Moscow by the Soviet authorities, who decided to allow them to return to France with their aircraft as a reward. The 40 French pilots still active with the regiment flew back to France in Yak-3 fighters. They arrived at Elbląg, Poland on 15 June 1945, and in Paris Le Bourget, through Posen, Prague, and Stuttgart, on 21 June. Their arrival at Stuttgart and parade at Le Bourget were filmed. Maquis du Limousin (June 1942 – August 1944) Italian campaign (1943–1944) French Expeditionary Corps During the Italian campaign of 1943, 130,000 Free French soldiers fought on the Allied side. The 1st group, 1st Landing Corps (), later redesignated as the French Expeditionary Corps () (CEF), participated in the Italian Campaign with two divisions and two separate brigades from late 1943 to 23 July 1944. Bernhardt Line (1 December 1943 – 15 January 1944) In the Italian Campaign, the Bernhardt Line (or Reinhard Line) was a German defense over the massif of Monte Cassino, defended by the XIV Panzer Corps (XIV Panzerkorps) of the German Tenth Army (10. Armee). The US Fifth Army reached it in early December 1943 and fought until mid-January 1944 to reach the next defence, the Gustav Line. Battle of Monte Cassino (17 January – 18 May 1944) In 1944, this corps was reinforced by two additional divisions and played an essential role in the Battle of Monte Cassino. The Allied capture of Monte Cassino resulted in 55,000 Allied casualties, and around 20,000 Germans killed or wounded. After the Allies captured Rome, the Corps withdrew from Italy and incorporated into the B Army (Armée B) for the invasion of southern France. Operation Diadem (May 1944) The Allied Operation Diadem of the Italian Campaign in May 1944 successfully assaulted German Gustav Line defences in the Italian Liri valley, the primary route to Rome. Breaking through German lines, it eased pressure on the Anzio beachhead and tied German troops up in Italy to prevent their deployment against the Normandy landings. Diadem was supported by air attacks called Operation Strangle and by the British XIII Corps, and the French Corps, including Moroccan Goumiers). The opposing force was the German 10th Army. On 11 May 1944, elements of the British 4th Infantry Division and 8th Indian Infantry Division, with supporting fire from the 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade, performed a successful night crossing of the Garigliano and Rapido rivers, against strong resistance. The French Corps pushed through the mountains on 14 May, supported by US II Corps of the Fifth Army. On 17 May, Polish II Corps on the right attacked Monte Cassino. The Germans fell back some 10 miles to the Hitler Line, where the four Allied units attacked again on 23 May, as well as the US VI Corps out of Anzio. The 1st Canadian Infantry Division's 4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards breached the Hitler Line at Pontecorvo on 23 May. The Germans retreated northwest. The Germans fought a series of delaying actions and retreated to the Trasimene Line, then the Gothic Line north of the Arno river. Operation Brassard (17–18 June 1944) In June 1944, the invasion of Elba followed the success of Operation Diadem. The 9th Colonial Infantry Division (9 DIC) and Choc (special forces) battalions of I Corps assaulted and seized the heavily fortified island, defended by German fortress infantry and coastal artillery troops. Combat on the island was characterized by close-in fighting, flamethrowers, well-ranged German artillery, and liberal use of landmines. France maquis warfare (January–July 1944) Battle of Vercors (January–July) A force of 4,000 French Resistance (FFI) fighters proclaimed the Free Republic of Vercors opposing the German army and French Milice. Battle of Glières (30 January – 26 March) Battle of Mont Mouchet (20 May – 22 June) Battle of Saint-Marcel (18 June) Battle of Mont Gargan (18–24 July) In the , FTP forces () under Georges Guingouin fought the Wehrmacht brigade led by General Curt von Jesser. Campaign of France (1944–1945) By the time of the Normandy Invasion, the Free French forces numbered 500,000 regulars and more than 100,000 FFI (French Resistance). The Free French 2nd Armoured Division, under General Philippe Leclerc, landed at Utah Beach in Normandy on 2 August and eventually led the drive towards Paris later that month. The FFI began to seriously harass the German forces by cutting roads and railways, setting ambushes, and fighting battles alongside their allies. French SAS Brittany airborne landings (5–18 June 1944) Operation Samwest (5–9 June) Operation Samwest (5–12 June 1944) was a large raid conducted by 116 Free French paratroopers of the 4th Special Air Service Regiment. 9780806151250 Their objective was to hinder the movement of German troops from west Brittany to the Normandy beaches through ambush and sabotage attempts. The first phase of the mission was to establish a secure base on the Breton Peninsula, near Saint-Brieuc in Duault. Their base was heavily attacked by German troops on 12 June, and they were forced to disperse. Operation Dingson (5–18 June) Free French airborne under Colonel Pierre-Louis Bourgoin dropped behind German lines in Brittany. Operation Cooney (7 June) Free French contribution to the Normandy naval landings (June 1944) French contribution on D-Day Only a few French infantry were involved in Operation Overlord, the Allied landing operations in Normandy on 6 June 1944. There were 209 infantry: 177 commandos and 32 airborne troopers. Additional personnel include a hundred French air force fighter and bomber pilots and hundreds of sailors from the French navy. The first to touch the ground of France Free French infantry fighting in the Normandy beaches on June 6 is limited to the 1er Bataillon de Fusiliers Marins Commandos (1er BFMC) under Free French Navy Major Philippe Kieffer. The Free French Navy's 1er BFMC comprised 177 commandos and had been created at Achnacarry, Scotland after the British Commandos. This All-French unit, including many Bretons as Brittany was close to England, was attached to the British No. 4 Commando under Lieutenant-Colonel Dawson. It was the very first infantry unit to touch the sand of Ouistreham, Normandy during Operation Overlord, preceding the 3rd British Infantry Division. This honor was a courtesy of 1st Special Service Brigade (S.S.B.) commander Scottish Brigadier Simon Fraser, 15th Lord Lovat, who slowed down the British commandos landing crafts to let pass the French LCI 527 (Troop 1) and LCI 528 (Troop 8). The 1er BFMC's Normandy campaign lasted 83 days. Casualty rate was high: from the 117 Kieffer commandos of June 6, only 24 survived. Free French naval operations (3–16 June) The Free French Navy under Admiral Ramsay took part in Operation Neptune which was the naval part of Operation Overlord, a series of missions were fulfilled on June 6: Juno Beach, French destroyer La Combattante under Commander André Patou shelled the German fortifications of Courseulles-sur-Mer while frigate La Découverte and corvette Commandant-d'Estienne-d'Orves escorted the Canadian infantry landing crafts. Gold Beach, the frigate La Surprise protected the British landing operation. Utah Beach, the corvettes L'Aconit and La Renoncule were in charge of patrolling against U-boats. Omaha Beach, in Vierville-sur-Mer, Saint-Laurent-sur-Mer, and Colleville-sur-Mer sectors, the frigates Escarmouche, Aventure, and the corvette Roselys escorted the US V Corps's landing crafts. English Channel, eight fast patrol boats of the 23rd Flotilla patrolled for incoming German navy forces or sea mines. Another French mission during 3–16 June consisted of the shelling of Omaha Beach's defense by a fleet under Admiral Jaujard, which comprised the 7,500-ton cruisers Georges-Leygues and Montcalm, with their 10,000-ton tanker, and the cruiser Duquesne. The three cruisers fired thousands of shells in four days. Defense operations were also performed by the corvettes and frigates establishing a shuttle between English harbours and the French coast. They escorted the logistics maneuvers involving infantry landing crafts, medical evacuations from the battlefield, and searching for Kriegsmarine menace. On 9 June, the obsolete French cuirassé Courbet was disarmed and scuttled – together with other ships – in the Hermanville-sur-Mer area, to be used as artificial breakwaters. All-Free French air force operations Bomb group No. 342 Squadron RAF (GB 1/20 Lorraine), commanded by Michel Fouquet and equipped with Boston light bombers, supported the Omaha Beach invasion with a smoke screen campaign that blinded and isolated the German defenders. Heavy bombers of bomb groups GB 1/15 Touraine and No. 347 Squadron RAF (GB 1/25 Tunisie) and fighters of No. 329 Squadron RAF (GC 1/2 Cigognes), No. 345 Squadron RAF (GC 2/2 Berry), No. 341 Squadron RAF (GC 3/2 Alsace), and No. 340 Squadron RAF (GC 4/2 Île de France) serviced under Air Marshal Leigh-Mallory. The Free French airmen were part of the first casualties of Day-D. These include the flying crew Boissieux-Canut-Henson from bomb group No. 342 Squadron RAF (GB 1/20 Lorraine) which left its base at dawn and was KIA when its Boston was shot down. Leclerc's 2nd Armoured Division (August 1944 – January 1945) The 2nd Division landed at Utah Beach on 1 August 1944, about two months after the D-Day landings, and served under General Patton's Third Army. Battle for Normandy (July 1944) The 2nd Division played a critical role in Operation Cobra, the Allied breakthrough from Normandy, when it served as a link between American and Canadian armies and made rapid progress against German forces. They all but destroyed the 9th Panzer Division and defeated several other German units. During the Battle for Normandy, the 2nd Division suffered 133 men killed, 648 wounded, and 85 missing; material losses included 76 armored vehicles, 7 cannons, 27 halftracks, and 133 other vehicles. In the same period, the 2nd Division inflicted losses on the Germans of 4,500 killed and 8,800 taken prisoner, while the Germans' material losses in combat against the 2nd Division during the same period were 117 tanks, 79 cannons, and 750 wheeled vehicles. Liberation of Paris (24–25 August 1944) The most celebrated moment in the 2nd Division's history involved the Liberation of Paris. Allied strategy emphasized destroying German forces retreating towards the Rhine, but when the French Resistance under Colonel Rol-Tanguy staged an uprising in the city, Charles de Gaulle pleaded with Eisenhower to send help. Eisenhower agreed and Leclerc's forces headed for Paris. After hard fighting that cost the 2nd Division 35 tanks, 6 self-propelled guns, and 111 vehicles, von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, surrendered the city at the Hôtel Meurice. Jubilant crowds greeted French forces, and de Gaulle conducted a famous parade through the city. Lorraine Campaign, Liberation of Strasbourg (1944 – January 1945) Subsequently, the 2nd Division campaigned with American forces in Lorraine, spearheading the US Seventh Army's drive through the northern Vosges Mountains and forcing the Saverne Gap. This continued with the liberation of Strasbourg in November 1944, the defence against the German Nordwind counter-offensive in Alsace in January 1945, and the operations against the Royan Pocket on the Atlantic coast of France. Liberation of southern France (June–August 1944) Operation Jedburgh (June) Free French airborne commandos, called "Jedburghs", were dropped behind Nazi lines in Provence in order to support the upcoming Allied landing (Operation Dragoon) and prepare the French Resistance. This Allied operation was in conjunction with the Free French intelligence service Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action (BCRA). Famous French Jedburghs include Jean Sassi and Paul Aussaresses. Battle for Provence (August) Operation Dragoon was the Allied invasion of southern France on 15 August 1944. The invasion took place between Toulon and Cannes. During the planning stages, the operation was known as Anvil, to complement Operation Hammer, which was at that time the codename for the invasion of Normandy. Subsequently, both plans were renamed, the latter becoming Operation Overlord, the former becoming Operation Dragoon; a name supposedly picked by Winston Churchill, who was opposed to the plan, and claimed to having been "dragooned" into accepting it. The plan originally envisaged a mixture of Free French and American troops taking Toulon and later Marseille, with subsequent revisions encompassing Saint Tropez. The plan was revised throughout 1944, however, with conflict developing between British military staff — who were opposed to the landings, arguing that the troops and equipment should be either retained in Italy or sent there — and American military staff, who were in favour of the assault. This was part of a larger Anglo-American strategic disagreement. The balance was tipped in favour of Operation Dragoon by two events: the eventual fall of Rome in early June, plus the success of Operation Cobra, the breakout from the Normandy pocket, at the end of the month. Operation Dragoon was set for August 15, 1944. The final go-ahead was given at short notice. The US 6th Army Group, also known as the Southern Group of Armies, commanded by Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers, was created in Corsica and activated on 1 August 1944, to consolidate the combined French and American forces that were planning to invade southern France in Operation Dragoon. At first, it was subordinate to AFHQ (Allied Forces Headquarters) under the command of Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson who was the supreme commander of the Mediterranean Theater. One month after the invasion, command was handed over to SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Forces) under US General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the supreme commander of Allied forces on the Western Front. The assault troops were formed of three American divisions of the VI Corps, reinforced by a French armoured division. The 3rd Infantry Division landed on the left at Alpha Beach (Cavalaire-sur-Mer), the 45th Infantry Division landed in the centre at Delta Beach (Saint-Tropez), and the 36th Infantry Division landed on the right at Camel Beach (Saint-Raphaël). These were supported by French commando groups landing on both flanks, and by Rugby Force, a parachute assault in the Le Muy-Le Luc area by the 1st Airborne Task Force: British 2nd Parachute Brigade, the US 517th Parachute Regimental Combat Team, and a composite US airborne glider regimental combat team formed from the 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion, the 550th Glider Infantry Battalion, and the 1st Battalion, 551st Parachute Infantry regiment. The 1st Special Service Force took two offshore islands to protect the beachhead. Naval gunfire from Allied ships, including battleships Lorraine, , , , and and a fleet of over 50 cruisers and destroyers supported the landings. Seven Allied escort carriers provided air cover. Over 94,000 troops and 11,000 vehicles were landed on the first day. A number of German troops had been diverted to fight the Allied forces in Northern France after Operation Overlord and a major attack by French resistance fighters, coordinated by Captain Aaron Bank of the OSS, helped drive the remaining German forces back from the beachhead in advance of the landing. As a result, the Allied forces met little resistance as they moved inland. The quick success of this invasion, with a twenty-mile penetration in twenty-four hours, sparked a major uprising by resistance fighters in Paris. Follow-up formations included US VI Corps HQ, US Seventh Army HQ, French Army B (later redesignated the French First Army), and French I and II Corps. The rapid retreat of the German Nineteenth Army resulted in swift gains for the Allied forces. The plans had envisaged greater resistance near the landing areas and underestimated transport needs. The consequent need for vehicle fuel outstripped supply, and this shortage proved to be a greater impediment to the advance than German resistance. As a result, several German formations escaped into the Vosges and Germany. The Dragoon force met up with southern thrusts from Overlord in mid-September, near Dijon. Operation Dragoon included a glider landing (Operation Dove) and a deception (Operation Span). A planned benefit of Dragoon was the usefulness of the port of Marseille. The rapid Allied advance after Operations Cobra and Dragoon slowed almost to a halt in September 1944 due to a critical lack of supplies, as thousands of tons of supplies were shunted to northwest France to compensate for the inadequacies of port facilities and land transport in northern Europe. Marseille and the southern French railways were brought back into service despite heavy damage to the Port of Marseille and its railroad trunk lines. They became a significant supply route for the Allied advance into Germany, providing about a third of the Allied needs. Operation Romeo (15 August 1944) French commandos assaulted German artillery position at . 300 German soldiers were killed and 700 were taken prisoner. The French commandos suffered 11 men killed and 50 wounded. Liberation of Toulon and Marseilles The French First Army under Jean de Lattre de Tassigny performed spectacularly in the capture of Toulon and Marseilles. The original plan intended to attack the two ports in succession. The accelerated landings of de Lattre's French forces and the general situation, however, allowed concurrent operations against both. De Lattre ordered Lieutenant General Edgard de Larminat to move west against Toulon along the coast, with two infantry divisions supported by tanks and commandos. Simultaneously, a second force, under Major General Goislard de Monsabert and consisting of one infantry division and similar supporting forces, would advance in a more northwesterly direction, encircling the naval port from the north and west and probing toward Marseille. De Lattre knew that the German garrisons at the ports were substantial: some 18,000 troops of all types at Toulon and another 13,000 (mostly army) at Marseille. However, Resistance sources also told him that the defenders had not yet put much effort into protecting the landward approaches to the ports, and he was convinced that a quick strike by experienced combat troops might well crack their defenses before they had a chance to coalesce. Speed was essential. On the morning of 20 August, with the German command in Toulon still in a state of confusion and the Nineteenth Army more concerned with Truscott's westward progress well north of the port, de Larminat attacked from the east while Monsabert circled around to the north, quickly outflanking Toulon's hasty defenses along the coast. By 21 August, Monsabert had cut the Toulon-Marseille road, and several of his units had entered Toulon from the west, penetrating to within two miles of the main waterfront. Between 21 and 23 August, the French slowly squeezed the Germans back into the inner city in a series of almost continuous street fights. As the German defense lost coherence, isolated groups began to surrender, with the last organized resistance ending on the 26th and the formal German surrender occurring on 28 August. The battle cost de Lattre about 2,700 casualties, but the French claimed 17,000 prisoners, indicating that few Germans had followed the Fuehrer's "stand and die" order. Even as French forces occupied Toulon, Monsabert began the attack on Marseille, generally screening German defenses along the coast and striking from the northeastern and northern approaches. Early gains on 22 August put French troops within five to eight miles of the city's center, while a major Resistance uprising within the port encouraged French soldiers to strike deeper. Although de Lattre urged caution, concerned over the dispersion of his forces and the shortage of fuel for his tanks and trucks, Monsabert's infantry plunged into the heart of Marseille in the early hours of 23 August. Their initiative decided the issue, and the fighting soon became a matter of battling from street to street and from house to house, as in Toulon. On the evening of the 27th, the German commander parleyed with Monsabert to arrange terms and a formal surrender became effective on the 28th, the same day as the capitulation of Toulon. At Marseille, the French took over 1,800 casualties and acquired roughly 11,000 more prisoners. Equally important, both ports, although badly damaged by German demolitions, were in Allied hands many weeks ahead of schedule. Liberation of north-eastern France (September 1944 – March 1945) Moving north, the French First Army liberated Lyon on 2 September 1944 and moved into the southern Vosges Mountains, capturing Belfort and forcing the Belfort Gap at the close of November 1944. Following the capture of the Belfort Gap, French operations in the area of Burnhaupt destroyed the German IV Luftwaffe Korps. In February 1945, with the assistance of the US XXI Corps, the First Army collapsed the Colmar Pocket and cleared the west bank of the Rhine River of Germans in the area south of Strasbourg. Western Allied invasion of Germany (1945) First French Army in west Germany (March–April 1945) In March 1945, the First Army fought through the Siegfried Line fortifications in the Bienwald Forest near Lauterbourg. Subsequently, the First Army crossed the Rhine near Speyer and captured Karlsruhe and Stuttgart. Operations by the First Army in April 1945 encircled and captured the German XVIII. S.S.-Armeekorps in the Black Forest and cleared southwestern Germany. Normandie-Niemen air raids over Königsberg (April 1945) Free French Normandie-Niemen squadron's flag features Battle of Königsberg 1945 as battle honor and the unit was awarded the "Take of the Königsberg Fortress" medal. Free French Division Leclerc at Berchtesgaden (4 May 1945) General Leclerc's 2nd Division finished its campaigning at the Nazi resort town of Berchtesgaden, in southeastern Germany, where Hitler's mountain residence, the Berghof, was located. Leclerc's armoured unit was along the US 3rd Infantry Division. French Army of Africa's 7e RCA at Württemberg (1945) The battle flag of the hints that this Army of Africa Free French unit fought at Württemberg during the Allied invasion of Germany in 1945. Campaign of the Netherlands (1945) French SAS Operation Amherst (7–8 April 1945) The operation began with the drop of 700 Special Air Service troopers of 3rd and 4th French SAS on the night of 7 April 1945. The teams spread out to capture and protect key facilities from the Germans. Advancing Canadian troops of the 8th Reconnaissance Regiment relieved the isolated French SAS. Liberation of Belgium Battle of the Bulge (1944–1945) Two French Light Infantry Battalions (J. Lawton Collins's VII Corps (United States)) and six French Light Infantry Battalions from Metz region (Troy H. Middleton's VIII Corps (United States)) fought the Battle of the Bulge. The 3rd SAS French 1st Airborne Marine Infantry Regiment battle honor bears the Battle of Bulge ("Ardennes Belges 1945"). English Channel and North Sea "British treachery" over Free French navy (3 July – 31 August 1940) On 3 July 1940, Prime Minister Winston Churchill ordered the capture of French ships by the British as Operation Catapult. This included not only the enemy Vichy French ships in the Mediterranean (see Battle of Mers-el-Kebir) but also the allied Free French ships docked in Britain after the Dunkirk evacuation. The capture by force of docked ships led to fighting between Free French sailors and outnumbering British Marines, sailors, and soldiers in the English harbours. A similar operation was executed in Canada. The British assault on the then world's largest submarine resulted in three dead British (2 Royal Navy officers and 1 British seaman) and one dead Free French (warrant officer mechanic Yves Daniel). Commandeered Free French vessels included which was captured by the British at Plymouth. Because of the complexity of her handling and of the need to support the Free France, Le Triomphant was handed to the Free French Naval Forces (FNFL) on 28 August 1940 and put under the command of captain Pierre Gilly. Her aft gun was replaced by a British model. was under repair at Portsmouth after the Dunkirk evacuation when she was captured by the British. She was handed over to the FNFL on 31 August. also under repair at Plymouth, along with her sister ship , eight torpedo boats, five submarines and a number of other ships of lesser importance. Britain planned to transfer her to the Polish Navy. The ceremony was to be held on 15 July 1940 and it was planned to rename the ship to OF Paris (OF – Okręt Francuski – "French ship") but due to lack of personnel the ship was never handed over to the Polish Navy and was instead used by the British as an accommodation ship in Devonport. The commandeered was not returned to the Free French but instead was transferred to the Polish Navy on 17 July 1940. Until 30 April 1941, she sailed under the Polish ensign with pennant number H16, but as OF Ouragan (OF – Okręt Francuski – "French ship"), instead of the usual ORP prefix. It was only after 287 days that Ouragan was returned to her owner, on 30 April 1941. After the capture of Allied French ships, Britain tried to repatriate the captured Free French sailors. The British hospital ship that was carrying them back to metropolitan France was sunk by the Germans, and many of the French blamed the British for their deaths. Operation Catapult was called treachery by both the Vichy and Free French. The French State exploited this series of events in its anti-British propaganda, which has a long-running history dating back to the Perfidious Albion myth. Atlantic Battle of the Atlantic The French Navy took part in the naval Battle of the Atlantic from 1939 to 1940. After the armistice of June 1940, Free French Naval Forces, headed by admiral Émile Muselier, were created and pursued the war on the Allies side. Last battle of the battleship Bismarck (26–27 May 1941) The Free French Navy's submarine Minerve was involved in the Allied battle against the Allied battle against the Bismarck. Free French rescue of British Convoy HG-75 (24 October 1941) On 24 October 1941, the attacked Allied Convoy HG-75, which was sailing from Almería, Spain, to Barrow-in-Furness, England. U-564 fired five torpedoes, hitting and sinking three cargo ships: , , and . There were 18 survivors from Carsbreck, and all were rescued by the Free French Elan-class minesweeping aviso Commandant Duboc (F743). Laconia incident (12 September 1942) Vichy French ships were involved with the Laconia incident. Mediterranean, Middle East, and African Naval battle of the Mediterranean (1940–1945) Both the Vichy French Navy and Free French Navy fought the Battle of the Mediterranean sea. A notable action, the Battle off Ist, took place on the Adriatic sea on 29 February 1944, when a German naval force of two corvettes and two torpedo boats escorting a freighter, supported by three minesweepers, was intercepted by the Free French Navy operating under British command as the 24th Destroyer flotilla. Under Captain Pierre Lancelot, the Super (or heavy) Le Fantasque-class destroyers and destroyed the German freighter and one of the corvettes before withdrawing with no casualties. Naval battle of Mers El Kébir (3 July 1940) The British began to doubt Admiral Darlan's promise to Churchill to not allow the French fleet at Toulon to fall into German hands by the wording of the armistice conditions. In the end, the British attacked French naval forces in Africa and Europe, killing 1,000 French soldiers at Mers El Kebir alone. This action led to feelings of animosity and mistrust between the Vichy French and their former British allies. In the course of the war, Vichy France lost 2,653 soldiers and Free France lost 20,000. In German or Italian hands, the French fleet would have been a grave threat to Britain and the British Government declined to take this risk. To neutralise the threat, Winston Churchill ordered that the French ships should rejoin the Allies, agree to be put out of use in a British, French, or neutral port, or, as a last resort, be destroyed by British attack (Operation Catapult). The Royal Navy attempted to persuade the French Navy to agree to these terms, but when that failed, they attacked the French Navy 3 July 1940 at Mers El Kébir and Dakar. This caused bitterness and division in France, particularly in the Navy, and discouraged many French soldiers from joining the Free French forces in Britain. Also, the attempt to persuade Vichy French forces in Dakar to join de Gaulle failed. Sabotage operation in Greece (12–13 June 1942) In June 1942, British SAS C.O. David Stirling gave British captains George Jellicoe and Free French Georges Bergé a mission on the Greek island of Crete called Operation Heraklion. Bergé chose three Free French commandos, Jacques Mouhot, Pierre Léostic, and Jack Sibard; Lieutenant Kostis Petrakis of the Greek Army in the Middle East, a native of Crete, joined them. They managed to destroy 22 Junkers Ju 88 German bombers at the Candia-Heraklion airfield. However, their retreat was betrayed and 17-year-old Pierre Léostic refused to surrender and was killed, while the other three Free French were caught and transferred to Germany. The British and Cretan commandos escaped and were evacuated to Egypt. Jacques Mouhot tried and failed three times to escape, but succeeded on his fourth attempt. He subsequently crossed Germany, Belgium, France, and Spain to arrive in London on 22 August 1943. Scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon (27 November 1942) The Vichy French navy sabotaged its docked fleet at Toulon in southern France, to prevent the German Kriegsmarine from seizing Vichy French ships and using their firepower against the Allies and Free French. Allied invasion of Sicily (9 July – 17 August 1943) Operation Husky involved infantry, air force, and armored cavalry forces from the Army of Africa, including 4th Moroccan Tabor (66th, 67th, and 68th Goums landed on July 13 at Licata) from the Seventh United States Army, French II/5 "LaFayette" Squadron with Curtiss P-40 Warhawks, No. II/7 "Nice" French Squadron with Spitfires (both from No. 242 Group RAF), II/33 Groupe "Savoie" with P-38 Lightning from the Northwest African Photographic Reconnaissance Wing, and 131st RCC with Renault R35 tanks. Liberation of Corsica (September–October 1943) In September–October 1943, an ad hoc force of about 6,000 troops of the French 1st Corps liberated Corsica, which was defended by the German 90th Panzergrenadier Division and the Sturmbrigade Reichsführer-SS totalling about 30,000 troops. Although 45,000 Italians were also present, some joined the Allies. Corsica became the first French metropolitan department liberated in World War II (the first liberated was Algiers, in November 1942). African West African campaign Battle of Dakar (23–25 September 1940) The Battle of Dakar, also known as Operation Menace, was an unsuccessful attempt by the Allies to capture the strategic port of Dakar in French West Africa (modern-day Senegal), which was under Vichy French control, and to install the Free French under General Charles de Gaulle there. De Gaulle believed that he could persuade the Vichy French forces in Dakar to join the Allies. There were several advantages to this: the political consequences if another Vichy French colony changed sides, and also more practical advantages, such as the presence of the gold reserves of the Banque de France and the Polish government in exile in Dakar. Militarily, the port of Dakar had a better location for protecting the convoys sailing around Africa than Freetown, the base the Allies were then using. The Allies decided to send an aircraft carrier, two battleships (of World War I vintage), four cruisers, and ten destroyers to Dakar. Several transports would carry the 8,000 troops. Their orders were first to try and negotiate with the Vichy French governor, but, if this was unsuccessful, to take the city by force. The Vichy French forces present at Dakar were led by the battleship Richelieu, one of the most advanced in the French fleet. It had left Brest on 18 June before the Germans reached it. Richelieu was then only about 95% complete. Before the establishment of the Vichy government, , an aircraft carrier, had been operating with French forces in Dakar. Once the Vichy regime was in power, Hermes left port but remained on watch, and was joined by the Australian heavy cruiser, . Planes from Hermes had attacked the Richelieu, and it was struck once with a torpedo. The French ship was immobilised but was able to function as a floating gun battery. Three Vichy submarines and several lighter ships were also at Dakar. A force of three cruisers (the Gloire, Georges Leygues, and Montcalm) and three destroyers had left Toulon for Dakar just a few days earlier. The Gloire was slowed by mechanical troubles, and was intercepted by Australia and ordered to sail for Casablanca. The other two cruisers and the destroyers outran the pursuing Allied cruisers and reached Dakar safely. On 23 September, the Fleet Air Arm dropped propaganda leaflets on the city. Free French aircraft flew off from Ark Royal and landed at the airport, but the crews were taken prisoner. A boat with representatives of de Gaulle entered the port but were fired upon. At 10:00, Vichy French ships trying to leave the port were given warning shots from Australia. The ships returned to port but the coastal forts opened fire on Australia. This led to an engagement between the battleships and cruisers and the forts. In the afternoon, Australia intercepted and fired on the Vichy destroyer , setting it on fire and causing it to beach. In the afternoon, an attempt was made to set Free French troops ashore on a beach at Rufisque, to the north-east of Dakar, but they came under heavy fire from strong points defending the beach. De Gaulle declared he did not want to "shed the blood of Frenchmen for Frenchmen" and the attack was called off. For the next two days, the Allied fleet attacked the coastal defences, as the Vichy French tried to prevent them. Two Vichy French submarines were sunk, and a destroyer damaged. After the Allied fleet also took heavy damage to both battleships and two cruisers, they withdrew, leaving Dakar and French West Africa in Vichy French hands. The effects of the Allied failure were mostly political. De Gaulle had believed that he would be able to persuade the Vichy French at Dakar to change sides, but this turned out not to be the case, which damaged his standing with the Allies. Battle of Gabon (8–10 November 1940) The Battle of Gabon, in November 1940, was a successful attempt to rally the French African colony. On 27 October, Free French forces crossed into French Equatorial Africa and took the town of Mitzic. On 5 November, the Vichy garrison at Lambaréné capitulated. Meanwhile, the main Free French force under General Philippe Leclerc and Battalion Chief (major) Marie Pierre Koenig left Douala, French Cameroon to take Libreville, French Equatorial Africa. The British doubted de Gaulle, but eventually agreed to lend naval support. On 8 November 1940, the Shoreham-class sloop HMS Milford found and pursued a Vichy submarine, Poncelet. The Milford was too slow to intercept it, so Admiral Cunningham ordered his flagship, HMS Devonshire, to launch its Supermarine Walrus biplane. The aircraft straddled the submarine with 100 lb depth charges as it dove, damaging it. The submarine and its captain went down off Port-Gentil. Koenig landed at Pointe La Mondah on the night of 8 November with a force that included Senegalese and Cameroonian troops, and French Legionnaires from the 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade. On 9 November, Free French Westland Lysander aircraft out of Douala bombed Libreville aerodrome. Koenig's forces eventually captured the aerodrome, despite stiff resistance. Free French naval minesweeper Commandant Dominé and cargo vessel Casamance conducted coastal operations, led by Georges Thierry d'Argenlieu aboard the Bougainville-class aviso Savorgnan de Brazza. De Brazza attacked and sank her sister ship, the Vichy French Bougainville. The Free French took Libreville on 10 November. On 12 November, the last Vichy forces at Port Gentil surrendered, and Governor Georges Pierre Masson committed suicide. Writers differ on the casualties. De Gaulle said "some twenty" died in this campaign, and claimed thirty-three. Eliane Ebako wrote that "dozens" died, while Jean-Pierre Azéma has said that "roughly one hundred" died. Another narrative says 35 Vichy troops were killed, and eight Free French, and yet another, that the Free French lost four aircraft and six men. On 15 November, de Gaulle invited captured soldiers – including General Marcel Têtu – to join the Free French. Most of the prisoners of war refused and remained for the rest of the war interned in Brazzaville, French Congo. With their control in Equatorial Africa consolidated, the Free French turned to the campaign in Italian Libya. De Gaulle sent General Leclerc to Fort Lamy, Chad to oversee the preparations. The fighting triggered a mass migration of Gabonese to Spanish Guinea. French Equatorial Africa cut ties with Vichy-controlled West Africa, and rebuilt its economy around trade with its British neighbors, particularly Nigeria. Tensions between Vichy and the Free French persisted long after this invasion, but its win in French Equatorial Africa gave Free France a new-found legitimacy; it was no longer just an exile organization in London. East African Campaign The East African campaign of the Second World War was fought by Allies, mainly troops from the British Empire, against Italy and its colony, Italian East Africa, between June 1940 and November 1941. The British Middle East Command, with troops from the United Kingdom, South Africa, British India, Uganda Protectorate, Kenya, Somaliland, West Africa, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, Sudan, and Nyasaland participated in the campaign. These were joined by the Allied Force Publique of Belgian Congo, the Imperial Ethiopian Arbegnoch (resistance forces), and a small unit of Free French. Italian East Africa was defended by the Comando Forze Armate dell'Africa Orientale Italiana (Italian East African Armed Forces Command), with units from the Regio Esercito (Royal Army), Regia Aeronautica (Royal Air Force), and Regia Marina (Royal Navy). The Italian forces included about 250,000 soldiers of the Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali (Royal Corps of Colonial Troops), led by Italian officers and NCOs. With Britain in control of the Suez Canal, the Italian forces were cut off from supplies and reinforcement once hostilities began. On 13 June 1940, an Italian air raid took place on the RAF base at Wajir in Kenya and the air war continued until Italian forces had been pushed back from Kenya and Sudan, through Somaliland, Eritrea, and Ethiopia in 1940 and early 1941. The remnants of the Italian forces in the region surrendered after the Battle of Gondar in November 1941, except for small groups that fought a guerrilla war in Ethiopia against the British until the Armistice of Cassibile in September 1943, which ended the war between Italy and the Allies. The East African campaign was the first Allied strategic victory in the war; few Italian forces escaped the region to be used in other campaigns and the Italian defeat greatly eased the flow of supplies through the Red Sea to Egypt. Most Commonwealth forces were transferred to North Africa to participate in the Western Desert campaign. Eithrea–Ethiopia campaign (1941) Free French colonial forces from the Brigade of the East () under Colonel Monclar—including the 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade () and the (from Chad)—fought Italian troops in their colonies of Ethiopia and Eritrea, and the Vichy French Forces of French Somaliland. Battle of Keren (3 February – 1 April 1941) The battle was fought from 5 February to 1 April 1941 between a mixed Italian army of regular and colonial troops and the attacking British, Commonwealth, and Free French forces. North African campaign and Desert War Operation Torch, a large-scale Allied invasion of the French protectorate in Morocco and the French départements of Algeria, took place in November 1942. Naval and airborne landings of American and British troops opposed Vichy French forces. The French Resistance set up a coup d'état against both Vichy French governors; one failed and the other succeeded. Operation Torch rallied the Army of Africa to the Free French cause and also infuriated Hitler, who ordered the occupation of the rest of metropolitan France (the "free zone"), as well as air raids against French Algerian cities by the Libya-based Luftwaffe. North African Free French Air Force (July 1940 – 1945) In July 1940, there were sufficient Free French pilots in African colonial bases to man several squadrons based in French North Africa. On 8 July 1940, Free French Flight units based in Middle Eastern French colonies were created. They were initially equipped with a mixture of British, French, and American aircraft. From a strength of 500 in July 1940, the ranks of the Free French Air Force () (FAFL) grew to 900 by 1941, including 200 fliers. In addition to the FAFL air force, the Free French Naval Air Service also existed. On 3 August 1943, de Gaulle's Free French forces merged with Giraud's Army of Africa. French Morocco-Algeria campaign (1942) Coup of Casablanca (7 November) On the night of 7 November − the eve of Operation Torch − pro-Allied French General Antoine Béthouart attempted a coup d'état against the Vichy French command in Morocco, so that he could surrender to the Allies the next day. His forces surrounded the villa of General Charles Noguès, the Vichy-loyal high commissioner. However, Noguès telephoned loyal forces, who stopped the coup. In addition, the coup attempt alerted Noguès to the impending Allied invasion, and he immediately bolstered French coastal defenses. Allied invasion of French Morocco Naval battle of Casablanca (8–16 November) Battle of Port Lyautey (8–12 November) The Northern Attack Group, Sub Task Force Goalpost, arrived off Mehdia, Morocco just before midnight 7/8 November 1942. The battleship and light cruiser took up station to the north and south of the landing beaches. The transport ships had lost formation as they approached Morocco, and had not regained it by the time they arrived. The Mediterranean landings were well advanced before those at Mehdia commenced. Surprise was lost. Defenses at Mehdia were lightly manned. Naval crews operated two guns in protected positions, on the mesa above the village and near the kasbah. No more than 70 men occupied the fort when the attack started. Two guns were mounted on flat cars on the railroad running along the river. A second battery of four 75 mm guns came forward after the attack began, to a position on the high ground along the road from Mehdia to Port Lyautey. At first light on the 8th, coastal batteries and warships began to fire and French airplanes to strafe. Colonel Demas T. Craw and Major Pierpont M. Hamilton went by jeep from the beach landing to Port Lyautey to see the French commander, Colonel Charles Petit. They were to give him a diplomatic letter, in hope of preventing any hostilities. As they neared the town under a flag of truce, a French machine gunner fired point-blank, killing Colonel Craw. Major Hamilton was then taken to Colonel Petit, who had no conclusive reply. While sympathetic to the Allied cause and reluctant to fight, he lacked the authority to stop it. Units of the 60th Infantry Regiment began disembarking troops and supplies. The first wave of landing boats began circling and preparing to land, but were delayed as they looked for guidance from shore; yet the second wave pressed onshore as planned, on time, so the second wave began their attack, as the first wave started in toward its objectives. Confusion ruled. As the first wave made shore, small arms fire and cannon fire began from a kasbah overlooking the area. On that first day, the 60th Regiment achieved their first objective, securing the beach, but no others. That night was stormy; men tried to rest anywhere, and many searched through the blackness to find their units. On the second day, 9 November, attacks on the kasbah continued. The attackers took the ground around the fortress, but it still successfully defended itself and repulsed a number of attacks. The American attackers had not yet succeeded. On the third day, 10 November, they captured the fortress and the local airfield, leading to a truce on 11 November. A battery of four guns (Grandes Pussances Filloux) sat on a hill west of Port Lyautey and southwest of the airport. The airport was defended by a single anti-aircraft battery. The infantry consisted of the 1st Regiment of Moroccan Infantry and the 8th Tabor (battalion) of native Goums. One group of nine guns had withdrawn from other infantry regiments and one battalion of engineers completed the defensive force. Reinforcements were sent to occupy the entrenchments and machine gun positions which covered approaches to the coastal guns and the fort and to occupy defensive positions on the ridges east of the lagoon. In Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa, 8 November 1942, Allied infantry landed in the Vichy French port of Algiers intending to capture the port facilities before they could be destroyed. Coup of Algiers As agreed at Cherchell, starting at midnight and continuing through the early hours of 8 November, as the invasion troops were approaching the shore, a group of 400 French resistance under the command of Henri d'Astier de la Vigerie and José Aboulker staged a coup in the city of Algiers. They seized key targets, including the telephone exchange, radio station, governor's house, and the headquarters of 19th Corps. American ambassador Robert Murphy drove to the home of General Alphonse Juin, the senior French Army officer in North Africa, with some resistance fighters who surrounded the house, making Juin effectively a prisoner. Murphy tried to persuade him to side with the Allies. However, Admiral François Darlan, the commander of all French forces, was in Algiers on a private visit. Juin insisted on contacting Darlan, and Murphy was unable to persuade either to side with the Allies. In the early morning, the gendarmerie arrived and released Juin and Darlan. Allied invasion of Oran French Tunisia campaign (1942–1943) Giraud's Army of Africa fought in Tunisia (late North African Campaign) alongside de Gaulle's Free French Forces, the British 1st Army and the US II Corps for six months until April 1943. Using antiquated equipment, they took heavy casualties (16,000) against modern armour of the German enemy. Run for Tunis (10 November – 25 December 1942) Battle of the Kasserine Pass (19–25 February 1943) Battle of Medenine (6 March 1943) Operation Pugilist (16–27 March 1943) The Operation Pugilist involves the Free French Flying Column (X Corps (United Kingdom), British Eighth Army under General Sir Bernard Montgomery) and Leclerc's Force (2nd Division (New Zealand)). Libya campaign Battle of Kufra (31 January – 1 March 1941) Though France had fallen, her flag still flew from the isolated but strategically important ex-Italian fort of El Tag, which dominated the Kufra oasis in southern Libya. Colonel Leclerc and the intrepid Lieutenant Colonel d'Ornano, commander of French Forces in Chad, were tasked with attacking Italian positions in Libya with the motley forces at their disposal in Chad, which had declared for Free France. Kufra was the obvious target. The task of striking at the heavily defended oasis at Kufra was made all the more difficult by the inadequate transport. The sand dunes and the rocky Fech Fech were considered impassable for vehicles. Major Clayton of the Long Range Desert Group (LRDG) assisted, with his G (Guards) and T (New Zealand) patrols, a total of seventy-six men in twenty-six vehicles. They mounted a raid against the airfield at the oasis of Murzuk, capital of the Fezzan region of Libya. Ten Free French (three officers, two sergeants, and five native soldiers) under d'Ornano met with Clayton's LRDG patrols on 6 January 1941 at Kayouge. Their combined force reached Murzuk on 11 January. In a daring daylight raid, they surprised the sentries and swept through the oasis, devastating the base. The majority of the force attacked the main fort, while a troop from T patrol under Lieutenant Ballantyne engaged the airfield defences, destroying three Caproni aircraft and capturing a number of prisoners. The success of the raid was tempered by the loss of d'Ornano and a T patrol member. Leclerc assumed overall command and marshalled his forces to take Kufra. A diversionary raid by mounted Meharistes colonial cavalry failed after it was betrayed by local guides, so Leclerc relegated these men to recon duties only. Intelligence indicated that the oasis had two defensive lines based around the El Tag fort with barbed wire, trenches, machine guns, and light anti-aircraft defences. The garrison was thought to comprise a battalion of Askaris (Colonial Infantry) under Colonel Leo, plus supporting troops. The oasis was also defended by La Compania Sahariana de Cufra, a specialized mobile force and the forerunner of the famous "Sahariana" companies of the mid-war period. The company was composed of desert veterans crewing various Fiat and Lancia trucks equipped with HMGs and 20 mm anti-aircraft weapons, together with some armoured cars. The company also had the support of its own air arm to assist in long range reconnaissance and ground attack. Leclerc could not pinpoint the Saharianas, so he tasked the LRDG with hunting them down and robbing the defenders of their mobile reserve. Unfortunately for the LRDG, a radio intercept unit at Kufra picked up their radio traffic and they were spotted from the air. The defenders had been on their guard since Murzuk. G patrol had been kept in reserve and Major Clayton was leading T patrol, 30 men in 11 trucks. The patrol was at Bishara on the morning of January 31 when an Italian aircraft appeared overhead. The trucks scattered and made for some hills, and the plane flew away without attacking. The patrol took cover among some rocks in a small wadi at Gebel Sherif and camouflaged the trucks. The plane returned and circled over the wadi, directing a patrol of the Auto-Saharan Company to their location. The LRDG patrol came off second best to superior Italian firepower and constant air attack. After severe losses, the surviving seven trucks of the patrol withdrew, leaving behind their commanding officer, who was captured along with several others. Other survivors embarked on epic journeys to seek safety. After this defeat, the LRDG had to withdraw and refit, leaving Leclerc one LRDG vehicle from T patrol, crucially equipped for desert navigation. Leclerc pressed on, even though a copy of his plan had been captured with Major Clayton. After further reconnaissance, Leclerc abandoned his two armoured cars and took with him the remaining serviceable artillery piece, a crucial decision. On the 17th, Leclerc's forces brushed with the Saharianas and despite a disparity in firepower were able to drive them off, as the Kufra garrison failed to intervene. Following this, El Tag was surrounded, despite a further attack from the Saharans and harassment from the air, and the French laid siege to the fort. The lone 75 mm gun was placed from the fort, beyond range of the defences, and accurately delivered 20 shells per day at regular intervals. Despite their superior numbers, Italian resolve faltered. Negotiations to surrender began on 28 February and finally, on 1 March 1941, the Free French captured El Tag and the oasis at Kufra. Battle of Gazala (26 May – 21 June 1942) Battle of Bir Hakeim (26 May – 11 June 1942) The Battle of Bir Hakeim was fought between the Afrika Korps and the Free French Brigade, with support from the British 7th Armoured Division. The German commander was Generaloberst Erwin Rommel and the French commander was General Marie Pierre Koenig. The outnumbered Free French Brigade heroically resisted for sixteen days, allowing Allied Forces to regroup and prepare for the battle of El Alamein. The Germans attacked Bir Hakeim on 26 May 1942. Over the next two weeks, the Luftwaffe flew 1,400 sorties against the defences, whilst four German–Italian divisions attacked. On June 2, 3, and 5, the German forces requested that Koenig surrender. He refused and launched counterattacks with his Bren gun carriers. Despite the explosion of the defence's ammunition dump, the French continued to fight using ammunition brought in by British armoured cars during the night. Meanwhile, the Royal Air Force dropped water and other supplies. On June 9, the British Eighth Army authorized a retreat and during the night of 10/11 June the defenders of Bir Hakeim escaped. Subordinate units of the defending 1st Free French Brigade were: 2nd and 3rd battalions of the 13th half-brigade of the Foreign Legion 1st battalion of naval fusiliers 1st battalion of marine infantry the Pacific battalion 2nd march battalion of Oubangui-Chari 1st Artillery Regiment 22nd North African company (6 sections) 1st company (engineers) signals company 101st transport company (trains/automobiles) a light medical ambulance Egypt campaign Italian invasion of British Egypt (9–16 September 1940) Operation Compass (8 December 1940 – 9 February 1941) Second Battle of El Alamein (23 October – 5 November 1942) Middle East French Syria–Lebanon Campaign (1941) Free French forces faced Vichy Army of the Levant under General Henri Dentz during the Allied campaign set in French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon. Battle of the Litani River (9 June) Battle of Jezzine (13 June) Battle of Kissoué (15–17 June) The Battle of Kissoué was part of the Allied advance on Damascus in Syria during the Syria–Lebanon campaign. In the battle, the Free French met with stiff resistance from the Vichy French. On 8 June 1941, the 5th Indian Infantry Brigade under Brigadier Wilfrid Lewis Lloyd crossed into Syria from the British Mandate of Palestine to take Quneitra and Deraa and clear the way for Free French forces to advance from there to Damascus. This was one of four attacks planned by Allied general Henry Maitland Wilson. By 12 June, Daraa, Sheikh Meskine, and Ezraa on the Deraa-to-Damascus road had been captured, and the Indian and Free French forces were at Kissoué, a strong defensive position with plentiful cover for infantry and tanks, and strong defensive works on the steeply rising Jebel el Kelb and Jebel Abou Atriz. Boulder-strewn, virtually impassable except by road, and difficult even on foot, the hills of Tel Kissoué, Tel Afar, and Jebel Madani commanded the roads from both Quneitra and Daraa to Damascus. Battle of Damascus (18–21 June) Battle of Merdjayoun (19–24 June) Battle of Palmyra (1 July) Battle of Deir ez-Zor (3 July) Battle of Damour (5–9 July) Syrian Crisis (May–June 1945) By 1945, continued French presence in the Levant saw nationalist demonstrations which the French tried to quell. With heavy civilian losses, Winston Churchill in June – despite being rebuffed by Charles de Gaulle – ordered British forces into Syria from Jordan with orders to impose a ceasefire. British forces then reached the Damascus, following which the French were escorted and confined to their barracks. With political pressure added, de Gaulle ordered a ceasefire and France withdrew from Syria the following year. Indian Ocean Allies invade French Madagascar (5 May – 8 November 1942) In May 1942's Operation Ironclad, the Allies attacked the French colony of Madagascar, defended by Japanese miniature submarines and Vichy French forces. By March 1942, submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy freely roamed the north and eastern Indian Ocean, and Japanese aircraft carriers raided shipping in the Bay of Bengal and bases in Colombo and Trincomalee, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), driving the British Eastern Fleet to relocate to Kilindini Harbour in Mombasa, Kenya. Because of the range of Japanese Kaidai-type submarines – sometimes more than 10,000 miles (16,000 km) – Japanese forward bases on Madagascar could have threatened Allied merchant shipping and the supply route of the British Eighth Army and the Eastern Fleet,Martin Thomas, "Imperial backwater or strategic outpost? The British takeover of Vichy Madagascar, 1942." Historical Journal (1996) 39#4 pp: 1049-1074. and affected Allied lines of communication from Australia and the Pacific to the Middle East and the South Atlantic. South African Air Force (SAAF) reconnaissance led to landings in assault craft, just west of the port of Diego-Suarez on the northern tip of Madagascar, by the British 29th Infantry Brigade and No. 5 Commando, followed by two brigades of the 5th Infantry Division and Royal Marines. Fairey Albacore and Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers attacked Arrachart Airport and Vichy shipping, supported by SAAF planes and Grumman Martlets from the Fleet Air Arm. The Swordfish sank the armed merchant cruiser Bougainville and the submarine Bévéziers. Vichy governor Armand Annet led about 8,000 troops: about 6,000 Malagasy tirailleurs, and most of the others, Senegalese. He had 1,500–3,000 Vichy troops around Diego-Suarez, but naval and air defences were relatively light or obsolete: eight coastal batteries, two armed merchant cruisers, two sloops, five submarines, 17 Morane-Saulnier 406 fighters, and 10 Potez 63 bombers. He surrendered in November 1942. Battle for La Réunion (22 November 1942) Réunion was under the authority of the Vichy regime until 30 November 1942, when the island was liberated by the destroyer Léopard of the Free French Naval Forces.Léopard sailed with 74 men from Mauritius on 26 November, and arrived at Saint-Denis on the 27th. The invaders took control, first of the government palace, then by evening the rest of Saint-Denis. They made contact with friendly elements, notably Communist leader Léon de Lépervanche. De Gaulle's governor, , arrived and broadcast a call for calm. The next day Communist cells seized the city hall, arrested the mayor, and elected Lépervanche leader of a "Committee of Public Safety". Next they tried and failed to capture the 95 mm battery at La Port, commanded by Pétainist Lieutenant Émile Hugot, who retaliated by opening fire on Léopard. She retreated out to sea and fired back, killing two. Small arms fire from the Free French thwarted a sortie by the Vichyists and badly wounded Hugot. Fearing an attack by regular troops, the gunners retreated, the battery fell silent, and Léopard approached Le Port. Governor had received no response from Vichy to repeated requests for instructions, and decided not to put up even a symbolic defense after he learned that the invaders were French and not British. But the captain of the Léopard, increasingly nervous about enemy submarines and his ship's safety, threatened to destroy the island's factories. After lengthy negotiations with Capagorry, Aubert eventually agreed to surrender on condition that the French again threaten the factories, and so allow him to save face. The surrender was formalised on the 30th. South-East Asian Vietnam–Laos–Cambodia campaign Japan invades French Indochina (September 1940) Japan seized overall control of Indochina but the Vichy government ran local affairs until 1944. Limited Allied support to French Indochina (1943–1945) The French Far East Expeditionary Corps () (CEFEO) was created on paper by General de Gaulle in October 1943. However, building a full-scale expeditionary force dedicated to liberating outnumbered French Indochina from Japanese forces was delayed, as the European theatre of operations and the liberation of metropolitan France became top priorities for the deployment of France's limited forces. The United States Chief of Staff also formally restricted the Allied support to French Indochina. Fourteenth Air Force Commander Claire Lee Chennault, a French American, wrote in his memoirs: "I carried out my orders to the letter but I did not relish the idea of leaving Frenchmen to be slaughtered in the jungle while I was forced officially to ignore their plight." In contrast, the British, who trained the first CLI/Gaurs (small, specialized units), supported French Indochina through their Force 136, flew aerial supply missions for the airborne commandos, and delivered Tommy guns, mortars, and grenades from their Calcutta base.Martin Thomas, "Silent Partners: SOE's French Indo-China Section, 1943–1945," Modern Asian Studies (2000) 34#4 pp. 943–976, in JSTOR SOE's French Indochina Section (1943–1945) The Forces Expéditionnaires Françaises d'Extrême-Orient (FEFEO) Corps Léger d'Intervention (CLIs, or "Gaurs") were airdropped by the British Force 136 and fought Japanese troops occupying the French colonies of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Gaurs were guerrillas who recruited and trained Mèo and Thai local commandos. Following World War II, the GCMA French airborne commandos, serving in the Indochina War, were created on the model of the gaurs (CLI) who were themselves modelled on the British Chindit special forces. The Gaur Polaire ("polar"), codename for Captain Ayrolles' commando unit, airdropped into the Traninh to prepare for the arrival of the CLI, but were taken by surprise by the Japanese coup de force of 9 March 1945, and Captain Ayrolles changed the objective to sabotage. The Gaur Polaire blew eight bridges on the RC 7 (), attacked Japanese detachments and convoys, blew up airstrip warehouses and storage buildings at the Khan Kai camp, and also destroyed a fuel and vehicle depot. A Japanese battalion pursued them, without success. This operation delayed the arrival of the Japanese in Luang Prabang for around three weeks. On 17 March 1945, Captain Cortadellas's Gaur K parachuted into Điện Biên Phủ (the city of the later famous siege in the Indochina War, 1946–1954). At French Commander Marcel Alessandri's request, Gaur K, supported by 80 remaining legionnaires from the 3/5th REI (), was sent to the of the Alessandri column retreating to China via high-altitude overland tracks. Battles ensued on 11 April at Houei Houn, 15 April at Muong Koua, 21 April at Boun Tay, and 22 April at Muong Yo. On 9 October 1945, Gaur Détachement C infiltrated Cambodia, restored the French colonial administration, and staged a discreet coup d'état to restore the King of Cambodia's rule. Forty former French Jedburgh volunteers also secretly fought the Japanese in French Indochina. These forces embarked at Glasgow with layovers at Port Said, Bombay, and Colombo, and gathered in a camp at Ceylon in November 1944. Notable Force 136 members dropped into Laos during 1945 include French Colonels (22 January), (28 February), and Jean Sassi (4 June). Local resistance was headed by General Eugène Mordant. Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina (9 March – 26 August 1945) Thailand campaign Thai invasion of French Indochina (October 1940 – 9 May 1941) Naval battle of Koh Chang (16–17 January 1941) See also Diplomatic history of World War II#France Military history of France French prisoners of war in World War II Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, commander of the Fifth Army General Sir Harold Alexander, Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Armies in Italy Notes Footnotes Thomas, Martin. "Imperial backwater or strategic outpost? The British takeover of Vichy Madagascar, 1942," Historical Journal (1996) 39#4 pp 1049–75 Thomas, Martin. The French Empire at War, 1940-1945 (Manchester University Press, 2007) Further reading Alexander, Martin S. The Republic in Danger: General Maurice Gamelin and the Politics of French Defence, 1933-1940 (Cambridge University Press, 1992) Alexander, Martin S. "The fall of France, 1940." Journal of Strategic Studies (1990) 13#1 pp: 10–44. Bennett, G. H. "The RAF's Free French Fighter Squadrons: The Rebirth of French Airpower, 1940-44." Global War Studies (2010) 7#2 pp: 62–101. Brown, David, and Geoffrey Till. The Road to Oran: Anglo-French Naval Relations, September 1939 – July 1940 (Routledge, 2004) Derrick, William Michael. General Maurice Gamelin: scapegoat or guilty for the fall of France? (Indiana University Press, 1994) Doughty, Robert A. The Seeds of Disaster: The Development of French Army Doctrine, 1919–1939 (1986) Doughty, Robert A. The Breaking Point: Sedan and the Fall of France, 1940 (1990) Funk, Arthur Layton. Charles de Gaulle: The Crucial Years, 1943–1944 (1959) online edition Gaunson, A. B. The Anglo-French Clash in Lebanon and Syria, 1940-45 (1987) Gunsberg, Jeffrey. Divided and Conquered: The French High Command and the Defeat of the West, 1940 (Greenwood Press, 1985) Higham, Robin. Two Roads to War: The French and British Air Arms from Versailles to Dunkirk (Naval Institute Press, 2012) Horne, Alistair. To Lose A Battle: France 1940 (1999) excerpt and text search Kersaudy, Francois. Churchill and De Gaulle (2nd ed 1990) 482pp Lacouture, Jean. De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890–1944 (1984; English ed. 1991), 640pp; excerpt and text search Laurent, Sebastien. "The Free French Secret Services: Intelligence and the Politics of Republican Legitimacy," Intelligence & National Security (2000) 15#4 pp 19–41 Mangold, Peter. Britain and the Defeated French: From Occupation to Liberation, 1940-1944 (IB Tauris, 2012) Porch, Douglas. "Military 'culture' and the fall of France in 1940: A review essay." International Security (2000) 24#4 pp: 157–180. Sharp, Lee, et al. The French Army 1939–1945: Organisation, Order of Battle, Operational History (5 vol Osprey 1998–2002); heavily illustrated Shepperd, Alan. France 1940: Blitzkrieg in the West (1990) Primary sources DeGaulle, Charles. The Complete War Memoirs of Charles De Gaulle, 1940–1946'' (3 vol 1984) "Chronology 1941–1945", U.S. Army in World War II, Mary H. Williams (compiler), Washington: Government Printing Office, 1994. "Les Grandes Unités Françaises (GUF)", Volume V, Part 2, Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre, Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1975. "Riviera to the Rhine", U.S. Army in World War II, Jeffrey J. Clarke and Robert Ross Smith, United States Army Center of Military History, 1993. "The Last Offensive", U.S. Army in World War II, Charles B. MacDonald, Washington:United States Army Center of Military History, 1993. :) World War II, Military History World War II, Military History Politics of World War II World War II, Military History Articles containing video clips World War II, Military History World War II
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France%20in%20the%20Middle%20Ages
France in the Middle Ages
The Kingdom of France in the Middle Ages (roughly, from the 10th century to the middle of the 15th century) was marked by the fragmentation of the Carolingian Empire and West Francia (843–987); the expansion of royal control by the House of Capet (987–1328), including their struggles with the virtually independent principalities (duchies and counties, such as the Norman and Angevin regions), and the creation and extension of administrative/state control (notably under Philip II Augustus and Louis IX) in the 13th century; and the rise of the House of Valois (1328–1589), including the protracted dynastic crisis against the House of Plantagenet and their Angevin Empire, culminating in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) (compounded by the catastrophic Black Death in 1348), which laid the seeds for a more centralized and expanded state in the early modern period and the creation of a sense of French identity. Up to the 12th century, the period saw the elaboration and extension of the seigneurial economic system (including the attachment of peasants to the land through serfdom); the extension of the Feudal system of political rights and obligations between lords and vassals; the so-called "feudal revolution" of the 11th century during which ever smaller lords took control of local lands in many regions; and the appropriation by regional/local seigneurs of various administrative, fiscal and judicial rights for themselves. From the 13th century on, the state slowly regained control of a number of these lost powers. The crises of the 13th and 14th centuries led to the convening of an advisory assembly, the Estates General, and also to an effective end to serfdom. From the 12th and 13th centuries on, France was at the center of a vibrant cultural production that extended across much of western Europe, including the transition from Romanesque architecture to Gothic architecture and Gothic art; the foundation of medieval universities (such as the universities of Paris (recognized in 1150), Montpellier (1220), Toulouse (1229), and Orleans (1235)) and the so-called "Renaissance of the 12th century"; a growing body of secular vernacular literature (including the , chivalric romance, troubadour and trouvère poetry, etc.) and medieval music (such as the flowering of the Notre Dame school of polyphony). Geography From the Middle Ages onward, French rulers believed their kingdoms had natural borders: the Pyrenees, the Alps and the Rhine. This was used as a pretext for an aggressive policy and repeated invasions. The belief, however, had little basis in reality for not all of these territories were part of the Kingdom and the authority of the King within his kingdom would be quite fluctuant. The lands that composed the Kingdom of France showed great geographical diversity; the northern and central parts enjoyed a temperate climate while the southern part was closer to the Mediterranean climate. While there were great differences between the northern and southern parts of the kingdom there were equally important differences depending on the distance of mountains: mainly the Alps, the Pyrenees and the Massif Central. France had important rivers that were used as waterways: the Loire, the Rhône, the Seine as well as the Garonne. These rivers were settled earlier than the rest and important cities were founded on their banks but they were separated by large forests, marsh, and other rough terrains. Before the Romans conquered Gaul, the Gauls lived in villages organised in wider tribes. The Romans referred to the smallest of these groups as pagi and the widest ones as civitates. These pagi and civitates were often taken as a basis for the imperial administration and would survive up to the middle-ages when their capitals became centres of bishoprics. These religious provinces would survive until the French revolution. During the Roman Empire, southern Gaul was more heavily populated and because of this more episcopal sees were present there at first while in northern France they shrank greatly in size because of the barbarian invasions and became heavily fortified to resist the invaders. Discussion of the size of France in the Middle Ages is complicated by distinctions between lands personally held by the king (the "domaine royal") and lands held in homage by another lord. The notion of res publica inherited from the Roman province of Gaul was not fully maintained by the Frankish kingdom and the Carolingian Empire, and by the early years of the Direct Capetians, the French kingdom was more or less a fiction. The "domaine royal" of the Capetians was limited to the regions around Paris, Bourges and Sens. The great majority of French territory was part of Aquitaine, the Duchy of Normandy, the Duchy of Brittany, the Comté of Champagne, the Duchy of Burgundy, the County of Flanders and other territories (for a map, see Provinces of France). In principle, the lords of these lands owed homage to the French king for their possession, but in reality the king in Paris had little control over these lands, and this was to be confounded by the uniting of Normandy, Aquitaine and England under the Plantagenet dynasty in the 12th century. Philip II Augustus undertook a massive French expansion in the 13th century, but most of these acquisitions were lost both by the royal system of "apanage" (the giving of regions to members of the royal family to be administered) and through losses in the Hundred Years' War. Only in the 15th century would Charles VII and Louis XI gain control of most of modern-day France (except for Brittany, Navarre, and parts of eastern and northern France). The weather in France and Europe in the Middle Ages was significantly milder than during the periods preceding or following it. Historians refer to this as the "Medieval Warm Period", lasting from about the 10th century to about the 14th century. Part of the French population growth in this period (see below) is directly linked to this temperate weather and its effect on crops and livestock. Demographics At the end of the Middle Ages, France was the most populous region in Europe—having overtaken Spain and Italy by 1340. In the 14th century, before the arrival of the Black Death, the total population of the area covered by modern-day France has been estimated at around 16 million. The population of Paris is controversial. Josiah Russell argued for about 80,000 in the early 14th century, although he noted that some other scholars suggested 200,000. The higher count would make it by far the largest city in western Europe; the lower count would put it behind Venice with 100,000 and Florence with 96,000. The Black Death killed an estimated one-third of the population from its appearance in 1348. The concurrent Hundred Years' War slowed recovery. It would be the mid-16th century before the population recovered to mid-fourteenth century levels. In the early Middle Ages, France was a center of Jewish learning, but increasing persecution, and a series of expulsions in the 14th century, caused considerable suffering for French Jews; see History of the Jews in France. Languages and literacy In the Middle Ages in France, Medieval Latin was the primary medium of scholarly exchange and the liturgical language of the medieval Church; it was also the language of science, literature, law, and administration. From 1200 on, vernacular languages began to be used in administrative work and the law courts, but Latin would remain an administrative and legal language until the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) prescribed the use of French in all judicial acts, notarized contracts and official legislation. The vast majority of the population however spoke a variety of vernacular languages derived from vulgar Latin, the common spoken language of the western Roman empire. The medieval Italian poet Dante, in his Latin De vulgari eloquentia, classified the Romance languages into three groups by their respective words for "yes": Nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil, "For some say oc, others say si, others say oïl". The oïl languagesfrom Latin , "that is it"occupied northern France, the oc languagesfrom Latin , "that"southern France, and the si languagesfrom Latin , "thus"the Italian and Iberian peninsulas. Modern linguists typically add a third group within France around Lyon, the "Arpitan" or "Franco-Provençal language", whose modern word for "yes" is ouè. The Gallo-Romance group in the north of France, the langue d'oïl like Picard, Walloon, and Francien, were influenced by the Germanic languages spoken by the Frankish invaders. From the time period of Clovis I on, the Franks extended their rule over northern Gaul. Over time, the French language developed from either the Oïl language found around Paris and Île-de-France (the Francien theory) or from a standard administrative language based on common characteristics found in all Oïl languages (the lingua franca theory). Langue d'oc, the languages which use oc or òc for "yes", is the language group in the south of France and northeastern Spain. These languages, such as Gascon and Provençal, have relatively little Frankish influence. The Middle Ages also saw the influence of other linguistic groups on the dialects of France: From the 4th to 7th centuries, Brythonic-speaking peoples from Cornwall, Devon, and Wales travelled across the English Channel, both for reasons of trade and of flight from the Anglo-Saxon invasions of England. They established themselves in Armorica. Their language became Breton in more recent centuries. Attested since the time of Julius Caesar, a non-Celtic people who spoke a Basque-related language inhabited the Novempopulania (Aquitania Tertia) in southwestern France, while the language gradually lost ground to the expanding Romance during a period spanning most of the Early Middle Ages. This Proto-Basque influenced the emerging Latin-based language spoken in the area between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, eventually resulting in the dialect of Occitan called Gascon. Scandinavian Vikings invaded France from the 9th century onwards and established themselves mostly in what would come to be called Normandy. The Normans took up the langue d'oïl spoken there, although Norman French remained heavily influenced by Old Norse and its dialects. They also contributed many words to French related to sailing and farming. After the conquest of England in 1066, the Normans' language developed into Anglo-Norman. Anglo-Norman served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce in England from the time of the conquest until the Hundred Years' War, by which time the use of French-influenced English had spread throughout English society. Around this time period, many words from the Arabic language entered French, mainly indirectly through Medieval Latin, Italian and Spanish. There are words for luxury goods (élixir, orange), spices (camphre, safran), trade goods (alcool, bougie, coton), sciences (alchimie, hasard), and mathematics (algèbre, algorithme). While education and literacy had been important components of aristocratic service in the Carolingian period, by the eleventh century and continuing to the 13th century, the lay (secular) public in France—both nobles and peasants—was largely illiterate, except for (at least to the end of the 12th century) members of the great courts and, in the south, smaller noble families. This situation began to change in the 13th century (where we find highly literate members of the French nobility like Guillaume de Lorris, Geoffrey of Villehardouin (sometimes referred to as Villehardouin, and Jean de Joinville (sometimes referred to as Joinville)). Similarly, due to the outpouring of French vernacular literature from the 12th century on (, chivalric romance, troubadour and trouvère poetry, etc.), French became the "international language of the aristocracy". Society and government Peasants In the Middle Ages in France, the vast majority of the population—between 80 and 90 percent—were peasants. Traditional categories inherited from the Roman and Merovingian period (distinctions between free and unfree peasants, between tenants and peasants who owned their own land, etc.) underwent significant changes up to the 11th century. The traditional rights of "free" peasants—such as service in royal armies (they had been able to serve in the royal armies as late as Charlemagne's reign) and participation in public assemblies and law courts—were lost through the 9th to the 10th centuries, and they were increasingly made dependents of nobles, churches and large landholders. The mid-8th century to 1000 also saw a steady increase of aristocratic and monastic control of the land, at the expense of landowning peasants. At the same time, the traditional notion of "unfree" dependents and the distinction between "unfree" and "free" tenants was eroded as the concept of serfdom (see also History of serfdom) came to dominate. From the mid-8th century on, particularly in the north, the relationship between peasants and the land became increasingly characterized by the extension of the new "bipartite estate" system (manorialism), in which peasants (who were bound to the land) held tenant holdings from a lord or monastery (for which they paid rent), but were also required to work the lord's own "demesne"; in the north, some of these estates could be quite substantial. This system remained a standard part of lord-tenant relations into the 12th century. The economic and demographic crises of the 14th–15th centuries (agricultural expansion had lost many of the gains made in the 12th and 13th centuries) reversed this trend: landlords offered serfs their freedom in exchange for working abandoned lands, ecclesiastical and royal authorities created new "free" cities (villefranches) or granted freedom to existing cities, etc. By the end of the 15th century, serfdom was largely extinct; henceforth "free" peasants paid rents for their own lands, and the lord's demesne was worked by hired labor. This liberated the peasantry to a certain degree, but also made their lives more precarious in times of economic uncertainty. For lords who rented out more and more of their holdings for fixed rents, the initial benefits were positive, but over time they found themselves increasingly cash-strapped as inflationary pressures reduced their incomes. Cities and towns Much of the Gallo-Roman urban network of cities survived (albeit much changed) into the Middle Ages as regional centers and capitals: certain cities had been chosen as centers of bishoprics by the church (for example, Paris, Reims, Aix, Tours, Carcassonne and Narbonne, Auch, Albi, Bourges, Lyon, etc.), others as seats of local (county, duchy) administrative power (such as Angers, Blois, Poitiers, Toulouse). In many cases (such as with Poitiers) cities were seats of both episcopal and administrative power. From the 10th to the 11th centuries, the urban development of the country expanded (particularly on the northern coasts): new ports appeared and dukes and counts encouraged and created new towns. In other areas, urban growth was slower and centered on the monastic houses. In many regions, market towns (burgs) with limited privileges were established by local lords. In the late 11th century, "communes", governing assemblies, began to develop in towns. Starting sporadically in the late 10th, and increasingly in the 12th century, many towns and villages were able to gain economic, social or judicial privileges and franchises from their lords (exemptions from tolls and dues, rights to clear land or hold fairs, some judicial or administrative independence, etc.). The seigneurial reaction to expanding urbanism and enfranchisement was mixed; some lords fought against the changes, but some lords gained financial and political advantages from the communal movement and growing trade. The 13th to 14th centuries were a period of significant urbanization. Paris was the largest city in the realm, and indeed one of the largest cities in Europe, with an estimated population of 200,000 or more at the end of the century. The second-largest city was Rouen; the other major cities (with populations over 10,000) were Orléans, Tours, Bordeaux, Lyon, Dijon, and Reims. In addition to these, there also existed zones with an extended urban network of medium to small cities, as in the south and the Mediterranean coast (from Toulouse to Marseille, including Narbonne and Montpellier) and in the north (Beauvais, Laon, Amiens, Arras, Bruges, etc.). Market towns increased in size and many were able to gain privileges and franchises including transformation into free cities (villes franches); rural populations from the countrysides moved to the cities and burgs. This was also a period of urban building: the extension of walls around the entirety of the urban space, the vast construction of Gothic cathedrals (starting in the 12th century), urban fortresses, castles (such as Philip II Augustus' Louvre around 1200) and bridges. Aristocracy, nobles, knights In the Carolingian period, the "aristocracy" (nobilis in the Latin documents) was by no means a legally defined category. With traditions going back to the Romans; one was "noble" if he or she possessed significant land holdings, had access to the king and royal court, could receive honores and benefices for service (such as being named count or duke). Their access to political power in the Carolingian period might also necessitate a need for education. Their wealth and power was also evident in their lifestyle and purchase of luxury goods, and in their maintenance of an armed entourage of fideles (men who had sworn oaths to serve them). From the late 9th to the late 10th century, the nature of the noble class changed significantly. First off, the aristocracy increasingly focused on establishing strong regional bases of landholdings, on taking hereditary control of the counties and duchies, and eventually on erecting these into veritable independent principalities and privatizing various privileges and rights of the state. (By 1025, the area north of the Loire was dominated by six or seven of these virtually independent states.) After 1000, these counties in turn began to break down into smaller lordships, as smaller lords wrest control of local lands in the so-called "feudal revolution" and seized control over many elements of comital powers (see vassal/feudal below). Secondly, from the 9th century on, military ability was increasingly seen as conferring special status, and professional soldiers or milites, generally in the entourage of sworn lords, began to establish themselves in the ranks of the aristocracy (acquiring local lands, building private castles, seizing elements of justice), thereby transforming into the military noble class historians refer to as "knights". Vassalage and feudal land The Merovingians and Carolingians maintained relations of power with their aristocracy through the use of clientele systems and the granting of honores and benefices, including land, a practice which grew out of Late Antiquity. This practice would develop into the system of vassalage and feudalism in the Middle Ages. Originally, vassalage did not imply the giving or receiving of landholdings (which were granted only as a reward for loyalty), but by the eighth century the giving of a landholding was becoming standard. The granting of a landholding to a vassal did not relinquish the lord's property rights, but only the use of the lands and their income; the granting lord retained ultimate ownership of the fee and could, technically, recover the lands in case of disloyalty or death. In the 8th-century Frankish empire, Charles Martel was the first to make large scale and systematic use (the practice had remained until then sporadic) of the remuneration of vassals by the concession of the usufruct of lands (a beneficatium or "benefice" in the documents) for the lifetime of the vassal, or, sometimes extending to the second or third generation. By the middle of the 10th century, feudal land grants (fee, fiefs) had largely become hereditary. The eldest son of a deceased vassal would inherit, but first he had to do homage and fealty to the lord and pay a "relief" for the land (a monetary recognition of the lord's continuing proprietary rights over the property). By the 11th century, the bonds of vassalage and the granting of fiefs had spread throughout much of French society, but it was in no ways universal in France: in the south, feudal grants of land or of rights were unknown. In its origin, the feudal grant had been seen in terms of a personal bond between lord and vassal, but with time and the transformation of fiefs into hereditary holdings, the nature of the system came to be seen as a form of "politics of land" (an expression used by the historian Marc Bloch). The 11th century in France saw what has been called by historians a "feudal revolution" or "mutation" and a "fragmentation of powers" (Bloch) that was unlike the development of feudalism in England or Italy or Germany in the same period or later: counties and duchies began to break down into smaller holdings as castellans and lesser seigneurs took control of local lands, and (as comital families had done before them) lesser lords usurped/privatized a wide range of prerogatives and rights of the state, most importantly the highly profitable rights of justice, but also travel dues, market dues, fees for using woodlands, obligations to use the lord's mill, etc. (what Georges Duby called collectively the "seigneurie banale"). Power in this period became more personal and it would take centuries for the state to fully reimpose its control over local justice and fiscal administration (by the 15th century, much of the seigneur's legal purview had been given to the bailliages, leaving them only affairs concerning seigneurial dues and duties, and small affairs of local justice) This "fragmentation of powers" was not however systematic throughout France, and in certain counties (such as Flanders, Normandy, Anjou, Toulouse), counts were able to maintain control of their lands into the 12th century or later. Thus, in some regions (like Normandy and Flanders), the vassal/feudal system was an effective tool for ducal and comital control, linking vassals to their lords; but in other regions, the system led to significant confusion, all the more so as vassals could and frequently did pledge themselves to two or more lords. In response to this, the idea of a "liege lord" was developed (where the obligations to one lord are regarded as superior) in the 12th century. Peerage Medieval French kings conferred the dignity of peerage upon certain of his preëminent vassals, both clerical and lay. Some historians consider Louis VII (1137–1180) to have created the French system of peers. Peerage was attached to a specific territorial jurisdiction, either an episcopal see for episcopal peerages or a fief for secular. Peerages attached to fiefs were transmissible or inheritable with the fief, and these fiefs are often designated as pairie-duché (for duchies) and pairie-comté (for counties). By 1216 there were nine peers: Archbishop of Reims who had the distinction of anointing and crowning the king Bishop of Langres Bishop of Beauvais Bishop of Châlons Bishop of Noyon Duke of Normandy Duke of Burgundy Duke of Aquitaine also called Duke of Guyenne Count of Champagne A few years later and before 1228 three peers were added to make the total of twelve peers: Bishop of Laon Count of Flanders Count of Toulouse These twelve peerages are known as the ancient peerage or pairie ancienne, and the number twelve is sometimes said to have been chosen to mirror the 12 paladins of Charlemagne in the Chanson de geste (see below). Parallels may also be seen with mythical Knights of the Round Table under King Arthur. So popular was this notion, that for a long time people thought peerage had originated in the reign of Charlemagne, who was considered the model king and shining example for knighthood and nobility. The dozen pairs played a role in the royal sacre or consecration, during the liturgy of the coronation of the king, attested to as early as 1179, symbolically upholding his crown, and each original peer had a specific role, often with an attribute. Since the peers were never twelve during the coronation in early periods, due to the fact that most lay peerages were forfeited to or merged in the crown, delegates were chosen by the king, mainly from the princes of the blood. In later periods peers also held up by poles a baldaquin or cloth of honour over the king during much of the ceremony. In 1204 the Duchy of Normandy was absorbed by the French crown, and later in the 13th century two more of the lay peerages were absorbed by the crown (Toulouse 1271, Champagne 1284), so in 1297 three new peerages were created, the County of Artois, the Duchy of Anjou and the Duchy of Brittany, to compensate for the three peerages that had disappeared. Thus, beginning in 1297 the practice started of creating new peerages by letters patent, specifying the fief to which the peerage was attached, and the conditions under which the fief could be transmitted (e.g. only male heirs) for princes of the blood who held an apanage. By 1328 all apanagists would be peers. The number of lay peerages increased over time from 7 in 1297 to 26 in 1400, 21 in 1505, and 24 in 1588. Monarchy and regional powers France was a very decentralised state during the Middle Ages. At the time, Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not a part of France. North of the Loire, the King of France at times fought or allied with one of the great principalities of Normandy, Anjou, Blois-Champagne, Flanders and Burgundy. The duke of Normandy was overlord of the duke of Brittany. South of the Loire were the principalities of Aquitaine, Toulouse and Barcelona. Normandy became the strongest power in the north, while Barcelona became the strongest in the south. The rulers of both fiefs eventually became kings, the former by the conquest of England, and the latter by the succession to Aragon. French suzerainty over Barcelona was only formally relinquished by Saint Louis in 1258. Initially, West Frankish kings were elected by the secular and ecclesiastic magnates, but the regular coronation of the eldest son of the reigning king during his father's lifetime established the principle of male primogeniture, later popularized as the Salic law. The authority of the king was more religious than administrative. The 11th century in France marked the apogee of princely power at the expense of the king when states like Normandy, Flanders or Languedoc enjoyed a local authority comparable to kingdoms in all but name. The Capetians, as they were descended from the Robertians, were formerly powerful princes themselves who had successfully unseated the weak and unfortunate Carolingian kings. The Carolingian kings had nothing more than a royal title when the Capetian kings added their principality to that title. The Capetians, in a way, held a dual status of King and Prince; as king they held the Crown of Charlemagne and as Count of Paris they held their personal fiefdom, best known as Île-de-France. The fact that the Capetians both held lands as Prince as well as in the title of King gave them a complicated status. Thus they were involved in the struggle for power within France as princes but they also had a religious authority over Roman Catholicism in France as King. However, and despite the fact that the Capetian kings often treated other princes more as enemies and allies than as subordinates, their royal title was often recognised yet not often respected. The royal authority was so weak in some remote places that bandits were the effective power. Some of the king's vassals would grow sufficiently powerful that they would become some of the strongest rulers of western Europe. The Normans, the Plantagenets, the Lusignans, the Hautevilles, the Ramnulfids, and the House of Toulouse successfully carved lands outside France for themselves. The most important of these conquests for French history was the Norman Conquest by William the Conqueror, following the Battle of Hastings and immortalised in the Bayeux Tapestry, because it linked England to France through Normandy. Although the Normans were now both vassals of the French kings and their equals as kings of England, their zone of political activity remained centered in France. An important part of the French aristocracy also involved itself in the crusades, and French knights founded and ruled the Crusader states. An example of the legacy left in the Middle East by these nobles is the Krak des Chevaliers' enlargement by the Counts of Tripoli and Toulouse. The history of the monarchy is how it overcame the powerful barons over ensuing centuries, and established absolute sovereignty over France in the 16th century. A number of factors contributed to the rise of the French monarchy. The dynasty established by Hugh Capet continued uninterrupted until 1328, and the laws of primogeniture ensured orderly successions of power. Secondly, the successors of Capet came to be recognised as members of an illustrious and ancient royal house and therefore socially superior to their politically and economically superior rivals. Thirdly, the Capetians had the support of the Church, which favoured a strong central government in France. This alliance with the Church was one of the great enduring legacies of the Capetians. The First Crusade was composed almost entirely of Frankish Princes. As time went on the power of the King was expanded by conquests, seizures and successful feudal political battles. French power in the Middle Ages Vassals and cadets of the King of France made several foreign acquisitions during the Middle Ages: William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy (1066): conquered the Kingdom of England The success of the First Crusade led to the creation of a Frankish kingdom in the Levant in 1099 Norman knights settled in Sicily, which was raised to a kingdom in 1130 Fulk V, Count of Anjou (1131): became King of Jerusalem by marriage Afonso I of Portugal (1139): great-grandson of Robert I, Duke of Burgundy, and founder of the Kingdom of Portugal Henry II of England (1154): ruled England and much of Western France (The Angevin Empire) Alfonso II of Aragon, Count of Barcelona (1164): first Count of Barcelona to become King of Aragon in his own right Theobald I of Navarre, Count of Champagne (1234): inherited the Kingdom of Navarre from his uncle Charles I of Naples, Count of Anjou (1266): youngest son of Louis VIII of France, conquered the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, proclaimed himself King of Albania Charles I of Hungary (1301): scion of the Capetian House of Anjou, King of Hungary and Croatia Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor: became a vassal of Philip IV of France while Count of Luxembourg. Philip IV advanced the candidacy of his brother Charles of Valois for the imperial throne, but the German electors were unwilling to expand French influence even further. Henry was elected King of Germany in 1308 as a compromise candidate, and became emperor in 1312. John of Bohemia (1310): son of Emperor Henry VII, he became of King of Bohemia by marriage. John was raised in Paris, and died fighting for the French in the Battle of Crécy Philip III of Navarre, Count of Évreux (1328): became King of Navarre by marriage Louis I of Hungary (1342): son of Charles I of Hungary, eventually became King of Poland in addition to the realms inherited from his father Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor (1346): son of John of Bohemia, he received French education and resided in the French court for seven years. His close connection to the House of France facilitated the sale of Dauphiné, an imperial fief, in 1349, and its eventual transfer into the French crown. Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1363): with his appanage of Burgundy and his marriage to the heiress of Flanders, he founded the House of Valois-Burgundy, the most powerful dynasty of the Middle Ages which is not of royal rank The power of the French monarchy grew at a slower rate at the beginning: The early Capetians ruled much longer than their contemporaries, but had little power. They did not have the will, or the resources, to coerce their vassals into obedience. Louis VI began an aggressive policy of demanding obedience from his vassals in the Ile-de-France backed by military force Louis VII's marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine brought the French monarchy's influence to southern France, but the annulment of their marriage brought about the rise of the Angevin dynasty, the most formidable rival of the French monarchy Philip II made the French king the foremost power within his own kingdom, destroying Angevin power in France through the conquest of Normandy and Anjou Louis VIII embarked on the Albigensian Crusade, which brought northern France to war against the south Louis IX brought the prestige of the French monarchy at its height. Even the Mongol leader Hulagu, who had been under the impression that the Pope was the ruler of all Christians, realized that the true power rested in the King of France and sought an alliance with him. His crusading ventures, however, were unsuccessful Philip III inherited Toulouse and married his son to the heiress of Navarre and Champagne Philip IV was the most absolutist of the medieval French kings, but his costly policies brought him into conflict with the pope and the persecution of the Templars in order to obtain their resources. The orderly succession of French kings for more than 300 years, combined with an abrupt dynastic crisis in 1316 led to the adoption of a succession law that prevented the kingship from going out of the Capetian dynasty. The successive deaths of the sons of Philip IV in a short period of time led to the rise of the House of Valois Philip VI was an initially promising ruler, having brought Flanders into submission early in his reign. At the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War France was the foremost power in Western Europe, but this did not prevent his overwhelming defeat at Crécy. John II brought the French monarchy at its lowest with another overwhelming defeat in Poitiers. Charles V recovered most of the territories lost during the war The madness of Charles VI multiplied the woes of France, as the princes of the royal house split into factions in order to obtain power. France suffered another defeat at Agincourt, and the king was forced to disinherit his own son in favor of Henry V of England Charles VII was apathetic during the early years of his reign, but his fortunes changed with the rise of Joan of Arc in 1429 and his reconciliation with the Duke of Burgundy in 1435. The French were victorious at the end of the war in 1453, and the King of France was once again the most powerful monarch in Europe, with the first standing army since Roman times. Royal administration King's Council The kings of France traditionally always sought the advice of their entourage (vassals, clerics, etc.) before making important decisions. In the early Middle Ages, the entourage around the king was sometimes called the familia; later the expression "hôtel du roi" or the "maison du roi" (the "royal household") was used for people attached directly to the person of the king, while (in the 12th century), those who were called upon to counsel the king in his administration of the realm took the form of a specific (and separate) institution called the King's Court (Latin: the "Curia Regis", later the Conseil du Roi)), although by the middle of the 13th century distinctions between "hôtel du roi" and curia regis were less clear. In addition to the King's Council, the consultative governing of the country also depended on other intermittent and permanent institutions, such as the States General, the Parlements and the Provincial Estates. The Parliament of Paris – as indeed all of the sovereign courts of the realm – was itself born out of the King's Council: originally a consultative body of the Curia Regis, later (in the thirteenth century) endowed with judicial functions, the Parliament was separated from the King's Council in 1254. The King's Court functioned as an advisory body under the early Capetian kings. It was composed of a number of the king's trusted advisers but only a few traveled with the king at any time. By the later twelfth century it had become a judicial body with a few branching off to remain the king's council. By the fourteenth century the term curia regis was no longer used. However, it had served as a predecessor to later sovereign assemblies; the Parlement which was a judiciary body, the Chamber of Accounts which was a financial body and King's Council. The composition of the King's Council changed constantly over the centuries and according to the needs and desires of the king. Medieval councils frequently excluded: the queen (both as queen consort or as queen mother) – the influence of the queen lost direct political control as early as the 13th century, except in periods of regency; the queen thus only exceptionally attended the Council. close relations to the king, including younger sons, grandsons and princes of the royal bloodline ("prince du sang") from junior branches of the family – these individuals were often suspected of political ambition and of plotting. On the other hand, medieval councils generally included: the crown prince (the "dauphin") – if he was of age to attend the council the "grands" – the most powerful members of the church and of the nobility. The feudal aristocracy would maintain great control over the king's council up until the 14th and 15th centuries. The most important positions in the court were those of the Great Officers of the Crown of France, headed by the connétable (chief military officer of the realm; established by King Philip I in 1060) and the chancellor. Other positions included the Grand Chambrier who managed the Royal Treasury along with the Grand Bouteiller (Grand Butler), before being supplanted of these functions by the Chamber of Accounts (Chambre des comptes, created by King Philip IV) and the position of Surintendant des finances (created in 1311). Certain kings were unable to reduce the importance of the feudal aristocracy (Louis X, Philip VI, John II, Charles VI), while others were more successful (Charles V, Louis XI). Over the centuries, the number of jurists (or "légistes"), generally educated by the université de Paris, steadily increased as the technical aspects of the matters studied in the council mandated specialized counsellers. Coming from the lesser nobility or the bourgeoisie, these jurists (whose positions sometimes gave them or their heirs nobility, as the so-called "noblesse de robe" or chancellor nobles) helped in preparing and putting into legal form the king's decisions, and they formed the early elements of a true civil service and royal administration which would – because of their permanence – provide a sense of stability and continuity to the royal council, despite its many reorganizations. In their attempts at greater efficiency, the kings tried to reduce the number of counsellors or to convoke "reduced councils". Charles V had a council of 12 members. The Council had only a consultational role: the final decision was always the king's. Although jurists frequented praised (especially later in the 16th century) the advantages of consultative government (with the agreement of his counsellors, the king could more easily impose the most severe of his decisions, or he could have his most unpopular decisions blamed on his counsellors), mainstream legal opinion never held that the king was bound by the decisions of his council; the opposite was however put forward by the States General of 1355–1358. The Council's purview concerned all matters pertaining to government and royal administration, both in times of war and of peace. In his council, the king received ambassadors, signed treaties, appointed administrators and gave them instructions (called, from the 12th century on, mandements), elaborated on the laws of the realm (called ordonnances). The council also served as a supreme court and rendered royal justice on those matters that the king reserved for himself (so-called "justice retenue") or decided to discuss personally. Council meetings, initially irregular, took on a regular schedule which became daily from the middle of the 15th century. Royal finances The king was expected to survive on the revenues of the "domaine royal", or lands that belonged to him directly. In times of need, the taille, an "exceptional" tax could be imposed and collected; this resource was increasingly required during the protracted wars of the 14th–15th centuries and the taille became permanent in 1439, when the right to collect taxes in support of a standing army was granted to Charles VII of France during the Hundred Years' War. To oversee the Kingdom's revenues and expenditure, the French King first relied solely on the Curia Regis. However, by the mid-12th century, the Crown entrusted its finances to the Knights Templar, who maintained a banking establishment in Paris. The royal Treasury was henceforth organized like a bank and salaries and revenues were transferred between accounts. Royal accounting officers in the field, who sent revenues to the Temple, were audited by the King's Court, which had special clerks assigned to work at the Temple. These financial specialists came to be called the Curia in Compotis and sat in special sessions of the King's Court for dealing with financial business. From 1297, accounts were audited twice yearly after Midsummer Day (24 June) and Christmas. In time, what was once a simple Exchequer of Receipts developed into a central auditing agency, branched off, and eventually specialized into a full-time court. In 1256, Saint Louis issued a decree ordering all mayors, burghesses, and town councilmen to appear before the King's sovereign auditors of the Exchequer (French gens des comptes) in Paris to render their final accounts. The King's Court's general secretariat had members who specialized in finance and accountancy and could receive accounts. A number of maîtres lais were commissioned to sit as the King's Exchequer (comptes du Roi). In or around 1303, the Paris Court of Accounts was established in the Palais de la Cité. Its auditors were responsible for overseeing revenue from Crown estates and checking public spending. It audited the royal household, inspectors, royal commissioners, provosts, baillifs, and seneschals. In 1307, the Philip IV definitively removed royal funds from the Temple and placed them in the fortress of the Louvre. Thereafter, the financial specialists received accounts for audit in a room of the royal palace that became known as the Camera compotorum or Chambre des comptes, and they began to be collectively identified under the same name, although still only a subcommission of the King's Court, consisting of about sixteen people. The Vivier-en-Brie Ordinance of 1320, issued by Philip V, required the Chambre to audit accounts, judge cases arising from accountability, and maintain registers of financial documents; it also laid out the basic composition of financial courts: three (later four) cleric masters of accounts (maîtres-clercs) to act as chief auditors and three maîtres-lais familiers du Roi empowered to hear and adjudge ("oyer and terminer") audit accounts. They were assisted by eleven clerks (petis clercs, later clercs des comptes) who acted as auditors of the prests. This complement grew by 50 percent in the next two decades but was reduced to seven masters and twelve clerks in 1346. The office of président was created by the Ordinance of 1381, and a second lay Chief Baron was appointed in 1400. Clerks of court were eventually added to the court's composition. Examiners (correcteurs) were created to assist the maitres. Other court officers (conseillers) appointed by the King were created to act alongside the maîtres ordinaires. Lastly, the Ordinance of 26 February 1464 named the Court of Accounts as the "sovereign, primary, supreme, and sole court of last resort in all things financial". While gaining in stability in the later 14th century, the court lost its central role in royal finances. First, currency was moved to a separate body (Chambre des monnaies), then the increasingly regular "extraordinary" taxes (aide, tallage, gabelle) became the responsibility of the généraux of the Cour des aides (created in 1390). The Crown's domainal revenues, still retained by the Court of Accounts, fell in importance and value. By 1400, the Court's role had been much reduced. However, with the gradual englargement of the realm through conquest, the need for the court remained secure. Parlements The Parliament of Paris, born out of the king's council in 1307, and sitting inside the medieval royal palace on the Île de la Cité, still the site of the Paris Hall of Justice. The jurisdiction of the Parliament of Paris covered the entire kingdom as it was in the fourteenth century, but did not automatically advance in step with the enlarging personal dominions of the kings. In 1443, following the turmoil of the Hundred Years' War, King Charles VII of France granted Languedoc its own parlement by establishing the Parlement of Toulouse, the first parlement outside of Paris; its jurisdiction extended over most of southern France. Several other parlements were created in various provinces of France in the Middle Ages: Dauphiné (Grenoble 1453), Guyenne and Gascony (Bordeaux 1462), Burgundy (Dijon 1477), Normandy (Rouen 1499/1515). All of them were administrative capitals of regions with strong historical traditions of independence before they were incorporated into France. Estates General In 1302, expanding French royal power led to a general assembly consisting of the chief lords, both lay and ecclesiastical, and the representatives of the principal privileged towns, which were like distinct lordships. Certain precedents paved the way for this institution: representatives of principal towns had several times been convoked by the king, and under Philip III there had been assemblies of nobles and ecclesiastics in which the two orders deliberated separately. It was the dispute between Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII which led to the States-General of 1302; the king of France desired that, in addition to the Great Officers of the Crown of France, he receive the counsel from the three estates in this serious crisis. The letters summoning the assembly of 1302 are published by M. Georges Picot in his collection of Documents inédits pour servir à l'histoire de France. During the same reign they were subsequently assembled several times to give him aid by granting subsidies. Over time subsidies came to be the most frequent motive for their convocation. The Estates-General included representatives of the First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (the nobility), and Third Estate (commoners: all others), and monarchs always summoned them either to grant subsidies or to advise the Crown, to give aid and counsel. In their primitive form in the 14th and the first half of the 15th centuries, the Estates-General had only a limited elective element. The lay lords and the ecclesiastical lords (bishops and other high clergy) who made up the Estates-General were not elected by their peers, but directly chosen and summoned by the king. In the order of the clergy, however, since certain ecclesiastical bodies, e.g. abbeys and chapters of cathedrals, were also summoned to the assembly, and as these bodies, being persons in the moral but not in the physical sense, could not appear in person, their representative had to be chosen by the monks of the convent or the canons of the chapter. It was only the representation of the Third Estate which was furnished by election. Originally, moreover, the latter was not called upon as a whole to seek representation in the estates. It was only the bonnes villes, the privileged towns, which were called upon. They were represented by elected procureurs, who were frequently the municipal officials of the town, but deputies were often elected for the purpose. The country districts, the plat pays, were not represented. Even within the bonnes villes, the franchise was quite narrow. Prévôts, baillages The prévôts were the first-level judges created by the Capetian monarchy around the 11th century who administered the scattered parts of the royal domain. Provosts replaced viscounts wherever a viscounty had not been made a fief, and it is likely that the provost position imitated and was styled after the corresponding ecclesiastical provost of cathedral chapters. Provosts were entrusted with and carried out local royal power, including the collection of the Crown's domainal revenues and all taxes and duties owed the King within a provostship's jurisdiction. They were also responsible for military defense such as raising local contingents for royal armies. The provosts also administered justice though with limited jurisdiction. In the 11th century, the provosts tended increasingly to make their positions hereditary and thus became more difficult to control. One of the King's great officers, the Great Seneschal, became their supervisor. In the 12th century, the office of provost was put up for bidding, and thereafter provosts were farmers of revenues. The provost thus received the speculative right to collect the King's seignorial revenues within his provostship. This remained his primary role. To monitor the performance and curtail abuses of the prévôts or their equivalent (in Normandy a vicomte, in parts of northern France a châtelain, in the south a viguier or a bayle), Philip II Augustus, an able and ingenious administrator who founded many of the central institutions on which the French monarchy's system of power would be based, established itinerant justices known as baillis ("bailiff") based on medieval fiscal and tax divisions which had been used by earlier sovereign princes (such as the Duke of Normandy). The bailli was thus the king's administrative representative in northern France responsible for the application of justice and control of the administration and local finances in his baillage (in the south of France, the equivalent post was is "sénéchal, sénéchaussé"). Over time, the role of the baillages would be greatly extended as extensions of royal power, administration and justice. With the office of Great Seneschal vacant after 1191, the bailies became stationary and established themselves as powerful officials superior to provosts. A bailie's district included about half a dozen provostships. When appeals were instituted by the Crown, appeal of provost judgments, formerly impossible, now lay with the bailie. Moreover, in the 14th century, provosts no longer were in charge of collecting domainal revenues, except in farmed provostships, having instead yielded this responsibility to royal receivers (receveurs royaux). Raising local army contingents (ban and arrière-ban) also passed to bailies. Provosts therefore retained the sole function of inferior judges over vassals with original jurisdiction concurrent with bailies over claims against nobles and actions reserved for royal courts (cas royaux). This followed a precedent established in the chief feudal courts in the 13th and 14th centuries in which summary provostship suits were distinguished from solemn bailliary sessions. Political history Carolingian legacy During the later years of the elderly Charlemagne's rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of his kingdom. After Charlemagne's death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire, and Charles the Bald ruled over West Francia, roughly corresponding to the territory of modern France. Viking advances were allowed to escalate, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine Rivers and other inland waterways, wreaking havoc and spreading terror. In 843 Viking invaders murdered the Bishop of Nantes, and a few years after that, they burned the Church of Saint Martin at Tours, and in 845 the Vikings sacked Paris. During the reign of Charles the Simple (898–922), Normans under Rollo were settled in an area on either side of the Seine River, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. The Carolingians were subsequently to share the fate of their predecessors: after an intermittent power struggle between the two families, the accession (987) of Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris, established on the throne the Capetian dynasty which with its Valois and Bourbon offshoots was to rule France for more than 800 years. The Carolingian era had seen the gradual emergence of institutions which were to condition France's development for centuries to come: the acknowledgement by the crown of the administrative authority of the realm's nobles within their territories in return for their (sometimes tenuous) loyalty and military support, a phenomenon readily visible in the rise of the Capetians and foreshadowed to some extent by the Carolingians' own rise to power. The First Capetians (940–1108) The history of medieval France starts with the election of Hugh Capet (940–996) by an assembly summoned in Reims in 987. Capet was previously "Duke of the Franks" and then became "King of the Franks" (Rex Francorum). Hugh's lands extended little beyond the Paris basin; his political unimportance weighed against the powerful barons who elected him. Many of the king's vassals (who included for a long time the kings of England) ruled over territories far greater than his own. He was recorded to be recognised king by the Gauls, Bretons, Danes, Aquitanians, Goths, Spanish and Gascons. The new dynasty was in immediate control of little beyond the middle Seine and adjacent territories, while powerful territorial lords such as the 10th- and 11th-century counts of Blois accumulated large domains of their own through marriage and through private arrangements with lesser nobles for protection and support. Count Borell of Barcelona called for Hugh's help against Islamic raids, but even if Hugh intended to help Borell, he was otherwise occupied in fighting Charles of Lorraine. The loss of other Spanish principalities then followed, as the Spanish marches grew more and more independent. Hugh Capet, the first Capetian king, is not a well documented figure, his greatest achievement being certainly to survive as king and defeating the Carolingian claimant, thus allowing him to establish what would become one of Europe's most powerful house of kings. Hugh's son – Robert the Pious – was crowned King of the Franks before Capet's demise. Hugh Capet decided so in order to have his succession secured. Robert II, as King of the Franks, met Holy Roman Emperor Henry II in 1023 on the borderline. They agreed to end all claims over each other's realm, setting a new stage of Capetian and Ottonian relationships. Although a king weak in power, Robert II's efforts were considerable. His surviving charters imply he relied heavily on the Church to rule France, much like his father did. Although he lived with a mistress – Bertha of Burgundy – and was excommunicated because of this, he was regarded as a model of piety for monks (hence his nickname, Robert the Pious). The reign of Robert II was quite important because it involved the Peace and Truce of God (beginning in 989) and the Cluniac Reforms. Robert II crowned his son – Hugh Magnus – as King of the Franks at age 10 to secure the succession, but Hugh Magnus rebelled against his father and died fighting him in 1025. The next King of the Franks was Robert II's next son, Henry I (reigned 1027–1060). Like Hugh Magnus, Henry was crowned as co-ruler with his father (1027), in the Capetian tradition, but he had little power or influence as junior king while his father still lived. Henry I was crowned after Robert's death in 1031, which is quite exceptional for a French king of the times. Henry I was one of the weakest kings of the Franks, and his reign saw the rise of some very powerful nobles such as William the Conqueror. Henry I's biggest source of concerns was his brother – Robert I of Burgundy – who was pushed by his mother to the conflict. Robert of Burgundy was made Duke of Burgundy by King Henry I and had to be satisfied with that title. From Henry I onward, the Dukes of Burgundy were relatives of the King of the Franks until the end of the Duchy proper. King Philip I, named by his Kievan mother with a typically Eastern European name, was no more fortunate than his predecessor although the kingdom did enjoy a modest recovery during his extraordinarily long reign (1060–1108). His reign also saw the launch of the First Crusade to regain the Holy Land, which heavily involved his family although he personally did not support the expedition. The area around the lower Seine, ceded to Scandinavian invaders as the Duchy of Normandy in 911, became a source of particular concern when Duke William took possession of the kingdom of England in the Norman Conquest of 1066, making himself and his heirs the King's equal outside France (where he was still nominally subject to the Crown). Louis VI and Louis VII (1108–1180) It is from Louis VI (reigned 1108–1137) onward that royal authority became more accepted. Louis VI was more a soldier and warmongering king than a scholar. The way the king raised money from his vassals made him quite unpopular; he was described as greedy and ambitious and that is corroborated by records of the time. His regular attacks on his vassals, although damaging the royal image, reinforced the royal power. From 1127 onward Louis had the assistance of a skilled religious statesman, Abbot Suger. The abbot was the son of a minor family of knights, but his political advice was extremely valuable to the king. Louis VI successfully defeated, both military and politically, many of the robber barons. Louis VI frequently summoned his vassals to the court, and those who did not show up often had their land possessions confiscated and military campaigns mounted against them. This drastic policy clearly imposed some royal authority on Paris and its surrounding areas. When Louis VI died in 1137, much progress had been made towards strengthening Capetian authority. Thanks to Abbot Suger's political advice, King Louis VII (junior king 1131–1137, senior king 1137–1180) enjoyed greater moral authority over France than his predecessors. Powerful vassals paid homage to the French king. Abbot Suger arranged the 1137 marriage between Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine in Bordeaux, which made Louis VII Duke of Aquitaine and gave him considerable power. However, the couple disagreed over the burning of more than a thousand people in Vitry during the conflict against the Count of Champagne. King Louis VII was deeply horrified by the event and sought penitence by going to the Holy Land. He later involved the Kingdom of France in the Second Crusade but his relationship with Eleanor did not improve. The marriage was ultimately annulled by the pope under the pretext of consanguinity and Eleanor soon married the Duke of Normandy – Henry Fitzempress, who would become King of England as Henry II two years later. Louis VII was once a very powerful monarch and was now facing a much stronger vassal, who was his equal as King of England and his strongest prince as Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine. (Henry had inherited the Duchy of Normandy through his mother, Mathilda of England, and the County of Anjou from his father, Geoffrey of Anjou, and in 1152, he had married France's newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, who ruled much of southwest France. After defeating a revolt led by Eleanor and three of their four sons, Henry had Eleanor imprisoned, made the Duke of Brittany his vassal, and in effect ruled the western half of France as a greater power than the French throne. However, disputes among Henry's descendants over the division of his French territories, coupled with John of England's lengthy quarrel with Philip II, allowed Philip II to recover influence over most of this territory. After the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne.) Abbot Suger's vision of construction became what is now known as Gothic architecture. This style became standard for most European cathedrals built in the late Middle Ages. The late direct Capetian kings were considerably more powerful and influential than the earliest ones. While Philip I could hardly control his Parisian barons, Philip IV could dictate popes and emperors. The late Capetians, although they often ruled for a shorter time than their earlier peers, were often much more influential. This period also saw the rise of a complex system of international alliances and conflicts opposing, through dynasties, Kings of France and England and Holy Roman Emperor. Philip II Augustus and Louis VIII (1180–1226) The reign of Philip II Augustus (junior king 1179–1180, senior king 1180–1223) marked an important step in the history of French monarchy. His reign saw the French royal domain and influence greatly expanded. He set the context for the rise of power to much more powerful monarchs like Saint Louis and Philip the Fair. Philip II spent an important part of his reign fighting the so-called Angevin Empire, which was probably the greatest threat to the King of France since the rise of the Capetian dynasty. During the first part of his reign Philip II tried using Henry II of England's son against him. He allied himself with the Duke of Aquitaine and son of Henry II – Richard Lionheart – and together they launched a decisive attack on Henry's castle and home of Chinon and removed him from power. Richard replaced his father as King of England afterward. The two kings then went crusading during the Third Crusade; however, their alliance and friendship broke down during the crusade. The two men were once again at odds and fought each other in France until Richard was on the verge of totally defeating Philip II. Adding to their battles in France, the Kings of France and England were trying to install their respective allies at the head of the Holy Roman Empire. If Philip II Augustus supported Philip of Swabia, member of the House of Hohenstaufen, then Richard Lionheart supported Otto IV, member of the House of Welf. Philip of Swabia had the upper hand, but his premature death made Otto IV Holy Roman Emperor. The crown of France was saved by Richard's demise after a wound he received fighting his own vassals in Limousin. John Lackland, Richard's successor, refused to come to the French court for a trial against the Lusignans and, as Louis VI had done often to his rebellious vassals, Philip II confiscated John's possessions in France. John's defeat was swift and his attempts to reconquer his French possession at the decisive Battle of Bouvines (1214) resulted in complete failure. The annexation of Normandy and Anjou was confirmed, the Counts of Boulogne and Flanders were captured, and the Emperor Otto IV was overthrown by Philip's ally Frederick II. Aquitaine and Gascony survived the French conquest, for the Duchess Eleanor still lived. Philip II of France was crucial in ordering Western European politics in both England and France. Philip Augustus founded the Sorbonne and made Paris a city for scholars. Prince Louis (the future Louis VIII, reigned 1223–1226) was involved in the subsequent English civil war as French and English (or rather Anglo-Norman) aristocracies were once one and were now split between allegiances. While the French kings were struggling against the Plantagenets, the Church called for the Albigensian Crusade. Southern France was then largely absorbed in the royal domains. Saint Louis (1226–1270) France became a truly centralised kingdom under Louis IX (reigned 1226–1270). Saint Louis has often been portrayed as a one-dimensional character, a flawless example of the faith and an administrative reformer who cared for the governed ones. However, his reign was far from perfect for everyone: he made unsuccessful crusades, his expanding administrations raised opposition, and he burned Jewish books at the Pope's urging. His judgments were not often practical, although they seemed fair by the standards of the time. It appears Louis had a strong sense of justice and always wanted to judge people himself before applying any sentence. This was said about Louis and French clergy asking for excommunications of Louis' vassals: Louis IX was only twelve years old when he became King of France. His mother – Blanche of Castile – was the effective power as regent (although she did not formally use the title). Blanche's authority was strongly opposed by the French barons yet she maintained her position until Louis was old enough to rule by himself. In 1229 the King had to struggle with a long-lasting strike at the University of Paris. The Latin Quarter was strongly hit by these strikes. The kingdom was vulnerable: war was still going on in the County of Toulouse, and the royal army was occupied fighting resistance in Languedoc. Count Raymond VII of Toulouse finally signed the Treaty of Paris in 1229, in which he retained much of his lands for life, but his daughter, married to Count Alfonso of Poitou, produced him no heir and so the County of Toulouse went to the King of France. King Henry III of England had not yet recognized the Capetian overlordship over Aquitaine and still hoped to recover Normandy and Anjou and reform the Angevin Empire. He landed in 1230 at Saint-Malo with a massive force. Henry III's allies in Brittany and Normandy fell down because they did not dare fight their king, who led the counterstrike himself. This evolved into the Saintonge War (1242). Ultimately, Henry III was defeated and had to recognize Louis IX's overlordship, although the King of France did not seize Aquitaine from Henry III. Louis IX was now the most important landowner of France, adding to his royal title. There were some opposition to his rule in Normandy, yet it proved remarkably easy to rule, especially compared to the County of Toulouse which had been brutally conquered. The Conseil du Roi, which would evolve into the Parlement, was founded in these times. After his conflict with King Henry III of England, Louis established a cordial relation with the Plantagenet King. An amusing anecdote is about Henry III's attending the French Parlement, as Duke of Aquitaine; however, the King of England was always late because he liked to stop each time he met a priest to hear the mass, so Louis made sure no priest was on the way of Henry III. Henry III and Louis IX then started a long contest for who was the most faithful; this evolved to the point that none ever arrived on time to the Parlement, which was then allowed to debate in their absence. Saint Louis also supported new forms of art such as Gothic architecture; his Sainte-Chapelle became a very famous gothic building, and he is also credited for the Morgan Bible. The Kingdom was involved in two crusades under Saint Louis: the Seventh Crusade and the Eighth Crusade. Both proved to be complete failures for the French King. He died in the Eighth Crusade and Philip III became king. The 13th century was to bring the crown important gains also in the south, where a papal-royal crusade against the region's Albigensian or Cathar heretics (1209) led to the incorporation into the royal domain of Lower (1229) and Upper (1271) Languedoc. Philip IV's seizure of Flanders (1300) was less successful, ending two years later in the rout of his knights by the forces of the Flemish cities at the Battle of the Golden Spurs near Kortrijk (Courtrai). Philip III and Philip IV (1270–1314) After Louis IX died of bubonic plague crusading in Tunisia in 1270, his son Philip III (1270–1285) and grandson Philip IV (1285–1314) followed him. Philip III was called "the Bold" on the basis of his abilities in combat and on horseback, and not because of his character or ruling abilities. Philip III took part in another crusading disaster: the Aragonese Crusade, which cost him his life in 1285. Philip III continued the steady expansion of the royal domain. He inherited Toulouse in 1271 from his uncle and married his son and heir to the heiress of Champagne and Navarre. After taking the throne, Philip III felt obliged to continue his father's apparently solid diplomacy despite circumstances having changed. In 1282, the misrule of Charles of Anjou in Sicily compelled the island's populace to rebel in favor of King Peter III of Aragon. As Pope Martin IV was a close ally of Philip, he immediately excommunicated Peter and offered his throne to one of the French king's sons. Since Philip the Fair was already slated to inherit Navarre, the entire Spanish March seemed ripe for reconquest by France. However, Philip III's attempted crusade against Aragon, a blatantly political affair, ended in disaster as an epidemic struck his army, which then was soundly defeated by Aragonese forces at Col de Panissars. The humiliated king died shortly afterwards in Perpignan, followed by Charles of Anjou and Martin IV. Of the later Capetian rulers, Philip IV was the greatest, bringing royal power to the strongest level it would attain in the Middle Ages, yet alienated a great many people and generally left France exhausted. As such, his sons were obliged to follow a more restrained course without however abandoning their father's ambitions. Philip IV for the most part ignored the Mediterranean and instead focused his foreign policy efforts on France's northern frontiers. Some of this was done at the expense of the Holy Roman Emperors, but the king's most aggressive actions were against England. Disputes over Aquitaine were a bone of contention for years and finally in 1294, war broke out. The French armies drove deep into Gascony, leading to Edward I of England joining forces with Flanders and other allies on the northern borders of France. The allied forces were soundly beaten in 1297 by a French army led by Robert of Artois and a truce was agreed to, leading to preservation of the status quo ante bellum. As part of the peace arrangement, Edward married Philip's sister and the son and daughter of both kings were slated to marry. Flanders remained stubbornly rebellious and insubordinate. Although their count had been imprisoned by Philip, this did not prevent the Flemish burghers from rising up against French troops stationed there, inflicting a sensational defeat on them at the 1302 Battle of Courtrai. Eventually however, the king began a new offensive into Flanders and a peace was finally agreed to in 1305 which however still failed to placate the Flemish townsmen. In addition, Philip IV extended royal jurisdiction by treaty into the ecclesiastical territories of Vivers, Cahors, Mende, and Le Puy. With all this, the king could now assert power nearly anywhere in France, yet there was still a great deal of work yet to be done and French rulers for the time being continued to do without Brittany, Burgundy, and numerous lesser territories although they legislated for the whole realm. Governmental administration in France during this period became more bureaucratic and sophisticated along with the steady expansion of royal power. Even so, the Capetian kings should not be taken as arbitrary tyrants since feudal custom and tradition still acted as restraints on them. If Philip's policies provoked hostility and complaints, it was because they favored no class in particular. The king's policy towards the towns remained fairly traditional, but this was not the case with the Church. When he wanted to tax French clergy to fund military campaigns, he encountered the objection of Pope Boniface VIII. The pope had received a number of complaints from French and English clergy over lay taxes and thus issued the bull Clericis lacios in 1296 declaring that papal consent was necessary for this. Philip however became infuriated and issued loud arguments in defense of his actions, leaving the clergy divided over the matter. Eventually the pope withdrew his objection. In 1301, fresh trouble erupted when the Bishop of Pamiers was accused by the King of heresy and treason, leading to another protest from Boniface VIII that Church property could not be confiscated without Rome's permission and all Christian rulers were subordinate to papal authority. The pope summoned French clergy to the Vatican to debate a reform of the kingdom. Once again the prelates were left divided between loyalty to their country and loyalty to the Church. Those who took the side of Philip met in a large assembly in Paris along with other segments of French society criticizing the Pope, who responded by excommunicating the king and all clergy who had supported him. The following year, Philip struck back with a vengeance. Prelates loyal to the crown formed a scheme to bring Boniface to trial, and the Pope was summarily arrested at Anagni that September. He was beaten by his jailers and threatened with execution if he did not resign the papacy, but he refused. The 68-year-old Pope was released from captivity after only a few days and died several weeks later. Philip ensured that he would never again have trouble with the Church by promoting Raymond Bertrand de Got, archbishop of Bordeaux, as the next Pope. The papal conclave was evenly divided between French and Italian cardinals, but the latter acquiesced and de Got became Pope Clement V. Thus, Philip successfully installed an obedient French puppet in the papacy that was moved to Avignon. More administrative reforms were made by Philip IV, also called Philip the Fair (reigned 1285–1314). This king signed the Auld Alliance, and established the Parlement of Paris. One of the more bizarre episodes of Philip's reign was his involvement in the destruction of the Knights Templar. The Templars had been founded during the Crusades more than a century earlier, but now consisted of old men whose prestige was greatly diminished after the fall of the Holy Land and no longer seemed to serve any useful purpose worth their privileges. Unable to find suitable evidence of misdeeds by the Templars to justify disposing of the order, Philip had to resort to a mass meeting at Tours in 1308 to rally support. Finally in 1312, Clement V, despite his misgivings, issued a bull ordering their dissolution. The Templars' possessions were handed over to the Knights Hospitallers and their remaining members imprisoned or executed for heresy. Louis X, Philip V and Charles IV (1314–1328) In 1314, Philip IV died abruptly in a hunting accident at the age of 47 and the throne passed to his son Louis X (1314–1316). Louis's brief reign saw further unsuccessful attempts to assert control over Flanders as the king mobilized an army along the border, but supply problems caused the effort to break down. Louis died in the summer of 1316 at only 26 of an unknown illness (possibly gastroenteritis) after consuming a large quantity of chilled wine following a game of tennis on an extremely hot day. The king's wife was then pregnant and gave birth to a son, John, in November, but he died after a week and the throne passed to his brother Philip. Philip V (1316–1322) made peace with Flanders via a marriage compact with its count Robert III and faced continued quarrels with Edward II of England over Gascony. He made plans for a new crusade to relieve the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, but the Flanders situation remained unstable and an attempted French naval expedition to the Middle East was destroyed off Genoa in 1319. At this point, peasants and soldiers originally intended to invade Flanders rose in another self-proclaimed crusade (Pastoreux) which once again turned into an assault on the nobility, tax collectors, and Jews. Pope John XXII denounced the uprising and Philip was forced to send troops to break it up. In 1321, a rumor began spreading through the country that Jews in the employ of foreign Muslim rulers were using lepers to poison drinking wells. With the Pastoreux still fresh in everyone's mind, a volatile situation had formed especially as Philip V granted tolerance to Jews and even employed a number of them in his service. With the king facing potential disaster no matter what side he took, his health began to fail from stress and he succumbed at the start of 1322, only 29 years old. Having failed to produce a son that survived infancy, Philip was succeeded by his brother (and the youngest of Philip IV's sons) Charles IV (1322–1328). The new king faced much of the same problems as his predecessors (namely the quarrels over Flanders and Gascony). Having put an end to the chaos in southern France that his brother faced, he turned his attention to Flanders, but then a revolt broke out in Gascony over the unwelcome construction of a fortress on the border by a French vassal. The king's uncle Charles of Valois invaded the province, whereupon the former declared Edward II's claims to it null and void. Although Charles IV's sister married the English king, he still refused to return Gascony and finally came to an agreement to divide it up among the two rulers. Charles was also eager to begin a new crusade in the Levant and had once plotted to become Byzantine emperor. He failed to work out an agreement with the Pope over funding the expedition however, and his attention was distracted by the events in Gascony. But in 1327, a French ambassador traveled to Constantinople and found the Byzantine Empire beset by civil wars. The following year, Charles IV died, ending any plans for crusades in the region. The Hundred Years' War (1328–1453) The death of Charles IV in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line. Under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman (Philip IV's daughter was Isabella, whose son was Edward III of England), so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois. This, in addition to a long-standing dispute over the rights to Gascony in the south of France, and the relationship between England and the Flemish cloth towns, led to the Hundred Years' War of 1337–1453. The following century was to see devastating warfare and peasant revolts (the English peasants' revolt of 1381 and the Jacquerie of 1358 in France). French losses in the first phase of the conflict (1337–1360) were partly reversed in the second (1369–1396); but Henry V's shattering victory at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 against a France now bitterly divided between rival Armagnac and Burgundian factions of the royal house was to lead to his son Henry VI's recognition as king in Paris seven years later under the 1420 Treaty of Troyes, reducing Valois rule to the lands south of the Loire River Valley. France's humiliation was abruptly reversed in 1429 by the appearance of a restorationist movement embodied by the peasant maid Joan of Arc from Domremy la Pucelle, who claimed the guidance of divine voices for the campaign which rapidly ended the English siege of Orléans and ended in Charles VII's coronation in the historic city of Rheims. Subsequently, captured by the Burgundians and sold to their English allies, her execution for heresy in 1431 redoubled her value as the embodiment of France's cause. Reconciliation in 1435 between the king and Philippe the Good, duke of Burgundy, removed the greatest obstacle to French recovery, leading to the recapture of Paris (1436), Normandy (1450) and Guienne (1453), reducing England's foothold to a small area around Calais (lost also in 1558). After victory over England, France's emergence as a powerful national monarchy was crowned by the "incorporation" of the Duchies of Burgundy (1477) and Brittany (1532), which had previously been independent European states. The losses of the century of war were enormous, particularly owing to the plague (the Black Death, usually considered an outbreak of bubonic plague), which arrived from Italy in 1348, spreading rapidly up the Rhone valley and thence across most of the country: it is estimated that a population of some 18–20 million in modern-day France at the time of the 1328 hearth tax returns had been reduced 150 years later by 50% or more. The tensions between the Houses of Plantagenet and Capet climaxed during the so-called Hundred Years' War (actually several distinct wars over the period 1337 to 1453) when the Plantagenets claimed the throne of France from the Valois. This was also the time of the Black Death, as well as several civil wars. The French population suffered much from these wars. In 1420 Henry V was made heir to Charles VI by the Treaty of Troyes. Henry V failed to outlive Charles so it was Henry VI of England and France who consolidated the dual monarchy of England and France. It has been argued that the difficult conditions the French population suffered during the Hundred Years' War awakened French nationalism, a nationalism represented by Joan of Arc (1412–1431). Although this is debatable, the Hundred Years' War is remembered more as a Franco-English war than as a succession of feudal struggles. During this war, France evolved politically and militarily. Although a Franco-Scottish army was successful at the Battle of Baugé (1421), the humiliating defeats of Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415) forced the French nobility to realise they could not stand just as armoured knights without an organised army. Charles VII (reigned 1422–1461) established the first French standing army, the Compagnies d'ordonnance, and defeated the Plantagenets once at Patay (1429) and again, using cannons, at Formigny (1450). The Battle of Castillon (1453) was regarded as the last engagement of this "war", yet Calais and the Channel Islands remained ruled by the Plantagenets. List of kings during this period Capetian Dynasty (House of Capet): Hugh Capet, 940–996 Robert the Pious, 996–1027 Henry I, 1027–1060 Philip I, 1060–1108 Louis VI the Fat, 1108–1137 Louis VII the Young, 1137–1180 Philip II Augustus, 1180–1223 Louis VIII the Lion, 1223–1226 Saint Louis IX, 1226–1270 Philip III the Bold, 1270–1285 Philip IV the Fair, 1285–1314 Louis X the Quarreller, 1314–1316 John I the Posthumous, five days in 1316 Philip V the Tall, 1316–1322 Charles IV the Fair, 1322–1328 House of Valois: Philip VI of Valois, 1328–1350 John II the Good, 1350–1364 Charles V the Wise, 1364–1380 Charles VI the Mad, 1380–1422 English interlude (between Charles VI and VII): Henry V of England Henry VI of England and France, 1422–1453 Charles VII the Well Served, 1422–1461 Religion and the Church List of Ancien Régime dioceses of France Jewish-Christian Relations in France In the Middle Ages, France was primarily made up of a Christian population that maintained a positive relationship with the Jewish minority. In a historical sense, Christians and Jews both made generalizations about the success of their community relations in Medieval France. The history of Jewish-Christian relations was focused primarily on the persecution that Jews faced in a prominently Christian world. In France, however, there were many examples of Jewish and Christian people working together towards a prosperity that was beneficial to both religions. They conducted business together, as well as participated in intimate social affairs. While the Jews would never fully assimilate into French culture by choice, they were accepted by the Christians in their societies. After years of peace, in the 13th Century, Louis IX became obsessed with restricting Jewish activities. Eventually, after the Jewish population suffered multiple expulsions from France, the anti-Jewish rhetoric gained some popularity in small villages and towns. Jews began to face a fatal price for practicing their religious traditions. This discriminatory action promoted by the Royals, did not take hold with the general civilian populations in large cities because a large population of Christians permitted and accepted the differing Jewish faith. Small communities however, incorporated these prejudiced ideas into their beliefs, which led to some instances of blood libels which took many Jewish lives. Blood Libels consisted of accusations directed at small Jewish communities that promoted a false belief that there was a sacrificial aspect in Jewish prayer. These falsities proclaimed that a Jewish religious event included the sacrifice of a Christian child. In Blois, France, as many as 40 Jews were accused of killing a young Christian boy. They were found guilty and killed. Though Blood Libels and persecution did not define Jewish-Christian relations in the Middle-Ages in France, it had a large impact on the way the history of this time period is recited. Economy and technology The period after the death of Charlemagne was marked by an economic crisis caused by political instability; town life all but disappeared. However, this had changed by the 11th century. The introduction of new crops, the improvements in the climate, and the introduction of new agricultural technologies created a large agricultural surplus. This was accompanied by the growth in town life, trade, and industry. The economy once again collapsed in the fourteenth century because of war, bad weather, and the Black Death. The rural economy was based on the manor; in urban areas economic activity was organized around guilds. Culture Literature For the literature of Northern France written in one of the Old French languages ("langues d'oïl") and (later) Middle French, see Medieval French literature. For the literature of Southern France written in one of the Occitan languages, see Occitan literature. For the literature written in the "langue d'oïl" Anglo-Norman language during the Norman rule of England, see Anglo-Norman literature. Art and music Art was a large staple of the medieval France. Illuminated manuscripts were diligently written and illustrated within this period, some notable examples include the Hours of Philip the Bold, the Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux and the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry of the 14th and 15th centuries. Some of the earliest painters lived in the Later Middle Ages in France such as Jacquemart de Hesdin, Jean de Beaumetz and Colart de Laon. While in music, the Ars antiqua musical style was common in the High Middle Ages and Ars nova in the Later Middle Ages. A group of composers from the Notre-Dame school, were active during Ars antiqua period, arguably the most famous being the 12th-century Léonin and Pérotin. Troubadour culture flourished after the 12th century, exemplified by famous personages of the High Middle Ages such as Perdigon, Bertran de Born and Raimbaut de Vaqueiras among others. References Bibliography Early Middle Ages Stéphane Lebecq. Les origines franques: Ve-IXe siècles. Series: Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1999. Chris Wickham. The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages, 400–1000. Penguin: 2009. High Middle Ages Dominique Barthélemy. L'ordre seigneurial: XIe-XIIe siècle. Series: Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale, tome 3. Editions du Seuil. Marc Bloch. Feudal Society. 2nd edition: Routledge, 1989. Constance Brittain Bouchard. Strong of Body, Brave and Noble": Chivalry and Society in Medieval France. Norman F. Cantor. The Civilization of the Middle Ages. New York: HarperPerennial, 1993. Alain Demurger. Temps de crises, temps d'espoirs: XIVe-XVe siècle. Series: Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale, tome 5. Editions du Seuil. Monique Bourin-Derruau. Temps d'équilibres, temps de ruptures: XIIIe siècle. Series: Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale, tome 4. Editions du Seuil. Georges Duby. France in the Middle Ages 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc. Wiley-Blackwell. 1993. Elizabeth M. Hallam & Judith Everard. Capetian France 987–1328. Editions Longman. 2nd edition: Pearson, 2001. William Kibler. Medieval France: An Encyclopedia Series: Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages. Routledge, 1995. Former monarchies of Europe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilmore%20Girls
Gilmore Girls
Gilmore Girls (onscreen as Gilmore girls) is an American comedy-drama television series created by Amy Sherman-Palladino and starring Lauren Graham (Lorelai Gilmore) and Alexis Bledel (Rory Gilmore). The show debuted on October 5, 2000, on The WB and became a flagship series for the network. Gilmore Girls ran for seven seasons, the final season moving to The CW and ending its run on May 15, 2007. Gilmore Girls received critical acclaim for its witty dialogue, cross-generational appeal, and effective mix of humor and drama. It was a success for The WB, peaking during season five as the network's second-most-popular show. The series has been in daily syndication since 2004, while a growing following has led to its status as a 2000s American cult classic. Since going off the air in 2007, Gilmore Girls has been cited in TV (The Book) and Time magazine as one of the 100 greatest television shows of all time. In 2016, the original main cast and Amy Sherman-Palladino returned for the four-part miniseries revival Gilmore Girls: A Year in the Life, which streamed on Netflix and later aired on The CW. Premise This show follows the lives of a 32 year-old single mother Lorelai Gilmore and her intellectual teenage daughter Rory Gilmore. The two women have big ambitions they try so desperately to achieve: Lorelai wants to own her own inn, while Rory wants to attend the prestigious Harvard University. They also deal with Lorelai's appearance-obsessive and very wealthy parents, Emily and Richard Gilmore, who help to pay for Rory's tuition at an exclusive private school in Hartford, Connecticut. In exchange, Rory and Lorelai have to come to Emily and Richard’s house for dinner every Friday night. This sets up one of the show's primary, ongoing conflicts: the Gilmore family is forced to face their differences and complicated past, their interactions fueled by these weekly Friday night dinners together. The contrasting mother-daughter relationships of Emily/Lorelai and Lorelai/Rory become a defining theme of the show and a lens through which many of the female relationships are viewed. Throughout the series, one of the main characters and Rory's best friend, Lane Kim's love life is followed in addition to those of Lorelai and Rory. As the daughter of Mrs. Kim, a very strict, religious, and protective Korean immigrant, Lane struggles to hide her love for rock music and other aspects of pop culture from her mother, including dating. While Mrs. Kim repeatedly tries to find Lane a future Korean husband who is medical school-bound, she dates Henry Cho, one of Rory's Chilton classmates; Dave Rygalski, the guitarist in Lane's secret band; and Zach Van Gerbig, the lead singer of the same band whom she later marries. The quirky townspeople of Stars Hollow are a constant presence. Along with series-long and season-long arcs, Gilmore Girls is also episodic in nature, with mini-plots within each episode — such as town festivals, issues at Lorelai's inn, or school projects of Rory's. One writer later said that the brief given to the writing room at the outset was "This show is about a mother and a daughter who are best friends as well as being mother and daughter, and every conflict and dynamic should ticktack back and forth on that one point." Synopsis Season 1 Rory is accepted to Chilton, a private school that would get her to her lifelong dream to study at Harvard. Because of the heavy price tag the private school comes with, Lorelai talks to her wealthy parents, with whom she has not communicated for a long time. Emily and Richard agree to pay for the tuition, although there is a catch; that Lorelai and Rory would have Friday night dinners with them. Rory has a difficult time settling in at Chilton, struggling to meet the demands of private school and attracting the fury of classmate Paris Geller, her academic rival. She meets her first boyfriend, Dean, but the pair break up when Rory doesn't reciprocate his "I love you", instead saying "thank you". Rory spends the remainder of the season saddened by her break up. After being romantically pursued by Rory's teacher, Max Medina, Lorelai decides with a conflicted heart to give the relationship a chance. This dynamic creates some tension between Lorelai and Rory, especially after Lorelai is seen kissing Max in Rory's school. Lorelai becomes frightened by her feelings for Max and breaks up with him. At the same time, Lorelai harbors a close friendship with local diner owner Luke Danes, and several people comment on their mutual attraction—but Lorelai is in denial and Luke does not act on it. Rory's father, Christopher Hayden, returns and also wants to be with Lorelai but she tells him he is too immature for family life. All the while, Lorelai struggles to adjust to having her parents in her life on a regular basis. Emily and Richard enjoy developing a relationship with their granddaughter, but also realize how much they have missed. The season ends with Rory reuniting with Dean, and Max proposing to Lorelai. Season 2 Lorelai accepts Max's proposal but realizes shortly before the wedding that it does not feel right and they break up. This decision is preceded by a drunken phone call she makes to her ex, Christopher Hayden at her Bachelorette party. She and Sookie get excited about opening their own business at the dilapidated Dragonfly Inn but the owner refuses to sell. Sookie gets engaged to Jackson Belleville, a local farmer. Luke's teenage nephew, Jess Mariano, comes to live under his care. Jess is sullen and angry with everyone apart from Rory. The two strike up a friendship, causing jealousy from Dean. Lorelai is disapproving of their closeness, labeling Jess as a bad influence, especially when they are in a car accident, in which Rory breaks her wrist. This leads to a blow-up between Lorelai and Luke. Richard announces that he has retired but soon becomes bored and sets up his own insurance company. Christopher appears to have his life together and Lorelai decides to reunite with him. But at Sookie's wedding, Christopher learns that his recently estranged fiancée is pregnant and decides to return to her, leaving Lorelai heartbroken. Meanwhile, Rory impulsively kisses Jess. Season 3 Rory's attraction to Jess grows stronger but Jess doesn't show affection or knowledge that it is, and she gets jealous when he teases her with a new girlfriend. Dean cannot ignore what is going on and eventually ends their relationship. Rory and Jess immediately become a couple. Meanwhile, she and Paris spend the year as Student Body Presidents at Chilton and both submit applications to Harvard University. They spend a portion of the season in a rivalry with fellow student, Francie, who causes a rift between Paris and Rory. Paris and Rory eventually make amends when Paris confides in her that she lost her virginity. Her college decision plays a big part in Rory's senior year. Harvard is her dream school, but she applies to Yale as well, which causes a rift between Lorelai and Emily and Richard. Paris is devastated when she does not get into Harvard. Rory is accepted but decides to attend Yale University instead, much to Emily and Richard's delight. The Independence Inn is badly damaged in a fire, but Lorelai and Sookie are able to buy the Dragonfly when its elderly owner dies. Jess pressures Rory into almost having sex with him, leading to a fist fight between Dean and Jess when the former witnesses an upset Rory. Luke begins dating a lawyer named Nicole. Lane Kim, Rory's best friend, starts a band called Hep Alien and tries to convince her strict mother to let her date the guitarist, Dave, all while keeping the band secret. As the season ends, Jess abruptly leaves Stars Hollow to track down his estranged father in California, and Rory graduates high school as valedictorian. Season 4 Rory starts her college education at Yale, with Paris – now a friend – as her surprise roommate. Both start working for the Yale Daily News. Rory is surprised when Dean abruptly marries his new girlfriend, Lindsey. Rory and Dean grow close again over the season, leading Rory to turn down Jess when he returns and declares his love for her later on in the season. Lorelai, along with Sookie and their colleague Michel, spends the season renovating the Dragonfly Inn in preparation for its opening. Lorelai faces financial hardships during this period, ultimately breaking down to Luke who subsequently lends her the money. Lorelai begins dating Richard's new business partner, Jason Stiles, with whom she has been acquainted since childhood. She keeps the relationship a secret from her parents. Lane's mother learns about Hep Alien and kicks Lane out of the house. Sookie and Jackson have a son, Davey. Lorelai and Jason break up after Jason sues Richard for leaving their partnership, while Lorelai sides with her father. Emily feels neglected by Richard and the two separate, with Richard moving into the pool house. Luke and Nicole elope during a cruise, but decide to divorce soon after. Towards the end of the season, Luke accepts that he is in love with Lorelai and begins wooing her. The pair finally kiss on the Dragonfly's opening night, while Rory loses her virginity to a married Dean. Season 5 Facing conflict with her mother, Rory embarks on a European trip with Emily and seldom speaks with Lorelai. Near the end of the trip, Lorelai and Rory reconcile over the phone, and Rory asks Lorelai to give Dean a letter for her. Dean's wife finds the letter, which contains information about the affair. Dean and his wife consequently separate. Rory briefly progresses her relationship with Dean but it ends when he realizes how different their lives are. She falls for Logan Huntzberger, a wealthy playboy Yale student whose parents and grandfather consider Rory's lineage inferior to their own. Lane starts a relationship with her bandmate Zack, and Paris starts a relationship with Yale Daily News editor Doyle. Sookie gives birth to her daughter, Martha. Lorelai and Luke start a relationship. Emily and Richard – who reunite and renew their wedding vows – disapprove of Luke, and Emily interferes by telling Christopher to try to win her back. Christopher shows up at Emily and Richard's vow renewal, professing his love for Lorelai, which overwhelms Luke, resulting in separation between him and Lorelai, as well as a major argument between Lorelai and Emily. Rory gets an internship at Logan's father's newspaper but is deflated when he tells her she "doesn't have it." Rory lashes out afterwards and suggests to Logan, at his sister's engagement party, that they steal a yacht. The two are arrested, and Rory later announces to Lorelai that she is quitting Yale, and moves into her grandparents' pool house. When Lorelai sees how supportive Luke is over the situation, she asks him to marry her. Season 6 Lorelai is disappointed by Rory's actions but concedes that she cannot force her back to Yale; it is a decision Rory must make for herself. Mother and daughter do not speak for six months. Rory has to complete community service and Emily finds her a job with the DAR. Richard becomes concerned with Rory's engaging in the socialite lifestyle without continuing her education. Eventually, after admonishment from Jess, Rory returns to Yale and reunites with Lorelai. She later replaces Paris as editor of the Yale Daily News, which causes a disruption in their friendship. After a short separation from Logan, the relationship gets serious. Rory is crushed when Logan's father sends him to work in London. Hep Alien disband then come back together. Lane and Zack get married after Zach undergoes a rigorous vetting from Mrs. Kim. Lorelai plans a wedding with Luke, but things get difficult when Luke learns that he has a 12-year-old daughter named April. He starts building a relationship with her but keeps Lorelai separate. Lorelai tries to accept this but eventually snaps and issues him an ultimatum. When he does not agree to elope, Lorelai goes to Christopher for physical and emotional comfort. Season 7 Lorelai and Luke officially split when she tells him she slept with Christopher. Before much time has passed, Christopher convinces Lorelai to try a relationship. Christopher receives a letter from Sherry Tinsdale, who is his ex-girlfriend and the mother of his second child, Georgia. The letter states she wants to be a part of Georgia's life again and requests that she spend time with her in Paris. Lorelai and Christopher decide to go with Georgia to get her settled. The pair spontaneously marry during the trip to Paris. Luke has a custody battle over April after her mother moves them to New Mexico, and he asks Lorelai to write him a character reference. Luke ends up winning the right to see April during the holidays. Christopher finds what Lorelai wrote about Luke and is upset. Lorelai and Christopher accept that they are not right together and they divorce, though the divorce is never shown or mentioned subsequently. Lane and Zack have twins, and Sookie becomes pregnant again. Rory completes her final year of college. She and Logan spend half the season in a long-distance relationship until he eventually moves back to New York. He proposes, but Rory says that she wants to keep her options open, which leads to their separation. She panics about what she will do after graduating; following some rejection, she gets a job reporting on the Barack Obama campaign trail. Stars Hollow throws a surprise farewell party for Rory. When Lorelai finds out that Luke organized it, the pair reconcile with a kiss. Lorelai promises Emily that she will continue attending Friday night dinners. Before Lorelai and Rory have to say goodbye, they have one last breakfast at Luke's Diner. A Year in the Life Nine years after the end of the original series, Netflix produced a Gilmore Girls revival miniseries. Rory is struggling in her journalism career and having a no-strings-attached, secret affair with Logan in London, while technically having a boyfriend named Paul that she often forgets about. While Logan is engaged to be married, the two of them cannot seem to stay apart. Lorelai and Luke live together but are still having communication problems. Richard has recently died of a heart attack, which causes tension between Lorelai and Emily, and they end up in joint therapy. Lorelai starts to question her life, so she travels to California with intentions to hike the Pacific Crest Trail, where she has an epiphany. She fixes the rift with Emily by recounting a happy story about Richard, and goes home to propose to Luke. Emily decides to sell the Gilmore mansion and move to Nantucket, where she starts working in a museum. After encouragement from Jess, Rory decides to write a book about her life called Gilmore Girls. After Luke and Lorelai marry, Rory informs Lorelai that she is pregnant. The miniseries aired on Up TV and The CW in November 2020, partly because the latter network needed additional programming to fill its schedule during the COVID-19 pandemic. Cast and characters Main Lauren Graham as Lorelai Gilmore: Independent, 32 year old single mom who runs a local inn with a deep love for pop culture and coffee. She gave birth to Rory when she was 16 years old. She and Sookie later buy and own the Dragonfly Inn. Alexis Bledel as Rory Gilmore: Precocious and academically driven only-daughter of Lorelai, almost 16 at the start of the show. Melissa McCarthy as Sookie St. James: Lorelai's chirpy best friend and chef/co-owner at the inn. Keiko Agena as Lane Kim: Rory's best friend who lives a secret life, defying her strict, religious mother by becoming a rocker. Yanic Truesdale as Michel Gerard: The grumpy French concierge at Lorelai and Sookie's inn. Scott Patterson as Luke Danes: Grouchy but kind-hearted diner owner; Lorelai's friend and eventual love interest. Kelly Bishop as Emily Gilmore: Matriarch of the Gilmore family, who lives as a high society housewife. She and Lorelai have a strained relationship. Edward Herrmann as Richard Gilmore: Intellectual patriarch of the Gilmore family, who works in insurance. He and Emily aid in Rory's school fees and college fees. Liza Weil as Paris Geller: Rory's feisty nemesis and eventual friend throughout high school and college. (main seasons 2–7; recurring season 1) Jared Padalecki as Dean Forester: Rory's season 1–3 boyfriend, who moved to Stars Hollow from Chicago. He later marries and divorces Lindsay after cheating on her with Rory. (main seasons 2–3; recurring seasons 1, 4–5) Milo Ventimiglia as Jess Mariano: Luke's troubled nephew who falls for Rory and becomes an intense but short-lived boyfriend. He moves away to live with his father at the end of season 3. (main seasons 2–3; recurring season 4; guest season 6) Sean Gunn as Kirk Gleason: Quirky resident of Stars Hollow who works numerous jobs around the town. He shows romantic interest in Lorelai but is rejected. He later dates a girl called Lulu - they are still dating in Gilmore Girls Year in the Life. (main seasons 3–7; recurring seasons 1–2) Chris Eigeman as Jason Stiles a boyfriend of Lorelai and short-lived business partner of Richard. (main season 4) Matt Czuchry as Logan Huntzberger: Rory's season 5–7 boyfriend, the heir of a New York Times-esque publishing family resembling that of the Ochs-Sulzberger family. (main seasons 6–7; recurring season 5) Recurring Liz Torres as Miss Patty, the friendly and kind-hearted town dance teacher and gossip Emily Kuroda as Mrs. Kim, Lane's strict Seventh-day Adventist mother who has a strained relationship with her daughter Sally Struthers as Babette Dell, Lorelai's eccentric but friendly neighbor and town gossip - she is close friends with Patty Jackson Douglas as Jackson Belleville, Sookie's husband and a local farmer He and Sookie share two children throughout the show Michael Winters as Taylor Doose, the uptight town Selectman who often irrates Luke with his requests and rules David Sutcliffe as Christopher Hayden, Rory's father and Lorelai's on-off love interest (seasons 1–3; 5–7) Shelly Cole as Madeline Lynn, Paris and Rory's high school friend (seasons 1–4) Teal Redmann as Louise Grant, Paris and Rory's high school friend (seasons 1–4) Scott Cohen as Max Medina, Lorelai's season one boyfriend and brief fiancé, and Rory's English teacher at Chilton (seasons 1–3) Chad Michael Murray as Tristin DuGray, a wealthy Chilton student who has a crush on Rory who is later transferred due to his bad behaviour (seasons 1–2) Dakin Matthews as Hanlin Charleston, Headmaster of Chilton and friend of Richard and Emily (seasons 1–4) Marion Ross as Lorelai "Trix" Gilmore, Richard's mean mother who takes pleasure in criticising Emily (seasons 1; 3–5) Lisa Ann Hadley as Rachel, Luke's photographer and traveler ex-girlfriend (season 1) Alex Borstein as Drella, the Independence Inn harpist (season 1), and "Miss Celine", Emily Gilmore's seamstress (season 5) Rose Abdoo as Gypsy, the town mechanic (seasons 2–7) Carole King as Sophie Bloom, owner of the Sophie's Music shop which Lane frequents often (seasons 2, 5–6) Biff Yeager as Tom, a Stars Hollow contractor (seasons 2–4; 6) Emily Bergl as Francie Jarvis, a student at Chilton (seasons 2–3) Todd Lowe as Zach Van Gerbig, Lane's bandmate and eventual husband and father to their twin sons (seasons 3–7) John Cabrera as Brian Fuller, Lane's bandmate (seasons 3–7) Tricia O'Kelley as Nicole Leahy, Luke's season 3–4 lawyer girlfriend and short-term wife (seasons 3–4) Arielle Kebbel as Lindsay Lister, Dean's girlfriend and wife - they divorce later on when he cheats on her with Rory (seasons 3–5) Adam Brody as Dave Rygalski, Lane's bandmate and season 3 boyfriend - they break up later on when Dave moves to college (season 3) (Dave was written out due to Brody's commitments to the O.C.) Sebastian Bach as Gil, Lane's older bandmate (seasons 4–7) Danny Strong as Doyle McMaster, Paris's boyfriend and one-time editor of the Yale Daily News (seasons 4–7) Kathleen Wilhoite as Liz Danes, Luke's flighty and irresponsible sister and Jess's mother (seasons 4–7) Michael DeLuise as TJ, Luke's dopey but kind-hearted brother-in-law (seasons 4–7) Wayne Wilcox as Marty, Rory's friend at Yale who has unrequited feelings for her (seasons 4–5; 7) Rini Bell as Lulu Kuschner, Kirk's girlfriend (seasons 4–7) Alan Loayza as Colin McCrae, Logan's wealthy friend (seasons 5–6) Tanc Sade as Finn, Logan's wealthy friend (seasons 5–6) Gregg Henry as Mitchum Huntzberger, Logan's father and a newspaper mogul (seasons 5–7) Vanessa Marano as of April Nardini, Luke's "long lost" pre-teen daughter whom he finds out about in season 6 (seasons 6–7) Sherilyn Fenn as Anna Nardini, April's mother and Luke's ex-girlfriend (seasons 6–7) Krysten Ritter as Lucy, Rory's friend (season 7) Michelle Ongkingco as Olivia Marquont, Rory's friend (season 7) Production Background Amy Sherman-Palladino, who came from a background of writing for half-hour sitcoms, had Gilmore Girls approved by The WB after several of her previous pitches were turned down. On a whim, she suggested a show about a mother and daughter but had put little thought into the idea. Having to create a pilot, she drew inspiration for the show's setting of "Stars Hollow, Connecticut", after making a trip to Washington Depot, Connecticut, where she stayed at the Mayflower Inn. She explained: "If I can make people feel this much of what I felt walking around this fairy town, I thought that would be wonderful ... At the time I was there, it was beautiful, it was magical, and it was a feeling of warmth and small-town camaraderie ... There was a longing for that in my own life, and I thought—that's something that I would really love to put out there." Stars Hollow was inspired by and is loosely based on the actual villages of Washington Depot, Connecticut; West Hartford, Connecticut, and the town of New Milford. Once the setting was established, Gilmore Girls developed as a mixture of sitcom and family drama. Sherman-Palladino's aim was to create "A family show that doesn't make parents want to stick something sharp in their eyes while they're watching it and doesn't talk down to kids." She wanted the family dynamic to be important because "It's a constant evolution ... You never run out of conflict." The show's pace, dialogue, and focus on class divisions was heavily inspired by the screwball comedies of the 1930s and Katharine Hepburn–Spencer Tracy films. Sherman-Palladino was also influenced by the "acerbic wit" of Dorothy Parker. The pilot episode of Gilmore Girls received financial support from the script development fund of the Family Friendly Programming Forum, which includes some of the nation's leading advertisers, making it one of the first networks shows to reach the air with such funding. The show was green-lit by The WB, and Sherman-Palladino proceeded to exercise control over all aspects of its production. Her husband Daniel Palladino was a consultant and occasional writer for the first season, then agreed to quit his producer position on Family Guy to commit to Gilmore Girls; he became an executive producer with the second season, and also played a major role. The show's third executive producer was Gavin Polone. Casting Alexis Bledel was cast in the key role of Rory despite having no previous acting experience. Sherman-Palladino was drawn to her shyness and innocence, which she said was essential for the character, and felt she photographed well. Lauren Graham was pursued by the casting directors from the start of the process, but she was committed to another show on NBC. A week before the shooting, they had still failed to cast Lorelai, so they asked Graham to audition anyway. Sherman-Palladino cast her that day, on the hope that Graham's other show (M.Y.O.B., which was burned off as a summer replacement series several months before the premiere of Gilmore Girls) would be canceled, which it soon was. She later explained how Graham met all the criteria she had been looking for: "Lorelai's a hard fucking part. You've got to be funny, you've got to talk really fucking fast, you've got to be able to act, you've got to be sexy, but not scary sexy. You've got to be strong, but not like 'I hate men. Graham and Bledel only met the night before they started filming the pilot. In casting the grandparents, Sherman-Palladino had veteran actor Edward Herrmann in mind for Richard and was delighted when he agreed. Kelly Bishop, a fellow New York stage actress, was cast straight after her audition; Sherman-Palladino recalled knowing immediately "and there's Emily". The role of the Stars Hollow diner owner was originally a woman, but the network reported that they needed more men and Scott Patterson was cast as Luke. It was advertised as a guest role, but Patterson said he treated the pilot as "a chemistry test" and he was promptly promoted to series regular. In the pilot, Sookie was played by Alex Borstein, but she could not be released from her Mad TV contract. She was therefore replaced by Melissa McCarthy, who re-filmed Sookie's scenes. The role of Dean also changed after the pilot, with the original actor replaced by a newcomer Jared Padalecki. The character Lane was based on Sherman-Palladino's friend and fellow producer Helen Pai; Japanese-American actress Keiko Agena was cast in the role when they could not find an appropriate Korean-American actress. Liza Weil auditioned to play Rory, and while she was considered wrong for the part Sherman-Palladino liked her so much that she wrote the role of Paris especially for her. Writing Headed by Amy Sherman-Palladino and Daniel Palladino from seasons 1 to 6, Gilmore Girls had a small writing staff that changed regularly throughout the series. The Palladinos wrote a high percentage of episodes and would review and rework the dialogue in episodes allocated to others. As such, the show is considered to have a distinctive "voice". Sherman-Palladino said "every draft either I write, or it passes through my hands ... so that there is a consistency of tone. It's very important that it feels like the same show every week because it is so verbal." The main job of the writers' room was to help develop storylines and create detailed episode outlines. Notable writers who worked on the show at some point include Jenji Kohan, Bill Prady, Jane Espenson, Rebecca Rand Kirshner, and Janet Leahy. As signaled by its tagline "Life's short. Talk fast", Gilmore Girls is known for its fast-paced dialogue and "witty repartee". Sherman-Palladino wanted a snappy delivery from the characters because she believes that "comedy dies slow", which required large volumes of dialogue to fill the hour-long time slot. Scripts averaged 80 pages per episode, compared to an "hour-long" average of 55–60 pages, with one page translating to 20–25 seconds of screen time. Scott Patterson later said that the pace of the dialogue led to both him and Lauren Graham quitting smoking—"She needed her wind, and I needed my wind." Much of the dialogue is peppered with references to film, television shows, music, literature, and celebrity culture. The range of references is broad, summarized by critic Ken Tucker as "some cross between Mystery Science Theater 3000 and Ulysses". Sherman-Palladino wanted the characters to speak this way as an indicator of their worldliness and intelligence, and to cater to a broad audience. At the start, she argued with the network about the frequently old-fashioned references; when she refused to remove a comment about Oscar Levant, she felt the executives adopted an attitude of "Let the crazy woman dig her own grave." The relative obscurity of some of the allusions resulted in explanatory "Gilmore-isms" booklets being included in the DVD sets of the first four seasons. In contrast to the rapid-fire dialogue, storylines on Gilmore Girls move slowly. Sherman-Palladino's motto was "make the small big, make the big small", which she learned from her days writing for Roseanne. She chose to be "very stingy with events", and the drama is low-key because "sometimes the average everyday things are more impactful". Key incidents often take place off-screen and are only revealed through character conversations, which journalist Constance Grady says is because "On Gilmore Girls, the explosion is never what matters: It's the fallout." The show similarly uses subtext rather than exposition, "where people will talk a great deal in order to obscure what they really mean to say". The writers did not like moments to be overly sentimental, preferring characters to show love through actions and behavior. Sherman-Palladino stated that the network did not interfere or request changes, though there is speculation that she delivered scripts at the last minute to avoid their input. Sherman-Palladino treated Lorelai as a reflection of herself. Her husband commented: "Amy writing for Lorelai Gilmore has always been really special. No surprise, they're kind of doppelgängers ... Amy and Lorelai are very, very similar. That character is a great cipher for a lot of what Amy is and has been, from the very beginning." Filming The pilot episode was shot in the Toronto suburb of Unionville. The rest of the series was filmed at the Warner Bros. lot in Burbank, California. Exterior scenes of Stars Hollow, along with those at Luke's Diner and Miss Patty's dance studio, were all filmed on the backlot — with dozens of background actors utilized to make it look like a functioning town. Production designers regularly had to decorate the town square with fake leaves or fake snow to make it look like a New England fall or winter. Interiors of Lorelai's house and inn, and all scenes at Yale and the Gilmore mansion, were filmed on a sound stage. Very occasionally, the show was filmed on location. The exterior shots of Rory's preparatory school, Chilton, were filmed at Greystone Mansion in Beverly Hills, California. Rory's visit to Harvard was filmed at UCLA, the first visit to Yale was filmed at Pomona College, and subsequent Yale shots were filmed at sound stages in Burbank, California, and USC. The shot of "Stars Hollow" seen in the first frame of the show's opening credits is actually a panoramic view of South Royalton, Vermont. Gilmore Girls relied on a master shot filming style, in which a scene is filmed to frame characters and their dialogue together within a long and uninterrupted single take; often illustrated through another method regularly employed on the show, the walk and talk. Sherman-Palladino explained "There's an energy and style to our show that's very simple, in my mind ... [it] almost needs to be shot like a play. That's how we get our pace, our energy, and our flow ... I don't think it could work any other way." It took eight working days to shoot an episode, and days were regularly 14–20 hours long. Lauren Graham said: "We filmed alongside The West Wing, and Aaron Sorkin shows are known for having the worst hours ever, they go on and on, but we were always there even after they had gone home, because you couldn't change a word of the script." The cast were required to be word-perfect in all the scenes, while also reciting large amounts of dialogue at speed. Matt Czuchry, who had a main role for the final three seasons, commented, "The pace of the dialogue was what made that show incredibly unique, and also incredibly difficult as an actor. To be able to maintain that speed, tone, and at the same time, try to make layered choices was a great experience to have early in my career. It really challenged me." The combination of the difficult dialogue and long takes meant each scene had to be shot many times; Graham said in 2015: "never before or since have I done as many takes of anything". Alexis Bledel recalled that one scene required 38 takes. Graham added, "That show — as fun and breezy and light as it is — is technically really challenging." Music Gilmore Girls non-diegetic score was composed by singer-songwriter Sam Phillips throughout its entire run. Sherman-Palladino, who served as the music supervisor of the series, was a big fan of the musician and secured her involvement. For the score's instrumental arrangement, Phillips primarily used her voice and an acoustic guitar, and on occasion included piano, violin, and drums. Many of the musical cues are accompanied by melodic "la-la"s and "ahh"s, which developed because Sherman-Palladino wanted the score to sound connected to the girls themselves, almost like "an extension of their thoughts ... if they had music going in their head during a certain emotional thing in their life." Sherman-Palladino felt that the score elevated the series "because it wasn't a wasted element in the show. Everything was trying to say a little something, add a little something to it." Several of Phillips' album tracks are also played in the show, and she made an appearance in the season six finale, performing part of "Taking Pictures". The theme song is a version of Carole King's 1971 song "Where You Lead". King made a new recording specially for Gilmore Girls: a duet with her daughter Louise Goffin. She was happy that it gave the song "a deeper meaning of love between a mother and her child". King appeared in several episodes as Sophie, the town music shop owner, and performed a brief portion of her song "I Feel the Earth Move" in the revival. Music also plays a large part in the show as a frequent topic of conversation between characters and in live performances within scenes and at the end of episodes. Musical acts who made appearances include The Bangles, Sonic Youth, Sparks, and The Shins (S04E17). Grant-Lee Phillips appears in at least one episode per season as the town's troubadour, singing his own songs and covers. In 2002, a soundtrack to Gilmore Girls was released by Rhino Records, entitled Our Little Corner of the World: Music from Gilmore Girls. The CD booklet features anecdotes from show producers Amy Sherman-Palladino and Daniel Palladino about the large part music has played in their lives. Developments Change of showrunner In 2006, the WB merged with UPN to form a new network, The CW. Gilmore Girls survived the merger, being selected as one of seven WB shows to be transferred for a new season, but it resulted in a significant change. In April that year, it was announced that Amy Sherman-Palladino and her husband Daniel could not come to an agreement with The CW and would be leaving the show when their contracts expired that summer. Journalist Michael Ausiello said of the decision: "The thought of Gilmore Girls heading into what is likely to be its final season (and its first on a brand-new network) without its mama or her right-hand man is unfathomable." Discussing the departure later, Sherman-Palladino reflected on the contract dispute in an interview with Vulture, saying: David S. Rosenthal, who worked on the show as a writer and producer for season 6, was selected by Sherman-Palladino to replace her as showrunner. Commenting on this change, an article in Wired says: "the Palladinos had written the majority of the episodes up to that point, and their distinctive rhythms and obsessions were what defined Gilmore Girls. What remains after their departure is something that seems like Gilmore Girls Adjacent more than anything." Cancellation There was speculation during the seventh season that it would be the show's final year, as Graham and Bledel's contracts were both coming to an end. As negotiations continued between the actresses and the network, Rosenthal planned a finale that "could serve as an ending or a beginning of a new chapter and a new season". Graham later said that by the end of the filming schedule "there was a 50/50 chance we'd be returning", and she requested that the finale provide "an opportunity to say goodbye" to the characters, in case of cancellation. Due to the uncertainty, the cast and crew did not have a final wrap party or an opportunity to say farewells. The CW initially considered bringing the show back for a shortened, 13-episode season but then decided against the idea. On May 3, 2007, shortly before the final episode aired, the network announced that the series would not be renewed. Graham explained that the possibility of returning fell through because "We were trying to find a way we [she and Bledel] could have a slightly easier schedule, and there was really no way to do that and still have it be Gilmore Girls." Revival Because the final season was not written by the series creator, and the new writers had not known that the finale was definitely the last episode, Lauren Graham noted that a lot of fans "were disappointed with how it [the series] ended". In 2009, Amy Sherman-Palladino expressed an interest in pursuing a Gilmore Girls film, to finish the series as she originally intended. Over the following years, fans and journalists continued to ask regularly if the show would return. Privately, Sherman-Palladino stayed in contact with Graham, Bledel, Patterson, and Bishop to discuss the possibility, but nothing came to fruition. In June 2015, for the 15th anniversary of the show, the cast and showrunners reunited for a special panel at the ATX Television Festival. When asked about a possible revival, Sherman-Palladino told the audience "I'm sorry, there's nothing in the works at the moment." The hype generated by the reunion, however, empowered Sherman-Palladino to pitch new episodes and encouraged Netflix to produce them. In October 2015 – eight years after the show had ended – TVLine reported that the streaming channel struck a deal with Warner Bros to revive the series in a limited run, consisting of four 90-minute episodes, written and directed by Amy and Daniel Palladino. The Palladinos explained that it felt like the right time creatively to continue the story, and that the freedom provided by Netflix made it possible. The revival miniseries, titled Gilmore Girls: A Year in the Life, was filmed from February to May 2016. Aside from Edward Herrmann, who died a year prior, every cast member who received a main credit on the show returned for at least a scene, while many supporting characters also made an appearance. The sets all had to be rebuilt from scratch, using nothing but photos and footage from the original series. The revival was released on Netflix on November 25, 2016, to positive reviews. There is speculation regarding a possible second revival, with Netflix reportedly keen. Broadcast history Gilmore Girls first season commenced on The WB in the Thursday 8pm/7pm Central time slot, as a lead-in for Charmed. Renewed for a second season, the show was relocated on Tuesdays 8pm/7pm, the time slot of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, which transferred to UPN, and served as a lead-in for Smallville, which became an instant hit and always beat Gilmore Girls in the ratings. During seasons 4 and 5, it led into One Tree Hill, which slowly became a hit. In season 6, it led into Supernatural, which became another hit for The WB and continued on until 2020. Both series were led by former Gilmore Girls actors, with One Tree Hill starring Chad Michael Murray, and Jared Padalecki as a co-star in Supernatural. First-season reruns aired on Monday nights from March 5 until April 9, 2001, during a mid-season hiatus of Roswell, to build audience awareness of the series. An additional run of the first season aired in 2002 on Sunday nights under the title Gilmore Girls Beginnings (which featured a modified opening sequence voiced with a monologue detailing the premise from Graham), and was one of two shows on The WB to have "Beginnings" in its title for reruns, along with 7th Heaven. Syndication In the US, the show began its syndicated release on ABC Family in 2004. The network continued to air the show daily under its new name Freeform until the fall of 2018, when those rights moved to Pop. In October 2015, Gilmore Girls began running on Up TV, which continues to air it to this day. Josef Adalian of Vulture commented on the rarity of Freeform and Up TV carrying a series of its type in syndication: "not that many non-procedural, hour-long shows from the early part of the century—particularly those from a small network such as WB—are still even airing regularly on one cable network, let alone two." Up TV showed Gilmore Girls 1,100 times in its first year; Freeform aired it 400 times in the same period. From 2009 to 2013, Gilmore Girls also aired in weekend timeslots on SOAPnet. The series began running on Logo TV in August 2020. Since 2016, UP TV has aired a weeklong marathon of all episodes of Gilmore Girls around the Thanksgiving holiday. As the network maintains a family-friendly focus and programming schedule, some minor dialogue edits are made in a number of episodes, mainly when "hell" and "damn" are said, though all episodes are carried. In the UK, the series premiered on Nickelodeon in 2003. Only the first three seasons were shown, with episodes edited for content, and some, like "The Big One", dropped entirely. The series was subsequently picked up by the Hallmark Channel, which gave UK premieres to seasons four and five. It was rerun in its entirety on E4 until January 2012. The show moved to 5Star, then in 2018 changed to daily screenings on the Paramount Network. In Ireland, the series aired its entire run on RTÉ One on Sundays, before moving to TG4. In Australia, from 16 March 2015, Gilmore Girls began airing again at weeknights on digital terrestrial network GEM and in 2022, reruns of Gilmore Girls repeats episodes airing from Saturday afternoons at 4:00 pm on the Nine Network and 9Now. Home media and online Warner Home Video released all seven seasons of Gilmore Girls on DVD, in regions 1, 2 and 4, mainly in full-screen 4:3 ratio due to Amy Sherman-Palladino's preference at the time of original release. The full series DVD boxset was released in 2007. Special features include deleted scenes, three behind-the-scenes featurettes, cast interviews, montages, and one episode commentary (for "You Jump, I Jump, Jack"). On October 1, 2014, all seven seasons of the series began streaming on Netflix's "Watch Instantly" service in the United States; all episodes, including the three seasons before The WB transitioned the series to 16:9 HD broadcast from season four on, are in that format. On July 1, 2016, Gilmore Girls became available on Netflix worldwide. All seasons of Gilmore Girls are also available for digital download on the iTunes Store, Amazon.com and other digital sales websites, with all digital sites offering all episodes in HD. Reception Critical response Upon debut, Gilmore Girls was lauded for the distinct, dialogue-infused style created by Amy Sherman-Palladino, the strength of the dynamic familial themes, and the performances of its cast, particularly leading star Lauren Graham. On Metacritic, the first season has an average rating of 81 out of 100 from 26 reviews, indicating "universal praise". In the San Francisco Chronicle, John Carman wrote "It's cross-generational, warm-the-cockles viewing, and it's a terrific show. Can this really be the WB, niche broadcaster to horny mall rats?" Caryn James of The New York Times called it a "witty, charming show" that "is redefining family in a realistic, entertaining way for today's audience, all the while avoiding the sappiness that makes sophisticated viewers run from anything labeled a 'family show. Ray Richmond of The Hollywood Reporter declared it "a genuine gem in the making, a family-friendly hour unburdened by trite cliche or precocious pablum," while Jonathan Storm of The Philadelphia Inquirer dubbed it "a touching, funny, lively show that really does appeal to all ages". David Zurawik of The Baltimore Sun called Gilmore Girls "One of the most pleasant surprises of the new season". For the second-season premiere, Hal Boedeker of the Orlando Sentinel praised the show as "one of television's great, unsung pleasures", and said "Series creator Amy Sherman-Palladino writes clever dialogue and ingratiating comedy, but she also knows how to do bittersweet drama." Emily Yahr of The Washington Post retrospectively called the second installment "Pretty much a perfect season of television". Viewers were concerned that the show would suffer when Rory left for college after season 3, and Yahr commented that the show was not "the same" from this point but gave seasons four and five a positive 7/10. The last two seasons were less positively received. Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune described the sixth season as "uneven at best", explaining, "the protracted fight between Lorelai and Rory Gilmore left the writers scrambling to cram the show with filler plots that stretched many fans' patience to the limit." The introduction of Luke's daughter has been described as "pretty much the most hated plot device in Gilmore Girls history". Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly rated the seventh season "C", describing it as "a death-blow season [which] was more accurately Gilmore Ghosts, as the exhausted actors bumped into the furniture searching for their departed souls and smart punchlines". But he concluded that before this came "six seasons of magnificent mixed emotions" among a "perfect television idyll". Giving the show an overall rating of "A−", he added, "industry ignorance of the writing and of Graham's performance in particular will remain an eternal scandal". Gilmore Girls was listed as one of Time magazine's "All-Time 100 TV Shows". and was ranked the 87th greatest American television series in TV (The Book), authored by critics Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz in 2016. Entertainment Weekly placed Gilmore Girls 32nd on its "New TV Classics" list, and included the show on its end-of-the-2000s "best-of" list, and The A.V. Club named "They Shoot Gilmores, Don't They?" as one of the best TV episodes of the decade. Alan Sepinwall included the show in his "Best of the 00s in Comedies" list, saying: "Gilmore offered up an unconventional but enormously appealing family ... As the quippy, pop culture-quoting younger Gilmores were forced to reconnect with their repressed elders, creator Amy Sherman-Palladino got plenty of laughs and tears out of the generational divide, and out of showing the family Lorelai created for herself and her daughter in the idealized, Norman Rockwell-esque town of Stars Hollow. At its best, Gilmore Girls was pure, concentrated happiness." In 2016, Amy Plitt of Rolling Stone reflected on the enduring appeal of Gilmore Girls, and noted that it stood out from other family shows like 7th Heaven, The OC and Everwood by being "far richer, deeper ... The characters were funny and relatable, the banter was zinger-heavy, the familial drama was poignant and the romantic chemistry ... was off the charts." Television ratings Viewer ratings for Gilmore Girls were not relatively large, but the numbers were a success for the smaller WB network and it became one of their flagship series. For its first season the show aired in the tough Thursday 8pm/7pm Central time slot dominated by Friends on NBC and Survivor on CBS. Critical acclaim encouraged the network to move it to Tuesday evenings, as part of a push to promote the series and due to the move of Tuesday stalwart Buffy the Vampire Slayer to UPN in the same timeslot. During season 2, ratings for Gilmore Girls surpassed Buffy and it became The WB's third-highest-rated show, with viewer numbers that grew by double digits in all major demographics. For seasons 4–7, Gilmore Girls was up against the US's top-rated show American Idol, which led to a drop in viewers, but with Season 5 it became The WB's second-most-watched prime time show. The series was often in the top 3 most-viewed shows in its timeslot for women under 35. In its 2016 syndicated release, Gilmore Girls averaged 100,000–120,000 viewers per episode, for an annual viewership of 11 million on each of its networks. The same year, the chief content officer for Netflix, Ted Sarandos, cited Gilmore Girls as one of the streaming channel's most watched shows worldwide. Awards and nominations Gilmore Girls earned several accolades, but did not receive much attention from the major awarding bodies. Its only Emmy nomination was for Outstanding Makeup for a Series, for the episode "The Festival of Living Art", which it won in 2004. Michael Ausiello has attributed this to "a notorious bias against the WB". Recognition did come from the American Film Institute, who named Gilmore Girls one of the ten best shows of 2002, and the Television Critics Association (TCA) who named it Outstanding New Program of the Year in 2001. The TCA Awards also nominated the show for Outstanding Drama in 2001 and 2002, and Outstanding Comedy in 2005. The Satellite Awards nominated it for Best Series – Musical or Comedy in 2002 and 2004, while it was nominated for Favorite Television Drama at the People's Choice Awards 2005. The show was honored by the Viewers for Quality Television with a "seal of quality" in 2000. The series also achieved considerable attention from the Teen Choice Awards, where it received multiple nominations and wins including the award for Choice Comedy Series in 2005. Lauren Graham was nominated for one Golden Globe Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards for her work on the first and second seasons, and received five successive nominations at the Satellite Awards. The TCAs nominated her for Individual Achievement in Drama in 2002, then for Comedy in 2006. She also received a Family Television Award, and she won the Teen Choice Award for Parental Unit three times. Alexis Bledel won a Young Artist Award, two Teen Choice Awards, and a Family Television Award. She was also nominated by the Satellite Awards in 2002, as was Kelly Bishop for her supporting performance in 2002 and 2004. Fandom and cultural impact Gilmore Girls is considered a cult classic, with an "avid following". During the run of the show this was mostly a small but dedicated group, predominantly of females, but its audience has grown steadily since it came off the air. The series experienced a resurgence when it became available on Netflix in October 2014, introducing it to a new generation of viewers. When the revival was announced in 2015, star Lauren Graham credited it to the campaigning and persistence of the fans. At this point, according to The Washington Post, the show became "a quirky pop culture obsession". The enduring popularity of Gilmore Girls is considered to come from its comforting quality and cross-generational appeal. It is particularly known as a show that mothers and daughters watch together. The Gilmore Girls Fan Fest has become an annual event since its inauguration in 2016. The unofficial festival takes place in Connecticut over an October weekend, and includes panels with cast and crew, themed activities, and screenings. For the 16th anniversary of the show, 200 coffee houses around the US and Canada were transformed into "Luke's Diners". For two weeks in winter 2018–19, Warner Bros. added a special feature to their studio tour that recreated the Stars Hollow set and displayed props and costumes from the series. The show has an active fandom, posting in internet forums and creating work such as fan fiction. Special Gilmore Girls trivia nights have been held at venues in multiple different cities. The Irish Independent has commented that "Even though it preceded social media, Gilmore Girls has been internet gold for the past few years. Thanks to its snappy one-liners, it's spawned thousands of memes that have introduced the BuzzFeed generation to its coffee-swilling, cheeseburger-loving, critically-thinking characters." The show has been parodied on Mad TV and Family Guy, and featured in an episode of Six Feet Under. A cocktail bar in Brooklyn devised a menu inspired by the show. Warner Bros. has produced a range of Gilmore Girls merchandise, including T-shirts, mugs, and dolls. Three collections of academic essays that analyze the show have been published: Gilmore Girls and the Politics of Identity (2008); Screwball Television: Critical Perspectives on Gilmore Girls (2010); and Gilmore Girls: A Cultural History (2019). In 2002, four young adult novels were published that adapted scripts from the first and second seasons into novel form, told from Rory's first-person point of view. There have also been several unofficial, fan-based guides to the series, including Coffee At Luke's: An Unauthorized Gilmore Girls Gab Fest (2007), The Gilmore Girls Companion (2010), You've Been Gilmored!: The Unofficial Encyclopedia and Complete Guide to Gilmore Girls (2020), and But I'm a Gilmore!: Stories and Experiences of Honorary Gilmore Girls: Cast, Crew, and Fans The program is also the source of a book club, in which followers aim to read all 339 books referenced on the show, and the inspiration for a cookbook called Eat Like a Gilmore. Gilmore Girls is the basis for the successful podcast Gilmore Guys (2014–2017), which was named by Time as one of the 50 best podcasts of 2017 – the only television-based inclusion. It follows the hosts, Kevin T. Porter and Demi Adejuyigbe, as they watch every episode of the series. Sadaf Ahsan of the National Post commented that it "helped reignite – and, for some, initiate – fan fervour" towards Gilmore Girls. Notes References External links 2000 American television series debuts 2007 American television series endings 2000s American college television series 2000s American comedy-drama television series 2000s American high school television series 2000s American teen drama television series American television series revived after cancellation English-language television shows Mass media portrayals of the upper class Teenage pregnancy in television Television series about families Television series about single parent families Television series about teenagers Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios Television series created by Amy Sherman-Palladino Television shows featuring audio description Television shows set in Connecticut The CW original programming The WB original programming
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roswell%20incident
Roswell incident
The "Roswell incident", or simply "Roswell", was the July 1947 recovery of metallic and rubber debris from a crashed military balloon by Roswell Army Air Field personnel, who issued a press release announcing possession of a "flying disc". Decades later, conspiracy theories claimed that debris from an alien spaceship had been covered up by the government. In response, in 1994 the United States Air Force published a report concluding the crashed object was a top secret nuclear test surveillance balloon from Project Mogul. The Roswell incident took place during the flying disc craze of 1947, sparked by widespread media coverage of pilot Kenneth Arnold's alleged sighting. Amid hundreds of reports nationwide, on July 8, 1947, Roswell Army Air Field's press release was broadcast via wire transmission. The Army quickly retracted the release, falsely stating the crashed object was merely a conventional weather balloon. The incident was forgotten until 1978, when retired lieutenant colonel Jesse Marcel was interviewed by ufologist Stanton Friedman. In that interview, Marcel revealed the "weather balloon" had been a cover story to divert public attention. Based on this, Marcel speculated that the debris might have been extraterrestrial in origin. Jesse Marcel's interview led to complex conspiracy theories about alien spacecraft recovery and military cover-ups by ufologists. In 1979, over three decades after Roswell, conspiracy theorists began to claim that extraterrestrial occupants had been recovered by the military at Roswell. In response to claims of alien occupants, a second USAF report in 1997 reviewed testimonies about aliens and found them to be baseless, made up, or inspired by parachute dummies. Conspiracy theories about the event persist despite explanations linking the incident to Project Mogul, a military balloon or having been described as "the world's most famous, most exhaustively investigated, and most thoroughly debunked UFO claim". Its myth has become a cultural phenomenon and the Roswell incident continues to be of interest in popular media. Portrayals of the incident are a prominent and enduring trope in popular culture and mass media commonly associated with "grey aliens" and "flying saucers". The city of Roswell, New Mexico has embraced this cultural iconography; featuring a little green man on its seal and hosting numerous ufology attractions and events. Events of 1947 Project Mogul The initial events occurred at the beginning of the Atomic Age during what historian Kathryn S. Olmsted describes as "the first summer of the Cold War". By 1947, the United States's top-secret Project Mogul had launched thousands of balloons carrying devices to listen for Soviet atomic tests. On June 4, 1947, researchers launched a long train of these balloons, designated Flight 4, from Alamogordo Army Air Field. They tracked Flight 4 flying northeast toward Corona and lost contact within of Mac Brazel's ranch. 'Flying disc' craze In June 1947, media nationwide reported civilian pilot Kenneth Arnold's account of objects flying at "incredible speed". Arnold's description of what would become known as flying saucers incited a wave of over 800 sightings. Many of these accounts echoed Arnold's description with speed beyond known planes and elements from aircraft like glass domes, cockpits, fins, legs, jet pipes, vapor trails, and even propellers. On July 4, 1947, United Airlines Flight 105 reported seeing multiple 'flying discs'. During that summer, Americans associated saucers with secret military projects, hoaxes, or natural phenomena. They had not yet become synonymous with the idea of extraterrestrial visitation. Debris recovered When W.W. "Mac" Brazel discovered debris scattered across several acres of his ranch in mid-June, he did not view the tinfoil, rubber, tape, and thin wooden beams as unusual. Brazel gathered it and pushed it under some brush to dispose of it. The ranch had no phone or radio, leaving Brazel unaware of the ongoing flying saucer craze. On a Saturday evening, July 5, he drove into Corona, New Mexico, where patrons at a local bar informed him of the flying disc stories. Later, Brazel transported some of the silvery debris to the sheriff's office in Roswell. Sheriff George Wilcox called Roswell Army Air Field (RAAF), who assigned the matter to Major Jesse Marcel and Captain Sheridan Cavitt. Brazel took Marcel and Cavitt to the debris site to gather more of the material. On Tuesday morning, July 8, Marcel took the debris to the 509th Commander, Colonel William Blanchard. Blanchard reported the finding to General Roger Ramey at Fort Worth Army Air Field (FWAAF), which resulted in orders to fly the material out to FWAAF that evening. By the end of the day, RAAF public information officer Walter Haut issued a press release stating that the military had recovered a "flying disc" near Roswell. Robert Porter, an RAAF flight engineer, was part of the crew who loaded what he was "told was a flying saucer" onto the flight bound for Fort Worth. He described the material - packaged in wrapping paper when he received it - as lightweight and not too large to fit inside the trunk of a car. After station director George Walsh broke the news over Roswell radio station KSWS and relayed it to the Associated Press, his phone lines were overwhelmed. He later recalled, "All afternoon, I tried to call Sheriff Wilcox for more information, but could never get through to him [...] Media people called me from all over the world." When interviewed decades later, Lydia Sleppy, a teletype operator at the KOAT station in Albuquerque, New Mexico, claimed that she was typing a story about the wreckage as dictated by reporter Johnny McBoyle until interrupted by an incoming message ordering her to end communications. 'Flying disc' debunked Media interest in the case dissipated soon after the July 8 press conference where General Ramey, his chief of staff Colonel Thomas Dubose, and weather officer Irving Newton identified material as pieces of a weather balloon. Irving explained to reporters that similar radar targets were used at about 80 weather stations. According to Irving, balloons would be attached to a star-shaped reflective target. After launch, the balloon would expand with increasing altitude before bursting around 60,000 feet. On July 9, 1947, the US Army identified the debris as an ordinary weather balloon. As described in the July 9, 1947, edition of the Roswell Daily Record: The balloon which held it up, if that was how it worked, must have been 12 feet [3.5 m] long, [Brazel] felt, measuring the distance by the size of the room in which he sat. The rubber was smoky gray in color and scattered over an area about 200 yards [180 m] in diameter. When the debris was gathered up, the tinfoil, paper, tape, and sticks made a bundle about three feet [1 m] long and 7 or 8 inches [18 or 20 cm] thick, while the rubber made a bundle about 18 or 20 inches [45 or 50 cm] long and about 8 inches [20 cm] thick. In all, he estimated, the entire lot would have weighed maybe five pounds [2 kg]. There was no sign of any metal in the area which might have been used for an engine, and no sign of any propellers of any kind, although at least one paper fin had been glued onto some of the tinfoil. There were no words to be found anywhere on the instrument, although there were letters on some of the parts. Considerable Scotch tape and some tape with flowers printed upon it had been used in the construction. No strings or wires were to be found but there were some eyelets in the paper to indicate that some sort of attachment may have been used. The handful of news stories that followed the official explanation, offered mundane and prosaic accounts of the crash. Brazel told the Roswell Daily Record that the debris consisted of a "large area of bright wreckage made up of rubber strips, tinfoil, a rather tough paper and sticks." He paid little attention to it but returned later with his wife and daughter to gather up some of the debris. When interviewed, Marcel described the wreckage as "parts of the weather device" and "patches of tinfoil and rubber." While not an outright fabrication, the 1947 official account omitted any connection to Cold War military programs. Major Wilbur D. Pritchard, then-stationed at Alamogordo Army Air Field, would later describe the weather balloon story as "an attempt to deflect attention from the top secret Mogul project." Roswell forgotten (1947–1978) The Roswell incident, first brought to public attention in July 1947, remained relatively obscure for three decades until the emergence of UFO conspiracy theories rekindled interest in subsequent years. These theories were fueled by hoaxes, legends, and stories of crashed spaceships and alien bodies in New Mexico. Folklore scholars have traced the development of the Roswell narrative throughout its history. According to their research, the genesis can be traced back to the waning days of World War II (1944-45), a time when Japan unleashed thousands of Fu-Go balloon bombs, designed to inflict damage and instill fear in the United States. Crashed disc hoaxes (1947–1950) Twin Falls crashed disc hoax (1947) Days after Roswell, on July 11, the press reported the recovery of a disc from the yard of a home in Twin Falls, Idaho. On July 12, it was reported nationally that the Twin Falls disc was a hoax. Press reported that four teenagers had confessed to creating the disc. Photos of the object were then publicly released. The object was described as containing radio tubes, electric coils, and wires underneath a plexiglass dome. The Twin Falls hoax, with its nationally published image showing a bemused army officer holding a disc-like object of mundane construction, has been called the "coup de grâce of press coverage" on the 1947 flying disc craze. In the days following the story, flying disc "press accounts rapidly fell off". Weeks later, on July 28, flying disc news briefly resumed when two army officers died in a plane crash after investigating a hoaxed report of recovered disc debris at Maury Island, Washington. Aztec crashed saucer hoax (1949) In 1949, con-artists tricked journalist Frank Scully and the magazine Variety into publishing the story of a crashed saucer with dead alien bodies near Aztec, New Mexico. The story told of humanoid bodies about three feet tall, metal that was much stronger than those found on Earth, and alien writing found in the wreckagethese elements would later reappear in some versions of the Roswell myth. After the Scully debacle, tales of crashed saucers faded from UFO circles for decades. Aztec tale revived (1966–1977) In the 1960s and 1970s, amid increasing societal distrust of government, the UFO community revisited earlier claims of a UFO conspiracy. In 1966, UFO conspiracy book Incident at Exeter featured a one-sentence mention of a crashed saucer tale about alien bodies in an Air Force morgue at Wright-Patterson Field. The passage served as the inspiration for the 1968 science-fiction novel The Fortec Conspiracy about a UFO cover up by the Air Force's Foreign Technology Division, the unit charged with studying and reverse-engineering other nations' technical advancements. "Hangar 18" and Robert Spencer Carr (1974) On October 11, 1974, science-fiction author turned UFO conspiracy theorist Robert Spencer Carr was being interviewed by radio station WKRC in Cincinnati when he, on air, publicly claimed that alien bodies were being kept at "Hangar 18" at Wright-Patterson. The claim garnered substantial press attention, and led to official denials. The Air Force explained that there is no "Hangar 18" at the base and noted Carr's claims bore a close similarity to the 1966 science-fiction novel The Fortec Conspiracy. During the interview, Carr also relayed a tale of Senator Barry Goldwater requesting and being denied access to a restricted area. Reached for comment, Goldwater admitted to having requested a tour and been denied, but Goldwater said he'd never heard any rumors of alien bodies. By September 1979, Carr's claims included a surgical nurse who witnessed an alien's autopsy. In November 1979, local papers reported that Roswell was being location-scouted for an upcoming film titled Hangar 18. That film, which dramatized Carr's claims, was released in 1980. Decades later, Carr's son recalled that his father had been a habitual liar who often "mortified my mother and me by spinning preposterous stories in front of strangers... [tales of] befriending a giant alligator in the Florida swamps, and sharing complex philosophical ideas with porpoises in the Gulf of Mexico. It wasn't the tall tales themselves that hurt so much but his ferocious insistence that they were true.... They were dead serious, and you had by God better pretend you believed them or face wrath or rejection." Claims that alien bodies were being hidden by the military were also popularized by longtime UFO researcher Leonard H. Stringfield. Stringfield claimed analysis of bodies and UFO crash debris was being conducted at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, however no connection to Roswell was specified. In July 1978, Stringfield spoke about alleged crash retrievals at the international MUFON symposium held in Dayton, Ohio.Also in attendance were Donald Keyhoe, J. Allen Hynek, and Ted Bloecher Stringfield wrote a seven part series of his 'research' titled Status Report I-VI as a follow-up to this talk. Renewed interest in Roswell (1978) The Roswell incident was largely forgotten until February 1978, when ufologist Stanton Friedman visited a Baton Rouge, Louisiana television station to promote an upcoming lecture at Louisiana State University. While there, a director gave Friedman the name of a local "ham radio buddy" who claimed to have handled exotic debris. Jesse Marcel, the army officer who had accompanied the Roswell debris from the ranch to the Fort Worth press conference, was interviewed by Friedman. Marcel reported that the Roswell "weather balloon" was a cover story. In that interview, and others like it, Marcel said he now believed the Roswell debris was extraterrestrial. On December 19, 1979, Marcel was interviewed by Bob Pratt of the National Enquirer, and on February 26, 1980, the tabloid brought large-scale attention to the Marcel story. On September 20, 1980, the TV series In Search of... aired an interview where Marcel described his participation in the 1947 press conference: In 1980, the book Roswell Incident (1980) popularized Marcel's tale, adding a story of alien bodies on the Plains of San Agustin. In all his statements, Marcel consistently denied the presence of bodies. Marcel's son Jesse A. Marcel Jr. M.D. spent 35 years stating that in 1947, when he was 10 years old, his father had shown him alien debris recovered from the Roswell crash site, including, "a small beam with purple-hued hieroglyphics on it". Roswell in UFO conspiracy theories (1978–present) In 1981, tabloid The Globe told stories of bodies being brought to Roswell. In 1989, in response to an Unsolved Mysteries episode discussing the story of Roswell bodies, mortician Glenn Dennis recounted a tale of a nurse who had assisted in an alien autopsy. Between 1978 and the early 1990s, UFO researchers such as Stanton T. Friedman, William Moore, Karl T. Pflock, and the team of Kevin D. Randle and Donald R. Schmitt interviewed several dozen people who claimed to have had a connection with the events at Roswell in 1947. In 1991, retired Brigadier General Thomas DuBose corroborated Marcel's claims that the weather balloon was cover story, while both men consistently denied the existence of bodies. In 1994 and 1997, the US Air Force Roswell Reports identified the material as part of a top secret atomic surveillance balloon from Project Mogul launched on June 4 which had last been tracked near Corona. The Roswell Incident (1980) by Berlitz and Moore In October 1980, Marcel's story was featured in the book The Roswell Incident by Charles Berlitz and William Moore. The authors had previously written popular books on fringe topics such as the Philadelphia Experiment and the Bermuda Triangle. The book argues that an extraterrestrial craft was flying over the New Mexico desert to observe nuclear weapons activity when a lightning strike killed the alien crew and, that after discovering the crash, the US government engaged in a cover-up. The Roswell Incident featured accounts of debris described by Marcel as "nothing made on this earth." Additional accounts by Bill Brazel, son of rancher Mac Brazel, neighbor Floyd Proctor and Walt Whitman Jr., son of newsman W. E. Whitman who had interviewed Mac Brazel, suggested the material Marcel recovered had super-strength not associated with a weather balloon. Anthropologist Charles Zeigler described the 1980 book as "version 1" of the Roswell myth. Berlitz and Moore's narrative was dominant until the late 1980s when other authors, attracted by the commercial potential of writing about Roswell, started producing rival accounts. The book introduced the contention that debris which was recovered by Marcel at the Foster ranch, visible in photographs showing Marcel posing with the debris, was substituted for debris from a weather device as part of a cover-up. The book also claimed that the debris recovered from the ranch was not permitted a close inspection by the press. The efforts by the military were described as being intended to discredit and "counteract the growing hysteria towards flying saucers". The authors claimed to have interviewed over 90 witnesses, though the testimony of only 25 appears in the book. Only seven of these people claimed to have seen the debris. Of these, five claimed to have handled it. Two accounts of witness intimidation were included in the book, including the incarceration of Mac Brazel. This version of the myth began the elevation of Marcel's narrative above that of Cavitt, who gathered material from the site alongside Brazel and Marcel. Cavitt's mundane description of the debris contradicted Marcel and was likely omitted as not supporting UFO-community beliefs. Later authors would selectively quote Cavitt's assertion that the debris was not a German rocket or Japanese balloon bomb. Independent researchers would find patterns of embellishment in Jesse Marcel's accounts, including provably false statements about his military career and educational background. First claim of alien bodies (1980) The Roswell Incident (1980) was the first book to introduce the controversial second-hand stories of civil engineer Grady "Barney" Barnett and a group of archaeology students from an unidentified university encountering wreckage and "alien bodies" while on the Plains of San Agustin before being escorted away by the Army. The second-hand Barnett stories, set 150 miles to the west of Corona, were described by ufologists as the "one aspect of the account that seemed to conflict with the basic story about the retrieval of highly unusual debris from a sheep ranch outside Corona, New Mexico, in July 1947". Many alleged first-hand accounts of the Roswell incident actually contain information from the Aztec, New Mexico, UFO incident, a hoaxed flying saucer crash which gained national notoriety after being promoted by journalist Frank Scully in his articles and a 1950 book Behind the Flying Saucers. Majestic Twelve hoax (1987) On May 29, 1987, a team consisting of Friedman, Moore, and television producer Jaime Shandera released the "Majestic Twelve documents". On December 11, 1984, Shandera had received the documents in the mail from an unknown source. The MJ-12 documents purported to be a 1952 briefing prepared for President Eisenhower. They have been called "version 2" of the Roswell story. In this variant, the bodies are ejected from the craft shortly before it exploded over the ranch. The propulsion unit is destroyed and the government concludes the ship was a "short range reconnaissance craft". The following week, the bodies are recovered some miles away, decomposing from exposure and predators. On July 1, 1989, Bill Moore gave a speech at the MUFON annual symposium where he acknowledged spreading "disinformation", claiming he did so on behalf of the Air Force Office of Special Investigations. By 1991, the documents were exposed as forgeries, with a signature and stray marks copied from a different letter. Mortician's tale of a Roswell alien autopsy (1989) On August 5, 1989, Stanton Friedman interviewed former mortician Glenn Dennis. Dennis claimed to have received "four or five calls" from the Air Base with questions about body preservation and inquiries about small or hermetically sealed caskets; he further claimed that a local nurse told him she had witnessed an "alien autopsy". Glenn Dennis has been called the "star witness" of the Roswell incident. On September 20, 1989, an episode of Unsolved Mysteries had included second-hand stories of "Barney" Barnett seeing alien bodies captured by the Army and pilot "Pappy" Henderson transporting bodies from Roswell to Texas. The episode was watched by 28 million people. Mortician Glenn Dennis called the show's hotline claiming to have knowledge of the events. In September 1991, Dennis co-founded a UFO museum in Roswell along with former RAAF public affairs officer Walter Haut and Max Littell, a real estate salesman. Dennis appeared in multiple books and documentaries repeating his story. In 1994, Dennis's tale was dramatized in the made-for-TV movie Roswell and by the television show Unsolved Mysteries. Pflock observed that Dennis's story "sounds like a B-grade thriller conceived by Oliver Stone." Scientific skeptic author Brian Dunning said that Dennis cannot be regarded as a reliable witness, considering that he had seemingly waited over 40 years before he started recounting a series of unconnected events. Such events, Dunnings argues, were then arbitrarily joined to form what has become the most popular narrative of the alleged alien crash. Prominent UFO researchers, including Pflock and Kevin Randle, have become convinced that no bodies were recovered from the Roswell crash. Competing accounts and schism The early 1990s saw a proliferation of competing accounts. UFO Crash at Roswell (1991) by Randle and Schmitt In 1991, Kevin Randle and Donald Schmitt published UFO Crash at Roswell, which has been called "version 3" of the Roswell story. They added testimony from 100 new witnesses, including those who reported an elaborate military cordon and debris recovery operation at the Foster ranch. The book included the new claims of a "gouge ... that extended four or five hundred feet [120 or 150 m]" at the ranch. Randle and Schmitt reported Gen. Arthur Exon had been directly aware of debris and bodies, but Exon disputed his depiction, saying his comments had been based exclusively on second-hand rumors. The 1991 book sold 160,000 copies and served as the basis for the 1994 television film Roswell. Also in 1991, retired USAF Brigadier General Thomas DuBose, who had posed with debris for press photographs in 1947, publicly acknowledged the weather balloon cover story, corroborating Marcel's previous admissions. The Barnett "alien body" accounts were mentioned in the 1991 book, though the dates and locations were changed from the accounts found in 1980's The Roswell Incident. In this new account, Brazel was described as leading the Army to a second crash site on the ranch, at which point the Army personnel were supposedly "horrified to find civilians [including Barnett] there already." Mortician Glenn Dennis's claims of an alien autopsy was detailed in the book. Though hundreds of people were interviewed by various researchers, only a few of these people claimed to have seen debris or aliens. Most witnesses were just repeating the claims of others. Pflock notes that of these 300-plus individuals reportedly interviewed for UFO Crash at Roswell (1991), only 41 can be "considered genuine first- or second-hand witnesses" and only 23 can be "reasonably thought to have seen physical evidence, debris". Of these, only seven have asserted anything suggestive of otherworldly origins for the debris. Crash at Corona (1992) by Friedman and Berliner In 1992, Stanton Friedman released Crash at Corona, co-authored with Don Berliner. The book, later termed "version 4" of the Roswell story, introduced new "witnesses" and added to the narrative by doubling the number of flying saucers to two, and the number of aliens to eight – two of which were said to have survived and been taken into custody by the government. The Truth about the UFO Crash at Roswell (1994) In 1994, Randle and Schmitt authored another book, The Truth about the UFO Crash at Roswell which included a claim that alien bodies were taken by cargo plane to be viewed by Dwight D. Eisenhower. Zeigler refers to the 1994 book as 'version 5' of the Roswell story. The existence of so many differing accounts led to a schism among ufologists about the events at Roswell. The Center for UFO Studies (CUFOS) and the Mutual UFO Network (MUFON), two leading UFO societies, disagreed in their views of the various scenarios presented by Randle–Schmitt and Friedman–Berliner; several conferences were held to try to resolve the differences. One issue under discussion was where Barnett was when he saw the alien craft he was said to have encountered. A 1992 UFO conference attempted to achieve a consensus among the various scenarios portrayed in Crash at Corona and UFO Crash at Roswell; however, the publication of The Truth About the UFO Crash at Roswell "resolved" the Barnett problem by simply ignoring Barnett and citing a new location for the alien craft recovery, including a new group of archaeologists not connected to the ones the Barnett story cited. Air Force response (1994–1997) and aftermath After an October 1993 inquiry from US congressman from New Mexico Steven Schiff, the General Accounting Office launched an inquiry and directed the Office of the United States Secretary of the Air Force to conduct an internal investigation. The result was summarized in two reports. The first, released in 1994, concluded that the material recovered in 1947 was likely debris from Project Mogul, a military surveillance program employing high-altitude balloons (a classified portion of an unclassified New York University project by atmospheric researchers). The Air Force reports were dismissed by UFO proponents as being either disinformation or simply implausible, though skeptical researchers such as Philip J. Klass and Robert Todd, who had been expressing doubts regarding accounts of aliens for several years, used the reports as the basis for skeptical responses to claims by UFO proponents. After the release of the Air Force reports, several books, such as Kal Korff's The Roswell UFO Crash: What They Don't Want You To Know (1997), built on the evidence presented in the reports to conclude "no credible evidence from any witness has turned out to present a compelling case that the object was extraterrestrial in origin." Alien autopsy film hoax (1995) In 1995, film footage purporting to show an alien autopsy and claimed to have been taken by a US military official shortly after the Roswell incident was released by Ray Santilli, a London-based video entrepreneur. The footage caused an international sensation when it aired on television networks around the world. Fox television broadcast the footage, hosted by Jonathan Frakes, in the United States on August 28, 1995, under the title Alien Autopsy: Fact or Fiction. Fox re-broadcast the program twice, each time to higher ratings, with the November 1995 broadcast winning its time slot again with 11.7 million viewers and a 14% share. At same day, the footage was broadcast on UK's Channel 4. The program was also repackaged for the home video market. The program was an overnight sensation, with Time magazine declaring that the film had sparked a debate "with an intensity not lavished on any home movie since the Zapruder film". The program was quickly debunked, with multiple participants complaining that misleading editing had removed their opinions that the footage was hoax. That year, hit TV show The X-Files featured alien autopsy footage that the skeptical Agent Scully decries as "even hokier than the one they aired on the Fox network". The following year, the film was satirized by the X-Files episode Jose Chung's From Outer Space. In 1998, Fox aired a new special, The World's Greatest Hoaxes and Secrets Revealed!, which debunked the 1995 Alien Autopsy footage. Santilli admitted in 2006 that the film was a fake, though he continued to claim it was inspired by genuine footage now lost. A fictionalized version of the creation of the footage and its release was retold in the comedy film Alien Autopsy (2006). The Day After Roswell (1997) In his 1997 autobiography, former Lt. Col. Philip J. Corso wrote that M. Sgt. Bill Brown showed him a purportedly-nonhuman body. Corso wrote that it was being transported through Fort Riley (Kansas) in 1947 suspended in liquid inside a glass coffin within a wooden crate. According to Corso, he found paperwork tucked down in the crates identifying their contents as corpses from "a craft that had crash-landed in Roswell, New Mexico, earlier that week", and a shipping manifest that listed Wright Field and Walter Reed Army Hospital. Corso further claimed that years later, he helped oversee a project to reverse engineer recovered crash debris. Philip Klass analyzed his claims line by line and exposed many inconsistencies and factual errors. Corso's story was noted for its similarities to the film "Terminator 2: Judgment Day" which had been released six years prior. In both that film and Corso's narrative, civilians secretly attempt to reverse-engineer extraordinary technology of unknown origin. Body Snatchers in the Desert (2005) In 2005, Nicholas Redfern authored Body Snatchers in the Desert : The Horrible Truth at the Heart of the Roswell Story, a book that suggests the Roswell crash may have been the result of a top secret high-altitude balloon test. According to Redfern's narrative, the test used deformed Japanese POWs acquired after a battle in 1945 on a small island in the Pacific. Redfern suggests the test was part of a program resulting from an import of Japanese scientists after the war in similar vein to Operation Paperclip. The Japanese scientists are alleged to have brought POWs with them to continue experimenting radiation, cosmic ray & high altitude effects on people, including people with progeria. Witness to Roswell (2007) In 2007, Donald Schmitt and Tom Carey published the book Witness to Roswell, which prominently featured a document said to be a sworn affidavit by Walter Haut, who had written the first Army press release about the Roswell crash in 1947. The document, alleged to have been left by Haut and opened only after his death in 2005, includes a description of the 1947 crash debris having been discussed by high-ranking staff and how Haut had seen alien bodies. The claims, however, drew an unimpressed response even from ufologists: Dennis Balthaser said that the document was not written by Haut, and that by 2000 Haut's mental state was such he could not recall basic details about his past, making the detail contained in the affidavit seem dubious. Physicist and skeptic Dave Thomas commented: "Is Roswell still the 'best' UFO incident? If it is, UFO proponents should be very, very worried." Other debunked theories In 2011, American journalist Annie Jacobsen's Area 51: An Uncensored History of America's Top Secret Military Base featured a claim that Nazi doctor Josef Mengele was recruited by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to produce "grotesque, child-size aviators" to cause hysteria. The book was criticized for extensive errors by scientists from the Federation of American Scientists. Historian Richard Rhodes, writing in The Washington Post, also criticized the book's sensationalistic reporting of "old news" and its "error-ridden" reporting. He wrote: "All of [her main source's] claims appear in one or another of the various publicly available Roswell/UFO/Area 51 books and documents churned out by believers, charlatans and scholars over the past 60 years. In attributing the stories she reports to an unnamed engineer and Manhattan Project veteran while seemingly failing to conduct even minimal research into the man's sources, Jacobsen shows herself at a minimum extraordinarily gullible or journalistically incompetent." In September 2017, UK newspaper The Guardian reported on Kodachrome slides which some had claimed showed a dead space alien. First presented at a BeWitness event in Mexico, organised by Jaime Maussan and attended by almost 7,000 people, days afterwards it was revealed that the slides were in fact of a mummified Native American child discovered in 1896 and which had been on display at the Chapin Mesa Archeological Museum in Mesa Verde, Colorado, for many decades. In February 2020, an Air Force historian revealed a recently declassified report of a circa-1951 incident in which two Roswell personnel donned poorly fitting radioactive suits, complete with oxygen masks, while retrieving a weather balloon after an atomic test. On one occasion, they encountered a lone woman in the desert, who fainted when she saw them. The personnel could have appeared, to someone unaccustomed to then-modern gear, to be alien. Cultural impact Tourism & commercialization Roswell's tourism industry is based on ufology museums and businesses, as well as alien-themed iconography and alien kitsch. A yearly UFO festival has been held since 1995. There are several alleged crash sites that can be visited for a fee, as well as alien museums, festivals and conventions, including the International UFO Museum and Research Center, founded in 1991. Popular fiction In the 1980 independently distributed film Hangar 18, an alien ship crashes in the desert of the US Southwest. Debris and bodies are recovered, but their existence is covered up by the government. Director James L. Conway summarized the film as "a modern-day dramatization of the Roswell incident". Conway later revisited the concept in 1995 when he filmed the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Little Green Men"; In that episode, characters travel to 1947, triggering the Roswell incident, with their ship being stored in Hangar 18. Beginning in 1993, the hit television series The X-Files featured the Roswell incident as a recurring element. The show's second episode "Deep Throat", introduced a Roswell alien crash into the show's mythology. The Roswell incident was most prominently featured in "My Struggle", while the comical 1996 episode "Jose Chung's From Outer Space" satirized the recently-broadcast Santelli Alien Autopsy hoax film. After the success of The X-Files, Roswell alien conspiracies were featured in other sci-fi drama series, including Dark Skies (1996–97) and Taken (2002). In the 1996 film Independence Day, an alien invasion prompts the revelation of a Roswell crash and cover-up extending even to concealing the information from the President of the United States, to facilitate plausible deniability, according to the Defense Secretary. The 2008 film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull sees the protagonist on a quest for an alien body from the Roswell Incident. In a 2001 episode of the animated comedy Futurama, titled, "Roswell That Ends Well", protagonists from the 31st century travel back in time and cause the Roswell incident. The 2006 comedy Alien Autopsy revolves around the 1990s-creation of the Santilli hoax film. The 2011 Simon Pegg comedy Paul tells the story of Roswell tourists who rescue a grey alien. Starting in 1998, Pocket Books published a series of young adult novels titled Roswell High; From 1999 to 2002, the books were adapted into the WB/UPN TV series Roswell, with a second adaption release in 2019 under the title Roswell, New Mexico. Roswell in spirituality Scholar of religion Christopher Hugh Partridge has characterized the Roswell incident as a key element within UFO spirituality. He states that "Roswell is now firmly established as what might be described as a key ufological 'spiritual site' " within ufology. Similarly in his book The Gods Have Landed, James R. Lewis highlights the event's role in the emergence of UFOs into the public consciousness. Partridge places UFO religion within the context of theosophical esotericism, noting that the term 'UFO religion' gained prominence after the 1947 Roswell incident. He draws parallels between UFO spirituality and New Age thought, highlighting shared beliefs, including a belief in a Spiritual Hierarchy. Furthermore, Partridge observes that, post-1947, many of these groups maintained the belief that extraterrestrial beings served as 'heralds of a new era.' Examples of this include: Raëlism, founded in the 1970's incorporates the Roswell incident into its belief system, interpreting it as evidence of extraterrestrial contact and the Elohim's involvement in human creation. The Heaven's Gate cult, believed that the Earth was about to be recycled and that a spaceship trailing the Hale-Bopp comet would transport their souls to a higher existence. While the group's beliefs were not exclusively centered on Roswell, they saw the Roswell incident as one of several historical events signifying extraterrestrial presence and their impending departure. Its members committed mass suicide in 1997 in the belief they needed to shed their earthly bodies to join the spaceship. The Unarius Academy of Science, a new age religious group that believes in the existence of advanced extraterrestrial beings. They have incorporated the Roswell incident into their teachings, viewing it as evidence of contact with higher intelligences. Aetherius Society, it combines elements of Theosophy, Eastern spirituality, and UFO beliefs. While not solely focused on Roswell, they consider it a significant event in the history of UFO contact with humanity. The Ashtar movement / Ashtar command movement, This is a belief system associated with New Age spirituality and UFO contactees. While not centered exclusively on Roswell, it is part of the broader narrative of extraterrestrial intervention and communication with beings like Ashtar Sheran. These beliefs have contributed to the spiritual significance attributed to the Roswell incident. There are other beliefs that do not specifically refer to the Roswell incident but include extraterrestrial beings, such as Xenu in Scientology. Modern views Despite the lack of conclusive evidence supporting the existence of an alien spaceship, there are individuals who firmly maintain the belief that a spacecraft crashed near Roswell. B. D. Gildenberg has called the Roswell incident "the world's most famous, most exhaustively investigated, and most thoroughly debunked UFO claim". Pflock said, "[T]he case for Roswell is a classic example of the triumph of quantity over quality. The advocates of the crashed-saucer tale ... simply shovel everything that seems to support their view into the box marked 'Evidence' and say, 'See? Look at all this stuff. We must be right.' Never mind the contradictions. Never mind the lack of independent supporting fact. Never mind the blatant absurdities." Korff suggests there are clear incentives for some people to promote the idea of aliens at Roswell, and that many researchers were not doing competent work: "[The] UFO field is people who are willing to take advantage of the gullibility of others, especially the paying public. Let's not pull any punches here: The Roswell UFO myth has been very good business for UFO groups, publishers, for Hollywood, the town of Roswell, the media, and UFOlogy ... [The] number of researchers who employ science and its disciplined methodology is appallingly small." B. D. Gildenberg notes the existence of multiple reported alien recovery sites, which bear little resemblance to the original event reported in 1947 or the subsequent accounts provided by initial witnesses. Some of these new accounts could potentially be confused recollections of known recoveries of injured and deceased servicemen from military plane crashes in the area between 1948 and 1950. Other accounts might be based on memories of recoveries involving test dummies as suggested by the Air Force in their reports. Multiple persons who were mentioned to have visited the site later provided sworn witness testimony in response to inquiries by Ufologists who had tracked them down over the ensuing years. 'Weather balloon' as cover story for Project Mogul Beginning in 1978, Jesse Marcel publicly reported that the claims of a weather balloon had been a cover story. In 1991, retired USAF Brigadier General Thomas DuBose corroborated Marcel's admission. In 1993, in response to an inquiry from US congressman Steven Schiff of New Mexico, the General Accounting Office launched an inquiry and directed the Office of the United States Secretary of the Air Force to conduct an internal investigation. A 1994 Air Force report concluded that the material recovered in 1947 was likely debris from the then top secret Project Mogul, a military surveillance program employing high-altitude balloons (a classified portion of an unclassified New York University project by atmospheric researchers). Ufologists had previously considered the possibility that the Roswell debris had come from a top-secret balloon. During the final year of World War 2, Japan had launched thousands of paper and silk balloons carrying bombs designed to cause damage and spread panic in the United States. In March 1990, Ufologist John Keel proposed that the Roswell debris had been from a Japanese balloon bomb. An Air Force meteorologist roundly rejected the theory, explaining a Japanese balloon "could not possibly have stayed aloft for two years". In 1990, Ufologist Robert G. Todd had first connected Roswell to Project Mogul. Sheridan W. Cavitt was a Counterintelligence Corps Special Agent for the US Air Force, he is a witness who was corroborated by Marcel to have visited the site. He provided a sworn witness statement that he encountered balloon debris at the site which was included in the first official Roswell Report. A scholarly consensus emerged concluding that the military decided to conceal the true purpose of the crashed devicenuclear test monitoringand instead inform the public that the crash was of a weather balloon. The balloon had been launched from Alamogordo Army Air Field a month earlier. It carried a radar reflector and classified Project Mogul sensors for experimental monitoring of Soviet nuclear testing. Air Force declassification officer Lieutenant James McAndrew concluded: 'Alien bodies' as later hoaxes or test dummies The Air Force concluded that reports of recovered alien bodies were likely a combination of innocently transformed memories of accidents involving military casualties with memories of the recovery of anthropomorphic dummies in military programs such as the 1950s Operation High Dive. Recollection of these test dummies could be mixed with a myriad of hoaxes or misconceptions. Project MOGUL did not involve test dummies but U.S. Air Force high altitude balloons did drop test dummies from high altitudes and they both operated in the New Mexico Desert. Critics suggest claims of alien bodies face credibility problems with witnesses making contradictory accounts. Death-bed confessions or accounts from elderly and easily confused witnesses to one party are also considered problematic. Pflock noted that only four people with supposed firsthand knowledge of alien bodies were interviewed by Roswell authors. Additionally all reports of bodies came about a minimum of 31 years after the fact. Roswell as modern myth and folklore According to anthropologists Susan Harding and Kathleen Stewart, the Roswell Story was a prime example of how a discourse moved from the fringes to the mainstream according to the prevailing zeitgeist: public preoccupation in the 1980s with "conspiracy, cover-up and repression" aligned well with the Roswell narratives as told in the "sensational books" which were being published. Additionally, skeptics and some social anthropologists saw the increasingly elaborate accounts of alien crash landings and government cover-ups as evidence of a myth being constructed. Prominent skeptics Joe Nickell and co-author James McGaha identified a myth-making process, which they called the "Roswellian syndrome". In this syndrome, a myth is proposed to have five distinct stages of development: incident, debunking, submergence, mythologizing, and reemergence and media bandwagon effect. The authors predicted that the Roswellian syndrome would "play out again and again", in other UFO and conspiracy-theory stories. Charles Ziegler argues that the Roswell story exhibits characteristics typical of traditional folk narratives. He identifies six distinct narratives and a process of transmission through storytellers, wherein a core story was formed from various witness accounts and then shaped and altered by those involved in the UFO community. Additional "witnesses" were sought to expand upon the core narrative, while accounts that did not align with the prevailing beliefs were discredited or excluded by the "gatekeepers". Statements by US Presidents In a 2012 visit to Roswell, President Barack Obama joked "I come in peace." When asked during a 2015 interview with GQ magazine about whether he had looked at top-secret classified information, Obama replied, "I gotta tell you, it's a little disappointing. People always ask me about Roswell and the aliens and UFOs, and it turns out the stuff going on that's top secret isn't nearly as exciting as you expect. In this day and age, it's not as top secret as you'd think." In a 2014 interview, former President Bill Clinton reported that his administration had investigated the incident, saying "When the Roswell thing came up, I knew we'd get gazillions of letters. So I had all the Roswell papers reviewed, everything". In June 2020, then-President Donald Trump, when asked if he would consider releasing more information about the Roswell incident, said "I won't talk to you about what I know about it, but it's very interesting." In December 2020, Obama joked with Stephen Colbert: "It used to be that UFOs and Roswell was the biggest conspiracy. And now that seems so tame, the idea that the government might have an alien spaceship." See also References Sources 1947 flying disc craze 1947 in military history 1947 in New Mexico July 1947 events in the United States Aviation accidents and incidents in the United States in 1947 Conspiracy theories by subject Conspiracy theories in the United States Hoaxes in the United States UFO conspiracy theories
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20School%20%28economics%29
American School (economics)
The American School, also known as the National System, represents three different yet related constructs in politics, policy and philosophy. The policy existed from the 1790s to the 1970s, waxing and waning in actual degrees and details of implementation. Historian Michael Lind describes it as a coherent applied economic philosophy with logical and conceptual relationships with other economic ideas. It is the macroeconomic philosophy that dominated United States national policies from the time of the American Civil War until the mid-20th century. Closely related to mercantilism, it can be seen as contrary to classical economics. It consisted of these three core policies: Protecting industry through selective high tariffs (especially 1861–1932) and through subsidies (especially 1932–1970). Government investments in infrastructure creating targeted internal improvements (especially in transportation). A national bank with policies that promote the growth of productive enterprises rather than speculation. The American School's key elements were promoted by John Quincy Adams and his National Republican Party, Henry Clay and the Whig Party and Abraham Lincoln through the early Republican Party which embraced, implemented and maintained this economic system. History Origins The American School of economics represented the legacy of Alexander Hamilton, who in his Report on Manufactures, argued that the U.S. could not become fully independent until it was self-sufficient in all necessary economic products. Hamilton rooted this economic system, in part, in the successive regimes of Colbert's France and Elizabeth I's England, while rejecting the harsher aspects of mercantilism, such as seeking colonies for markets. As later defined by Senator Henry Clay who became known as the Father of the American System because of his impassioned support thereof, the American System was to unify the nation north to south, east to west, and city to farmer. Frank Bourgin's 1989 study of the Constitutional Convention shows that direct government involvement in the economy was intended by the Founders. The goal, most forcefully articulated by Hamilton, was to ensure that dearly won political independence was not lost by being economically and financially dependent on the powers and princes of Europe. The creation of a strong central government able to promote science, invention, industry and commerce, was seen as an essential means of promoting the general welfare and making the economy of the United States strong enough for them to determine their own destiny. Jefferson and Madison strongly opposed Hamilton's program, but were forced to implement it by the exigencies of the embargo, begun in December 1807 under the Non-Intercourse Act, and the War of 1812 against Britain. A number of programs by the federal government undertaken in the period prior to the Civil War gave shape and substance to the American School. These programs included the establishment of the Patent Office in 1802, the creation of the Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1807 and other measures to improve river and harbor navigation created by the 1824 Rivers and Harbors Act. Other developments included the various Army expeditions to the west, beginning with Lewis and Clark's Corps of Discovery in 1804 and continuing into the 1870s (see for example, the careers of Major Stephen Harriman Long and Major General John C. Frémont), almost always under the direction of an officer from the Army Corps of Topographical Engineers, and which provided crucial information for the overland pioneers that followed (see, for example, the career of Brigadier General Randolph B. Marcy), the assignment of Army Engineer officers to assist or direct the surveying and construction of the early railroads and canals, and the establishment of the First Bank of the United States and Second Bank of the United States as well as various protectionist measures such as the Tariff of 1828. Leading proponents were economists Friedrich List (1789–1846) and Henry Carey (1793–1879). List was a leading 19th Century German and American economist who called it the "National System" and developed it further in his book The National System of Political Economy . Carey called this a Harmony of Interests in his book by the same name, a harmony between labor and management, and as well a harmony between agriculture, manufacturing, and merchants. The name "American System" was coined by Clay to distinguish it, as a school of thought, from the competing theory of economics at the time, the "British System" represented by Adam Smith in his work Wealth of Nations. Central policies The American School included three cardinal policy points: Support industry: the advocacy of protectionism, and opposition to free trade – particularly for the protection of "infant industries" and those facing import competition from abroad. Examples: Tariff Act of 1789, Tariff Act of 1816 and Morrill Tariff. Create physical infrastructure: government finance of internal improvements to speed commerce and develop industry. This involved the regulation of privately held infrastructure, to ensure that it meets the nation's needs. Examples: Cumberland Road and Union Pacific Railroad. Create financial infrastructure: a government sponsored National Bank to issue currency and encourage commerce. This involved the use of sovereign powers for the regulation of credit to encourage the development of the economy, and to deter speculation. Examples: First Bank of the United States, Second Bank of the United States, and National Banking Act. Henry C. Carey, a leading American economist and adviser to Abraham Lincoln, in his book Harmony of Interests, displays two additional points of this American School economic philosophy that distinguishes it from the systems of Adam Smith or Karl Marx: Government support for the development of science and public education through a public 'common' school system and investments in creative research through grants and subsidies. Rejection of class struggle, in favor of the "Harmony of Interests" between: owners and workers, farmers and manufacturers, the wealthy class and the working class. In a passage from his book, The Harmony of Interests, Carey wrote concerning the difference between the American System and British System of economics: Two systems are before the world; ... One looks to increasing the necessity for commerce; the other to increasing the power to maintain it. One looks to underworking the Hindoo, and sinking the rest of the world to his level; the other to raising the standard of man throughout the world to our level. One looks to pauperism, ignorance, depopulation, and barbarism; the other to increasing wealth, comfort, intelligence, combination of action, and civilization. One looks towards universal war; the other towards universal peace. One is the English system; the other we may be proud to call the American system, for it is the only one ever devised the tendency of which was that of elevating while equalizing the condition of man throughout the world. The government issue of fiat paper money has also been associated with the American School from the 1830s onwards. The policy has roots going back to the days of the American colonies, when such a type of currency called colonial scrip was the medium of exchange. As early as 1837, John C. Calhoun called for a debt-free currency issued and controlled by the government. Such a policy would reduce the profits of the banks, and in response to this, the banking institutions threw their support behind the British school, espousing the gold standard throughout the 1800s. In the Civil War, a shortage of specie led to the issue of such a fiat currency, called United States Notes, or "greenbacks". Towards the end of the Civil War in March 1865, Henry C. Carey, Lincoln's economic advisor, published a series of letters to the Speaker of the House entitled "The Way to Outdo England Without Fighting Her." Carey called for the continuance of the greenback policy even after the War, while also raising the reserve requirements of the banks to 50%. This would have allowed the US to develop its economy independent of foreign capital (primarily British gold). Carey wrote: The most serious move in the retrograde direction is that one we find in the determination to prohibit the further issue of [United States Notes] ... To what have we been indebted for [the increased economic activity]? To protection and the " greenbacks"! What is it that we are now laboring to destroy? Protection and the Greenback! Let us continue on in the direction in which we now are moving, and we shall see ... not a re-establishment of the Union, but a complete and final disruption of it. Carey's plans did not come to fruition as Lincoln was assassinated the next month and new President Andrew Johnson supported the gold standard, and by 1879 the U.S. was fully back on the gold standard. Advocacy The "American System" was the name given by Henry Clay in a speech before Congress advocating an economic program based on the economic philosophy derived from Alexander Hamilton's economic theories (see Report on Manufactures, Report on Public Credit I and II). Clay's policies called for a high tariff to support internal improvements such as road-building, and a national bank to encourage productive enterprise and to form a national currency as Hamilton had advocated as Secretary of the Treasury. Clay first used the term "American System" in 1824, although he had been working for its specifics for many years previously. Portions of the American System were enacted by Congress. The Second Bank of the United States was rechartered in 1816 for 20 years. High tariffs were maintained from the days of Hamilton until 1832. However, the national system of internal improvements was never adequately funded; the failure to do so was due in part to sectional jealousies and constitutional scruples about such expenditures. Clay's plan became the leading tenet of the National Republican Party of John Quincy Adams and the Whig Party of himself and Daniel Webster. The "American System" was supported by New England and the Mid-Atlantic, which had a large manufacturing base. It protected their new factories from foreign competition. The South opposed the "American System" because its plantation owners were heavily reliant on production of cotton for export, and the American System produced lower demand for their cotton and created higher costs for manufactured goods. After 1828 the United States kept tariffs low until the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1861. Executive opposition to the American System by the Jacksonians Opposition to the economic nationalism embodied by Henry Clay's American System came primarily from the Democratic Party of Andrew Jackson, Martin van Buren, and James K. Polk. These three presidents styled themselves as the peoples' politicians, seeking to protect both the agrarian frontier culture and the strength of the Union. Jackson in particular, the founder of the movement, held an unflinching commitment to what he viewed as the sanctity of the majority opinion. In his first annual message to Congress, Jackson proclaimed that "the first principle of our system [is] that the majority govern". This ideology governed Jackson's actions throughout his presidency, and heavily influenced his protégé Martin van Buren as well as the final Jacksonian president, James K. Polk. This commitment to the majority and to the voiceless came in direct conflict with many elements of the American System. The Jacksonian presidents saw key tenets of the American System, including the support for the Second Bank of the United States and advocacy of protectionist tariffs, as serving moneyed or special interests rather than the majority of Americans. The Jacksonians opposed other elements of Clay's ideology, including support for internal infrastructural improvements, on the grounds that they represented governmental overstretch as well. Several key events, legislative conflicts, and presidential vetoes shaped the substantive opposition to the American System. Second Bank of the United States and the Bank War The first and most well-known battle between Jacksonians and Clay focused on the struggle over renewing the charter of the Second Bank of the United States. In Andrew Jackson's first annual message to Congress in 1829, he declared that "[b]oth the constitutionality and the expediency of the law creating this bank are well questioned by a large portion of our fellow-citizens, and it must be admitted by all that it has failed in the great end of establishing a uniform and sound currency". He further attacked the proponents of renewing the bank's charter, scathingly referring to the "stockholders" seeking a renewal of their "privileges". This rhetoric, portraying the supporters of the bank as privileged individuals, and claiming the opposition of "a large portion of our fellow-citizens" crystallizes Jackson's majoritarian distaste for the special interest serving economic nationalism embodied in the American System. Jackson's Secretary of the Treasury Roger B. Taney effectively summed up Jackson's opposition to the Second Bank of the United States: ""It is a fixed principle of our political institutions to guard against the unnecessary accumulation of power over persons and property in any hands. And no hands are less worthy to be trusted with it than those of a moneyed corporation". The two sides of the debate became even more starkly defined as a result of the actions of Second Bank President Nicholas Biddle and Henry Clay himself. Upon hearing of Jackson's distaste for his bank, Biddle immediately set about opening new branches of the bank in key political districts in hopes of manipulating Congressional opinion. Although this action indeed helped acquire the votes necessary to pass the bill in Congress, it enraged Jackson. Jackson saw this manipulation as clear evidence of the penchant of a national bank to serve private, non-majoritarian interests. Henry Clay's American System supported the necessity for central institutions to "take an activist role in shaping and advancing the nation's economic development". The bank thus fit well into Clay's worldview, and he took advantage of Biddle's manipulation in order to pass the renewal bill through Congress, despite expecting Jackson's inevitable veto. Clay hoped that when Jackson vetoed the bill, it would more clearly differentiate the two sides of the debate which Clay then sought to use to his advantage in running for president. With battle lines set, Jackson's majoritarian opposition to the Second Bank of the United States helped him be elected to a second term. Tariff question The question of protective tariffs championed by the American System proved one of the trickiest for Jacksonian presidents. Tariffs disproportionately benefited the industrial interests of the North while causing injury to the import-dependent agrarian South and West. As a result, the issue proved extremely divisive to the nation's unity, something Jacksonian presidents sought to protect at all costs. The Jacksonian presidents, particularly the southern-born Jackson, had to be extremely cautious when lowering tariffs in order to maintain their support in the North. However, the tariffs indeed represented an economic nationalism that primarily benefited the Northern States, while increasing the cost of European imports in the South. This ran strongly contrary to Jacksonian ideals. In the end, despite Northern objections, both President Jackson and President Polk lowered tariffs. Jackson reformed the Tariff of 1828 (also known as the Tariff of Abominations) by radically reducing rates in the Tariff of 1832. This helped stave off the Southern nullification crisis, in which Southern states refused to enact the tariff, and threatened secession if faced with governmental coercion. The bill that reduced the Tariff of 1828 was co-authored by Henry Clay in a desperate attempt to maintain national unity. Polk, on the other hand, in his characteristically efficient way, managed to push through significant tariff reductions in the first 18 months of his term. Opposition to government-financed internal improvements The final bastion of Jacksonian opposition to Clay's American System existed in relation to the use of government funds to conduct internal improvements. The Jacksonian presidents feared that government funding of such projects as roads and canals exceeded the mandate of the federal government and should not be undertaken. Van Buren believed very strongly that "[t]he central government, unlike the states, had no obligation to provide relief or promote the general welfare. This stance kept faith with the tenets of Jeffersonian republicanism, notably its agrarianism and strict constructionism, to which van Buren was heir". As heir to the legacy of Van Buren and Jackson, Polk was similarly hostile to internal improvement programs, and used his presidential veto to prevent such projects from reaching fruition. Implementation An extra session of congress was called in the summer of 1841 for a restoration of the American system. When the tariff question came up again in 1842, the compromise of 1833 was overthrown, and the protective system placed in the ascendant. Due to the dominance of the then Democratic Party of Van Buren, Polk, and Buchanan the American School was not embraced as the economic philosophy of the United States until the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, who, with a series of laws during the American Civil War, was able to fully implement what Hamilton, Clay, List, and Carey theorized, wrote about, and advocated. As soon as Lincoln took office, the old Whig coalition finally controlled the entire government. It immediately tripled the average tariff, began to subsidize the construction of a transcontinental railroad in California even though a desperate war was being waged, and on February 25, 1862, the Legal Tender Act empowered the secretary of the treasury to issue paper money ('greenbacks') that were not immediately redeemable in gold or silver. The United States continued these policies throughout the later half of the 19th century. President Ulysses S Grant acknowledged the perceived efficacy of tariff protection in reference to Britain's success during the Industrial Revolution, when tariff rates on manufactures peaked at 57%: For centuries England has relied on protection, has carried it to extremes and has obtained satisfactory results from it. There is no doubt that it is to this system that it owes its present strength. President William McKinley (1897–1901) stated at the time: The American System was important in the election politics for and against Grover Cleveland, the first Democrat elected after the Civil War, who, by reducing tariffs protecting American industries in 1893, began rolling back federal involvement in economic affairs, a process that became dominant by the 1920s and continued until Herbert Hoover's attempts to deal with the worsening Great Depression. Evolution As the United States entered the 20th century, the American School was the policy of the United States under such names as American Policy, economic nationalism, National System, Protective System, Protection Policy, and protectionism, which alludes only to the tariff policy of this system of economics. This continued until 1913 when the administration of Woodrow Wilson initiated his The New Freedom policy that replaced the National Bank System with the Federal Reserve System, and lowered tariffs to revenue-only levels with the Underwood Tariff. The election of Warren G. Harding and the Republican Party in 1920 represented a partial return to the American School through restoration of high tariffs. A subsequent further return was enacted as President Herbert Hoover responded to the 1929 crash and the subsequent bank failures and unemployment by signing the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, which some economists considered to have deepened the Great Depression, while others disagree. The New Deal continued infrastructure improvements through the numerous public works projects of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) as well as the creation of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA); brought massive reform to the banking system of the Federal Reserve while investing in various ways in industry to stimulate production and control speculation; but abandoned protective tariffs while embracing moderate tariff protection (revenue based 20–30% the normal tariff under this) through reciprocity, choosing to subsidize industry as a replacement. At the close of World War II, the United States now dominant in manufacturing with little competition, the era of free trade had begun. In 1973, when the "Kennedy" Round concluded under President Richard Nixon, who cut U.S. tariffs to all time lows, the New Deal orientation towards reciprocity and subsidy ended, which moved the United States further in the free market direction, and away from its American School economic system. Other nations Friedrich List's influence among developing nations has been considerable. Japan has followed his model. It has also been argued that Deng Xiaoping's post-Mao policies were inspired by List as well as recent policies in India. See also * American System (economic plan) Protectionism in the United States Henry Charles Carey Anders Chydenius Daniel Raymond Economic history of the United States Import substitution industrialization, a key feature of the American System adopted in much of the Third World during the 20th century Johann Heinrich von Thünen Lincoln's expansion of the federal government's economic role National Policy, a similar economic plan used by Canada circa 1867–1920s William Petty Report on Manufactures First Report on the Public Credit Second Report on Public Credit Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit General: History of economic thought Economic nationalism Historical school of economics Notes References Modern books Batra, Ravi, Dr., The Myth of Free Trade: The pooring of America (1993) Boritt, Gabor S., Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream (1994) Bourgin, Frank, The Great Challenge: The Myth of Laissez-Faire in the Early Republic (George Braziller Inc., 1989; Harper & Row, 1990) Buchanan, Patrick J., The Great Betrayal (1998) Chang, Ha-Joon, Bad Samaritans: The Myth of Free Trade and the Secret History of Capitalism (Bloomsbury; 2008) Croly, Herbert, The Promise of American Life (2005 reprint) Curry, Leonard P., Blueprint for Modern America: Nonmilitary Legislation of the First Civil War Congress (1968) Dobbs, Lou, Exporting America: Why Corporate Greed is Shipping American Jobs Overseas (2004) Dorfman, Joseph, The Economic Mind in American Civilization, 1606–1865 (1947) vol 2 Dorfman, Joseph, The Economic Mind in American Civilization, 1865–1918 (1949) vol 3 Dupree, A. Hunter, Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities to 1940 (Harvard University Press, 1957; Harper & Row, 1964) Foner, Eric, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (1970) Faux, Jeff, The Global Class War (2006) Gardner, Stephen H., Comparative Economic Systems (1988) Gill, William J., Trade Wars Against America: A History of United States Trade and Monetary Policy (1990) Goetzmann, William H., Army Exploration in the American West 1803–1863 (Yale University Press, 1959; University of Nebraska Press, 1979) Goodrich, Carter, Government Promotion of American Canals and Railroads, 1800–1890 (Greenwood Press, 1960) Goodrich, Carter, "American Development Policy: the Case of Internal Improvements," Journal of Economic History, 16 (1956), 449–60. in JSTOR Goodrich, Carter, "National Planning of Internal Improvements," ;;Political Science Quarterly, 63 (1948), 16–44. in JSTOR Hofstadter, Richard, "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War," American Historical Review, 64 (October 1938): 50–55, shows Northern business had little interest in tariff in 1860, except for Pennsylvania which demanded high tariff on iron products Howe, Daniel Walker, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (University of Chicago Press, 1979) Hudson, Michael, America's Protectionist Takeoff 1815–1914 (2010). Jenks, Leland Hamilton, "Railroads as a Force in American Development," Journal of Economic History, 4 (1944), 1–20. in JSTOR John Lauritz Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (2001) Johnson, E.A.J., The Foundations of American Economic Freedom: Government and Enterprise in the Age of Washington (University of Minnesota Press, 1973) Lively, Robert A., "The American System, a Review Article," Business History Review, XXIX (March, 1955), 81–96. Recommended starting point. Lauchtenburg, William E., Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal 1932–40 (1963) Lind, Michael, Hamilton's Republic: Readings in the American Democratic Nationalist Tradition (1997) Lind, Michael, What Lincoln Believed: The Values and Convictions of America's Greatest President (2004) Mazzucato, Mariana, The Entrepreneurial State: Debunking Public vs. Private Sector Myths (Anthem Press, 2013) Paludan, Philip S, The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln (1994) Richardson, Heather Cox, The Greatest Nation of the Earth: Republican Economic Policies during the Civil War (1997) Remini, Robert V., Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union. New York: W. W. Norton Co., 1991 Roosevelt, Theodore, The New Nationalism (1961 reprint) Richardson, Heather Cox. The Greatest Nation of the Earth: Republican Economic Policies during the Civil War (1997) Stanwood, Edward, American Tariff Controversies in the Nineteenth Century'' (1903; reprint 1974), 2 vols., favors protectionism Older books W. Cunningham, The Rise and Decline of the Free Trade Movement (London, 1904) G. B. Curtiss, Protection and Prosperity; and W. H. Dawson, Protection in Germany (London, 1904) Alexander Hamilton, Report on the Subject of Manufactures, communicated to the House of Representatives, 5 December 1791 F. Bowen, American Political Economy (New York, 1875) J. B. Byles, Sophisms of Free Trade (London, 1903); G. Byng, Protection (London, 1901) H. C. Carey, Principles of Social Science (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1858–59), Harmony of Interests Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commercial (Philadelphia, 1873) H. M. Hoyt, Protection v. Free Trade, the scientific validity and economic operation of defensive duties in the United States (New York, 1886) Friedrich List, Outlines of American Political Economy (1980 reprint) Friedrich List, National System of Political Economy (1994 reprint) A. M. Low, Protection in the United States (London, 1904); H. 0. Meredith, Protection in France (London, 1904) S. N. Patten, Economic Basis of Protection (Philadelphia, 1890) Ugo Rabbeno, American Commercial Policy (London, 1895) Ellis H. Roberts, Government Revenue, especially the American System, an argument for industrial freedom against the fallacies of free trade (Boston, 1884) R. E. Thompson, Protection to Home Industries (New York, 1886) E. E. Williams, The Case for Protection (London, 1899) J. P. Young, Protection and Progress: a Study of the Economic Bases of the American Protective System (Chicago, 1900) Clay, Henry. The Papers of Henry Clay, 1797–1852. Edited by James Hopkins External links Excerpts of the Report on Manufactures by Alexander Hamilton Report on Public Credit I by Alexander Hamilton Argument in Favor of the National Bank by Alexander Hamilton The Harmony of Interests by Henry C. Carey The National System of Political Economy by Friedrich List Federalist #7, The Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton as Publius The American System: Speeches on the Tariff Question and Internal Improvements by Congressman Andrew Stewart John Bull the Compassionate Party Platforms of Republican and Democratic Party's, including links to Third Party's in history. "Punchinello", Vol. 1, Issue 8 pg 125 Article from 1870 against the American System "Henry Clay: National Socialist" Thomas J. DiLorenzo, Ludwig von Mises Institute Vanguard of Expansion: Army Engineers in the Trans-Mississippi West, 1819–1879, by Frank N. Schubert, History Division, Office of the Chief of Engineers, August 1980. Swimming Against the Current: The Rise of a Hidden Developmental State in the United States, by Fred Block, Politics & Society, Vol. 35 No. 1, June 2008. Economic history of the United States Economic ideologies Schools of economic thought Capitalism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Graham
George Graham
George Graham (born 30 November 1944) is a Scottish former football player and manager. Nicknamed "Stroller", he made 455 appearances in England's Football League as a midfielder or forward for Aston Villa, Chelsea, Arsenal, Manchester United, Portsmouth and Crystal Palace. Approximately half of his appearances were for Arsenal, and he was part of the side that won the Football League Championship and FA Cup double in 1971. Graham also made 17 appearances for California Surf in the NASL in 1978. He then moved to the coaching staff at Crystal Palace, before joining former Palace manager Terry Venables as a coach at Queens Park Rangers. As a manager, he won numerous honours with Arsenal between 1987 and 1995, including two league titles (in 1989 and 1991), the 1993 FA Cup, two Football League Cups (in 1987 and 1993), as well as the 1994 European Cup Winners' Cup. He also managed Millwall, Leeds United and Tottenham Hotspur. He was one of the most successful managers in Arsenal's history, remaining in charge for almost a decade until he was sacked by the club's board after being found guilty by the Football Association of taking money from transfers. Graham was banned despite paying back the money, which he always claimed was an "unsolicited gift". Early life The youngest of seven children, Graham was born at Dykehead Road, Bargeddie, near Coatbridge on 30 November 1944. He grew up in poverty and was raised by his mother, Janet (26 April 1908 – 27 March 1977), after his father, Robert Young Graham (born 22 June 1900), died of tuberculosis and heart failure on Christmas Day 1944, when George was not yet a month old. His elder sister also died of tuberculosis on 22 February 1950. While growing up, Graham showed considerable promise as a footballer, and Newcastle United, Chelsea and Aston Villa displayed an interest in signing him. Playing career Aston Villa Graham received offers from Aston Villa, Chelsea and Newcastle United aged 15, in 1959, and visited all three clubs to see their facilities. He chose Aston Villa mainly as he and his family liked manager Joe Mercer, initially playing for their youth side, he signed professionally in 1961, on his 17th birthday. He spent five seasons at the Birmingham club, but only made ten appearances – though one of them was the club's 1963 League Cup final loss to Birmingham City. Chelsea Chelsea signed Graham in July 1964 for £5,000. He scored 35 goals in 72 league games for the club and won a League Cup medal in 1965 but he, along with several other Chelsea players, increasingly clashed with their volatile manager Tommy Docherty. This culminated in Graham and seven others being sent home and disciplined by Docherty for breaking a pre-match curfew in 1965. Arsenal Bertie Mee's Arsenal were looking for a replacement for Joe Baker, and paid £50,000 plus Tommy Baldwin in 1966 to bring Graham to Highbury. He made his debut on 1 October 1966 at home to Leicester City, and although the result was a 4–2 defeat he immediately became a regular in the Arsenal side. He was Arsenal's top scorer in both 1966–67 and 1967–68, having started out as a centre forward for the club, but later moved back into midfield as an inside forward with John Radford moving from the wing to central striker. With Arsenal, Graham was a runner-up in both the 1968 and 1969 League Cup finals, before finally winning a medal with the 1969–70 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. He followed it up with being an integral part of Arsenal's Double-winning side of 1970–71, and even had a claim to scoring Arsenal's equaliser in the FA Cup Final against Liverpool, although Eddie Kelly is officially credited with the goal. Winning the Double brought the attention of Scotland and Graham was selected for the national side for the first time against Portugal on 13 October 1971. He would go on to win twelve caps over the next two years for Scotland, scoring three goals, his final one coming against Brazil on 30 June 1973. By then, however, Graham was no longer an Arsenal player. The arrival of Alan Ball midway through 1971–72 had made his place in the Arsenal side less assured. In total, he played 308 matches for Arsenal, scoring 77 goals. Manchester United Graham moved for £120,000 to Manchester United in December 1972, where he was soon reunited with Docherty. He spent two years at United and was relegated to Division Two in 1974. He was sold to Portsmouth during the 1974–75 season. Portsmouth, Crystal Palace and California Surf Graham saw out his career in England at Portsmouth and Crystal Palace. He played the summer of 1978 in America for the California Surf. Managerial career Millwall After retiring from playing in 1978, Graham became the youth team coach at Crystal Palace and then from October 1980 Queens Park Rangers. On 6 December 1982, he was appointed manager of Millwall, who were then bottom of the old Third Division. Graham turned the side around in a short period of time—they avoided relegation that season on the final match of the season with a 1–0 win at Chesterfield. The following season they finished 9th and in 1984–85 they were promoted to the old Second Division. After Graham left the club in 1986, they went on to win the Second Division and win promotion to the First in 1987–88. Arsenal Graham's achievements at Millwall attracted attention from First Division clubs, and with the resignation of Don Howe as Arsenal manager in March 1986, their directors first offered the job to FC Barcelona coach Terry Venables, but he rejected their offer and Arsenal switched their attention to Alex Ferguson, the Aberdeen manager, as their new manager with Graham as his assistant. However, Ferguson (then in temporary charge of the Scotland national football team following the death of Jock Stein the previous September, and still in charge of Aberdeen) had decided to wait until after the World Cup that summer before deciding on his future. Graham himself never even applied for the Arsenal position but on 12 May 1986 his chairman at Millwall told him that Arsenal wanted to speak to him about the manager's job. After an interview with Peter Hill-Wood, David Dein and Ken Friar the Arsenal directors appointed Graham as their new manager on 14 May 1986. A month after arriving at Highbury, Graham was himself linked with the Scotland national team, possibly combining it with the Arsenal manager's job, but that role went to Andy Roxburgh instead. Arsenal had not won a trophy since the FA Cup in 1978–79, and were drifting away from the top teams in the League, having not finished in the top five during any of the previous four seasons, during which the major honours were picked up by an all-conquering Liverpool as well as the likes of Manchester United and Everton. Graham quickly discarded the likes of Paul Mariner, Tony Woodcock, Stewart Robson and Tommy Caton, and replaced them with new signings and youth team products. He also imposed much stricter discipline than his predecessors, both in the dressing room and on the pitch. Arsenal's form immediately improved, so much so that the club were top of the League at Christmas 1986, the club's centenary, for the first time in a decade. The key players in the upturn were young defender Tony Adams and high-scoring winger Martin Hayes. Arsenal finished fourth in Graham's first season in charge, and they went on to win the 1987 League Cup, beating Liverpool 2–1. While Arsenal lost the League Cup final the following year (a shock 3–2 defeat to Luton Town), they remained consistent in the league. Graham's side featured tight defensive discipline, embodied by his young captain Tony Adams, who along with Lee Dixon, Steve Bould and Nigel Winterburn, would form the basis of the club's defence for over a decade. However, contrary to popular belief, during this time Arsenal were not a purely defensive side; Graham also built up an impressive midfield containing David Rocastle, Michael Thomas and Paul Merson, and striker Alan Smith, whose prolific goal-scoring regularly brought him more than 20 goals per season. At the end of Graham's third season (1988–89), the club won their first League title since 1971 (when Graham had been an Arsenal player), in highly dramatic fashion, in the final game of the season against holders and league leaders Liverpool at Anfield. Arsenal needed to win by two goals to take the title; Alan Smith scored early in the second half to make it 1–0, but as time ticked by Arsenal struggled to get a second, and with the 90 minutes elapsed on the clock, they still needed another goal. With only seconds to go, a Smith flick-on found Michael Thomas surging through the Liverpool defence; the young midfielder calmly lifted the ball over Bruce Grobbelaar and into the net, and Arsenal were League Champions. However, there was no chance to enter the European Cup just yet for Graham's team, as the ban on English clubs in European competitions (which was imposed by UEFA in 1985 following the Heysel disaster) continued for another season. After finishing fourth in 1989–90, Graham signed goalkeeper David Seaman and Swedish winger Anders Limpar in the close season; both players proved vital as Arsenal won a second title in 1990–91 and reached the FA Cup semi-finals, losing to arch-rivals Tottenham Hotspur. They lost just one league game all season - their 24th match of the league campaign against Chelsea on 2 February. Arsenal finished ahead of runners-up Liverpool in the race for the league title that season; in February 1991 the Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish had suddenly announced his resignation as manager, and Graham's name was among those mentioned by the media as a possible successor to Dalglish. However, Graham was quick to rule himself out of the running, and the job instead went to another Scot, Graeme Souness. In the autumn of 1991, Graham went on to sign a striker who would break the club's all-time top scoring records, Ian Wright from Crystal Palace, and led the club into their first entry in the European Cup for twenty years. However, the continental adventure was short-lived: Arsenal were knocked out by S.L. Benfica in the second round and failed to make the lucrative final stages. 1991–92 brought more disappointment when the Gunners were knocked out of the FA Cup in the third round by lowly Wrexham, though Arsenal did reasonably well in the league, finishing fourth. After this season, Graham changed his tactics; he became more defensive and turned out far less attack-minded sides, which depended mainly on goals from Wright rather than the whole team. Between 1986–87 and 1991–92, Arsenal averaged 66 League goals a season (scoring 81 in 1991–92), but between 1992–93 and 1994–95 only averaged 48; this included just 40 in 1992–93, when the club finished 10th in the inaugural season of the FA Premier League, scoring fewer than any other team in the division. Graham's Arsenal became cup specialists, and in 1992–93 they became the first side to win the FA Cup and League Cup double, both times beating Sheffield Wednesday, 2–1 in the League Cup Final and 2–1 in the FA Cup Final replay. The next season they continued in the same vein, winning the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, their second European trophy; in the final Arsenal beat favourites and holders Parma 1–0 with a tight defensive performance and Alan Smith's 21st-minute goal from a left foot volley. The 1994 Cup Winners' Cup proved to be Graham's last trophy at the club. It was on 21 February 1995 that Graham, who had led Arsenal to six trophies in eight seasons, lost his job after a Premier League inquiry found he had accepted an illegal £425,000 payment from Norwegian agent Rune Hauge following Arsenal's 1992 acquisition of John Jensen and Pål Lydersen, two of Hauge's clients. Graham was eventually banned for a year by the Football Association for his involvement in the scandal, after he admitted he had received an "unsolicited gift" from Hauge. At the time, Arsenal were struggling a little in the league, had lost a League Cup quarter final to Liverpool, been dumped out of the FA Cup after a third round replay by Millwall, and (as Cup Winners' Cup holders) had also lost the Super Cup to AC Milan. But of course all that had no bearing on Graham’s sacking, which was more down to brown envelopes of money, as the word "bung" embedded itself in the football lexicon. Leeds United After serving his ban, Graham's return to football management came with Leeds United in September 1996. After the fifth game of the season he replaced the long serving Howard Wilkinson. Graham was swiftly appointed but found himself unable to make an immediate impact, leading Leeds to five losses from his first six in the league and another defeat to Aston Villa in the League Cup. Going into November, Leeds hovered just above the relegation zone and no side in the division had conceded more goals. Graham’s miserable start to the job was compounded with a 3–0 defeat away to Arsenal, one of Arsène Wenger’s first games in charge. But soon enough, the Scottish coach’s methods started to bear fruit in a brutally efficient fashion. By the turn of the year, Leeds were unmistakably a George Graham team – risk-averse to the point of parody, yet unarguably solid as a rock. Before Christmas, they went a club-record five games without conceding, with goalless draws in successive outings against Middlesbrough, Tottenham and Everton. Packing the defence with as many bodies as possible, with Lucas Radebe becoming a top-class operator and Nigel Martyn offering a strong argument to be England's No. 1. Leeds had become a defensive powerhouse. It was The Graham Way: at least eight of Leeds' 11 men were focused first and foremost on nullifying the opposition. It invariably worked. They ended the season with 20 clean sheets – a club record for a 38-game season that’s unlikely to be broken. In the end, Leeds scored just 28 goals. Not only did they stay up, but they somehow finished 11th. Where Leeds scored 28 goals in the 1996–97 season, they notched 57 in the 1997–98 season. That one season would prove useful in laying solid organisational foundations for the years to come. Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink was signed in the summer of 1997, scoring 16 Premier League goals, and 22 in all competitions, as Leeds finished 5th during Graham’s one full season in charge, while the club continued their ascent under his former assistant and successor David O'Leary. Graham left Leeds in acrimonious circumstances, returning to London to take over at Tottenham on 1st October 1998. The move came at Leeds' hotel on the island of Madeira following Leeds UEFA Cup first round penalty shootout victory over Portuguese League side Maritimo 29 September 1998. Spurs' Alan Sugar telephoned Leeds chairman Peter Ridsdale, who admitted that after a brief telephone conversation a deal was done, with compensation agreed which would allow Graham to fulfil his wish of returning to London. Graham made no secret of his desire to head back to the capital following Leeds' 3–3 draw with Tottenham in North London on 26 September 1998. He cited family and personal reasons. Tottenham Hotspur Just five months after taking charge of Tottenham Hotspur, he guided the club to victory over Leicester City in the 1999 League Cup Final, and with it a place in the 1999–2000 UEFA Cup. Despite guiding the club to its first trophy in eight seasons, Graham could not achieve a finish higher than tenth in the Premier League. Tottenham reached the last four of the 2000–01 FA Cup with a 3–2 victory over West Ham United 11 March 2001 and Graham was looking forward to pitting his wits against his former club Arsenal in the semi-finals. He was sacked on 16 March 2001, soon after the club had been purchased by ENIC, for alleged breach of contract. The club stated that Graham had been issued "several written warnings prior to his sacking for giving out what was deemed by the club as being private information" before, earlier that week, apparently informing the media he had "a limited budget" for new players and expressing his disappointment with it. This led to his being summoned to a meeting with Spurs executive vice-chairman David Buchler, after which he was dismissed. Buchler subsequently questioned whether Graham had the interests of the club at heart and described his conduct in the meeting as "aggressive and defiant". Graham's legal representatives issued a statement expressing he was "shocked and upset to have been sacked and could not believe such a flimsy excuse was given". It went on to say that Graham "believes ENIC always intended to sack him." Since 2001 Graham has been out of management ever since, concentrating on his career as a football pundit for Sky Sports. However, he was linked with several managerial vacancies after leaving Tottenham. In October 2001, following the dismissal of Peter Taylor at Leicester City, he was linked with that vacancy, but it was filled by Dave Bassett instead. The following season, with Glenn Roeder under fire at the helm of a West Ham United side heading for Premier League relegation, Graham's name was mentioned as a possible replacement, but Roeder actually lasted until the opening weeks of the 2003–04 season and this time there was little mention of Graham's name in the hunt for a successor, which ended with the appointment of Alan Pardew. In the 2003 close season, the resignation of Graham Taylor at Aston Villa saw Graham's name mentioned by the media as a possible successor, but again nothing came of it, with this vacancy being filled by David O'Leary, who had played under Graham at Arsenal and worked as his assistant at Leeds. He and O'Leary had both been mentioned as candidates for the job at Sunderland twice during the 2002–03 season following the departure of Peter Reid in October and Howard Wilkinson in March. Personal life On 16 September 1967, Graham married model Marie Zia at Marylebone Register Office; his close friend Terry Venables acted as his best man and the two players took to the field the same afternoon for opposing teams in a North London derby; the groom's team won 4–0. The couple had two children. The marriage ended in 1988. Graham married Susan Schmidt on 13 December 1998 in Marlow, Buckinghamshire, and live in Hampstead, London. Graham revealed in 2009 that he suffers from arthritis. "I love my golf but because of my arthritis, I've not played much in the last two years, if any. When I was a player, when I had a lot of time on my hands, I got down to an eight handicap. But when I was manager, I went back to 12. I've just taken up tennis and have to say I'm not very good." Career statistics Club Honours Player Chelsea Football League Cup: 1964–65 Arsenal Football League First Division: 1970–71 FA Cup: 1970–71 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup: 1969–70 Manager Millwall Football League Trophy: 1982–83 Football League Third Division promotion: 1984–85 Arsenal Football League First Division: 1988–89, 1990–91 FA Cup: 1992–93 Football League Cup: 1986–87, 1992–93 FA Charity Shield: 1991 (shared) Football League Centenary Trophy: 1988 European Cup Winners' Cup: 1993–94 Tottenham Hotspur Football League Cup: 1998–99 Individual Premier League Manager of the Month: November 1997 Inductions Scottish Football Hall of Fame: 2015 See also List of English football championship winning managers References External links Full Managerial Stats for Leeds United from WAFLL 1944 births Living people Scottish men's footballers Scotland men's international footballers English Football League players North American Soccer League (1968–1984) players Aston Villa F.C. players Chelsea F.C. players Arsenal F.C. players Manchester United F.C. players Portsmouth F.C. players Crystal Palace F.C. players California Surf players Scottish football managers Premier League managers English Football League managers Millwall F.C. managers Arsenal F.C. managers Leeds United F.C. managers Tottenham Hotspur F.C. managers Footballers from North Lanarkshire Scotland men's under-23 international footballers Scottish Football Hall of Fame inductees Men's association football midfielders Men's association football forwards Scottish expatriate sportspeople in the United States Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States Scottish expatriate men's footballers Association football coaches
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild%20Bill%20Hickok
Wild Bill Hickok
James Butler Hickok (May 27, 1837August 2, 1876), better known as "Wild Bill" Hickok, was a folk hero of the American Old West known for his life on the frontier as a soldier, scout, lawman, cattle rustler, gunslinger, gambler, showman, and actor, and for his involvement in many famous gunfights. He earned a great deal of notoriety in his own time, much of it bolstered by the many outlandish and often fabricated tales he told about himself. Some contemporaneous reports of his exploits are known to be fictitious, but they remain the basis of much of his fame and reputation. Hickok was born and raised on a farm in northern Illinois at a time when lawlessness and vigilante activity were rampant because of the influence of the "Banditti of the Prairie". Drawn to this ruffian lifestyle, he headed west at age 18 as a fugitive from justice, working as a stagecoach driver and later as a lawman in the frontier territories of Kansas and Nebraska. He fought and spied for the Union Army during the American Civil War and gained publicity after the war as a scout, marksman, actor, and professional gambler. He was involved in several notable shootouts during the course of his life. In 1876, Hickok was shot and killed while playing poker in a saloon in Deadwood, Dakota Territory (present-day South Dakota) by Jack McCall, an unsuccessful gambler. The hand of cards that he supposedly held at the time of his death has become known as the dead man's hand: two pairs; black aces and eights. Hickok remains a popular figure of frontier history. Many historic sites and monuments commemorate his life, and he has been depicted numerous times in literature, film, and television. He is chiefly portrayed as a protagonist, although historical accounts of his actions are often controversial, and much of his career is known to have been exaggerated both by himself and by contemporary mythmakers. While Hickok claimed to have killed numerous named and unnamed gunmen in his lifetime, his career as a gunfighter only lasted from 1861 to 1871. According to Joseph G. Rosa, Hickok's biographer and the foremost authority on Wild Bill, Hickok killed only six or seven men in gunfights. Early life James Butler Hickok was born May 27, 1837, in Homer, Illinois, (present-day Troy Grove, Illinois) to William Alonzo Hickok, a farmer and abolitionist, and his wife, Polly Butler. Hickok was of English ancestry. James was the fourth of six children. His father was said to have used the family house, now demolished, as a station on the Underground Railroad. William Hickok died in 1852, when James was 15. Hickok was a good shot from a young age, and was recognized locally as an outstanding marksman with a pistol. Photographs of Hickok appear to depict dark hair, but all contemporaneous descriptions affirm that it was red. In 1855, at age 18, James Hickok fled Illinois following a fight with Charles Hudson, during which both fell into a canal; each thought, mistakenly, that he had killed the other. Hickok moved to Leavenworth in the Kansas Territory, where he joined Jim Lane's Free State Army (also known as the Jayhawkers), an antislavery vigilante group active in the new territory during the Bleeding Kansas era. While a Jayhawker, he met 12-year-old William Cody (later known as "Buffalo Bill"), who, despite his youth, served as a scout just two years later for the U.S. Army during the Utah War. Nicknames Hickok used his late father's name, William Hickok, from 1858, and the name William Haycock during the American Civil War. Most newspapers referred to him as William Haycock until 1869. He was arrested while using the name Haycock in 1865. He afterward resumed using his given name, James Hickok. Military records after 1865 list him as Hickok, but note that he was also known as Haycock. In an 1867 article about his shootout with Davis Tutt, his surname was misspelled as Hitchcock. While in Nebraska, Hickok was derisively referred to by one man as "Duck Bill" for his long nose and protruding lips. He was also known before 1861 among Jayhawkers as "Shanghai Bill" because of his height and slim build. He grew a moustache following the McCanles incident, and in 1861 began calling himself "Wild Bill". Early career In 1857, Hickok claimed a tract in Johnson County, Kansas, near present-day Lenexa. On March 22, 1858, he was elected one of the first four constables of Monticello Township. In 1859, he joined the Russell, Majors and Waddell freight company, the parent company of the Pony Express. In 1860, Hickok was badly injured by a bear, while driving a freight team from Independence, Missouri, to Santa Fe, New Mexico. According to Hickok's account, he found the road blocked by a cinnamon bear and its two cubs. Dismounting, he approached the bear and fired a shot into its head, but the bullet ricocheted off its skull, infuriating it. The bear attacked, crushing Hickok with its body. Hickok managed to fire another shot, wounding the bear's paw. The bear then grabbed his arm in its mouth, but Hickok was able to grab his knife and slash its throat, killing it. Hickok was severely injured, with a crushed chest, shoulder, and arm. He was bedridden for four months before being sent to Rock Creek Station in the Nebraska Territory to work as a stable hand while he recovered. There, the freight company had built a stagecoach stop along the Oregon Trail near Fairbury, Nebraska, on land purchased from David McCanles. McCanles shooting On July 12, 1861, David McCanles went to the Rock Creek Station office to demand an overdue property payment from Horace Wellman, the station manager. McCanles reportedly threatened Wellman, and either Wellman or Hickok, who was hiding behind a curtain, killed McCanles. Hickok, Wellman, and another employee, J.W. Brink, were tried for killing McCanles, but were found to have acted in self-defense. McCanles may have been the first man Hickok killed. Hickok subsequently visited McCanles' widow, apologized for the killing, and offered her $35 in restitution, all the money he had with him at the time. Civil War service After the Civil War broke out in April 1861, Hickok became a teamster for the Union Army in Sedalia, Missouri. By the end of 1861, he was a wagon master, but in September 1862, he was discharged for unknown reasons. He then joined General James Henry Lane's Kansas Brigade, and while serving with the brigade, saw his friend Buffalo Bill Cody, who was serving as a scout. In late 1863, Hickok worked for the provost marshal of southwest Missouri as a member of the Springfield detective police. His work included identifying and counting the number of troops in uniform who were drinking while on duty, verifying hotel liquor licenses, and tracking down individuals who owed money to the cash-strapped Union Army. Buffalo Bill claimed that he encountered Hickok disguised as a Confederate officer in Missouri in 1864. Hickok had not been paid for some time, and was hired as a scout by General John B. Sanborn by early 1865. In June, Hickok mustered out and went to Springfield, where he gambled. The 1883 History of Greene County, Missouri described him as "by nature a ruffian ... a drunken, swaggering fellow, who delighted when 'on a spree' to frighten nervous men and timid women." Lawman and scout Duel with Davis Tutt While in Springfield, Hickok and a local gambler named Davis Tutt had several disagreements over unpaid gambling debts and their common affection for the same women. Hickok lost a gold watch to Tutt in a poker game. The watch had great sentimental value to Hickok, so he asked Tutt not to wear it in public. They initially agreed not to fight over the watch, but when Hickok saw Tutt wearing it, he warned him to stay away. On July 21, 1865, the two men faced off in Springfield's town square, standing sideways before drawing and firing their weapons. Their quick-draw duel was recorded as the first of its kind. Tutt's shot missed, but Hickok's struck Tutt through the heart from about away. Tutt called out, "Boys, I'm killed", before he collapsed and died. Two days later, Hickok was arrested for murder. The charge was later reduced to manslaughter. He was released on $2,000 bail and stood trial on August 3, 1865. At the end of the trial, Judge Sempronius H. Boyd told the jury they could not find that Hickok acted in self-defense if he could have reasonably avoided the fight. However, if they felt the threat of danger was real and imminent, he instructed that they could apply the unwritten law of the "fair fight" and acquit. The jury voted to clear Hickok, resulting in public backlash and criticism of the verdict. Several weeks later, an interview Hickok gave to Colonel George Ward Nichols, a journalist who subsequently became known as the creator of the Hickok legend, was published in Harper's New Monthly Magazine. Under the name "Wild Bill Hitchcock", the article recounted the "hundreds" of men whom Hickok had personally killed and other exaggerated exploits. The article was controversial wherever Hickok was known, and several frontier newspapers wrote rebuttals. Deputy U.S. marshal in Kansas In September 1865, Hickok came in second in the election for city marshal of Springfield. Leaving Springfield, he was recommended for the position of deputy federal marshal at Fort Riley, Kansas. This was during the Indian Wars, in which Hickok sometimes served as a scout for General George A. Custer's 7th Cavalry. Henry M. Stanley, of the Weekly Missouri Democrat, reported Hickok to be "an inveterate hater of Indian People", perhaps to enhance his reputation as a scout and American fighter. But separating fact from fiction is difficult considering his recruitment of Indians to cross the nation to appear in his own Wild West show. Witnesses confirm that while working as a scout at Fort Harker, Kansas, on May 11, 1867, Hickok was attacked by a large group of Indians, who fled after he shot and killed two. In July, Hickok told a newspaper reporter that he had led several soldiers in pursuit of Indians who had killed four men near the fort on July 2. He reported returning with five prisoners after killing 10. Witnesses confirm that the story was true to the extent the party had set out to find whoever had killed the four men, but the group returned to the fort "without nary a dead Indian, [never] even seeing a live one". In December 1867, newspapers reported that Hickok had come to stay in Hays City, Kansas. He became a deputy U.S. marshal, and on March 28, 1868, he picked up 11 Union Army deserters who had been charged with stealing government property. Hickok was assigned to bring the men to Topeka for trial, and he requested a military escort from Fort Hays. He was assigned Buffalo Bill Cody, a sergeant, and five privates. They arrived in Topeka on April 2. Hickok remained in Hays through August 1868, when he brought 200 Cheyenne Indians to Hays to be viewed by "excursionists". On September 1, 1868, Hickok was in Lincoln County, Kansas, where he was hired as a scout by the 10th Cavalry Regiment, a segregated African-American unit. On September 4, Hickok was wounded in the foot while rescuing several cattlemen in the Bijou Creek basin who had been surrounded by Indians. The 10th Regiment arrived at Fort Lyon in Colorado in October and remained there for the rest of 1868. Marshal of Hays, Kansas In July 1869, Hickok returned to Hays and was elected city marshal of Hays and sheriff of Ellis County, Kansas, in a special election held on August 23, 1869. Three sheriffs had quit during the previous 18 months. Hickok may have been acting sheriff before he was elected; a newspaper reported that he arrested offenders on August 18, and the commander of Fort Hays wrote a letter to the assistant adjutant general on August 21 in which he praised Hickok for his work in apprehending deserters. The regular county election was held on November 2, 1869. Hickok ran as an Independent; but lost to his deputy, Peter Lanihan, who ran as a Democrat. Hickok and Lanihan, however, remained sheriff and deputy, respectively. Hickok accused a J.V. Macintosh of irregularities and misconduct during the election. On December 9, Hickok and Lanihan both served legal papers on Macintosh, and local newspapers acknowledged that Hickok had guardianship of Hays City. Killings as sheriff In September 1869, his first month as sheriff, Hickok killed two men. The first was Bill Mulvey, who was galloping through town on a rampage, drunk, shooting out mirrors and whisky bottles behind bars. Citizens warned Mulvey to behave, because Hickok was sheriff. Mulvey angrily declared that he had come to town to kill Hickok. When he saw Hickok, he leveled his cocked rifle at him. Hickok waved his hand past Mulvey at some supposed onlookers and yelled, "Don't shoot him in the back; he is drunk." Mulvey wheeled his horse around to face those who might shoot him from behind, and before he realized he had been fooled, Hickok shot him through the temple. The second man killed by Hickok was Samuel Strawhun, a cowboy, who was causing a disturbance in a saloon at 1:00 am on September 27, when Hickok and Lanihan went to the scene. Strawhun "made remarks against Hickok", and Hickok killed him with a shot through the head. Hickok said he had "tried to restore order". At the coroner's inquest into Strawhun's death, despite "very contradictory" evidence from witnesses, the jury found the shooting justifiable. On July 17, 1870, Hickok was attacked by two troopers from the 7th U.S. Cavalry, Jeremiah Lonergan and John Kyle (sometimes spelled Kile), in a saloon. Lonergan pinned Hickok to the ground, and Kyle put his gun to Hickok's ear. When Kyle's weapon misfired, Hickok shot Lonergan, wounding him in the knee, and shot Kyle twice, killing him. Hickok again lost his re-election bid to his deputy. Marshal of Abilene, Kansas On April 15, 1871, Hickok became marshal of Abilene, Kansas. He replaced Tom "Bear River" Smith, who had been killed while serving an arrest warrant on November 2, 1870. Outlaw John Wesley Hardin arrived in Abilene at the end of a cattle drive in early 1871. Hardin was a well-known gunfighter, and is known to have killed more than 27 men. In his 1895 autobiography, published after his death, Hardin claimed to have been befriended by Hickok, the newly elected town marshal, after he had disarmed the marshal using the road agent's spin, but Hardin was known to exaggerate. In any case, Hardin appeared to have thought highly of Hickok. Hickok later said he did not know that "Wesley Clemmons" was Hardin's alias, nor that he was a wanted outlaw. He told Clemmons (Hardin) to stay out of trouble in Abilene and asked him to hand over his guns, and Hardin complied. Hardin alleged that when his cousin, Mannen Clements, was jailed for the killing of two cowhands (Joe and Dolph Shadden) in July 1871, Hickok—at Hardin's request—arranged for his escape. In August 1871, Hickok sought to arrest Hardin for killing Charles Couger in an Abilene hotel "for snoring too loud". Hardin left Kansas before Hickok could arrest him. A newspaper reported, "A man was killed in his bed at a hotel in Abilene, Monday night, by a desperado called Arkansas. The murderer escaped. This was his sixth murder." Shootout with Phil Coe Hickok and Phil Coe, a saloon owner and acquaintance of Hardin's, had a dispute that resulted in a shootout. The Bull's Head Saloon in Abilene had been established by gambler Ben Thompson and Coe, his partner, businessman, and fellow gambler. The two entrepreneurs had painted a picture of a bull with a large erect penis on the side of their establishment as an advertisement. Citizens of the town complained to Hickok, who requested that Thompson and Coe remove the image. They refused, so Hickok altered it himself. Infuriated, Thompson tried to incite John Wesley Hardin to kill Hickok by exclaiming to Hardin that "He's a damn Yankee. Picks on rebels, especially Texans, to kill." Hardin was in town under his assumed name Wesley Clemmons, but was better known to the townspeople by the alias "Little Arkansas". He seemed to have respect for Hickok's abilities and replied, "If Bill needs killing, why don't you kill him yourself?" Hoping to intimidate Hickok, Coe allegedly stated that he could "kill a crow on the wing". Hickok's retort is one of the West's most famous sayings (though possibly apocryphal): "Did the crow have a pistol? Was he shooting back? I will be." On October 5, 1871, Hickok was standing off a crowd during a street brawl when Coe fired two shots. Hickok ordered him to be arrested for firing a pistol within the city limits. Coe claimed that he was shooting at a stray dog, and then suddenly turned his gun on Hickok, who fired first and killed Coe. In another account of the Coe shootout: Theophilus Little, the mayor of Abilene and owner of the town's lumber yard, recorded his time in Abilene by writing in a notebook, which was ultimately given to the Abilene Historical Society. Writing in 1911, he detailed his admiration for Hickok and included a paragraph on the shooting that differs considerably from the reported account: After shooting Coe, Hickok caught a glimpse of someone running toward him and quickly fired two more shots in reaction, accidentally shooting and killing Abilene Special Deputy Marshal Mike Williams, who was coming to his aid. This was the last time Hickok was ever involved in a gunfight; the accidental death of Deputy Williams was an event that haunted Hickok for the remainder of his life. Hickok was relieved of his duties as marshal less than two months after the accidental shooting, this incident being only one of a series of questionable shootings and claims of misconduct during his career. Later life In 1872, Hickok recruited six Native Americans and three cowboys to accompany him to Niagara Falls, where he put on an outdoor demonstration called The Daring Buffalo Chase of the Plains. Since the event was outdoors, he could not compel people to pay, and the venture was a financial failure. The show featured six buffalo, a bear, and a monkey, and one show ended in disaster when a buffalo refused to act, prompting Hickok to fire a bullet into the sky. This angered the buffalo and panicked audience members, causing the animals to break free of their wire fencing and chase audience members, some of whom were trampled. The incident helped contribute to the overall failure of the show. In 1873, Buffalo Bill Cody and Texas Jack Omohundro invited Hickok to join their troupe after their earlier success. Hickok did not enjoy acting, and often hid behind scenery. In one show, he shot the spotlight when it focused on him. He was released from the group after a few months. Eye trouble In 1876, Hickok sought treatment from an eye specialist in Kansas City, Missouri. No definitive diagnosis has survived, but speculation ranges from secondary syphilis to glaucoma. Although he was just 39, his marksmanship and health were apparently in decline, and he had been arrested several times for vagrancy, despite earning a good income from gambling and displays of showmanship only a few years earlier. From 1871 until his death in 1876, Hickok had vision problems. A former cavalryman, J.W. "Doc" Howard, who had known Hickok, stated that Hickok had left Buffalo Bill's Scouts of the Plains exhibition "because the lights affected his eyes, so he had to give it up". Charles Snyder, the Lucien Howe Librarian of Ophthalmology at Harvard Medical School, said "Granular conjunctivitis, ophthalmia, trachoma—call it what you will—was common on the Western Frontier. Jesse James suffered from it." Marriage Hickok met Agnes Thatcher Lake, at the time 45 years old, on July 31, 1871. Lake, a widow and the proprietor of Lake's Hippo-Olympiad circus, arrived in Abilene and went to the office of the town marshal to pay the performance fee. She and the circus departed the next day, but Lake and Hickok continued to correspond. On March 5, 1876, Hickok married Lake in Cheyenne, Wyoming Territory. Hickok left his new bride a few months later, joining Charlie Utter's wagon train to seek his fortune in the gold fields of South Dakota. Shortly before his death, Hickok wrote a letter to his new wife, which read in part, "Agnes Darling, if such should be we never meet again, while firing my last shot, I will gently breathe the name of my wife—Agnes—and with wishes even for my enemies I will make the plunge and try to swim to the other shore." Martha Jane Cannary, known popularly as Calamity Jane, claimed in her autobiography that she was married to Hickok and had divorced him so he could be free to marry Agnes Lake, but no records that support her account have been found. The two possibly met for the first time after Jane was released from the guardhouse in Fort Laramie and joined the wagon train in which Hickok was traveling. The wagon train arrived in Deadwood in July 1876. Jane confirmed this account in an 1896 newspaper interview, although she claimed she had been hospitalized with illness rather than in the guardhouse. Death On August 1, 1876, Hickok was playing poker at Nuttal & Mann's Saloon No. 10 in Deadwood, Dakota Territory. When a seat opened up at the table, a drunk man named Jack McCall sat down to play. McCall lost heavily. Hickok encouraged McCall to quit the game until he could cover his losses and offered to give him money for breakfast. Although McCall accepted the money, he was apparently insulted. The next day, Hickok was playing poker again. He usually sat with his back to a wall so he could see the entrance, but the only seat available when he joined the game was a chair facing away from the door. He twice asked another man at the table, Charles Rich, to change seats with him, but Rich refused. McCall then entered the saloon, walked up behind Hickok, drew his Colt Model 1873 Single Action Army .45-caliber revolver, serial # 2079 as identified by William Massie, the River Boat Captain seated at the table, and shouted, "Damn you! Take that!" before shooting Hickok in the back of the head at point-blank range. Hickok died instantly. The bullet emerged through his right cheek and struck another player, riverboat captain William Massie, in the left wrist. Hickok may have told his friend Charlie Utter and others who were traveling with them that he thought he would be killed while in Deadwood. Hickok was playing five-card stud or five-card draw when he was shot. He was holding two pairs: black aces and black eights (although there is some dispute as to the suit of one of the aces, diamond vs. spade) as his "up cards", which has since become widely known as the "dead man's hand". The identity of the fifth card (his "hole card") is also the subject of debate. Jack McCall's two trials McCall's motive for killing Hickok is the subject of speculation, largely concerning McCall's anger at Hickok's having given him money for breakfast the day before, after McCall had lost heavily. McCall was summoned before an informal "miners' jury" (an ad hoc local group of miners and businessmen). He claimed he was avenging Hickok's earlier slaying of his brother, which may have been true; a man named Lew McCall had indeed been killed by an unknown lawman in Abilene, Kansas, but whether or not the two McCall men were related is unknown. McCall was acquitted of the murder, which prompted editorializing in the Black Hills Pioneer: "Should it ever be our misfortune to kill a man ... we would simply ask that our trial may take place in some of the mining camps of these hills." Calamity Jane is reputed to have led a mob that threatened McCall with lynching, but at the time of Hickok's death, Jane was actually being held by military authorities. After bragging about killing Hickok, McCall was rearrested. The second trial was not considered double jeopardy because of the irregular jury in the first trial and because Deadwood was at the time in unorganized Indian country. The new trial was held in Yankton, the capital of the Dakota Territory. Hickok's brother, Lorenzo Butler, traveled from Illinois to attend the retrial. McCall was found guilty and sentenced to death. Leander Richardson, a reporter, interviewed McCall shortly before his execution, and wrote an article about him for the April 1877 issue of Scribner's Monthly. Lorenzo Butler Hickok spoke with McCall after the trial, and said McCall showed no remorse. Jack McCall was hanged on March 1, 1877, and buried in a Roman Catholic cemetery. The cemetery was moved in 1881, and when McCall's body was exhumed, the noose was found still around his neck. Burial Charlie Utter, Hickok's friend and companion, claimed Hickok's body and placed a notice in the local newspaper, the Black Hills Pioneer, which read: Almost the entire town attended the funeral, and Utter had Hickok buried with a wooden grave marker reading: Hickok is known to have fatally shot six men and is suspected of having killed a seventh (McCanles). Despite his reputation, Hickok was buried in the Ingelside Cemetery, Deadwood's original graveyard. This cemetery filled quickly, and in 1879, on the third anniversary of Hickok's original burial, Utter paid to move Hickok's remains to the new Mount Moriah Cemetery. Utter supervised the move and noted that, while perfectly preserved, Hickok had been imperfectly embalmed. As a result, calcium carbonate from the surrounding soil had replaced the flesh, leading to petrifaction. One of the workers, Joseph McLintock, wrote a detailed description of the reinterment. McLintock used a cane to tap the body, face, and head, finding no soft tissue anywhere. He noted that the sound was similar to tapping a brick wall and believed the remains weighed more than . William Austin, the cemetery caretaker, estimated . This made it difficult for the men to carry the remains to the new site. The original wooden grave marker was moved to the new site, but by 1891, it had been destroyed by souvenir hunters whittling pieces from it, and it was replaced with a statue. This, in turn, was destroyed by souvenir hunters and replaced in 1902 by a life-sized sandstone sculpture of Hickok. This, too, was badly defaced, and was then enclosed in a cage for protection. The enclosure was cut open by souvenir hunters in the 1950s, and the statue was removed. Hickok is currently interred in a square plot at the Mount Moriah Cemetery, surrounded by a cast-iron fence, with a U.S. flag flying nearby. The flag never goes down on Mt. Moriah Cemetery, as Deadwood was granted permission by the U.S. Congress during World War I to fly the flag 24 hours a day to honor all veterans who have served their country. Calamity Jane was reported to have been buried next to Hickok according to her dying wish. Four of the men on the self-appointed committee who planned Calamity's funeral (Albert Malter, Frank Ankeney, Jim Carson, and Anson Higby) later stated that, since Hickok had "absolutely no use" for Jane in this life, they decided to play a posthumous joke on him by laying her to rest by his side. Pistols known to have been carried by Hickok Hickok's favorite guns were a pair of Colt 1851 Navy Model (.36 caliber) cap-and-ball revolvers. They had ivory grips and nickel plating, and were ornately engraved with "J.B. Hickok–1869" on the backstrap. He wore his revolvers butt-forward in a belt or sash (when wearing city clothes or buckskins, respectively), and seldom used holsters; he drew the pistols using a "reverse", "twist", or cavalry draw, as would a cavalryman.As Marshal of Hays, Hickok had a Adams and Deane percussion .44-caliber pistol. At the time of his death, Hickok was wearing a Smith & Wesson Model No. 2 Army revolver, a five-shot, single-action, .32-caliber weapon, innovative as one of the first metallic cartridge firearms and favored by many Union officers during the Civil War. Bonhams auction company offered this pistol at auction on November 18, 2013, in San Francisco, California, described as Hickok's Smith & Wesson No. 2, serial number 29963, a .32 rimfire with a six-inch barrel, blued finish, and varnished rosewood grips. The gun did not sell because the highest bid of $220,000 was less than the reserve set by the gun's owners.A second pistol Hickock had at his death was a Sharps Model 1859 .32-caliber four-barreled rim-fire derrineger. In popular culture Hickok has remained one of the most popular and iconic figures of the American Old West, and is still frequently depicted in popular culture, including literature, film, and television. Paramount Pictures' Western silent film Wild Bill Hickok (released on November 18, 1923) was directed by Clifford Smith and stars William S. Hart as Hickok. A print of the film is maintained in the Museum of Modern Art film archive. The movie The Plainsman (1936), starring Gary Cooper as Hickok, features the alleged romance between Calamity Jane and him as its main plot line. It is a loose adaptation of Hickok's life, ending with his famous aces-and-eights card hand. A later film (1953) and subsequent stage musical, both titled Calamity Jane, also portray a romance between Calamity Jane and Hickok. In the film version, Howard Keel co-stars as Hickok to Doris Day's Calamity Jane. Prairie Schooners is a 1940 American Western film directed by Sam Nelson, which stars Wild Bill Elliott as Hickok. In 1954 an episode of Gunsmoke on CBS radio featured John Dehner as Hickok. Hickok was sent from Abilene to arrest Matt Dillon (William Conrad) for the murder of a man he had thrown out of Dodge earlier that month. In the episode Dillon and Hickok are old friends. The Adventures of Wild Bill Hickok was a 1950s TV series starring Guy Madison and Andy Devine. The White Buffalo (1977), starring Charles Bronson as Hickok, tells a tale of Hickok's hunt for a murderous white buffalo that follows him in his nightmares. A highly fictional film account of Hickok's later years and death, titled Wild Bill (1995), stars Jeff Bridges as Hickok and David Arquette as Jack McCall, and was written and directed by Walter Hill. Also in 1995, he's depicted as a character in an episode of Legend (TV series) by William Russ. The episode correctly relates Hickok's vision problems late in his life, and also includes his murderer, Jack McCall, in a highly fictionalized role. It ends with Hickok surviving the murder attempt due to wearing body armor when shot in the back, then secretly leaving for a ranch in California. Since he was actually shot in the back of the head, that plot element is a complete artifice of the episode writers. A semifictionalized version of Hickok's time as marshal of Abilene, Kansas, titled Hickok (2017), stars Luke Hemsworth as Hickok, Trace Adkins as the Bull's Head Saloon keeper Phil Coe, Kris Kristofferson as Abilene mayor George Knox, and Kaiwi Lyman-Mersereau as John Wesley Hardin. It was written by Michael Lanahan and directed by Timothy Woodward Jr. In the early 1990s ABC television series Young Riders, a fictional account of Pony Express riders, Hickok is portrayed by Josh Brolin. In the HBO series Deadwood (2004–2006), Wild Bill is played by Keith Carradine. Hickok is a playable character in the 2018 board game Deadwood 1876 by Façade Games. Memorials and honorable distinctions Hickok's birthplace is now the Wild Bill Hickok Memorial and is a listed historic site under the supervision of the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency. The town of Deadwood, South Dakota, re-enacts Hickok's murder and McCall's capture every summer evening. In 1979, Hickok was inducted into the Poker Hall of Fame. Notes References Works cited Bird, Roy (1979). "The Custer-Hickok Shootout in Hays City." Real West, May 1979. Buel, James Wilson (1881). Heroes of the Plains, or Lives and Adventures of Wild Bill, Buffalo Bill and Other Celebrated Indian Fighters. St. Louis: Historical Publishing. Clavin, Tom, (2019). Wild Bill: the true story of the American frontier's first gunfighter. St. Martin's Press, New York. . DeMattos, Jack (1980). "Gunfighters of the Real West: Wild Bill Hickok." Real West, June 1980. Fisher, Linda A. and Carrie Bowers (2020). Agnes Lake Thatcher: Queen of the Circus, Wife of a Legend. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. . Hermon, Gregory (1987). "Wild Bill's Sweetheart: The Life of Mary Jane Owens." Real West, February 1987. Matheson, Richard (1996). The Memoirs of Wild Bill Hickok. Jove. . Nichols, George Ward (1867). "Wild Bill." Harper's New Monthly Magazine, February 1867. O'Connor, Richard (1959). Wild Bill Hickok. Garden City, New York: Doubleday. Rosa, Joseph G. (1964, 1974). They Called Him Wild Bill: The Life and Adventures of James Butler Hickok. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. . Rosa, Joseph G. (1977). "George Ward Nichols and the Legend of Wild Bill Hickok." Arizona and the West, Summer 1977. Rosa, Joseph G. (1979). They called Him Wild Bill, The Life and Adventures of James Butler Hickok, University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-1538-2. Rosa, Joseph G. (1979). "J.B. Hickok, Deputy U.S. Marshal." Kansas History: A Journal of the Central Plains, Winter 1979. Rosa, Joseph G. (1982, 1994). The West of Wild Bill Hickok. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. . Rosa, Joseph G. (1982). "Wild Bill and the Timber Thieves." Real West, April 1982. Rosa, Joseph G. (1984). "The Girl and the Gunfighter: A Newly Discovered Photograph of Wild Bill Hickok." Real West, December 1984. Rosa, Joseph G. (1996). Wild Bill Hickok: The Man and His Myth. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. . Rosa, Joseph G. (2003). Wild Bill Hickok Gunfighter: An Account of Hickok's Gunfights. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. . Turner, Thadd M. Wild Bill Hickok: Deadwood City – End of Trail. Universal Publishers, 2001. Wilstach, Frank Jenners (1926). Wild Bill Hickok: The Prince of Pistoleers. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page. External links Wild Bill Hickok collection at Nebraska State Historical Society 1837 births 1876 deaths United States Marshals American town marshals Kansas sheriffs American duellists American folklore American murder victims American poker players American people of English descent Deaths by firearm in South Dakota Gunslingers of the American Old West Kansas Independents Lawmen of the American Old West Nebraska folklore People from Abilene, Kansas People from Deadwood, South Dakota People from Leavenworth, Kansas People from Troy Grove, Illinois People murdered in South Dakota 1876 murders in the United States Poker Hall of Fame inductees Union Army personnel Wild West show performers
377048
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Reconnaissance%20Office
National Reconnaissance Office
The National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) is a member of the United States Intelligence Community and an agency of the United States Department of Defense which designs, builds, launches, and operates the reconnaissance satellites of the U.S. federal government, and provides satellite intelligence to several government agencies, particularly signals intelligence (SIGINT) to the NSA, imagery intelligence (IMINT) to the NGA, and measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) to the DIA. The NRO announced in 2023 that it plans within the following decade to quadruple the number of satellites it operates and increase the number of signals and images it delivers by a factor of ten. NRO is considered, along with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), National Security Agency (NSA), Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), and National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), to be one of the "big five" U.S. intelligence agencies. The NRO is headquartered in Chantilly, Virginia, south of the Washington Dulles International Airport. The Director of the NRO reports to both the Director of National Intelligence and the Secretary of Defense. The NRO's federal workforce is a hybrid organization consisting of some 3,000 personnel including NRO cadre, Air Force, Army, CIA, NGA, NSA, Navy and US Space Force personnel. A 1996 bipartisan commission report described the NRO as having by far the largest budget of any intelligence agency, and "virtually no federal workforce", accomplishing most of its work through "tens of thousands" of defense contractor personnel. From its founding in 1961 the NRO's existence was classified and not revealed publicy until 1992. Mission The National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) develops, builds, launches, and operates space reconnaissance systems and conducts intelligence-related activities for U.S. national security. The NRO also coordinates collection and analysis of information from airplane and satellite reconnaissance by the military services and the Central Intelligence Agency. It is funded through the National Reconnaissance Program, which is part of the National Intelligence Program (formerly known as the National Foreign Intelligence Program). The agency is part of the Department of Defense. The NRO works closely with its intelligence and space partners, which include the National Security Agency (NSA), the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), the United States Strategic Command, the United States Space Command, Naval Research Laboratory, and other agencies and organizations. History The NRO was established on August 25, 1960, after management problems and insufficient progress with the USAF satellite reconnaissance program (see SAMOS and MIDAS). The formation was based on a 25 August 1960 recommendation to President Dwight D. Eisenhower during a special National Security Council meeting, and the agency was to coordinate the USAF and CIA's (and later the navy and NSA's) reconnaissance activities. The NRO's first photo reconnaissance satellite program was the Corona program, the existence of which was declassified February 24, 1995, and which existed from August 1960 to May 1972 (although the first test flight occurred on February 28, 1959). The Corona system used (sometimes multiple) film capsules dropped by satellites, which were recovered mid-air by military craft. The first successful recovery from space (Discoverer XIII) occurred on August 12, 1960, and the first image from space was seen six days later. The first imaging resolution was 8 meters, which was improved to 2 meters. Individual images covered, on average, an area of about . The last Corona mission (the 145th), was launched May 25, 1972, and this mission's last images were taken May 31, 1972. From May 1962 to August 1964, the NRO conducted 12 mapping missions as part of the "Argon" system. Only seven were successful. In 1963, the NRO conducted a mapping mission using higher resolution imagery, as part of the "Lanyard" program. The Lanyard program flew one successful mission. NRO missions since 1972 are classified, and portions of many earlier programs remain unavailable to the public. On August 18, 2000, the National Reconnaissance Office recognized its ten original Founders. They were: William O. Baker, Merton E. Davies, Sidney Drell, Richard L. Garwin, Amrom Harry Katz, James R. Killian, Edwin H. Land, Frank W. Lehan, William J. Perry, Edward M. Purcell. Although their early work was highly classified, this group of men went on to extraordinary public accomplishments, including a Secretary of Defense, a Nobel Laureate, a president of MIT, a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Science, a renowned planetary scientist, and more. Existence The NRO was first mentioned by the press in a 1971 New York Times article. The first official acknowledgement of NRO was a Senate committee report in October 1973, which inadvertently exposed the existence of the NRO. In 1985, a New York Times article revealed details on the operations of the NRO. Despite news coverage of NRO's existence, the United States intelligence community debated for 20 years whether to confirm the reports. The existence of the NRO was declassified on September 18, 1992, by the Deputy Secretary of Defense, as recommended by the Director of Central Intelligence. The brief press release did not mention the word "satellite", and the agency did not confirm for several more years that it launched satellites on rockets. Funding controversy A Washington Post article in September 1995 reported that the NRO had quietly hoarded between $1 billion and $1.7 billion in unspent funds without informing the Central Intelligence Agency, the Pentagon, or Congress. The CIA was in the midst of an inquiry into the NRO's funding because of complaints that the agency had spent $300 million of hoarded funds from its classified budget to build a new headquarters building in Chantilly, Virginia, a year earlier. In total, NRO had accumulated US$3.8 billion (inflation adjusted US$ billion in ) in forward funding. As a consequence, NRO's three distinct accounting systems were merged. The presence of the classified new headquarters was revealed by the Federation of American Scientists who obtained unclassified copies of the blueprints filed with the building permit application. After 9/11 those blueprints were apparently classified. The reports of an NRO slush fund were true. According to former CIA general counsel Jeffrey Smith, who led the investigation: "Our inquiry revealed that the NRO had for years accumulated very substantial amounts as a 'rainy day fund.'" Future Imagery Architecture In 1999 the NRO embarked on a $25 billion project with Boeing entitled Future Imagery Architecture to create a new generation of imaging satellites. In 2002 the project was far behind schedule and would most likely cost $2 billion to $3 billion more than planned, according to NRO records. The government pressed forward with efforts to complete the project, but after two more years, several more review panels and billions more in expenditures, the project was killed in what a New York Times report called "perhaps the most spectacular and expensive failure in the 50-year history of American spy satellite projects." Mid-2000s to present On August 23, 2001, Brian Patrick Regan, a civilian employee of TRW at NRO, was arrested at Dulles International Airport outside Washington while boarding a flight for Zurich. He was carrying coded information about Iraqi and Chinese missile sites. He also had the addresses of the Chinese and Iraqi Embassies in Switzerland and Austria. He was sentenced to life in prison without parole for offering to sell intelligence secrets to Iraq and China. In January 2008, the government announced that a reconnaissance satellite operated by the NRO would make an unplanned and uncontrolled re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere in the next several months. Satellite watching hobbyists said that it was likely the USA-193, built by Lockheed Martin Corporation, which failed shortly after achieving orbit in December 2006. On February 14, 2008, the Pentagon announced that rather than allowing the satellite to make an uncontrolled re-entry while still in one piece, it would instead be shot down by a missile fired from a Navy cruiser. The intercept took place on February 21, 2008, resulting in the satellite breaking up into multiple pieces. In July 2008, the NRO declassified the existence of its Synthetic Aperture Radar satellites, citing difficulty in discussing the creation of the Space-Based Radar with the United States Air Force and other entities. In August 2009, FOIA archives were queried for a copy of the NRO video, "Satellite Reconnaissance: Secret Eyes in Space." The seven-minute video chronicles the early days of the NRO and many of its early programs. It was proposed that the NRO share the imagery of the United States itself with the National Applications Office for domestic law enforcement purposes. The NAO was disestablished in 2009. The NRO is a non-voting associate member of the Civil Applications Committee (CAC). The CAC is an inter-agency committee that coordinates and oversees the Federal- Civil use of classified collections. The CAC was officially chartered in 1975 by the Office of the President to provide Federal- Civil agencies access to National Systems data in support of mission responsibilities. According to Asia Times Online, one important mission of NRO satellites is the tracking of non-US submarines on patrol or on training missions in the world's oceans and seas. At the National Space Symposium in April 2010, NRO director General Bruce Carlson, United States Air Force (Retired) announced that until the end of 2011, NRO is embarking on "the most aggressive launch schedule that this organization has undertaken in the last twenty-five years. There are a number of very large and very critical reconnaissance satellites that will go into orbit in the next year to a year and a half." In 2012, a McClatchy investigation found that the NRO was possibly breaching ethical and legal boundaries by encouraging its polygraph examiners to extract personal and private information from DoD personnel during polygraph tests that were limited to counterintelligence issues. Allegations of abusive polygraph practices were brought forward by former NRO polygraph examiners. In 2014, an inspector general's report concluded that NRO failed to report felony admissions of child sexual abuse to law enforcement authorities. NRO obtained these criminal admissions during polygraph testing but never forwarded the information to police. NRO's failure to act in the public interest by reporting child sexual predators was first made public in 2012 by former NRO polygraph examiners. On August 30, 2019, Donald Trump tweeted an image of “the catastrophic accident during final launch preparations for the Safir SLV Launch at Semnan Launch Site One in Iran”. The image almost certainly came from a satellite known as USA 224, according to Marco Langbroek, a satellite tracker based in the Netherlands. The satellite was launched by the National Reconnaissance Office in 2011. On January 31, 2020, Rocket Lab successfully launched a NROL-151 payload for the NRO. On December 19, 2020, NROL-108 was successfully launched aboard SpaceX's Falcon 9 rocket. On July 15, 2020, NROL-149 was successfully launched aboard the first launch of Northrop Grumman's new Minotaur IV rocket. On April 27, 2021, NROL-82 was successfully launched aboard United Launch Alliance’s Delta IV rocket. On June 15, 2021, NROL-111, a set of three classified satellites, was successfully launched aboard a Northrop Grumman Minotaur I rocket. On July 13, 2022, NROL-162 was launched aboard a Rocket Lab Electron rocket from Mahia, New Zealand. On September 24, 2022, NROL-91 (USA 338) was launched from Vandenberg Space Force Base's Space Launch Complex 6 (SLC-6) aboard a United Launch Alliance Delta IV Heavy. Organization The NRO is part of the Department of Defense. The Director of the NRO is appointed by the President of the United States, by and with the consent of the Senate in accordance with Title 50 of U.S. code. Traditionally, the position was given to either the Under Secretary of the Air Force or the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Space, but with the appointment of Donald Kerr as Director of the NRO in July 2005 the position is now independent. The Agency is organized as follows: Principal Deputy Director of the NRO (PDDNRO) Reports to and coordinates with the DNRO on all NRO activities and handles the daily management of the NRO with decision responsibility as delegated by the DNRO; and, In the absence of the Director, acts on behalf of the DNRO. Deputy Director of the NRO (DDNRO) Senior USAF General Officer. Represents the civilian/uniformed USAF personnel assigned to the NRO; Assists both the DNRO and PDDNRO in the daily direction of the NRO; and, Coordinates activities between the USAF and the NRO. The Corporate Staff Encompasses all those support functions such as legal, diversity, human resources, security/counterintelligence, procurement, public affairs, etc. necessary for the day-to-day operation of the NRO and in support of the DNRO, PDNRO, and DDNRO. Office of Space Launch (OSL) Responsible for all aspects of a satellite launch including launch vehicle hardware, launch services integration, mission assurance, operations, transportation, and mission safety; and, OSL is NRO's launch representative with industry, the USAF, and NASA. Advanced Systems and Technology Directorate (AS&T) Invents and delivers advanced technologies; Develops new sources and methods; and, Enables multi-intelligence solutions. Business Plans and Operations (BPO) Responsible for all financial and budgetary aspects of NRO programs and operations; and, Coordinates all legislative, international, and public affairs communications. Communications Systems Acquisition Directorate (COMM) Supports the NRO by providing communications services through physical and virtual connectivity; and, Enables the sharing of mission-critical information with mission partners and customers. Ground Enterprise Directorate (GED) Provides an integrated ground system that sends timely information to users worldwide. Geospatial Intelligence Systems Acquisition Directorate (GEOINT) Responsible for acquiring NRO's technologically advanced imagery collection systems, which provides geospatial intelligence data to the Intelligence Community and the military. Management Services and Operations (MS&O) Provides services such as facilities support, transportation and warehousing, logistics, and other business support, which the NRO needs to operate on a daily basis. Mission Operations Directorate (MOD) Operates, maintains and reports the status of NRO satellites and their associated ground systems; Manages the 24-hour NRO Operations Center (NROC) which, working with U.S Strategic Command, provides defensive space control and space protection, monitors satellite flight safety, and provides space situational awareness. Mission Integration Directorate (MID) Engages with users of NRO systems to understand their operational and intelligence problems and provide solutions in collaboration with NRO's mission partners. Manages the Tactical Defense Space Reconnaissance (TacDSR) Program to directly answer emerging warfighting intelligence requirements of the Combatant Commands (CCMDs), Services, and other tactical users as funded by the Department of Defense (DoD) Military Intelligence Program (MIP). Signals Intelligence Systems Acquisition Directorate (SIGINT) This directorate builds and deploys NRO's signals intelligence satellite systems that collect communication, electronic, and foreign instrumentation signals intelligence. Systems Engineering Directorate (SED) Provides beginning-to-end systems engineering for all of NRO's systems. Personnel In 2007, the NRO described itself as "a hybrid organization consisting of some 3,000 personnel and jointly staffed by members of the armed services, the Central Intelligence Agency and DOD civilian personnel." Between 2010 and 2012, the workforce is expected to increase by 100. The majority of workers for the NRO are private corporate contractors, with $7 billion of the agency's $8 billion budget going to private corporations. Budget The NRO derives its funding both from the US intelligence budget and the military budget. In 1971, the annual budget was estimated to be around $1 billion in nominal dollars ($ billion real in ). A 1975 report by Congress's Commission on the Organization of the Government for the Conduct of Foreign Policy states that the NRO had "the largest budget of any intelligence agency". By 1994, the annual budget had risen to $6 billion (inflation adjusted $ billion in ), and for 2010 it is estimated to amount to $15 billion (inflation adjusted $ billion in ). This would correspond to 19% of the overall US intelligence budget of $80 billion for FY2010. For Fiscal Year 2012 the budget request for science and technology included an increase to almost 6% (about $600 million) of the NRO budget after it had dropped to just about 3% of the overall budget in the years before. NRO directives and instructions Under the Freedom of Information Act, the NRO declassified a list of secret directives for internal use. The following is a list of the released directives, which are available for download: NROD 10-2 – "National Reconnaissance Office External Management Policy" NROD 10-4 – "National Reconnaissance Office Sensitive Activities Management Group" NROD 10-5 – "Office of Corporate System Engineer Charter" NROD 22-1 – "Office of Inspector General" NROD 22-2 – "Employee Reports of Urgent Concerns to Congress" NROD 22-3 – "Obligations to report evidence of Possible Violations of Federal Criminal Law and Illegal Intelligence Activities" NROD 50-1 – "Executive Order 12333 – Intelligence Activities Affecting United States Persons" NROD 61-1 – "NRO Internet Policy, Information Technology" NROD 82-1a – "NRO Space Launch Management" NROD 110-2 – "National Reconnaissance Office Records and Information Management Program" NROD 120-1 – The NRO Military Uniform Wear Policy NROD 120-2 – "The NRO Awards and Recognition Programs" NROD 120-3 – "Executive Secretarial Panel" NROD 120-4 – "National Reconnaissance Pioneer Recognition Program" NROD 120-5 – "National Reconnaissance Office Utilization of the Intergovernmental Personnel Act Mobility Program" NROD 121-1 – "Training of NRO Personnel" NROI 150-4 – "Prohibited Items in NRO Headquarters Buildings/Property" Coordination with USSPACECOM and USSF At a mid-2019 press event just prior to the establishment of USSPACECOM, then-Air Force General John W. Raymond (set to lead the new command) stated that the NRO will “respond to the direction of the United States Space Command commander” to “protecting and defending those (space) capabilities”. General Raymond further stated that “we [NRO and USSPACECOM] have a shared concept of operations, we have a shared vision and a shared concept of operations. We train together, we exercise together, we man the same C2 center, if you will, at the National Space Defense Center." In December 2019, the United States Space Force (USSF) was established, also helmed by John Raymond, now a Space Force General and Chief of Space Operations (CSO). NRO continued its close relationship with American military space operations, partnering with the Space Force's Space and Missile Systems Center (SMC) to manage the National Security Space Launch (NSSL) program, which uses government and contract spacecraft to launch important government payloads. NSSL supports both the USSF and NRO, as well as the Navy. NRO Director Scolese has characterized his agency as critical to American space dominance, stating that NRO provides “unrivaled situational awareness and intelligence to the best imagery and signals data on the planet.” In August 2021, “Scolese said he, Raymond, and Dickinson recently agreed to a Protect and Defend Strategic Framework covering national security in space and the relationship between DOD and the intelligence community on everything from acquisition to operations”. Technology NRO's technology is likely more advanced than its civilian equivalents. In the 1980s, the NRO had satellites and software that were capable of determining the exact dimensions of a tank gun. In 2012 the agency donated two space telescopes to NASA. Despite being stored unused, the instruments are superior to the Hubble Space Telescope. One journalist observed, "If telescopes of this caliber are languishing on shelves, imagine what they're actually using." Spacecraft The NRO maintains four main satellite constellations: NRO SIGINT constellation NRO GEOINT constellation NRO Communications Relay constellation NRO Reconnaissance constellation The NRO spacecraft include: GEOINT imaging Keyhole series – Imagery intelligence: KH-1, KH-2, KH-3, KH-4, KH-4A, KH-4B Corona (1959–1972) KH-5 – Argon (1961–1962) KH-6— Lanyard (1963) KH-7 – Gambit (1963–1967) KH-8 – Gambit (1966–1984) KH-9 – Hexagon and Big Bird (1971–1986) KH-10 – Dorian (cancelled) KH-11 – Kennan (or Kennen), Crystal, Improved Crystal, Ikon, and Evolved Enhanced CRYSTAL System (1976–2013) Samos – photo imaging (1960–1962) Misty/Zirconic – stealth IMINT Enhanced Imaging System Next Generation Electro-Optical (NGEO), modular system, designed for incremental improvements (in development). GEOINT radar Lacrosse/Onyx – radar imaging (1988–) TOPAZ (1–5) and TOPAZ Block 2 SIGINT Samos-F – SIGINT (1962–1971) Poppy – ELINT program (1962–1971) continuing Naval Research Laboratory's GRAB (1960–1961), PARCAE and Improved PARCAE (1976-2008) Jumpseat (1971–1983) and Trumpet (1994–2008) SIGINT Canyon (1968–1977), Vortex/Chalet (1978–1989) and Mercury (1994–1998) – SIGINT including COMINT Rhyolite/Aquacade (1970–1978), Magnum/Orion (1985–1990), and Mentor (1995–2010) – SIGINT NEMESIS (High Altitude) ORION (High Altitude) RAVEN (High Altitude) INTRUDER (Low Altitude) SIGINT High Altitude Replenishment Program (SHARP) Space communications Quasar, communications relay NROL-1 through NROL-66 – various secret satellites. NROL stands for National Reconnaissance Office Launch. This list is likely to be incomplete, given the classified nature of many NRO spacecraft. NMIS network The NRO Management Information System (NMIS) is a computer network used to distribute NRO data classified as Top Secret. It is also known as the Government Wide Area Network (GWAN). Sentient The Verge published an article in July 2019 describing Sentient as a product of the NRO, which is “an omnivorous analysis tool, capable of devouring data of all sorts, making sense of the past and present, anticipating the future, and pointing satellites toward what it determines will be the most interesting parts of that future”. Locations In October 2008, NRO declassified five mission ground stations: three in the United States, near Washington, D.C.; Aurora, Colorado; and Las Cruces, New Mexico, and a presence at RAF Menwith Hill, UK, and at the Joint Defence Facility Pine Gap, Australia. NRO Headquarters – Chantilly, Virginia National Reconnaissance Operations Center (NROC) Aerospace Data Facility-Colorado (ADF-C) , Buckley Space Force Base, Aurora, Colorado Aerospace Data Facility-East (ADF-E) , Fort Belvoir, Virginia Aerospace Data Facility-Southwest (ADF-SW) , White Sands, New Mexico NRO spacecraft launch offices reside at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, Florida and Vandenberg Space Force Base, California. In popular culture The NRO is featured in Dan Brown's novel Deception Point. Horror roleplaying game Delta Green features the "NRO section DELTA", a fictional black ops counter-intelligence section of the NRO controlled by Majestic 12 to hide the existence of UFOs and the supernatural. The Player characters can be agents of the NRO working with satellite intelligence, although not the ones in the "section DELTA" operations. In the film Mammoth, they are the men in black. Image gallery See also National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Underwater Reconnaissance Office National Technical Means Reconnaissance satellite References External links NRO official website Space-Based Reconnaissance by MAJ Robert A. Guerriero National Security Archive: The NRO Declassified Memo of Declassification of NRO Additional NRO information from the Federation of American Scientists U.S. News & World Report, 8/11/03; By Douglas Pasternak Agency planned exercise on September 11 built around a plane crashing into a building, from Boston.com History of the US high-altitude SIGINT system History of the US reconnaissance system: imagery United States Department of Defense agencies United States intelligence agencies Mass surveillance Organizations established in 1961 Geographic data and information organizations in the United States
377055
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frostbite
Frostbite
Frostbite is a skin injury that occurs when exposed to extremely low temperatures, causing the freezing of the skin or other tissues, commonly affecting the fingers, toes, nose, ears, cheeks and chin areas. Most often, frostbite occurs in the hands and feet. The initial symptoms are typically a feeling of cold and tingling or numbing. This may be followed by clumsiness with a white or bluish color to the skin. Swelling or blistering may occur following treatment. Complications may include hypothermia or compartment syndrome. People who are exposed to low temperatures for prolonged periods, such as winter sports enthusiasts, military personnel, and homeless individuals, are at greatest risk. Other risk factors include drinking alcohol, smoking, mental health problems, certain medications, and prior injuries due to cold. The underlying mechanism involves injury from ice crystals and blood clots in small blood vessels following thawing. Diagnosis is based on symptoms. Severity may be divided into superficial (1st and 2nd degree) or deep (3rd and 4th degree). A bone scan or MRI may help in determining the extent of injury. Prevention consists of wearing proper, fully-covering clothing, avoiding low temperatures and wind, maintaining hydration and nutrition, and sufficient physical activity to maintain core temperature without exhaustion. Treatment is by rewarming, by immersion in warm water (near body temperature) or by body contact, and should be done only when consistent temperature can be maintained so that refreezing is not a risk. Rapid heating or cooling should be avoided since it could potentially cause burning or heart stress. Rubbing or applying force to the affected areas should be avoided as it may cause further damage such as abrasions. The use of ibuprofen and tetanus toxoid is recommended for pain relief or to reduce swelling or inflammation. For severe injuries, iloprost or thrombolytics may be used. Surgery is sometimes necessary. Amputation should be considered a few months after exposure in order to consider whether the extent of injury is permanent damage and thus necessitates drastic treatment. Evidence of frostbite occurring in people dates back 5,000 years. Evidence was documented in a pre-Columbian mummy discovered in the Andes. The number of cases of frostbite is unknown. Rates may be as high as 40% a year among those who mountaineer. The most common age group affected is those 30 to 50 years old. Frostbite has also played an important role in a number of military conflicts. The first formal description of the condition was in 1813 by Dominique Jean Larrey, a physician in Napoleon's army, during its invasion of Russia. Signs and symptoms Areas that are usually affected include cheeks, ears, nose and fingers and toes. Frostbite is often preceded by frostnip. The symptoms of frostbite progress with prolonged exposure to cold. Historically, frostbite has been classified by degrees according to skin and sensation changes, similar to burn classifications. However, the degrees do not correspond to the amount of long term damage. A simplification of this system of classification is superficial (first or second degree) or deep injury (third or fourth degree). First degree First degree frostbite is superficial, surface skin damage that is usually not permanent. Early on, the primary symptom is loss of feeling in the skin. In the affected areas, the skin is numb, and possibly swollen, with a reddened border. In the weeks after injury, the skin's surface may slough off. Second degree In second degree frostbite, the skin develops clear blisters early on, and the skin's surface hardens. In the weeks after injury, this hardened, blistered skin dries, blackens, and peels. At this stage, lasting cold sensitivity and numbness can develop. Third degree In third degree frostbite, the layers of tissue below the skin freeze. Symptoms include blood blisters and "blue-grey discoloration of the skin". In the weeks after injury, pain persists and a blackened crust (eschar) develops. There can be longterm ulceration and damage to growth plates. Fourth degree In fourth degree frostbite, structures below the skin are involved like muscles, tendon, and bone. Early symptoms include a colorless appearance of the skin, a hard texture, and painless rewarming. Later, the skin becomes black and mummified. The amount of permanent damage can take one month or more to determine. Autoamputation can occur after two months. Causes Risk factors The major risk factor for frostbite is exposure to cold through geography, occupation and/or recreation. Inadequate clothing and shelter are major risk factors. Frostbite is more likely when the body's ability to produce or retain heat is impaired. Physical, behavioral, and environmental factors can all contribute to the development of frostbite. Immobility and physical stress (such as malnutrition or dehydration) are also risk factors. Disorders and substances that impair circulation contribute, including diabetes, Raynaud's phenomenon, tobacco and alcohol use. Homeless individuals and individuals with some mental illnesses may be at higher risk. Mechanism Freezing In frostbite, cooling of the body causes narrowing of the blood vessels (vasoconstriction). Prolonged exposure to temperatures below may cause ice crystals to form in the tissues, and prolonged exposure to temperatures below may cause ice crystals to form in the blood. Ice crystals can damage small blood vessels at the site of injury. Typically, prolonged exposure to temperatures below may cause frostbite. Rewarming Rewarming causes tissue damage through reperfusion injury, which involves vasodilation, swelling (edema), and poor blood flow (stasis). Platelet aggregation is another possible mechanism of injury. Blisters and spasm of blood vessels (vasospasm) can develop after rewarming. Non-freezing cold injury The process of frostbite differs from the process of non-freezing cold injury (NFCI). In NFCI, temperature in the tissue decreases gradually. This slower temperature decrease allows the body to try to compensate through alternating cycles of closing and opening blood vessels (vasoconstriction and vasodilation). If this process continues, inflammatory mast cells act in the area. Small clots (microthrombi) form and can cut off blood to the affected area (known as ischemia) and damage nerve fibers. Rewarming causes a series of inflammatory chemicals such as prostaglandins to increase localized clotting. Pathophysiology The pathological mechanism by which frostbite causes body tissue injury can be characterized by four stages: Prefreeze, freeze-thaw, vascular stasis, and the late ischemic stage. Prefreeze phase: involves the cooling of tissues without ice crystal formation. Freeze-thaw phase: ice-crystals form, resulting in cellular damage and death. Vascular stasis phase: marked by blood coagulation or the leaking of blood out of the vessels. Late ischemic phase: characterized by inflammatory events, ischemia and tissue death. Diagnosis Frostbite is diagnosed based on signs and symptoms as described above, and by patient history. Other conditions that can have a similar appearance or occur at the same time include: Frostnip is similar to frostbite, but without ice crystal formation in the skin. Whitening of the skin and numbness reverse quickly after rewarming. Trench foot is damage to nerves and blood vessels that results from exposure to cold wet (non-freezing) conditions. This is reversible if treated early. Pernio or chilblains are inflammation of the skin from exposure to wet, cold (non-freezing) conditions. They can appear as various types of ulcers and blisters. Bullous pemphigoid is a condition that causes itchy blisters over the body that can mimic frostbite. It does not require exposure to cold to develop. Levamisole toxicity is a vasculitis that can appear similar to frostbite. It is caused by contamination of cocaine by levamisole. Skin lesions can look similar those of frostbite, but do not require cold exposure to occur. People who have hypothermia often have frostbite as well. Since hypothermia is life-threatening this should be treated first. Technetium-99 or MR scans are not required for diagnosis, but might be useful for prognostic purposes. Prevention The Wilderness Medical Society recommends covering the skin and scalp, taking in adequate nutrition, avoiding constrictive footwear and clothing, and remaining active without causing exhaustion. Supplemental oxygen might also be of use at high elevations. Repeated exposure to cold water makes people more susceptible to frostbite. Additional measures to prevent frostbite include: Avoiding temperatures below −23 °C (-9 °F) Avoiding moisture, including in the form of sweat and/or skin emollients Avoiding alcohol and drugs that impair circulation or natural protective responses Layering clothing Using chemical or electric warming devices Recognizing early signs of frostnip and frostbite Treatment Individuals with frostbite or potential frostbite should go to a protected environment and get warm fluids. If there is no risk of re-freezing, the extremity can be exposed and warmed in the groin or underarm of a companion. If the area is allowed to refreeze, there can be worse tissue damage. If the area cannot be reliably kept warm, the person should be brought to a medical facility without rewarming the area. Rubbing the affected area can also increase tissue damage. Aspirin and ibuprofen can be given in the field to prevent clotting and inflammation. Ibuprofen is often preferred to aspirin because aspirin may block a subset of prostaglandins that are important in injury repair. The first priority in people with frostbite should be to assess for hypothermia and other life-threatening complications of cold exposure. Before treating frostbite, the core temperature should be raised above 35 °C. Oral or intravenous (IV) fluids should be given. Other considerations for standard hospital management include: wound care: blisters can be drained by needle aspiration, unless they are bloody (hemorrhagic). Aloe vera gel can be applied before breathable, protective dressings or bandages are put on. antibiotics: if there is trauma, skin infection (cellulitis) or severe injury tetanus toxoid: should be administered according to local guidelines. Uncomplicated frostbite wounds are not known to encourage tetanus. pain control: NSAIDs or opioids are recommended during the painful rewarming process. Rewarming If the area is still partially or fully frozen, it should be rewarmed in the hospital with a warm bath with povidone iodine or chlorhexidine antiseptic. Active rewarming seeks to warm the injured tissue as quickly as possible without burning. The faster tissue is thawed, the less tissue damage occurs. According to Handford and colleagues, "The Wilderness Medical Society and State of Alaska Cold Injury Guidelines recommend a temperature of 37–39 °C, which decreases the pain experienced by the patient whilst only slightly slowing rewarming time." Warming takes 15 minutes to 1 hour. The faucet should be left running so the water can circulate. Rewarming can be very painful, so pain management is important. Medications People with potential for large amputations and who present within 24 hours of injury can be given TPA with heparin. These medications should be withheld if there are any contraindications. Bone scans or CT angiography can be done to assess damage. Blood vessel dilating medications such as iloprost may prevent blood vessel blockage. This treatment might be appropriate in grades 2–4 frostbite, when people get treatment within 48 hours. In addition to vasodilators, sympatholytic drugs can be used to counteract the detrimental peripheral vasoconstriction that occurs during frostbite. A systematic review and metaanalysis revealed that iloprost alone or iloprost plus recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) may decrease amputation rate in case of severe frostbite in comparison to buflomedil alone with no major adverse events reported from iloprost or iloprost plus rtPA in the included studies. Surgery Various types of surgery might be indicated in frostbite injury, depending on the type and extent of damage. Debridement or amputation of necrotic tissue is usually delayed unless there is gangrene or systemic infection (sepsis). This has led to the adage "Frozen in January, amputate in July". If symptoms of compartment syndrome develop, fasciotomy can be done to attempt to preserve blood flow. Prognosis Tissue loss and autoamputation are potential consequences of frostbite. Permanent nerve damage including loss of feeling can occur. It can take several weeks to know what parts of the tissue will survive. Time of exposure to cold is more predictive of lasting injury than temperature the individual was exposed to. The classification system of grades, based on the tissue response to initial rewarming and other factors is designed to predict degree of longterm recovery. Grades Grade 1: if there is no initial lesion on the area, no amputation or lasting effects are expected Grade 2: if there is a lesion on the distal body part, tissue and fingernails can be destroyed Grade 3: if there is a lesion on the intermediate or near body part, auto-amputation and loss of function can occur Grade 4: if there is a lesion very near the body (such as the carpals of the hand), the limb can be lost. Sepsis and/or other systemic problems are expected. A number of long term sequelae can occur after frostbite. These include transient or permanent changes in sensation, paresthesia, increased sweating, cancers, and bone destruction/arthritis in the area affected. Epidemiology There is a lack of comprehensive statistics about the epidemiology of frostbite. In the United States, frostbite is more common in northern states. In Finland, annual incidence was 2.5 per 100,000 among civilians, compared with 3.2 per 100,000 in Montreal. Research suggests that men aged 30–49 are at highest risk, possibly due to occupational or recreational exposures to cold. History Frostbite has been described in military history for millennia. The Greeks encountered and discussed the problem of frostbite as early as 400 BCE. Researchers have found evidence of frostbite in humans dating back 5,000 years, in an Andean mummy. Napoleon's Army was the first documented instance of mass cold injury in the early 1800s. According to Zafren, nearly 1 million combatants fell victim to frostbite in the First and Second World Wars, and the Korean War. Society and culture Several notable cases of frostbite include: Captain Lawrence Oates, an English army captain and Antarctic explorer who in 1912 died of complications of frostbite Harold Bride, the junior wireless operator of , who suffered severe frostbite on his feet as he and other survivors stood for over an hour on the back of a capsized lifeboat knee-deep in freezing water—Bride had to be carried off from the rescue vessel after it arrived in New York Noted American rock climber Hugh Herr, who in 1982 lost both legs below the knee to frostbite after being stranded on Mount Washington (New Hampshire) in a blizzard Beck Weathers, a survivor of the 1996 Mount Everest disaster who lost his nose and hands to frostbite Scottish mountaineer Jamie Andrew, who in 1999 had all four limbs amputated due to sepsis from frostbite sustained after becoming trapped for four nights whilst climbing Les Droites in the Mont Blanc massif Research directions Evidence is insufficient to determine whether or not hyperbaric oxygen therapy as an adjunctive treatment can assist in tissue salvage. Cases have been reported, but no randomized control trial has been performed on humans. Medical sympathectomy using intravenous reserpine has also been attempted with limited success. Studies have suggested that administration of tissue plasminogen activator (tPa) either intravenously or intra-arterially may decrease the likelihood of eventual need for amputation. References External links Mayo Clinic Definition Mountaineering and health Skin conditions resulting from physical factors Weather and health Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Wilderness medical emergencies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buick%20Skylark
Buick Skylark
The Buick Skylark is a passenger car formerly produced by Buick. The model was made in six production runs, during 46 years, over which the car's design varied dramatically due to changing technology, tastes, and new standards implemented over the years. It was named for the species of bird called skylark. The Skylark name first appeared on a limited production luxury convertible using the Buick Roadmaster's chassis for two years, then was reintroduced in 1961 as a higher luxury content alternative to the entry-level Buick Special on which the Skylark was based upon. It was then positioned as Buick's luxury performance model when the Buick GSX was offered. As GM began downsizing during the late 1970s, the Skylark became the entry-level model when the Special nameplate was used as a trim package designation, then in the 1980s was offered as a front-wheel-drive vehicle where it was both a coupe and sedan for three different generations. 1953–1954 Created to mark Buick's 50th anniversary, the Roadmaster Skylark joined the Oldsmobile 98 Fiesta and Cadillac Series 62 Eldorado as top-of-the-line, limited-production specialty convertibles introduced in 1953 by General Motors to promote its design leadership. Of the three, the Skylark's run of 1,690 units proved the most successful, and an amazing sales feat considering the car's 1953 list price of slightly in excess of US$5,000 ($ in dollars ) was over 50% more than the well-equipped US$3,200 Roadmaster convertible on which it was based ($ in dollars ). It was comparable in price to the 1953 Packard Caribbean with a similar retail price. Production ran for two years. Based on the model 76R two-door Roadmaster convertible, the 1953 Skylark (designated model 76X) had identical dimensions (except height), almost identical appearance, shared its drive train, and had all its standard equipment, plus its few remaining options, including power windows, power brakes, full carpeting, and a "Selectronic" AM radio. Only air conditioning was not offered, unnecessary in either convertible. Importantly, the new Skylark featured Buick's new 322 in3 (5.3 L) Fireball V8 in place of the automaker's longstanding straight 8, and a 12-volt electrical system, both division firsts. It debuted full-cutout wheel openings, a styling cue that spread to the main 1954 Buick line. Accenting its lowered, notched beltline was a new "Sweepspear" running almost the entire length of the vehicle, a styling cue that was to appear in various forms on many Buick models over the years. The 1953 Skylark was handmade in many respects. Only stampings for the hood, trunk lid, and a portion of the convertible tub were shared with the Roadmaster and Super convertibles. All Skylark tubs were finished with various amounts of lead filler. The inner doors were made by cutting the 2-door Roadmaster's in two then welding the pieces back together at an angle to produce the rakish door dip. An overall more streamlined look was reinforced by cutting the windshield almost shorter and lowering the side windows and convertible top frame proportionately. Seat frames and steering column were then dropped to provide proper headroom and driving position. Front legroom was . Authentic wire wheels were produced by Kelsey-Hayes, chromed everywhere except the plated and painted "Skylark" center emblem. The Skylark returned in 1954 with radically restyled styling unique to the Buick line, which included wheel cutouts that could be painted in a contrasting color to the body's. The trunk was sloped into a semi-barrel, and tail lights moved to large chromed fins projecting atop the rear fenders. Re-designated model 100, the car was based on the all-new shorter Century/Special series 40 chassis and not the larger series 60 Roadmaster/Super chassis, also all-new for 1954. Once again, all Skylarks were built as 2-door convertibles and carried the same luxury equipment as before, but front leg room dropped . While smaller and lighter, the Skylark received a performance boost by retaining the big Buicks' powertrain, an evolutionary improvement of 1953's with the highest output in the division's lineup. The 1954 Skylark once again had unique sheet metal stampings for its elongated wheel cutouts and new semi-barrel trunk, though fabrication was done without hand labor. The hood ornament was unique, adopted the following year across the Buick product line. Sales proved to be poor, reflecting the Skylark's continued high price of US$4,843 ($ in dollars ) coupled with a perceived step-down from the Roadmaster/Super series using the Century's chassis, slumping far enough to cause the model's cancellation at the end of the 1954 model year, with only 836 being manufactured. 1961–1963 In the fall of 1960, General Motors introduced a trio of new compact cars for the 1961 model year that shared the same chassis, engines, and basic sheet metal: the Buick Special, Pontiac Tempest, and Oldsmobile F-85. The Special's styling was strongly influenced by the new corporate look shared with the larger LeSabre, Invicta, and Electra also introduced in 1961. In the middle of the 1961 model year the Buick Special Skylark made its debut. Effectively a luxury trim level, it was based on a two-door sedan (also referred to as a coupe), it featured unique Skylark emblems, taillight housings, lower-body side moldings, turbine wheel covers, and a vinyl-covered roof. 1961 Skylarks featured three Ventiports on each fender. A plush "Cordaveen" all-vinyl interior was standard, with bucket seats available as an option. Instrumentation was minimal, consisting of only a speedometer and fuel gauge. The Skylark replaced the Special's standard aluminum block two-barrel carburetor V8 with a higher compression ratio four-barrel version that boosted power from at 4600 rpm to . For the 1962 model year, the Skylark became a model in its own right. It used the previous year's basic sheet metal but was available in two new body styles: a two-door convertible coupe (shared with the Special and Special Deluxe models) and a two-door (pillarless) hardtop unique to it. Tuning of the 215-cubic-inch V8 increased power to at 4800 rpm. In 1962, the Skylark Special was also the first American car to use a V6 engine in volume production; it earned Motor Trends Car of the Year for 1962. This 198 cid Fireball V6 was engineered down from the 215 and used many of the same design parameters, but was cast in iron. Output was 135 hp (gross) at 4600 rpm and at 2400 rpm. In their test that year, Road & Track was impressed with Buick's "practical" new V6, saying it "sounds and performs exactly like the aluminum V8 in most respects." In 1963, the Special's body was restyled and minor changes made to the interior, particularly to the dash and instrument cluster. The 1963 Special was available as a two-door pillared hardtop coupe, a four dour sedan, a convertible, and a station wagon. Engine choices were a standard V6 with a twin-barrel carburetor and an optional V8 with (two-barrel) or more powerful four-barrel ( in 1962, in 1963). Transmission choices were a 'three on the tree' manual transmission, a floor shift Borg-Warner T-10 four-speed manual, or a two-speed Turbine Drive automatic. The two speed "Dual Path Turbine Drive" automatic was a Buick design and shared no common parts with the better known Chevrolet Power-Glide transmission. Two prototypes were made for 1962, each with a unique body. One a convertible and the other a hardtop. The prototypes came directly from Buick Engineering, both had been given two 4-barrel carburetors by the engineers thus increasing the prototype's horsepower a little more than 80 hp. They had features from the '61, '62, and the '63 production models. Some features, such as the two 4-barrel carburetors, were left out of the production-line Skylarks. The prototypes were also longer, and wider than the production models. Of the two prototypes, only the hardtop still exists and resides with its owner in Michigan. It is possible the convertible prototype still exists in the Sloan Museum collection. The 1963 Skylarks used the same chassis and wheelbase as the previous 1961 and 1962 models, but adopted new sheet metal that featured boxier styling. Length was increased by to , and the 215-cubic-inch V8 generated at 5,000 rpm. The 1963 Skylark was available as a two-door convertible coupe or a two-door (pillarless) hardtop coupe. The 1963 Special shared most sheet metal with the Skylark, but was available as a convertible, station wagon as well as two- and four-door sedans. Engine choices included a V6 with two-barrel carburetor, the V8 with two-barrel or a four-barrel carburetor. Transmission choices were a "three on the tree" manual transmission, a floor-shifted Borg-Warner T-10 four-speed manual, or a two-speed automatic. The two-speed "Dual Path Turbine Drive" automatic was a Buick design and shared no common parts with the Chevrolet Power-Glide transmission. Instrument panel padding and a cigarette lighter was standard. First generation (1964–1967) Beginning with the 1964 model year, the Skylark trim level had enough sales to merit its own separate line. Along with the lower-priced Special from which it was derived, the model would move to a new wheelbase intermediate-size chassis shared with the Oldsmobile F-85, Pontiac Tempest, and new Chevrolet Chevelle. Both Buicks had a length of . The standard 215-cubic-inch displacement, aluminum-block V8 engine was discontinued (and the associated tooling eventually sold to the British manufacturer Rover, who produced it as the Rover V8 engine until 2006). In its place was a new all-cast-iron V6 with a Rochester 1-barrel carburetor that generated at 4400 rpm. It is an enlarged version of the prior V6 introduced for the 1962 model year. The basic V8 option was a 300-cubic-inch, with cast-iron block, aluminum heads, and a Rochester 2-barrel carburetor that generated at 4600 rpm. A high performance version was offered with 11:1 compression and a 4-barrel carburetor, generating . The V6 and V8 were of similar design and shared the same bore and stroke. A long-throw Hurst shifter was available for the four-speed manual transmission. For the 1965 model, cast-iron blocks and heads were used for all engines. For the first time, a four-door sedan was offered in addition to the two-door convertible, two-door sedan, and hardtop coupe. Specials and Special Deluxes only came in pillared coupe versions. All Skylarks would have higher levels of exterior and interior trim than the Special and Special Deluxe from which they were derived. The sedan would come with cloth-and-vinyl seats standard, with an all-vinyl "Cordaveen" interior optional. All-vinyl bucket seats were standard on the convertible and optional on the hardtop coupe. The Skylark Coupe had a lower, more road-hugging profile than the other models. Buick's traditional VentiPorts were integrated into the front half rub strip that ran the entire length of the vehicle, with later versions appearing vertically stacked as on the Buick Wildcat. Inspired by the sales success of the 1964 Pontiac Tempest, LeMans, and GTO, a Gran Sport option became available in mid-1965, offered as a coupe, hardtop or convertible. The Gran Sport featured Buick's 401-cubic-inch V8 with a Carter 4-barrel carburetor that produced at 4400 rpm, listed as 400 cubic inches in sales literature to elude a General Motors limit of 400 cubic inches in intermediate-sized cars. Unique Gran Sport badging, a heavy-duty radiator, and dual exhaust were also added. In the 1966 model year, the pillared four-door sedan was replaced by a four-door hardtop. The 1966 two-door Skylark was available with the optional 340-cubic-inch "Wildcat 375", engine which produced and torque with a 4-barrel Carter carb. The four-door sedan would rejoin the lineup for the 1967 model year, making a total of five Skylark body styles. The 225 V6 was standard on the two-door sedan, the 300-cubic-inch V8 on all other models, but the four-door hardtop sedan, which came with a 340-cubic-inch V8 engine using a Rochester 2-barrel carburetor and producing at 4400 rpm. In 1967 Skylarks included the Federally-mandated safety equipment as other U.S. market passenger cars, including a dual-circuit hydraulic brake system, energy-absorbing steering column and wheel, 4-way hazard flashers, shoulder belt mounting points for outboard front passengers, softer interior surfaces, and recessed controls on the instrument panel. The Gran Sport became the Gran Sport 400 to reflect its engine. A Gran Sport 340 was added, using the 340-cubic-inch V8, available only as a two-door hardtop coupe. Second generation (1968–1972) The 1968 model year was one of significant change for the Buick Skylark. Although still using the same basic chassis, all of GM's mid-sized cars adopted a policy of using two different length wheelbases. Two-door models used a shorter wheelbase of , while four-door models used a longer wheelbase of 116 in (the Buick Sport Wagon and Oldsmobile Vista Cruiser used an even longer wheelbase of 121 in). All of GM's mid-sized cars received all-new sheet metal, incorporating a semi-fastback appearance, which was a revival of a streamlining on all GM products from 1942 until 1950 as demonstrated on the Buick Super Club Coupe (sedanette), that showed influences from the restyled Riviera. More Federally mandated safety features improved occupant protection and accident avoidance, including side marker lights, shoulder belts (on all models built after January 1, 1968), and parking lights that illuminated with headlights. The Buick Gran Sport, previously an option package available on the Skylark, became a separate series, starting with the 340 hp/440 lbs torque 400 c.i.d. V8 1968 GS 400, using the 2 door Skylark body and chassis. In a reshuffling of models in the lineup, the Special Deluxe replaced the previous Special. The Skylark nameplate was shuffled down a notch to replace the previous Special Deluxe. The previous Skylark was replaced by a new Skylark Custom. The basic Skylark was available as a two-door hardtop coupe or a four-door sedan. The Skylark Custom came as a two-door convertible coupe, two-door hardtop coupe, four-door hardtop sedan, or four-door sedan. The previous V6 was discontinued and the associated tooling was sold to Kaiser Industries, which used the V6 in its Jeep trucks and sport utility vehicles. The base engine in Buick Skylarks (and Buick Special sedans) became a 250-cubic-inch Chevrolet I6, that produced at 4200 rpm using a single-barrel Rochester carburetor. Optional on the Skylark and standard on the Skylark Custom was a new 350-cubic-inch V8 derived from the 340, using a two-barrel Rochester carburetor that produced at 4400 rpm. The Buick Special name was dropped after the 1969 model year. A locking steering column with a new, rectangular ignition key became standard on all 1969 GM cars (except Corvair), one year ahead of the Federal requirement. For 1970, the mid-sized Buicks once again received new sheet metal and the Buick Skylark name was moved down another notch, replacing the previous entry-level Buick Special. It was available in two- and four-door sedans with the 250-cubic-inch inline-six as standard and the optional 350-cubic-inch V8 (260 horsepower at 4600 rpm). Two-door models shared their roofline with the 1970 Chevelle, distinct from that of the shared Pontiac LeMans and Oldsmobile Cutlass. The two-door sedan was unique to Buick, sharing its roofline as the hardtop but having a thick "B" pillar, with Buick's traditional "Sweepspear" feature appearing as a crease running the length of the vehicle. Chevrolet did not offer a pillared coupe for the Chevelle from 1970 to 1972; all two-doors were hardtops. Replacing the previous Buick Skylark was the Buick Skylark 350, available as a two-door hardtop coupe or four-door sedan with the 350-cubic-inch V8 as standard equipment. This 350-cubic-inch engine was a different design than the Chevy's 350 CID engine (4.000 in × 3.48 in) the Buick design had a longer stroke and smaller bore (3.80 X 3.85 in) allowing for lower-end torque, deep-skirt block construction, higher nickel-content cast iron, crank main journals, and connecting rods, the distributor was located in front of the engine (typical of Buick), the oil pump was external and mounted in the front of the engine, the rocker arm assembly had all rocker arms mounted on a single rod and were not adjustable. The Skylark Custom continued to be available, also using the 350-cubic-inch V8 as standard equipment and still available as a two-door convertible coupe, two-door hardtop coupe, four-door hardtop sedan, and four-door sedan. Buick Gran Sport models continued to be available as a separate series. The Buick Sport Wagon name was now used on a conventional four-door station wagon that no longer featured a raised roof with glass panels over the cargo area, or a longer wheelbase, as in the past. It now used the same wheelbase as the Buick Skylark four-door sedan and the now-discontinued Buick Special four-door Station Wagon. It became, in effect, a Buick Skylark four-door station wagon in all respects but the name. For the 1971 model year, the base Skylark was available only with the inline-6, now only putting out due to emission control devices, but in a two-door hardtop coupe body-style (in addition to the previous two- and four-door sedans). The Skylark 350 had a V8 engine that put out only . It was now available as a two-door sedan in addition to the previous two-door hardtop coupe and four-door sedan. 1972 was the last model year for the mid-sized Buick Skylark. During this model year many pollution controls were added to the engines, Compression was lowered, engines had to accept leaded and unleaded gas, and spark timing was retarded (no vacuum advance in lower gears) while driving in lower gears to reduce emissions. For 1972, the base Buick Skylark used the 350-cubic-inch V8 with the 2-barrel Rochester carburetor (now putting out 145 horsepower) as standard equipment. A new federally mandated system to calculate power was put into effect that year, and the actual engine performance was probably comparable but slightly lower because of pollution controls in the 1972 model year to the that was listed for the previous year. The Skylark 350 now used a version of the same V8 engine as the base Skylark, but with a 4-barrel Rochester carburetor that generated . Skylark Customs were available with the same 350-cubic-inch V8 engines available in the basic Skylark and the Skylark 350. The Custom had an upgraded interior and dash with some extra chrome. Convertibles only came in the Skylark Customs and the Skylark 350s. Engines 225 in3 (3.7 L) V6 (1964–67) 250 in3 (4.1 L) I6 (1968–71), supplied by Chevrolet 300 in3 (4.9 L) V8 (1964–67, 1964–65 Sport Wagon) 340 in3 (5.6 L) V8 (1967 Skylark 4-Door Hardtop Sedan, 1967 GS 340, 1966–67 Sport Wagon) 350 in3 (5.7 L) V8 (1968–72, 1968–72 Sport Wagon, 1968–69 California Gran Sport, 1968–69 Gran Sport 350, 1970–71 Gran Sport, 1972 Gran Sport 350) 400 in3 (6.6 L) V8 (1967–69 GS 400, 1968–69 Sport Wagon 400) 455 in3 (7.5 L) V8 (1970–72 Gran Sport 455) (1973–1974) Skylark Hiatus For 1973, GM redesigned the A-body platform, but Buick dropped the Skylark nameplate and revived one of its old ones for their mid-size: the "Century". The Century Estate replaced the Buick Sport Wagon. The Century inherited the Gran Sport performance option, but the Gran Sport name was once again reduced to being an option package. Third generation (1975–1979) When GM's compact X-body platform was extensively restyled for the 1975 model year, Buick retained the Apollo name for their four-door sedan, while their two-doors (hatchback and sedan) were both rechristened "Skylark". Both the Apollo and the Skylark were available in Base and S/R versions; the S/R (Sports/Rallye) being European-inspired and more upscale. The Skylark sedan was also available as a very plain, lower-priced Skylark "S" with minimal interior and exterior trim. Gone since 1968, the "VentiPorts" design element reappeared, integrated into the front half of the rub strip that ran the length of the vehicle. The standard engine for the Buick Skylarks was Buick's own 231-cubic-inch (3.8 L) V6 engine with a 2-barrel carburetor creating at 4000 rpm. Buick purchased back the tooling for the engine from American Motors, which acquired them when the company purchased the Kaiser Jeep division from Kaiser Industries. The Apollo used Chevrolet's 250-cubic-inch (4.1 L) inline 6-cylinder engine. Optional engines included the Oldsmobile 260-cubic-inch (4.3 L) V8 with a two-barrel carburetor producing at 4,000 rpm, and the Buick 350-cubic-inch (5.7 L) V8 with either a 2- or 4-barrel carburetor. In 1976, the 5.7 L V8 engines produced at 3,200 rpm with the 2-barrel carburetor, and at 3,400 rpm with the 4-barrel carburetor. Beginning with the 1976 model year, the four-door sedans used the Skylark and Skylark S/R names instead of the previous Apollo badge, and came with the 3.8 L V6 engine as standard. The 260-cubic-inch (4.3 L) V8 was discontinued after the 1976 model year. For the 1977 model year, it was replaced by a pair of V8 engines. The grille was also modified lightly for 1977, without the horizontal division and with a somewhat heavier appearance. To commemorate the Bicentennial of the United States, the standard colors available on all Buicks were Judicial Black, Liberty White, Pewter Gray, Potomac Blue, Continental Blue, Concord Green, Constitution Green, Mount Vernon Cream, Buckskin Tan, Musket Brown, Boston Red and Independence Red, with specially available colors on select models Congressional Cream, Revere Red, Colonial Yellow and Firecracker Orange. Available as an option in 1977 was a 301-cubic-inch (4.9 L) V8 with a 2-barrel carburetor, which produced at 4000 rpm (supplied by Pontiac). Also available was a 305-cubic-inch (5.0 L) V8 with a 2-barrel carburetor, which produced at 3800 rpm (supplied by Chevrolet). The Buick-built 5.7 L V8 was still available, but only with the 4-barrel carburetor. Beginning with the 1978 model year, Chevrolet's 5.7 L (350-cubic-inch) V8 with a four-barrel carburetor, which produced at 3,800 rpm, also was available. Also in that year, the Skylark Custom replaced the Skylark S/R as the most luxurious variant. The 1978s also received some very light cosmetic changes to the corner lights and grille. The 1979 model year saw the discontinuance of the Skylark Custom two-door hatchback coupe (the base V6 produced more than 1978's version). The 1979 model year was short because, midway through it, the all-new 1980 models were introduced early. Buick Skylarks in Iran Buick Skylarks were assembled in Iran (four-door sedans only) from 1977 to 1981 and again from 1986 to 1988 under the brand name of "Buick Iran". The first generations were known as B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, from 1977 until 1981, and the second and last generation was known as the B2 and B3 from 1986 until 1988. The later models were made after GM released the kits and parts to Iran following the GM's debt to Iran General Motors. These cars were equipped with a 5.7L engine (SB 350 Chevrolet, L engine, 4BBL), and were fully equipped (power door locks, power window, power steering, automatic transmission, a/c, vinyl top). The Cadillac Seville and Chevrolet Nova were manufactured in Iran during the same period. A total of 40,000 GM cars were produced between 1977 and 1987 in Iran. These models were basically the same as those built in the U.S. from 1975 to 1979 (Islamic Revolution). GM Iran changed its name to Pars Khodro (meaning "Pars Automobile" in Iranian; 'Pars' being the ancient, original name of Persia) after 1979. The production continued from 1979 to 1987 on a part-time, occasional basis. GM ceased the production of all vehicles in Iran in 1987. Engines 231 in3 (3.8 L) Buick V6 (1975–79) 260 in3 (4.3 L) Oldsmobile V8 (1975–76) 301 in3 (5.0 L) Pontiac V8 (1977–79) 305 in3 (5.0 L) Chevrolet V8 (1977–79) 350 in3 (5.7 L) V8 Buick (1975–79) 350 in3 (5.7 L) V8 Chevrolet (1978–79) Fourth generation (1980–1985) The 1980–1985 Skylark was Buick's badge engineered version of GM's new X-body architecture, shared with the Chevrolet Citation, Pontiac Phoenix, and Oldsmobile Omega and would bear some resemblance to the larger G-body mid-size cars. GM's X-body would also become the basis for GM's A-body mid-size cars that would be introduced as 1982 models. The new Skylark was introduced in the spring of 1979 as an early 1980 model featuring front-wheel drive, MacPherson strut front suspension and transversely mounted engine, items that had never appeared on Buick products. The new optional 60 degree 2.8 L V6 engine was developed specifically for the X-cars. This platform became the basis for nearly all following GM front-wheel drive vehicles, but like the other X-body cars was noted for numerous reports of a tendency to lock the rear wheels upon braking, causing it to lose control and crash. It was the first post-World War II Buick to offer a four-cylinder engine since the Buick Four was discontinued in 1918. The Skylark was available in two- or four-door sedan bodystyles, and in base, Sport, or Limited trims. The standard 2.5 L Iron Duke 4 used a 2-barrel Rochester carburetor and produced at 4000 rpm. The optional 2.8 L V6 also used a 2-barrel Rochester carburetor and produced at 4800 rpm. A four-speed manual overdrive transaxle was standard with a three-speed automatic transaxle as an option. For the 1982 model year, the base 2.5 L engine received fuel injection. The optional 2.8 L V6 was joined by a more powerful high-output version that produced at 5400 rpm. Also for the 1982 model year, the Skylark received a mild facelift in the form of a new grille (the front parking lamps moved from outside the headlights to inside). In model year 1983, the base Skylark became the Skylark Custom. The Sport model was replaced by the T-Type, which was available only as a two-door coupe and came with the high-output version of the 2.8 L V6 engine as standard equipment. In 1985, the last year of production, the X-body Skylark was available only as a four-door sedan in Custom or Limited trim, as the two-door coupe was replaced by Buick's new Somerset Regal coupe, built on GM's new N-body platform, shared with Pontiac's revived Grand Am and the new Oldsmobile Calais. For 1985 the grille was again redesigned, as was the rear. The taillights were wider and the license plate was moved down to the bumper, while a "Buick" plate appeared where the taillights had been. Production Figures Engines 1980–1985 Tech-4 2.5 L (151 in3) I4, supplied by Pontiac 1980–1985 LE2 2.8 L (173 in3) V6, supplied by Chevrolet 1982–1985 LH7 2.8 L (173 in3) V6, supplied by Chevrolet Fifth generation (1985–1991) For the 1985 model year, the two-door Skylark coupe was replaced by the Somerset Regal, built on the Oldsmobile-developed N-body platform. The "Somerset" name had previously been used as a trim package on the Regal. This generation of compact Buicks featured a more upscale and aerodynamic design than its predecessor, incorporating the long-hood/short-deck look popular at the time. The Pontiac-produced Iron Duke engine continued from the Skylark, but an Isuzu-sourced five-speed manual transmission replaced the four-speed as standard equipment. A new multi-port fuel-injected Buick V6, generating at 4900 rpm, replaced the Chevrolet-designed 2.8 L V6 and was paired only with a three-speed automatic transmission. The Somerset featured an all-digital instrument cluster. For 1986, the Skylark sedan was shifted to the N platform and redesigned to match its coupe stablemate, which dropped the "Regal" suffix from its same. It remained available in either Custom or Limited trim levels, and gained the powertrain options from the Somerset but retained conventional analog gauges. Beginning with the 1987 model year, the four-door Skylark was available as a sporty T-Type model installed with the 3.0 L LN7 V6 engine. In mid-model year, 1987 Skylark models had door-mounted automatic seat belts. For 1988 models, the Somerset name was dropped and Buick's two-door N-body compact would share the Skylark nameplate with its four-door counterparts. A new engine option for 1988 models was the fuel-injected, Oldsmobile-designed 2.3 L DOHC Quad-4 4-cylinder engine that produced at 5200 rpm. An S/E package for Custom models replaced the previous T-Type trim. On 1989 models, a fuel-injected 3.3 L V6 (160 hp at 5200 rpm) replaced the previous 3.0 L V6, which was also Buick-built. A new LE package become available on four-door sedans that featured a vinyl roof that covered part of the rear side windows. The three-speed automatic transaxle became standard for 1989. For 1990, a new base Skylark was added, moving the Custom model up to replace the Limited. The S/E package was replaced by a new Gran Sport two-door sedan, reviving a name that had not been connected with the Skylark for many years. The LE ("Luxury Edition") sedan would become a full-fledged model. The 1991 Skylark was a continuation of the 1990 lineup, with virtually no change made to the outward appearance of the car. There were minor mechanical changes made to the Skylark's optional 3.3 L V6 power plant, including a one piece rear main bearing seal to replace the rope type previously used, and a redesigned camshaft flange. Production Figures Engines 1986–1991 2.5 L L68 I4, supplied by Pontiac 1988–1991 2.3 L LD2 I4, supplied by Oldsmobile 1986–1988 3.0 L LN7 V6 1989–1991 3.3 L LG7 V6 Sixth generation (1992–1998) Buick presented the Bolero concept in 1990, previewing numerous styling elements used in the 1992 Skylark, including its wedge-shape, chromed feature line rising along each body side and wrapping around the rear, along with a prominent pointed grille — reminiscent of 1930s Buick Special. The Skylark's bodwork achieved a 0.319 coefficient of drag, compared to 0.374 for the previous version. The pointed grille had been used by Buick during the mid-1960s. It was initially offered in two- and four-door body styles and in base and Gran Sport versions. The base engine was the 2.3 L Quad OHC, which produced at 5200 rpm. The optional 3.3 L V6 (standard on the GS) produced at 5200 rpm. All Skylarks came with the three-speed automatic transaxle. For the 1993 model year, the base model was replaced by Custom and Limited trims. For 1994, a new 3.1 L V6 ( at 5200 rpm) replaced the previous 3.3 L V6 as standard on the GS and optional on the others. The Limited coupe was dropped for 1994, but returned for 1995. Mechanical changes for the 1995 model year included the upgrading of the standard 2.3 L Quad 4 engine from a SOHC design to a DOHC design, increasing power to at 6000 rpm. The three-speed automatic transaxle continued to be standard with the base four-cylinder engine, but a new four-speed automatic (electronically controlled 4T60-E) was optional with the 4-cylinder engine and standard with the V6. Skylark received a facelift for the 1996 model year in the form of a more conventional-looking grille. The previous 2.3 L I4 was replaced by a new 2.4 L DOHC I4 that produced at 6000 rpm. The previous three-speed automatic transaxle was discontinued and the four-speed automatic became standard on all Skylarks. An on-board diagnostic system (OBD II) was standard. Buick offered an "Olympic Gold" edition of the 1996 Skylark to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Olympic Games. It featured gold USA/5-ring badging on the fenders, gold "Skylark" badges, gold-accented wheel covers, and gold accent trim. There were only minor changes to the lineup for the 1997 model year, which was the last year that it would be available to the public in showrooms. A single-model 1998 Skylark sedan was produced for fleet-only sales, mostly to auto rental companies. Most of these 1998 models, the last year that Buick used the Skylark name, were eventually resold to the general public as used cars. After the Skylark's discontinuation, Buick did not produce another compact car until 2012 Buick Verano. Production ended on December 4, 1997. The Skylark production line in Lansing was retooled to build the 2000–2003 Chevrolet Malibu. Production Figures: *Production figures for 1998 were not provided Engines References External links 1980s cars 1990s cars Skylark Cars introduced in 1953 Cars introduced in 1961 Cars introduced in 1975 Compact cars Convertibles Coupés Front-wheel-drive vehicles Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States Muscle cars Rear-wheel-drive vehicles Sedans Vehicles built in Lansing, Michigan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern%20literature%20in%20Irish
Modern literature in Irish
Although Irish has been used as a literary language for more than 1,500 years (see Irish literature), and modern literature in Irish dates – as in most European languages – to the 16th century, modern Irish literature owes much of its popularity to the 19th century Gaelic Revival cultural movement. Writers in Irish have since produced some of the most interesting literature to come out of Ireland, supplemented by work produced in the language abroad. Early revival By the end of the nineteenth century, Irish had been reversed from being the dominant language of Ireland to becoming a minority language, which reduced the literature being produced. The Gaelic Revival sought to reverse this decline. In the beginning, the revivalists preferred to write in Classical Irish, and were notably inspired by Geoffrey Keating's (Seathrún Céitinn) Foras Feasa ar Éirinn (History of Ireland), a much-read 17th-century work. Classical Irish, however, was soon ousted by the living dialects actually being spoken in the Gaeltacht areas, especially as championed by a native speaker from the Coolea-Muskerry area, Father Peadar Ua Laoghaire, who in the 1890s published, in a serialised form, a folkloristic novel strongly influenced by the storytelling tradition of the Gaeltacht, called Séadna. His other works include the autobiography Mo Scéal Féin and retellings of tales from Irish mythology, as well as a recently reissued adaptation of Don Quixote. Ua Laoghaire was soon followed by Patrick Pearse, who was to be executed as one of the leaders of the Easter Rising. Pearse learnt Connaught Irish in Rosmuc, while continuing to write in Munster Irish. He also wrote idealised stories about the Irish-speaking countryside, as well as nationalistic poetry in a more classical, Keatingesque style. According to Louis De Paor, Pearse's reading of the experimental free verse poetry of Walt Whitman and of the French Symbolists led him to introduce Modernist poetry into the Irish language. As a literary critic, Pearse also left behind a detailed blueprint for the Decolonization of Irish literature, through drawing not only upon Irish mythology and folklore, but also from the whole of world literature, both past and present. For these reasons, Liam De Paor has called Pearse's execution by a British Army firing squad after the defeat of the 1916 Easter Rising a catastrophic loss for Irish literature which only began to be healed during the late 1940s by the modernist poetry of Seán Ó Ríordáin, Máirtín Ó Direáin, and Máire Mhac an tSaoi. Pádraic Ó Conaire was a pioneer in the writing of realistic short stories in Irish; he was also to the forefront of Irish-language journalism. His most important book is his only novel, Deoraíocht (Exile), which combines realism with absurdist elements. He was to die in 1928, not yet fifty years old. Ó Conaire became something of a mythical figure in Irish literary folklore because of his highly individual talent and engaging personality. Early twentieth-century writing from the Gaeltacht From the end of the 19th century, researchers were visiting the Gaeltacht to record the lives of native speakers in authentic dialect. This interest from outside stimulated several notable autobiographies, especially on Great Blasket Island, located off the Dingle Peninsula: Peig by Peig Sayers, An t-Oileánach ("The Islandman") by Tomás Ó Criomhthain, and Fiche Bliain ag Fás ("Twenty Years a-Growing") by Muiris Ó Súilleabháin. Although he greatly admired these Gaeltacht memoirs and particularly that of Tomás Ó Criomhthain, novelist Flann O'Brien also chose to satirize their cliches quite mercilessly in his modernist novel An Béal Bocht ("The Poor Mouth"), which is set in the fictional, desperately poor, and constantly raining Gaeltacht of (); a parody of , the name in Munster Irish for the Dingle Peninsula. Micí Mac Gabhann was the author of Rotha Mór an tSaoil ("The Great Wheel of Life"), dictated in his native Ulster Irish. The title refers to the Klondike gold rush, ruathar an óir, at the end of the 19th century, and the hardship Irish gold-seekers endured on their way to tír an óir, the gold country. Another important figure was the prolific writer of rural novels, Séamus Ó Grianna (pen name "Máire"). Séamus Ó Grianna's most important contribution to modern literature in the language might be the fact that he persuaded his brother Seosamh (who called himself Seosamh Mac Grianna in Irish) to write in Irish. Seosamh was a less prolific and less fortunate writer than his brother. He was stricken by a severe depressive psychosis in 1935 and spent the rest of his life – more than fifty years – at a psychiatric hospital. Before his psychosis, however, he wrote an impressive novel about the difficult transition to modernity in his own Gaeltacht, called An Druma Mór ("The Big Drum" or "The Fife and Drum Band"), as well as a powerful and introspective account of his travels called Mo Bhealach Féin ("My Own Way"). His last novel, Dá mBíodh Ruball ar an Éan ("If the Bird Had a Tail"), a study of the alienation of a Gaeltacht man in Dublin, was left unfinished, a fact suggested by the title. Both brothers were acknowledged translators. In addition to translating Walter Scott's Ivanhoe into Irish, Seosamh's work in this field includes the Irish versions of Joseph Conrad's Almayer's Folly, in Irish Díth Céille Almayer, as well as Peadar O'Donnell's Adrigoole, in Irish Eadarbhaile. Irish-language modernism Modernist literature was developed further by Máirtín Ó Cadhain, a schoolmaster from Connemara, who was the Irish-language littérateur engagé par excellence. He was active in the IRA, and spent The Emergency years (i.e. the years of the Second World War) at the Curragh Camp, County Kildare, together with other IRA men and interned Allied and Axis airmen. At the camp he began his modernist masterpiece, the novel Cré na Cille ("The Churchyard Clay"). Reminiscent of some Latin American novels (notably Redoble por Rancas by Manuel Scorza, or Pedro Páramo by Juan Rulfo), this novel is a chain of voices of the dead speaking from the churchyard, where they go on forever quarrelling about their bygone life in their village. Similarly to those of Flann O'Brien, Ó Cadhain's novel lampoons the romanticised depiction of life in the Gaeltachtaí by the writers of the Gaelic revival. In addition to Cré na Cille, Máirtín Ó Cadhain wrote several collections of short stories (one 'short' story, "Fuíoll Fuine" in the collection , can count as a novella). An important part of his writings is his journalism, essays, and pamphlets, found in such collections as Ó Cadhain i bhFeasta, Caiscín, and Caithfear Éisteacht. Máirtín Ó Cadhain's prose is dense, powerful and (especially in his early work) difficult for the novice. His style changed and became simpler with time, in part reflecting the urban world in which he settled. Like the poet Liam Gógan, Ó Cadhain was a linguistic moderniser and wrote in an experimental form of the Irish language, even in contexts where a less obscure style would have been appropriate. He enriched his own Connemara Irish with neologisms and loanwords from other dialects, including Scottish Gaelic. Modernism and renewal are also represented by several writers not of Gaeltacht background, such as Eoghan Ó Tuairisc, Diarmaid Ó Súilleabháin, and Breandán Ó Doibhlin (the last influenced by French literary theory). Ó Tuairisc, a stylistic innovator, wrote poetry and plays as well as two novels on historical themes: L'Attaque, and Dé Luain. Diarmaid Ó Súilleabháin sought to adapt Irish to the urban world: An Uain Bheo and Caoin Thú Féin offered a depiction of a middle-class environment and its problems. Ó Doibhlin's Néal Maidine agus Tine Oíche is an example of introspective modernism. Among the outstanding Irish-language poets of the first half of the 20th century were Seán Ó Ríordáin, Máirtín Ó Direáin and Máire Mhac an tSaoi. Ó Ríordáin was born in the Cork Gaeltacht: his poetry is conventional in form but intensely personal in content. He was also a notable prose writer, as evidenced by his published diaries. Ó Direáin, born on the Aran Islands, began as the poet of nostalgia and ended in austerity. Máire Mhac an tSaoi, who is also a scholar of note, has published several collections of lyric verse in which the classical and colloquial are fused. Contemporary literature in Irish Among modern Gaeltacht writers, Pádraig Breathnach, Micheál Ó Conghaile and Pádraig Ó Cíobháin are three of the most important. They adhere in general to the realist tradition, as does Dara Ó Conaola. The work of Joe Steve Ó Neachtain, from the Conamara Gaeltacht, has proved consistently popular. Caitlín Maude (d. 1982), a native speaker from Conamara, wrote fluent and elegant verse with a distinctively modern sensibility. One of the best known poets is Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill, who was raised in the Munster Gaeltacht and was part of the new wave of the sixties and seventies. She is particularly interested in the mythic element in reality. Biddy Jenkinson (a pseudonym) is representative of an urban tradition: she is a poet and a writer of witty detective stories. Others of Ní Dhomhnaill's generation were the mordant Michael Hartnett (who wrote both in Irish and English) and Michael Davitt (d.2005), a lyric poet whose work is both whimsical and melancholy. Others of his generation are Liam Ó Muirthile and Gabriel Rosenstock. Among those who followed are Cathal Ó Searcaigh, Tomás Mac Síomóin, Diarmuid Johnson and Louis de Paor. Ó Searcaigh, a lyric poet, is also a traveller: this bore fruit in his engaging travelogue about Nepal, Seal i Neipeal. A younger generation is represented by such poets as Doireann Ní Ghríofa (b.1981). There is now more emphasis on popular writing in Irish, and among the writers who have had considerable success with lighter genres is Éilís Ní Dhuibhne, novelist, playwright and short story writer. Lorcán S. Ó Treasaigh has written a popular autobiography called Céard é English? (What is English?) about growing up as a native Irish speaker in the predominantly English-speaking city of Dublin. Colm Ó Snodaigh's novella, Pat the Pipe - Píobaire, describes a busker's adventures in Dublin's streets in the nineties. The short story remains a popular genre. Donncha Ó Céileachair and Síle Ní Chéileachair, brother and sister, published the influential collection Bullaí Mhártain in 1955, dealing with both urban and rural themes. In 1953 Liam O'Flaherty (Liam Ó Flaithearta) published the collection Dúil. O'Flaherty was raised for the first twelve years of his life with Irish on the Aran Islands, but Dúil was his only work in Irish. One of the best known of contemporary practitioners is Seán Mac Mathúna (who also writes in English). His work is characterised by humour and a poetic realism and has been praised for its originality. A writer of a more recent generation is Daithí Ó Muirí. The drive, black humour and absurdist quality of his work distinguish it from the realism of much modern writing in Irish. Writers in Irish abroad See Irish language outside Ireland Countries other than Ireland have produced several contributors to literature in Irish, reflecting the existence globally of a group who have learned or who cultivate the language. It is worthy of note that these writers and their readers do not always form part of the traditional diaspora. It has been argued that the use of the language by non-Irish writers has nothing to do with a specifically Irish identity. Instead, its importance lies in its use value as a language of work, personal relationships and creativity. A number of such writers, both Irish and foreign-born, are to be found in North America, Australia and various European countries. Dutch-born Alex Hijmans (formerly resident in Ireland and now living in Brazil) has published three books in Irish: an account of his life in Brazil, Favela (2009); a novel, Aiséirí (2011); and a collection of short stories, Gonta (2012). Panu Petteri Höglund, a linguist, writer and translator, belongs to Finland's Swedish-speaking minority. He uses Irish as a creative medium, and has set himself the goal of producing entertaining and modern writing in an Irish up to Gaeltacht standards. For a long time he experimented with Ulster Irish on the Web, but he published his first book in standard Irish, albeit strongly influenced by native folklore and dialects. He has published several novels, none of them set in Ireland. Torlach Mac Con Midhe was born in Dublin and now lives in Switzerland. He has published journalism in Irish, German and Romansh. He has published three non-fiction books in Irish: Iarsmaí na Teanga: Na Teangacha Ceilteacha i Stair Smaointeachas na hEorpa (Coiscéim 2005), Muintir Sléibhe agus a Teanga (Coiscéim 2009), Aistí Eorpacha (Coiscéim 2015); and a novel, Crothla agus Cnámha (Coiscéim 2018). Dublin-born writer Tomás Mac Síomóin, who died in 2022, had been living in Barcelona since 1997. He published over a dozen works in Irish in this period, as well as translations from Spanish and Catalan. Seán Ó Muirgheasa, an American resident in California, is the author of An Dola a Íoc, a detective novel set in New York City and published by Coiscéim in 2017. Séamas Ó Neachtain is a fifth-generation Irish American who has published poetry, fiction and journalism in Irish. He is also the founding editor of An Gael, an international literary journal in the Irish language. Muiris (Mossie) Ó Scanláin, a native speaker of Munster Irish from the Kerry Gaeltacht who lived in Melbourne for many years, is the author of an autobiography, An Mám ó Dheas, published when he resided in Australia and describing his life in Ireland, England and Australia. Derry-born Pádraig Ó Siadhail (b. 1968) has been living in Halifax, Nova Scotia, since 1987. In this period, he has published ten works in Irish, including a collection of short stories and two novels. Bantry-born Derry O'Sullivan has been living in Paris since 1969, apart from an interlude in Stockholm. He has published four collections of poetry in Irish. Colin Ryan is an Australian whose short stories, set mostly in Australia and Europe, have appeared in the journals Feasta, Comhar and An Gael. He has also published poetry. Cló Iar-Chonnacht has published two collections of short stories by him: Teachtaireacht (2015) and Ceo Bruithne (2019). Two collections of his poetry have been published by Coiscéim: Corraí na Nathrach (2017) and Rogha (2022) Julie Breathnach-Banwait is an Australian citizen of Irish origin living in Western Australia. She is the author of a collection called Dánta Póca (Pocket Poems), published by Coiscéim in 2020 and Ar Thóir Gach Ní, published by Coiscéim in 2022. She has also regularly published her poetry in The Irish Scene magazine in Western Australia. Her poetry has been published in Comhar (Ireland) and An Gael (New York) as well as on idler.ie. She is a native of Ceantar na nOileán in Connemara, County Galway. Literary magazines The oldest Irish-language literary magazines responsible for the encouragement of poetry and short fiction are Comhar (founded in 1942) and Feasta (founded in 1948). The latter, presently edited by Cormac Ó hAodha, is the journal of the Gaelic League, though it has an independent editorial policy. Both magazines publish short fiction and poetry: the manifesto of Feasta also declares that one of its objects is to encourage students to write in Irish. Feasta has enjoyed more stability than Comhar, which suffered from a declining readership and has now been reconstituted. The withdrawal of support by Foras na Gaeilge, a major source of subsidies, may affect their future. Both magazines have had as contributors some of the most notable figures in modern Irish-language literature, and continue to encourage new writing. They have since been joined by An Gael, an international literary magazine established in North America but publishing prose and poetry in Irish by writers from a number of different countries, including Ireland, Australia and Finland. Oghma was a literary journal in the Irish language published from 1989 to 1998. Irish-language writing in local context There are presently over 2,500 works of various kinds in print in Irish, of which the largest proportion is literature (over 2,000, including novels, short stories and poetry), children's books and educational material. It has been remarked that the average print run for a book of poetry or prose is probably 500, though a popular work of detective fiction might have a print run of 2,000. Among the genres least cultivated in Irish is science fiction (a fact possible related to the dearth of popular science writing in the language, despite a wealth of available terminology). The American-based magazine An Gael has, however, published serials with elements of fantasy and the surreal. Irish-language publishers A number of publishers specialise in Irish-language material. They include the following. An tÁisaonad, books for children mainly. Breacadh, established in 2000, they produce learning material for adult learners, and are placed in the Connemara Gaeltacht. Cló Chaisil, publishes books in Irish only. It produces books for children, teenagers and adults. Cló Iar-Chonnacht, founded in 1985, has as its particular aim the publishing of work by Gaeltacht writers. It has published over 300 books, predominantly in Irish, together with music. It has acquired the titles from Sáirséal agus Dill and Cois Life. Cló Ollscoil Chorcaí, Comhairle Bhéaloideas Éireann, Coiscéim, founded in 1980, has published 1500 titles, making it the largest private Irish language publisher in Ireland. Cois Life, established in 1995 stopped publishing in 2019, published literary and academic works. Its output includes plays, fiction and poetry. Now closed, All its titles will be taken on by Cló iar-Chonachta Cló Mhaigh Eo, Well-illustrated books in Irish for children and young people. Éabhlóid, were established in 2010 and have been publishing books for children and adults since. FÁS,(Foilseacháin Ábhair Spioradálta), established on 1 February 1916 at a meeting of Aontas Mhánuat ("Maynooth Union") and they called themselves Cumann na Sagart nGaedhalach, dropping the 'nGaedhlach' some time later. Cumann na Scríbheann nGaedhilge, Established in 1898, The Irish Texts Society has been publishing well edited and translated editions of important works from the cannon of Irish language literature. They also ForSai, company solely publishing works by Gary Bannister. Futa Fata, Music label and publishing house producing books and CDs in Irish for children and young people. An Gúm, has been publishing books in Irish since 1926 under the aegis of the Irish State. It is the largest Irish language publisher in the country, and now mainly publishes lexicography, textbooks and other curricular resources, together with material for children and young adults. Leabhar Breac, A publisher of quality literature in Irish, also publishes graphic novels and translates titles like Tin Tin and Asterix and Oblix. Leabhar Comhair, Leabhair Chomhar is the book publishing imprint of the literary magazine Comhar, publishing books for adult learners of Irish as well as a number of general prose and poetry titles. Móinín, Literature in Irish and English for children, young people and adults. Muintearas, Established in 2012, they provide learning material for early years learning. Oidhreacht Chorca Dhuibhne, Specialists in publishing books and CDs of special interest in the Kerry gaeltacht. Polca Phunc, following on from Éabhlóid's publication of Ící Pící by Doimnic Mac Giolla Bhríde, the same author established his own publishing company to publish his next illustrated book of new songs i nGaeilge Thír Chonail. Púca Press, is a small publisher producing limited edition hand printed books in Irish and other languages. An tSnáthaid Mhór, founded in 2005, aims to publish high-quality contemporary books with elaborate illustrations for children of all ages. An Timire, is a publisher of religious books in Irish and the religious magazine An Timire, they seem to be a better branded branch of FÁS. Údar, is the publishing wing of Glór na nGael, they produce children's books, board games, cards etc. English Language Publishers who also publish in Irish A number of English language publishers provide some Irish-language material too. They include the following. Acadamh Ríoga na hÉireann, the RIA has supported the Irish language with a number of publications Section C of the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy is dedicated to ‘Archaeology, history, Celtic studies, linguistics and literature’. Arlen House, established in 2011(?), specialising in books of literary and cultural importance mostly in English and some in Irish. Institiúid Ard-léinn na hÉireann, DIAS have a publishing programme for academic publications on Celtic matters, some of which are in Irish. Everytype, publishers of books in many languages Irish Pages, founded in 2002, is a bilingual English and Irish journal. Its September 2010 issue was dedicated to writing in Irish. O'Brien Press, Mercier Press, Veritas, Religious publications, mainly in English, with some titles in Irish, they publish the Fadó series of bilingual books. Irish-language publishers who have ceased publishing An Clóchomhar. They produced a large number of books of both general and academic interest, frequently placing Irish concerns in a broader perspective. An Preas Náisiúnta. An Sagart. Established in 1964, Mostly academic and religious books but also some poetry and prose. (No longer active since the passing of its sole director an tAth. Pádraig Ó Fianachta). Brún agus Ó Nualláin. Cló Morainn. Clódhanna Teoranta, Conradh na Gaeilge's publishing house. Cló Thalbóid. Comhartha na dTtrí gCoinneall. Comhlucht an Oideachais. FNT. ITÉ. Formerly Institiúid Teangeolaíochta Éireann / Linguistics Institute of Ireland, it published academic books on linguistic matters regarding the Irish language in contemporary Ireland. The institute no longer exists. Mac an Ghoill. Preas Dhún Dealgan. Sáirséal agus Dill. Established in 1945. Later called Sáirséal Ó Marcaigh, they ceased publishing in 2009. Their aim was to develop Irish language literature and to assist Irish language writers. They published 200 books. All the titles were acquired by Cló Iar-Chonnacht. See also Irish language Irish language outside Ireland Irish short story Status of the Irish language Literature J.E. Caerwyn Williams agus Máirín Uí Mhuiríosa. Traidisiún Liteartha na nGael. An Clóchomhar Tta, 1979. References External links Cló Iar-Chonnacht Cois Life Coiscéim An tSnáthaid Mhór Litríocht.com: catalogue and book-ordering service Irish-language literature
377112
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Romanes
George Romanes
George John Romanes FRS (20 May 1848 – 23 May 1894) was a Canadian-Scots evolutionary biologist and physiologist who laid the foundation of what he called comparative psychology, postulating a similarity of cognitive processes and mechanisms between humans and other animals. He was the youngest of Charles Darwin's academic friends, and his views on evolution are historically important. He is considered to invent the term neo-Darwinism, which in the late 19th century was considered as a theory of evolution that focuses on natural selection as the main evolutionary force. However, Samuel Butler used this term with a similar meaning in 1880. Romanes' early death was a loss to the cause of evolutionary biology in Britain. Within six years Mendel's work was rediscovered, and a whole new agenda opened up for debate. Early life George Romanes was born in Kingston, Canada West (now Ontario), in 1848, the youngest of three children, all boys, in a well-to-do and intellectually cultivated family. His father was Rev George Romanes (1805–1871), a Scottish Presbyterian minister. Two years after his birth, his parents moved to Cornwall Terrace in London, United Kingdom, which would set Romanes on the path to a fruitful and lasting relationship with Charles Darwin. During his youth, Romanes resided temporarily in Germany and Italy, developing a fluency in both German and Italian. His early education was inconsistent, undertaken partly in public schools, and partly at home. He developed an early love for poetry and music, at which he excelled. However, his true passion resided elsewhere, and the young Romanes decided to study science, abandoning a prior ambition to become a clergyman like his father. Adulthood Although he came from an educated home, his school education was erratic. He entered university half-educated and with little knowledge of the ways of the world. He studied medicine and physiology, graduating from Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge with the degree of BA in 1871, and is commemorated there by a stained glass window in the chapel. It was at Cambridge that he came first to the attention of Charles Darwin: "How glad I am that you are so young!" said Darwin. Forging a relationship with Darwin was not difficult for Romanes, who reputedly inherited a "sweetness of temper and calmness of manner" from his father. The two remained friends for life. Guided by Michael Foster, Romanes continued to work on the physiology of invertebrates at University College London under William Sharpey and Burdon-Sanderson. In 1879, at 31, Romanes was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on the basis of his work on the nervous systems of medusae. However, Romanes' tendency to support his claims by anecdotal evidence rather than empirical tests prompted Lloyd Morgan's warning known as Morgan's Canon: "In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes, if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development". As a young man, Romanes was a Christian, and some, including his religious wife, later said that he regained some of that belief during his final illness. In fact, he became an agnostic due to the influence of Darwin. In a manuscript left unfinished at the end of his life he said that the theory of evolution had caused him to abandon religion. Romanes founded a series of free public lectures, the Romanes Lectures, which continue to this day. He was a friend of Thomas Henry Huxley, who gave the second Romanes lecture. Towards the end of his life, he returned to Christianity. He died in Oxford on 23 May 1894. A memorial to Romanes exists in the north west corner of Greyfriars Kirkyard in Edinburgh on the grave of his parents. Professional life Romanes's and Darwin's relationship developed quickly and they became close friends. This relationship began when Romanes became Darwin's research assistant during the last eight years of Darwin's life. The association Romanes had with Darwin was essential in Darwin's later works. Therefore, Darwin confided volumes of unpublished work which Romanes later used to publish papers. Like Darwin, Romanes's theories were met with scepticism and were not accepted initially. The majority of Romanes's work attempted to make a connection between animal consciousness and human consciousness. Some problems were encountered during his research that he addressed with the development of physiological selection. This was Romanes's answer to three objections to Darwin's isolation theory of speciation. These were: species characteristics that have no evolutionary purpose; the widespread fact of inter-specific sterility; and the need for varieties to escape the swamping effects of inter-crossing after permanent species are established. At the end of his career the majority of his work was directed towards the development of a relationship between intelligence and placement on an evolutionary tree. Romanes believed that the further along an organism was on an evolutionary standpoint, the more likely that organism would be to possess a higher level of functioning. Family Romanes was the last child born of three children from George Romanes and Isabella Cair Smith. The majority of his immediate and extended family were descendant from Scottish Highland tribes. His father, Reverend George Romanes, was a professor at Queens College in Kingston, Canada and taught Greek at the local university until the family moved back to England. Romanes and his wife Ethel Mary Duncan were married on 11 February 1879. They were happily married and studied together. Romanes was said to be an "ideal father" to their six children. Both Romanes' mother and father were involved in the Protestant and Anglican Church during his childhood. Romanes was baptised Anglican and was heavily involved with the Anglican teachings during his youth, despite the fact his parents were not heavily involved with any religion. It is speculated that Darwin may have been viewed as a father figure to Romanes. Darwin did not agree with the teachings of the Catholic Church because the fundamental teachings were not supported by his scientific findings at the time. This could explain Romanes' conversion to agnosticism. Philosophical and political views When Romanes attended Gonville and Caius College Cambridge, he entered into an essay contest on the topic of "Christian Prayer considered in relation to the belief that Almighty governs the world by general laws". Romanes did not have much hope in winning, but much to his surprise he took first place in this contest and received the Burney prize. After winning the Burney prize, Romanes came to the conclusion that he could no longer be faithful to his Christian religion due to his love and commitment for science. This is interesting due to the fact that when Romanes was growing up, his father was a Reverend. Therefore, Romanes went into great detail about religion and how all aspects of the mind need to be involved to be faithfully committed to religion in his book Thoughts on Religion. He believed that you had to have an extremely high level of will to be dedicated to God or Christ. He had earlier published a book on the subject in general called A Candid Examination of Theism, where he concluded that God's existence was not supported by the evidence, but stated his unhappiness with the fact. Romanes on evolution Romanes tackled the subject of evolution frequently. For the most part he supported Darwinism and the role of natural selection. However, he perceived three problems with Darwinian evolution: The difference between natural species and domesticated varieties in respect to fertility. [this problem was especially pertinent to Darwin, who used the analogy of change in domesticated animals so frequently] Structures which serve to distinguish allied species are often without any known utilitarian significance. [taxonomists choose the most visible and least changeable features to identify a species, but there may be a host of other differences which though not useful to the taxonomist are significant in survival terms] The swamping influence upon an incipient species-split of free inter-crossing. [Here we strike the problem which most perplexed Darwin, with his ideas of blending inheritance. It was solved by the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics, and the modern synthesis which showed that particulate inheritance could underlie continuous variation. Romanes also made the acute point that Darwin had not actually shown how natural selection produced species, despite the title of his famous book (On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection). Natural selection could be the 'machine' for producing adaptation, but still in question was the mechanism for splitting species. Romanes' own solution to this was called 'physiological selection'. His idea was that variation in reproductive ability, caused mainly by the prevention of inter-crossing with parental forms, was the primary driving force in the production of new species. The majority view then (and now) was that geographical separation is the primary force in species splitting (or allopatry) and secondarily was the increased sterility of crosses between incipient species. Taking influence from Darwin, Romanes was a proponent of both natural selection and the inheritance of acquired characteristics. The latter was denied by Alfred Russel Wallace, a strict selectionist. Romanes came into a dispute with Wallace over the definition of Darwinism. Published works When Charles Darwin died, Romanes defended Darwin's theories by attempting to rebut criticisms and attacks levied by other psychologists against the Darwinian school of thought. Romanes expanded on Darwin's theories of evolution and natural selection by advancing a theory of behaviour based on comparative psychology. In Animal Intelligence, Romanes demonstrated similarities and dissimilarities between cognitive and physical functions of various animals. In Mental Evolution in Animals, Romanes illustrated the evolution of the cognitive and physical functions associated with animal life. Romanes believed that animal intelligence evolves through behavioural conditioning, or positive reinforcement. Romanes then published Mental Evolution in Man, which focused on the evolution of human cognitive and physical functions. In 1890, Romanes published Darwin, and After Darwin, where he attempted to explain the relationship between science and religion. All of his notes on this subject were left to Charles Gore. Gore used the notes in preparing Thoughts on Religion, and published the work under Romanes' name. The Life and Letters of George Romanes offers a semi-autobiographical account of Romanes's life. Accomplishments 1879: Romanes was selected for the Fellow of the Royal Society. 1886–1890: Romanes was a professor at University of Edinburgh. 1892: When he was a professor at the University of Oxford, Romanes created a series of lectures known as Romanes Lectures. These lectures are currently still held once a year in memory of Romanes. Romanes is also known for creating the following words and meanings: Anthropomorphism: attributing human-like qualities to other animals. Anecdotal method: the use of observational methods to collect data on animal behaviour. He developed the stepping stairs for cognitive development. References Further reading Lesch, John E. "The Role of Isolation in Evolution: George J. Romanes and John T. Gulick," Isis, Vol. 66, No. 4, Dec. 1975. McGrew, Timothy. “A Pilgrim's Regress: George John Romanes and the Search for Rational Faith,” The Christendom Review, Vol. II (2), 2009. Morganti, Federico. "Intelligence as the Plasticity of Instinct: George J. Romanes and Darwin's Earthworms," Theoretical Biology Forum", Vol. 104, N°. 2, 2011. Romanes, Ethel Duncan. The Life and Letters of George John Romanes, Longmans, Green and co., 1896. Schwartz, Joel S. "George John Romanes's Defense of Darwinism: The Correspondence of Charles Darwin and His Chief Disciple," Journal of the History of Biology, Vol. 28, No. 2, Summer, 1995. Schwartz, Joel S. "Out from Darwin's Shadow: George John Romanes's Efforts to Popularize Science in 'Nineteenth Century' and Other Victorian Periodicals," Victorian Periodicals Review, Vol. 35, No. 2, Summer, 2002. Schwartz, Joel S. Darwin's Disciple: George John Romanes, A Life In Letters, Diane Publishing Company, 2010. Schultz, D., & Schultz, S. A History of Modern Psychology, Harcourt College Publishers, 2000. Tollemache, Lionel A. Mr. Romanes's Catechism, C.F. Hodgson & Son, 1887. Publications The Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution, Macmillan and Co., 1882 [1st Pub. 1877]. Candid Examination of Theism, Trübner & Co., 1878 [pseudonymously published as Physicus]. Animal Intelligence, D. Appleton and Company, 1892 [1st Pub. 1882]. Mental Evolution in Animals, with a Posthumous Essay on Instinct by Charles Darwin, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1883. Jelly-Fish, Star-Fish and Sea Urchins, Being a Research on Primitive Nervous Systems, K. Paul, Trench & Co., 1885. Physiological Selection: an Additional Suggestion on the Origin of Species, The Journal of the Linnean Society, Vol. 19, 1886. Mental Evolution in Man, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1888. Darwin, and after Darwin, (1892–97, a work of significance for historians of evolution theory): The Darwinian Theory, The Open Court Publishing Company, 1910 [1st Pub. 1892]. Post-Darwinian Questions: Heredity and Utility, The Open Court Publishing Company, 1906 [1st Pub. 1895]. Post-Darwinian Questions: Isolation and Physiological Selection, The Open Court Publishing Company, 1914 [1st Pub. 1897]. Mind and Motion and Monism, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1895. An Examination of Weismannism, The Open Court Publishing company, 1893 (August Weismann was the leading evolutionary theoretician at the turn of the 19th century). Thoughts on Religion, Longmans, Green & Co., 1895. Essays, Longmans, Green & Co., 1897. Articles "Christian Prayer and General Laws: Being the Burney Prize Essay for the Year 1873," Macmillan & Co., 1874. "Fetichism in Animals," Nature, 27 December 1877. "Recreation," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. VI, July/December 1879. "Suicide," Nature, December 1881. "American Ants," Nature, 2 March 1882. "Nature and Thought," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XLIII, June 1883. "Man and Brute," The North American Review, Vol. 139, No. 333, Aug. 1884. "Mind in Men and Animals," The North American Review, March 1885. "Physiological Selection," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXI, January/June 1887. "Mental Differences Between Men and Women," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXI, January/June 1887. "Concerning Women," The Forum, Vol. IV, 1887. "Recent Critics of Darwinism," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LIII, January/June 1888. "Mr. Wallace on Darwinism," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LVI, July/December 1889. "Weismann's Theory of Heredity," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LVII, January/June 1890. "Mr. A. R. Wallace on Physiological Selection," The Monist, Vol. I, N°. 1, October 1890. "Origin of Human Faculty," Brain; a Journal of Neurology, Vol. XII, 1890. "The Psychic Life of Micro-Organisms," The Open Court, Vol. IV, 1890–1891. "Aristotle as a Naturalist," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LIX, January/June 1891. "Thought and Language," Part II, The Monist, Vol. 2, No. 1, October 1891; No. 3, April 1892. "Critical Remarks on Weismannism," The Open Court, Vol. VII, N°. 313, August 1893. "Weismann and Galton," The Open Court, Vol. VII, N°. 315, September 1893. "A Note on Panmixia," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LXIV, July/December 1893. "Longevity and Death," The Monist, Vol. V, N°. 2, January 1895. "The Darwinism of Darwin, and of the Post-Darwinian Schools," The Monist, Vol. VI, N°. 1, October 1895. "Isolation in Organic Evolution," The Monist, Vol. VIII, 1898. Miscellany Observations on the Locomotor System of Echinodermata, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 172, Part III, 1882. Darwinism Illustrated: Wood-engravings Explanatory of the Theory of Evolution, The Open Court Publishing Company, 1892. A Selection from the Poems of George John Romanes, Longmans, Green & Co., 1896. External links Works by George Romanes at Wikisource Catalogue of the Papers of George John Romanes, 1867–1927 Genealogy, Background and Works of G. J. Romanes Psyography George John Romanes Pilgrim's Regress by George Romanes George Romanes' procedures for compiling anecdotes about the intelligence of animals Evolution by Romanes 1848 births 1894 deaths 19th-century British people 19th-century English people Academics of University College London Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge British zoologists English zoologists Ethologists Evolutionary biologists Fellows of the Royal Society Fullerian Professors of Physiology Pre-Confederation Ontario people
377152
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan%20Sutherland
Joan Sutherland
Dame Joan Alston Sutherland, (7 November 1926 – 10 October 2010) was an Australian dramatic coloratura soprano known for her contribution to the renaissance of the bel canto repertoire from the late 1950s through to the 1980s. She possessed a voice combining agility, accurate intonation, pinpoint staccatos, a trill and a strong upper register, although music critics complained about her poor diction. Sutherland was the first Australian to win a Grammy Award, for the year 1961 Best Classical Performance – Vocal Soloist (with or without orchestra) presented in 1962. She was known as 'La Stupenda' and is widely regarded as one of the greatest sopranos of all time. Early and personal life Joan Sutherland was born in Sydney, Australia, to Scottish parents and attended St Catherine's School in the suburb of Waverley, New South Wales. As a child, she listened to and imitated her mother's singing exercises. Her mother, a mezzo-soprano, had taken voice lessons but never considered making a career as a professional singer. Sutherland was 18 years old when she began seriously studying voice with John and Aida Dickens. She made her concert debut in Sydney, as Dido in a production of Henry Purcell's Dido and Aeneas, in 1947. After winning Australia's most important competition, the Sun Aria (now known as the Sydney Eisteddfod McDonald's Operatic Aria) in 1949, she came third after the baritone Ronal Jackson in radio 3DB's £1,000 Mobil Quest, which she won a year later. In 1951, she made her stage debut in Eugene Goossens's Judith. She then went to London to further her studies at the Opera School of the Royal College of Music with Clive Carey. She was engaged by the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, as a utility soprano, and made her debut there on 28 October 1952, as the First Lady in The Magic Flute, followed in November by a few performances as Clotilde in Vincenzo Bellini's opera Norma, with Maria Callas as Norma. Being an admirer of Kirsten Flagstad in her early career, she trained to be a Wagnerian dramatic soprano. In December 1952, she sang her first leading role at the Royal Opera House, Amelia in Un ballo in maschera. Other roles included Agathe in Der Freischütz, the Countess in The Marriage of Figaro, Desdemona in Otello, Gilda in Rigoletto, Eva in Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, and Pamina in The Magic Flute. In 1953, she sang the role of Lady Rich in Benjamin Britten's Gloriana a few months after its world premiere, and created the role of Jenifer in Michael Tippett's The Midsummer Marriage, on 27 January 1955. Sutherland married Australian conductor and pianist Richard Bonynge on 16 October 1954. Their son, Adam, was born in 1956. Bonynge gradually convinced her that Wagner might not be her Fach, and that since she could produce high notes and coloratura with great ease, she should perhaps explore the bel canto repertoire. She eventually settled in this Fach, spending most of her career singing dramatic coloratura soprano. Career In 1957, she appeared in Handel's Alcina with the Handel Opera Society, and sang selections from Donizetti's Emilia di Liverpool in a radio broadcast. The following year she sang Donna Anna in Don Giovanni in Vancouver. In 1959, Sutherland was invited to sing Lucia di Lammermoor at the Royal Opera House in a production conducted by Tullio Serafin and staged by Franco Zeffirelli. The role of Edgardo was sung by her fellow Australian Kenneth Neate, who had replaced the scheduled tenor at short notice. In 1960, she recorded the album The Art of the Prima Donna: the double LP set won the Grammy Award for Best Classical Performance – Vocal Soloist in 1962. The album was added to the National Film and Sound Archive's Sounds of Australia registry in 2011. Sutherland sang Lucia to great acclaim in Paris in 1960 and, in 1961, at La Scala and the Metropolitan Opera. For her Met performance of Lucia di Lammermoor, standees began lining up at 7:30 that morning. Her singing of the Mad Scene drew a 12-minute ovation. In 1960 she sang Alcina at La Fenice. Sutherland would soon be praised as La Stupenda in newspapers around the world. Later that year (1960), Sutherland sang Alcina at the Dallas Opera, with which she made her US debut. Her Metropolitan Opera debut took place on 26 November 1961, when she sang Lucia. After a total of 223 performances in a number of different operas, her last appearance there was a concert on 12 March 1989. During the 1978–82 period her relationship with the Met deteriorated when Sutherland had to decline the role of Constanze in Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail, more than a year before the rehearsals were scheduled to start. The opera house management then declined to stage the operetta The Merry Widow especially for her, as requested; subsequently, she did not perform at the Met during that time at all, even though a production of Rossini's Semiramide had also been planned, but later she returned there to sing in other operas. During the 1960s, Sutherland added the heroines of bel canto to her repertoire: Violetta in Verdi's La traviata, Amina in Bellini's La sonnambula and Elvira in Bellini's I puritani in 1960; the title role in Bellini's Beatrice di Tenda in 1961; Marguerite de Valois in Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots and the title role in Rossini's Semiramide in 1962; Norma in Bellini's Norma and Cleopatra in Handel's Giulio Cesare in 1963. In 1966 she added Marie in Donizetti's La fille du régiment. In 1965, Sutherland toured Australia with the Sutherland-Williamson Opera Company. Accompanying her was a young tenor named Luciano Pavarotti. During the 1970s, Sutherland strove to improve her diction, which had often been criticised, and increase the expressiveness of her interpretations. She continued to add dramatic bel canto roles to her repertoire, such as Donizetti's Maria Stuarda and Lucrezia Borgia, as well as Massenet's Esclarmonde. With Pavarotti she made a studio-recording of Turandot in 1972 conducted by Zubin Mehta, though she never performed the role on stage. Sutherland's early recordings show her to be possessed of a crystal-clear voice and excellent diction. However, by the early 1960s her voice lost some of this clarity in the middle register, and she often came under fire for having unclear diction. Some have attributed this to sinus surgery; however, her major sinus surgery was done in 1959, immediately after her breakthrough Lucia at Covent Garden. In fact, her first commercial recording of the first and final scene of Lucia reveals her voice and diction to be just as clear as prior to the sinus procedure. Her husband Richard Bonynge stated in an interview that her "mushy diction" occurred while striving to achieve perfect legato. According to him, it is because she earlier had a very Germanic "un-legato" way of singing. During the 1980s, Sutherland added Anna Bolena, Amalia in I masnadieri, and Adriana Lecouvreur to her repertoire, and repeated Esclarmonde at the Royal Opera House performances in November and December 1983. Her last full-length dramatic performance was as Marguerite de Valois (Les Huguenots) at the Sydney Opera House in 1990, at the age of 63, where she sang Home Sweet Home for her encore. Her last public appearance, however, took place in a gala performance of Die Fledermaus on New Year's Eve, 1990, at Covent Garden, where she was accompanied by her colleagues Luciano Pavarotti and the mezzo-soprano Marilyn Horne. According to her own words, given in an interview with The Guardian newspaper in 2002, her biggest achievement was to sing the title role in Esclarmonde. She considered those performances and recordings her best. Retirement years After retirement, Sutherland made relatively few public appearances, preferring a quiet life at her home in Les Avants, Switzerland. One exception was her 1994 address at a lunch organised by Australians for Constitutional Monarchy, when Sutherland commented: "It also upsets me that it is such a damned job to get an Australian passport now – you have to go to be interviewed by a Chinese or an Indian. I'm not particularly racist, but I find it ludicrous." Her criticism caused controversy. On 3 July 2008, she fell and broke both legs while gardening at her home in Switzerland. Film role Sutherland had a leading role as Mother Rudd in the 1995 comedy film Dad and Dave: On Our Selection opposite Leo McKern and Geoffrey Rush. Publications In 1997, she published an autobiography, A Prima Donna's Progress. It received mixed reviews for its literary merits. Library Journal stated, Opera superstar Dame Joan Sutherland gives an exhaustive account of her performing and recording career over four decades. From her early years in Australia and with the Covent Garden company in London, to her daunting schedule at most of the major opera houses of the world, we read endlessly of where, when, and with whom she sang which roles. We're shown a sensible woman and a hard-working artist, with a healthy ego tempered by a sense of humor that is often self-deprecating. The work includes a complete list of all her performances, with full cast lists. Her official biography, Joan Sutherland: The Authorised Biography, published in February 1994, was written by Norma Major, wife of the then prime minister John Major. In 2002, she appeared at a dinner in London to accept the Royal Philharmonic Society's gold medal. She gave an interview to The Guardian in which she lamented the lack of technique in young opera singers and the dearth of good teachers. By this time she was no longer giving master classes herself; when asked by Italian journalists in May 2007 why this was, she replied: "Because I'm 80 years old and I really don't want to have anything to do with opera any more, although I do sit on the juries of singing competitions." The Cardiff Singer of the World competition was the one that Sutherland was most closely associated with after her retirement. She began her regular involvement with the event in 1993, serving on the jury five consecutive times and later, in 2003, becoming its patron. Death On 11 October 2010, Sutherland's family announced that she had died at her home at Les Avants in Switzerland the previous day of cardiopulmonary failure – "the heart just gave out...When it came to the point that she physically couldn't do anything, she didn't want to live any more. She wanted to go, she was happy to go, and in the end she died very, very peacefully." Though she recovered from her fall in 2008, it led to more serious health problems. A statement from her family said "She's had a long life and gave a lot of pleasure to a lot of people." Sutherland had requested a small, private funeral service. Her funeral was held on 14 October and Opera Australia planned a tribute to her. Artistic director of Opera Australia, Lyndon Terracini, said "We won't see her like again. She had a phenomenal range, size and quality of voice. We simply don't hear that any more." Sutherland is survived by her husband, son, daughter-in-law and two grandchildren. Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard said, "She was of course one of the great opera voices of the 20th century," adding that Dame Joan showed a lot of "quintessential Australian values. She was described as down to earth despite her status as a diva. On behalf of all Australians I would like to extend my condolences to her husband Richard and son Adam and their extended family at this difficult time. I know many Australians will be reflecting on her life's work today." Memorial service A State Memorial Service on 9 November 2010, arranged by Opera Australia, was held at the Sydney Opera House. Speakers at the service were Julia Gillard, Prime Minister of Australia; Professor Marie Bashir, the Governor of New South Wales; Moffatt Oxenbould, the former Artistic Director of Opera Australia; and Sutherland's son, Adam Bonynge. The service was broadcast live by both ABC1 television and ABC Classic FM (radio) and streamed globally by ABC News 24. Further memorial services were held in Westminster Abbey on 15 February 2011, and in New York City on 24 May 2011, which was hosted by Marilyn Horne with an appearance by Richard Bonynge. In attendance were Sherrill Milnes, Norman Ayrton, Regina Resnik, and Spiro Malas. Voice Vocal timbre Described as "fresh," "silvery" and "bell-like" until 1963, Joan Sutherland's voice later became "golden" and "warm"; music critic John Yohalem writes it was like "molten honey caressing the line." In his book Voices, Singers and Critics, John Steane writes that "if the tonal spectrum ranges from bright to dark, Sutherland's place would be near the centre, which is no doubt another reason for her wide appeal." According to John Yohalem, "Her lower register was a cello register, Stradivarius-hued." Her voice was full and rounded even in her highest notes, which were brilliant, but sometimes "slightly acid." In 1971, Time writes an article comparing Sutherland and Beverly Sills, Originally bright and youthful-sounding, her voice darkened as she transformed herself into a coloratura. There is a suggestion of Callas' famous middle register in Sutherland's vocal center—a tone that sounds as if the singer were singing into the neck of a resonant bottle. Today the Sutherland voice towers like a natural wonder, unique as Niagara or Mount Everest. Sills' voice is made of more ordinary stuff; what she shares with Callas is an abandon in hurling herself into fiery emotional music and a willingness to sacrifice vocal beauty for dramatic effect. Sutherland deals in vocal velvet, Sills in emotional dynamite. Sutherland's voice is much larger, but its plush monochrome robs it of carrying power in dramatic moments. Sills' multicolored voice, though smaller, projects better and has a cutting edge that can slice through the largest orchestra and chorus. Sometimes, indeed, it verges on shrillness. [...] In slow, legato music, Sills has a superior sense of rhythm and clean attack to keep things moving; Sutherland's more flaccid beat and her style of gliding from note to note often turn song into somnolence. Sills' diction in English, French and Italian is superb; Sutherland's vocal placement produces mushy diction in any language, but makes possible an even more seamless beauty of tone than is available to Sills. Describing Sutherland's voice, John Yohalem writes: On my personal color scale, which runs from a voluptuous red (Tebaldi) or blood-orange (Price) or purple (Caballé) or red-purple (Troyanos) to white-hot (Rysanek) or runny yellow-green (Sills), Sutherland is among the "blue" sopranos – which has nothing to do with "blues" in the pop sense of the term. (Ella Fitzgerald had a blue voice, but Billie Holiday had a blues voice, which is very different.) Diana Damrau is blue. Mirella Freni is blue-ish. Karita Mattila is ice blue. Régine Crespin was deep blue shading to violet. Sutherland was true blue (like the Garter ribbon). There is a coolness here that can take on the passion in the music but does not inject passion where the music lacks it, could possibly use it. Vocal category, size and range Although she is generally described as a dramatic coloratura soprano, "categorizing Sutherland's voice has always been extremely difficult, both the size and the sound present definitional problems [...] Aside from singing some roles popular among coloratura sopranos, Sutherland's voice could not be more different." In a 1961 profile in The New York Times Magazine, Sutherland said she initially had "a big rather wild voice" that was not heavy enough for Wagner, although she did not realise this until she heard "Wagner sung as it should be." Regarding the size of Sutherland's voice, Opera Britannia praise "a voice of truly heroic dimensions singing bel canto. It is doubtful if any soprano in this repertoire has fielded quite so much power and tone as Dame Joan, and this includes Callas and Tetrazzini. The contrast with other sopranos who sing the same roles is appropriately enough stupendous, with rival prima donnas producing small pin points of sound as compared to Sutherland's seemingly endless cascades of full tone." In 1972, music critic Winthrop Sargeant describes her voice "as large as that of a top-ranking Wagnerian soprano" in The New Yorker. French soprano Natalie Dessay states, "She had a , voice and she was able to lighten suddenly and to take this quick coloratura and she had also the top high notes like a coloratura soprano but with a voice, which is very rare." Sutherland's vocal range extended from G below the staff (G3) to high F (F6), or high F-sharp (F6), although she never sang this last note in a public performance. Honours During her career and after, Sutherland received many honours and awards. She was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1961 Birthday Honours. That year she was named the Australian of the Year. Sutherland is a Distinguished Member of the Sigma Alpha Iota International Music Fraternity. In the 1975 Queen's Birthday Honours, she was in the first group of people to be named Companions of the Order of Australia (AC) (the order had been created only in February 1975). She was elevated within the Order of the British Empire from Commander to Dame Commander (DBE) in the 1979 New Year Honours. On 29 November 1991, the Queen bestowed on Sutherland the Order of Merit (OM). Awards In 1992 Sutherland was a founding patron and active supporter of the Tait Memorial Trust in London. A charity established by Isla Baring OAM, the daughter of Sir Frank Tait of J. C. Williamson's to support young Australian performing artists in the UK. Sir Frank Tait was the Australian impresario who created and managed the Sutherland-Williamson tour of Australia in 1965. Sutherland House and the Dame Joan Sutherland Centre, both at St Catherine's School, Waverley, and the Joan Sutherland Performing Arts Centre (JSPAC), Penrith, are all named in her honour. John Paul College, a leading private school in Queensland, Australia, dedicated its newly established facility the Dame Joan Sutherland Music Centre in 1991. Sutherland visited the centre for its opening and again in 1996. She received the Lifetime Contribution Award in 2001 Echo Klassik. In January 2004 she received the Australia Post Australian Legends Award which honours Australians who have contributed to the Australian identity and culture. Two stamps featuring Joan Sutherland were issued on Australia Day 2004 to mark the award. Later in 2004, she received a Kennedy Center Honor for her outstanding achievement throughout her career. On 22 May 2007, the year of the centenary of the birth of soprano Lina Pagliughi, she received the award La Siòla d'Oro at the Teatro Comunale di Bologna. In 2012, Sutherland was voted into the first Hall of Fame of the magazine Gramophone. Roles Sutherland performed live the following complete roles. Recordings Recitals Sutherland made various recital and lieder recordings, usually with Richard Bonynge, many of them originally double-LPs. Some are still available in CD-format. In 2011 Decca re-released these recitals in a 23-CD set (Complete Decca Studio Recitals, Decca 4783243) comprising: Operatic Arias (1959) The Art of the Prima Donna (1960) 2CD Command Performance (1962) 2CD The Age of Bel Canto (with Marilyn Horne and Richard Conrad, 1963) 2CD Joy to the World (Christmas Album, 1965) The Noël Coward Album (1966) Love Live Forever (1966) 2CD Romantic French Arias (1969) 2CD Songs My Mother Taught Me (1972) Operatic Duets (with Luciano Pavarotti, 1976) Serate Musicali (1978) 2CD Sutherland sings Wagner (1978) Sutherland sings Mozart (1979) Bel Canto Arias (1985) Talking Pictures (1986) Romantic Trios, Songs for soprano, horn and piano (1987) Rarities and first recordings (1958/59 to 1967/68) Opera recordings (non-exhaustive) Vincenzo Bellini Beatrice di Tenda—Joan Sutherland (Beatrice), Luciano Pavarotti (Orombello), Cornelius Opthof (Filippo), Josephine Veasey (Agnese), Joseph Ward (Anichino/Rizzardo), Ambrosian Opera Chorus, London Symphony Orchestra, Richard Bonynge, recorded 1966 Decca I puritani—Joan Sutherland (Elvira), Pierre Duval (Arturo), Renato Capecchi (Riccardo), Ezio Flagello (Giorgio), Giovanni Fioiani (Gualtiero), Margreta Elkins (Enrichetta), Piero de Palma (Bruno), Coro e Orchestra del Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, Richard Bonynge (conductor)—recorded 1963—Decca 448 969-2 / Decca 467 789-2 (part of a 10-CD set) / London POCL 3965-7 I puritani—Joan Sutherland (Elvira), Luciano Pavarotti (Arturo), Piero Cappuccilli (Riccardo), Nicolai Ghiaurov (Giorgio), Giancarlo Luccardi (Gualtiero), Anita Caminada (Enrichetta), Renato Cazzaniga (Bruno), Chorus of the Royal Opera, Covent Garden, London Symphony Orchestra—Richard Bonynge, recorded 1973, Decca La sonnambula—Joan Sutherland (Amina), Nicola Monti (Elvino), Fernando Corena (Rodolfo), Sylvia Stahlman (Lisa), Margreta Elkins (Teresa), Angelo Mercuriali (Notary), Giovanni Fioiani (Alessio), Coro e Orchestra del Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, Richard Bonynge recorded 1962—Decca 00289 448 9662 6 / 000320702 / 455 823-2—Track listing La sonnambula—Joan Sutherland (Amina), Luciano Pavarotti (Elvino), Nicolai Ghiaurov (Rodolfo), Isobel Buchanan (Lisa), Della Jones (Teresa), Piero De Palma (Notaro), John Tomlinson (Alessio), National Philharmonic Orchestra, London Opera Chorus, Richard Bonynge, recorded 1980—Decca 2LH417-424 Norma—Joan Sutherland (Norma), Marilyn Horne (Adalgisa), John Alexander (Pollione), Richard Cross (Oroveso), Yvonne Minton (Clotilde), Joseph Ward (Flavio), London Symphony Orchestra and Chorus, Richard Bonynge, recorded 1964—Decca Norma—Joan Sutherland (Norma), Margreta Elkins (Adalgisa), Ronald Stevens (Pollione), Clifford Grant (Oroveso), Etela Piha (Clotilde), Trevor Brown (Flavio), Opera Australia Chorus, Elizabethan Sydney Orchestra, Richard Bonynge, recorded 1978—DVD Arthaus Musik 100 180 Norma—Joan Sutherland (Norma), Montserrat Caballé (Adalgisa), Luciano Pavarotti (Pollione), Samuel Ramey (Oroveso), Diana Montague (Clotilde), Kim Begley (Flavio), Chorus and Orchestra of the Welsh National Opera, Richard Bonynge, recorded 1984—Decca Georges Bizet Carmen—Regina Resnik (Carmen), Mario Del Monaco (Don Jose), Joan Sutherland (Micaëla), Tom Krause (Escamillo), Georgette Spanellys (Frasquita), Yvonne Minton (Mercedes), Robert Geay (Zuniga), Jean Prudent (Le Dancaire), Alfred Hallet (Le Remendado), Claude Cales (Morales). Orchestre de la Suisse Romande, recorded 1963 Giovanni Bononcini Griselda (highlights)—Joan Sutherland (Griselda), Lauris Elms (Ernesto), Monica Sinclair (Gualtiero), Margreta Elkins (Almirena), Spiro Malas (Rambaldo), Ambrosian Opera Chorus, London Philharmonic Orchestra, Richard Bonynge, recorded 1966. Decca 448 977-2 (coupled with Montezuma) Francesco Cilea Adriana Lecouvreur—Joan Sutherland (Adriana Lecouvreur), Carlo Bergonzi (Maurizio), (Il Principe di Bouillon), Cleopatra Ciurca (La Principessa di Bouillon), Leo Nucci (Michonnet), Chorus and Orchestra of the Welsh National Opera, Richard Bonynge, recorded 1988, Decca. Léo Delibes Lakmé—Joan Sutherland (Lakmé), Gabriel Bacquier (Nilakantha), Jane Berbié (Malika), Émile Belcourt (Hadji), Alain Vanzo (Gérald), Monte Carlo Opera Chorus, Orchestre National de l'Opéra de Monte-Carlo, Richard Bonynge, recorded 1967, Decca Records. Gaetano Donizetti Emilia di Liverpool (excerpts) / Lucia di Lammermoor (excerpts)—Joan Sutherland (Lucia), Margreta Elkins (Alisa), Joao Gibin (Edgardo), Tullio Serafin (conductor). Recorded 26 February 1959—Myto Records MCD 91545 (Probably these are excerpts from the same performance as the Melodram recording.) Lucia di Lammermoor—Joan Sutherland (Lucia), Renato Cioni (Edgardo), Robert Merrill (Enrico), Cesare Siepi (Raimondo), Chorus & Orchestra of the Accademia di Santa Cecilia, John Pritchard (conductor), Decca, 1961. Lucia di Lammermoor—Joan Sutherland (Lucia), Luciano Pavarotti (Edgardo), Sherrill Milnes(Enrico), Nicolai Ghiaurov (Raimondo), Chorus & Orchestra of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, Richard Bonynge, Decca, 1971. Lucia di Lammermoor—Joan Sutherland (Lucia), João Gibin (Edgardo), John Shaw (Enrico), Joseph Rouleau (Raimondo), Kenneth MacDonald (Arturo), Margreta Elkins (Alisa), Robert Bowman (Normanno), Chorus & Orchestra of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, Tullio Serafin, recorded 1959—Golden Melodram GM 50024 or Giuseppe di Stefano GDS 21017 or Bella Voce BLV 107 218 (highlights). 2006 release: Royal Opera House Heritage Series ROHS 002. Lucia di Lammermoor—Joan Sutherland (Lucia), André Turp (Edgardo), John Shaw (Enrico), Joseph Rouleau (Raimondo), Kenneth MacDonald (Arturo), Margreta Elkins (Alisa), Edgar Evans (Normanno), Chorus & Orchestra of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, John Pritchard, recorded 1961—Celestial Audio CA 345 Lucia di Lammermoor—Joan Sutherland (Lucia), Richard Tucker (Edgardo), Frank Guarrera (Enrico), Nicola Moscona (Raimondo), Robert Nagy (Normanno), Thelma Votipka (Alisa), Charles Anthony (Arturo), Metropolitan Opera House, conductor: Silvio Varviso. Recorded 9 December 1961 for radio broadcasting. La fille du régiment—Joan Sutherland (Marie), Luciano Pavarotti (Tonio), Monica Sinclair (La Marquise de Berkenfield), Jules Bruyère (Hortensius), Spiro Malas (Sulpice), Eric Garrett (Le Caporal), Edith Coates (La Duchesse de Crakentorp), Orchestra & Chorus of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, Richard Bonynge. Recorded: Kingsway Hall, London, 17–28 July 1967. Original LP release: SET 372-3 (two LPs), CD release: 414 520-2 DH2 (two CDs). L'elisir d'amore—Joan Sutherland (Adina), Luciano Pavarotti (Nemorino), Dominic Cossa (Belcore), Spiro Malas (Dulcamara), (Giannetta), Ambrosian Opera Chorus, English Chamber Orchestra, Richard Bonynge. Recorded: Kingsway Hall, London, 12–23 January and 1–10 July 1970. Original LP release: SET 503-5 (three LPs), CD release: 414 461-2 DH2 (two CDs), CD re-release: 475 7514 DOR2 (two CDs). Lucrezia Borgia—Joan Sutherland (Lucrezia Borgia), Ronald Stevens (Gennaro), Margreta Elkins (Maffio Orsini), Richard Allman (Don Alfonso), Robin Donald (Jacopo Liveretto), Lyndon Terracini (Don Apostolo Gazella), Gregory Yurisich (Ascanio Petrucci), Lamberto Furlan (Oloferno Vitellozzo), Pieter Van der Stolk (Gubetta), Graeme Ewer (Rustighello), John Germain (Astolfo), Neville Grave (Un servo), Eddie Wilden (Un coppiere), Jennifer Bermingham (Principessa Negroni), Australian Opera Chorus, Sydney Elizabethan Orchestra, Richard Bonynge, recorded 1977. VHS Video Cassette—Castle Video CV2845 (PAL); Polygram-Vidéo 070 031-3 (SECAM) Polygram 079 261-3 (PAL) Lucrezia Borgia—Joan Sutherland (Lucrezia), Giacomo Aragall (Gennaro), Marilyn Horne (Orsini), Ingvar Wixell (Alfonso), London Opera Chorus, National Philharmonic Orchestra, Richard Bonynge (conductor), Decca, 1977. Maria Stuarda—Joan Sutherland (Maria), Huguette Tourangeau (Elisabeta), Luciano Pavarotti (Leicester), Roger Soyer (Talbot), Margreta Elkins (Anna), James Morris (Cecil), Coro del Teatro Comunale di Bologna, Orchestra del Teatro Comunale di Bologna, Richard Bonynge, recorded 1975—Decca 00289 425 4102 / Lyrica LRC 1040/1041—Track listing and excerpts Charles Gounod Faust—Joan Sutherland (Marguerite), Franco Corelli (Faust), Nicolai Ghiaurov (Méphistophélès), Robert Massard (Valentin), Margreta Elkins (Siébel), Monica Sinclair (Marthe), Raymond Myers (Wagner), Ambrosian Opera Chorus and Highgate School Choir, London Symphony Orchestra, Richard Bonynge, Decca 0289 4705632 4 (2002 release) / 421 240-2 (1991 release) / 467 059-2 / London POCL 3962-4 Track listing and audio samples George Frideric Handel Acis and Galatea—Joan Sutherland (Galatea), Peter Pears (Acis), Owen Brannigan (Polyphemus), David Galliver (Damon), The St. Anthony Singers, Philomusica of London, Sir Adrian Boult (conductor). L'Oiseau-Lyre OL 50179-80 Alcina—Joan Sutherland (Alcina), Margreta Elkins (Ruggiero), Lauris Elms (Bradamante), Richard Greager (Oronte), Narelle Davidson (Morgana), Ann-Maree McDonald (Oberto), John Wegner (Melisso), Chorus and Orchestra of Australian Opera, Richard Bonynge, recorded 1983. Celestial Audio CA 112 Alcina coupled with Giulio Cesare in Egitto (highlights)—Margreta Elkins (Giulio Cesare), Joan Sutherland (Cleopatra), Marilyn Horne (Cornelia), Monica Sinclair (Tolomeo), Richard Conrad (Sesto), New Symphonic Orchestra of London, Richard Bonynge—Decca 00289 433 7232 / 467063-2 / 467 067-2—Track listing and excerpts Athalia—Joan Sutherland, Emma Kirkby, Aled Jones, James Bowman, Anthony Rolfe Johnson, David Thomas, The Academy of Ancient Music, Christopher Hogwood (conductor) Messiah—Joan Sutherland, Grace Bumbry, Kenneth McKellar, David Ward, London Symphony Orchestra, Sir Adrian Boult (conductor)—Decca 433 003-2 Rodelinda—Alfred Hallett (Grimoaldo), Raimund Herincx (Garibaldo), Joan Sutherland (Rodelinda), Dame Janet Baker (Eduige), Margreta Elkins (Bertarido), Patricia Kern (Unolfo), Chandos Singers, Philomusica Antiqua Orchestra, Charles Farncombe. An English language version, recorded live on 24 June 1959—Opera D'oro OPD 1189 (two CDs) or Memories HR 4577-4578 or Living Stage LS 403 35147 (highlights). Rodelinda—Joan Sutherland (Rodelinda), Huguette Tourangeau (Bertarido), Éric Tappy (Grimoaldo), Margreta Elkins (Eduige), Cora Canne-Meijer (Unolfo), Pieter Van Den Berg (Garibaldo), Netherlands Chamber Orchestra, Richard Bonynge. Recorded 30 June 1973—Bella Voce BLV 10 7206. Jules Massenet Esclarmonde—Joan Sutherland (Esclarmonde), Huguette Tourangeau (Parséis), Clifford Grant (Phorcas), Giacomo Aragall (Roland), Louis Quilico (the bishop of Blois), Ryland Davies (Enéas), Robert Lloyd (Cléomer), Finchley Children's Music Group, John Alldis Choir, National Philharmonic Orchestra, Richard Bonynge, Decca 3 CDs 475 7914 DM3 (2006 release) Giacomo Meyerbeer Les Huguenots—Joan Sutherland (Marguerite), Franco Corelli (Raoul), Giulietta Simionato (Valentine), Nicolai Ghiaurov (Marcel), Fiorenza Cossotto (Urbain), Gianandrea Gavazzeni, Orchestra e Coro del Teatro Alla Scala. Live: 7 June 1962. Opera D'Oro. Sung in Italian. Les Huguenots—Dominic Cossa (Nevers), Gabriel Bacquier (Saint-Bris), Nicola Ghiuselev (Marcel), John Wakefield (Tavannes), Joseph Ward (Cossé), John Noble (Thoré), Glynne Thomas (Retz), John Gibbs (Meru), Clifford Grant (Maurevert), Janet Coster (Léonard), Dame Kiri Te Kanawa (1st Maid of Honour), Josephte Clement (2nd Maid of Honour), Arleen Auger (1st Gypsy Girl), Maureen Lehane (2nd Gypsy Girl), Joan Sutherland (Marguerite de Valois), Martina Arroyo (Valentine), Huguette Tourangeau (Urbain), Anastasios Vrenios (Raoul de Nangis), Alan Opie (2nd Monk), NPO, Bonynge. Decca 430 549-2, recorded in 1969. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Idomeneo—Sergei Baigildin (Idomeneo), Margreta Elkins (Idamante), Henri Wilden (Arbace), Leona Mitchell (Ilia), Joan Sutherland (Elettra), Australian Opera Chorus, Sydney Elizabethan Orchestra, Richard Bonynge, recorded 1979. Gala GLH 826 (highlights) and Celestial Audio CA 060 (highlights) Don Giovanni—Gottlob Frick (Commendatore), Luigi Alva (Don Ottavio), Graziella Sciutti (Zerlina), Joan Sutherland (Donna Anna), Piero Cappuccilli (Masetto), Elisabeth Schwarzkopf (Donna Elvira), Eberhard Wächter (Don Giovanni), Heinrich Schmidt, Giuseppe Taddei (Leporello), London Philharmonia Orchestra, Carlo Maria Giulini. Recorded 1959—EMI 0724356787353 Don Giovanni—Gabriel Bacquier (Don Giovanni), Pilar Lorengar (Donna Elvira), Marilyn Horne (Zerlina), Joan Sutherland (Donna Anna), English Chamber Orchestra, Richard Bonynge. Decca 448 973-2 Jacques Offenbach Les contes d'Hoffmann—Joan Sutherland (Stella\Olympia\Antonia\Giulietta), Plácido Domingo (Hoffmann), Gabriel Bacquier (Lindorf\Coppelius\Miracle\Dappertutto), L'Orchestre de la Suisse Romande, Orchestre du Radio de la Suisse Romande, Pro Arte de Lausanne, Andre Charlet, Richard Bonynge, studio recording made at Victoria Hall, Geneva, first published in 1976. Giacomo Puccini Suor Angelica—Joan Sutherland (Angelica), Christa Ludwig (La Zia Principessa), National Philharmonic Orchestra, Richard Bonynge. Decca 475 6531 (coupled with Leoni's "L'oracolo") Turandot—Joan Sutherland (Turandot), Luciano Pavarotti (Calaf), Montserrat Caballé (Liu), Nicolai Ghiaurov (Timur), Peter Pears (Emperor), London Philharmonic Orchestra, Zubin Mehta. Decca 414 274-2, recorded in 1972. Gioachino Rossini Semiramide—Joan Sutherland (Semiramide), John Serge (Idreno), Joseph Rouleau (Assur), Spiro Malas (Oroe), Patricia Clark (Azema), Leslie Fyson (Mitrane), Michael Langdon (Spectre of Nino), Marilyn Horne (Arsace), London Symphony Orchestra, Richard Bonynge. Decca 425 481-2, recorded in 1966. Ambroise Thomas Hamlet—Joan Sutherland, Gösta Winbergh, James Morris, Sherill Milnes, Orchestra and Chorus of the Welsh National Opera. Decca, 433 857-2, recorded in April 1983. Giuseppe Verdi Ernani—Luciano Pavarotti (Ernani), Joan Sutherland (Elvira), Leo Nucci (Carlo), Paata Burchuladze (Silva), Linda McLeod (Giovanna), Richard Morton (Riccardo), Alastair Miles (Jago), Orchestra and Chorus of Welsh National Opera, Richard Bonynge. Recorded: Walthamstow Assembly Hall, 10–21 May 1987. Original CD release: 421 412-2 DHO2 (two CDs), CD re-release: 475 7008 DM2 (two CDs) I masnadieri—Joan Sutherland, Samuel Ramey, Franco Bonisolli, Matteo Manuguerra, Simone Alaimo, Orchestra and Chorus of the Welsh Nation, Richard Bonynge. CD re-release in 1993: 433 854-2 (two CD, DDD). Requiem—Joan Sutherland, Marilyn Horne, Luciano Pavarotti, Martti Talvela, Vienna State Opera Chorus and Vienna Philharmonic, sir Sir Georg Solti (1967), Decca 411 944-2 Requiem—Joan Sutherland, Fiorenza Cossotto, Luigi Ottolini, Ivo Vinco, Philharmonia Orchestra and Chorus, Carlo Maria Giulini (1960 live recording), Myto 00309 Rigoletto—Cornell MacNeil, Joan Sutherland, Renato Cioni, Cesare Siepi, Chorus & Orchestra of the Accademia di Santa Cecilia, Nino Sanzogno, Decca, 1961. Rigoletto—Sherrill Milnes, Joan Sutherland, Luciano Pavarotti, Martti Talvela, Ambrosian Opera Chorus, London Symphony Orchestra, Richard Bonynge, Decca, 1971. La traviata—Joan Sutherland, Carlo Bergonzi, Robert Merrill, Chorus & Orchestra of Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, John Pritchard, Decca, 1962 La traviata—Joan Sutherland, Luciano Pavarotti, Matteo Manuguerra, National Philharmonic Orchestra, Richard Bonynge. London 430 491-2 recorded in 1979. Il trovatore—Luciano Pavarotti (Manrico), Ingvar Wixell (Il Conte di Luna), Nicolai Ghiaurov (Ferrando), Joan Sutherland (Leonora), Marilyn Horne (Azucena), Graham Clark (Ruiz), Norma Burrowes (Ines), Peter Knapp (Un vecchio zingaro), Wynford Evans (Un messo), London Opera Chorus, National Philharmonic Orchestra, Richard Bonynge. Recorded: Kingsway Hall, London, 8, 10, 11, 13–18, 20 September 1976; 26 March 1977. Original LP release: D82D 3 (three LPs), CD release: 417 137-2 DH2* (two CDs), CD re-release: 460 735-2 DF2 (two CDs). (Ballet music not included in CD release). Richard Wagner Siegfried—Joan Sutherland as the Woodbird, Vienna Philharmonic (Sir Georg Solti) 1962 recording, London 414 110-2 Video recordings The Metropolitan Opera Centennial Gala, Deutsche Grammophon DVD, 00440-073-4358, 2009 References Further reading Norma Major: Joan Sutherland: The Authorized Biography, Queen Anne Press, 1987, , / Little, Brown and Company, 1994, , Joan Sutherland: A Prima Donna's Progress – The Autobiography of Joan Sutherland, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997, External links Joan Sutherland at Decca Records Dame Joan Sutherland programs in the National Library of Australia Recordings and other material, Internet Archive "Sutherland, Joan", National Library of Australia record Interviews Interview with Dame Joan Sutherland Arts and Culture: Christopher Purdy, 2 November 2006 Joan Sutherland interview by Bruce Duffie Obituaries Dame Joan Sutherland obituary, John Amis, Alan Blyth, The Guardian, 11 October 2010 Joan Sutherland: addio, Stupenda, Anne Midgette at The Washington Post "Dame Joan Sutherland remembered" by Paul Westcott, Opera Now (London), 14 October 2010 1926 births 2010 deaths 20th-century Australian women opera singers Alumni of the Royal College of Music ARIA Award winners ARIA Hall of Fame inductees Australian Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire Australian expatriates in Switzerland Australian members of the Order of Merit Australian monarchists Australian operatic sopranos Australian people of Scottish descent Australian of the Year Award winners Companions of the Order of Australia Decca Records artists Grammy Award winners Helpmann Award winners Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music London Records artists Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists Sigma Alpha Iota Singers awarded knighthoods Singers from Sydney Kennedy Center honorees
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshitaka%20Amano
Yoshitaka Amano
is a Japanese visual artist, character designer, illustrator, a scenic designer for theatre and film, and a costume designer. He first came into prominence in the late 1960s working on the anime adaptation of Speed Racer. Amano later became the creator of iconic and influential characters such as Gatchaman, Tekkaman, Honeybee Hutch, and Casshern. In 1982 he went independent and became a freelance artist, finding success as an illustrator for numerous authors, and worked on best-selling novel series, such as The Guin Saga and Vampire Hunter D. He is also known for his commissioned illustrations for the popular video game franchise Final Fantasy. Since the 1990s Amano has been creating and exhibiting paintings featuring his iconic retro pop icons in galleries around the world, primarily painting on aluminium box panels with acrylic and automotive paint. He is a five-time winner of the Seiun Award, and also won the 1999 Bram Stoker Award for his collaboration with Neil Gaiman, Sandman: The Dream Hunters. Amano's influences include early Western comic books, Orientalism, art nouveau, and Japanese woodblock prints. In early 2010, he established Studio Devaloka, a film production company. Biography Amano was born in Shizuoka, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan, to Yoshio Amano (1917–1962) and Kesano Amano (née Fujimoto). He is the youngest child of four. Amano's father was a lacquer artist, specializing in traditional Suruga lacquerware. As a young adolescent, Yoshitaka Amano was fascinated with drawing. In 1967, he began working in the animation department of Tatsunoko Productions, where he was introduced to the early Japanese anime movement. His first paid project was for the Speed Racer anime franchise. He was a character designer for anime shows such as Time Bokan, Gatchaman, Tekkaman, and Honeybee Hutch. In the 1960s, Amano was exposed to Western art styles through comic books, which he claims among his artistic roots. He has cited Neal Adams as his favorite comic book artist, noting that he would often purchase used comics based on Adams's cover artwork, only to be disappointed that the interior artist was different. Amano was also fascinated by the art styles of psychedelic art and pop art of the West, particularly the work of American Pop artist Peter Max. In the 1970s, Amano studied the artworks of the late 19th century and early 20th century European movement of Art Nouveau, as well as the Russian orientalists (Leon Bakst, Ivan Bilibin) and the ancient Japanese hand woodblock printing work of Ukiyo-e. Amano remained at Tatsunoko Productions until 1982. Early fantasy works During the 1980s, Amano concentrated on illustrations for science fiction and fantasy works. Combined with the influence of his prior experience in animation, this focus resulted in a personal style influenced by both modern surrealism and realism. He left Tatsunoko Production and started his activities as a freelancer in 1982. He did illustration and cover page design of Kimaira series, written by Baku Yumemakura, from this year. In 1983, he illustrated the novel Demon City Shinjuku and the first in Hideyuki Kikuchi's Vampire Hunter D novel series. He also worked as a character designer on the 1985 movie adaptation of Vampire Hunter D, which was one of the first anime movies to be released outside Japan. In interviews, however, Amano has stated that he was not pleased with the final product of the movie. His illustrations begin to be published in collections such as Maten in 1984. That year he drew the manga Amon Saga, written by Baku Yumemakura, which was later adapted into an OVA. Video games In 1987, Amano joined Square (now known as Square Enix) to work on a role-playing video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System: Final Fantasy. Amano produced conceptual design pieces for the game in both traditional and computer designed artwork. At this time, he also worked for another video game company, Kure Software Koubou, producing box cover illustrations as well as some character designs. This work included designs for Kure's First Queen series. Following Final Fantasy VI in 1994, he stepped down as the main character, image, and graphic designer of the series. He continued to provide promotional and character artwork for the following games and to design their title logos. Amano became the world's highest-earning artist in 1996, earning that year from sales of silk screens, lithographs and etchings based on his book illustrations. His work began receiving international recognition following the release of Final Fantasy VII in 1997. In 2006, Hironobu Sakaguchi, the former designer and creator of the Final Fantasy series, recruited Amano and composer Nobuo Uematsu to work on video games at Mistwalker. Amano and Nobuo Uematsu worked together again on videogames like Fairy Fencer F at Compile Heart. Branching out Amano's first exhibition, called "Hiten", was held in 1989 at Yurakucho Mullion in Tokyo, Japan. In 1990, he began to work as an artist and set designer for stage theater. His first work for theater was Tamasaburo Bando's Nayotake. Beginning in 1995 with his work at the Biennale d'Orléans in France, he received increased recognition outside Japan. Further international exhibitions followed, including the 1999 "Hero" at the Angel Orensanz Foundation and the 1997 workshop and exhibition "Think Like Amano". In 1998, Amano appeared as Hiroshi in the movie New Rose Hotel, loosely based on the William Gibson short story of the same name. Freelancing In 2000, Amano illustrated Neil Gaiman's The Sandman: The Dream Hunters, which won several awards and was nominated for a Hugo Award. In 2001, Greg Rucka and Amano collaborated on another comic book tale, Elektra and Wolverine: The Redeemer. His character designs were used in another Vampire Hunter D movie entitled Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust. In 2006, the first volume of his HERO series was released by Boom! Studios. He was key visual and costume designer for movies written by Baku Yumemakura, including Onmyoji, Onmyoji 2, and Taitei no Ken. He illustrated three album covers for the Japanese power metal band Galneryus: The Flag of Punishment (2003), Advance to the Fall (2005), and Beyond the End of Despair (2006). In 2004 Amano was asked by creative director GK Reid to create illustrations in collaboration with author Neil Gaiman and featuring David Bowie and Iman as sci-fi characters, for "The Return of the Thin White Duke" a portion of which were published in V Magazine. In 2008, Amano created an illustrated adaptation of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's The Magic Flute, published by Radical Comics. He also collaborated with Christopher "mink" Morrison of Quentin Tarantino's A Band Apart production company, providing illustrations for the novel Shinjuku and Shinjuku Azul, as well as a third unannounced follow up and an online game, Shinjuku Nexus. He was the character designer for the 2009 Jungle Emperor (Kimba the White Lion) TV special, directed by Gorō Taniguchi, to commemorate both the 50th anniversary of Fuji Television and the 80th anniversary of Osamu Tezuka's birth. Studio Devaloka In 2010, following a small solo art exhibition tour titled "Devaloka" it was announced that Amano had established a film production company, Studio Devaloka, and would be directing a 3D anime titled Zan, with additional projects to be announced in the future. On December 15, 2010, the official website for the film, now titled Deva Zan, was unveiled, along with information concerning an upcoming press conference, to be held on December 21, 2010. The roughly ten-minute-long conference revealed details about the project, including staff, as well as a short trailer for the film, which stylistically emulates the look of Amano's paintings. In April 2012, an illustrated novel adaptation of the work was announced by Dark Horse Manga. To be released in January 2013, the novel will be Amano's debut as an author and will include over 240 original illustrations. Despite a projected 2012 release date, Amano stated in an October 2012 interview that the animation project was still in its development and funding stages and may instead be realized as a TV series. The possibility of a video game adaptation was also mentioned. In 2013, Amano collaborated with Japanese rock star Hyde (L'Arc-en-Ciel/VAMPS) on an art exhibition titled Destiny and Decay: Nippon Evolution. On July 2, 2023, Amano appeared at Anime Expo to reveal the cover art for the classical single "Requiem" by rock artist Yoshiki. List of works Animation Science Ninja Team Gatchaman (1972) Casshan (1973) Hurricane Polymar (1974) New Honeybee Hutch (1974) Time Bokan (1975) Yatterman (1977) Zenderman (1979) Rescueman (1980) Yattodetaman (1981) Gyakuten! Ippatsuman (1982) Itadakiman (1983) Tekkaman: The Space Knight (1975) Gowappa 5 Gōdam (1976) Akū Daisakusen Srungle (1983) Genesis Climber MOSPEADA (1983) Radio City Fantasy Starzan S (1984) Bismark (1984) Angel's Egg (also co-creator of the story) (1985) Vampire Hunter D (1985) Amon Saga (1986) Lily C.A.T. (1987) 1001 Nights (1998, concert video directed by Mike Smith for music by David Newman, based on Amano's Princess Budou illustrations) Ayakashi (2006) Fantascope ~Tylostoma~(2006) Bird's Song (2007) Ten Nights of Dreams (2007) Vegetable Fairies: N.Y. Salad (2007) Jungle Taitei: Yūki ga Mirai wo Kaeru (2009) Gibiate (2020) Exception (2022) ZAN (TBA) Novels A Wind Named Amnesia English Version (2009) Author DEVA ZAN (2013) Illustrator Select domestic Japanese works Vampire Hunter D (1983-ongoing) Guin Saga (1984–1997) The Heroic Legend of Arslan (1986–1999) Sohryuden (1987-ongoing) Rampo Edogawa Mystery Collection (1987–1989) Tekiha Kaizoku Series Shinsetsu Taikō-ki Chimera-ho Series Garouden The Tale of Genji (1997) Sword World RPG – Assorted artwork Mateki: The Magic Flute Illustrated Blues (2010) Select Japanese editions of foreign works A Cup of Magic! (1981) The Prince in the Scarlet Robe, Corum (1982) Erekosë Saga (1983) Elric Saga (1984) Dream Weaver (1985) The Chronicles of Castle Brass (1988) Hoka Series Seven Brothers (2006) Foreign works Sandman: The Dream Hunters (1999) Elektra and Wolverine: The Redeemer (2002) Yoshitaka Amano's HERO (2006-ongoing) Shinjuku (2010) Shinjuku Azul (TBA) Art books Maten / Evil Universe (1984) Genmukyu / Castle of Illusions (1986) () Imagine (1987) () Hiten / Flying Universe: The Art of Yoshitaka Amano (1989) ( Dawn (1991) ( The Heroic Tales Of Arslan (1991) The Illustrations for Tarot Card by Yoshitaka Amano (1992) ( Rasenoh / Spiral King (1992) () Le Roi de la Lune (1992) () Mono (1993) Untitled set of 10 postcards (1993) Steps To Heaven (1993) Yoshitaka Amano Postcard Selection (1994) () Japan, Final Fantasy (1994) () Katen (1994) () Budōhime / Princess Budou (1996) Yousei / Fairies (1996) () Guin Saga (1996) () Yoshitaka Amano: Collection of Paintings (1996) 1996 (1996) Kan'oke / Coffin (1997) () Think Like Amano (1997) Biten (1999) Alice Erotica (1999) 1001 Nights (1999) Märchen (2000) Vampire Hunter D (2000) () POEM (2001) Kotatsu I (2002) Kotatsu II (2002) Guin Saga Chronicle (2002) The Sky (2002) Kiten (2002) Symphony (2002) Amano First (2003) () The Virgin (2004) () Yoshitaka Amano x HYDE - Destiny and Decay: Nippon Evolution (2013) Yoshitaka Amano Exhibition Art Book: The World Beyond Your Imagination (2015) Video games Esh's Aurunmilla (1984) – Character Designer Final Fantasy (1987) – Character Designer, Title Logo Designer and Graphic Designer Final Fantasy II (1988) – Character Designer, Title Logo Designer and Graphic Designer First Queen (1988) – Box cover artist Duel (1989) – Box cover artist Duel98 (1989) – Box cover artist Final Fantasy III (1990) – Character Designer & Title Logo Designer First Queen 2 (1990) – Box cover artist Final Fantasy IV (1991) – Character Designer, Image Designer and Title Logo Designer Final Fantasy V (1992) – Character Designer, Image Designer and Title Logo Designer Kawanakajima Ibunroku (1992) – Box cover artist First Queen 3 (1993) – Box cover artist Final Fantasy VI (1994) – Character Designer, Image Designer and Title Logo Designer Front Mission (1995) – Character Designer Front Mission: Gun Hazard (1996) – Character Designer Final Fantasy VII (1997) – Promotional Artwork, Image Illustrator, Title Logo Designer and Character Artwork Kartia: The Word of Fate (1998) – Art Designer Final Fantasy VIII (1999) – Promotional Artwork, Image Illustrator, Title Logo Designer and Character Artwork Final Fantasy IX (2000) – Character Illustrations & Original Character Designer El Dorado Gate (2000–2001) – Creative Director & Additional Design Final Fantasy X (2001) – Promotional Artwork, Image Illustrations, Title Logo Designer and Character Artwork Final Fantasy X-2 (2003) – Promotional Artwork, Title Logo Designer and Image Illustrator Final Fantasy XI (2002) – Promotional Artwork, Title Logo Designer and Image Illustrator Final Fantasy XII (2006) – Promotional Artwork, Title Logo Designer and Image Illustrator Lord of Vermilion (2008) – Guest Card Illustrator Dissidia Final Fantasy (2008) – Title Logo Designer & Image Illustrator Final Fantasy IV: The After Years (2009) – Title Logo Designer Lord of Vermilion II (2009) – Guest Card Illustrator Final Fantasy XIII (2010) – Promotional Artwork, Title Logo Designer & Image Illustrator Final Fantasy XIV (2010) – Title Logo Designer Lord of Arcana (2010) – Guest Monster Designer Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy (2011) – Title Logo Designer & Image Illustrator Final Fantasy Type-0 (2011) – Promotional Artwork, Title Logo Designer & Image Illustrator Final Fantasy XIII-2 (2011) – Title Logo Designer Final Fantasy Dimensions (2012) – Title Logo Designer UnchainBlades EXXiV (2012) – Character Designer Fantasy Life (2012) – Image Illustrator Fairy Fencer F (2013) – Art Designer Child of Light (2014) – Image Illustrator Terra Battle (2014) – Character Design Final Fantasy Explorers (2014) – Title Logo Designer Mobius Final Fantasy (2015) – Title Logo Designer Final Fantasy Grandmasters (2015) – Title Logo Designer Final Fantasy: Brave Exvius (2015) – Promotional Artwork, Title Logo Designer World of Final Fantasy (2016) – Title Logo Designer Final Fantasy XV (2016) – Promotional Artwork, Title Logo Designer & Image Illustrator Final Fantasy Dimensions II (2017) – Title Logo Designer World of Final Fantasy: Meli-Melo (2017) – Title Logo Designer Dissidia Final Fantasy NT (2018) – Title Logo Designer Final Fantasy Explorers-Force (2018) – Title Logo Designer Arc of Alchemist (2019) – Image Illustrator Eternal (2019) – Key Visual, Character Designer, Monster Designer War of the Visions: Final Fantasy Brave Exvius (2019) – Title Logo Designer Final Fantasy VII Remake (2020) - Title Logo Designer Stranger of Paradise: Final Fantasy Origin (2022) – Title Logo Designer Front Mission 1st: Remake (2022)  - Character Designer Final Fantasy XVI (2023)  - Title Logo Designer Fortnite - Amano's Heart collaboration (2023)  - Character Designer & Image Illustrator Front Mission 2 Remake (2023)  - Character Designer Front Mission 3 Remake (TBA)  - Character Designer Music Raphael: Sweet Romance (1999), Yume Yori Suteki na (1999), Hanasaku Inochi Aru Kagiri (1999), Eternal Wish (Todokanu Kimi e) (1999), Promise (1999) – Cover Illustrator Galneryus: The Flag of Punishment (2003), Advance to the Fall (2005), Beyond the End of Despair... (2006), Best of the Awakening Days (2009), Best of the Braving Days (2009) – Cover Illustrator Vocaloid 3 Library: Zola Project (2013) – Image Illustrator Random Encounter: Lost Frequency (2017) - Cover and Interior Illustrator Other works Magic: The Gathering Liliana, Dreadhorde General (2019) - Image Illustrator Notes and references External links Official site Yoshitaka Amano Official Fun Community Yoshitaka Amano Official Store Yoshitaka Amano's Official Blog (Japanese) Yoshitaka Amano Museum [Japanese; Archived] Deva Zan Official website Amano's World – The Art of Yoshitaka Amano [English; Archived] Yoshitaka Amano Gallery [English; Archived] 1952 births Anime character designers Final Fantasy designers Inkpot Award winners Japanese speculative fiction artists Fantasy artists Japanese male bloggers Manga artists from Shizuoka (city) Japanese painters Japanese printmakers Living people Logo designers People from Shizuoka (city) Science fiction artists Video game artists Tatsunoko Production people Writers who illustrated their own writing 21st-century Japanese sculptors 20th-century Japanese sculptors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WEWS-TV
WEWS-TV
WEWS-TV (channel 5) is a television station in Cleveland, Ohio, United States, affiliated with ABC. It has been owned by the E. W. Scripps Company since its inception in 1946, making it one of three stations that have been built and signed on by Scripps (alongside company flagship WCPO-TV in Cincinnati and WMC-TV in Memphis, the latter of which was sold in 1993). WEWS-TV's studios are located on Euclid Avenue (near I-90) in Downtown Cleveland, and its transmitter is located in suburban Parma. History The station first signed on the air on December 17, 1947, as the first television station in Ohio, and the 16th overall in the United States. The call letters denote the initials of the parent company's founder, Edward Willis Scripps. The station is the oldest in Cleveland to maintain the same channel position (as an analog broadcaster), ownership and call letters since its sign-on. A few weeks before WEWS-TV's sign-on, Scripps launched WEWS-FM 102.1 (the frequency is now occupied by WDOK) as an outlet for WEWS-TV personalities to gain on-air experience before the launch of the television station. Channel 5's first broadcast was of a Christmas pageant run by the station's corporate cousin, The Cleveland Press. Its staff included capable producers Jim Breslin and Betty Cope, who would later become president of WVIZ (channel 25). WEWS originally operated as a CBS affiliate, with secondary ABC and DuMont affiliations; it shared the secondary ABC affiliation with WXEL-TV (now WJW-TV, channel 8). WEWS lost the CBS affiliation to WJW-TV in 1955 after that station's then-owner, Storer Broadcasting, used its influence with CBS to land the affiliation; ABC then became channel 5's primary network. The station later lost the DuMont affiliation when that network ceased operations in 1956. WEWS was also an affiliate of the short-lived Paramount Television Network; the station was one of the network's strongest affiliates, airing such Paramount programs as Time For Beany, Hollywood Reel, and Frosty Frolics. WEWS also aired two NBC programs, both of which had been preempted by Westinghouse-owned NBC affiliate KYW-TV (now WKYC): the network's evening newscast The Huntley-Brinkley Report, during the 1959–1960 season; and The Tonight Show, with hosts Jack Paar and later Johnny Carson, from October 1957 to February 1966. In 1977, WEWS-TV went before the U.S. Supreme Court for recording and broadcasting the entire human cannonball act of Hugo Zacchini. He performed his circus routine at the Geauga County Fair in Burton, Ohio, and the station did not compensate him, as was required by Ohio law. In Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co., the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment did not shield WEWS from liability from common law copyright claims. On May 23, 1994, as part of an overall deal in which network parent News Corporation also purchased a 20% equity interest in the group, New World Communications signed a long-term affiliation agreement with Fox to switch thirteen television stations that New World owned or was acquiring from a Big Three network, including WJW-TV, to Fox. The deal was motivated by the National Football League (NFL)'s awarding of the rights to the National Football Conference (NFC) television package to Fox on December 18, 1993, in which the conference's broadcast television rights moved to the network effective with the 1994 NFL season, ending a 38-year relationship with CBS. As Fox was seen at the time on lower-profile UHF station WOIO (channel 19), CBS immediately targeted WEWS, as well as sister station WXYZ-TV in Detroit as its new affiliates in those markets. On June 16, however, Scripps signed a long-term deal with ABC that would keep WEWS-TV and WXYZ-TV as affiliates of the network; Scripps also agreed to affiliate WMAR-TV in Baltimore, KNXV-TV in Phoenix, and WFTS-TV in Tampa with ABC in the deal. Dual network affiliates From 1955 until December 31, 1996, WEWS held a distinction of being one of two primary ABC affiliates for the Cleveland market. WAKR-TV (channel 49) began operations on June 7, 1953, as a primary ABC affiliate, two years prior to WEWS joining the network. WAKR-TV's ties to ABC dated back to when radio adjunct WAKR signed on in 1940 as an NBC Blue/Blue Network affiliate and were incentivized by ABC's merger with United Paramount Theaters. For the network's part, they were engaged in a push to sign up as many affiliates as possible in order to compensate for NBC, CBS and Dumont having stronger affiliate bases. WAKR-TV's launch was delayed for several years: originally intended as a VHF license on a channel 11 allocation assigned to Akron, that allocation was removed as a result of the FCC's 1952 Sixth Report and Order in favor of two UHF allocations, one of which was not considered operable at the time. The station largely lost money in its early years and relied on profits from WAKR in order to remain solvent even after it moved from channel 49 to channel 23 in 1967. The ABC-TV schedule began to be carried in pattern by WAKR-TV with minimal deviations starting with the 1963–64 television season and carried Good Morning America in its entirety for the market as WEWS opted out for The Morning Exchange at 8 a.m., a distinction that ended in September 1994. When founding owner Summit Radio/Group One Broadcasting sold off their radio assets in 1986, the TV station was renamed WAKC. After nearly 40 years of continuous ownership by Summit/Group One, WAKC was sold to ValueVision in late 1993; ABC immediately renewed their affiliation after the sale closed, forcing the home shopping programmer into operating the station as a conventional network affiliate. Following consummation of a subsequent sale to Paxson Communications, the station's entire news department was fired outright on February 28, 1996, and all ABC programming was dropped that December 31. Paxson ultimately used the renamed WVPX-TV as a charter affiliate for the Pax TV network—a direct antecedent of Ion Television—which launched on August 31, 1998. Due to Scripps' purchase of Paxson's successor company Ion Media in September 2020, WVPX was divested to Inyo Broadcast Holdings but has retained affiliations with Ion and other digital subchannel networks operated by Scripps subsidiary Katz Broadcasting. Among WAKR-TV/WAKC's most notable alumni are two long-tenured WEWS staffers: Ted Henry, who began his career at WAKR-AM-TV as a reporter, and Mark Johnson, who worked at WAKC as a weatherman prior to joining WEWS in 1993 as a meteorologist. Programming Syndicated and network WEWS carried the 90-minute ABC premiere of The Edge of Night on December 1, 1975. On December 3, it started Edge at 10:00 a.m. on a one-day delay, and then later pushed up to 10:30 to make way for the national syndication of the talk show Donahue. Edge was dropped in April 1977 when ABC expanded All My Children to one hour and revised the daytime lineup. In 1969, the station gained some national attention for airing only the first half of Turn-On, because they stated it did not return to the show after the first commercial break, which guest host Tim Conway said was after "15 minutes" but the station claimed had happened after 10 minutes. The rest of the time slot was the emergency procedure, a black screen with live organ music that had not been used in over 20 years. The station's spokesman claimed that the station's switchboard was "lit up" with protest calls, and general manager Donald Perris derided Turn-On as being "in excessive poor taste." The station sent Perris sent to ABC president Elton Rule an angry telegram: "If your naughty little boys have to write dirty words on the walls, please don't use our walls. Turn-On is turned off, as far as WEWS is concerned." In 2004, all the Scripps-owned ABC stations preempted a showing of Saving Private Ryan. On May 23, 2010, WEWS-TV's broadcast of the series finale of Lost was almost completely interrupted and rendered unwatchable by a number of technical difficulties with the station's digital signal. This caused numerous viewer complaints, leading the station to issue numerous apologies both on-air and on its website. From the mid-1980s until 2011, WEWS was the Cleveland outlet for popular syndicated programs such as The Oprah Winfrey Show, Wheel of Fortune, Jeopardy!, and Live with Regis and Kathie Lee/Kelly, and throughout that time frame, there was little change in the daytime lineup, as those programs consistently drew good ratings. In 2011, Oprah Winfrey ended her show after a successful 25-year run. In order to fill the void, WEWS put The Dr. Oz Show (an Oprah spin-off hosted by Cleveland native Dr. Mehmet Oz), which was airing at 10 a.m., in the 4 p.m. time slot., and in subsequent years aired various other programs in that slot until settling in with a 4 p.m. newscast in fall 2018. (Dr. Oz ended up moving to WJW until the show ended its run in 2022 due to Oz's commitments to running for the United States Senate.) On September 14, 2012, the station dropped both Wheel and Jeopardy! after airing both shows for almost three decades, replacing them with The List and Let's Ask America, two more internally produced shows from Scripps. The reason behind the removal of the two hit game shows was because Scripps was looking to stray away from shows that carried a high cost to air on their stations, and instead air shows where Scripps was able to control advertisement, and as a result, are much cheaper to air on their stations. Both game shows ended up moving to WOIO. Let's Ask America would eventually be canceled in 2015, and WEWS would replace it with the long running celebrity gossip program Access Hollywood. The station also acquired Katie Couric's new talk show and placed it at 3 p.m. following General Hospitals shift to 2 p.m., a move that many other ABC affiliates also made. Couric's show would be canceled two years later, and WEWS has aired various other syndicated programs in that time slot ever since. At present, only the program now known as Live with Kelly and Mark continues to air on channel 5 from the original stable of hit syndicated shows. On June 26, 2023, following the cancellation of The List, WEWS began airing The Debrief, a nightly newscast airing at 7 p.m. originating from and simulcast on Scripps News—a sister network of WEWS, as part of a plan by Scripps to integrate Scripps News programming on their main network affiliates as a way to promote Scripps News and increase the network's exposure. Local programming In its early days as an ABC affiliate, the station produced its own shows in the afternoon, as ABC offered little daytime network programming. Among the local programs offered during the 1950s and 1960s included news analysis from Dorothy Fuldheim, children's programs featuring the "Uncle Jake" character played by Gene Carroll and the "Captain Penny" character played by Ron Penfound, and exercise programs with Paige Palmer. Alice Weston had one of the first live television cooking shows, and Barbara Plummer was "Miss Barbara" for a generation of young viewers on the local version of Romper Room. The most popular show was The Gene Carroll Show, a program that showcased Cleveland area talent which aired Sundays at noon beginning in 1948 and ran well into the 1970s. WEWS also offered a 90-minute afternoon variety show The One O'Clock Club weekdays hosted by Fuldheim and Bill Gordon. The program was so popular that competitor KYW-TV was prompted to organize a competing variety show which was the beginning of The Mike Douglas Show. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, WEWS produced several programs that eventually entered into national syndication. The first program was Upbeat. Considered by some to be one of the most significant early rock-and-roll variety television shows, Upbeat featured a live audience, a group of dancers and lip-synched (but occasionally live) performances by popular acts of the era. The program began locally as The Big 5 Show, and the name was changed to Upbeat when it went national, altogether running from 1964 to 1971. Among the program's hosts was Don Webster, who later doubled as the station's lead weather forecaster. At its peak, Upbeat was seen in over 100 television markets. Artists who appeared on Upbeat included Aretha Franklin, The Beatles, The Supremes, Simon and Garfunkel, Otis Redding and Stevie Wonder. In fact, Redding's final appearance ever came on the show's December 9, 1967, episode. The next afternoon, his twin-engine airplane crashed in the icy waters of Lake Monona in Madison, Wisconsin, killing all but one of the eight passengers on board. Another show seen throughout the country was Polka Varieties, an hour-long polka music program that ran locally on Sundays at 1 p.m. from 1956 into the early 1980s, and was syndicated during its later years to 30 television markets. The program featured various popular bands that played Slovenian-style polka, Polish, Italian and Bohemian-style music. "America's Polka King", Frank Yankovic, was the original band to perform on the show. Other bands included Richie Vadnal, George Staiduhar, Markic-Zagger, and Hank Haller. Original host Tom Fletcher was replaced by Paul Wilcox, whose presence became an indelible part of the show. Uttering the well-known show-opening phrase, "From America's Polka Capital of Cleveland, Ohio, this is Polka Varieties, now in its ___ year on the air!" were several famous voices associated with the station over the years, including Cort Stanton, Ralph Gunderman, and David Mark. Black on Black, which examined issues of importance to African American communities, was syndicated to several markets. From the early 1970s until July 1, 2011, WEWS was Cleveland's television outlet for the Ohio Lottery. On June 2, 2011, NBC affiliate WKYC (channel 3) announced that the station had acquired the rights to air the lottery drawings, as well as its Saturday night game show Cash Explosion. After two years on channel 3, WEWS re-assumed the local television lottery rights on July 1, 2013. The Morning Exchange One program in particular, The Morning Exchange, which ran from 1972 to 1999, changed the face of morning television. It was the first morning show to utilize a "living room" set, and the first to establish the now familiar concept of news and weather updates at the top and bottom of the hour. During its peak in the 1970s, nearly 70% of all television households in Cleveland were tuned to the program. The format also served as a template for ABC's Good Morning America. Sports programming WEWS-TV has a long history of covering Cleveland sports teams both produced in-house by the station or through ABC's network coverage. From 2015 to present, channel 5 is the official station for the NFL's Cleveland Browns, airing all non-network preseason games as well as year-round team centered programming. WEWS has aired two MLB World Series during the station's existence: it broadcast the Cleveland Indians' home games in the 1948 World Series against the Boston Braves, as well as the 1995 World Series in which the Indians lost to the Atlanta Braves. During the 1995 World Series, the local broadcast was split with WKYC-TV due to the ABC/NBC-shared Baseball Network. WEWS also aired select Indians games as part of ABC's MLB broadcast contract from 1976 to 1989. All Cleveland Cavaliers games that air through ABC's NBA broadcast rights are aired on channel 5; the team's 2016 NBA Finals victory (which gave the city its first major sports championship in 52 years) aired on WEWS-TV. News operation WEWS presently broadcasts 39 hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with 6 hours each weekday, four hours on Saturdays and three hours on Sundays). In addition, the station produces the sports highlight and discussion program News 5 Sports Sunday, which airs Sunday nights following its 11:00 p.m. newscast. Early news coverage WEWS started covering news events soon after it went on air. The winter after it signed on, Cleveland experienced a blizzard, and for the first time WEWS had provided extended coverage for hours. During the early and mid-1950s, channel 5's first newscasts and weather reports were delivered by Tom Field. In 1959, Dorothy Fuldheim—who had been with the station before it even first signed on—began to formulate her own newscast. Fuldheim centered her newscast around her interviews, a general overview of the news, and her commentaries (the very opinionated Fuldheim frequently inserted her own opinions about the stories). Fuldheim was the first female in the United States to have her own television news analysis program. Eyewitness News 27-year-old John Hambrick took over as lead anchor on WEWS' evening newscasts on Christmas Day in 1967, with Fuldheim staying on as a commentator. Don Webster presented the weather and Gib Shanley was the sports anchor. In 1968, WEWS changed the format of its newscasts slightly to a version of Eyewitness News. In 1970, Dave Patterson joined Hambrick on the early newscast and then became co-anchor on the 11:00 p.m. newscast in 1971. Ted Henry, who joined WEWS in 1972 as a behind-the-scenes producer, got his start on the air later in 1975 as a weekend weatherman. In later years, Henry would admit that he, not knowing the slightest thing about forecasting, basically copied his forecasts from a Detroit radio station. That same year, Bill Jacocks—said to be Cleveland's first full-time African-American anchorman—joined WEWS. Jacocks started as assistant public affairs director, and became weekend anchor in January 1975. For a solid decade (until 1985) Jacocks remained the one constant weekend anchor while many co-anchors came and went. Among those doing their first Cleveland co-anchor stints with Jacocks were Tim Taylor and Wilma Smith (both of whom, coincidentally, would later anchor together at rival WJW). Hambrick and Patterson continued to anchor the newscasts together until Hambrick left for KABC-TV in Los Angeles in 1975. At that time, Ted Henry became the weekend anchor, and then a year later in 1976, co-anchor on the weekday evening newscasts with Patterson. Henry continued as the lead anchor until his retirement on May 20, 2009. This era marked the start of dominance for the WEWS news programs that lasted until well into the 1980s. In 1977, weekend co-anchor Tim Taylor left WEWS to become a weeknight anchor at WJW-TV. Fuldheim's role decreased as she only presented her interviews and commentaries, but still appeared on the air three times a day until retiring in July 1984 at the age of 91. WEWS was the first Cleveland TV station to use a news helicopter, introducing "Chopper 5" in 1978. At the time, a cameraman sat partially outside the helicopter door in order to film the story being covered. TV 5 has used helicopters (on and off) ever since, including the current "Air Tracker 5" - which was introduced in 2016. The WEWS news department underwent another major change in 1982. Previously, the 5–6 p.m. slot was occupied by The Afternoon Exchange, the afternoon companion to The Morning Exchange. That year, the program adopted a new format, and was renamed Live on Five. The broadcast was originally hosted by Wilma Smith and Don Webster, and retained many elements from The Afternoon Exchange, such as interviews, movie reviews, health reports, and some cooking segments. Added to the mix were news updates from Ted Henry. In 1985, longtime sports director Gib Shanley—who attained national notoriety six years earlier when he burned an Iranian flag live on the air during a sportscast in the wake of the Iran hostage crisis—left the station, and was replaced by Nev Chandler, who became a noted sportscaster in his own right. News Channel 5 In 1991, WEWS dropped the long-standing "Eyewitness News" branding, adopting "News Channel 5" as a universal branding for newscasts and station promotion. The new branding helped emphasize a format developed by the station the year prior, when WEWS positioned itself as "Cleveland's (Live) 24 Hour NewsSource." Providing news headlines to viewers at times when the station was not carrying regularly scheduled, long-form newscasts, the "24-Hour News Source" concept saw WEWS produce news updates running 30 seconds in length at or near the top of each hour and brief weather updates every half-hour during local commercial break inserts within syndicated and ABC network programs, in addition to the existing half-hourly updates it aired during Good Morning America. The concept would be adopted by network-affiliated television stations in other markets during the early 1990s, as a convenient means for stations to provide news coverage when syndicated or network programming aired. WEWS discontinued production of these hourly updates in 1998. In 1994, longtime anchor Wilma Smith left the station to sign with rival WJW-TV. The same year, longtime sports director Nev Chandler died of cancer. 1995 saw a modification to the long-running "Circle 5", tilting it at an angle. At this time, a major promotional campaign was launched for the station, "Give Me 5", as it faced competition from WJW (then-recently having switched to Fox), WKYC (rebuilding themselves after years of being used as NBC's farm team), and WOIO (which had just launched their own news department, in partnership with WUAB). This included a two-minute promotional video featuring James Ingram, Carly Simon and Andrea McArdle, along with numerous athletes, as well as both station personalities and ABC personalities from Cleveland. Edd Kalehoff produced the promo, as well as a comprehensive music package for the station's newscasts and other programming. "On Your Side" era In 1998, WEWS adopted "On Your Side" as its slogan (which it currently still uses). More noticeable, however, was the discontinuance of the station's longtime Circle 5 logo. That year, WEWS also became the first television station in Cleveland to launch a website—NewsNet5. In 1999, longtime station weather forecaster Don Webster retired from the station after 35 years. In 2000, longtime sports anchor/sports director Matt Underwood left to become an announcer for the Cleveland Indians. On January 7, 2007, WEWS became the third Cleveland television station to begin broadcasting newscasts in high-definition. At present, all locally produced portions of the station's newscasts, including live remote field footage, are presented in HD. It was also around this time that channel 5 introduced the modified version of the classic "Circle 5" logo that was used until 2016. Sister station WPTV also uses the classic "Circle 5" logo. On May 21, 2009, Ted Henry retired as the primary news anchor at channel 5, after holding the post for 33 years. Henry is the longest serving news anchor in Cleveland television history. In November 2010, WEWS became the first Cleveland television station to follow a growing national trend in starting its weekday morning newscasts at 4:30 a.m. In June 2023, WEWS - along with other Scripps owned stations - began incorporating national stories from Scripps News into their newscasts, as well as airing Scripps News' nightly newscast The Debrief in the 7 p.m. hour. News 5 era On September 26, 2016, the station retired the NewsChannel 5 name for its newscasts, becoming simply News 5. At the same time, the station began using a graphic identity similar to that of British television network Channel 5 (which used a similar logo from February 2011 to February 2016). In 2017, longtime WEWS anchors Leon Bibb and Lee Jordan both announced their retirements from the station. Bibb had served as an anchor/reporter at the station since 1995 (coming over from WKYC where he had spent 16 years previous), while Jordan started at WEWS in 1987 as a co-host of The Morning Exchange before becoming an evening news anchor in 1993. To honor their tenures at the station, WEWS renamed their newsroom the Leon Bibb Newsroom, and their main studio the Lee Jordan News Studio. Honors Two plaques outside the WEWS building commemorate the station's historical contributions. The Ohio Historical Society placed a marker right outside TV 5's building, specifically noting Dorothy Fuldheim's career at the station. The second marker (located on the wall leading up to the front door of the station) is from the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, honoring the station (along with producer Herman Spero and host Don Webster) as being the home of the popular music series Upbeat! and that program's contributions to Rock and Roll's history. Notable current on-air staff Rob Powers – anchor Notable alumni Ernie Anderson Leon Bibb (now at WKYC as senior reporter and commentator) Nev Chandler Liz Claman Joel Daly (later at WLS-TV in Chicago) Dick Feagler Dorothy Fuldheim John Hambrick Ted Henry Chris Hernandez Bill Jorgensen Paige Palmer Michael Reghi Michael Settonni Gib Shanley (later at WUAB) Wilma Smith (later at WJW) Robin Swoboda Tim Taylor (later at WJW) Matt Underwood Don Webster Technical information Subchannels The station's digital signal is multiplexed: On May 26, 2011, it was announced that WEWS (along with other Scripps stations around the country) had signed a deal to carry the Live Well Network on their digital subchannels. the network began to be carried on digital subchannel 5.2 on September 5, 2011. The subchannel is also currently available on select northeast Ohio cable providers. Live Well Network announced they would be going off the air in April 2015, and as a result 5.2 switched to the classic TV network Cozi TV at 10 a.m. on April 8. The comedy network Laff debuted on the newly activated 5.3 subchannel a week later. 5.3 was activated on April 7 and ran continuous promos for the network's launch prior to the official premiere date. On April 14, 2017, WEWS discontinued COZI on 5.2 and replaced it with Grit. On March 1, 2021, 5.5 was activated, airing HSN programming. A year and a half later in September 2022, 5.6 was activated, airing QVC programming. Analog-to-digital conversion WEWS-TV shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 5, on June 12, 2009, the official date on which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal continued to broadcast on its pre-transition UHF channel 15. Through the use of PSIP, digital television receivers display the station's virtual channel as its former VHF analog channel 5. References External links ABC network affiliates Grit (TV network) affiliates Laff (TV network) affiliates E. W. Scripps Company television stations Television channels and stations established in 1947 1947 establishments in Ohio EWS-TV Historic Rock and Roll Landmarks
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMC%20Javelin
AMC Javelin
The AMC Javelin is an American front-engine, rear-wheel-drive, two-door hardtop automobile manufactured by American Motors Corporation (AMC) across two generations, 1968 through 1970 and 1971 through 1974 model years. The car was positioned and marketed in the pony car market segment. Styled by Dick Teague, the Javelin was available in a range of trim and engine levels, from economical pony car to muscle car variants. In addition to manufacture in Kenosha, Wisconsin, Javelins were assembled under license in Germany, Mexico, Philippines, Venezuela, as well as Australia – and were marketed globally. American Motors also offered discounts to U.S. military personnel and cars were taken overseas. As the winner of Trans-Am race series in 1971, 1972, and 1976, the second-generation AMX variant was the first pony car to be used as a standard vehicle for highway police car duties by an American law enforcement agency. Development American Motors' Javelin served as the company's entrant into the "pony car" market. The segment was created by the Ford Mustang even if Ford's car was not the first entry. The Javelin's design evolved from two prototype cars named AMX that were shown in AMC's "Project IV" auto show circuit during 1966. One was a fiberglass two-seat "AMX", and the other was a four-seat "AMX II". Both of these offerings reflected the company's strategy to shed its "economy car" image and appeal to a more youthful, performance-oriented market. Sales of convertibles were dropping and AMC did not have the resources to design separate fastback and notchback hardtops that were available on the Mustang and on the second-generation Plymouth Barracuda, so the AMC styling team led by Dick Teague penned only one body style, "a smooth semi-fastback roofline that helped set Javelin apart from other pony cars." The Javelin was built on AMC's "junior" (compact) Rambler American platform only as a two-door hardtop model to be a "hip", dashing, affordable pony car, as well as available in muscle car performance versions. "Despite management's insistence on things like good trunk space and rear-seat room, Teague managed to endow the Javelin with what he termed the wet T-shirt look: voluptuous curves with nary a hint of fat." First generation The Javelin debuted on 22 August 1967, for the 1968 model year, and the new models were offered for sale from 26 September 1967, with prices starting at $2,743. The car incorporated several safety innovations including interior windshield posts that were "the first industry use of fiberglass safety padding", and the flush-mounted paddle-style door handles. To comply with National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) safety standards there were exterior side marker lights, and three-point seat belts and headrests for the front seats, while the interior was devoid of bright trim to help reduce glare. American Motors marketed the Javelin as offering "comfortable packaging with more interior and luggage space than most of its rivals" with adequate leg- and headroom in the back and a trunk capacity of . There were no side vent windows. Flow-through ventilation extracted interior air through apertures in the doors controlled by adjustable flap valves in the bottom of the door armrests. All Javelins came with thin-shell bucket seats and a fully carpeted interior, while the SST model had additional appearance and comfort items that included reclining front seatbacks, simulated wood-grained door panel trim, and a sports-style steering wheel. The Javelin's instruments and controls were set deep in a padded panel, with the rest of the dashboard set well forward, away from the passenger. The car's front end had what AMC called a "twin-venturi" look with a recessed honeycomb grille and outboard-mounted headlamps, and matching turn signals were set into the bumper. There was a pair of simulated air scoops on the hood and the windshield was raked at 59 degrees for a "sporty overall appearance." Road & Track magazine compared a Javelin favorably to its competitors on its introduction in 1968, describing its "big, heavy, super-powerful engine" as "an asset in such a small vehicle", and the styling as "pleasant". Motor Trend, putting the Javelin at the top of the "sports-personal" category in its annual "Car of the Year" issue, said it was "the most significant achievement for an all-new car" and "the most notable new entry in [its] class." Available only in a two-door hardtop, body style, the Javelin came in base and more premium SST models. Standard engine was a straight-6. Optional were a V8 with two-barrel carburetor, and a V8 in regular gasoline two-barrel or high-compression premium-fuel four-barrel versions. Racing driver Gordon Johncock said the Javelin had "a nice, all-round blend of features", that it "stacks up as a roomy, comfortable, peppy and handsome example of a so-called "pony car" and that after his road test he "wanted to take it home." With the standard straight-six engine, the Javelin cruised at when equipped with an automatic transmission, while those with the small V8 had a top speed of . A three-speed "Shift-Command" automatic transmission was optional with a center console-mounted gear selector. Forward settings included "1", "2", and a "D" mode that was fully automatic, and the driver could choose to shift manually through all three gears. The optional "Go Package" included a four-barrel carbureted AMC V8, power front disc brakes, heavy-duty suspension, dual exhausts with chromed outlets, wide full-length body-side stripes, and E70x14 red-line tires mounted on chrome-plated "Magnum 500" styled road wheels. A 343 Go Pac Javelin could accelerate from 0 to in 8 seconds, had a top speed approaching , and could run a quarter-mile in 15.4 seconds. The largest engine in the first few months of 1968 production was "a 5.6 litre V-8 that delivered 284 SAE bhp, which made the car dangerously fast." In mid-1968, the new AMX engine was offered as a "Go-package" option with a floor-mounted automatic or manual four-speed transmission. "Its impressive and of torque could send the Javelin from zero to in the seven-second range." American Motors supported the AMX and the Javelin muscle versions with a range of factory-approved "Group 19" dealer-installed performance accessories. These included among others, dual four-barrel cross-ram intake manifolds, high-performance camshaft kits, needle-bearing roller rocker arms, and dual-point ignition. The average age of the "first 1,000 Javelin buyers was 29 – a full ten years under the median for all AMC customers." The Javelin's marketing campaign, created by Mary Wells Lawrence of the Wells, Rich, and Greene agency was innovative and daring in its approach. Print and TV advertisements broke with the traditional convention of not attacking the competition, and some compared the AMC Javelin to the Ford Mustang side by side, as well as showing the Mustang being beaten to pieces with sledgehammers. The car was longer and roomier than the Ford Mustang, and Chevrolet Camaro, but not the Plymouth Barracuda, and its shape was described as "exciting and beautiful". Total production for the 1968 model year was 55,125. 1969 Minor changes for the second model year included revised side striping and an altered grille with a bull's eye emblem, and trim upgrades. An optional side-stripe package consisted of a C-shaped graphic that started behind the front wheel openings. The optional (standard with the "Go-Package") five-spoke Magnum 500 steel road wheels now came with a stainless steel trim ring. The interior received new door panels and upgraded carpeting. Instrumentation featured a 0–8,000 rpm tachometer that now matched the speedometer in style. Late model-year production received a cowl over the instrument panel directly in front of the driver. The "Mod Javelin" Package was introduced mid-year in 1969 and included a "Craig Breedlove" roof-mounted spoiler, simulated "exhaust" rocker trim, and twin blacked-out simulated air scoops on the hood. Optional "Big Bad" paint (neon brilliant blue, orange, or green) also became available from mid-1969 and came with matching front and rear painted bumpers, as well as two vertical rubber-faced painted bumper guards for the rear and a special bright lower grille molding for the front bumper. This was part of AMC's targeting youthful consumers as they were "dumping the drab." These bright colors were available on all Javelins through 1970. The Go-Package option was available with the four-barrel 343 or 390 engines and continued to include disc brakes, "Twin-Grip" (limited slip) differential, red-line performance E70x14 tires on "Magnum 500" styled wheels, heavy-duty suspension with thicker sway-bars, and other enhancements. Starting in January 1969, four-speed manual transmissions came with a Hurst floor shifter. The production total for the 1969 model year was 40,675. Racing American Motors entered the Javelin in dragstrip and Trans-Am Series racing. In 1968 Kaplan Engineering (Ron Kaplan and Jim Jeffords) had been contracted by AMC to run two AMC Javelins in the SCCA's Trans-Am series. For 1968, three cars were actually constructed: two for racing and one for shows and demonstrations. In 1969, Jeffords left the team and Kaplan was contracted to run the program. Using his developmental work from the prior year, Kaplan built three more cars, two for AMC and one for himself using his own finances. For 1968, the initial drivers had been George Follmer (#1) and Peter Revson (#2). Revson was let go partway through the year after a disagreement with management. The team picked up Lothar Motschenbacher for the next two races in Canada. The first year of the AMC program was a success; the team was written up as a "Cinderella" team. American Motors placed third in the over-2-liter class of the 1968 series, and established a record as the only factory entry to finish every Trans-Am race entered. For 1968, the team had consistently improved and suffered only one DNF (did not finish) from an engine problem. The race program was supporting a company that had no performance parts, no test facility, and no technical support for the program. As for the production cars, they had no anti-dive potential built into the uni-body; only single-barrel carburetor manifolds; and even when running properly, they did not make as much horsepower as the competitors. The 1968 deal provided Jeffords and Kaplan support from Carl Chakmakian, who was the primary contact on the AMC program. The performance of the team in 1968 can be attributed to the efforts of Kaplan, his staff, and help from other west coast manufacturers. Kaplan set out to resolve handling problems and fix engine oiling problems. Mid-season, he also started the development of a dual-carburetor cross-ram manifold and (looking ahead) a new engine casting. The development of the Watt's linkage rear suspension came first. This was followed by the front anti-dive modifications. The development of the anti-dive geometry was actually done quite quickly. To meet AMC's schedule, Kaplan copied the basic design of the inner fender components from a Mustang. He added two more degrees of anti-dive to the Mustang's 4 degrees, made the drawings, and sent them to the factory. The manufacture of the parts was then contracted to Central Stamping. Despite succeeding in developing the parts as a rush job, however, there was no capacity to fit the components to the unibody on the 1969 assembly line, so it fell to Kaplan to incorporate them into the cars when they arrived in his shop as bodies in white. Other related suspension pieces were also acquired through specialty manufacturers who were also building performance parts for Ford. The building of reliable and powerful engines took a bit more time. The team started the 1968 season with two engines from TRACO. Although TRACO had worked hard to resolve oiling issues and to generate as much power as they could, the single-carb layout and the basic two-bolt-main block were serious limitations. To develop a cross-ram manifold, Kaplan went to Vic Edelbrock, who not only loaned him a pattern maker but also gave him a lot of personal help. Kaplan was also helped by Champion Spark Plugs who let him use their dyno room to fine-tune and correct any design problems. Towards the end of 1968, Kaplan enlisted help from Dan Byer, a retired engineer from AMC, for the development of a new block casting. Using the basic AMC 390 drawings, they added more mass for four-bolt mains and improved the oiling system. A run of 50 blocks was contracted to Central Foundries in Windsor, Ontario. Because this was a small run, and there was little factory support, it fell to Kaplan and his staff to clean up the blocks from the sand casting, hone the various passages, and, finally, send them to AMC's "Parts Central" in Kenosha. From there, they could draw on the inventory, as required. If one were to put a small number of specially cast blocks into the general inventory, chances are pretty good that they would be difficult to find them again, so Kaplan painted all the blocks in bright orange so they could identify them on the transfer line. Kaplan drew on about 12 of these special castings during his development program and two were eventually (much later) sold to customers. Kaplan's specific preparations included shaving the deck on the new block by about 5/8-inch and heavily modifying the ports. The new cross-ram manifold was installed and Kaplan would add his own specifically designed pistons, a shorter throw crankshaft, and a new camshaft. While a few engines were lost during testing, the whole design proved quite reliable. In the intervening period, AMC replaced Kaplan's race program contact with two new men (Chris Schoenlip and John Voelbel from Lever Brothers (soap marketing people)), who had no experience in the automotive field and were ignorant of anything to do with racing. They would ultimately prove to be more trouble than they were worth. In fact, it was these two new boys who failed to enter the parts into the official AMC parts system and to submit homologation papers. The importance of this mistake became clear when Kaplan sent the first car to run at the first race of the 1969 season at Jackson, Michigan. Kaplan sent one of the older 1968 cars with a new engine, but, because they were late and had not qualified, the team had to do some consensus-building among the other racers to permit them to enter at all. When the SCCA agreed to let them run, they started last, but, within 10 laps, they were chasing Donohue down and the time differential was narrowing rapidly. After the race, the SCCA asked to see the engine, but he had sent the cars home already. At Lime Rock, the SCCA wanted to tear down the engines before they could start the race. Kaplan bought some time by countering the challenge that they would have to tear down the Camaros and Mustangs too. That was not going to happen, so they were allowed to run. It was clear, however, that the problems with the SCCA were not going away, at least until the parts could be homologated. AMC did eventually assign a part number (after the SCCA program) and two blocks were later sold to customers. For 1969, the season started with Ron Grable (#4) and John Martin (#3). This time, it was Martin who was released mid-season. Jerry Grant replaced him in the No. 3 car. It was at this point that Kaplan approached AMC management and proposed that the concept behind the 1969 contract be modified. He suggested that AMC should not compete in the actual races, since the new engines were not recognized and the old engines were not competitive. Kaplan suggested that they instead go to the tracks on the subsequent Mondays and run a developmental program using Sunday's winning times as the benchmark. AMC did not agree, and Kaplan ran the year with the engines on hand. Because the older-style engines were not competitive, results were poor and, to add insult to injury, there were a series of budget cuts. It was a downward spiral. Kaplan was having trouble remaining calm about the situation and, after the final race at Riverside, decided he would drop all of AMC's material at their zone office in El Segundo, California, and take a month to think about the next year. When he came back, he found that a deal had already been cut with Roger Penske, and he was out. Penske picked up the team cars and equipment from the El Segundo offices and shipped everything back to his shop in Pennsylvania. Through the fall of 1969 and into the winter, Penske used the no. 3 Jerry Grant car for developmental purposes. When he acquired the 1969 cars, Penske found that Ron Kaplan had already done considerable work with suspension, but he felt that the front suspension could still be further developed. With Mark Donohue doing the testing, Penske's team lowered the front of the car and replaced the rubber bushings in the radius rods with heim joints. New roll bars were also developed. After several months of development, Donohue felt that the team now had a car that drove like it was on rails. At this point, Penske built all-new cars for his own team and sold all the earlier Kaplan cars and equipment. Mark Donohue was in charge of selling off the inventory. Redesign 1970 The 1970 Javelins featured a new front-end design with a wide "twin-venturi" front grille incorporating the headlamps and a longer hood. It also had a new rear end with full-width taillamps and a single center-mounted backup light. This was a one-year-only design. Side marker lights were now shared with several other AMC models. The exterior rearview mirror featured a new "aero" design and in some cases matched the car's body color. The three "Big Bad" exterior paints continued to be optional on the 1970 Javelins, but they now came with regular chrome bumpers. Underneath the restyle was a new front suspension featuring ball joints, upper and lower control arms, coil springs, and shock absorbers above the upper control arms, as well as trailing struts on the lower control arms. The 1970 AMC Javelins also introduced Corning's new safety glass, which was thinner and lighter than standard laminated windshields. This special glass featured a chemically hardened outer layer. It was produced in Blacksburg, Virginia, in a refitted plant that included tempering, ion exchange, and "fusion process" in new furnaces that Corning had developed in order to be able to supply to the big automakers. The engine lineup for 1970 was changed with the introduction of two new AMC V8 engines: a base and an optional to replace the 290 and the 343 versions. The top optional continued, but it was upgraded with new cylinder heads featuring 51 cc combustion chambers and a single 4-barrel Autolite 4300 carburetor, increasing power to at 5000 rpm and maximum torque of at 3200 rpm. The code remained "X" for the engine on the vehicle identification number (VIN). Also new was the "power blister" hood, featuring two large openings as part of a functional cold ram-air induction system; this was included with the "Go Package" option. Many buyers selected the "Go Package", available with the 360 and 390 four-barrel V8 engines. This package as in prior years included front disc brakes, a dual exhaust system, heavy-duty suspension with an anti-sway bar, improved cooling, 3.54 rear axle ratio, and wide Goodyear white-lettered performance tires on styled road wheels. The interior for 1970 was also a one-year design featuring a broad dashboard (wood-grained on SST models), new center console, revised interior door panel trim, and tall "clamshell" bucket seats with integral headrests available in vinyl, corduroy, or optional leather upholstery. A new two-spoke steering wheel was available with a "Rim Blow" horn. A comparison road test of four 1970 pony cars by Popular Science described the Javelin's interior as the roomiest with good visibility except for a small blind spot in the right rear quarter and the hood scoop, while also offering the biggest trunk with of room. It was a close second to the Camaro in terms of ride comfort, while the engine offered "terrific torque." The 4-speed manual Javelin was the quickest of the cars tested, reaching 0 to in 6.8 seconds. Racing One of the biggest surprises of the 1970 motorsports season was the announcement that Penske Racing had taken over the AMC Javelin program, thus leaving the Camaro Trans-Am program to Jim Hall. American Motors hired Roger Penske and driver Mark Donohue to seriously campaign Javelins in SCCA Trans-Am Series. This coincided with the change in the Trans-Am rulebook allowing manufacturers to de-stroke pre-existing corporate engines, so AMC's was used as the starting point to meet the displacement rule that was still in place. The team included former Shelby chassis engineer Chuck Cantwell and a clockwork pit crew. The two-car Javelin effort provided the Bud Moore Ford Boss 302 Mustangs their "closest competition." AMC finished in second place in the Over 2-liter class of the 1970 series. Capitalizing on the Javelin's successes on the race track, AMC began advertising and promoting special models. Among these was the "Mark Donohue Javelin SST". A total of 2,501 were built to homologate the Donohue-designed rear ducktail spoiler and were emblazoned with his signature on the right side. Designed for Trans Am racing, the rules required factory production of 2,500 spoiler equipped cars. The original plan was to have all Donohue Javelins built in SST trim with the special spoiler, as well as the "Go Package" with Ram Air hood, a choice of a four-speed or automatic transmission on the floor, and a engine with thicker webbing that allowed it to have four-bolt mains. In the end, the cars were simply fitted with the standard 360 or 390 engines. The cars could be ordered in any color (including "Big Bad" exteriors) and upholstery, as well as with any combination of extra-cost options. American Motors did not include any specific identification (VIN code, door tag, etc.) and some "Mark Donohue Signature Edition" cars came through with significant differences in equipment from the factory. This makes it easy to replicate, and correspondingly difficult to authenticate a "real" Mark Donohue Javelin. An estimated 100 "Trans-Am" Javelins replicating Ronnie Kaplan's race cars were also produced. All cars included the V8 engine with heavy-duty and performance features along with the front and rear spoilers, and were also painted in AMC racing team's distinctive Matador Red, Frost White, and Commodore Blue "hash" paint scheme. Designed to commemorate AMC's entry into SCCA racing, the Trans-Am Javelin's retail price was $3,995. The strong participation by AMC in Trans-Am and drag racing served to enhance its image, and notable was that its motorsports efforts were achieved on a shoestring budget with the automaker racking up a respectable number of points against its giant competitors. For example, with an estimated 4.5 million participants and 6 million spectators, drag racing was the fastest-growing segment of motorsport in the U.S. The marketing strategy was to appeal to buyers who otherwise would not give AMC a second glance. Second generation The AMC Javelin was restyled for the 1971 model year. The "1980-looking Javelin" design was purposely made to give the sporty car "individuality,", "even at the risk of scaring some people off." The second generation became longer, lower, wider, and heavier than its predecessor. Wheelbase was increased by to . The indicated engine power outputs also changed from those that were advertised through 1971, to more realistic calculations starting in 1972. The actual power output of the engine remained the same, but the U.S. automobile industry followed the SAE horsepower rating method that changed from "gross" in 1971 and prior years to "net" in 1972 and later years. 1971 The new design incorporated an integral roof spoiler and sculpted fender bulges. The new body departed from the gentle, tucked-in look of the original. The media noted the revised front fenders (originally designed to accommodate oversized racing tires) that "bulge up as well as out on this personal sporty car, borrowing lines from the much more expensive Corvette." The new design also featured an "intricate injection moulded grille." The car's dashboard was asymmetrical, with "functional instrument gauges that wrap around you with cockpit efficiency". This driver-oriented design contrasted with the symmetrical interior of the economy-focused 1966 Hornet (Cavalier) prototype. AMC offered a choice of engines and transmissions that included a Inline 6 continued up to the V8 with a single 4-barrel carburetor and high compression ratio of 9.5:1 rated at at 5000 rpm and at 3400 rpm of torque with a forged steel crankshaft and connecting rods engineered to withstand 8000 rpm. The BorgWarner T-10 four-speed manual transmission came with a Hurst floor shifter. Starting with the 1971 model year the AMX was no longer a separate two-seater line. It evolved into a premium high-performance edition of the Javelin. The new Javelin-AMX incorporated several racing modifications and AMC advertised it as "the closest thing you can buy to a Trans-Am champion". The car had a fiberglass full-width cowl induction hood, as well as spoilers front and rear for high-speed traction. Testing at the Ontario Motor Speedway by Penske Racing Team recorded that the 1971 Javelin AMX's rear spoiler added of downforce. Mark Donohue also advised AMC to make the AMX's grille flush for improved airflow, thus the performance model received a stainless steel mesh screen over the standard Javelin's deep openings. The performance-upgrade "Go Package" provided the choice of a 360 or 401 4-barrel engine, and included "Rally-Pac" instruments, a handling package for the suspension, "Twin-Grip" limited-slip differential, heavy-duty cooling, power-assisted disc brakes, white-letter E60x15 Goodyear Polyglas tires (on 15x7-inch styled slotted steel wheels) used on the Rebel Machine, a T-stripe hood decal, and a blacked-out rear taillight panel. The 1971 Javelin AMX with a V8 ran the quarter-mile in the mid-14 second range at on low-lead, low-octane gas. 1972 The 1972 model year Javelins featured a new "egg crate" front grille design with a similar pattern repeated on the chrome overlay over the full-width taillights. The AMX version continued with the flush grille. A total of 15 exterior colors were offered with optional side stripes. To consolidate the product offering, reduce production costs, and offer more value to consumers, the 1972 AMC Javelins were equipped with more standard comfort and convenience items. Engine power ratings were downgraded to the more accurate Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) net horsepower figures. Automatic transmissions were now the TorqueFlite units sourced from Chrysler, called "Torque-Command" by AMC. American Motors achieved record sales in 1972 by focusing on quality and including an innovative warranty called the "Buyer Protection Plan" to back its products. This was the first time an automaker promised to repair anything wrong with the car (except for tires) for one year or . Owners were provided with a toll-free telephone number to AMC, as well as a free loaner car if a repair to their car took more than a day. By this time, the pony car market segment was declining in popularity. One commentator has said that "[d]espite the Javelin's "great lines and commendable road performance, it never quite matched the competition in the sales arena ... primarily because the small independent auto maker did not have the reputation and/or clout to compete with GM, Ford, and Chrysler". Pierre Cardin During the 1972 and 1973 model years, a total of 4,152 Javelins were produced with optional interior design by fashion designer Pierre Cardin. The official on-sale date was 1 March 1972. The design had multi-colored pleated stripes in red, plum, white, and silver on a black background. Six multi-colored stripes, in a nylon fabric with a stain-resistant silicone finish, ran from the front seats, up the doors, onto the headliner, and down to the rear seats. Chatham Mills produced the fabric for the seat faces. Cardin's crest appeared on the front fenders. MSRP of the option was $84.95 ($ in 2015 dollars). A 2007 magazine article described the design as the "most daring and outlandish" of its kind. 1973 The 1973 Javelin had several updates, most noticeably in the design of the taillights and grille, although the AMX grille remained the same. While all other AMC models had bumpers with telescopic shock absorbers, the Javelin and AMX were fitted with a non-telescopic design that had two rigid rubber guards. These allowed the cars to withstand a front and rear impacts without damage to the engine, lights, and safety equipment. The doors were also made stronger to comply with new U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) safety standards that they withstand of impact for the first of crush. The "twin-cove" indentations were eliminated from the Javelin's roof and a full vinyl top was made available. The 1970–1972 "Turtle Back" front seats were replaced by a slimmer, lighter, and more comfortable design that provided more legroom for rear-seat passengers. The SST moniker was dropped, and the car was now simply known as Javelin. All engines incorporated new emissions controls. The 1973 V8 was rated at net and achieved 0 to 60 mph acceleration in 7.7 seconds with a top speed of , despite the Javelin's four-place size and weight. Performance figures conducted by Road Test magazine of a 1973 Javelin SST with the 4-barrel V8 engine and 4-speed manual transmission resulted in "respectable" quarter-mile (402 m) dragstrip runs of 15.5 seconds at . American Motors continued its comprehensive "Buyer Protection" extended warranty on all 1973 models that now covered food and lodging expenses of up to $150 should a car require overnight repairs when the owner is more than away from home. The automaker promoted improved product quality with an advertising campaign that said "we back them better because we build them better". Profits for the year achieved a record high. Javelin production for the 1973 model year totaled 30,902 units, including 5,707 AMX units. Trans Am Victory edition Javelins driven in the Trans-Am captured the racing title for American Motors in both the 1971 and 1972 seasons. The back-to-back SCCA championships with specially prepared race cars was celebrated by AMC by offering a limited run of "Trans Am Victory" edition 1973 Javelins. The package was available on cars built from October to 15 December 1972, on any Javelin SST, except with the Cardin interior. A single magazine advertisement, featuring the winning race drivers George Follmer and Roy Woods, promoted the special package. These cars came packaged with an additional cost optional visibility group, light group, insulation group, protection group, and sports-style steering wheel, but also received at no additional cost (but valued at $167.45) three other features—large "Javelin Winner Trans Am Championship 1971–1972 SCCA" fender decals on the lower portion behind the front wheel openings, 8-slot rally styled steel wheels with E70X14 Polyglass raised white letter tires and a "Space-Saver" spare tire. The Trans Am Victory cars were also typically pre-built even more "heavily optioned than regular production Javelins." American Motors designed a quick identification system of its models by an information-rich Vehicle Identification Number (VIN) system. However, because this was only a limited promotional "value added" marketing campaign, except as noted on the original window sticker, there is no VIN or door tag code to distinguish an authentic Trans Am-Victory edition car. 1974 By 1974, the automobile marketplace had changed. Mid-year, Chrysler abandoned the pony car market. Whereas Ford replaced its original Mustang with a smaller four-cylinder version, and other pony car manufacturers also downsized engines, the Javelin's big engine option continued until the production of the model ended in October/November 1974 amidst the Arab oil embargo and overall declining interest in high-performance vehicles. The 1974 AMX did not do as well in the marketplace when compared to the new Camaro, Firebird, and the downsized Mustang II – all of which saw increased sales. Javelin production meanwhile reached a second-generation high of 27,696 units. Out of that total number, a total of 4,980 Javelin-AMX models were produced for the final model year. A new seatbelt interlock system prevented the car from being started if the driver and a front passenger were unbuckled. The functional cowl-induction fiberglass hood was no longer available for 1974, and the output of the V8 dropped by . Some late-production cars came with hoods made from steel. Several factors led to the demise of the Javelin model, not the least of which was the economic climate of the time. While the 1974 model was exempt from stricter 1974 bumper standards, AMC estimated it would take $12 million in engineering and design work to revise the bumpers to meet the 1975 standards. American Motors also introduced the all-new 1974 Matador coupe, described by Popular Mechanics as "smooth and slippery and actually competes with the Javelin for "boss" muscle-car styling". The automaker also needed a manufacturing line to build its all-new AMC Pacer. Nevertheless, more cars were built during the final year of Javelin production than the prior second-generation years, with 27,696 units built, of which 4,980 (about 15 percent) were Javelin AMX models. Racing Racing AMC Javelin versions competed successfully in the Trans-Am Series with the Penske Racing/Mark Donohue team, as well as with the Roy Woods ARA team sponsored by American Motors Dealers. The Javelin won the Trans-Am title in 1971, 1972, and 1976. Drivers included George Follmer and Mark Donohue. One Javelin race car had the distinction of having different sponsors and being piloted by Mark Donohue, Vic Elford, George Follmer, Peter Revson, and Roy Woods. This Javelin actually began as a 1970 model, but was updated with the exterior body design of 1971 versions. The race car is now restored to its 1972 livery and is driven at Vintage Trans-Am events. Jim Richards raced a Javelin AMX in the Touring Car Masters in Australia, coming second in the overall 2012 series. He earned second place in the 2015 Touring Car Masters (Pro Masters Class) Series. Police In an effort to find a more suitable and lower-priced alternative to the traditional large-sized police cruisers, the Alabama Department of Public Safety (ADPS) first took a basic V8 as a test vehicle, found its power lacking, then sampled a vinyl roofed AMX with a engine from the local dealer, Reinhart AMC in Montgomery. Javelins equipped with the engine proved their performance and beginning in 1971, the Alabama Highway Patrol used them for pursuit and high-speed response calls. The bid price was $3,047 for the 1971 police cruisers, and $3,242 for the 1972 model year versions. The 132 Javelins purchased during 1971 and 1972 were the first pony cars to be used as a normal highway patrol police car by any U.S. police organization. The last of ADPS Javelins was retired in 1979. One of the original cars is now part of the Museum at ADPS Headquarters. International markets American Motors was active in foreign markets via exports of complete cars as well as joint ventures and partner companies to assemble knock-down versions of its cars. Australia Australian Motor Industries (AMI) assembled right hand drive versions of both the first- and second-generation Javelin models in Victoria, Australia from Knock-down kits. The right-hand drive dash, the interior and soft trim, as well as other components, were locally manufactured and differed from the U.S. originals. The cars were marketed under the historic Rambler name. The AMI Rambler Javelins were the only American "muscle cars" of that era to be sold new in Australia. The Australian Javelins came with top trim and features that included the V8 engine, three-speed "Shift Command" automatic transmission, and "Twin Grip" limited-slip rear differential. They were more expensive, had more power, and provided more luxury than the contemporary Holden Monaro. The first generation Javelin sold for AU$7495 in comparison to rival models the Holden HK Monaro GTS which sold for AU$3790, and the Ford XT Falcon GT which sold for AU$4200. Sales were low and AMI production ceased after 1972 with a total of 258 models built between 1968 and 1972. From 1964 Rambler sales for New South Wales were managed by Sydney company Grenville Motors Pty Ltd, which was also the State distributor of Rover and Land Rover. A network of Sydney and country NSW dealers were controlled by Grenville that was in direct communication with AMI. Australian-assembled AMC vehicles were otherwise sold in all States by independent distributors. France Renault had formerly assembled AMC vehicles until 1967. After Renault ceased production, the AMC Javelin was imported into France by Jacques Poch, the official French importer-distributor of auto brands Škoda and Lada in Neuilly, and one of the two largest private importers of foreign automobiles in France. As with all export markets the Javelin was marketed in France as "Rambler." Germany American Motors had an agreement with importer and distributor of Jaguar and Aston Martin cars, Peter Lindner of Frankfurt am Main, to be the exclusive importer of AMC cars into West Germany and offered seven models in the marketplace. Additionally, Javelins were built for the European market. The German coach builder, Wilhelm Karmann GmbH assembled 280 complete knock down (CKD) Javelins between 1968 and 1970 that were marketed in Europe. This was a significant business relationship because the Javelin was a completely American-designed car that was made in Germany. Karmann's "Javelin 79-K" could be ordered with the six, the 2-barrel or 4-barrel V8 engines. About 90% of the parts and components came in crates from the United States. At Karmann's facility in Rheine the cars were assembled, painted, and test-driven prior to shipment to customers. A choice of 6 colors were available, exclusive to Europe: White, Cherry Red, Bahama Yellow, Pacific Blue, Bristol Grey, and Irish Green. Mexico Vehículos Automotores Mexicanos (VAM) assembled Javelins in Mexico under license and partial ownership (40% equity share) by AMC from 1968 through 1973. The VAM versions were equipped with different, locally made components, trim, and interiors compared to the equivalent AMC-made models. The Mexican built Javelins came in only one version and had more standard equipment compared to U.S. and Canadian models. The Javelin was the first VAM model not to carry the Rambler name for Mexico, AMC's case being the Marlin and Ambassador models in 1966. 1968 The Javelin was not introduced in Mexico by VAM until 1 April 1968, making the model a "1968 and a half" similar to the February 1968 debut of the two-seat AMX. The Javelin represented the third line within VAM's product mix for the first time and the first regular production high-end sports-oriented model. It would eventually become the only AMC muscle car to be available in Mexico. Other AMC muscle cars were equivalents built by VAM or as special editions, such as the 1979 American 06/S taking the place of the 1971 Hornet SC/360, the 1972 Classic Brougham hardtop taking the place of the 1970 Rebel Machine, and the 1971 Matador Machine plus the 1969 Shelby Rambler Go Pack the place of the 1969 Hurst SC/Rambler. The Javelin introduced many firsts for VAM, such as a standard four-speed manual transmission and the option for the first time in a regular production model of a three-speed automatic transmission. These were the only transmissions available in the Javelin and only with floor-mounted shifters, just as on the two-seater AMX. Cars with the automatic included a center console with a locking compartment, as well as power drum brakes at no extra cost. The 1968 VAM Javelin featured the , 8.5:1 compression ratio I6 engine with a two-barrel Carter WCD carburetor, a 3.54:1 rear differential gear ratio, 12-inch heavy-duty clutch, manual four-wheel drum brakes, quick-ratio manual steering, electric wipers, electric washers, 8,000 RPM tachometer, 200 km/h speedometer, AM radio, cigarette lighter, front ashtray, locking glove box, courtesy lights, day-night rearview mirror, padded sun visors, two-point front seatbelts, low-back reclining bucket seats, rear ashtray, dual C-pillar-mounted dome lights, dual coat hooks, sports steering wheel, driver's side remote mirror, side armrests, vinyl door panels with woodgrain accents, bright moldings on top of the doors and rocker panels plus hood and fender extension edges, wheel covers, 7.35x14 tires, protective side moldings, and front fender-mounted Javelin emblems. The standard trim and features make the VAM Javelin equivalent to the U.S. and Canadian AMC Javelin SST. Factory options included power drum brakes with a manual transmission, power steering, heater, passenger's side remote mirror, remote-controlled driver's side mirror, custom sport wheels, and rear bumper guards. Dealer-installed options included side decals, light group, map pouches, vinyl roof, locking gas cap, license plate frames, mud flaps, AM/FM radio, front disk brakes, heavy-duty adjustable shocks, trunk lid rack, and many others. A unique dealer-installed option was also VAM's own "Go Pack". This consisted of manual front disk brakes, heavy-duty suspension with front sway bar plus rear torsion and traction bars, aluminum four-barrel intake manifold with four-barrel Carter carburetor, headers with equal-length tubes and dual final outlets, dual exhausts, ported head with larger valves, and heavy-duty springs, 302-degree camshaft, Hurst linkage for the manual transmission, "Rallye Pak" auxiliary gauges on the dashboard (different from AMC's original units), exclusive steering wheel, exclusive dual remote mirrors, and exclusive turbine wheels. The performance upgrades of the Go Pack represented a 40% increase in engine output making the VAM Javelin far more competitive against its V8 rivals from Ford de México, General Motors de México, and Automex (Chrysler de México). Despite the lack of a V8 engine, the VAM Javelin was a success in both sales and among public opinion. 1969 The 1969 VAM Javelin obtained the previously optional heater as standard equipment, the foot pedals received bright trim and the accelerator was changed into a firewall-mounted unit, a support pull strap was applied on the passenger's side dashboard above the glove box, the center cover with the radio speaker grid changed into a woodgrain unit. A unique aspect of the 1969 Javelin is that it kept the same gauge configuration as the 1968 models in contrast to AMC's modifications to the Javelin (and AMX) instrument panel for 1969 with a larger 8,000 RPM tach on the right pod, leaving the smaller left pod exclusive for the clock. The VAM Javelins exterior now had a bright trim package with new moldings starting at the corners of the taillights running on the sides all the way to the lower rear corner of the side glass and drip rails plus all around the rear glass and top edge of the C-pillars. The new Javelins looked more luxurious, even though a factory vinyl roof was not available. The front fender emblems were relocated to the base of each C-pillar and were accompanied by red-white-blue bull's eye emblems. A third Javelin emblem was applied near the lower right corner of the grille. The 1969 model year was also VAM's first self-engineered engine, the , 9.5:1 compression ratio I6 engine with a two-barrel Carter WCD carburetor and a new VAM-engineered 266-degree camshaft. In both standard and Go Pack versions. 1970 The VAM Javelin saw considerable aesthetic changes with only minor technical ones. The VAM models included the same features as its AMC counterparts, such as new headlight bezels and grille, smooth front fender extensions and bumpers without divisions, larger tail lights without wraparound portions and a single central backup light, larger side marker lights with both light and reflector sections in both amber and red, and new wheel cover designs resembling Magnum 500 wheels. The discontinuation of the central rear reflector in favor of the backup light resulted in the addition of a fourth Javelin emblem placed on the right corner of the trunk lid. Two hood designs were available, the one with the Ram Air-type scoops at the front center, and a smoother one with the two rectangular stripped bulges. Despite this, no Ram Air system was ever offered for the car, at least at a factory level. In the interior, a new collapsible steering column with a built-in ignition switch and anti-theft lock plus a new simulated two-arm three-spoke sports steering wheel with a central bulls-eye emblem were present. A secondary anti-theft mechanism was present in the form of the floor-mounted shifters being linked to the ignition switch regardless of the transmission type. AMC's new dashboard design included full woodgrain surfaces, complete with a new center console and shifter design for the automatic transmission. However, all three gauges were still the same as in the previous two years. New door panels were also included. The 1970 VAM Javelins received a new front suspension design with dual control arms and ball joints. Units with four-speed manual transmissions incorporated a Hurst linkage as factory-installed equipment, which was previously available only with the optional Go Pack package and separately in certain dealerships. A mid-year change replaced the imported Borg-Warner T10 manual transmission in favor of the Querétaro-produced TREMEC 170-F four-speed model to comply with the percentages of both local and imported equipment mandated by law. 1971 The year 1971 was vital to VAM as it represented a complete turnaround for the company. The new Camioneta Rambler American based on the Hornet Sportabout was introduced, the Rambler Classic obtained all characteristics of AMC's new Matador, and the Javelin was restyled as a new generation. On the outside, the car was exactly the same as its AMC counterpart with the only exception of the wheels and the lack of factory stripes and decals. A unique characteristic of the second-generation VAM Javelin was round porthole opera windows mounted on the C-pillars installed by some VAM dealerships either with or without vinyl roofs. The standard engine was the new , 9.5:1 compression ratio I6 engine with Carter ABD two-barrel carburetor. It was VAM's second self-engineered engine, taking the Javelin up to the performance levels of its V8 competition. The Go Pack version of this engine took the car to its zenith in terms of performance. The new engine was announced by two "4.6" emblems on both front fenders. The only other technical difference of the new version was a 3.07:1 rear differential gear ratio for units equipped with automatic transmission. The interior saw more changes starting with all-new non-reclining high-back bucket seats with built-in "J" emblems on the seatbacks as well as on the center of the rear seatback. The dashboard was restricted to the unit with woodgrain overlays only; the instrument cluster was once again completely different from the AMC Javelins. The right pod housed a clock and tachometer hybrid with the same design and appearance as the US Rallye Pak units, except that it was tuned for six-cylinder engines. The center pod had a 240 km/h speedometer, a range that put it on par as an equivalent to AMC's 140 MHP unit of the Rallye Pak; but the colors, graphics, and typography of the dial were the same as the standard gauges. This created a high contrast between the speedometer and the clock/tack hybrid. On the left pod were the fuel and water temperature gauges with no oil pressure and ammeter gauges present. Like the AMC Javelins, the car now held a single dome light at the center of the headliner and a new brake pedal design for units with automatic transmission. 1972 All the quality and engineering upgrades and revisions seen on AMC cars for 1972 were also present in Mexico. The 1972 VAM Javelin saw considerable improvements in terms of both performance and sportiness. Heavy-duty springs and shocks along with the front sway bar became standard equipment, as also were power front disk brakes and power steering, all regardless of transmission. Units equipped with the four-speed manual transmission changed to a rear differential gear ratio of 3.31:1 and included a center console with a locking compartment as standard equipment. The "Shift-Command" Borg-Warner automatic transmissions were replaced by the new "Torque Command" Chrysler-built A998 TorqueFlite. The chromed grille applied on the tail light lenses and the new rectangular grid front grille of the AMC Javelins arrived for the VAM models. The exterior included for the first time factory stripe designs. The interior saw new seat patterns and a new three-spoke sports steering wheel with an "American Motors" legend on the transparent plastic cap of the horn button. A new steering column design with a built-in safety lever to engage the steering lock came and the mechanism blocking the shifter to the ignition switch departed. 1973 For the 1973 model year, the VAM Javelin received cosmetic changes. The car incorporated the new smaller rectangular grille design with integrated rectangular parking lights and mesh grille, open-air vents under the front of the fenders for cooling the brakes, the "TV screen" taillight design with a larger central bulls-eye emblem between them, and new original seat patterns. Mechanically, the car was the same as the year before with the only exception of a new engine head design with larger valves and independent rockers without a flute-type shaft. Except for the lack of intake porting, these heads were the same units used in the Go Pack engines. These were the most powerful VAM Javelins ever made in stock condition. Similar to the Mexican originals, the second-generation Javelins were not available with cowl induction hoods as the AMC Javelins in any form. Sales of this year went down from the previous seasons and the beginning of engine emission certification scheduled by the Mexican government the following year would take a toll on all high-compression gasoline engines produced in the country. This started to threaten not just the Javelin, but all performance cars produced in Mexico. All this plus the need to open a space to introduce the Gremlin line and the company's perception that the new Matador coupe model could take the position as the image builder and enthusiast generator of the marque prompted VAM to discontinue the Javelin at the end of the 1973 model year production, one year before AMC's production of the Javelin ended in the U.S. Philippines While the Philippines was almost exclusively an American car market until 1941, the post-WWII years saw an influx of European cars entering the market. Despite a saturation of international brands, American Motors Corporation managed to establish a presence and the Rambler Classic and Rambler American were locally assembled in the Philippines by Luzon Machineries in Manila. Luzon Machineries later assembled the 1968 through 1970 AMC Javelins. The Javelin was one of only two "pony cars" to ever be available in the Philippines, the other being the Chevrolet Camaro. The Philippine-assembled Javelin came with AMC's 258 cu in 6-cylinder engines only. In 1970 Luzon Machineries began to end passenger vehicle manufacturing and for 1970 only a dozen Javelins were produced. Switzerland Beginning in 1970 Zurich automotive importer J.H Heller AG began importing the Javelin, along with the Gremlin and later the Pacer. Swiss market vehicles were shipped from AMC's Canadian plant. United Kingdom American Motors exported factory right-hand-drive vehicles to the United Kingdom which were built at the Brampton plant in Ontario, Canada. These were marketed in the U.K by Rambler Motors (A.M.C.) Ltd in Chiswick, West London. The Chiswick plant had previously assembled Hudson, Essex, and Terraplane vehicles since 1926 and had become a subsidiary of AMC in 1961, thereafter importing complete AMC vehicles. The Chiswick depot also became the Rambler parts center for the United Kingdom, Europe, and the Middle East. They also kept parts for Hudson and the English-built Austin Metropolitan. For 1968, the U.K market Javelin was available only in left-hand-drive. From 1969 U.K-market Javelins were exported in factory right-hand-drive. Venezuela Constructora Venezolana de Vehículos C.A. of Venezuela was a subsidiary of AMC beginning in 1967. The firm assembled AMC Javelins from 1968 until 1974 in its Caracas, Venezuela facility. The Venezuelan 1968 Javelin was equipped with the V8 engine. In 1969, it came with the with automatic or four-speed manual transmission. For the 1972–1974 (second-generation) Javelins, the only powertrain available for the Venezuelan market was AMC's with 4-barrel carburetor coupled to the Chrysler automatic transmission. Legacy and collectibility The Javelin is among the "highly prized" models among AMC fans. The Chicago Sun-Times auto editor Dan Jedlicka wrote that the Javelin, which he describes as "beautifully sculpted" and "one of the best-looking cars of the 1960s", is "finally gaining the respect of collectors, along with higher prices." The first generation Javelin has also been described as a "fun and affordable American classic with a rich racing pedigree and style that will always stand out from the omnipresent packs of Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler pony cars." The AMC Javelin does not command the high prices of some other muscle and pony cars, but offers the same kind of style and spirit for collectors. However, in its day the car sold in respectable numbers, regularly outselling both the Plymouth Barracuda and Dodge Challenger that are popular with collectors today. The Antique Automobile Club of America (AACA) divides the "muscle" AMC Javelins into two categories: Class 36-e for 1968–69 Javelin base and SST models equipped from the factory with 4-barrel or larger V8 engines; and Class 36-j for 1970–74 Javelin, SST, and AMX models equipped from the factory with four-barrel or larger V8 engines. Javelins built with smaller engines compete in the regular AMC classes according to their respective decade of production. According to estimates from the 2006 Collector Car Price Guide some of the desirable extras include the V8 engines, particularly the 390 and 401 versions, as well as the "Go" package, and special models including the "Big Bad" color versions. The 1971 through 1974 AMX versions also command higher prices, according to several collector price guides. The 1973 Trans Am Victory edition also adds a premium in several classic car appraisal listings, but the distinguishing decal was readily available and it has been added to many Javelins over the years. The book Keith Martin's Guide to Car Collecting describes the cars as providing "style, power, nostalgia, and fun by venturing off the beaten path ... these overlooked cars offer great value" and includes the 1971–1974 Javelins as one of "nine muscle car sleepers." Both first- and second-generation Javelins have been modified for more speed, handling, or acceleration. Some have been built as race-legal or race-ready tribute cars or replicas made to resemble AMC's factory-backed Trans-Am racers. There are active AMC automobile clubs, including owners interested in dragstrip and racing in vintage events such as the National American Motors Drivers & Racers Association (NAMDRA). The Javelin shared numerous mechanical, body, and trim parts with other AMC models, and there are vendors specializing at AMC shows and swap meets specializing in new old stock (NOS) as well as reproduction components. Hellcat-powered AMC Javelin AMX Ringbrothers of Spring Green, Wisconsin, built a custom 1972 AMC Javelin AMX powered by a "Hellcat" Hemi for the 2017 Specialty Equipment Market Association SEMA show. The 6.2-liter Hemi Mopar engine is fitted with a Whipple 4.5-liter supercharger and tuned to Wegner Motorsports to produce . The car was built for Prestone and is called "Defiant". Notes References External links Javelin Pony cars Muscle cars Rear-wheel-drive vehicles Coupés 1970s cars Cars introduced in 1968
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monks%20Risborough
Monks Risborough
Monks Risborough is a village and ecclesiastical parish in Buckinghamshire, England, lying between Princes Risborough and Great Kimble. The village lies at the foot of the northern scarp of the Chiltern Hills. It is south of the county town of Aylesbury and north of High Wycombe, on the A4010 road. Until 1934 Monks Risborough was also a separate civil parish, but it now forms part of the much enlarged civil parish of Princes Risborough, with the exception of Meadle and Owlswick, which are both now in the civil parish of Longwick-cum-Ilmer. The boundaries of the ecclesiastical parish of Monks Risborough are almost the same as the former Manor of Monks Risborough and of the original estate laid out in the 8th or 9th century. References to the 'parish' are therefore to the area covered by the ecclesiastical parish unless otherwise stated. The ecclesiastical parish of Monks Risborough includes the hamlets of Meadle, Owlswick, Askett, Cadsden and Whiteleaf. Description The parish is long and narrow. It is almost in length, from Owlswick in the north to Monkton Farm on the outskirts of Speen in the south; but it is only one and a quarter miles wide at the widest part (at Meadle) and barely four hundred yards at the narrowest parts (at Green Hailey and in Monkton Wood). Like the neighbouring Chiltern 'strip parishes' the estate was originally laid out so as to include different types of land, fertile land below the scarp of the Chiltern Hills, a section of the scarp itself and grazing or woods above it. At the foot of the scarp, where there are springs, is the village of Monks Risborough, with the church, and also Askett and Cadsden, nearer to Aylesbury on either side of the main road. Meadle and Owlswick lie further north. Whiteleaf is halfway up the slope on the south side of the Aylesbury Road and the parish continues further to the south above the scarp along the high land through Green Hailey to Redland End and Monkton Wood and Farm. Approximate heights above sea level are 85 m (279 ft) at Meadle and Owlswick, 100 m (328 ft) by the Church, 247 m (810 ft) at Green Hailey, where there is a water tower, and 200 m (656 ft) at Monkton Farm near Speen. The name The name 'Risborough' meant 'brushwood-covered hills' and comes from two Old English words: hrisen, which was an adjective meaning brushwood-covered derived from hris meaning brushwood or scrub, and beorg which meant hill. The plural forms are hrisenan beorgas. The spelling in the various documents where the name is found is, as usual, very variable. In the 10th and 11th centuries it had the following forms: easteran hrisanbyrge (East Risborough) risenbeorgas hrisebyrgan be cilternes efese (brushwood-covered hills by Chiltern eaves) risebergh (in Domesday Book 1086). In the 13th century it appears as parva risenburgh (Little Risborough) and in 1346, in the Patent Rolls, for the first time as monekenrisbourgh and again in 1392 as munken ryseberg. (The prefix 'Monks' is explained under History below). History An estate with boundaries corresponding closely to the present ecclesiastical parish of Monks Risborough was granted to some unknown person by the King of Mercia in the 8th or 9th century. The details are unknown because the title documents (the "landbook") were destroyed by fire shortly before 903. The Mercian Witan then agreed that a confirmatory charter should be granted and this was executed in 903. This charter, written in Latin, confirmed that the estate had been given by one Athulf to his daughter Aethelgyth. A description in Anglo-Saxon of the boundaries of the estate was endorsed on the charter. There is a 10th-century copy of the document in the British Library. Then, at some date between 903 and 994, the estate was given to Christ Church Cathedral at Canterbury and in 994 it was held by Sigeric, who was then the Archbishop of Canterbury. In that year marauders from Scandinavia ravaged Kent and threatened to burn down Canterbury Cathedral unless they were bought off. The Archbishop had insufficient money and sent to Aescwig, Bishop of Dorchester-on-Thames to ask him for a loan. He offered the estate at East Risborough (as it was then described) as security. Money was sent, the cathedral was saved and East Risborough was transferred to Aescwig in the presence of the King and Witan, who at the same time freed the estate from all secular burdens except the obligation for military service and for contributions to bridges and fortresses. At a date between 994 and 1002 Aescwig conveyed the estate back to Canterbury, where Aelfric was now Archbishop after the death of Sigeric. Aelfric in turn died in 1005 and by his will he left his interest in East Risborough to Christ Church Priory, Canterbury. Thereafter it was not owned by the Archbishop but by the monks of the Priory as a community, represented by their Prior – hence "Monks" Risborough – and, even after the Norman Conquest, it continued to enjoy the freedom from liabilities granted in 994. At the time of the Domesday survey in 1086 the tenant-in-chief of the manor was Archbishop Lanfranc, a stern and very capable man, rivalling the King himself in statesmanship, who had been appointed to the see of Canterbury in 1070 after the Conquest. He held it by frankalmoin. Domesday Book records that the manor was assessed at 30 hides and that there was land there for 14 ploughs. Of these the lord's demesne accounted for 16 hides and 2 ploughs. There were 32 villeins and 8 cottagers and they had 12 ploughs. There were also 4 slaves. These would be only the male heads of families (except for slaves who may have been counted as individuals) and the total has to be multiplied by an arbitrary figure (4 or 5 is usual) for an estimate of the total including women and children. We can therefore assume that the total population was something less than 200 in 1086. There was meadow for 4 plough teams and woodland sufficient for 300 pigs. The value was stated to be £16 in 1086 and also in the time of Edward the Confessor but only £5 immediately after the conquest in 1066. The entry concludes "Asgar the Constable held this manor from Christ Church Canterbury before 1066 on condition that it could not be separated from the Church". The Manor was then part (with Bledlow, Horsenden and Princes Risborough) of the Hundred of Risborough. This was one of the Three Hundreds of Aylesbury, which by the 14th century were consolidated into the Hundred of Aylesbury. In 1535, immediately before the dissolution of the monasteries, King Henry VIII, acting by Thomas Cromwell, ordered a valuation to be made of all the ecclesiastical property in England. The manor of Monks Risborough was included in this valuation under the heading "Properties of the Church of Christ at Canterbury". The Manor, which was let out at a rent by the Priory, was shown as worth the 'farm' or rent of £9 a year. The mills were shown separately (£25.8s.11d a year), as were sales from the woods (about 60s) and 'other perquisites' (12s). The total annual value, after making allowable deductions, was returned at £34.11s.7d. The church was valued separately from the manor and the Rectory was not shown as property of the Priory. It was shown separately as part of the Deanery of Risborough within the Diocese of Lincoln but within the exempt jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Canterbury and worth £30 a year. Christ Church Priory was finally dissolved in 1539 and the manor of Monks Risborough was put up for sale by the Royal Commissioners in 1541. It changed hands on sale on several subsequent occasions until it became vested in the Earl of Buckinghamshire in the 18th or early 19th Century. Buckinghamshire was transferred from Lincoln to the Diocese of Oxford in 1837 and the Bishop of Oxford then became patron of the living. Enclosure of the parish Monks Risborough resisted the pressure to enclose the common lands and open fields and to do away with rights of common until a later date than most places, but a local Act of Parliament was eventually obtained in 1830 (11 Geo. 4) entitled 'An Act for inclosing lands in the Parish of Monks Risborough in the County of Buckingham'. Royal assent was granted on 29 May 1830 and the first meeting of the three commissioners appointed to investigate the matter and make the Award was held in the Cross Keys Inn at Princes Risborough on 17 June 1830. There seems to have been opposition, because the award was not completed until 23 September 1839. It is said that meetings to oppose the enclosure were held in the Three Crowns Inn at Askett. Eventually the opposition was overcome and all the former common lands were allotted to individual parishioners. The full details, with a large scale map of the parish as it then was, are set out in the Award. A number of fields were allotted to the rector in lieu of tithe, which then ceased to be payable (except in respect of woodlands). Other fields were allotted for the benefit of the poor, who lost their rights over the common lands such as the right to gather wood in certain woodlands. Originally the rents of these fields were used to buy coal. The fields are now vested in the Trustees of Monks Risborough Parochial Charities and they have a wider discretion as to the charitable purposes for which the income can be applied. All the woodlands in the parish were allotted to the Lord of the Manor, the Earl of Buckinghamshire. A field in a district then called Rumborough was allotted to be used for recreation; this is now the Monks Risborough cricket pitch. The award also designated land for footpaths and roads, following the existing tracks as shown on the plans. Most footpaths were to be wide and most roads wide. These did not include the Aylesbury Road which was already a public highway and always referred to in the award as 'the Turnpike Road'. Special provision was made about Whiteleaf Cross as mentioned below in the section on the cross. The parish in antiquity On Whiteleaf Hill, which extends above the hamlet of Whiteleaf to the top of the scarp at , is an oval Neolithic barrow (National Grid SP 822040), which was first excavated by Sir Lindsay Scott between 1934 and 1939, when the work was interrupted by the Second World War and the excavator died before he had had an opportunity to publish more than interim notes on his findings. A fuller report was published from his notes in 1954. The site was re-excavated from 2002 to 2006 by Oxford Archaeology (assisted by the Princes Risborough Countryside Group) and their report was published in 2007. There was a single burial within the barrow, a middle aged man between 5'6" and 5'9" in height, with a long and narrow skull (a type found in the Neolithic period), badly worn teeth and arthritic joints. The remains appeared to have been placed between two large vertical posts, 1.2 metres apart. Pottery shards and animal bones were found at the core of the mound and the excavators suggest that these came from ceremonial feasting when the mound was built. After the re-excavation the soil was replaced, following Sir Lindsay Scott's plans and drawings, so that the appearance of the barrow now corresponds with that existing at the start of excavations in 1934. Radio-carbon dating has shown that the death, the burial and the building of the mound probably all took place within the period 3,750–3,100 B.C., but at different times within that period. The ceremonial burial could have been 45–150 years after the death and the completion of the mound could be up to 200 years after that. Similar delays have been shown to have occurred at other sites. The status of the individual and the actual nature of the events are unknown, but he must have been a man of significance in local society. Two other supposed barrows were scheduled as Ancient Monuments but have now been shown by the same excavators not to be burial mounds. They are sited to the north of the oval barrow along the top of the hill. One is likely to have been the base of a windmill, probably in use for a relatively short time in the late 16th and early 17th century. The other is a natural mound, but many chipped flints were found there and it seems to have been a site where flints were obtained and partially worked (for finishing elsewhere) during the late neolithic period. Just to the south of the oval barrow, crossing the path leading to the car park, another earthwork was investigated and was found to be a cross-ridge dyke about 140 m long across the southern end of the narrowest part of the ridge. Its date is uncertain, but the excavators considered that it might be a late Bronze Age boundary. The ancient trackway known as the Icknield Way, which ran from the Wash to Wessex, passed through the parish. It here consisted of two separate tracks, the Upper Icknield Way and the Lower Icknield Way, supposedly for winter and summer use respectively, though Christopher Taylor suggests that the upper route follows the prehistoric track, while the lower route was a Roman road which followed the same general line but on flat land more suitable for Roman methods of road construction. The route of the Lower Icknield Way is now followed by the B4009, while the Upper Icknield Way is here still a muddy track, except where it passes through the hamlet of Whiteleaf A section of the extensive earthwork known as Grim's Ditch crosses the parish much further south (Map square SP 8203). This is thought to be an Iron Age boundary dyke. The church The parish church is dedicated to St Dunstan. The present building, which replaced an earlier church, dates mainly from the 14th and 15th centuries, restored and in part renewed by G.E. Street in 1863–64. It is built of flint and has a chancel, nave with two aisles, north transept and a square tower at the west end. The nave arcades have octagonal piers and are of 14th-century date, the south aisle being earlier than the north. The transept may be earlier. However, the windows are all in the perpendicular style of the 15th century, except those in the south aisle, where the eastern window is modern but the windows in the south wall are 14th century. In the 15th century the roof was raised and the clerestorey built. The old roof line can still be seen on the west wall of the nave. The present roof of the nave and south porch are 15th century, when the chancel was also rebuilt. The chancel roof is modern. The font is Norman, of the 'Aylesbury' late 12th-century type, and presumably came from the earlier church. There is a 15th-century chancel screen, though without its original tracery, with crudely re-painted figures below. At the left side of the chancel arch is the opening for the door which led to the rood loft. There are three memorial brasses in the church, two of the 15th century and the other undated. A random collection of 14th and 15th century stained glass has been put together in a window in the south aisle, including a small 14th century Madonna and child. Whiteleaf Cross Whiteleaf Hill, has a large cross with a triangular base cut into the chalk on the side of the hill, making an important landmark for miles around, known as Whiteleaf Cross. The date and origin of this cross are unknown. It was mentioned as an antiquity by Francis Wise in 1742, but no earlier reference has been found. The cross is not mentioned in any description of the area before 1700. The Act for enclosing the common lands in the Parish (see above) specifically required that "in order to preserve within the parish of Monks Risborough the ancient memorial or land mark there called White Cliffe Cross" the Commissioners were to allot to the Lord of the Manor the cross itself and "so much of the land immediately surrounding it as shall in the judgment of the Commissioners be necessary and sufficient for rendering the same conspicuous" and that it should not be planted or enclosed and should for ever thereafter remain open. The Lord of the Manor was to be responsible to renew and repair it. In the event the Commissioners allotted of land for this purpose. Various buildings and places of interest Still existing Cottages There are picturesque cottages (some half-timbered) in Burton Lane in the old village and also in the hamlets of Askett and Whiteleaf. Most of the interiors have been modernised and in places two or more have been combined to make a larger house. They range from the late 16th to the early 18th century. Monks Risborough C of E Primary School On the Aylesbury Road to the west of the Parish is Monks Risborough C of E Primary School , first founded in 1855 as a National School and expanded mid-20th century. The school teaches around 200 children aged 5 to 11. Pigeon House In the field (now a recreation ground) to the west of the church is a 16th-century pigeon house, where pigeons were bred for food. It has a curious northern doorway, which may have been brought from elsewhere. There are nesting places ('pigeon holes') for 216 pigeons. In later years it formed part of Place Farm and was used as a shelter for cattle. At the end of the 20th century it was cleaned out, repaired and secured. Railway station The single track railway line from Princes Risborough to Aylesbury, was constructed in 1863 and converted from broad gauge to standard gauge in 1868, but there was no station at Monks Risborough until 1929. Monks Risborough railway station opened on 11 November 1929 as Monks Risborough and Whiteleaf Halt. It has been called Monks Risborough since 1974. Formerly existing Gallows In the reign of Edward I, when the King was calling on his feudal tenants to show their title to rights which they claimed to exercise, the Prior of Christchurch, Canterbury claimed to be entitled to maintain at Monks Risborough a gallows, a tumbril and a pillory. The King's counsel, objecting to the claim, said that there was no pillory at Monks Risborough. It is said that the Cadsden Road used to be known as Gallows Lane and the crossing of the Upper Icknield Way with Cadsden Road as Gallows Cross. Mills Domesday Book does not mention any mill at Monks Risborough, but there was certainly a mill there by the 14th century. During the 14th and 15th centuries the millward was several times brought before the manor court accused of overcharging. In 1535 the valuation, made prior to the dissolution of the monasteries, showed Monks Risborough (part of the property of the Priory of Christchurch, Canterbury) as having two mills, which brought in for the Priory an income of £25.8s.11d a year. In the 17th century the then Lord of the Manor owned two mills at his death, a watermill and a windmill on 'Brokenhill' Excavations in 2002/06 found the site of a former windmill on the top of Whiteleaf Hill, thought to have been there in the 16th and 17th centuries. The watermill was at the house still called Mill House in Mill Lane. The map attached to the Inclosure Award of 1839 showed this property, described as 'The Ham. Mill House', with a millpond behind it and two fields marked as Mill Meadow and Mill Mead It is not known when it had ceased to be used as a working mill. Turnpike The road from Princes Risborough to Aylesbury (now the A4010 and called the Aylesbury Road) passes through the middle of the parish, and was made a Turnpike Road under the Aylesbury to West Wycombe Road Act 1795 (35 Geo. 3. c. 149), which created a turnpike trust to be responsible for the maintenance and improvement of the road from Ellesborough to West Wycombe There were barriers at places along the road where vehicles had to stop and tolls were collected. One toll gate and adjoining toll booth was in Monks Risborough near the boundary with Princes Risborough. Commercial buildings There have been no shops in the old village since the early 20th century: There was a butcher and slaughterhouse (now a dental practice) on the Aylesbury Road. A blacksmith's forge on the corner with Burton Lane (the house next to it is still called Forge Cottage), and a pub, the Nag's Head (now a house) on the opposite corner. On Burton Lane there was a saddler and harness maker (who also made ropes). Eggleton's Bakery (one of its set-ups was situated in Burton Lane) was a four-generation family business that baked the streets of Risborough since the early-nineteenth century. The list of baking cited in the book 'The Voices of Princes Risborough' stated the Bakery would make: two-dozen doughnuts, fifteen-dozen currant buns, twenty-five dozen sausage rolls, seventy lardy cakes and two thousand loaves of bread. Eggleton's products continued to be baked and sold in the general store or delivered from Burton Lane until 1961 when they moved to Bell Street in Princes Risborough but due to the rising competition of supermarkets they closed the business in 1965. In the later 20th century Aston & Full had a factory on the north side of Mill Lane. In the early 21st century the land was re-designated for residential use. References Baines, Arnold H. J: The Boundaries of Monks Risborough in Records of Buckinghamshire Vol 23 (Bucks Archaeological Society. 1981) pp. 76–101 Childe, V.G. and Isobel Smith: The Excavation of a Neolithic Barrow on Whiteleaf Hill, Bucks in Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society for 1954, (New Series, Vol.XX, no.8), pp. 212–30 Darby, Henry C: Domesday England (Cambridge, 1977) Domesday Book vol 13 Buckinghamshire. Text & translation edited by John Morris (Phillimore, Chichester. 1978) Hey, Gill, Caroline Dennis & Andrew Mayes: Archaeological Investigations on Whiteleaf Hill, Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire, 2002-6 in Records of Buckinghamshire, Vol 47 part 2, pp. 1–80 (Buckinghamshire Archaeological Society, Aylesbury. 2007) Inclosure Award for the Parish of Manks Risborough dated 23 September 1839 (in the custody of the County Archivist at County Hall, Aylesbury) Mawer, A. and Stenton, F.M: The Place Names of Buckinghamshire (Cambridge, 1925) McGown, E.D: Monks Risborough. The Cottages (2003) Pevsner, Nikolaus & Elizabeth Williamson: Buckinghamshire (The Buildings of England – Penguin Books. 2nd edition. 1994) RCHMB = Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England): An Inventory of the Historical Monuments in Buckinghamshire, Volume 1 (1912) Rogers, Jane & Venetia Lascelles: Beating the Bounds of Monks Risborough Parish (2003) Valor Ecclesiasticus (Record Office 1818 &c) VHCB = Victoria History of the County of Buckingham, Volume 2, ed: William Page F.S.A. (1908) Notes External links Villages in Buckinghamshire Former civil parishes in Buckinghamshire Princes Risborough
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromley
Bromley
Bromley is a large town in Greater London, England, within the London Borough of Bromley. It is southeast of Charing Cross, and had an estimated population of 88,000 as of 2023. Originally part of Kent, Bromley became a market town, chartered in 1158. Its location on a coaching route and the opening of a railway station in 1858 were key to its development and the shift from an agrarian village to an urban town. As part of the suburban growth of London in the 20th century, Bromley significantly increased in population and was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1903 and became part of the London Borough of Bromley in 1965. Bromley today forms a major retail and commercial centre. It is identified in the London Plan as one of the 13 metropolitan centres of Greater London. History Bromley is first recorded in an Anglo-Saxon charter of 862 as Bromleag and means 'woodland clearing where broom grows'. It shares this Old English etymology with Great Bromley in eastern Essex, but not with the Bromley in the East End of London. The history of Bromley is closely connected with the See of Rochester. In AD 862 Ethelbert, the King of Kent, granted land to form the Manor of Bromley. In 1185 Bromley Palace was built by Gilbert Glanvill, Bishop of Rochester. Pilgrims came to the town to visit St. Blaise's Well. The Palace was held by the Bishops until 1845, when Coles Child, a wealthy local merchant and philanthropist, purchased Bromley Palace (now the hub of the Bromley Civic Centre) and became lord of the manor. The town was an important coaching stop on the way to Hastings from London, and the now defunct Royal Bell Hotel (just off Market Square) is referred to in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice. It was a quiet rural village until the arrival of the railway in 1858 in Shortlands, which led to rapid growth, and outlying suburban districts such as Bickley (which later overflowed into Bromley Common) were developed to accommodate those wishing to live so conveniently close to London. Bromley, also known as Bromley St Peter and St Paul, formed an ancient parish in the Bromley and Beckenham hundred and the Sutton-at-Hone lathe of Kent. In 1840 it became part of the expanded Metropolitan Police District. The parish adopted the Local Government Act 1858 and a local board was formed in 1867. The board was reconstituted as Bromley Urban District Council in 1894 and the parish became Bromley Urban District. It formed part of the London Traffic Area from 1924 and the London Passenger Transport Area from 1933. In 1934, as part of a county review order, the borough was expanded by taking in from the disbanded Bromley Rural District; an area including parts of the parishes of Farnborough, Hayes, Keston and West Wickham. Bromley became part of the newly created Greater London in 1965, in the new London Borough of Bromley. Governance Bromley forms part of the Bromley and Chislehurst Parliament constituency. The current MP is Bob Neill. Peter Fortune is the London Assembly member for the Bexley and Bromley constituency, in which the town is located. Bromley's most prominent MP was the former Conservative prime minister, Harold Macmillan. Climate Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb". (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate). Economy Bromley is one of the major metropolitan centres identified in the London Plan. Bromley had one of the highest gross disposable household incomes (GDHI) in the UK, at £27,169 in 2018. Bromley was ranked fourth in Greater London by Retail Footprint in 2005, behind the West End, Croydon and Kingston upon Thames. Bromley competes with both Croydon and the Bluewater centre in Dartford as a shopping destination. Bromley High Street The town has a large retail area, including a pedestrianised High Street and The Glades centre, the main shopping mall, which has a catchment of 1.3 million people. The shopping area includes retailers such as Gap, Oasis, Russell & Bromley and Waterstone's, whilst the restaurants includes a branch of the small chain of Belgian-themed Belgo restaurants. Development at the nearby St. Mark's Square has seen further restaurants and a cinema established. Bromley High Street is also the location for the Bromley Charter Market, which runs on a Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday. King John granted a charter for the Market to be held every Tuesday in 1205, with Henry VI revising this charter to every Thursday in 1447. The Market sells food and confectionery items, clothing and other goods like jewellery. Transport Rail Bromley is served by two rail stations. Bromley South provides National Rail services to London Victoria (non stop, semi fast via Denmark Hill and stopping services via Herne Hill), London Blackfriars via Catford, Orpington, Sevenoaks via Swanley, Ramsgate via Chatham, Dover Priory via Chatham & Canterbury East and to Ashford International via Maidstone East. Bromley North provides shuttle services to Grove Park, where onward connections can be made for services to London Charing Cross & London Cannon Street via Lewisham. Buses Bromley is served by London Buses routes 61, 119, 126, 138, 146, 162, 208, 227, 246, 261, 269, 314, 320, 336, 352, 354, 358, 367, 638, N3 & N199. These connect it with areas including Beckenham, Bexley, Bexleyheath, Biggin Hill, Catford, Chislehurst, Croydon, Crystal Palace, Downham, Elmers End, Eltham, Grove Park, Hayes, Lee Green, Lewisham, Locksbottom, Mottingham, New Addington, Orpington, Penge, Petts Wood, Sidcup, West Wickham & Westerham. Culture Festivals Since May 1929, Bromley has had an annual festival of "dance, drama and comedy" in and around the town's venues. The South London Film Festival has been hosted annually in Bromley since 2022. The large open spaces have lent themselves to outdoor concerts, festivals and outdoor screenings, as well in the venues such as Norman Park, Hayes Farm, Beckenham Place Park and Croydon Road recreation ground. Theatres Bromley has a number of theatres in the borough, in the town centre there are three, a professional, the Churchill Theatre, an amateur, the Bromley Little Theatre (close to Bromley North railway station) and an outdoor amphitheatre located in "Church House Gardens" behind the Churchill theatre. The Churchill Theatre was opened on 19 July 1977 by the Prince of Wales, and seats 781. It is run on a contract currently held by HQ Theatres Ltd acting as both a receiving and producing house, with productions transferring to the West End or touring nationally. An example being recent tours of Club Tropicana The Musical. Library Bromley also has a central library in the same building as the Churchill Theatre with a large book stock, Internet and wifi access, reference library and local studies department. It functions as the central library of the broader Bromley Borough Libraries Service. Cinema Bromley Picturehouse was opened in June 2019 in the previous Empire theatre. Vue Cinemas own a nine-screen cinema, which is part of the Bromley South Central scheme at St Mark's Square, opened on 28 November 2018. Dance Bromley has its own team of Morris dancers, The Ravensbourne Morris Men, founded in 1947 as a post-war revival team following an inaugural meeting at the then Jean's Café, which was located opposite Bromley South Station. Civic Society Bromley Civic Society is a civic society for the historic centre of Bromley. It is a founder member of Civic Voice. It seeks to educate the public about the community's history and to preserve historical sites. Popular culture In the famous Monty Python "Spam" sketch Bromley was stated to be the location of the fictional Green Midget Café, where every item on the menu was composed of spam in varying degrees. In another Monty Python sketch, it was stated that all seven continents are visible from the top of the Kentish Times building in Bromley. The Bromley Contingent was the name given to the entourage that followed the Sex Pistols and helped popularise the punk movement. It was so called because many of its members were from Bromley, some of whom later became famous as musicians in their own right, like Siouxsie Sioux and Billy Idol. The 2018 humorous film, The Bromley Boys is set in Bromley and surroundings in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Based on a real-life memoir by Dave Roberts about following Bromley F.C., it includes many scenes filmed locally, although Crockenhill F.C. was used as a substitute for the Hayes Lane stadium. Guitarist Billy Jenkins, born in Bromley, released an album titled "Sounds like Bromley" in 1982 and another in 1997 titled "Still Sounds Like Bromley". In a BBC Radio 3 interview he said that "if Kent is the Garden of England then Bromley is one of the compost heaps". He then moved to Lewisham. Media Local news is provided by the Bromley Times. Sport and leisure The town has four Non-League football clubs. Two teams play their home games at the Hayes Lane Stadium: Bromley F.C. and Cray Wanderers F.C.; the latter is claimed to be the oldest football club in what is today Greater London. The other teams, Holmesdale F.C. and Greenwich Borough F.C., play at Oakley Road. Bromley F.C. are the only professional team in Bromley and play in the National League, one level below the Football League. Four rugby clubs in Bromley are, Old Elthamians a National League 2 side, Parkhouse FC, Bromley RFC and Beckenham RFC. Beccehamians RFC is a club that was founded in 1933 which plays competitive rugby at Sparrows Den at the bottom of Corkscrew Hill in nearby West Wickham. Education Bromley has numerous schools, and is home to Bromley College of Further & Higher Education. There are two specialist Media Arts Schools, Hayes School and The Ravensbourne School. Bishop Justus School is a specialist Music College. It also has the Ravens Wood and Darrick Wood Schools. There are many independent schools within the London Borough of Bromley, including Eltham College (in the nearby area of Mottingham – within the borough of Bromley and near the London Borough of Lewisham) and Bromley High (situated in the nearby area of Bickley - also within the borough of Bromley). Demography Bromley town as a whole, including its neighbourhoods and villages, is formed of six wards: Bickley; Bromley Common and Keston; Bromley Town; Hayes and Coney Hall; Plaistow and Sundridge; and Shortlands. Together they had a population of 87,889 in the 2011 UK census, whereas the borough overall had a population 331,096. The life expectancy in Bromley Town ward (which covers the town centre) was 79.3 years for males and 83.7 years for females, during 2009–2013. The highest in the town were in Shortlands: 86.1 years for males and 88.1 years for females. The lowest for both genders was in Plaistow and Sundridge: 77.5 and 82.1 years respectively. In Bromley Town, 18.5% of the population was of minority ethnicity. The highest in the town was 19.3% in Plaistow and Sundridge, and the lowest was 8.3% in Hayes and Coney Hall. The median house price in Bromley Town ward was £327,000 in 2014, compared to £295,444 in Plaistow and Sundridge, and £480,000 in Bickley. 37% of houses in Bickley were detached, more than other wards. In all wards, over 60% of houses were owned by households, peaking at 88.2% in Hayes and Coney Hall. In 2020, the average cost of a house was £519,619 Landmarks The parish church of St Peter and St Paul stands on Church Road. It was largely destroyed by German bombing on 16 April 1941 and rebuilt in the 1950s incorporating the medieval tower and reusing much of the flint and fragments of the original stone building. The most noteworthy historic building is Bromley College, London Road. The central public open spaces are; Queen's Gardens, Martin's Hill, Church House Gardens, Library Gardens and College Green. Another parish church in Bromley is St Mark's, which stands on Westmoreland Road. The present church is the third. The first was built as a temporary iron church in 1884 to cope with Bromley's growing population, on land slightly to the east of the present church, donated by a local man called Eley Soames. The road name St Mark's Road preserves the rough location of the former site. The second church was built in brick and stone on the present site, and designed by Evelyn Hellicar, son of the then vicar of St Peter and St Paul's. It was completed in 1898 in the Perpendicular Gothic style and consecrated by William Walsh, Bishop of Dover, on 22 October that year. The tower, though, was not completed until 1904. Like St Peter and St Paul's, St Mark's was heavily damaged in the London Blitz of 1941. Only the tower survived intact. On 3 June 1952, the Duchess of Kent laid the foundation stone of the present church, which was designed by T W G Grant and built by David Nye. Besides the tower, other parts of the fabric of the original church were used in the rebuilding. Inside there are some interesting monuments: to Samuel Ajayi Crowther, John Cole Patteson and Vedanayagam Samuel Azariah, who were all bishops in the Commonwealth. The East Street drill hall was completed in 1872. Notable residents H. G. Wells Noted author H. G. Wells was born in Bromley on 21 September 1866, to Sarah and Joseph Wells; his father was the founder of the Bromley Cricket Club and the proprietor of a shop that sold cricket equipment. Wells spent the first 13 years of his life in Bromley. From 1874 to 1879 he attended Tomas Morley's Bromley Academy, at 74 High Street. There was a 'H. G. Wells Centre' in Masons Hill near the southern end of the High Street which housed the Bromley Labour Club (the building was demolished in 2017). In August 2005, the wall honouring Wells in Market Square was repainted; the current wall painting features a rich green background with the same Wells reference and the evolutionary sequence of Homo sapiens featured in Origin of Species by Charles Darwin, a former resident of nearby Downe Village. Wells wrote about Bromley in an early unsigned article in the Pall Mall Gazette in which he expressed satisfaction that he had been born in an earlier, more rural Bromley. A blue plaque marks Wells' birthplace in Market Square, on the wall of what is now a Primark store. A marble plaque appears above the door of 8 South Street, the location of Mrs Knott's Dame school where "Bertie", as he was called as a child, learned to read and write. H. G. Wells featured Bromley in two of his novels: The War in the Air (which refers to Bromley as Bunhill) and The New Machiavelli (in which Bromley is referred to as Bromstead). However, H. G. Wells refused the offered freedom of the town, stating: "Bromley has not been particularly gracious to me nor I to Bromley and I don't think I want to add the freedom of Bromley to the freedom of the City of London and the freedom of the City of Brussels – both of which I have." He described Bromley in one of his novels as a "morbid sprawl of population". Other residents Owen Chadwick was born in Bromley in 1916. He was awarded the Order of Merit, was Vice Chancellor of University of Cambridge, Master of Selwyn Cambridge, Regius Professor of Modern History, Dixie Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Chancellor of University of Anglia, President of the British Academy, and was a Rugby Union International. Other world-famous authors who hail from Bromley include Captain W.E. Johns (author of the Biggles adventures), David Nobbs (author of The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin and writer for Les Dawson and The Two Ronnies), and Enid Blyton who wrote influential children's fiction such as the Secret Seven and Famous Five stories. A blue historical plaque can be found on the external wall of her former home on Shortlands Road, Bromley. Other famous people who lived in Bromley include David Bowie, Charles Darwin, Talbot Rothwell, screenwriter of twenty Carry On films, Justine Lord, actress, Peter Howitt, Richmal Crompton, Pixie Lott, Matt Terry, Christopher Tennant, Hanif Kureishi, Peter Frampton, Aleister Crowley, bassist Steven Severin of Siouxsie and the Banshees, Fatboy Slim, Jack Dee, Tom Allen, Rob Beckett, Gary Rhodes, Pete Sears, singer Poly Styrene, Billy Idol, Josh Beech, Ruthie Henshall, Trevor Goddard, actor, Billy Jenkins, Alex Clare, cricketer Jill Cruwys, the anarchist Peter Kropotkin, the former Clash drummer Topper Headon, illustrator Charles Keeping, Formula 1 test driver Gary Paffett, IndyCar driver Mike Conway, children's writer Andrew Murray, tenor Roland Cunningham, actor Michael York who attended Bromley Grammar School for Boys, clarinetist Chris Craker, Don Perrin, Canadian author who attended Burnt Ash School in Bromley, and Sir Thomas James Harper, an officer decorated in the Crimean War. The musical conducting brothers Stephen and Nicholas Cleobury were born in Bromley. Actor Jerome Flynn, who starred in Game of Thrones as Bronn, was born in Bromley. Gus Lobban and Jamie Bulled of the band Kero Kero Bonito grew up in Bromley: their music video for the song 'You Know How It Is' features several local landmarks. Deborah Linsley, the victim of one of Britain's most high-profile unsolved murders in 1988, grew up in Bromley. Richard Reid, also known as the "Shoe Bomber", was born and lived in Bromley. He is notable as the suspect for the 2001 shoe bomb attempt. In the 20th century, the Parish Church of St Peter and St Paul produced, in quick succession, three Church of England Bishops: Henry David Halsey – Bishop of Carlisle, Philip Goodrich – Bishop of Worcester, David Bartleet – Bishop of Tonbridge. Sculptor Nicholas Cornwell and Maisy James the Big Brother 12 housemate. Sometime before 1881 the engineer and industrialist Richard Porter moved to Beckenham where he remained until his death in 1913. Hanif Kureishi, the writer and filmmaker was born here, and spent a significant part of his youth, here. His first novel The Buddha of Suburbia was loosely based on his life here and the people he lived and met here. Comedian Frankie Boyle claims to be a former resident and has described Bromley as a 'lobotomy made out of bricks'. The comedian Chris Addison currently lives in Bromley, as does tennis player Emma Raducanu. West Ham United F.C. midfielder Gary O'Neil, former Millwall F.C. midfielder Tim Cahill, and former Blackburn Rovers striker Jason Roberts lived in Bromley. English darts player Les Capewell was born in Bromley. Scottish education secretary Michael Russell MSP was born and spent the early years of his life in Bromley. See also Bromley Civic Society References Further reading External links Areas of London Districts of the London Borough of Bromley Market towns in London Metropolitan centres of London Former civil parishes in the London Borough of Bromley
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20imported%20fire%20ant
Red imported fire ant
The red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), also known as the fire ant or RIFA, is a species of ant native to South America. A member of the genus Solenopsis in the subfamily Myrmicinae, it was described by Swiss entomologist Felix Santschi as a variant of S. saevissima in 1916. Its current specific name invicta was given to the ant in 1972 as a separate species. However, the variant and species were the same ant, and the name was preserved due to its wide use. Though South American in origin, the red imported fire ant has been accidentally introduced in Australia, New Zealand, several Asian and Caribbean countries, Europe and the United States. The red imported fire ant is polymorphic, as workers appear in different shapes and sizes. The ant's colours are red and somewhat yellowish with a brown or black gaster, but males are completely black. Red imported fire ants are dominant in altered areas and live in a wide variety of habitats. They can be found in rainforests, disturbed areas, deserts, grasslands, alongside roads and buildings, and in electrical equipment. Colonies form large mounds constructed from soil with no visible entrances because foraging tunnels are built and workers emerge far away from the nest. These ants exhibit a wide variety of behaviours, such as building rafts when they sense that water levels are rising. They also show necrophoric behaviour, where nestmates discard scraps or dead ants on refuse piles outside the nest. Foraging takes place on warm or hot days, although they may remain outside at night. Workers communicate by a series of semiochemicals and pheromones, which are used for recruitment, foraging, and defence. They are omnivores and eat dead mammals, arthropods, insects, seeds, and sweet substances such as honeydew from hemipteran insects with which they have developed relationships. Predators include arachnids, birds, and many insects including other ants, dragonflies, earwigs, and beetles. The ant is a host to parasites and to a number of pathogens, nematodes, and viruses, which have been viewed as potential biological control agents. Nuptial flight occurs during the warm seasons, and the alates may mate for as long as 30 minutes. Colony founding can be done by a single queen or a group of queens, which later contest for dominance once the first workers emerge. Workers can live for several months, while queens can live for years; colony numbers can vary from 100,000 to 250,000 individuals. Two forms of society in the red imported fire ant exist: polygynous colonies (nests with multiple queens) and monogynous colonies (nests with one queen). Venom plays an important role in the ant's life, as it is used to capture prey or for defence. About 95% of the venom consists of water-insoluble piperidine alkaloids known as solenopsins, with the rest comprising a mixture of toxic proteins that can be particularly potent in sensitive humans; the name fire ant is derived from the burning sensation caused by their bite. More than 14 million people are stung by them in the United States annually, where many are expected to develop allergies to the venom. Most victims experience intense burning and swelling, followed by the formation of sterile pustules, which may remain for several days. However 0.6% to 6.0% of people may suffer from anaphylaxis, which can be fatal if left untreated. Common symptoms include dizziness, chest pain, nausea, severe sweating, low blood pressure, loss of breath, and slurred speech. More than 80 deaths have been recorded from red imported fire ant attacks. Treatment depends on the symptoms; those who only experience pain and pustule formation require no medical attention, but those who suffer from anaphylaxis are given epinephrines. Whole body extract immunotherapy is used to treat victims and is regarded as highly effective. The ant is viewed as a notorious pest, causing billions of dollars in damage annually and impacting wildlife. The ants thrive in urban areas, so their presence may deter outdoor activities. Nests can be built under structures such as pavements and foundations, which may cause structural problems, or cause them to collapse. Not only can they damage or destroy structures, but red imported fire ants also can damage equipment and infrastructure and impact business, land, and property values. In agriculture, they can damage crops and machinery, and threaten pastures. They are known to invade a wide variety of crops, and mounds built on farmland may prevent harvesting. They also pose a threat to animals and livestock, capable of inflicting serious injury or killing them, especially young, weak, or sick animals. Despite this, they may be beneficial because they consume common pest insects on crops. Common methods of controlling these ants include baiting and fumigation; other methods may be ineffective or dangerous. Due to its notoriety and importance, the ant has become one of the most studied insects on the planet, even rivalling the western honey bee (Apis mellifera). Etymology and common names The specific epithet of the red imported fire ant, invicta, derives from Latin, and means "invincible" or "unconquered". The epithet originates from the phrase Roma invicta ("unconquered Rome"), used as an inspirational quote until the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. The generic name, Solenopsis, translates as "appearance" or "face" from Ancient Greek. It is a compound of two Ancient Greek words–solen, meaning "pipe" or "channel", and opsis, meaning "appearance" or "sight". The ant is commonly known as the "red imported fire ant" (abbreviated as RIFA). The "fire ant" part is because of the burning sensation caused by its sting. Alternative names include: the "fire ant", "red ant" or "tramp ant". In Brazil, locals call the ant toicinhera, which derives from the Portuguese word toicinho (pork fat). Taxonomy The red imported fire ant was first described by Swiss entomologist Felix Santschi in a 1916 journal article published by Physis. Originally named Solenopsis saevissima wagneri from a syntype worker collected from Santiago del Estero, Argentina, Santschi believed the ant was a variant of S. saevissima; the specific epithet, wagneri, derives from the surname of E.R. Wagner, who collected the first specimens. The type material is currently housed in Naturhistorisches Museum Basel, Switzerland, but additional type workers are possibly housed in the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Paris. In 1930, American myrmecologist William Creighton reviewed the genus Solenopsis and reclassified the taxon as Solenopsis saevissima electra wagneri at infrasubspecific rank, noting that he could not collect any workers that referred to Santschi's original description. In 1952, the S. saevissima species complex was examined and, together with nine other species-group names, S. saevissima electra wagneri was synonymised with S. saevissima saevissima. This reclassification was accepted by Australian entomologist George Ettershank in his revision of the genus and in Walter Kempf's 1972 catalogue of Neotropical ants. In 1972, American entomologist William Buren described what he thought was a new species, naming it Solenopsis invicta. Buren collected a holotype worker from Cuiabá in Mato Grosso, Brazil, and provided the first official description of the ant in a journal article published by the Georgia Entomological Society. He accidentally misspelled invicta as above the description pages of the species, although it was clear that invicta was the intended spelling because of the constant use of the name in the article. The type material is currently housed in the National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C. In a 1991 review of the species complex, American entomologist James Trager synonymised S. saevissima electra wagneri and S. wagneri together. Trager incorrectly cites Solenopsis saevissima electra wagneri as the original name, erroneously believing that the name S. wagneri was unavailable and used Buren's name S. invicta. Trager previously believed that S. invicta was conspecific with S. saevissima until comparing the material with S. wagneri. Trager notes that though S. wagneri has priority over S. invicta, the name was never used above infrasubspecific rank. The use of the name since Santschi has not been associated with collected specimens, and as a result is nomen nudum. In 1995, English myrmecologist Barry Bolton corrected Trager's error, recognising S. wagneri as the valid name and synonymised S. invicta. He states that Trager wrongfully classified S. wagneri as an unavailable name and cites S. saevissima electra wagneri as the original taxon. He concludes that S. wagneri is, in fact, the original name and has priority over S. invicta. In 1999, Steve Shattuck and colleagues proposed conserving the name S. invicta. Since the first description of S. invicta, over 1,800 scientific papers using the name were published discussing a wide range of topics about its ecological behaviour, genetics, chemical communication, economic impacts, methods of control, population, and physiology. They state that the use of S. wagneri is a "threat" to nomenclatural stability towards scientists and non-scientists; taxonomists may have been able to adapt to such name change, but name confusion may arise if such case occurred. Due to this, Shattuck and his colleagues proposed the continued use of S. invicta and not S. wagneri, as this name has been rarely used; between 1995 and 1998, over 100 papers were published using S. invicta and only three using S. wagneri. They requested that the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) use plenary powers to suppress S. wagneri for the purpose of the Principle of Priority and not for the Principle of Homonymy. Furthermore, they requested that the name S. invicta be added to the Official List of Specific Names in Zoology and that S. wagneri be added to the Official Index of Rejected Invalid Specific Names in Zoology. Upon review, the proposal was voted on by the entomological community and was supported by all but two voters. They note that there is no justification in suppressing S. wagneri; instead, it would be better to give precedence to S. invicta over S. wagneri whenever an author treated them as conspecific. The ICZN would conserve S. invicta and suppress S. wagneri in a 2001 review. Under the present classification, the red imported fire ant is a member of the genus Solenopsis in the tribe Solenopsidini, subfamily Myrmicinae. It is a member of the family Formicidae, belonging to the order Hymenoptera, an order of insects containing ants, bees, and wasps. Phylogeny The red imported fire ant is a member of the S. saevissima species-group. Members can be distinguished by their two-jointed clubs at the end of the funiculus in workers and queens, and the second and third segments of the funiculus are twice as long and broad in larger workers. Polymorphism occurs in all species and the mandibles bear four teeth. The following cladogram shows the position of the red imported fire ant among other members of the S. saevissima species-group: Phenotypic and genetic data suggest that the red imported fire ant and the black imported fire ant (Solenopsis richteri) differ from each other, but they do share a close genetic relationship. Hybridisation between the two ants occurs in areas where they make contact, with the hybrid zone located in Mississippi. Such hybridisation has resulted from secondary contact between these two ants several decades ago, when they first encountered each other in southern Alabama. Based on mitochondrial DNA, examined haplotypes do not form a monophyletic clade. Some of the examined haplotypes form a closer relationship to S. megergates, S. quinquecuspis and S. richteri than they do with other S. invicta haplotypes. The occurrence of a possible paraphyletic grouping suggests that the red imported fire ant and S. quinquecuspis are possible cryptic species groups composed of several species that cannot be distinguished morphologically. Genetics Studies show that mitochondrial DNA variation occurs substantially in polygyne societies (nests with multiple queens), but no variation is detected in monogyne societies (nests with a single queen). Triploidy (a chromosomal abnormality) occurs in red imported fire ants at high rates (as high as 12% in non-reproductive females), which is linked to the high frequency of diploid males. The red imported fire ant is the first species shown to possess a green-beard gene, by which natural selection can favour altruistic behaviour. Workers containing this gene are able to distinguish between queens containing it, and those that do not, apparently by using odour cues. The workers kill queens that do not contain the gene. In 2011, scientists announced they had fully sequenced the red imported fire ant genome from a male. Description Red imported fire ant workers range in size from small to medium, making them polymorphic. Workers measure between . The head measures and is wide. In the larger workers (as in the major workers), their heads measure and wide. The antenna scapes measure and the thoracic length is . The head becomes wider behind the eyes with rounded occipital lobes present, and unlike the similar-looking S. richteri, the lobes peak further than the midline, but the occipital excision is not as crease-like. The scapes in major workers do not extend beyond occipital peak by one or two scape diameters; this feature is more noticeable in S. richteri. In medium-sized workers, the scapes reach the occipital peaks and exceed the rear border in the smallest workers. In small and medium workers, the head tends to have more elliptical sides. The head of small workers is wider out front than it is behind. In the major workers, the pronotum does not have any angular shoulders, nor does it have any sunken posteromedian area. The promesonotum is convex and the propodeum base is rounded and also convex. The base and declivity are of equal length. The suture of the promesonotum is either strong or weak in larger workers. The petiole has a thick and blunt scale; if observed from behind, it is not as rounded above in contrast to S. richteri, and sometimes it may be subtruncate. The postpetiole is large and broad, and in the larger workers, it is broader than its length. The postpetiole tends to be less broad in front and broader behind. On the rear side of the dorsal surface, a transverse impression is present. In S. richteri, this feature is also present but much weaker. The sculpture is very similar to S. richteri. The punctures are from where pilosity arises, and these are often elongated on the dorsal and ventral portions of the head. On the thorax, striae are present, but they are less engraved with fewer punctures than in S. richteri. On the petiole, the punctates are located on the sides. The postpetiole, when viewed above, has a strong shagreen with distinct transverse punctostriae. The sides are covered in deep punctures, where they appear smaller but deeper. In S. richteri, the punctures are larger and more shallow. This gives a more opaque appearance to the surface. In some cases, punctostriae may be present around the rear portion. The pilosity appears similar to that of S. richteri. These hairs are erect and vary in length, appearing long on each side of the pronotum and mesonotum; on the head, the long hairs are seen in longitudinal rows. Numerous appressed pubescent hairs are on the petiolar scale; this is the opposite in S. richteri, as these hairs are sparse. Workers appear red and somewhat yellowish with a brown or completely black gaster. Gastric spots are sometimes seen in larger workers, where they are not as brightly coloured as those in S. richteri. The gastric spot usually covers a small portion of the first gastric tergite. The thorax is concolorous, ranging from light reddish-brown to dark-brown. The legs and coxae are usually lightly shaded. The head has a consistent colour pattern in large workers, with the occiput and vertex appearing brown. Other parts of the head, including the front, genae, and the central region of the clypeus, are either yellowish or yellowish brown. The anterior borders of the genae and mandibles are dark-brown; they also both appear to share the same coloured shade with the occiput. The scapes and funiculi range from being the same colour as the head or shares the same shade with the occiput. Light-coloured areas of the head in small to medium-sized workers is restricted to only the frontal region, with a dark mark resembling an arrow or rocket being present. On occasion, nests may have a series of different colours. For example, workers may be much darker, and the gastric spot may be completely absent or appear dark-brown. Queens have a head length of and a width of . The scapes measure and the thorax is . The head is almost indistinguishable from S. richteri, but the occipital excision is less crease-like and the scapes are considerably shorter. Its petiolar scale is convex and resembles that of S. richteri. The postpetiole has straight sides that never concave, unlike in S. richteri where they concave. The thorax is almost identical, but the clear space between the metapleural striate area and propodeal spiracles is either a narrow crease or not present. The side portions of the petiole are punctate. The sides of the postpetiole are opaque with punctures present, but no irregular roughening is seen. The anterior of the dorsum is shagreen, and the middle and rear regions bear transverse puncto-striae. All these regions have erect hairs. The anterior portions of both the petiole and postpetiole have appressed pubescence that is also seen on the propodeum. The colour of the queen is similar to that of a worker: the gaster is dark brown and the legs, scapes, and thorax are light brown with dark streaks on the mesoscutum. The head is yellowish or yellowish-brown around the central regions, the occiput and mandibles are a similar colour to the thorax, and the wing veins range from colourless to pale brown. Males appear similar to S. richteri, but the upper borders of the petiolar scales are more concave. In both species, the postpetiole's and petiole's spiracles strongly project. The whole body of the male is concolorous black, but the antennae are whitish. Like the queen, the wing veins are colourless or pale brown. The red imported ant can be misidentified as the similar-looking S. richteri. The two species can be distinguished from each other through morphological examinations of the head, thorax, and postpetiole. In S. richteri, the sides of the head are broadly elliptical and the cordate shape seen in the red imported fire ant is absent. The region of the occipital lobes that are situated nearby the midline and occipital excision appear more crease-like in S. richteri than it does in the red imported fire ant. The scapes of S. richteri are longer than they are in the red imported fire ant, and the pronotum has strong angulate shoulders. Such character is almost absent in the red imported fire ant. A shallow but sunken area is only known in the larger workers of S. richteri, which is located in the posterior region of the dorsum of the pronotum. This feature is completely absent in larger red imported fire ant workers. The red imported fire ant's promesonotum is strongly convex, whereas this feature is weakly convex in S. richteri. Upon examination, the base of the propodeum is elongated and straight in S. richteri, while convex and shorter in the red imported fire ant. It also has a wide postpetiole with either straight or diverging sides. The postpetiole in S. richteri is narrower with converging sides. In S. richteri, the transverse impression on the posterodorsal portion of the postpetiole is strong, but weak or absent in the red imported fire ant. As well as that, S. richteri workers are 15% larger than red imported fire ant workers, are blackish-brown, and have a yellow stripe on the dorsal side of the gaster. Brood Eggs are tiny and oval-shaped, remaining the same size for around a week. After one week, the egg assumes the shape of an embryo and forms as a larva when the egg shell is removed. Larvae measure . They show a similar appearance to S. geminata larvae, but they can be distinguished by the integument with spinules on top of the dorsal portion of the posterior somites. The body hairs measure with a denticulate tip. The antennae both have two or three sensilla. The labrum is smaller with two hairs on the anterior surface that are . The maxilla has a sclerotised band between the cardo and stipes. The labium also has a small sclerotised band. The tubes of the labial glands are known to produce or secrete a proteinaceous substance that has a rich level of digestive enzymes, which includes proteases and amylases that function as an extraintestinal digestion of solid food. The midgut also contains amylases, roteases and upases. The narrow cells in its reservoir have little to no function in secretion. The pupae resemble adults of any caste, except that their legs and antennae are held tightly against the body. They appear white, but over time, the pupa turns darker when they are almost ready to mature. Four larval instars have been described based on distinctive morphological characters. The larvae of the minor and major workers are impossible to distinguish before the final instar, when size differences become apparent. Upon pupation a wider head width difference between castes become more evident. Reproductive larvae are larger than worker larvae, and present discrete morphological differences in mouthparts. Fourth-instar larvae of males and queens can be differentiated based on their relative shape and body coloration, and also internal gonopodal imaginal discs can differ. Polymorphism The red imported fire ant is polymorphic with two different castes of workers: minor workers and major workers (soldiers). Like many ants that exhibit polymorphism, young, smaller ants do not forage and tend to the brood instead, while the larger workers go out and forage. In incipient colonies, polymorphism does not exist, but instead they are occupied by monomorphic workers called "minims" or "nanitics". The average head-width in tested colonies increases during the first six months of development. In five-year-old colonies, the head width of minor workers decreases, but for major workers, the head-width remains the same. The total weight of a major worker is twice that of a minor worker when they first arrive, and by six months, major workers are four times heavier than minor workers. Once major workers develop, they can make up a large portion of the workforce, with as many as 35% being major workers in a single colony. This does not affect colony performance, as polymorphic colonies and nests with small workers produce broods at roughly the same rate, and polymorphism is not an advantage or disadvantage when food sources are not limited. However, polymorphic colonies are more energetically efficient, and under conditions where food is limited, polymorphism may provide a small advantage in brood production, but this depends on the levels of food stress. As worker ants grow to larger sizes, the shape of the head changes, due to the head length growing at the same time as the total body length, and the head width may grow by 20%. The length of the antennae only grows slowly; the antennae may only grow 60% longer by the time the body doubles its length, thus the relative antennal length decreases by 20% as the length of the body doubles. All individual legs of the body are isometric with body length meaning that even when the length of the body doubles, the legs will also double. However, not all of the legs are the same length; the prothoracic portion accounts for 29% of leg length, the mesothoracic 31%, and the metathoracic 41%. The first two pairs of legs are of equal length to one another, whereas the final pair is longer. Overall, the morphological appearance of a worker changes dramatically when it grows larger. The head exhibits the greatest shape change and the height of the alinotum grows quicker than its length, where a height/length ratio of 0.27 in minor workers and 0.32 in major workers is seen. Due to this, larger workers tend to have a humped-shape and robust alinotum in contrast to smaller workers. No petiole segment exhibits any change in shape as the size of the body changes. The width of the gaster grows more rapidly than its length, where the width may be 96% of its length but increases to 106%. Physiology Like other insects, the red imported fire ant breathes through a system of gas-filled tubes called tracheae connected to the external environment through spiracles. The terminal tracheal branches (tracheoles) make direct contact with internal organs and tissue. The transport of oxygen to cells (and carbon dioxide out of cells) occurs through diffusion of gases between the tracheoles and the surrounding tissue and is assisted by a discontinuous gas exchange. As with other insects, the direct communication between the tracheal system and tissues eliminates the need for a circulating fluid network to transport O2. Thus, red imported fire ants and other arthropods can have a modest circulatory system though they have highly expensive metabolic demands. The excretory system consists of three regions. The basal region has three cells found within the posterior portion of the midgut. The anterior and superior cavities are formed by the bases of four Malpighian tubules. The superior cavity opens into the lumen of the small intestine. The rectum is a large but thin-walled sac that occupies the posterior fifth of the larvae. The release of waste is controlled by the rectal valves that lead to the anus. Sometimes, the larvae secrete a liquid that consists of uric acid, water and salts. These contents are often carried outside by workers and ejected, but colonies under water stress may consume the contents. In the reproductive system, queens release a pheromone that prevents dealation and oogenesis in virgin females; those tested in colonies without a queen begin oocyte development after dealation and take up the egg-laying role. Flight muscle degeneration is initiated by mating and juvenile hormones, and prevented by corpus allatectomy. Histolysis begins with the dissolution of the myofibril and the slow breakdown of the myofilaments. Such dissolution continues until it reaches the only free Z-line materials, which would also disappear; only the nuclei and lamellar bodies remain. In one study, the amino acids increase in the hemolymph after insemination. The glandular system contains four glands: the mandibular, maxillary, labial, and postpharyngeal glands. The postpharyngeal is well developed in the queen, while the other glands are larger in workers. The postpharyngeal gland functions as a vacuum to absorb fatty acids and triglycerides, as well as a gastric caecum. The functions of the other glands remain poorly understood. In one study discussing the enzymes of the digestion system of adult ants, lipase activity was found in the mandibular and labial glands, as well as invertase activity. The Dufour's gland found in the ant acts as a source of trail pheromones, although scientists believed the poison gland was the source of the queen pheromone. The neurohormone pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide is found in the ant that activates the biosynthesis of pheromones from the Dufour's gland. The spermatheca gland is found in queens, which functions in sperm maintenance. Males appear to lack these glands, but those associated with its head are morphologically similar to those found in workers, but these glands may act differently. The ant faces many respiratory challenges due to its highly variable environment, which can cause increased desiccation, hypoxia, and hypercapnia. Hot, humid climates cause an increase in heart rate and respiration which increases energy and water loss. Hypoxia and hypercapnia can result from red imported fire ant colonies living in poorly ventilated thermoregulatory mounds and underground nests. Discontinuous gas exchange (DGE) may allow ants to survive the hypercapnic and hypoxic conditions frequently found in their burrows; it is ideal for adapting to these conditions because it allows the ants to increase the period of O2 intake and CO2 expulsion independently through spiracle manipulation. The invasion success of the red imported fire ant may possibly be related to its physiological tolerance to abiotic stress, being more heat tolerant and more adaptable to desiccation stress than S. richteri. This means that the ant is less vulnerable to heat and desiccation stress. Although S. richteri has higher water body content than the red imported fire ant, S. richteri was more vulnerable to desiccation stress. The lower sensitivity to desiccation is due to a lower water loss rate. Colonies living in unshaded and warmer sites tend to have a higher heat tolerance than those living in shaded and cooler sites. Metabolic rate, which indirectly affects respiration, is also influenced by environmental temperature. Peak metabolism occurs at about 32 °C. Metabolism, and therefore respiration rate, increases consistently as temperature increases. DGE stops above 25 °C, although the reason for this is currently unknown. Respiration rate also appears to be influenced significantly by caste. Males show a considerably higher rate of respiration than females and workers, due, in part, to their capability for flight and higher muscle mass. In general, males have more muscle and less fat, resulting in a higher metabolic O2 demand. While the metabolic rate is highest at 32 °C, colonies often thrive at slightly cooler temperatures (around 25 °C). The high rate of metabolic activity associated with warmer temperatures is a limiting factor on colony growth because the need for food consumption is also increased. As a result, larger colonies tend to be found in cooler conditions because the metabolic demands required to sustain a colony are decreased. Distribution and habitat Red imported fire ants are native to the tropical areas of Central South America, where they have an expansive geographical range that extends from southeastern Peru to central Argentina, and to the south of Brazil. In contrast to its geographical range in North America, its range in South America is significantly different. It has an extremely long north–south range, but a very narrow east–west distribution. The northernmost record of the red imported fire ant is Porto Velho in Brazil, and its southernmost record is Resistencia in Argentina; this is a distance of about . In comparison, the width of its narrow range is about , and this is most likely narrower into southern Argentina and Paraguay and into the northern areas of the Amazon River basin. Most known records of the red imported fire ant are around the Pantanal region of Brazil. However, the interior of this area has not been examined thoroughly, but it is certain that the species occurs in favourable locations around it. The Pantanal region is thought to be the original homeland of the red imported fire ant; hydrochore dispersal via floating ant rafts could easily account for the far south populations around the Paraguay and Guaporé Rivers. The western extent of its range is not known exactly, but its abundance there may be limited. It may be extensive in easternmost Bolivia, owing to the presence of the Pantanal region. These ants are native to Argentina, and the red imported fire ant most likely came from here when they first invaded the United States; in particular, populations of these ants have been found in the provinces of Chaco, Corrientes, Formosa, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, and Tucumán. The northeastern regions of Argentina are the most credible guess where the invading ants originate. In Brazil, they are found in northern Mato Grosso and in Rondônia and in São Paulo state. The red imported fire ant and S. saevissima are parapatric in Brazil, with contact zones known in Mato Grosso do Sul, Paraná state and São Paulo. In Paraguay they are found throughout the country, and have been recorded in Boquerón, Caaguazú, Canindeyú, Central, Guairá, Ñeembucú, Paraguarí, and Presidente Hayes departments; Trager claims that the ant is distributed in all regions of the country. They are also found in a large portion of northeastern Bolivia and, to a lesser extent, in northwestern Uruguay. The red imported fire ant is able to dominate altered areas and live in a variety of habitats. It can survive the extreme weather of the South American rain forest, and in disturbed areas, nests are seen frequently alongside roads and buildings. The ant has been observed frequently around the floodplains of the Paraguay River. In areas where water is present, they are commonly found around: irrigation channels, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, rivers, streams, riverbanks, and mangrove swamps. Nests are found in agricultural areas, coastlands, wetlands, coastal dune remnants, deserts, forests, grasslands, natural forests, oak woodland, mesic forest, leaf-litter, beach margins, shrublands, alongside rail and roads, and in urban areas. In particular, they are found in cultivated land, managed forests and plantations, disturbed areas, intensive livestock production systems, and greenhouses. Red imported fire ants have been found to invade buildings, including medical facilities. In urban areas, colonies dwell in open areas, especially if the area is sunny. This includes: urban gardens, picnic areas, lawns, playgrounds, schoolyards, parks, and golf courses. In some areas, there are on average 200 mounds per acre. During winter, colonies move under pavements or into buildings, and newly mated queens move into pastures. Red imported fire ants are mostly found at altitudes between above sea level. Mounds range from small to large, measuring in height and in diameter with no visible entrances. Workers are only able to access their nests through a series of tunnels that protrude from the central region. Such protrusions can span up to 25 feet away from the central mound, either straight down in to the ground or, more commonly, sideways from the original mound. Constructed from soil, mounds are oriented so that the long portions of the mound face toward the sun during the early morning and before sunset. Mounds are usually oval-shaped with the long axis of the nest orientating itself in a north–south direction. These ants also spend large amounts of energy in nest construction and transporting brood, which is related with thermoregulation. The brood is transported to areas where temperatures are high; workers track temperature patterns of the mound and do not rely on behavioural habits. Inside nests, mounds contain a series of narrow horizontal tunnels, with subterranean shafts and nodes reaching grass roots below the surface; these shafts and nodes connect the mound tunnels to the subterranean chambers. These chambers are about 5 cm2 (0.77 inch2) and reach depths of . The mean number of ants in a single subterranean chamber is around 200. Introductions Red imported fire ants are among the worst invasive species in the world. Some scientists consider the red imported fire ant to be a "disturbance specialist"; human disturbance to the environment may be a major factor behind the ants' impact (fire ants tend to favour disturbed areas). This is shown through one experiment, demonstrating that mowing and plowing in studied areas diminished the diversity and abundance of native ant species, whereas red imported fire ants found on undisturbed forest plots had only diminished a couple of species. In the United States, the red imported fire ant first arrived in the seaport of Mobile, Alabama, by cargo ship between 1933 and 1945. Arriving with an estimated 9 to 20 unrelated queens, the red imported fire ant was only rare at the time, as entomologists were unable to collect any specimens (with the earliest observations first made in 1942, preceded by a population expansion in 1937); the population of these ants exploded by the 1950s. Since its introduction to the United States, the red imported fire ant has spread throughout the southern states and northeastern Mexico, negatively affecting wildlife and causing economic damage. The expansion of red imported fire ants may be limited since they are almost wiped out during Tennessee winters, thus they may be reaching their northernmost range. However, global warming may allow the red imported fire ant to expand its geographical range. As of 2004, the ant is found in 13 states and occupies over 128 million hectares of land, and as many as 400 mounds can be found on a single acre of land. The United States Department of Agriculture estimates that they expand westward per year. Likely due to absence of South American competitors - and lower numbers of native competitors - S. invicta dominates more extrafloral nectaries and hemipteran honeydew sources in the Southern U.S. than in its home range. Red imported fire ants were first discovered in Queensland, Australia, in 2001. The ants were believed to be present in shipping containers arriving at the Port of Brisbane, most likely from North America. Anecdotal evidence suggests fire ants may have been present in Australia for six to eight years prior to formal identification. The potential damage from the red imported fire ant prompted the Australian government to respond rapidly. A joint state and federal funding of A$175 million was granted for a six-year eradication programme. Following years of eradication, eradication rates of greater than 99% from previously infested properties were reported. The program received extended Commonwealth funding of around A$10 million for at least another two years to treat the residual infestations found most recently. In December 2014, a nest was identified at Port Botany, Sydney, in New South Wales. The port was quarantined, and a removal operation took place. In September 2015, populations originating from the United States were found at a Brisbane airport. Hundreds of millions of dollars have since been allocated to their eradication. In August 2023, the Invasive Species Council said that without additional funding, fire ants would probably spread into northern New South Wales and west, potentially into the Murray Darling Basin. Red imported fire ants have spread beyond North America. The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) reports the ant inhabiting from three of the Cayman Islands. However, the sources the ISSG cited give no report about them on the island, but recent collections indicate that they are present. In 2001, red imported fire ants were discovered in New Zealand, but they were successfully eradicated several years later. Red imported fire ants have been reported in India, Malaysia, the Philippines and Singapore. However, these reports were found to be incorrect as the ants collected there were incorrectly identified as the red imported fire ant. In Singapore, the ants were most likely misidentified as well. In India, surveyed ants in Sattur Taluk, India listed the red imported fire ant there in high populations; meanwhile, no reports of the ant were made outside the surveyed area. In 2016, scientists state that despite no presence of the ant in India, the red imported fire ant will more than likely find suitable habitats within India's ecosystem if given the opportunity. The reports in the Philippines most likely misidentified collected material as the red imported fire ant, as no populations have been found there. It was discovered in Hong Kong and mainland China in 2004, where they have spread into several provinces as well as Macau and Taiwan. No geographic or climatic barriers prevent these ants from spreading further, thus it may spread throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. In Europe, a single nest was found in the Netherlands in 2002. For the first time, in 2023, ant colonies have been found in Europe. Around 1980, red imported fire ants began spreading throughout the West Indies, where they were first reported in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Between 1991 and 2001, the ant was recorded from Trinidad and Tobago, several areas in the Bahamas, the British Virgin Islands, Antigua, and the Turks and Caicos Islands. Since then, red imported fire ants have been recorded on more islands and regions, with new populations discovered in: Anguilla, Saint Martin, Barbuda, Montserrat, Saint Kitts, Nevis, Aruba, and Jamaica. The ants recorded from Aruba and Jamaica have only been found on golf courses; these courses import sod from Florida, so such importation may be an important way for the ant to spread throughout the West Indies. Populations found outside North America originate from the United States. In 2011, the DNA of specimens from Australia, China, and Taiwan was analysed with results showing that they are related to those in the United States. Despite the spread of the red imported fire ant (S. invicta), S. geminata has a greater geographical range, but it can be easily displaced by S. invicta. Because of this, almost all of S. geminata'''s exotic range in North America has been lost and it has almost disappeared there. On roadsides in Florida, 83% of these sites had S. geminata present when the red imported fire ant was absent, but only 7% when it is present. This means that the ant can probably invade many tropical and subtropical regions where S. geminata populations are present. Behaviour and ecology Red imported fire ants are extremely resilient and have adapted to contend with both flooding and drought conditions. If the ants sense increased water levels in their nests, they link together and form a ball or raft that floats, with the workers on the outside and the queen inside. The brood is transported to the highest surface. They are also used as the founding structure of the raft, except for the eggs and smaller larvae. Before submerging, the ants will tip themselves into the water and sever connections with the dry land. In some cases, workers may deliberately remove all males from the raft, resulting in the males drowning. The longevity of a raft can be as long as 12 days. Ants that are trapped underwater escape by lifting themselves to the surface using bubbles which are collected from submerged substrate. Owing to their greater vulnerability to predators, red imported fire ants are significantly more aggressive when rafting. Workers tend to deliver higher doses of venom, which reduces the threat of other animals attacking. Due to this, and because a higher workforce of ants is available, rafts are potentially dangerous to those that encounter them. Necrophoric behaviour occurs in the red imported fire ant. Workers discard uneaten food and other such wastes away from the nest. The active component was not identified, but the fatty acids accumulating as a result of decomposition were implicated and bits of paper coated with synthetic oleic acid typically elicited a necrophoric response. The process behind this behaviour in imported red fire ants was confirmed by Blum (1970): unsaturated fats, such as oleic acid, elicit corpse-removal behaviour. Workers also show differentiated responses towards dead workers and pupae. Dead workers are usually taken away from the nest, whereas the pupae may take a day for a necrophoric response to occur. Pupae infected by Metarhizium anisopliae are usually discarded by workers at a higher rate; 47.5% of unaffected corpses are discarded within a day, but for affected corpses this figure is 73.8%. Red imported fire ants have negative impacts on seed germination. The extent of the damage, however, depends on how long seeds are vulnerable for (dry and germinating) and by the abundance of the ants. One study showed that while these ants are attracted to and remove seeds which have adapted for ant dispersal, red imported fire ants damage these seeds or move them in unfavourable locations for germination. In seeds given to colonies, 80% of Sanguinaria canadensis seeds were scarified and 86% of Viola rotundifolia seeds were destroyed. Small percentages of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) seeds deposited by workers successfully germinate, thus providing evidence that red imported fire ants help the movement of seeds in the longleaf pine ecosystem. Elaiosome-bearing seeds are collected at a higher rate in contrast to nonelaiosome-bearing seeds and do not store them in their nests, but rather in surface trash piles in the mound vicinity. Foraging and communication Colonies of the red imported fire ant have tunneling surfaces that protrude out of the surfaces where workers forage. These areas of protrusion tend to be within their own territory, but greater ant colonisation can affect this. Tunnels are designed to allow effective body, limb and antennae interactions with walls, and a worker can also move exceptionally fast inside them (more than nine bodylengths per second). The holes exit out of any point within the colony's territory, and foraging workers may need to travel half a metre to reach the surface. Assuming the average forager travels 5 m, over 90% of foraging time is inside the tunnels during the day and rarely at night. Workers forage in soil temperatures reaching 27 °C (80 °F) and surface temperatures of 12–51 °C (53–123 °F). Workers exposed to temperatures of 42 °C (107 °F) are at risk of dying from the heat. The rate of workers foraging drops rapidly by autumn, and they rarely emerge during winter. This may be due to the effects of soil temperature, and a decreased preference for food sources. These preferences only decrease when brood production is low. In the northern regions of the United States, areas are too cold for the ant to forage, but in other areas such as Florida and Texas, foraging may occur all year round. When it is raining, workers do not forage outside, as exit holes are temporarily blocked, pheromone trails are washed away, and foragers may be physically struck by the rain. The soil's moisture may also affect the foraging behaviour of workers. When workers are foraging, it is characterised by three steps: searching, recruitment, and transportation. Workers tend to search for honey more often than other food sources, and the weight of food has no impact on searching time. Workers may recruit other nestmates if the food they have found is too heavy, taking as much as 30 minutes for the maximum number of recruited workers to arrive. Lighter food sources take less time and are usually transported rapidly. Foraging workers become scouts and search solely for food outside the surface, and may subsequently die two weeks later from old age. Workers communicate by a series of semiochemicals and pheromones. These communication methods are used in a variety of activities, such as nestmate recruitment, foraging, attraction, and defence; for example, a worker may secrete trail pheromones if a food source it discovered is too large to carry. These pheromones are synthesized by the Dufour's gland and may trail from the discovered food source back to the nest. The components in these trail pheromones are also species-specific to this ant only, in contrast to other ants with common tail pheromones. The poison sack in this species has been identified as being the novel storage site of the queen pheromone; this pheromone is known to elicit orientation in worker individuals, resulting in the deposition of brood. It is also an attractant, where workers aggregate toward areas where the pheromone has been released. A brood pheromone is possibly present, as workers are able to segregate brood by their age and caste, which is followed by licking, grooming and antennation. If a colony is under attack, workers will release alarm pheromones. However, these pheromones are poorly developed in workers. Workers can detect pyrazines which are produced by the alates; these pyrazines may be involved in nuptial flight, as well as an alarm response. Red imported fire ants can distinguish nestmates and non-nestmates through chemical communication and specific colony odours. Workers prefer to dig into nest materials from their own colony and not from soil in unnested areas or from other red imported fire ant colonies. One study suggests that as a colony's diet is similar, the only difference between nested and unnested soil was the nesting of the ants themselves. Therefore, workers may transfer colony odour within the soil. Colony odour can be affected by the environment, as workers in lab-reared colonies are less aggressive than those in the wild. Queen-derived cues are able to regulate nestmate recognition in workers and amine levels. However, these cues do not play a major role in colony-level recognition, but they can serve as a form of caste-recognition within nests. Workers living in monogyne societies tend to be extremely aggressive and attack intruders from neighbouring nests. In queenless colonies, the addition of alien queens or workers does not increase aggression among the population. Diet Red imported fire ants are omnivores, and foragers are considered to be scavengers rather than predators. The ants' diet consists of dead mammals, arthropods, insects, earthworms, vertebrates, and solid food matter such as seeds. However, this species prefers liquid over solid food. The liquid food the ants collect is sweet substances from plants or honeydew-producing hemipterans. Arthropod prey may include dipteran adults, larvae and pupae, and termites. The consumption of sugar amino acid is known to affect recruitment of workers to plant nectars. Mimic plants with sugar rarely have workers to feed on them, whereas those with sugar and amino acids have considerable numbers. The habitats where they live may determine the food they collect the most; for example, forage success rates for solid foods are highest in lakeshore sites, while high levels of liquid sources were collected from pasture sites. Specific diets can also alter the growth of a colony, with laboratory colonies showing high growth if fed honey-water. Colonies that feed on insects and sugar-water can grow exceptionally large in a short period of time, whereas those that do not feed on sugar-water grow substantially slower. Colonies that do not feed on insects cease brood production entirely. Altogether, the volume of food digested by nestmates is regulated within colonies. Larvae are able to display independent appetites for sources such as solid proteins, amino acid solutions, and sucrose solutions, and they also prefer these sources over dilute solutions. Such behaviour is due to their capability to communicate hunger to workers. The rate of consumption depends on the type, concentration, and state of the food on which they feed. Workers tend to recruit more nestmates to food sources filled with high levels of sucrose than to protein. Food distribution plays an important role in a colony. This behaviour varies in colonies, with small workers receiving more food than larger workers if a small colony is seriously deprived of food. In larger colonies, however, the larger workers receive more food. Workers can donate sugar water efficiently to other nestmates, with some acting as donors. These "donors" distribute their food sources to recipients, which may also act as donors. Workers may also share a greater portion of their food with other nestmates. In colonies that are not going through starvation, food is still distributed among the workers and larvae. One study shows that honey and soybean oil were fed to the larvae after 12 to 24 hours of being retained by the workers. The ratio distribution of these food sources was 40% towards the larvae and 60% towards the worker for honey, and for soybean oil this figure was around 30 and 70%, respectively. Red imported fire ants also stockpile specific food sources such as insect pieces rather than consuming them immediately. These pieces are usually transported below the mound surface and in the driest and warmest locations. This species engages in trophallaxis with the larvae. Regardless of the attributes and conditions of each larva, they are fed roughly the same amount of liquid food. The rate of trophallaxis may increase with larval food deprivation, but such increase depends on the size of each larva. Larvae that are fed regularly tend to be given small amounts. To reach satiation, all larvae regardless of their size generally require the equivalent of eight hours of feeding. Predators A number of insects, arachnids, and birds prey on these ants, especially when queens are trying to establish a new colony. While in the absence of defending workers, the fire ant queens must rely on their venom to keep off competitor species Many species of dragonfly, including Anax junius, Pachydiplax longipennis, Somatochlora provocans, and Tramea carolina, capture the queens while they are in flight; 16 species of spiders, including the wolf spider Lycosa timuga and the southern black widow spider (Latrodectus mactans), actively kill red imported fire ants. L. mactans captures all castes of the species (the workers, queens, and males) within its web. These ants constitute 75% of prey captured by the spider. Juvenile L. mactans spiders have also been seen capturing the ants. Other invertebrates that prey on red imported fire ants are earwigs (Labidura riparia) and tiger beetles (Cicindela punctulata). Birds that eat these ants include the chimney swift (Chaetura pelagica), the eastern kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus), and the eastern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus virginianus). The eastern bobwhite attacks these ants by digging out the mounds looking for young queens. Red imported fire ants have been found in stomach contents inside of armadillos. Many species of ants have been observed attacking queens and killing them. Apparently, the venom of fire ant queens is chemically adapted to rapidly subdue offending competitor ants. Predatory ants include: Ectatomma edentatum, Ephebomyrmex spp., Lasius neoniger, Pheidole spp., Pogonomyrmex badius, and Conomyrma insana, which is among the most significant. C. insana ants are known to be effective predators against founding queens in studied areas of Northern Florida. The pressure of attacks initiated by C. insana increase over time, causing queens to exhibit different reactions, including escaping, concealment, or defence. Most queens that are attacked by these ants are ultimately killed. Queens that are in groups have higher chances of survival than solitary queens if they are attacked by S. geminata. Ants can attack queens on the ground and invade nests by stinging and dismembering them. Other ants such as P. porcula try to take the head and gaster, and C. clara invade in groups. Also, certain ants try to drag queens out of their nests by pulling on the antennae or legs. Small, monomorphic ants rely on recruitment to kill queens and do not attack them until reinforcements arrive. Aside from killing the queen, some ants may steal the eggs for consumption or emit a repellent that is effective against red imported fire ants. Certain ant species may raid colonies and destroy them. Parasites, pathogens and viruses Flies in the genus Pseudacteon (phorid flies) are known to be parasitic to ants. Some species within this genus, such as Pseudacteon tricuspis, have been introduced into the environment for the purpose of controlling the imported fire ant. These flies are parasitoids of the red imported fire ant in its native range in South America, and can be attracted through the ants' venom alkaloids. One species, Pseudacteon obtusus, attacks the ant by landing on the posterior portion of the head and laying an egg. The location of the egg makes it impossible for the ant to successfully remove it. The larvae migrate to the head, then develop by feeding on the hemolymph, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. After about two weeks, they cause the ant's head to fall off by releasing an enzyme that dissolves the membrane attaching the head to its body. The fly pupates in the detached head capsule, emerging two weeks later. P. tricuspis is another phorid fly that is a parasitoid to this species. Although parasitism pressures by these flies do not affect the ants' population density and activity, it has a small effect on a colony population. The strepsipteran insect Caenocholax fenyesi is known to infect male ants of this species and attack the eggs, and the mite Pyemotes tritici has been considered a potential biological agent against red imported fire ants, capable of parasitising every caste within the colony. Bacteria, such as Wolbachia, has been found in the red imported fire ant; three different variants of the bacteria are known to infect the red imported fire ant. However, its effect on the ant is unknown. Solenopsis daguerrei is a reproductive parasite to red imported fire ant colonies. A large variety of pathogens and nematodes also infect red imported fire ants. Pathogens include Myrmecomyces annellisae, Mattesia spp., Steinernema spp., a mermithid nematode, Vairimorpha invictae, which can be transmitted via live larvae and pupae and dead adults and Tetradonema solenopsis, which can be fatal to a large portion of a colony. Individuals infected by Metarhizium anisopliae tend to perform trophallaxis more frequently and have an enhanced preference to quinine, an alkaloid substance. Phorid flies with Kneallhazia solenopsae can serve as vectors in transmitting the disease to the ants. Weakening the colony, infections from this disease are localised within the body fat, with spores only occurring in adult individuals. The mortality of an infected colony tends to be greater in contrast to those that are healthy. These ants are a host to Conidiobolus, Myrmicinosporidium durum, and Beauveria bassiana, each of which are parasitic fungi. Infected individuals have spores all over their bodies and appear darker than usual. The toxicity from antimicrobial property of volatiles produced by the ants can significantly reduce the germination rate of B. bassiana within the colony. A virus, S. invicta 1 (SINV-1), has been found in about 20% of fire ant fields, where it appears to cause the slow death of infected colonies. It has proven to be self-sustaining and transmissible. Once introduced, it can eliminate a colony within three months. Researchers believe the virus has potential as a viable biopesticide to control fire ants. Two more viruses have also been discovered: S. invicta 2 (SINV-2) and S. invicta 3 (SINV-3). Polygynous colonies tend to face greater infections in contrast to monogynous colonies. Multiple virus infections can also occur. Lifecycle and reproduction Nuptial flight in red imported fire ants begins during the warmer seasons of the year (spring and summer), usually two days after rain. The time alates emerge and mate is between noon and 3:00pm. Nuptial flights recorded in North Florida have, on average, 690 female and male alates participating in a single flight. Males are the first to leave the nest, and both sexes readily undertake flight with little to no preflight activity. However, workers swarm the mound excitedly stimulated by mandibular glands within the head of the alates. As mounds do not have holes, workers form holes during nuptial flight as a way for the alates to emerge. This behaviour in workers, elicited by the pheromones, includes rapid running and back-and-forth movements, and increased aggression. Workers also cluster themselves around the alates as they climb up on vegetation, and in some cases, attempt to pull them back down before they take flight. Chemical cues from males and females during nuptial flight attract workers, but chemical cues released by workers do not attract other nestmates. It also induces alarm-recruitment behaviour in workers which results in a higher rate of alate retrieval. Males fly at higher elevations than females: captured males are usually above the surface, whereas the females are only above the surface. A nuptial flight takes place for roughly half an hour and females generally fly for less than before landing. About 95% of queens successfully mate and only mate once; some males may be infertile due to the testicular lobes failing to develop. In polygyne colonies, males do not play a significant role and most are, therefore, sterile; one of the reasons for this is to avoid mating with other ant species. This also makes male mortality selective, which may affect the breeding system, mating success and, gene flow. Ideal conditions for a nuptial flight to begin is when humidity levels are above 80% and when the soil temperature is above 18 °C (64 °F). Nuptial flights only occur when the ambient temperature is 24–32 °C (75–89 °F). Queens are often found 1–2.3 miles from the nest they flew from. Colony founding can be done by an individual or in groups, known as pleometrosis. This joint effort of the co-foundresses contributes to the growth and survival of the incipient colony; nests founded by multiple queens begin the growth period with three times as many workers when compared to colonies founded by a single queen. Despite this, such associations are not always stable. The emergence of the first workers instigates queen-queen and queen-worker fighting. In pleometrotic conditions, only one queen emerges victorious, whereas the queens that lost are subsequently killed by the workers. The two factors that could affect the survival of individual queens are their relative fighting capabilities and their relative contribution to worker production. Size, an indicator of fighting capacity, positively correlates with survival rates. However, manipulation of the queen's relative contribution to worker production had no correlation with survival rate. A single queen lays around 10 to 15 eggs 24 hours after mating. In established nests, a queen applies venom onto each egg that perhaps contains a signal calling for workers to move it. These eggs remain unchanged in size for one week until they hatch into larvae. By this time, the queen will have laid about 75 to 125 more eggs. The larvae that hatch from their eggs are usually covered in their shell membranes for several days. The larvae can free their mouthparts from their shells using body movements, but still need assistance from workers with hatching. The larval stage is divided into four instars, as observed through the moulting stages. At the end of each moult, a piece of unknown material is seen connected to the exuviae if they are isolated from the workers. The larval stage lasts between six and 12 days before their bodies expand significantly and become pupae; the pupal stage lasts between nine and 16 days. As soon as the first individuals reach the pupal stage, the queen ceases egg production until the first workers mature. This process takes two weeks to one month. The young larvae are fed oils which are regurgitated from her crop, as well as trophic eggs or secretions. She also feeds the young her wing muscles, providing the young with needed nutrients. The first generation of workers are always small because of the limit of nutrients needed for development. These workers are known as minims or nanitics, which burrow out of the queen's chamber and commence foraging for food needed for the colony. Mound construction also occurs at this time. Within a month after the first generation is born, larger workers (major workers) start to develop, and within six months, the mound will be noticeable, if viewed, and houses several thousand residents. A mature queen is capable of laying 1,500 eggs per day; all workers are sterile, so cannot reproduce. A colony can grow exceptionally fast. Colonies that housed 15–20 workers in May grew to over 7,000 by September. These colonies started to produce reproductive ants when they were a year old, and by the time they were two years old, they had over 25,000 workers. The population doubled to 50,000 when these colonies were three years old. At maturity, a colony can house 100,000 to 250,000 individuals, but other reports suggest that colonies can hold more than 400,000. Polygyne colonies have the potential to grow much larger than monogyne colonies. Several factors contribute to colony growth. Temperature plays a major role in colony growth and development; colony growth ceases below 24 °C and developmental time decreases from 55 days at temperatures of 24 °C to 23 days at 35 °C. Growth in established colonies only occurs at temperatures between 24 and 36 °C. Nanitic brood also develops far quicker than minor worker brood (around 35% faster), which is beneficial for founding colonies. Colonies that have access to an unlimited amount of insect prey are known to grow substantially, but this growth is further accelerated if they are able to access plant resources colonised by hemipteran insects. In incipient monogyne colonies where diploid males are produced, colony mortality rates are significantly high and colony growth is slow. In some cases, monogyne colonies experience 100% mortality rates in the early stages of development. The life expectancy of a worker ant depends on its size, although the overall average is around 62 days. Minor workers are expected to live for about 30 to 60 days, whereas the larger workers live much longer. Larger workers, which have a life expectancy of 60 to 180 days, live 50–140% longer than their smaller counterparts, but this depends on the temperature. However, workers kept in laboratory conditions have been known to live for 10 to 70 weeks (70 days to 490 days); the maximum recorded longevity of a worker is 97 weeks (or 679 days). The queens live much longer than the workers, with a lifespan ranging from two years to nearly seven years. In colonies, queens are the only ants able to alter sex ratios which can be predicted. For example, queens originating from male-producing colonies tend to produce predominantly males, while queens that came from female-favoured sex ratio colonies tend to produce females. Queens also exert control over the production of sexuals through pheromones that influence the behaviours of workers toward both male and female larvae. Monogyny and polygyny There are two forms of society in the red imported fire ant: polygynous colonies and monogynous colonies. Polygynous colonies differ substantially from monogynous colonies in social insects. The former experience reductions in queen fecundity, dispersal, longevity, and nestmate relatedness. Polygynous queens are also less physogastric than monogynous queens and workers are smaller. Understanding the mechanisms behind queen recruitment is integral to understanding how these differences in fitness are formed. It is unusual that the number of older queens in a colony does not influence new queen recruitment. Levels of queen pheromone, which appears to be related to queen number, play important roles in the regulation of reproduction. It would follow that workers would reject new queens when exposed to large quantities of this queen pheromone. Moreover, evidence supports the claim that queens in both populations enter nests at random, without any regard for the number of older queens present. There is no correlation between the number of older queens and the number of newly recruited queens. Three hypotheses have been posited to explain the acceptance of multiple queens into established colonies: mutualism, kin selection, and parasitism. The mutualism hypothesis states that cooperation leads to an increase in the personal fitness of older queens. However, this hypothesis is not consistent with the fact that increasing queen number decreases both queen production and queen longevity. Kin selection also seems unlikely given that queens have been observed to cooperate under circumstances where they are statistically unrelated. Therefore, queens experience no gain in personal fitness by allowing new queens into the colony. Parasitism of preexisting nests appears to be the best explanation of polygyny. One theory is that so many queens attempt to enter the colony that the workers get confused and inadvertently allow several queens to join it. Monogyne workers kill foreign queens and aggressively defend their territory. However, not all behaviours are universal, primarily because worker behaviours depend on the ecological context in which they develop, and the manipulation of worker genotypes can elicit change in behaviours. Therefore, behaviours of native populations can differ from those of introduced populations. In a study to assess the aggressive behaviour of monogyne and polygyne red fire ant workers by studying interaction in neutral arenas, and to develop a reliable ethogram for readily distinguishing between monogyne and polygyne colonies of red imported fire ants in the field, monogyne and polygyne workers discriminated between nestmates and foreigners as indicated by different behaviours ranging from tolerance to aggression. Monogyne ants always attacked foreign ants independently if they were from monogyne or polygyne colonies, whereas polygyne ants recognised, but did not attack, foreign polygyne ants, mainly by exhibiting postures similar to behaviours assumed after attacks by Pseudacteon phorids. Hostile versus warning behaviours were strongly dependent on the social structure of workers. Therefore, the behaviour toward foreign workers was a method of characterising monogyne and polygyne colonies. Most colonies in the southeastern and south-central US tend to be monogynous. The monogynous red imported fire ant colony territorial area and the mound size are positively correlated, which, in turn, is regulated by the colony size (number and biomass of workers), distance from neighbouring colonies, prey density, and by the colony's collective competitive ability. In contrast, nestmate discrimination among polygynous colonies is more relaxed as workers tolerate conspecific ants alien to the colony, accept other heterozygote queens, and do not aggressively protect their territory from polygyne conspecifics. These colonies might increase their reproductive output as a result of having many queens and the possibility of exploiting greater territories by means of cooperative recruitment and interconnected mounds. A social chromosome is present in the red imported fire ant. This chromosome can differentiate the social organisation of a colony carrying one of two variants of a supergene (B and b) which contains more than 600 genes. The social chromosome has often been compared to sexual chromosomes because they share similar genetic features and they define colony phenotype in a similar way. For example, colonies exclusively carrying the B variant of this chromosome accept single BB queens, but colonies with both B and b variants will accept multiple Bb queens only. Differences in another single gene can also determine whether the colony will have single or multiple queens. Relationship with other animals Competition When polygyne forms invade areas where colonies have not yet been established, the diversity of native arthropods and vertebrates declines greatly. This is evident as populations of isopods, mites and tumblebug scarabs decline significantly. They can also significantly alter the populations of many fly and beetle families, including: Calliphoridae, Histeridae, Muscidae, Sarcophagidae, Silphidae, and Staphylinidae. Despite this, one review found that certain insects may be unaffected by red imported fire ants; for example, the density of isopods decreases in red imported fire ant infested areas, but crickets of the genus Gryllus are unaffected. There are some cases where the diversity of certain insect and arthropod species increase in areas where red imported fire ants are present. Red imported fire ants are important predators on cave invertebrates, some of which are endangered species. This includes harvestmen, pseudoscorpions, spiders, ground beetles, and pselaphid beetles. The biggest concern is not the ant itself, but the bait used to treat them because this can prove fatal. Stock Island tree snails (Orthalicus reses) are extinct in the wild; predation by red imported fire ants is believed to be the major factor in the snail's extinction. Overall, red imported fire ants prefer specific arthropods to others, although they attack and kill any invertebrate that cannot defend itself or escape. Arthropod biodiversity increases once red imported fire ant populations are either reduced or eradicated. Interactions between red imported fire ants and mammals have been rarely documented. However, deaths of live-trapped animals by red imported fire ants have been observed. Mortality rates in eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) young range from 33 to 75% because of red imported fire ants. It is believed that red imported fire ants have a strong impact on many herpetofauna species; scientists have noted population declines in the Florida kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula floridana), and eggs and adults of the eastern fence lizard (Sceloporus undulatus) and six-lined racerunner (Aspidoscelis sexlineata) are a source of food. Because of this, eastern fence lizards have adapted to have longer legs and new behaviours to escape the red imported fire ant. Additionally, another lizard species, Sphaerodactylus macrolepis are also a target of the fire ants' and have developed tactics to fend them off, such as tail flicks. Adult three-toed box turtles (Terrapene carolina triunguis), Houston toad (Anaxyrus houstonensis) juveniles, and American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) hatchlings are also attacked and killed by these ants. Despite this mostly-negative association, one study shows that red imported fire ants may be capable of impacting vector-borne disease transmissions by regulating tick populations and altering vector and host dynamics, thereby reducing transmission rates not only to animals, but to humans as well. Mortality rates have been well observed in birds; there have been instances where no young have survived to adulthood in areas with high fire ant density. Many birds including cliff nesting swallows, ducks, egrets, quail, and terns have been affected by red imported fire ants. Ground nesting birds, particularly the least tern (Sterna antillarum), are vulnerable to fire ant attacks. The impact of red imported fire ants on colonial breeding birds is especially severe; waterbirds can experience a mortality rate of 100%, although this factor was lower for early-nesting birds. Brood survival decreases in American cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) if they are exposed to foraging workers. Songbird nest survival decreases in areas with red imported fire ants present, but survival rates in white-eyed vireo (Vireo griseus) and black-capped vireo (Vireo atricapilla) nests increase from 10% to 31% and 7% to 13% whenever fire ants are not present or when they are unable to attack them. Red imported fire ants may indirectly contribute to low brood survival in the Attwater's prairie chicken. It was first thought that the ants were linked to the decline of overwintering birds such as the loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus), but a later study showed that ant eradication efforts using the pesticide Mirex, which was known to have toxic side effects, was largely to blame. Red imported fire ants are strong competitors with many ant species. They have managed to displace many native ants which has led to a number of ecological consequences. However, studies show that these ants are not always superior competitors that suppress native ants. Habitat disturbance prior to their arrival, and recruitment limitations, are more plausible reasons why native ants are suppressed. Between Tapinoma melanocephalum and Pheidole fervida, the red imported fire ant is stronger than both species but shows different levels of aggression. For example, they are less hostile towards T. melanocephalum in contrast to P. fervida. Mortality rates in T. melanocephalum and P. fervida when fighting with red imported fire ants are high, being 31.8% and 49.9% respectively. The mortality rate for red imported fire ant workers, however, is only 0.2% to 12%. The imported crazy ant (Nylanderia fulva) exhibits greater dominance than the red imported fire ant and has been known to displace them in habitats where they encounter each other in. Larger colonies of pavement ants (Tetramorium caespitum) can destroy red imported fire ant colonies, leading entomologists to conclude that this conflict between the two species may help impede the spread of the red imported fire ant. Individuals infected by SINV-1 can be killed faster than healthy individuals by Monomorium chinense. This means that ants infected with SINV-1 are weaker than their healthy counterparts and more than likely will be eliminated by M. chinense. However, major workers, whether they are infected or not, are rarely killed. In areas it is native to, the red imported fire ant is still a dominant species and coexists with 28 ant species in gallery forest gaps and ten species in xerophytic forest grassland, winning most aggressive interactions with other ants. However, some ants can be co-dominant in areas where they coexist such as the Argentine ant, where they compete symmetrically. Workers regularly engage in food competition with other ants, and can suppress the exploitation of food resources from honeydew-producing hemipterans (specifically from Phenacoccus solenopsis) from native ants; however, red imported fire ants are unable to eliminate T. melanocephalum completely although they consume a higher proportion of food. Instead, the two ants may peacefully coexist and share the honeydew. When encountering neighboring fire ants, workers may take on death-feigning behaviours to avoid them with success. However, such behaviour is only seen in young workers, as older workers either flee or fight back when threatened. As mentioned, red imported fire ants and Argentine ants compete with each other. Mortality rates vary in different scenarios (i.e. mortality rates in colony confrontation is lower than those confronting each other in the field). Major workers can also withstand more injuries to their bodies, thus increasing the mortality rate of Argentine ants. For an Argentine ant colony to successfully wipe out a monogyne colony of 160,000 workers, the colony would need 396,800 workers. A colony that has reduced in size due to successful bait treatment are prone to predation by Argentine ants. The ants may play a vital role in removing weakened fire ant colonies, and they may also be important in slowing the spread of these fire ants, especially in heavily infested Argentine ant areas. Despite this, Argentine ant populations in the southeastern United States have declined following the introduction of the red imported fire ant. Mutualism Red imported fire ants have formed a relationship with an invasive mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis. Colony growth is known to increase if ants have access to resources produced by P. solenopsis, and the population density of these mealybugs is significantly higher in areas where red imported fire ants are present (the spread of P. solenopsis in areas it is not native is attributed to the presence of the ants). As well as that, the life expectancy and reproductive rate of P. solenopsis both increase. These mealybugs may even be transported by workers back to their nest. Predation of P. solenopsis decreases due to tending workers interfering with the predation and parasitism by natural enemies. Mealybugs are preyed on by the lady beetle (Menochilus sexmaculatus) and are hosts of two parasites (Aenasius bambawalei and ) if there are no ants present, but this is different if ants are present. Lady beetles are less frequently seen on plants with red imported fire ants, and the rate of "mummy" nymphs is significantly lower. This is clearly evident as scientists observed that cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii) populations, and the predation of sentinel bollworm eggs, increased in areas with red imported fire ant presence. Red imported fire ants have developed a mutual relationship with another mealybug (Dysmicoccus morrisoni). The ants promote the colony growth of D. morrisoni through protection, covering the colonies up with debris and collecting the honeydew they secrete. Toxicology The toxicology of red imported fire ant venom has been relatively well studied. The venom is important to the ant, enabling it to capture its prey and to defend itself. Some 14 million people are stung annually in the United States, who may suffer reactions ranging from mild eczema to anaphylactic shock. Most common reactions to fire ant stings are a burning sensation at the sting site, followed by urticaria and pustule formation. Some victims may develop a more serious allergic reaction which can be life-threatening. The venom is mainly composed of insoluble alkaloids with a minor watery phase containing some 46 proteins of which four are reported as allergens. Effective immunotherapy is available. Relationship with humans As pests Because of their notoriety and invasive behaviour, red imported fire ants are considered pests. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration estimates more than $5 billion is spent annually on medical treatment, damage, and control in infested areas. In Texas alone, red imported fire ants caused $300 million in damages for livestock, wildlife and public health. Approximately $36 per American household, and more than $250 million has been spent to control and eradicate red imported fire ants. Private agencies spend $25 to $40 million on pesticides annually. Unsuccessful eradication in Australia may cost the economy billions in damages annually and, based on a Queensland government study, the estimated cost could reach $43 billion over 30 years. Red imported fire ants thrive in urban areas, especially in backyards, golf courses, parks, recreational areas, school grounds, and street verges, in which their presence may deter outdoor activities. If they enter homes or properties, they can harm pets if they are caged, penned, tied or cannot escape. Nests can be built under pavements or even roads, as well as under driveways, foundations, lawns, edges of sidewalks, under patio slabs, in electrical boxes or near power lines. A colony can excavate huge quantities of soil, resulting in structural problems in driveways, pavings and walls, and can also cause the formation of potholes in roads. Additional damage by mounds can be inflicted on trees, yard plants, and pipes; some structures may also collapse. Colonies may migrate into human homes after heavy rain to take refuge from saturated soil. Not only do they thrive in urban areas, red imported fire ants can damage equipment and infrastructure and impact business, land, and property values. They are also attracted to electricity; electrically stimulated workers release venom alkaloids, alarm pheromones, and recruitment pheromones, which in return attracts more workers to the site. As a result, red imported fire ants can destroy electrical equipment. This is known as magnetism, where scientists have identified internal magnetic materials which may play a role in orientation behaviours. They are known to chew through electrical insulation which causes damage to electric motors, irrigation lines, pumps, signal boxes, transformers, telephone exchanges, and other equipment. Colonies aggregate near electrical fields and are capable of causing short circuits or interfering with switches and equipment such as air conditioners, computers, and water pumps. They are also known to infest airport landing areas and traffic lights. In 2002, the farm gate value of decorative producing nurseries in Orange, Los Angeles, and San Diego counties was $1.3 billion. According to author Les Greenberg of the Center for Invasive Species Research, roughly 40% of crops are produced in these three counties, making it one of the major crops in these areas. “The value of California's entire nursery industry in 2002 was estimated at $2.6 billion” (Greenberg, 1). This business is already feeling the effects of quarantine laws that need pesticide soaking before imports can begin. Immediate costs include the spraying of insecticides to all plants in restricted zones. In agriculture The red imported fire ant is a significant agricultural pest in areas where it is not native. They are capable of damaging crops, and they threaten pastures and orchards. The mounds themselves can destroy agricultural equipment such as irrigation systems and damage machinery during harvest time. The ants are known to invade soybean crops causing lower yields, and could cause $156 million in losses for soybean crops in the southeastern United States. Reports from Georgia and North Carolina claim that 16.8 to 49.1 kg/ha of soybeans could not be harvested due to interference from fire ant mounds; combine harvesters skipped over the mounds preventing the crops from being harvested, and farmers raised the cutter bars on their combine harvesters to avoid impacting the mounds. The feeding behaviour of red imported fire ants can result in significant damage to many other crops, including: beans, cabbage, citrus, corn, cucumber, eggplant, okra, peanut, potato, sorghum, sunflower, and sweet potato. The ants also interfere with plants' root systems and feed on young growth. Sometimes, colonies build mounds around or near the base of citrus trees chew off new growth and feed on the flowers or developing fruit. Citrus trees are often girdled or killed. Despite its pest status and notoriety, the red imported fire ant can be beneficial. The ant is an effective insect predator, so it may serve as a biological agent against other pest species, especially in sugarcane fields. Pest insects the ant kills include: boll weevils (Anthonomus grandis) in cotton crops, sugarcane borers (Diatraea saccharalis) in sugarcane fields, horn flies (Haematobia irritans) in manure, velvetbean caterpillars (Anticarsia gemmatalis) in soybeans, and whiteflies that are found in greenhouses. A number of studies indicate that red imported fire ants do not interfere or attack insects of economic importance in cotton fields, which has resulted in many farmers in the southeastern regions of the United States viewing red imported fire ants as beneficial. However, some scientists have suggested that the beneficial status of the red imported fire ant is hard to predict when geography, plant size, season, soil moisture and the use of insecticides are not considered. These factors may lower the efficacy of red imported fire ants as pest control agents. Another factor is that workers are indiscriminate and kill beneficial insects such as predators that eat horn flies and other pests in pastures and predators of aphids and scale insects. They also reduce the efficacy of parasitic wasps against pest species by eating the larvae and pupae. Control In comparison to other ant species like Anoplolepis gracilipes, which rapidly take over areas they have been contained in, red imported fire ants are fairly easy to control. The first proposals to controlling the ant occurred in 1957 when the United States Congress authorised an eradication program using federal and state funding. Research on the ant and its biology has been continuous after the establishment of an eradication program, and many chemicals were used to eliminate them. However, scientists discovered that these insecticides were killing native fauna, and the Environmental Protection Agency subsequently outlawed them. Some scientists even questioned whether the ants were pests or not. Today, it is unlikely that the red imported fire ant will be eradicated in areas such as the United States. Populations can be managed properly if an integrated approach is used. Some scientists have considered using the ants' natural enemies against it; this includes Kneallhazia solenopsae and B. bassiana. Phorid flies have also been viewed as potential biological agents, as they can reduce foraging activity in red imported fire ants and affect population levels. However, they are unable to affect colony growth rate. In addition, parasitic ants, parasitic wasps, mites, other pathogens, nematodes, and fungi have been considered to be potential biological agents. Others suggest that populations can be maintained or reduced by manipulating several ecological factors. Several baits have been used to control populations. Mounds are destroyed in a matter of weeks if baits are used on them. Baits are considered to be effective and simple to use against red imported fire ants, in comparison to drenching, dusting, or fumigating. They are sprinkled onto the mound then the ants take and consume them. Certain baits such as growth regulator baits, and boric acid-sucrose water baits, benefit native fauna and low concentrations are usually required to kill a colony. Others baits used against red imported fire ants include Amdro, Ascend, hydramethylnon, and Maxforce. Solid and liquid bait insecticides, if improperly applied in a location, may be moved through waterflow in to unintended water sources. Often, this happens through non-point sources including many diffuse sources. As snow melts and rainfall moves over and through the ground, the water picks up improperly applied insecticides and deposits them in to larger bodies of water, rivers, wetlands, or percolates in to watersheds. Researchers have also been experimenting with other methods, such as fumigation, injecting the mound, mound drenching, and surface dusting. Mound drenching entails pouring large volumes of toxic liquid into the mound. While this may affect a large portion of the mound, it is possible it may not reach the queen, thus preventing the destruction of the colony. Surface dusting is similar to mound drenching, except insecticides are applied on top of the mound and soak into the soil when wet. Mound injections use pressurising and injecting insecticides into the mound, but the queen may not be affected by this. Mounds can be eliminated effectively through fumigation. Broadcast treatment is sometimes used by spraying infected areas with agricultural equipment. Finally, spot treatment with insecticides can be used by drilling and injecting the mound with residual insecticide. Aside from chemical control, other methods that can be employed against these ants include mechanical and electrical devices. However, it is unknown whether or not these devices are effective. Ant-proofing can be effective against colonies nesting inside buildings by caulking and sealing cracks, which successfully suppresses the population outside the walls. Homeowners have used their own methods to remove mounds by pouring boiling water on them or igniting them with flammable liquids. Although these methods may be effective, they are not recommended because they can be harmful to humans and the environment. Notes References Footnotes Bibliography External links Website Books and journals about the red imported fire ant at Biodiversity Heritage Library Books and journals about the red imported fire ant at Internet Archive National Red Imported Fire Ant Eradication Program – Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries Imported Fire Ants – United States Department of Agriculture Solenopsis invicta at the AntWiki – Bringing Ants to the World The S. invicta Genome Project – Hymenoptera Genome Database project Species Profile - Red Imported Fire Ant (Solenopsis invicta), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Media Footage of phorid flies parasitising fire ants – Captured by BBC, published by the University of Texas at Austin College of Natural Sciences Red Fire Ants – published by National Geographic at YouTube Casting a Fire Ant Colony with Molten Aluminum at YouTube News coverage The Incredible Floating Fire Ant – The Washington Post'', 2011 Solenopsis (ant) Hymenoptera of Asia Hymenoptera of Australia Hymenoptera of North America Hymenoptera of South America Insects described in 1916 Insects described in 1972 Scavengers Agricultural pest insects Biological pest control insects Insects used as insect pest control agents Pest insects Household pest insects
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunny%20Leone
Sunny Leone
Karenjit "Karen" Kaur Vohra (born May 13, 1981), known by her stage name Sunny Leone, is an actress, model, and former pornographic actress. She was born in Canada to an Indian Sikh family and holds dual Canadian and American citizenship. She was named Penthouse Pet of the Year in 2003, was a contract performer for Vivid Entertainment, and was named by Maxim as one of the 12 top porn stars in 2010. She was inducted into the AVN Hall of Fame in 2018. She has played roles in independent mainstream events, films, and television series. Her first mainstream appearance was in 2005, when she worked as a red carpet reporter for the MTV Video Music Awards on MTV India. In 2011, she participated in the Indian reality television series Bigg Boss. She also has hosted the Indian reality show Splitsvilla. In 2012, she made her Bollywood debut in Pooja Bhatt's erotic thriller Jism 2 (2012) and shifted her focus to mainstream acting which was followed up with Jackpot (2013), Ragini MMS 2 (2014), Ek Paheli Leela (2015), Tera Intezaar (2017), and the Malayalam film Madhura Raja in 2019. Apart from her acting career, she has been part of activism campaigns including the Rock 'n' Roll Los Angeles Half-Marathon to raise money for the American Cancer Society and has also posed for a People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) ad campaign with a rescued dog, encouraging pet owners to have their cats and dogs spayed and neutered. Early life Karenjit Kaur Vohra was born on May 13, 1981, in Sarnia, Ontario, to Sikh Indian Punjabi parents. As a young girl, she was a self-described tomboy, very athletic and played street hockey with the boys. Although the family was Sikh, her parents enrolled her in Catholic school as it was felt to be unsafe for her to go to public school. When she was 13, her family moved to Fort Gratiot, Michigan, then to Lake Forest, California, a year later, fulfilling her grandparents' dream that the family be together in one place. She had her first kiss at 11, lost her virginity at 16 with a basketball player, and discovered her bisexuality at 18. Pornographic career Before working in the porn industry, Leone worked at a German bakery, a Jiffy Lube store, and later a tax and retirement firm. She was also studying to become a nurse. When picking a name for her adult career, Leone has stated that Sunny is her real name and that Leone was picked by Bob Guccione, former owner of Penthouse magazine. After posing for that magazine, she was named Penthouse Pet of the Month for the March 2001 issue, followed by a feature in the Holiday 2001 edition of Hustler magazine as a Hustler Honey. She has also appeared in other magazines including Cheri, Mystique Magazine, High Society, Swank, AVN Online, Leg World, Club International and Lowrider, while her online credits include ModFX Models, Suze Randall, Ken Marcus and Mac & Bumble. In 2003, she was named "Penthouse Pet of the Year" and starred in the video Penthouse Pets in Paradise alongside Tera Patrick and Kyla Cole. In 2005 Adam & Eve appointed her as their West Coast Internet Sales Representative. That same year, Leone signed a three-year contract with Vivid Entertainment with which she transitioned into hardcore pornography, stating that she would only do lesbian scenes. Her first movie released was titled Sunny, and was released in December 2005. Her next movie, Virtual Vivid Girl Sunny Leone, was the first interactive title for Leone, who was the first Vivid Girl to make such a movie. Taking only four days to film,<ref name="xrent"></ref> the movie won her first AVN Award (Best Interactive DVD). She followed this with Sunny Loves Cher, which featured her first on-screen squirting, and The Female Gardner co-starring Mikayla Mendez and Daisy Marie. Leone's last two movies under her contract with Vivid were It's Sunny in Brazil, which was filmed in Brazil, and The Sunny Experiment. The movies were released in October and December 2007, respectively. In May 2007, upon re-signing her contract with Vivid for another six films, Leone agreed to do her first boy/girl scenes, though only with her fiancé, Matt Erikson. That year she underwent breast augmentation, and shot her first movie under the new contract titled Sunny Loves Matt. For that film she was nominated for three (out of six) AVN awards in 2009, in addition to being a choice for Female Performer of the Year. She followed up her first boy-girl title with The Other Side of Sunny in October 2008, which would be the last time she would perform with Erikson. In January 2008, Leone revealed that she was no longer exclusive to Erikson, and had done scenes with other actors, including Tommy Gunn, Charles Dera, James Deen and Voodoo. In 2009, Vivid released her only adult movie performing with multiple male actors, titled "Sunny B/G Adventure". Her final release under contract with Vivid – Undress Me, once again made her exclusive to performing with just one male actor, Daniel Weber (he performed under the stage name Ariel King), who subsequently became her husband. In August 2009, she announced the launch of her own studio, Sunlust Pictures, with Daniel Weber as her partner. With her new venture Leone announced her plans to write, direct and create her own brand of adult movies with Vivid Entertainment as her distributor. Her first independent production, The Dark Side of the Sun, was released in March 2009, and was debuted at the Erotic Heritage Museum in Las Vegas. In June 2009, she held a casting call in Las Vegas for her second independent production titled Sunny Slumber Party, which was released in September 2009. She followed up with three other self-produced features; Gia Portrait of a Porn Star (2010) which was nominated for multiple AVN awards, Roleplay (2011) and Goddess (2012) which featured her first anal sex scene. No longer exclusive to Vivid, Leone began working with other studios and performers since 2009. She leveraged her online popularity by striking deals with firms like PPPcard, AdultPokerParty.com, Brickhouse, Flirt4Free, Totemcash, and Imlive to sell and distribute her content over the Internet and other media. She won the "Web Babe of the Year" at the 2008 Xbiz Awards. Her websites and business interests are run under her banner company Leone L.L.C. She indicated in an April 2012 interview that 80 per cent of the traffic on her website, and 60 per cent of her revenue comes from India. Leone was part of the Vivid Comedy Tour, and has modelled for the Vivid Footwear collection. Leone has also participated in events like the Vivid/ClubJenna Lingerie Bowl and Vivid's Hot Rod Night. Doc Johnson launched a pocket pal in 2006 moulded to her vagina, and in 2008 released the Sunny Leone Exciter vibrator. Control MFG used Leone's image along with other Vivid girls to market their line of skateboards. She is paired with Gab Ekoe, one of the Team Control riders. She also indicated that she plans to launch her own line of lingerie and other Sunny-branded products including a diamond jewellery line. In September 2009, an iPhone application consisting of a collection of non-nude photos, some videos and a porn star-penned blog was approved by Apple for sale in the iTunes store, making it the first officially sanctioned application featuring a porn actor. By February 2010, the app had been removed by Apple from the store. Leone was voted number 13 (up from number 41 in 2007) on Genesis magazine's "Top 100 Porn stars" list, number 34 on Desiclubs.com's Top 50 Coolest Desis of 2004, and one of the "40 under 40" ranking on AVN Online magazine. In 2010, she was named by Maxim as one of the 12 top female stars in porn. She was voted number 82 in the Top 99 Women for 2012 in AskMen.com's list. In 2013, she announced her retirement from the adult industry, stating: "I am lucky that the audience is accepting me. I have come my way from there (porn industry). I don't have any plans as of now to go back there." In 2016, she was chosen as one of BBC's 100 Women. The tech magazine Exhibit chose Leone for their cover girl of the October 2016 issue. Mainstream appearances prior to 2011 Leone's first mainstream appearance was in 2005, when she was a red carpet reporter for the MTV Awards on MTV India. She has also had a cameo in the film The Girl Next Door, performed in Ja Rule's video "Livin' It Up", and a video for Kidd Skilly. Other credits include E!'s Wild On! and the Sundance Film Festival's After Dark. Leone was a contestant in the second season of the Fox reality show My Bare Lady 2: Open for Business, in which a group of adult actresses were given classes and training on how to pitch investment ideas and competed for success in the business world. In addition to filming her scene for Debbie Does Dallas in 2007, Leone was also part of a Showtime documentary of the same name detailing the production of the movie and the personal lives of its stars. She indicated that for the right price she would seriously consider a career in Bollywood. She was courted by Indian directors in the past but felt uncomfortable with the roles that she would have played. Director Mohit Suri reportedly asked Leone to play the lead role in his film Kalyug, but instead cast Deepal Shaw as he could not afford Leone's $1 million acting fee. She has mentioned that Aamir Khan is her favorite Bollywood actor, and that over 60% of her fans are from South Asia. In 2008, Leone announced that she would be starring in a mainstream action adventure movie titled Pirates Blood, which was shot in Oman. The shooting was completed in two weeks and was to be released in winter 2008. Leone also landed a role in Middle Men, producer Chris Mallick's indie feature about the birth of the online porn industry set for wide theatrical release in 2009. She appeared in the 2010 film The Virginity Hit playing a version of herself, where she is hired to take the virginity of the lead character. Leone has made appearances at events such as the 2002 SEMA International Auto Salon, the 2002 Extreme Autofest Pomona and the 2006 World Series of Poker in Las Vegas. She also served as hostess at events in clubs like the Mansion in Miami and the Highlands in Hollywood. In 2005, she was mentioned in Forbes magazine for a story on Vivid Entertainment. Leone has also been featured in mainstream publications like FHM, Front and Jane magazine. In 2007, along with the other Vivid Girls, she was seen in a 48' high holiday billboard in Times Square at W. 48th Street and Seventh Avenue. She is among the Penthouse Pets who appears in the 2007 video game Pocket Pool, and was featured in a coffee table book titled Naked Ambition: An R Rated Look at an X Rated Industry by Michael Grecco. Indian film career Bigg Boss and entry into Bollywood (2011–2013) In 2011, she participated in the Indian reality series Bigg Boss 5, entering the house on day 49. However, she refused to divulge her porn star status, and replied to fellow house-mate Pooja Bedi that she was a model and a TV star in America for the last ten years or so. It was reported that she caused a stir in the larger populace with her Twitter feed gaining 8,000 new followers in just 2 days and Google saying searches for her experienced a "breakout". There were also complaints lodged with the Indian Ministry of Information and Broadcasting alleging that the Colors TV channel was promoting pornography by having Leone appear on the show; among those who filed are the Indian Artistes and Actors Forum and Anurag Thakur, member of Lok Sabha and head of the Bharatiya Janata Party's youth wing. She was evicted on Day 91. During her stay in the Bigg Boss house, Leone was approached by Bollywood film-maker Mahesh Bhatt who entered the house briefly to offer her the lead role in Dino Morea's Jism 2 (the sequel to the 2003 film Jism). She accepted it, which resulted in Pooja Bhatt's production house, Fish Eye Network and Leone's agent discussing the movie further. Leone entered Bollywood in 2012 with the film Jism 2 to weak critical reception but was commercially successful. Sunny Leone signed her second Bollywood film, Ragini MMS 2, sequel to Ekta Kapoor's crossover horror movie Ragini MMS. Sunny Leone featured in an item number in the Sanjay Gupta and Ekta Kapoor's 2013 film Shootout at Wadala. She further started filming for Kaizad Gustad's Jackpot in which she plays a femme fatale. Jackpot released on December 13, 2013, and was panned by critics. Ragini MMS 2 and further success (2014–present) Her first release of 2014 was the much anticipated horror film Ragini MMS 2, which proved to be a box-office hit. Leone's performance received all round praise with critic Mohar Basu calling her work a "revelation". Critic Taran Adarsh also noted that Leone, "carries off her character with supreme confidence". In November 2013, she had confirmed that she would make her Tamil film debut in Vadacurry which released in May 2014 and featured her in a special appearance. She next appeared in the item number Pink Lips for the film Hate Story 2. After giving a hit number Pink Lips, she appeared once again in Shake That Booty opposite Mika Singh from his film Balwinder Singh Famous Ho Gaya. She made her acting debut in the Telugu film industry by appearing in a cameo in Current Theega opposite Manchu Manoj and Rakul Preet Singh where she played a school teacher. Leone then appeared in item song Sesamma Bagilu Tegiyamma in Kannada film DK, which marked her debut in Kannada film industry. In April 2015, Leone appeared in Bobby Khan's musical thriller Ek Paheli Leela, where she portrayed dual roles as Leela, a village belle and Meera, a supermodel from Milan. The film was released on April 10, 2015. The film met with mixed to negative reviews but was a commercial success with collections of . After a little gap, post the release of Ek Paheli Leela , she appeared in Devang Dholakia's Kuch Kuch Locha Hai was released on May 8, 2015. She essayed the role of a film star opposite Ram Kapoor, Evelyn Sharma and Navdeep Chabbra. The film emerged to be a critical and commercial failure. She did her second Kannada song "Kamakshi" from the film Luv U Alia. Last in 2015, she appeared in a cameo in Akshay Kumar's Singh is Bling. In January 2016, she appeared in Milap Zaveri's adult comedy Mastizaade, released on January 29, 2016, where she portrayed twin sisters, Laila and Lily Lele along with Tusshar Kapoor and Vir Das. The film released to mixed reviews and was an average earner. One critic said "Leone may not be better than this film, but she's the best thing in it." Her next film was Jasmine D'souza's One Night Stand with Tanuj Virwani released on May 6, 2016. The film was released to mixed reviews but was a flop commercially. Her last release of 2016 was Rajeev Chaudary's Beiimaan Love opposite Rajneesh Duggal that released on October 14, 2016. Her performance was widely praised but the film met with negative reviews and flopped. She also appeared in song "Tu Zaroorat Nahi Tu Zaroori Hai" with Sharman Joshi in Fuddu and item song "Choli Blockbuster" for the film Dongri Ka Raja. In December 2016, her song "Laila Main Laila" from Raees with Shah Rukh Khan was released. In April 2017, she appeared in a cameo for Sonakshi Sinha's Noor where she is portrayed the role of an actress. She then appeared in song "Piya More" with Emraan Hashmi in Milan Luthria's Baadshaho. In addition, she appeared in song "Trippy Trippy" in Sanjay Dutt's comeback film, Bhoomi released on September 22, 2017. She also made her Marathi and Bengali film debuts the same month with songs "Kuth Kuth Jayacha Honeymoon La" in Vishal Devrukhkar's Boyz and "Chaap Nishna" in Swapan Saha's Shrestha Bangali. She then appeared in song "Deo Deo" for Rajasekhar's Telugu film PSV Garuda Vega Her last appearance was her mainstream film Tera Intezaar along Arbaaz Khan directed by Rajeev Walia. The film released on December 1, 2017. Sunny Leone was voted by the Network 7 Media Group jury as "Indian Affairs Actress of the year 2018" founded by Satya Brahma at the historic ninth Annual India Leadership Conclave & Indian Affairs Business Leadership Awards 2018. Sunny Leone's auto biopic titled Karenjit Kaur – The Untold Story of Sunny Leone, an original web-series by ZEE5, was released on the platform on July 16, 2018. The series narrates her journey from a middle-class girl in Canada to becoming India's most googled celebrity. The series starts from her childhood as Gogu to her foray into the adult film industry to her exciting journey into Bollywood. The series is also available in Bengali, Tamil, Telugu and Marathi languages. Upcoming projects In January 2018, Leone started filming for the Hindi remake of 2012 Punjabi film Jatt & Juliet opposite Manish Paul. She is also stars in Veeramadevi, a Tamil period war film directed by V. C. Vadivudaiyan. The shooting for the film commenced in February 2018 and was set to be released in Telugu, Hindi, and Malayalam. Writer Sweet Dreams is a collection of 12 short stories written by Sunny Leone. They were published digitally as an e-book and launched on April 22, 2016, by Juggernaut Books through their mobile app. A story was made available on the app at 10pm every night. A 200-page paperback edition was also launched in 2016. The work was well received by the Hindustan Times, which commented, "Sunny's stories are relentlessly optimistic. The characters are not complicated or unpleasant and exist in a world that veers on the border of Valentine's Land with its floating pink hearts and soft focus lighting." In an interview to Press Trust of India, Leone explained that the book was written from the perspective of both men and females, and that while it was for both genders it was mainly intended for women, stating, "I wrote these stories, from what I thought a woman would like to read." Sunny Leone add that it is "the first time (she has) written something like this." In the interview she mentioned how Juggernaut Books had come to her with this idea of writing the book. Sweet Dreams was Elles Book of the Week in April 2016. The publication wrote, "Don't go looking for creative fantasies or fetishes; as a writer, Leone is playing safe." Another review in Bollywood Hungama goes on to note if there was any real contribution from Sunny herself towards the book other than her picture on the cover. The review goes on say that there is "no note by (the) author, acknowledgments section, or forward from some known entity." Activism In 2004, Leone was part of No More Bush Girls, in which she and several other popular adult actresses shaved off their pubic hair in protest of the George W. Bush presidency. In May 2008, she shot a promotional video for Declare Yourself, a nonprofit, nonpartisan voter registration campaign targeting 18- to 29-year-olds. She indicated that Barack Obama would be her choice in the 2008 U.S. presidential election, primarily because she felt he was more business-friendly to the adult industry than his opponent John McCain. She also released a public service announcement on behalf of the ASACP, urging adult website webmasters to protect their sites from children by having an RTA label on it. In 2013, Leone posed for a PETA ad campaign, encouraging dog and cat owners to have their pets spayed and neutered. In an interview for PETA India, Leone said, "I believe that every single dog should be spayed and neutered. You don't want to continue the cycle of homeless dogs or cats. And spaying and neutering also keeps them healthy." PETA named her their "Person of the Year" in 2016. Personal life In June 2006, Leone became an American citizen, but stated she planned to remain a dual citizen of Canada. On April 14, 2012, she announced that she was now a resident of India, explaining in an interview to The New Indian Express that she was an Overseas Citizen of India for which she was eligible because her parents lived in India. She applied for it prior to filming Jism 2. Leone is left handed. Leone has a strong interest in health and fitness and has been featured in several mainstream fitness publications. Leone has modelled fitness clothing for the sports brand Fantasy Fitness and shared that she stays shape by working out as much as she can despite her busy schedule, commenting in Men's Fitness magazine, "I try to eat very healthy – lots of vegetables, drinking milk every day." A 2008 Eye Weekly article reported that "Leone does her best to maintain a link to Sikh traditions, even if more in theory than in practice. But she's unlikely to disavow her career path due to religion" and that Leone said "Girls will leave the industry claiming that they found God. Well, the fact is, God has always been with them the entire time." In a 2010 interview, she said It's a community-based religion. You walk into a temple and you're greeted with the utmost respect... But, just like any religion it doesn't want you to shoot adult material. I mean, I grew up going to temple every Sunday. When my parents found out they knew my personality which was very independent. Even if they tried to stop me or tried to steer me the right way they would have lost their daughter. I'm too headstrong. And it wasn't a plan. It just happened and my career and everything just kept getting bigger and bigger. Marriage and family Although bisexual, she has stated that she prefers men. Sunny Leone had dated Indian-Canadian stand-up comedian Russell Peters up until they broke up in 2007. Leone was then dating Matt Erikson, a vice-president of marketing at Playboy Enterprises. After being engaged to Erikson, they broke up in 2008. She mentioned in an interview at the start of 2011 that she was married to Daniel Weber, an American actor, producer, and entrepreneur. During her stay in the Bigg Boss house later that same year, Leone indicated that she had married, Leone said she "purposely arrived late" to their first date as she was not impressed with him, but he changed her mind by sending 24 roses to her hotel room. In July 2017, Leone and her husband Daniel Weber adopted their first child from Latur, a village in Maharashtra. The baby girl, whom they named Nisha Kaur Weber, was 21 months old at the time of adoption. Actress Sherlyn Chopra confirmed the news by writing a congratulatory message on social media on July 20, 2017. "Never in my life did I think that I want to adopt a child. People doing such amazing work at the orphanage changed my mind," Daniel Weber told Hindustan Times. On March 4, 2018, Leone and her husband announced the birth of their twin boys, born through surrogacy. They named the boys Asher Singh Weber and Noah Singh Weber. Leone and her family moved into a new home in Mumbai, Maharashtra on Ganesh Chaturthi, which took place on September 13, 2018. Controversies A police first information report was filed against Leone in May 2015 after a woman at Mumbai, India, complained that Leone's website, sunnyleone.com, was destroying the Indian culture. Thane police's cyber cell at Ramnagar booked her for sections 292, 292A, 294, which could have landed her a term in jail, a fine, or both. Senior police inspector JK Sawant stated, "We cannot block the website, but will ask the operator to remove objectionable content." In the 2017 new year, a pro-Kannada group Rakshana Vedike Yuva Sene protested against the event Sunny Night in Bengaluru NYE 2018 in Bangalore, Karnataka, at which Leone was to perform, stating that she should have been banned from the event due to her pornographic past. The protesters threatened a mass suicide, and Karnataka home minister Ramalinga Reddy denied her permission to appear at the event. In 2018, a social activist lodged a complaint against Leone at the Nazarethpet police station in Chennai. He stated that the actress was promoting pornography, which is illegal in India, and that this would harm Indian culture and its moral fabric. Producer and distributor Bharat Patel has accused Leone of not returning a signing fee which she had taken to do a special dance number for his film Patel Ki Punjabi Shaadi after her role was cancelled. Filmography Bibliography Sweet Dreams (2016) See also List of pornographic actors who appeared in mainstream films Pornography in India References External links 1981 births 21st-century American actresses 21st-century American businesspeople 21st-century American businesswomen 21st-century Canadian actresses 21st-century Canadian businesspeople 21st-century Canadian LGBT people Actresses from Lake Forest, California Actresses in Hindi cinema Actresses in Malayalam cinema Actresses in Tamil cinema Actresses in Telugu cinema American actresses of Indian descent American expatriate actresses in India American female adult models American bisexual actors American LGBT businesspeople American LGBT models American LGBT people of Asian descent American people of Indian descent American pornographic film actors of Indian descent American pornographic film actresses American pornographic film directors American pornographic film producers American Sikhs American women film producers Bigg Boss (Hindi TV series) contestants Bisexual pornographic film actresses Canadian actresses of Indian descent Canadian emigrants to the United States Canadian expatriate actresses in India Canadian expatriate actresses in the United States Canadian expatriate film directors in the United States Canadian female adult models Canadian bisexual actors Canadian LGBT businesspeople Canadian LGBT models Canadian pornographic film actresses Canadian pornographic film directors Canadian pornographic film producers Canadian Sikhs Canadian women film producers Canadian women in business Female models from Ontario Indian pornography Bisexual women models Bisexual businesspeople Canadian LGBT film directors LGBT film producers LGBT Sikhs Living people Penthouse Pets of the Year People from Sarnia People from St. Clair County, Michigan Women pornographic film directors Women pornographic film producers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Barbara%20Municipal%20Airport
Santa Barbara Municipal Airport
Santa Barbara Municipal Airport is west of downtown Santa Barbara, California, United States. SBA covers 948 acres (384 ha) of land and has three runways. It is near the University of California, Santa Barbara, and the city of Goleta. The airport was annexed to the city of Santa Barbara by a long, wide corridor, mostly under the Pacific Ocean (a shoestring annexation). Most of the airport is above sea level and borders a wetland area, the Goleta Slough. In 2019, the airport was categorized as a small hub primary airport by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), with 510,141 enplanements. As of May 2021, the airport is served by Alaska Airlines, American Airlines, Southwest Airlines and United Airlines. History Early years Aviation in the area began in 1914 when Lincoln J. Beachey flew an airplane across Goleta Valley. Two years later the Loughead brothers, who later changed their name to Lockheed, established a seaplane factory on State Street (Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company) and constructed a wooden ramp on West Beach to launch their planes. In 1928, Gordon Sackett and Royce Stetson landed a Hisso-powered airplane in a cow pasture near the corner of Hollister and Fairview Avenues and set up a flight school. That first airstrip marked the beginning of what was to become the Santa Barbara Municipal Airport. As airplane manufacturing grew in the late 1930s the airstrip developed into an airfield. Western General set up shop and began producing Meteor airplanes, while Santa Barbara Airways' founder Frederick Stearns II built two additional runways and two large hangars. Stearns also installed the first radio equipment at the airfield. As war approached the United States Government established a program to build 250 airports across the country on a cost-sharing basis with local governments. Thomas M. Storke secured Santa Barbara's enrollment in the program, and in 1941 groundbreaking ceremonies were held for the Santa Barbara Municipal Airport. With the outbreak of WWII the airport became MCAS Santa Barbara (Marine Corps Air Station Santa Barbara) in 1942, an aviator training base for the U.S Marines. It was expanded further with the addition of many hangars and other buildings, and reverted to a civilian airport in 1946. The original Spanish-style terminal building, commissioned by United Airlines in 1942 was designed by William Edwards and Joseph Plunkett, an architectural team whose work, including the Arlington Theatre and the National Armory, helped shape the Mediterranean style of the city. Postwar developments In 1947 the Santa Barbara Flying Club was formed to promote general aviation in the region. Three runways are in use: 7/25 and two parallel runways 15/33. The airport originally had an additional strip: runway 3/21. The development of the University of California, Santa Barbara (to the southwest) and the construction of hangars in support of production of the Aero Spacelines Super Guppy (to the northeast) were factors in the removal of this runway. On August 18, 2011 the airport opened a terminal to add to the single story terminal built by United Airlines in 1942. The facility was built next to the existing terminal and cost approximately $63 million. Additions to the historic terminal made in 1967 and 1976 were removed and the original building was restored. It then was raised to meet modern flood plain regulations, and moved and incorporated into the new terminal. The aircraft parking ramp was redesigned, and a new loop road and short term parking lot were constructed. The new terminal building features many environmentally sustainable elements and is registered with the U.S. Green Building Council Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). It was originally designed to feature four glass passenger boarding bridges and four hardstands, but due to decreased flight activity, three jetbridges were constructed with five hardstands. An Airport Master Plan was prepared in 2017. In late 2019, the fourth boarding bridge was installed to replace a hardstand to help the airport cope with increased flight activity and upgauging. Relocation of the car rental lot also allowed all four jetbridges to accommodate mainline aircraft, up from two previously. Airlines Airline flights began in 1932 on Pacific Seaboard Air Lines. In 1933, Pacific Seaboard was operating two daily round trip flights with single engine Bellanca CH-300s Los Angeles–Santa Barbara–Santa Maria–San Luis Obispo–Paso Robles–Monterey–Salinas–San Jose–San Francisco. Pacific Seaboard later moved its entire operation to the eastern U.S. and became Chicago and Southern Air Lines, a large domestic and international airline acquired by and merged into Delta Air Lines in 1953. United Airlines began flights from Santa Barbara/Goleta in 1936. Southwest Airways and successors Until 2002, Santa Barbara Airport was on a jet route to San Francisco and Los Angeles. The airport was served by Southwest Airways Douglas DC-3s and Martin 4-0-4s and by successors Pacific Air Lines, Air West and Hughes Airwest with Fairchild F-27s and Boeing 727-100, Douglas DC-9-10 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 jets. The Southwest March 1, 1947, timetable lists two round trip Douglas DC-3s flying Los Angeles–Oxnard–Santa Barbara–Santa Maria–San Luis Obispo–Coalinga–Monterey–Santa Cruz/Watsonville–San Jose–San Francisco. Pacific Air Lines operated the first jet service into Santa Barbara in 1966 with Boeing 727-100s; the January 4, 1967, timetable lists 727s flying San Francisco–Monterey–Santa Barbara–Los Angeles. Air West served the airport with the B727-100s formerly operated by Pacific Air Lines while Hughes Airwest served Santa Barbara with Douglas DC-9-10s and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30s. United The United Airlines timetable dated February 1, 1937, listed a daily service operated with a Douglas DC-3 on a routing of Los Angeles–Santa Barbara–San Francisco–Oakland and back. By 1972 the United timetable listed direct Boeing 727-100s to New York/Newark via LAX and Milwaukee. The primary United routes from Santa Barbara were nonstops to Los Angeles and San Francisco with some continuing to other cities. The first nonstop flights beyond California were United Boeing 727s to Denver in 1979 and to Chicago O'Hare in 1980. United ceased mainline jet service to SBA in 1990. Shuttle by United, a division of United Airlines (later renamed United Shuttle) flew Boeing 737-300s and 737-500s to San Francisco in the 1990s and early 2000s. United then turned all service over to SkyWest Airlines, which now operates as United Express. Service was originally operated with Embraer EMB-120 Brasilia commuter propjets to SFO and LAX and CRJ200 regional jets to Denver. This was later turned over to a mix of SkyWest CRJ200, CRJ700, and E175 regional jet aircraft. On June 8, 2017, United resumed seasonal mainline service to San Francisco and Denver. On June 3, 2021, United via United Express resumed nonstop service to Chicago O'Hare. American American Airlines McDonnell Douglas MD-80s started flying to Dallas/Fort Worth in 1984, some on a triangle route DFW–Burbank–SBA–DFW or DFW–Bakersfield–SBA–DFW. American also flew MD-80s to Chicago O'Hare via Ontario. After American Airlines dropped mainline service to SBA, American Eagle Airlines, its affiliate, began flying Saab 340Bs and later Embraer ERJ-140s between SBA and LAX. American Eagle flew Canadair CRJ-700s between SBA and DFW until April 2009. The airline flew SBA–LAX until November 14, 2012, when SkyWest Airlines (American Eagle) took over with Canadair CRJ-200s. American Eagle suspended its flights to Los Angeles on March 31, 2014, ending American Airlines service at the airport. With the merger of US Airways and American, American Airlines returned to SBA with nonstop American Eagle regional jet service to Phoenix. In June 2016 American Eagle relaunched nonstop service to Dallas/Fort Worth (DFW) on Mesa Airlines Canadair CRJ-900s. On April 4, 2017 American Airlines began a seasonal mainline Airbus A319 flight to DFW, the first mainline service since 2015 when Frontier Airlines left Santa Barbara. In September 2019, the DFW flights have been replaced with two daily Envoy Air E-175's. Alaska Alaska-owned regional airline Horizon Air was the first Alaska Airlines affiliate to connect SBA with Seattle and Portland, flying Canadair CRJ-700s. From 2008 to 2010, Horizon also connected Santa Barbara non-stop to Sacramento and direct to Portland and/or Seattle. In 2011 SkyWest Airlines took over the Horizon Canadair CRJ-700 jets and later replaced them with Embraer E175s, replacing Horizon for all Alaska-branded flying into Santa Barbara and continues to operate flights via a capacity purchase agreement with Alaska Airlines. From June 15, 2017, to August 26, 2017, Horizon returned to Santa Barbara by taking over the Seattle route from SkyWest with its own Embraer E-175s. On August 27, 2017, Alaska Airlines began mainline service to Santa Barbara for the first time when it took over the Seattle route from Horizon with its own Boeing 737s. Currently Alaska Airlines serves Seattle twice daily with Embraer E-175s under Horizon. On March 18, 2021, Alaska added San Diego as its third destination from Santa Barbara. Sun Country Sun Country Airlines was serving Santa Barbara twice weekly in 2018 between August and December to Minneapolis–St. Paul with Boeing 737s. Service began on August 16, 2018, and ended on December 9, 2018. On May 22, 2019, Sun Country resumed seasonal service with an increase to four times a week for the 2019 season. At the end of the 2019 season, Sun Country indicated that it did not plan to return. Frontier Frontier Airlines flew to Denver until 2015 with the Embraer 190 as well as Airbus A319 and Airbus A320 jets. After a multi-year hiatus, Frontier resumed service on August 21, 2018, with three times a week year-round service to Denver with the Airbus A320. In November 2019, they went seasonal and planned to return in 2020. However, due to COVID-19, no new date has been announced for the resumption of their service. Contour Contour Airlines began service on October 16, 2018. They flew daily to Oakland International Airport and ten times a week to Las Vegas McCarran International Airport with 30-seat Embraer 135 regional jets. Contour then announced an expansion of Santa Barbara as a focus city, and added a flight to Sacramento International Airport in April 2019. However, Contour then ended all service on March 31, 2020, and terminated all contracts with employees and the airport. Delta Delta Air Lines began three daily flights to Salt Lake City International Airport in August 2019, via Delta Connection partner SkyWest Airlines. The flights were operated with Embraer 175 aircraft. However, because of COVID-19, the airline then suspended service indefinitely on July 8, 2020. On September 15th, 2023, it was announced Delta Air Lines would return to Santa Barbara with twice daily service to Salt Lake City and once daily service to Atlanta in summer 2024 on A220-300 aircraft. Southwest Airlines Southwest Airlines started operating flights into Santa Barbara on April 12, 2021, and has daily nonstop flights to the following airports: Las Vegas (LAS), Oakland (OAK), Denver (DEN), and Sacramento (SMF). Service is operated with Boeing 737-700, Boeing 737-800, and Boeing 737 MAX 8 jetliners. Locally based commuter airlines In the 1980s Santa Barbara–based Apollo Airways, a commuter airline which subsequently changed its name to Pacific Coast Airlines, flew Handley Page HP.137 Jetstream propjets from the airport with nonstop service to Los Angeles, Las Vegas, San Francisco, San Jose (CA), Monterey, Fresno and Bakersfield with direct flights to Sacramento and Lake Tahoe. By the spring of 1982, Pacific Coast was operating nonstop service between Santa Barbara and Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Oakland, Ontario (CA), San Jose (CA), Sacramento, Bakersfield and Santa Maria. Another locally based airline was Connectair operating Fairchild F-27J turboprops with nonstop flights to Los Angeles, Las Vegas and San Jose, California. Both Connectair and Pacific Coast are no longer in existence. Past jet service Pacific Air Lines flew Boeing 727-100s to Los Angeles, San Francisco and Monterey. Continental Airlines Boeing 737-300s flew nonstop to Denver (some flights stopped at Bakersfield enroute from SBA). Air West (later renamed Hughes Airwest) Boeing 727-100s, Douglas DC-9-10s, and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30s flew to Los Angeles, San Francisco, Las Vegas and other cities. Allegiant Air McDonnell Douglas MD-80s flew to Las Vegas. Pacific Express BAC One-Elevens flew to Los Angeles, San Francisco and Bakersfield. Air Wisconsin (United Express) BAe 146-200s and BAe 146-300s flew to Denver, and ExpressJet flew Embraer ERJ-145s nonstop to Sacramento and San Diego. Other past commuter airline service A number of commuter air carriers served Santa Barbara over the years primarily with turboprop aircraft. In 1968, Cable Commuter Airlines was operating de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter service to LAX. Cable Commuter was then acquired by Golden West Airlines which in turn began operating high frequency shuttle service to LAX with de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter, de Havilland Canada DHC-7 Dash 7 and Short 330 aircraft. According to the Official Airline Guide (OAG), by 1981 Golden West was the only airline operating scheduled service between Santa Barbara and Los Angeles with fourteen round trip flights on weekdays. Other commuter air carriers that served SBA with turboprop aircraft in later years included America West Express, American Eagle operated by Wings West, Dash Air, Delta Connection operated by SkyWest Airlines, Imperial Airlines, Sun Aire Lines, United Express operated by West Air and later by SkyWest Airlines, USAir Express and successor US Airways Express operated by Trans States Airlines and StatesWest Airlines. According to the OAG, turboprop aircraft operated into SBA by these commuter airlines included the Beechcraft 1900C, British Aerospace BAe Jetstream 31, de Havilland Canada DHC-8 Dash 8, Embraer EMB-110 Bandeirante, Embraer EMB-120 Brasilia, Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner (Metro II and Metro III models), Saab 340B and Short 360. In addition, Air Resorts operated Convair 440 prop aircraft on flights to LAX in 1983. Current air service Alaska Airlines serves Seattle and Portland with SkyWest and Horizon E-175s. Seattle also sees service on Boeing 737s. American Airlines serves Phoenix and Dallas with American Airbuses, SkyWest CRJ-700s and E-175s, and Envoy E-175s. Southwest Airlines serves Denver, Las Vegas, Oakland, and Sacramento with Boeing 737s. United Airlines serves Los Angeles with a mix of SkyWest CRJ-200/CRJ-700/E-175 regional jets. United serves San Francisco and Denver with a mix of SkyWest CRJ-200/CRJ-700/E-175s, United Airbuses and United 737s. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Top destinations Airline market share Annual traffic Ground transportation The airport is located off of State Route 217 at the Sandspit Road exit. It can also be reached from US 101 by taking State Route 217 or exiting off of Fairview Avenue. Short-term and long-term parking are available at the terminal, while the economy parking lot is located near Lopez Road and Hollister Avenue, north of the airport. Santa Barbara MTD Route 11 stops on Moffett Road across from the terminals, and connects to the MTD Transit Center at 1020 Chapala St, which is approximately one mile from the Santa Barbara Amtrak station.. Taxis and private door-to-door shuttles depart from their designated zones outside the terminal. Accidents and incidents April 8, 1985: The non-instrument-rated pilot of a Cessna P210N, registration number N6099P, was killed when the aircraft crashed into the ocean about south of the airport after departing in low visibility. The accident was attributed to spatial disorientation and the pilot's decision to continue flying under visual flight rules into instrument meteorological conditions (continued VFR into IMC). July 23, 1985: A student pilot and a passenger in a Cessna 150L, registration number N11490, were killed when the aircraft crashed on Runway 25 and was consumed by fire following a late-night takeoff. The accident was attributed to a failure to maintain airspeed, an inadvertent stall, and the pilot's alcohol intoxication. The pilot also had not received any formal instruction in night flying, and his "lack of recent experience in type operation" and "overconfidence in personal ability" were cited as contributing factors. October 30, 1986: The two pilots of a Fairchild Swearingen SA-226TC Metroliner, N6099P, operated by Wings West Airlines on a scheduled commuter flight for American Eagle carrying 12 passengers, performed a gear-up landing after intentionally disabling the landing gear warning horn and subsequently neglecting to lower the landing gear. As the aircraft struck the runway, fragments of the starboard propeller punctured the passenger cabin, causing serious injuries to one passenger and minor injuries to another; an additional passenger suffered unspecified minor injuries. The accident was attributed to the crew's failure to follow proper procedures, their disabling of the landing gear warning system, and the captain's inadequate supervision of the first officer, who was flying the aircraft at the time. May 17, 1990: A Cessna 150H, registration number N7156S, disappeared over the ocean during night touch-and-go landing practice. A pair of wheel chocks bearing the aircraft's number were among the few items recovered; the pilot and passenger were presumed dead. The accident was attributed to "[t]he pilot's failure to maintain control of the airplane. Factors which contributed to the accident were the dark night and the pilot's lack of night flying experience." October 21, 1990: A Cessna 172M, registration number N13670, descended steeply and crashed while maneuvering in the airfield traffic pattern. The pilot and two passengers were seriously injured, the other passenger was killed, and the aircraft was destroyed. The accident was attributed to "[t]he pilot's failure to maintain proper glidepath while on final approach. A contributing factor was sunglare." June 28, 1991: The 4 occupants of a Mitsubishi MU-2B-36A, registration number N2CJ, were killed when the aircraft crashed into the ocean in low visibility while maneuvering to maintain spacing from another aircraft that was on an Instrument Landing System (ILS) approach. The MU-2 pilot had not filed a flight plan and was flying VFR without an approach clearance; controllers had to issue multiple instructions to the MU-2 pilot upon realizing the close proximity of the two aircraft. The accident was attributed to "[t]he pilot's failure to maintain directional control of the airplane after becoming spatially disoriented. Factors related to the accident were: darkness, low overcast cloud condition, the pilot's decision to continue VFR flight into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), which resulted in a near collision with another aircraft, his self induced pressure and diversion of attention, while coping with the situation that he had encountered." June 7, 1996: A Piper PA-32R-300, registration number N4303X, crashed into the ocean during an ILS approach to Runway 7 in fog; the two pilots were killed. The accident was attributed to "failure of the flying pilot to maintain control of the airplane, due to spatial disorientation, which resulted in an uncontrolled descent and collision with the water. Factors relating to the accident were: the lack of recent instrument experience by the flying pilot and the lack of monitoring (and/or remedial action) by the other pilot." November 20, 1996: A Beechcraft 95-B55 Baron, registration number N210WW, crashed into rising terrain during an ILS approach to Runway 7 in low visibility; the pilot, who was the sole occupant, was killed. The pilot had not been responding properly to controllers' instructions and had failed his last instrument proficiency review. The accident was attributed to "failure of the pilot to maintain control of the aircraft during an instrument approach, due to spatial disorientation, and/or his failure to maintain proper altitude. Factors relating to the accident were: the pilot's delay (or failure) to initiate a missed approach, and his lack of instrument competency." December 6, 2016: An Airborne Windsports Edge XT-912-L, registration number N188M, descended and crashed near the airport. The pilot, who was the sole occupant, was killed. The accident was attributed to "[t]he pilot's failure to maintain aircraft control while maneuvering in the traffic pattern." August 25, 2019: A Lockheed C-130A, registration number N119TG, was badly damaged in a runway excursion. After departing from Santa Maria Public Airport, passengers heard a "loud bang," the fire warning lights for both right-hand engines illuminated, the cabin began to fill with smoke and misting hydraulic fluid, and the aircraft began having engine and hydraulic system problems. The pilots shut down the outer right-hand engine and made an emergency landing on Runway 7 at Santa Barbara but could not maintain directional control, prompting the captain to initiate a ground loop to avoid plowing into buildings and parked aircraft. The seven people on board were not injured, but airport lighting and signage were damaged, halting all flight operations for 19 hours. The accident was attributed to corrosion-related cracking and subsequent breakage of the number 3 bleed air duct, which blew hot air towards nearby wiring and hydraulic lines, causing multiple system failures. In popular culture In the 1951 war film Flying Leathernecks, John Wayne's character was stationed in Goleta. The movie references the airbase as being in Goleta because, during World War II, the airbase had not yet been annexed by Santa Barbara. The movie has a short clip of the airport and surrounding area. References External links Santa Barbara Airport (official site) Airports in Santa Barbara County, California Airports established in 1928 Airport Public transportation in Santa Barbara County, California 1928 establishments in California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20ancient%20Egypt
History of ancient Egypt
The history of ancient Egypt spans the period from the early prehistoric settlements of the northern Nile valley to the Roman conquest of Egypt in 39 BC. The pharaonic period, the period in which Egypt was ruled by a pharaoh, is dated from the 32nd century BC, when Upper and Lower Egypt were unified, until the country fell under Macedonian rule in 332 BC. Chronology Note For alternative 'revisions' to the chronology of Egypt, see Egyptian chronology. Egypt's history is split into several different periods according to the ruling dynasty of each pharaoh. The dating of events is still a subject of research. The conservative dates are not supported by any reliable absolute date for a span of about three millennia. The following is the list according to conventional Egyptian chronology. Prehistoric Egypt (prior to 3100 BC) Naqada III ("the protodynastic period", approximately 3100–3000 BC; sometimes referred to as "Dynasty 0") Early Dynastic Period (First–Second Dynasties) Old Kingdom (Third–Sixth Dynasties) First Intermediate Period (Seventh or Eighth–Eleventh Dynasties) Middle Kingdom (Twelfth–Thirteenth Dynasties) Second Intermediate Period (Fourteenth–Seventeenth Dynasties) New Kingdom (Eighteenth–Twentieth Dynasties) Third Intermediate Period (also known as the Libyan Period; Twenty-first–Twenty-fifth Dynasties) Late Period (Twenty-sixth–Thirty-first Dynasties) Ptolemaic Egypt (305–30 BC) Neolithic Egypt Neolithic period The Nile has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since nomadic hunter-gatherers began living along it during the Pleistocene. Traces of these early people appear in the form of artefacts and rock carvings along the terraces of the Nile and in the oases. Along the Nile in the 12th millennium BC, an Upper Paleolithic grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had replaced the culture of hunting, fishing, and hunter-gatherers using stone tools. Evidence also indicates human habitation and cattle herding in the southwestern corner of Egypt near the Sudan border before the 8th millennium BC. Despite this, the idea of an independent bovine domestication event in Africa must be abandoned because subsequent evidence gathered over a period of thirty years has failed to corroborate this. Archaeological evidence has attested that population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as the Late Pleistocene era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in the Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation. The oldest-known domesticated cattle remains in Africa are from the Faiyum c. 4400 BC. Geological evidence and computer climate modeling studies suggest that natural climate changes around the 8th millennium BC began to desiccate the extensive pastoral lands of North Africa, eventually forming the Sahara by the 25th century BC. Continued desiccation forced the early ancestors of the Egyptians to settle around the Nile more permanently and forced them to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. However, the period from 9th to the 6th millennium BC has left very little in the way of archaeological evidence. Prehistoric Egypt The Nile valley of Egypt was basically uninhabitable until the work of clearing and irrigating the land along the banks was started. However, it appears that this clearance and irrigation was largely under way by the 6th millennium. By that time, Nile society was already engaged in organized agriculture and the construction of large buildings. At this time, Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and also constructing large buildings. Mortar was in use by the 4th millennium. The people of the valley and the Nile Delta were self-sufficient and were raising barley and emmer, an early variety of wheat, and stored it in pits lined with reed mats. They raised cattle, goats and pigs and they wove linen and baskets. Prehistory continues through this time, variously held to begin with the Amratian culture. Between 5500 BC and the 31st century BC, small settlements flourished along the Nile, whose delta empties into the Mediterranean Sea. The Tasian culture was the next to appear; it existed in Upper Egypt starting about 4500 BC. This group is named for the burials found at Deir Tasa, a site on the east bank of the Nile between Asyut and Akhmim. The Tasian culture is notable for producing the earliest blacktop-ware, a type of red and brown pottery painted black on its top and interior. The Badari culture, named for the Badari site near Deir Tasa, followed the Tasian; however, similarities cause many to avoid differentiating between them at all. The Badari culture continued to produce the kind of pottery called blacktop-ware (although its quality was much improved over previous specimens), and was assigned the sequence dating numbers between 21 and 29. The significant difference, however, between the Tasian and Badari, which prevents scholars from completely merging the two, is that Badari sites are Chalcolithic while the Tasian sites remained Neolithic and are thus considered technically part of the Stone Age. The Amratian culture is named after the site of el-Amreh, about south of Badari. El-Amreh was the first site where this culture was found unmingled with the later Gerzeh culture. However, this period is better attested at Nagada, and so is also referred to as the "Naqada I" culture. Black-topped ware continued to be produced, but white cross-line ware, a type of pottery decorated with close parallel white lines crossed by another set of close parallel white lines, began to be produced during this time. The Amratian period falls between S.D. 30 and 39. Newly excavated objects indicate that trade between Upper and Lower Egypt existed at this time. A stone vase from the north was found at el-Amreh, and copper, which is not present in Egypt, was apparently imported from the Sinai Peninsula or perhaps Nubia. Obsidian and an extremely small amount of gold were both definitively imported from Nubia during this time. Trade with the oases was also likely. Naqada II The Gerzeh culture ("Naqada II"), named after the site of el-Gerzeh, was the next stage in cultural development, and it was during this time that the foundation for ancient Egypt was laid. The Gerzeh culture was largely an unbroken development out of the Amratian, starting in the Nile Delta and moving south through Upper Egypt; however, it failed to dislodge the Amratian in Nubia. The Gerzeh culture coincided with a significant drop in rainfall and farming produced the vast majority of food. With increased food supplies, the populace adopted a much more sedentary lifestyle, and the larger settlements grew to cities of about 5000 residents. It was in this time that the city dwellers started using adobe to build their cities. Copper instead of stone was increasingly used to make tools and weaponry. Silver, gold, lapis lazuli (imported from Badakhshan in what is now Afghanistan), and Egyptian faience were used ornamentally, and the cosmetic palettes used for eye paint since the Badari culture began to be adorned with reliefs. By the 33rd century BC, just before the First Dynasty of Egypt, Egypt was divided into two kingdoms known from later times as Upper Egypt to the south and Lower Egypt to the north. The dividing line was drawn roughly in the area of modern Cairo. Dynastic Egypt Early dynastic period The historical records of ancient Egypt begin with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around 3150 BC. According to Egyptian tradition, Menes, thought to have unified Upper and Lower Egypt, was the first king. This Egyptian culture, customs, art expression, architecture, and social structure were closely tied to religion, remarkably stable, and changed little over a period of nearly 3000 years. Egyptian chronology, which involves regnal years, began around this time. The conventional chronology was accepted during the twentieth century, but it does not include any of the major revision proposals that also have been made in that time. Even within a single work, archaeologists often offer several possible dates, or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers or topics related to ancient Egypt. There also are several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by Manetho's Aegyptiaca, which was written during the Ptolemaic Kingdom in the third century BC. Prior to the unification of Egypt, the land was settled with autonomous villages. With the early dynasties, and for much of Egypt's history thereafter, the country came to be known as the Two Lands. The pharaohs established a national administration and appointed royal governors. According to Manetho, the first pharaoh was Menes, but archeological findings support the view that the first ruler to claim to have united the two lands was Narmer, the final king of the Naqada III period. His name is known primarily from the famous Narmer Palette, whose scenes have been interpreted as the act of uniting Upper and Lower Egypt. Menes is now thought to be one of the titles of Hor-Aha, the second pharaoh of the First Dynasty. Funeral practices for the elite resulted in the construction of mastabas, which later became models for subsequent Old Kingdom constructions such as the step pyramid, thought to have originated during the Third Dynasty of Egypt. Old Kingdom The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as spanning the period of time when Egypt was ruled by the Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty (2686–2181 BCE). The royal capital of Egypt during this period was located at Memphis, where Djoser (2630–2611 BCE) established his court. The Old Kingdom is perhaps best known, however, for the large number of pyramids, which were constructed at this time as pharaonic burial places. For this reason, this epoch is frequently referred to as "the Age of the Pyramids." The first notable pharaoh of the Old Kingdom was Djoser of the Third Dynasty, who ordered the construction of the first pyramid, the Pyramid of Djoser, in Memphis' necropolis of Saqqara. It was in this era that formerly independent states became nomes (districts) ruled solely by the pharaoh. Former local rulers were forced to assume the role of nomarch (governor) or work as tax collectors. Egyptians in this era worshiped the pharaoh as a god, believing that he ensured the annual flooding of the Nile that was necessary for their crops. The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached their zenith under the Fourth Dynasty. Sneferu, the dynasty's founder, is believed to have commissioned at least three pyramids; while his son and successor Khufu (Greek Cheops) erected the Great Pyramid of Giza, Sneferu had more stone and brick moved than any other pharaoh. Khufu, his son Khafre (Greek Chephren), and his grandson Menkaure (Greek Mycerinus) all achieved lasting fame in the construction of the Giza pyramid complex. To organize and feed the manpower needed to create these pyramids required a centralized government with extensive powers, and Egyptologists believe the Old Kingdom at this time demonstrated this level of sophistication. Recent excavations near the pyramids led by Mark Lehner have uncovered a large city that seems to have housed, fed and supplied the pyramid workers. Although it was once believed that slaves built these monuments, a theory based on The Exodus narrative of the Hebrew Bible, study of the tombs of the workmen, who oversaw construction on the pyramids, has shown they were built by a corvée of peasants drawn from across Egypt. They apparently worked while the annual flood covered their fields, as well as a very large crew of specialists, including stonecutters, painters, mathematicians and priests. The Fifth Dynasty began with Userkaf c. 2495 BC and was marked by the growing importance of the cult of the sun god Ra. Consequently, less effort was devoted to the construction of pyramid complexes than during the Fourth Dynasty and more to the construction of sun temples in Abusir. The decoration of pyramid complexes grew more elaborate during the dynasty and its last king, Unas, was the first to have the Pyramid Texts inscribed in his pyramid. Egypt's expanding interests in trade goods such as ebony, incense such as myrrh and frankincense, gold, copper and other useful metals compelled the ancient Egyptians to navigate the open seas. Evidence from the pyramid of Sahure, second king of the dynasty, shows that a regular trade existed with the Syrian coast to procure cedar wood. Pharaohs also launched expeditions to the famed Land of Punt, possibly the Horn of Africa, for ebony, ivory and aromatic resins. During the Sixth Dynasty (2345–2181 BCE), the power of pharaohs gradually weakened in favor of powerful nomarchs. These no longer belonged to the royal family and their charge became hereditary, thus creating local dynasties largely independent from the central authority of the pharaoh. Internal disorders set in during the incredibly long reign of Pepi II Neferkare (2278–2184 BCE) towards the end of the dynasty. His death, certainly well past that of his intended heirs, might have created succession struggles and the country slipped into civil wars mere decades after the close of Pepi II's reign. The final blow came when the 4.2 kiloyear event struck the region in the 22nd century BC, producing consistently low Nile flood levels. The result was the collapse of the Old Kingdom followed by decades of famine and strife. First Intermediate Period After the fall of the Old Kingdom came a roughly 200-year stretch of time known as the First Intermediate Period, which is generally thought to include a relatively obscure set of pharaohs running from the end of the Sixth to the Tenth and most of the Eleventh Dynasties. Most of these were likely local monarchs who did not hold much power outside of their nome. There are a number of texts known as "Lamentations" from the early period of the subsequent Middle Kingdom that may shed some light on what happened during this period. Some of these texts reflect on the breakdown of rule, others allude to invasion by "Asiatic bowmen". In general, the stories focus on a society where the natural order of things in both society and nature was overthrown. It is also highly likely that it was during this period that all of the pyramid and tomb complexes were looted. Further lamentation texts allude to this fact, and by the beginning of the Middle Kingdom mummies are found decorated with magical spells that were once exclusive to the pyramid of the kings of the Sixth Dynasty. By 2160 BC, a new line of pharaohs, the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties, consolidated Lower Egypt from their capital in Heracleopolis Magna. A rival line, the Eleventh Dynasty based at Thebes, reunited Upper Egypt, and a clash between the rival dynasties was inevitable. Around 2055 BC, the Theban forces defeated the Heracleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands. The reign of its first pharaoh, Mentuhotep II, marks the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. Middle Kingdom The Middle Kingdom is the period in the history of ancient Egypt stretching from the 39th regnal year of Mentuhotep II of the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Thirteenth Dynasty, roughly between 2030 and 1650 BC. The period comprises two phases, the Eleventh Dynasty, which ruled from Thebes, and then the Twelfth Dynasty, whose capital was Lisht. These two dynasties were originally considered the full extent of this unified kingdom, but some historians now consider the first part of the Thirteenth Dynasty to belong to the Middle Kingdom. The earliest pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom traced their origin to two nomarchs of Thebes, Intef the Elder, who served a Heracleopolitan pharaoh of the Tenth Dynasty, and his successor, Mentuhotep I. The successor of the latter, Intef I, was the first Theban nomarch to claim a Horus name and thus the throne of Egypt. He is considered the first pharaoh of the Eleventh Dynasty. His claims brought the Thebans into conflict with the rulers of the Tenth Dynasty. Intef I and his brother Intef II undertook several campaigns northwards and finally captured the important nome of Abydos. Warfare continued intermittently between the Thebean and Heracleapolitan dynasties until the 39th regnal year of Mentuhotep II, second successor of Intef II. At this point, the Herakleopolitans were defeated and the Theban dynasty consolidated their rule over Egypt. Mentuhotep II is known to have commanded military campaigns south into Nubia, which had gained its independence during the First Intermediate Period. There is also evidence for military actions against the Southern Levant. The king reorganized the country and placed a vizier at the head of civil administration for the country. Mentuhotep II was succeeded by his son, Mentuhotep III, who organized an expedition to Punt. His reign saw the realization of some of the finest Egyptian carvings. Mentuhotep III was succeeded by Mentuhotep IV, the final pharaoh of this dynasty. Despite being absent from various lists of pharaohs, his reign is attested from a few inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat that record expeditions to the Red Sea coast and to quarry stone for the royal monuments. The leader of this expedition was his vizier Amenemhat, who is widely assumed to be the future Pharaoh Amenemhat I, the first pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty. Amenemhat is therefore assumed by some Egyptologists to have either usurped the throne or assumed power after Mentuhotep IV died childless. Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt, Itjtawy, thought to be located near the present-day Lisht, although Manetho claims the capital remained at Thebes. Amenemhat forcibly pacified internal unrest, curtailed the rights of the nomarchs, and is known to have launched at least one campaign into Nubia. His son Senusret I continued the policy of his father to recapture Nubia and other territories lost during the First Intermediate Period. The Libu were subdued under his forty-five year reign and Egypt's prosperity and security were secured. Senusret III (1878–1839 BC) was a warrior king, leading his troops deep into Nubia, and built a series of massive forts throughout the country to establish Egypt's formal boundaries with the unconquered areas of its territory. Amenemhat III (1860–1815 BC) is considered the last great pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom. Egypt's population began to exceed food production levels during the reign of Amenemhat III, who then ordered the exploitation of the Faiyum and increased mining operations in the Sinai Peninsula. He also invited settlers from Western Asia to Egypt to labor on Egypt's monuments. Late in his reign, the annual flooding of the Nile began to fail, further straining the resources of the government. The Thirteenth Dynasty and Fourteenth Dynasty witnessed the slow decline of Egypt into the Second Intermediate Period, in which some of the settlers invited by Amenemhat III would seize power as the Hyksos. Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when Egypt once again fell into disarray between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom. This period is best known as the time the Hyksos made their appearance in Egypt, the reigns of its kings comprising the Fifteenth Dynasty. The Thirteenth Dynasty proved unable to hold onto the long land of Egypt, and a provincial family of Levantine descent located in the marshes of the eastern Delta at Avaris broke away from the central authority to form the Fourteenth Dynasty. The splintering of the land most likely happened shortly after the reigns of the powerful Thirteenth Dynasty Pharaohs Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV c. 1720 BC. While the Fourteenth Dynasty was Levantine, the Hyksos first appeared in Egypt c. 1650 BC when they took control of Avaris and rapidly moved south to Memphis, thereby ending the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties. The outlines of the traditional account of the "invasion" of the land by the Hyksos is preserved in the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, who records that during this time the Hyksos overran Egypt, led by Salitis, the founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty. More recently, however, the idea of a simple migration, with little or no violence involved, has gained some support. Under this theory, the Egyptian rulers of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties were unable to stop these new migrants from traveling to Egypt from the Levant because their kingdoms were struggling to cope with various domestic problems, including possibly famine and plague. Be it military or peaceful, the weakened state of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasty kingdoms could explain why they rapidly fell to the emerging Hyksos power. The Hyksos princes and chieftains ruled in the eastern Delta with their local Egyptian vassals. The Fifteenth Dynasty rulers established their capital and seat of government at Memphis and their summer residence at Avaris. The Hyksos kingdom was centered in the eastern Nile Delta and central Egypt but relentlessly pushed south for the control of central and Upper Egypt. Around the time Memphis fell to the Hyksos, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes declared its independence and set itself up as the Sixteenth Dynasty. Another short lived dynasty might have done the same in central Egypt, profiting from the power vacuum created by the fall of the Thirteenth Dynasty and forming the Abydos Dynasty. By 1600 BC, the Hyksos had successfully moved south in central Egypt, eliminating the Abydos Dynasty and directly threatening the Sixteenth Dynasty. The latter was to prove unable to resist and Thebes fell to the Hyksos for a very short period c. 1580 BC. The Hyksos rapidly withdrew to the north and Thebes regained some independence under the Seventeenth Dynasty. From then on, Hyksos relations with the south seem to have been mainly of a commercial nature, although Theban princes appear to have recognized the Hyksos rulers and may possibly have provided them with tribute for a period. The Seventeenth Dynasty was to prove the salvation of Egypt and would eventually lead the war of liberation that drove the Hyksos back into Asia. The two last kings of this dynasty were Seqenenre Tao and Kamose. Ahmose I completed the conquest and expulsion of the Hyksos from the Nile Delta, restored Theban rule over the whole of Egypt and successfully reasserted Egyptian power in its formerly subject territories of Nubia and the Southern Levant. His reign marks the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the New Kingdom. New Kingdom Possibly as a result of the foreign rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period, the New Kingdom saw Egypt attempt to create a buffer between the Levant and Egypt, and attain its greatest territorial extent. It expanded far south into Nubia and held wide territories in the Near East. Egyptian armies fought Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria. Eighteenth Dynasty This was a time of great wealth and power for Egypt. Some of the most important and best-known pharaohs ruled at this time, such as Hatshepsut. Hatshepsut is unusual as she was a female pharaoh, a rare occurrence in Egyptian history. She was an ambitious and competent leader, extending Egyptian trade south into present-day Somalia and north into the Mediterranean. She ruled for twenty years through a combination of widespread propaganda and deft political skill. Her co-regent and successor Thutmose III ("the Napoleon of Egypt") expanded Egypt's army and wielded it with great success. However, late in his reign, he ordered her name hacked out from her monuments. He fought against Asiatic people and was the most successful of Egyptian pharaohs. Amenhotep III built extensively at the temple of Karnak including the Luxor Temple, which consisted of two pylons, a colonnade behind the new temple entrance, and a new temple to the goddess Maat. During the reign of Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BC), pharaoh, originally referring to the king's palace, became a form of address for the person who was king. One of the best-known 18th Dynasty pharaohs is Amenhotep IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten in honor of the god Aten. His exclusive worship of the Aten, sometimes called Atenism, is often seen as history's first instance of monotheism. Atenism and several changes that accompanied it seriously disrupted Egyptian society. Akhenaten built a new capital at the site of Amarna, which gives his reign and the few that followed their modern name, the Amarna Period. Amarna art diverged significantly from the previous conventions of Egyptian art. Under a series of successors, of whom the longest reigning were Tutankhamun and Horemheb. Under them, worship of the old gods was revived and much of the art and monuments that were created during Akhenaten's reign was defaced or destroyed. When Horemheb died without an heir, he named as his successor Ramesses I, founder of the Nineteenth Dynasty. Nineteenth Dynasty Ramesses I reigned for two years and was succeeded by his son Seti I. Seti I carried on the work of Horemheb in restoring power, control, and respect to Egypt. He also was responsible for creating the temple complex at Abydos. Arguably Ancient Egypt's power as a nation-state peaked during the reign of Ramesses II ("the Great") of the Nineteenth Dynasty. He reigned for 67 years from the age of 18 and carried on his father Seti I's work and created many more splendid temples, such as that of Abu Simbel temples on the Nubian border. He sought to recover territories in the Levant that had been held by the Eighteenth Dynasty. His campaigns of reconquest culminated in the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC, where he led Egyptian armies against those of the Hittite king Muwatalli II and was caught in history's first recorded military ambush. Ramesses II was famed for the huge number of children he sired by his various wives and concubines; the tomb he built for his sons (many of whom he outlived) in the Valley of the Kings has proven to be the largest funerary complex in Egypt. His immediate successors continued the military campaigns, though an increasingly troubled court complicated matters. Ramesses II was succeeded by his son Merneptah and then by Merenptah's son Seti II. Seti II's throne seems to have been disputed by his half-brother Amenmesse, who may have temporarily ruled from Thebes. Upon his death, Seti II's son Siptah, who may have been afflicted with poliomyelitis during his life, was appointed to the throne by Chancellor Bay, a West Asian commoner who served as vizier behind the scenes. At Siptah's early death, the throne was assumed by Twosret, the queen dowager of Seti II and possibly Amenmesse's sister. A period of anarchy at the end of Twosret's short reign saw a native reaction to foreign control leading to the execution of Bay and the enthronement of Setnakhte, establishing the Twentieth Dynasty. Twentieth Dynasty The last "great" pharaoh from the New Kingdom is widely considered Ramesses III, the son of Setnakhte who reigned three decades after the time of Ramesses II (c.1279–1213 BC). In Year 8 of his reign, the Sea People invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land and sea battles. He claimed that he incorporated them as subject people and settled them in Southern Canaan, although there is evidence that they forced their way into Canaan. Their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states in this region such as Philistia after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire. He was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two major campaigns in Egypt's Western Delta in his Year 6 and Year 11 respectively. The heavy cost of these battles slowly exhausted Egypt's treasury and contributed to the gradual decline of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. The severity of these difficulties is stressed by the fact that the first known strike action in recorded history occurred during Year 29 of Ramesses III's reign, when the food rations for the Egypt's favoured and elite royal tomb-builders and artisans in the village of Deir el-Medina could not be provisioned. Something in the air prevented much sunlight from reaching the ground and also arrested global tree growth for almost two full decades until 1140 BC. One proposed cause is the Hekla 3 eruption in Iceland, but the dating of that event remains in dispute. Following Ramesses III's death, there was endless bickering between his heirs. Three of his sons would go on to assume power as Ramesses IV, Ramesses VI and Ramesses VIII, respectively. However, at this time Egypt was also increasingly beset by a series of droughts, below-normal flooding levels of the Nile, famine, civil unrest and official corruption. The power of the last pharaoh, Ramesses XI, grew so weak that in the south the Theban High Priests of Amun became the effective de facto rulers of Upper Egypt, while Smendes controlled Lower Egypt even before Ramesses XI's death. Smendes would eventually found the Twenty-first Dynasty at Tanis. Third Intermediate Period After the death of Ramesses XI, his successor Smendes ruled from the city of Tanis in the north, while the High Priests of Amun at Thebes had effective rule of the south of the country, whilst still nominally recognizing Smendes as king. In fact, this division was less significant than it seems, since both priests and pharaohs came from the same family. Piankh, assumed control of Upper Egypt, ruling from Thebes, with the northern limit of his control ending at Al-Hibah. (The High Priest Herihor had died before Ramesses XI, but also was an all-but-independent ruler in the latter days of the king's reign.) The country was once again split into two parts with the priests in Thebes and the pharaohs at Tanis. Their reign seems without other distinction, and they were replaced without any apparent struggle by the Libyan kings of the Twenty-Second Dynasty. Egypt has long had ties with Libya, and the first king of the new dynasty, Shoshenq I, was a Meshwesh Libyan, who served as the commander of the armies under the last ruler of the Twenty-First Dynasty, Psusennes II. He unified the country, putting control of the Amun clergy under his own son as the High Priest of Amun, a post that was previously a hereditary appointment. The scant and patchy nature of the written records from this period suggest that it was unsettled. There appear to have been many subversive groups, which eventually led to the creation of the Twenty-Third Dynasty, which ran concurrent with the latter part of the Twenty-Second Dynasty. The country was reunited by the Twenty-Second Dynasty founded by Shoshenq I in 945 BC (or 943 BC), who descended from Meshwesh immigrants, originally from Ancient Libya. This brought stability to the country for well over a century. After the reign of Osorkon II the country had again splintered into two states with Shoshenq III of the Twenty-Second Dynasty controlling Lower Egypt by 818 BC while Takelot II and his son (the future Osorkon III) ruled Middle and Upper Egypt. After the withdrawal of Egypt from Nubia at the end of the New Kingdom, a native dynasty took control of Nubia. Under king Piye, the Nubian founder of Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, the Nubians pushed north in an effort to crush his Libyan opponents ruling in the Delta. Piye managed to attain power as far as Memphis. His opponent Tefnakhte ultimately submitted to him, but he was allowed to remain in power in Lower Egypt and founded the short-lived Twenty-Fourth Dynasty at Sais. The Kushite kingdom to the south took full advantage of this division and political instability and defeated the combined might of several native-Egyptian rulers such as Peftjauawybast, Osorkon IV of Tanis, and Tefnakht of Sais. Piye was succeeded first by his brother, Shabaka, and then by his two sons Shebitku and Taharqa. Taharqa reunited the Two Lands of Northern and Southern Egypt and created an empire that was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. Pharaohs such as Taharqa built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal. It was during the 25th Dynasty that the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in modern Sudan) since the Middle Kingdom. The international prestige of Egypt declined considerably by this time. The country's international allies had fallen under the sphere of influence of Assyria and from about 700 BC the question became when, not if, there would be war between the two states. Taharqa's reign and that of his successor, Tantamani, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians against whom there were numerous victories, but ultimately Thebes was occupied and Memphis sacked. Late Period From 671 BC on, Memphis and the Delta region became the target of many attacks from the Assyrians, who expelled the Nubians and handed over power to client kings of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. Psamtik I was the first recognized as the king of the whole of Egypt, and he brought increased stability to the country during a 54-year reign from the new capital of Sais. Four successive Saite kings continued guiding Egypt successfully and peacefully from 610 to 526 BC, keeping the Babylonians in certain measures away with the help of Greek mercenaries. However, during this period Babylonian emperor Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC) campaigned against the Egyptians and drove them back over the Sinai. In 567 BC he went to war with Pharaoh Amasis, and briefly invaded Egypt itself. By the end of this period a new power was growing in the Near East: Persia. The Pharaoh Psamtik III had to face the might of Persia at Pelusium; he was defeated and briefly escaped to Memphis, but ultimately was captured and then executed. Persian domination Achaemenid Egypt can be divided into three eras: the first period of Persian occupation, 525–404 BC (when Egypt became a satrapy), followed by an interval of independence, and the second and final period of occupation, 343–332 BC. The Persian king Cambyses assumed the formal title of Pharaoh, called himself Mesuti-Re ("Re has given birth"), and sacrificed to the Egyptian gods. He founded the Twenty-seventh Dynasty. Egypt was then joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Cambyses' successors Darius I the Great and Xerxes pursued a similar policy, visited the country, and warded off an Athenian attack. It is likely that Artaxerxes I and Darius II visited the country as well, although it is not attested, and did not prevent the Egyptians from feeling unhappy. During the war of succession after the reign of Darius II, which broke out in 404 BC, they revolted under Amyrtaeus and regained their independence. This sole ruler of the Twenty-eighth Dynasty died in 399, and power went to the Twenty-ninth Dynasty. The Thirtieth Dynasty was established in 380 BC and lasted until 343 BC. Nectanebo II was the last native king to rule Egypt. Artaxerxes III (358–338 BC) reconquered the Nile valley for a brief period (343–332 BC). In 332 BC, Mazaces handed over the country to Alexander the Great without a fight. The Achaemenid empire had ended, and for a while Egypt was a satrapy in Alexander's empire. Later the Ptolemies and then the Romans successively ruled the Nile valley. Ptolemaic dynasty In 332 BC, Alexander III of Macedon conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians. He visited Memphis, and went on a pilgrimage to the oracle of Amun at the Siwa Oasis. The oracle declared him the son of Amun. He conciliated the Egyptians by the respect he showed for their religion, but he appointed Greeks to virtually all the senior posts in the country, and founded a new Greek city, Alexandria, to be the new capital. The wealth of Egypt could now be harnessed for Alexander's conquest of the rest of the Persian Empire. Early in 331 BC, he led his forces away to Phoenicia, never returning to Egypt. Following Alexander's death in Babylon in 323 BC, a succession crisis erupted among his generals. Perdiccas ruled the empire as regent for Alexander's half-brother Arrhidaeus, who became Philip III of Macedon, and Alexander's infant son Alexander IV of Macedon. Perdiccas appointed Ptolemy, one of Alexander's closest companions, to rule Egypt in the name of the joint kings. However, as Alexander's empire disintegrated, Ptolemy soon established himself as ruler in his own right. Ptolemy successfully defended Egypt against an invasion by Perdiccas in 321 BC and consolidated his position in Egypt and the surrounding areas during the Wars of the Diadochi (322–301 BC). In 305 BC, Ptolemy took the title of Pharaoh. As Ptolemy I Soter ("Saviour"), he founded the Ptolemaic dynasty that was to rule Egypt for nearly 300 years. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions by marrying their siblings, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life. Hellenistic culture thrived in Egypt well after the Muslim conquest. The Egyptians soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. Ptolemy's family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name, Ptolemy. Ptolemaic queens regnant, some of whom were the sisters of their husbands, were usually called Cleopatra, Arsinoe or Berenice. The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII, known for her role in the Roman political battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and later between Octavian and Mark Antony. Her apparent suicide at the conquest by Rome marked the end of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt. See also Ancient Egypt History of Egypt Population history of Egypt References Further reading Pharaonic Egypt Herodotus ii. 55 and vii. 134 Ptolemaic Egypt External links The Ancient Egypt Site Brian Brown (ed.) (1923) The Wisdom of the Egyptians. New York: Brentano's Texts from the Pyramid Age Door Nigel C. Strudwick, Ronald J. Leprohon, 2005, Brill Academic Publishers Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door Marshall Clagett, 1989 WWW-VL: History: Ancient Egypt
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History of modern Egypt
According to most scholars the history of modern Egypt dates from the start of the rule of Muhammad Ali'v in 1805 and his launching of Egypt's modernization project that involved building a new army and suggesting a new map for the country, though the definition of Egypt's modern history has varied in accordance with different definitions of modernity. Some scholars date it as far back as 1516 with the Ottomans' defeat of the Mamlūks in 1516–17. Muhammad Ali's dynasty became practically independent from Ottoman rule, following his military campaigns against the Empire and his ability to enlist large-scale armies, allowing him to control both Egypt and parts of North Africa and the Middle East. In 1882, the Khedivate of Egypt became part of the British sphere of influence in the region, a situation that conflicted with its position as an autonomous vassal state of the Ottoman Empire. The country became a British protectorate in 1915 and achieved full independence in 1922, becoming a kingdom under the rule of Muhammad Ali's dynasty, which lasted until 1952. Gamal Abdel Nasser ended monarchical rule and established a republic in Egypt, known as the Republic of Egypt, following the 1952 Egyptian revolution. Egypt was ruled autocratically by three presidents over the following six decades: by Nasser from 1954 until his death in 1970, by Anwar Sadat from 1971 until his assassination in 1981, and by Hosni Mubarak from 1981 until his resignation in the face of the 2011 Egyptian revolution. In 2012, after more than a year under the interim government of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, with Field Marshal Tantawi as its chairman, elections were held and the Islamist Mohamed Morsi became the first democratically elected head of state in the entire history of Egypt. In 2013, after millions of Egyptians in huge rallies and demonstrations demanding Morsi's resignation, the army announced the ousting of Morsi and preparations for a new election. Resulting in the election of Abdel Fattah El-Sisi Khedivate of Egypt British administration In 1882 opposition to European control led to growing tension amongst notable Egyptians, the most dangerous opposition coming from the army. A large military demonstration in September 1881 forced the Khedive Tewfiq to dismiss his Prime Minister. In April 1882, France and the United Kingdom sent warships to Alexandria to bolster the Khedive amidst a turbulent climate, spreading fear of invasion throughout the country. Tawfiq moved to Alexandria for fear of his own safety as army officers led by Ahmed Urabi began to take control of the government. By June Egypt was in the hands of nationalists opposed to European domination of the country. The naval bombardment of Alexandria by the Royal Navy had little effect on the opposition which led to the landing of a British expeditionary force at both ends of the Suez Canal in August 1882. The British succeeded in defeating the Egyptian Army at Tel El Kebir in September and took control of the country putting Tawfiq back in control. The purpose of the invasion had been to restore political stability to Egypt under a government of the Khedive and international controls which were in place to streamline Egyptian financing since 1876. It is unlikely that the British expected a long-term occupation from the outset. However, Lord Cromer, Britain's Chief Representative in Egypt at the time, viewed Egypt's financial reforms as part of a long-term objective. Cromer took the view that political stability needed financial stability, and embarked on a programme of long-term investment in Egypt's productive resources, above all in the cotton economy, the mainstay of the country's export earnings. In 1906 the Denshawai incident provoked a questioning of British rule in Egypt. British administration ended nominally with the establishment of a protectorate and the installation of sultan Hussein Kamel in 1914, but a British military presence in Egypt lasted until June 1956. Sultanate of Egypt In 1914 as a result of the declaration of war with the Ottoman Empire, of which Egypt was nominally a part, Britain declared a Protectorate over Egypt and deposed the anti-British Khedive, Abbas Hilmi II, replacing him with his uncle Husayn Kamel, who was made Sultan of Egypt by the British. Egypt subsequently declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire. A group known as the Wafd Delegation attended the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 to demand Egypt's independence. Included in the group was political leader, Saad Zaghlul, who would later become Prime Minister. When the group was arrested and deported to the island of Malta, a huge uprising occurred in Egypt. From March to April 1919, there were mass demonstrations that became uprisings. This is known in Egypt as the 1919 Revolution. Almost daily demonstrations and unrest continued throughout Egypt for the remainder of the Spring. To the surprise of the British authorities, Egyptian women also demonstrated, led by Huda Sha‘rawi (1879–1947), who would become the leading feminist voice in Egypt in the first half of the twentieth century. The first women's demonstration was held on Sunday, 16 March 1919, and was followed by yet another one on Thursday, 20 March 1919. Egyptian women would continue to play an important and increasingly public nationalist role throughout the spring and summer of 1919 and beyond. Initially, the British authorities deployed the police force in Cairo in response to the demonstrations, though control was soon handed over to Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) troops under the command of Major-General H. D. Watson. By the summer of 1919, the disturbances had largely been suppressed; more than 800 Egyptians had been killed, as well as 31 European civilians and 29 British soldiers. In November 1919, the Milner Commission was sent to Egypt by the British to attempt to resolve the situation. In 1920, Lord Milner submitted his report to Lord Curzon, the British Foreign Secretary, recommending that the protectorate should be replaced by a treaty of alliance. As a result, Curzon agreed to receive an Egyptian mission headed by Zaghlul and Adli Pasha to discuss the proposals. The mission arrived in London in June 1920 and the agreement was concluded in August 1920. In February 1921, the British Parliament approved the agreement and Egypt was asked to send another mission to London with full powers to conclude a definitive treaty. Adli Pasha led this mission, which arrived in June 1921. However, the Dominion delegates at the 1921 Imperial Conference had stressed the importance of maintaining control over the Suez Canal Zone and Curzon could not persuade his Cabinet colleagues to agree to any terms that Adli Pasha was prepared to accept. The mission returned to Egypt in disgust. Kingdom of Egypt In December 1921, the British authorities in Cairo imposed martial law and once again deported Zaghlul. Demonstrations again led to violence. In deference to the growing nationalism and at the suggestion of the High Commissioner, Lord Allenby, the UK unilaterally declared Egyptian independence on 28 February 1922. Sultan Fuad I was subsequently proclaimed King of Egypt. Britain, however, continued to retain a strong influence in the newborn Kingdom of Egypt. British guided the king and retained control of the Canal Zone, Sudan and Egypt's external and military affairs. King Fuad died in 1936 and King Farouk inherited the throne at the age of sixteen. Alarmed by the Second Italo-Abyssinian War when Italy invaded Ethiopia, he signed the Anglo-Egyptian treaty, requiring Britain to withdraw all troops from Egypt by 1949, except at the Suez Canal. During World War II, British troops used Egypt as its primary base for all Allied operations throughout the region. British troops were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947, but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the war. Republic of Egypt Coup of 1952 On 22–26 July 1952, a group of disaffected army officers (the "free officers") led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew King Farouk, whom the military blamed for Egypt's poor performance in the 1948 war with Israel. Popular expectations for immediate reforms led to the workers' riots in Kafr Dawar on 12 August 1952, which resulted in two death sentences. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, the Free Officers abrogated the 1953 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on 18 June 1953. Nasser's rule Emergence of Arab socialism Nasser evolved into a charismatic leader, not only of Egypt but of the Arab world, promoting and implementing "Arab socialism." When the United States held up military sales in reaction to Egyptian neutrality regarding the Soviet Union, Nasser concluded an arms deal with Czechoslovakia in September 1955. When the US and the World Bank withdrew their offer to help finance the Aswan High Dam in mid-1956, Nasser nationalized the privately owned Suez Canal Company. The crisis that followed, exacerbated by growing tensions with Israel over guerrilla attacks from Gaza and Israeli reprisals, support for the FLN's war of liberation against the French in Algeria and against Britain's presence in the Arab world, resulted in the invasion of Egypt in October by France, Britain, and Israel. This was also known as the Suez War. According to the historian Abd aI-Azim Ramadan, Nasser's decision to nationalize the Suez Canal was his alone, made without political or military consultation. The events leading up to the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company, as other events during Nasser's rule, showed Nasser's inclination to solitary decision making. He considers Nasser to be far from a rational, responsible leader. United Arab Republic In 1958 Egypt joined with the Republic of Syria and annexed the Gaza Strip, ruled by the All-Palestine Government, to form a state called the United Arab Republic. It existed until Syria's secession in 1961, although Egypt continued to be known as the UAR until 1971. Nasser helped establish with India and Yugoslavia the Non-Aligned Movement of developing countries in September 1961, and continued to be a leading force in the movement until his death. Regional intervention Nasser had looked to a regime change in Yemen since 1957 and finally put his desires into practice in January 1962 by giving the Free Yemen Movement office space, financial support, and radio air time. Anthony Nutting's biography of Gamal Abdel-Nasser identifies several factors that led the Egyptian President to send expeditionary forces to Yemen. These included the unraveling of the union with Syria in 1961, which dissolved his United Arab Republic (UAR), damaging his prestige. A quick decisive victory in Yemen could help him recover leadership of the Arab world. Nasser also had his reputation as an anti-colonial force, setting his sights on ridding South Yemen, and its strategic port city of Aden, of British forces. Nasser ruled as an autocrat but remained extremely popular within Egypt and throughout the Arab world. His willingness to stand up to the Western powers and to Israel won him support throughout the region. However, Nasser's independent foreign policy led to Israel launching the Six-Day War in 1967. This conflict saw the Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian armed forces routed by the Israelis. Israel afterward occupied the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from Egypt, Golan Heights from Syria, and West Bank from Jordan. This defeat was a severe blow to Nasser's prestige both at home and abroad. Following the defeat, Nasser made a dramatic offer to resign, which was only retracted in the face of mass demonstrations urging him to stay. The last three years of his control over Egypt were far more subdued. Sadat era Sadat era refers to the presidency of Muhammad Anwar al-Sadat, the eleven-year period of Egyptian history spanning from the death of president Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970, through Sadat's assassination by fundamentalist army officers on 6 October 1981. Sadat's presidency saw many changes in Egypt's direction, reversing some of the economic and political principles of Nasserism by breaking with Soviet Union to make Egypt an ally of the United States, initiated the peace process with Israel, re-instituting the multi-party system and abandoning socialism by launching the Infitah economic policy. Under Soviet influence After Nasser's death, another of the original revolutionary "free officers," Vice President Anwar el-Sadat, was elected President of Egypt. Nasser's supporters in government settled on Sadat as a transitional figure that (they believed) could be manipulated easily. However, Sadat had a long term in office and many changes in mind for Egypt and by some astute political moves was able to institute a "corrective revolution", (announced on 15 May 1971) which purged the government, political and security establishments of the most ardent Nasserists. Sadat encouraged the emergence of an Islamist movement which had been suppressed by Nasser. Believing Islamists to be socially conservative he gave them "considerable cultural and ideological autonomy" in exchange for political support. Following the disastrous Six-Day War of 1967, Egypt waged a War of Attrition in the Suez Canal zone. In 1971, three years into this war, Sadat endorsed in a letter the peace proposals of UN negotiator Gunnar Jarring, which seemed to lead to a full peace with Israel on the basis of Israel's withdrawal to its pre-war borders. This peace initiative failed as neither Israel nor the United States of America accepted the terms as discussed then. To provide Israel with more incentive to negotiate with Egypt and return the Sinai to it, and also because the Soviets had refused Sadat's requests for more military support, Sadat expelled the Soviet military advisers from Egypt and proceeded to bolster his army for a renewed confrontation with Israel. In the months before the 1973 war Sadat engaged in a diplomatic offensive and by the fall of 1973 had support for a war of more than a hundred states, including most of the countries of the Arab League, Non-Aligned Movement, and Organization of African Unity. Syria agreed to join Egypt in attacking Israel. In October 1973, Egypt's armed forces achieved initial successes in the Crossing and advanced 15 km, reaching the depth of the range of safe coverage of its own air force. After Syrian forces were being repulsed, the Syrian government urged Sadat to move his forces deeper into Sinai. Without air cover, the Egyptian army suffered huge losses. In spite of huge losses they kept advancing, creating the chance to open a gap between army forces. That gap was exploited by a tank division led by Ariel Sharon, and he and his tanks managed to penetrate, reaching Suez City. In the meantime, the United States initiated a strategic airlift to provide replacement weapons and supplies to Israel and appropriate $2.2 billion in emergency aid. OPEC oil ministers, led by Saudi Arabia retaliated with an oil embargo against the US. A UN resolution supported by the United States and the Soviet Union called for an end to hostilities and for peace talks to begin. On 4 March 1974 Israel withdrew the last of its troops from the west side of the Suez Canal and 12 days later Arab oil ministers announced the end of the embargo against the United States. For Sadat and many Egyptians the war was much more a victory than a draw, as the military objective of capturing a foothold of the Sinai was achieved. Under Western influence In foreign relations Sadat instigated momentous change. President Sadat shifted Egypt from a policy of confrontation with Israel to one of peaceful accommodation through negotiations. Following the Sinai Disengagement Agreements of 1974 and 1975, Sadat created a fresh opening for progress by his dramatic visit to Jerusalem in November 1977. This led to the invitation from President Jimmy Carter of the United States to President Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Begin to enter trilateral negotiations at Camp David. The outcome was the historic Camp David accords, signed by Egypt and Israel and witnessed by the US on 17 September 1978. The accords led to 26 March 1979, signing of the Egypt–Israel peace treaty, by which Egypt regained control of the Sinai in May 1982. Throughout this period, US–Egyptian relations steadily improved, and Egypt became one of America's largest recipients of foreign aid. Sadat's willingness to break ranks by making peace with Israel earned him the enmity of most other Arab states, however. In 1977, Egypt fought a short border war with Libya. Sadat used his immense popularity with the Egyptian people to try to push through vast economic reforms that ended the socialistic controls of Nasserism. Sadat introduced greater political freedom and a new economic policy, the most important aspect of which was the infitah or "open door". This relaxed government controls over the economy and encouraged private investment. While the reforms created a wealthy and successful upper class and a small middle class, these reforms had little effect upon the average Egyptian who began to grow dissatisfied with Sadat's rule. In 1977, Infitah policies led to massive spontaneous riots ('Bread Riots') involving hundreds of thousands of Egyptians when the state announced that it was retiring subsidies on basic foodstuffs. Liberalization also included the reinstitution of due process and the legal banning of torture. Sadat dismantled much of the existing political machine and brought to trial a number of former government officials accused of criminal excesses during the Nasser era. Sadat tried to expand participation in the political process in the mid-1970s but later abandoned this effort. In the last years of his life, Egypt was wracked by violence arising from discontent with Sadat's rule and sectarian tensions, and it experienced a renewed measure of repression including extra judicial arrests. Conflict with the Muslim Brotherhood Another change Sadat made from the Nasser era was a bow towards the Islamic revival. Sadat loosened restrictions on the Muslim Brotherhood, allowing it to publish a monthly magazine, al-Dawa, which appeared regularly until September 1981 (although he did not allow the groups reconstitution.) In the late 1970s, he began calling himself 'The Believer President' and signing his name Mohammad Anwar Sadat.' He ordered Egypt's state-run television to interrupt programs with Salat (call to prayer) on the screen five times a day and to increase religious programming. Under his rule local officials banned the sale of alcohol except at places catering to foreign tourists in more than half of Egypt's 26 governorates. 2 Mubarak era Presidential inauguration On 6 October 1981, President Sadat was assassinated by Islamic extremists. Hosni Mubarak, Vice President since 1975 and an air force commander during the October 1973 war, was elected president later that month. He was subsequently confirmed by popular referendum for three more 6-year terms, most recently in September 2005. The results of the referendums are however of questionable validity as they, with the exception of the one conducted in September 2005, listed only Mubarak as the sole candidate. Mubarak maintained Egypt's commitment to the Camp David peace process, while at the same time re-establishing Egypt's position as an Arab leader. Egypt was readmitted to the Arab League in 1989. Egypt also has played a moderating role in such international forums as the UN and the Nonaligned Movement. 1990s – economic reforms and struggle with radical Islamists From 1991, Mubarak undertook an ambitious domestic economic reform program to reduce the size of the public sector and expand the role of the private sector. During the 1990s, a series of International Monetary Fund arrangements, coupled with massive external debt relief resulting from Egypt's participation in the Gulf War coalition, helped Egypt improve its macroeconomic performance. The economy of Egypt flourished during the 1990s and 2000s. The Government of Egypt tamed inflation bringing it down from double-digit to a single digit. Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) increased fourfold between 1981 and 2006, from US$1355 in 1981, to US$2525 in 1991, to US$3686 in 2001 and to an estimated US$4535 in 2006. There was less progress in political reform. The November 2000 People's Assembly elections saw 34 members of the opposition win seats in the 454-seat assembly, facing a clear majority of 388 ultimately affiliated with the ruling National Democratic Party (NDP). A constitutional amendment in May 2005 changed the presidential election to a multicandidate popular vote rather than a popular validation of a candidate nominated by the People's Assembly and on 7 September Mubarak was elected for another six-year term with 87 percent of the popular vote, followed by a distant but strong showing by Ayman Nour, leader of the opposition Ghad Party and a well-known rights activist. Shortly after mounting an unprecedented presidential campaign, Nour was jailed on forgery charges critics called phony; he was released on 18 February 2009. Brotherhood members were allowed to run for parliament in 2005 as independents, garnering 88 seats, or 20 percent of the People's Assembly. The opposition parties have been weak and divided and are not yet credible alternatives to the NDP. The Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt in 1928, had remained an illegal organization and may not be recognized as a political party (current Egyptian law prohibits the formation of political parties based on religion). Members are known publicly and openly speak their views. Members of the Brotherhood have been elected to the People's Assembly and local councils as independents. The Egyptian political opposition also includes groups and popular movements such as Kefaya and the 6 April Youth Movement, although they are somewhat less organized than officially registered political parties. Bloggers, or cyberactivists as Courtney C. Radsch terms them, have also played an important political opposition role, writing, organizing, and mobilizing public opposition. Decrease of influence President Mubarak had tight, autocratic control over Egypt. However, a dramatic drop in support for Mubarak and his domestic economic reform program increased with surfacing news about his son Alaa being extremely corrupt and favored in government tenders and privatization. As Alaa started getting out of the picture by 2000, Mubarak's second son Gamal started rising in the National Democratic Party and succeeded in getting a newer generation of neo-liberals into the party and eventually the government. Gamal Mubarak branched out with a few colleagues to set up Medinvest Associates Ltd., which manages a private equity fund, and to do some corporate finance consultancy work. Civil unrest 2011-2014 2011 revolution and aftermath Beginning on 25 January 2011, a series of street demonstrations, protests, and civil disobedience acts have taken place in Egypt, with organizers counting on the Tunisian uprising to inspire the crowds to mobilize. The demonstrations and riots were reported to have started over police brutality, state of emergency laws, unemployment, desire to raise the minimum wage, lack of housing, food inflation, corruption, lack of freedom of speech, and poor living conditions. The protests' main goal was to oust President Hosni Mubarak's regime. On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak had stepped down and that the Egyptian military would assume control of the nation's affairs in the short term. (See also 2011 revolution.) Jubilant celebrations broke out in Tahrir Square at the news. Mubarak may have left Cairo for Sharm el-Sheikh the previous night, before or shortly after the airing of a taped speech in which Mubarak vowed he would not step down or leave. On 13 February 2011, the high level military command of Egypt announced that both the constitution and the parliament of Egypt had been dissolved. The parliamentary election was to be held in September. A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March 2011. On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its first parliamentary election since the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of irregularities or violence, although members of some parties broke the ban on campaigning at polling places by handing out pamphlets and banners. A constituent assembly, founded on 26 March 2012, started to work for implementing a new constitution. Presidential elections, were held in March–June 2012, with a final runoff between former Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik and Muslim Brotherhood parliamentarian Mohamed Morsi. On 24 June 2012, Egypt's election commission announced that Morsi had won the run-off. On 30 June 2012, Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as Egypt’s new president. Morsi's presidency On 8 July 2012, Egypt's new president Mohamed Morsi said that he's overriding a military edict that dissolved the country's elected parliament and calling on lawmakers back into session. On 10 July 2012, the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt negated the decision by President Mohamed Morsi to call the nation's parliament back into session. On 2 August 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister Hisham Qandil announced his 35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers including four from the influential Muslim Brotherhood, six others and the former military ruler Tantawi as the Defence Minister from the previous Government. 2012-2013 Egyptian protests On 22 November 2012, Egyptian Mohamed Morsi issued a declaration immunizing his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the Constituent Assembly drafting the new constitution. The declaration also requires a retrial of those accused in the Mubarak-era killings of protesters, who had been acquitted, and extends the mandate of the constituent assembly by two months. Additionally, the declaration authorizes Morsi to take any measures necessary to protect the revolution. Liberal and secular groups previously walked out of the constitutional constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi. A constitutional referendum was held in two rounds on 15 and 22 December 2012, with 64% support, and 33% against. It was signed into law by a presidential decree issued by Morsi on 26 December 2012. The move has been criticized by Mohamed ElBaradei who stated "Morsi today usurped all state powers & appointed himself Egypt's new pharaoh" on his Twitter feed. The move has led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt. After Morsi On 30 June 2013, on the first anniversary of the election of Morsi, millions of protesters across Egypt took to the streets and demanded the immediate resignation of the president. On 1 July, the Egyptian Armed Forces issued a 48-hour ultimatum that gave the country's political parties until 3 July to meet the demands of the Egyptian people. The presidency rejected the Egyptian Army's 48-hour ultimatum, vowing that the president would pursue his own plans for national reconciliation to resolve the political crisis. On 3 July, General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, announced that he had removed Morsi from power, suspended the constitution and would be calling new presidential and Shura Council elections and named Supreme Constitutional Court's leader, Adly Mansour as acting president. Mansour was sworn in on 4 July 2013. During the months after the coup d'état, a new constitution was prepared, which took effect on 18 January 2014. After that, presidential and parliamentary elections have to be held within 6 months. El-Sisi Presidency In the elections of June 2014 El-Sisi won with a percentage of 96.1%. On 8 June 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president. Under President el-Sisi, Egypt has implemented a rigorous policy of controlling the border to the Gaza Strip, including the dismantling of tunnels between the Gaza strip and Sinai. In April 2018, El-Sisi was re-elected by landslide in election with no real opposition. In April 2019, Egypt’s parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years. President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi was also allowed to run for third term in next election in 2024. Under El-Sisi Egypt is said to have returned to authoritarianism. New constitutional reforms have been implemented, meaning strengthening the role of military and limiting the political opposition. The constitutional changes were accepted in a referendum in April 2019. In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary election confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt’s Mostaqbal Watn (Nation’s Future) Party, which strongly supports president El-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules. During the 2020–2021 Tigray War, Egypt was also involved. On 19 December 2020, an EEPA report stated, based on testimonials of three Egyptian officials and one European diplomat, that the UAE used its base in Assab (Eritrea) to launch drones strikes against Tigray. The investigative platform Bellingcat confirmed the presence of Chinese-produced drones at the UAE's military base in Assab, Eritrea. Egyptian officials were concerned about strengthening ties between the UAE and Israel. They fear that both countries will collaborate in the construction of an alternative to the Suez Canal, starting from Haifa in Israel. On 19 December 2020, Egypt was reportedly encouraging Sudan to support the TPLF in Tigray. It wants to strengthen a joint position in relation to negotiations on the GERD Dam, which impacts both countries downstream. See also History of Egypt Egyptian Constitution of 1923 Liberalism in Egypt Terrorism in Egypt References Further reading Bruton, Henry J. . "Egypt's Development in the Seventies" Economic Development and Cultural Change. 31#4 (1983), pp. 679–704. in JSTOR. Baer, Gabriel. Studies in the Social History of Modern Egypt (U Chicago Press, 1969). Daly, Martin W. ed. The Cambridge history of Egypt. Vol. 2: Modern Egypt from 1517 to the end of the twentieth century. (1998). Goldschmidt Jr., Arthur. Biographical Dictionary of Modern Egypt (1999) Karakoç, Ulaş. "Industrial growth in interwar Egypt: first estimate, new insights" European Review of Economic History (2018) 22#1 53–72, online Landes, David. Bankers and Pashas: International Finance and Economic Imperialism in Egypt (Harvard UP, 1980). Marlowe, John. A History of Modern Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Relations: 1800-1956 (Archon Books, 1965). Morewood, Steve. The British Defence of Egypt, 1935-40: Conflict and Crisis in the Eastern Mediterranean (2008). Royal Institute of International Affairs. Great Britain and Egypt, 1914-1951 (2nd ed. 1952) also online free Thornhill, Michael T. "Informal Empire, Independent Egypt and the Accession of King Farouk." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 38#2 (2010): 279–302. Tignore, Robert L. Egypt: A Short History (2011) Vatikiotis, P.J. The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak (4th ed. 1991) Modern Egypt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt%20in%20the%20Middle%20Ages
Egypt in the Middle Ages
Following the Islamic conquest in 639, Lower Egypt was ruled at first by governors acting in the name of the Rashidun Caliphs and then the Umayyad Caliphs in Damascus, but in 747 the Umayyads were overthrown. Throughout Islamic rule, Askar was named the capital and housed the ruling administration. The conquest led to two separate provinces all under one ruler: Upper and Lower Egypt. These two very distinct regions were governed by the military and followed the demands handed down by the governor of Egypt and imposed by the heads of their communities. Egypt was ruled by many dynasties from the start of Islamic control in 639 until the early 16th century. The Umayyad period lasted from 658 to 750. The Abbasid period which came after was much more focused on taxes and centralizing power. In 868, the Tulunids, ruled by Ahmad ibn Tulun, expanded Egypt's territory into the Levant. He would rule until his death in 884. After years of turmoil under Ahmad ibn Tulun's successor, many citizens defected back to the Abbasids and in 904 they would reclaim power from the Tulunids. In 969, Egypt came under the control of the Fatimids. This dynasty would begin to fade after the death of their last ruler in 1171. In 1174, Egypt came under the rule of the Ayyubids, who ruled from Damascus and not from Cairo. This dynasty fought against the Crusader States during the Fifth Crusade. Ayyubid Sultan Najm al-Din recaptured Jerusalem in 1244. He introduced Mamluk forces into his army in order to hold off the crusaders. This decision would be one he regretted. The Ayyubids were overthrown by their bodyguards, known as the Mamluks in 1252 and ruled until 1517, when Egypt became part of the Ottoman Empire under the Eyālet-i Mıṣr province. Early Islamic period Muslim conquest of Egypt In 639 an army of some 4,000 men were sent against Egypt by the second caliph, Umar, under the command of Amr ibn al-As. This army was joined by another 5,000 men in 640 and defeated a Byzantine army at the battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on November 8, 641. Alexandria was regained for the Byzantine Empire in 645 but was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed. From that time no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country. Administration of early Islamic Egypt Following the first surrender of Alexandria, Amr chose a new site to settle his men, near the location of the Byzantine fortress of Babylon. The new settlement received the name of Fustat, after Amr's tent, which had been pitched there when the Arabs besieged the fortress. Fustat quickly became the focal point of Islamic Egypt, and, with the exception of the brief relocation to Helwan during a plague in 689, and the period of 750–763, when the seat of the governor moved to Askar, the capital and residence of the administration. After the conquest, the country was initially divided in two provinces, Upper Egypt (al-sa'id) and Lower Egypt with the Nile Delta (asfal al-ard). In 643/4, however, Caliph Uthman appointed a single governor (wāli) with jurisdiction over all of Egypt, resident at Fustat. The governor would in turn nominate deputies for Upper and Lower Egypt. Alexandria remained a distinct district, reflecting both its role as the country's shield against Byzantine attacks, and as the major naval base. It was considered a frontier fortress (ribat) under a military governor and was heavily garrisoned, with a quarter of the province's garrison serving there in semi-annual rotation. Next to the wāli, there was also the commander of the police (ṣāḥib al-shurṭa), responsible for internal security and for commanding the jund (army). The main pillar of the early Muslim rule and control in the country was the military force, or jund, staffed by the Arab settlers. These were initially the men who had followed Amr and participated in the conquest. The followers of Amr were mostly drawn from Yamani (south Arabian) tribes, rather than the northern Arab (Qays i) tribes, who were scarcely represented in the province; it was they who dominated the country's affairs for the first two centuries of Muslim rule. Initially, they numbered 15,500, but their numbers grew through emigration in the subsequent decades. By the time of Caliph Mu'awiya I (r. 661–680), the number of men registered in the army list (diwān al-jund) and entitled an annual pay (ʿaṭāʾ) reached 40,000. Jealous of their privileges and status, which entitled them to a share of the local revenue, the members of the jund then virtually closed off the register to new entries. It was only after the losses of the Second Fitna that the registers were updated, and occasionally, governors would add soldiers en masse to the lists as a means to garner political support. In return for a very small tribute of money (0.5% Jizya Tax on some free men) and food for the troops, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Conversions of Copts to Islam were initially rare, and the old system of taxation was maintained for the greater part of the first Islamic century. The old division of the country into districts (nomoi) was maintained, and to the inhabitants of these districts demands were directly addressed by the governor of Egypt, while the head of the community—ordinarily a Copt but in some cases a Muslim Egyptian—was responsible for compliance with the demand. Umayyad period During the First Fitna, Caliph Ali (r. 656–661) appointed Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr as governor of Egypt, but Amr led an invasion in summer 658 that defeated Ibn Abi Bakr and secured the country for the Umayyads. Amr then served as governor until his death in 664. From 667/8 until 682, the province was governed by another fervent pro-Umayyad partisan, Maslama ibn Mukhallad al-Ansari. During the Second Fitna, Ibn al-Zubayr gained the support of the Kharijites in Egypt and sent a governor of his own, Abd al-Rahman ibn Utba al-Fihri, to the province. The Kharijite-backed Zubayrid regime was very unpopular with the local Arabs, who called upon the Umayyad caliph Marwan I (r. 684–685) for aid. In December 684, Marwan invaded Egypt and reconquered it with relative ease. Marwan installed his son Abd al-Aziz as governor. Relying on his close ties with the jund, Abd al-Aziz ruled the country for 20 years, enjoying wide autonomy and governing as a de facto viceroy. Abd al-Aziz also supervised the completion of the Muslim conquest of North Africa; it was he who appointed Musa ibn Nusayr in his post as governor of Ifriqiya. Abd al-Aziz hoped to be succeeded by his son, but when he died, Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (685–695) sent his own son, Abdallah, as governor in a move to reassert control and prevent the country from becoming a hereditary domain. Abd al-Malik ibn Rifa'a al-Fahmi in 715 and his successor Ayyub ibn Sharhabil in 717 were the first governors chosen from the jund, rather than members of the Umayyad family or court. Both are reported to have increased pressure on the Copts, and initiated measures of Islamization. The resentment of the Copts against taxation led to a revolt in 725. In 727, to strengthen Arab representation, a colony of 3,000 Arabs was set up near Bilbeis. Meanwhile, the employment of the Arabic language had been steadily gaining ground, and in 706 it was made the official language of the government. Egyptian Arabic, the modern Arabic accent of Egypt, began to form. Other revolts of the Copts are recorded for the years 739 and 750, the last year of Umayyad domination. The outbreaks in all cases are attributed to increased taxation. Abbasid period The Abbasid period was marked by new taxations, and the Copts revolted again in the fourth year of Abbasid rule. At the beginning of the 9th century the practice of ruling Egypt through a governor was resumed under Abdallah ibn Tahir, who decided to reside at Baghdad, sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him. In 828 another Egyptian revolt broke out, and in 831 the Copts joined with native Muslims against the government. A major change came in 834, when Caliph al-Mu'tasim discontinued the practice of paying the jund as they nominally still formed the province's garrison—the ʿaṭāʾ from the local revenue. Al-Mu'tasim discontinued the practice, removing the Arab families from the army registers diwān and ordering that the revenues of Egypt be sent to the central government, which would then pay the ʿaṭāʾ only to the Turkish troops stationed in the province. This was a move towards centralizing power in the hands of the central caliphal administration, but also signalled the decline of the old elites, and the passing of power to the officials sent to the province by the Abbasid court, most notably the Turkish soldiers favoured by al-Mu'tasim. At about the same time, for the first time the Muslim population began surpassing the Coptic Christians in numbers, and throughout the 9th century the rural districts were increasingly subject to both Arabization and Islamization. The rapidity of this process, and the influx of settlers after the discovery of gold and emerald mines at Aswan, meant that Upper Egypt in particular was only superficially controlled by the local governor. Furthermore, the persistence of internecine strife and turmoil at the heart of the Abbasid state—the so-called "Anarchy at Samarra"—led to the appearance of millennialist revolutionary movements in the province under a series of Alid pretenders in the 870s. In part, these movements were an expression of dissatisfaction with and alienation from imperial rule by Baghdad; these sentiments would manifest themselves in the support of several Egyptians for the Fatimids in the 10th century. Tulunid period In 868, Caliph al-Mu'tazz (r. 866–869) gave charge of Egypt to the Turkish general Bakbak. Bakbak in turn sent his stepson Ahmad ibn Tulun as his lieutenant and resident governor. This appointment ushered in a new era in Egypt's history: hitherto a passive province of an empire, under Ibn Tulun it would re-emerge as an independent political centre. Ibn Tulun would use the country's wealth to extend his rule into the Levant, in a pattern followed by later Egypt-based regimes, from the Ikhshidids to the Mamluk Sultanate. The first years of Ibn Tulun's governorship were dominated by his power struggle with the powerful head of the fiscal administration, the Ibn al-Mudabbir. The latter had been appointed as fiscal agent (ʿāmil) already since , and had rapidly become the most hated man in the country as he doubled the taxes and imposed new ones on Muslims and non-Muslims alike. By 872 Ibn Tulun had achieved Ibn al-Mudabirbir's dismissal and taken over the management of the fisc himself, and had managed to assemble an army of his own, thereby becoming de facto independent of Baghdad. As a sign of his power, he established a new palace city to the northeast of Fustat, called al-Qata'i, in 870. The project was a conscious emulation of, and rival to, the Abbasid capital Samarra, with quarters assigned to the regiments of his army, a hippodrome, hospital, and palaces. The new city's centrepiece was the Mosque of Ibn Tulun. Ibn Tulun continued to emulate the familiar Samarra model in the establishment of his administration as well, creating new departments and entrusting them to Samarra-trained officials. His regime was in many ways typical of the "ghulām system" that became one of the two main paradigms of Islamic polities in the 9th and 10th centuries, as the Abbasid Caliphate fragmented and new dynasties emerged. These regimes were based on the power of a regular army composed of slave soldiers or ghilmān, but in turn, according to Hugh N. Kennedy, "the paying of the troops was the major preoccupation of government". It is therefore in the context of the increased financial requirements that in 879, the supervision of the finances passed to Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Madhara'i, the founder of the al-Madhara'i bureaucratic dynasty that dominated the fiscal apparatus of Egypt for the next 70 years. The peace and security provided by the Tulunid regime, the establishment of an efficient administration, and repairs and expansions to the irrigation system, coupled with a consistently high level of Nile floods, resulted in a major increase in revenue. By the end of his reign, Ibn Tulun had accumulated a reserve of ten million dinars. Ibn Tulun's rise was facilitated by the feebleness of the Abbasid government, threatened by the rise of the Saffarids in the east and by the Zanj Rebellion in Iraq itself, and divided due to the rivalry between Caliph al-Mu'tamid (r. 870–892) and his increasingly powerful brother and de facto regent, al-Muwaffaq. Open conflict between Ibn Tulun and al-Muwaffaq broke out in 875/6. The latter tried to oust Ibn Tulun from Egypt, but the expedition sent against him barely reached Syria. In retaliation, with the support of the Caliph, in 877/8 Ibn Tulun received responsibility for the entirety of Syria and the frontier districts of Cilicia (the Thughūr). Ibn Tulun occupied Syria but failed to seize Tarsus in Cilicia, and was forced to return to Egypt due to the abortive revolt of his eldest son, Abbas. Ibn Tulun has Abbas imprisoned, and named his second son, Khumarawayh, as his heir. In 882, Ibn Tulun came close to having Egypt become the new centre of the Caliphate, when al-Mu'tamid tried to flee to his domains. In the event, however, the Caliph was overtaken and brought him back to Samarra (February 883) and under his brother's control. This opened anew the rift between the two rulers: Ibn Tulun organized an assembly of religious jurists at Damascus which denounced al-Muwaffaq a usurper, condemned his maltreatment of the Caliph, declared his place in the succession as void, and called for a jihād against him. Al-Muwaffaq was duly denounced in sermons in the mosques across the Tulunid domains, while the Abbasid regent responded in kind with a ritual denunciation of Ibn Tulun. Ibn Tulun then tried once more, again without success, to impose his rule over Tarsus. He fell ill on his return journey to Egypt, and died at Fustat on 10 May 884. At Ibn Tulun's death, Khumarawayh, with the backing of the Tulunid elites, succeeded without opposition. Ibn Tulun bequeathed his heir "with a seasoned military, a stable economy, and a coterie of experienced commanders and bureaucrats". Khumarawayh was able to preserve his authority against the Abbasid's attempt to overthrow him at the Battle of Tawahin and even made additional territorial gains, recognized in a treaty with al-Muwaffaq in 886 that gave the Tulunids the hereditary governorship over Egypt and Syria for 30 years. The accession of al-Muwaffaq's son al-Mu'tadid as Caliph in 892 marked a new rapprochement, culminating in the marriage of Khumarawayh's daughter to the new Caliph, but also the return of the provinces of Diyar Rabi'a and Diyar Mudar to caliphal control. Domestically, Khumarawayh's reign was one of "luxury and decay" (Hugh N. Kennedy), but also a time of relative tranquility in Egypt as well as in Syria, a rather unusual occurrence for the period. Nevertheless, Khumarawayh's extravagant spending exhausted the fisc, and by the time of his assassination in 896, the Tulunid treasury was empty. Following Khumarawayh's death, internal strife sapped Tulunid power. Khumarawayh's son Jaysh was a drunkard who executed his uncle, Mudar ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun; he was deposed after only a few months and replaced by his brother Harun ibn Khumarawayh. Harun too was a weak ruler, and although a revolt by his uncle Rabi'ah in Alexandria was suppressed, the Tulunids were unable to confront the attacks of the Qarmatians who began at the same time. In addition, many commanders defected to the Abbasids, whose power revived under the capable leadership of al-Muwaffaq's son, Caliph al-Mu'tadid (r. 892–902). Finally, in December 904, two other sons of Ibn Tulun, Ali and Shayban, murdered their nephew and assumed control of the Tulunid state. Far from halting the decline, this event alienated key commanders in Syria and led to the rapid and relatively unopposed reconquest of Syria and Egypt by the Abbasids under Muhammad ibn Sulayman al-Katib, who entered Fustat in January 905. With the exception of the Great Mosque of Ibn Tulun, the victorious Abbasid troops pillaged al-Qata'i and razed it to the ground. Second Abbasid period and Ikhshidid period The Abbasids were able to repulse Fatimid invasions of Egypt in 914–915 and 919–921. In 935, after repulsing another Fatimid attack, the Turkish commander Muhammad ibn Tughj became the de facto ruler of Egypt with the title of al-Ikhshid. After his death in 946, the succession of his son Unujur was peaceful and undisputed, due to the influence of the powerful and talented commander-in-chief, Kafur. One of the many Black African slaves recruited by al-Ikhshid, Kafur remained the paramount minister and virtual ruler of Egypt over the next 22 years, assuming power in his own right in 966 until his death two years later. Encouraged by his death, in 969 the Fatimids invaded and conquered Egypt, beginning a new era in the country's history. Fatimid period Jawhar as-Siqilli immediately began the building of a new city, Cairo, to furnish quarters for the army which he had brought. A palace for the Caliph and a mosque for the army were immediately constructed, which for many centuries remained the centre of Muslim learning. However, the Carmathians of Damascus under Hasan al-Asam advanced through Palestine to Egypt, and in the autumn of 971 Jauhar found himself besieged in his new city. By a timely sortie, preceded by the administration of bribes to various officers in the Carmathian host, Jauhar succeeded in inflicting a severe defeat on the besiegers, who were compelled to evacuate Egypt and part of Syria. Meanwhile, the caliph in 2 al-Muizz had been summoned to enter the palace that had been prepared for him, and after leaving a viceroy to take charge of his western possessions he arrived in Alexandria on May 31 973, and proceeded to instruct his new subjects in the particular form of religion (Shiism) which his family represented. As this was in origin identical with that professed by the Carmathians, he hoped to gain the submission of their leader by argument; but this plan was unsuccessful, and there was a fresh invasion from that quarter in the year after his arrival, and the caliph found himself besieged in his capital. The Carmathians were gradually forced to retreat from Egypt and then from Syria by some successful engagements, and by the judicious use of bribes, whereby dissension was sown among their leaders. Al-Muizz also found time to take some active measures against the Byzantines, with whom his generals fought in Syria with varying fortune. Before his death he was acknowledged as Caliph in Mecca and Medina, as well as Syria, Egypt and North Africa as far as Tangier. Under the vizier al-Aziz, there was a large amount of toleration conceded to the other sects of Islam, and to other communities, but the belief that the Christians of Egypt were in league with the Byzantine emperor, and even burned a fleet which was being built for the Byzantine war, led to some persecution. Al-Aziz attempted without success to enter into friendly relations with the Buwayhid ruler of Baghdad, and tried to gain possession of Aleppo, as the key to Iraq, but this was prevented by the intervention of the Byzantines. His North African possessions were maintained and extended, but the recognition of the Fatimid caliph in this region was little more than nominal. His successor al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah came to the throne at the age of eleven, being the son of Aziz by a Christian mother. His conduct of affairs was vigorous and successful, and he concluded a peace with the Byzantine emperor. He is perhaps best remembered by his destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem (1009), a measure which helped to provoke the Crusades, but was only part of a general scheme for converting all Christians and Jews in his dominions to his own opinions by force. A more reputable expedient with the same end in view was the construction of a great library in Cairo, with ample provision for students; this was modelled on a similar institution at Baghdad. For unknown reasons al-Hakim disappeared in 1021. In 1049 the Zirid dynasty in the Maghrib returned to the Sunni faith and became subjects of the Caliphate in Baghdad, but at the same time Yemen recognized the Fatimid caliphate. Meanwhile, Baghdad was taken by the Turks, falling to the Seljuk Tughrul Beg in 1059. The Turks also plundered Cairo in 1068, but they were driven out by 1074. During this time, however, Syria was overrun by an invader in league with the Seljuk Malik Shah, and Damascus was permanently lost to the Fatimids. This period is otherwise memorable for the rise of the Hashshashin, or Assassins. During the Crusades, al-Mustafa maintained himself in Alexandria, and helped the Crusaders by rescuing Jerusalem from the Ortokids, thereby facilitating its conquesst by the Crusaders in 1099. He endeavoured to retrieve his error by himself advancing into Palestine, but he was defeated at the battle of Ascalon , and compelled to retire to Egypt. Many of the Palestinian possessions of the Fatimids then successively fell into the hands of the Crusaders. In 1118 Egypt was invaded by Baldwin I of Jerusalem, who burned the gates and the mosques of Farama, and advanced to Tinnis, when illness compelled him to retreat. In August 1121 al-Afdal Shahanshah was assassinated in a street of Cairo, it is said, with the connivance of the Caliph, who immediately began the plunder of his house, where fabulous treasures were said to be amassed. The vizier's offices were given to al-Mamn. His external policy was not more fortunate than that of his predecessor, as he lost Tyre to the Crusaders, and a fleet equipped by him was defeated by the Venetians. In 1153 Ascalon was lost, the last place in Syria which the Fatimids held; its loss was attributed to dissensions between the parties of which the garrison consisted. In April 1154 the Caliph al-Zafir was murdered by his vizier Abbas, according to Usamah, because the Caliph had suggested to his favorite, the vizier's son, to murder his father; and this was followed by a massacre of the brothers of Zafir, followed by the raising of his infant son Abul-Qasim Isa to the throne. In December 1162, the vizier Shawar took control of Cairo. However, after only nine months he was compelled to flee to Damascus, where he was favorably received by the prince Nureddin, who sent with him to Cairo a force of Kurds under Asad al-din Shirkuh. At the same time Egypt was invaded by the Franks, who raided and did much damage on the coast. Shawar recaptured Cairo but a dispute then arose with his Syrian allies for the possession of Egypt. Shawar, being unable to cope with the Syrians, demanded help of the Frankish king of Jerusalem Amalric I, who hastened to his aid with a large force, which united with Shawar's and besieged Shirkuh in Bilbeis for three months; at the end of this time, owing to the successes of Nureddin in Syria, the Franks granted Shirkuh a free passage with his troops back to Syria, on condition of Egypt being evacuated (October 1164). Two years later Shirkuh, a Kurdish general known as "the Lion", persuaded Nureddin to put him at the head of another expedition to Egypt, which left Syria in January 1167; a Frankish army hastened to Shawar's aid. At the battle of Babain (April 11, 1167) the allies were defeated by the forces commanded by Shirkuh and his nephew Saladin, who was made prefect of Alexandria, which surrendered to Shirkuh without a struggle. In 1168 Amalric invaded again, but Shirkuh's return caused the Crusaders to withdraw. Shirkuh was appointed vizier but died of indigestion (March 23, 1169), and the Caliph appointed Saladin as successor to Shirkuh; the new vizier professed to hold office as a deputy of Nureddin, whose name was mentioned in public worship after that of the Caliph. Nureddin loyally aided his deputy in dealing with Crusader invasions of Egypt, and he ordered Saladin to substitute the name of the Abbasid caliph for the Fatimid in public worship. The last Fatimid caliph died soon after in September, 1171. Ayyubid period Saladin, a general known as "the Lion", was confirmed as Nureddin's deputy in Egypt, and on the death of Nureddin on April 12, 1174, he took the title sultan. During his reign Damascus, rather than Cairo, was the major city of the empire. Nevertheless, he fortified Cairo, which became the political centre of Egypt. It was in 1183 that Saladin's rule over Egypt and North Syria was consolidated. Much of Saladin's time was spent in Syria, where he fought the Crusader States, and Egypt was largely governed by his deputy Karaksh. Saladin's son Othman succeeded him in Egypt in 1193. He allied with his uncle (Saladin's brother) Al-Adil I against Saladin's other sons, and after the wars that followed, Al-Adil took power in 1200. He died in 1218 during the siege of Damietta in the Fifth Crusade, and was succeeded by Al-Kamil, who lost Damietta to the Crusaders in 1219. However, he defeated their advance to Cairo by flooding the Nile, and they were forced to evacuate Egypt in 1221. Al-Kamil was later forced to give up various cities in Palestina and Syria to Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor during the Sixth Crusade, in order to gain his help against Damascus. Najm al-Din became sultan in 1240. His reign saw the recapture of Jerusalem in 1244, and the introduction of a larger force of Mameluks into the army. Much of his time was spent in campaigns in Syria, where he allied with the Khwarezmians against the Crusaders and Ayyubids. In 1249 he faced an invasion by Louis IX of France (the Seventh Crusade), and Damietta was lost again. Najm al-Din died soon after this, but his son Turanshah defeated Louis and expelled the Crusaders from Egypt. Turanshah was soon overthrown by the Mameluks, who had become the "kingmakers" since their arrival and now wanted full power for themselves. Mamluk Egypt The Mamluk's violent approach to power brought them great political and economic prosperity and led them to becoming the rulers of Egypt. The Mamluk Egypt period began with the Bahri Dynasty and was followed by the Burji Dynasty. The Bahri Dynasty would rule from 1250 to 1382, while the Burji dynasty would last from 1382 to 1517. Cultural contributions of the Mamluk Empire spanned across more than religion. Literature and astronomy were two subjects which the Mamluks valued and participated in heavily. They were a highly literate and educated society. Private libraries were a status symbol in Mamluk culture. Some of the libraries discovered show evidence of the remnants of thousands of books. The end of the period was brought about due to famine, military tensions, disease, and high taxation. Bahri dynasty The Mamluk sultans were drawn from the freed slaves who formed the court and went on to become slaveowners themselves, they went on to office the army. The sultans were unable to effectively form a new dynasty, usually leaving behind infants who were then overthrown. The Bahri dynasty (1250–1382) would go through 25 sultans in its 132-year period. Many died or were killed shortly after being in power; very few lived more than a few years into their rule as sultan. The first of these was Aybak, who married Shajar al-Durr (the widow of al-Salih Ayyub) and quickly began a war with the region of present-day Syria. He was assassinated in 1257 and was succeeded by Qutuz, who faced a growing danger from the Mongols. Qutuz defeated the army of Hulagu Khan at the Battle of Ain Jalut in the year 1260, allowing him to regain all of Syria except for the Crusader strongholds. On the way back to Egypt after the battle, Qutuz died and was succeeded by another commander, Baybars, who assumed the sultanate and ruled from 1260 to 1277. In 1291, al-Ashraf Khalil captured Acre, the last of the crusader cities. The Bahris greatly enhanced the power and prestige of Egypt, building Cairo from a small town into one of the foremost cities in the world. Due to the sacking of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, Cairo became the central city of the Islamic world. The Mamluks built much of the earliest remaining architecture of Cairo, including many mosques built out of stone using long, imposing lines. Since 1347 the Egyptian population, economy, and political system experienced significant destruction as a result of the Black Death pandemic whose waves continued to destroy Egypt up to the early 16th century. In 1377 a revolt in Syria spread to Egypt, and the government was taken over by the Circassians Berekeh and Barkuk. Barkuk was proclaimed sultan in 1382, ending the Bahri dynasty. He was expelled in 1389, but recaptured Cairo in 1390, setting up the Burji dynasty. Burji dynasty The Burji dynasty (1382–1517) proved especially turbulent, with political power-plays resulting in short-lived sultans. During the period, the Mamluks fought Timur Lenk and conquered Cyprus. Plague epidemics continued to ruin Egypt when it spread over the region in 1388–1389, 1397–1398, 1403–1407, 1410–1411, 1415–1419, 1429–1430, 1438–1439, 1444–1449, 1455, 1459–1460, 1468–1469, 1476–1477, 1492, 1498, 1504–1505 and 1513–1514. Constant political bickering contributed to the inability to resist the Ottomans, this would see the vassalization of Egypt under Ottoman Sultan Selim I. The sultan defeated the Mamluks and captured Cairo on 20 January 1517, transferring the center of power to Istanbul. However, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as the Egyptian ruling class. The Mamluks and the Burji family regained much of their influence, but technically remained vassals of the Ottomans. Egypt then entered into the middle period of the Ottoman Empire. See also Egypt in World War II References Sources Egypt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonin%20Islands
Bonin Islands
The Ogasawara Islands, also known as the Bonin Islands, are a Japanese archipelago of over 30 subtropical and tropical islands located around SSE of Tokyo and northwest of Guam. The group as a whole has a total area of but only two of the islands are permanently inhabited, Chichijima and Hahajima. Together, their population was 2560 as of 2021. Administratively, Tokyo's Ogasawara Subprefecture also includes the settlements on the Volcano Islands and the Self-Defense Force post on Iwo Jima. The seat of government is Chichijima. Because of the Bonins' isolation, many of their animals and plants have undergone unique evolutionary processes. It has been called "the Galápagos of the Orient" and was named a natural World Heritage Site in 2011. When first reached during the early modern period, the islands were entirely uninhabited, the source of the name "Bonin". Subsequent research has found evidence of some prehistoric habitation by Micronesians. Upon their repeated rediscoveries, the islands were largely ignored by the Spanish, Dutch, and isolationist Japanese until finally being claimed by a passing British captain in 1827. American, European, and Hawaiian colonists arrived from the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1830. Subsequently, Meiji Japan successfully colonized and reclaimed the islands in 1875 but the original multicultural community continued up to World War II, when most islanders were forcibly relocated to Honshu. Following Japan's defeat, the US Navy occupied the island, bulldozing existing Japanese homes and restricting resettlement until full control of the Bonins was returned to Japan in 1968. Ethnically, the island is now majority Japanese but remains unusually diverse, which is reflected in the local creole language known as Bonin English. Improved transportation has made agriculture more profitable and encouraged tourism, but the development required for an airport remains a contentious local issue. Names The name Bonin comes from an 1817 article in the French Journal des Savans by Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat in whichamong various other misunderstandings of his source materialhe misread a description of the islands as uninhabited (, "desert island[s]") for their actual name, used the wrong reading of the characters (buninshima for ), and then transcribed the resulting reading incorrectly into French as , which eventually lost its original hyphen. The name Ogasawara () literally means "little hat-shaped field(s)" but is used for the islands in honor of Ogasawara Sadayori (), a supposed ancestor of the ronin Ogasawara Sadatō () fictitiously credited with the discovery of the chain. Within Japanese, the Bonins proper are known as the "Ogasawara Islands" or "Group" (, Ogasawara-guntō) while the "Ogasawara Islands" or "Archipelago" (, Ogasawara-shotō) is a wider term including the other islands of the Ogasawara Municipality (, Ogasawara-mura) and its coterminous Ogasawara Subprefecture (, Ogasawara-shichō)namely, the Volcano Islands and three remote islands of Nishinoshima, Minamitorishima, and Okinotorishima. All of these islands are parts of Japan's Nanpō Islands. The islands were also formerly known to Europeans as the Archbishop Islands (), probably in honor of Pedro Moya de Contreras, archbishop of Mexico and viceroy of New Spain, who sent an expedition to the area in the late 16th century. History Prehistory At the end of the 20th century, prehistoric tools and carved stones were discovered on North Iwo Jima and Chichijima, establishing that the islands were previously home to at least some members of an unknown Micronesian people. Early modern period The first recorded visit by Europeans to the islands happened on 2 October 1543, when the Spanish explorer Bernardo de la Torre on the San Juan sighted Haha-jima, which he charted as Forfana. At that time, the islands were uninhabited. Japanese discovery of the islands occurred in Kanbun 10 (1670) and was followed by a shogunate expedition in Enpō 3 (1675). The islands were then referred to as , literally "the uninhabited islands". Shimaya Ichizaemon, the explorer at the order of the shogunate, inventoried several species of trees and birds, but after his expedition, the shogunate abandoned any plans to develop the remote islands. In 1727, , a rōnin, claimed that the islands were discovered by his ancestor , in 1593, (Tensho 20), and the territory was granted as a fief by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. However, investigation of the claim found that it was a fraud and the very existence of Sadayori was doubtful; as a punishment Sadato was exiled by the shogunate (1735). The first published description of the islands in the West was brought to Europe by Isaac Titsingh in 1796. His small library of Japanese books included by Hayashi Shihei. This book, which was published in Japan in 1785, briefly described the Ogasawara Islands. These groups were collectively called the Archbishop Islands in Spanish sources of the 18th–19th century, most likely due to an expedition organized by Pedro Moya de Contreras, archbishop of Mexico and viceroy of New Spain, to explore the northern Pacific and the islands of Japan. Its main objective was to find the long sought but legendary islands of Rica de Oro ("Rich in Gold"), Rica de Plata ("Rich in Silver"), and the Islas del Armenio ("Islands of the Armenian"). After several years of planning and frustrated initial attempts, the expedition finally set sail on 12 July 1587 commanded by Pedro de Unamuno. Even if it did revisit the Daitō Islands, already charted by Bernardo de la Torre in 1543, the expedition could not find the wanted islands after searching the positions where they were charted in contemporary references. Japanese maps at the time seem to have been rather inaccurate, to the point that some contemporaries considered them to have been deliberately misleading to discourage colonization attempts by foreign nations. Frederick William Beechey used the Spanish name as late as 1831, believing that the Japanese "Boninsima" were entirely different islands. 19th century On 12 September 1824 American Captain James Coffin in the whaler first visited the southern group of islands (Coffin Islands). He visited the archipelago again in 1825 but this time he arrived at the middle group of islands (Beechey Group). In September 1825, the British whaling ship Supply landed in the southern Bailey Group of islands. In 1826, another British whaler, William, arrived at Beechey Island. Whaling ships called on a regular basis, for water and turtles, before continuing their voyages. In 1827 Captain F. W. Beechey of reached the island chain and claimed them as a British possession. A copper plate was removed from Blossoms hull and left on a beach as a marker of the claim: He also named the island of Chichijima "Peel" after then British Home Secretary Sir Robert Peel. Beechey was also surprised to find two men living on the islands. They remained on the islands after the William left the year before in 1826. The men were Wittrein and Petersen. In 1830, with the help of British Consul to the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) Richard Charlton, Richard Millichamp, and Matteo Mazzaro sailed to the islands. The first permanent colony was made up of Nathaniel Savory of Bradford, Massachusetts, America, Richard Millichamp of Devon, England; Matteo Mazzaro of Ragusa/Dubrovnik, Austrian Empire (now in Croatia); Alden B. Chapin and Nathaniel Savory of Boston; Carl Johnsen of Copenhagen; as well as seven unnamed men and 13 women from the Kingdom of Hawaii. They found the climate suitable for farming and the raising of livestock. Rum was made from cane sugar, and bordellos were opened, sometimes staffed by women kidnapped from other island chains. Whalers and other ships that could not find another friendly port in Japan often visited the Bonins for provision and recreation. Two years later the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland published a posthumous, abridged publication of Titsingh's French translation of Sankoku Tsūran Zusetsu. Further settlers arrived in 1846, aboard the whaling ship Howard. They established themselves initially in South Island. One of them, a woman from the Caroline Islands named Hypa, died in 1897 age about 112, after being baptized on her deathbed. Commodore Matthew C. Perry of the United States Navy visited the islands in 1853 and bought property at Port Lloyd from Savory for $50. The US "Colony of Peel Island" (Chichijima) was created and Savory was appointed governor. In January 1862 (Bunkyū 1), the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan claimed the islands in a short-lived colonial enterprise. The shogunal steamboat Kanrin Maru was dispatched to the islands with a crew of cartographers, physicians and prominent bureaucrats. The islands were officially renamed Ogasawara, referring to the legendary Japanese discoverer from the late 16th century. This tentative colonization, however, did not last for long. In summer 1863, under foreign pressure, the shogunate ordered the evacuation of the islands. In 1875 the Japanese Meiji government reclaimed the islands. The Japanese names of each island were resolved and 38 settlers from Hachijojima were sent the following year. In 1876 the islands were put under the direct control of the Home Ministry. Further foreign settlement was banned, and the government assisted settlers who wished to relocate there from mainland Japan. The islands' forests were also cut down for sugar cane production. Colonists largely segregated themselves in two different villages, one for the Americans and the other for the Japanese. Islanders of European and US ancestry were eventually granted Japanese nationality in 1882. Jack London visited the islands in 1893 and published an account of his sojourn. 20th century Lionel Cholmondeley compiled a history of the islands over the course of several years, publishing in 1915. In 1917, 60–70 island people claimed ancestry among the 19th-century English-speaking settlers; however, in 1941, no Bonin people would acknowledge descent from these early colonists. The current residents include some who claim to be related to Nathaniel Savory. In the winter of 1920–1921, Russian Futurist painter David Burliuk lived in the Bonin Islands and painted several landscapes of the islands. The islanders were relegated to an insignificant status up through the early Shōwa period. After Japan's attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, English was banned on the Bonins, and Americans had to take on Japanese names. As fighting creeped closer to Japan during the later stage of the war, most inhabitants were forcibly evacuated to the mainland. There was a Japanese military base on Chichijima run by a Major , who was known for engaging in cannibalism and other acts on prisoners of war. The torpedo bomber of later American President George H. W. Bush crashed in the ocean near Chichijima. He ended up getting rescued by USS Finback and becoming the only one to ultimately survive. Eight other airmen downed near the islands were later executed and cannibalized by the Japanese soldiers. Matoba Sueo was eventually hanged for his crimes after the war. The Battle of Iwo Jima in 1945, one of the fiercest battles of World War II, was fought on a garrison island in this region of the Pacific. Following Japan's surrender, the islands were controlled by the United States Navy for the next 23 years, which the Westerners referred to as "Navy Time." All residents except those descended from the original settlers (the Ōbeikei Islanders) and/or related to them by marriage were expelled, while pre-war inhabitants of White American or European, Micronesian or Polynesian ancestry were allowed to return. Vacant properties of exiled Japanese were bulldozed as part of the Navy's management of nuclear weapons on Chichijima. In 1956, the residents petitioned for American annexation of the islands but received no response. In 1968, the United States government returned the Bonins to Japanese control. The Ōbeikei could choose to either become Japanese nationals or to receive American citizenship and repatriate to the United States. The majority remained in the islands as Japanese citizens. Initially some 600 Japanese relocated to the islands, growing to about 2,000 by the end of the 20th century. 21st century The Bonins were named a natural World Heritage Site on 24 June 2011. Economy Historically, the Bonin Islands consisted of subsistence farming with some exploitation of timber and grazing land for export to the mainland. With improved transportation, it has developed as a tourist destination, particularly for Japanese interested in scuba diving and ecotourism. Foreign tourists are also sometimes drawn both by the islands' remoteness and its unusually mixed local culture. Refrigeration has also allowed greater exporting of fruits and vegetables. Coffee bushes have also been recently introduced to some success. There are also a number of government agencies involved with the islands. A radio telescope is located in Chichijima, one of the stations of the very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) Exploration of Radio Astrometry (VERA) project, and is operated by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. Geography and administration The Bonin Islands consist of three subgroups. Their former names come from a variety of sources but their Japanese ones generally reflect a family: Muko-jima Group ( ), formerly the Parry Group Muko-jima (, ) Yome-jima (嫁島, ), formerly Kater Island Nakōdo-jima or Nakadachi-jima (媒島, ) Kita-no-jima (北の島 or 北島, ) Mae-jima, formerly The Ears Chichi-jima Group (父島列島 ), formerly the Beechey Group Chichi-jima (父島, ), formerly the Main Island or Peel Island Ani-jima (兄島, ), formerly Hog Island or Buckland Island Otōto-jima (弟島, ), formerly North Island or Stapleton Island Mago-jima (孫島 ) Higashi-jima (東島 ) Nishi-jima (西島 ), formerly Goat Island Minami-jima (南島 ), formerly Knorr Island Haha-jima Group (母島列島 ), formerly the Baily Group or Coffin Islands Haha-jima (母島, ), formerly Hillsborough Island Mukō-jima (向島, ), formerly Plymouth Island Hira-jima or Taira-jima (平島, ) Ane-jima (姉島, ), formerly Perry Island Imōto-jima (妹島, ), formerly Kelly Island Mei-jima (姪島, ) Although not part of the Bonins (, Ogasawara-guntō) geographically, the nearby Volcano Islands, Nishinoshima (Rosario Island), Okinotorishima (Parece Vela), and Minamitorishima (Marcus Island) are organized as part of Ogasawara municipality (小笠原村, Ogasawara-mura). Ogasawara itself is organized as a subprefecture of Tokyo. In Japanese, the geographical expression for the full range of the municipality is the "Ogasawara Archipelago" (, Ogasawara-shotō) which in turn is sometimes calqued back into English as another meaning for "the Bonin Islands". Geology The Bonin Islands are a part of the Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc of Pacific islands. A fore arc, they lie above the subduction zone where the Pacific Plate slides beneath the Philippine Sea Plate. This began during the Eocene, simultaneously producing the deep Bonin Trench to the east about 50 million years ago and prolonged volcanic activity that created the islands on the west around 48 million years ago. The Bonins are mostly composed of an andesitic volcanic rock called boninite, rich in magnesium oxide, chromium, and silicon dioxide. They may represent the exposed parts of an ophiolite that has not yet been emplaced on oceanic crust. Although the area is currently dormant, most of the islands still have steep shorelines, often with sea cliffs ranging from high. The Volcano Islands are much younger and still geologically active. Iwo Jima is a dormant volcano characterized by rapid uplift and several hot springs. The highest point in the entire chain lies on South Iwo Jima, at . In November 2013, a new volcanic island formed offshore from Nishinoshima and eventually merged with it. The islands are fringed with healthy coral reefs and have many small beaches. Climate The climate of the Bonin Islands range from a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) to tropical monsoon climate (Köppen climate classification Am). The climate of Chichijima in is on the boundary between the humid subtropical climate (Köppen classification Cfa) and the tropical monsoon climate (Köppen classification Am). Temperatures are warm to hot all year round owing to the warm currents from the North Pacific gyre that surround the island. Rainfall is less heavy than in most parts of mainland Japan since the island is too far south to be influenced by the Aleutian Low and too far from Asia to receive monsoonal rainfall or orographic precipitation on the equatorward side of the Siberian High. The wettest months are May and September, while the driest months are January and February. The easternmost island, Minamitorishima or Marcus Island, has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen classification Aw) with warm to hot temperatures throughout the year. The wettest months are July and August, while the driest months are February and March. Ecology Flora Flora has evolved differently on each of the islands. The Bonin Islands are sometimes referred to as the Galápagos of the Orient. They form a distinct subtropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion, the Ogasawara subtropical moist forests. The ecoregion has a high degree of biodiversity and endemism. The islands are home to about 500 plant species, of which 43% are endemic. The forests are of three main types: Type I: Elaeocarpus–Ardisia mesic forest is found in the moist lowland areas with deep soils. The forests have a closed canopy with a height of about , dominated by Ardisia sieboldii. Elaeocarpus photiniaefolius, Pisonia umbellifera, and Planchonella obovata are other important canopy species. These forests were almost completely destroyed by clearing for agriculture before 1945. Type II: Distylium–Raphiolepis–Schima dry forest is found in drier lowland and upland sites with shallower soils. It is also a closed-canopy forest, with a canopy composed mostly of Distylium lepidotum, Rhaphiolepis integerrima, Schima mertensiana, Planchonella obovata, and Syzygium buxifolium. The Type II forests can be further subdivided into: Type IIa: Distylium-Schima dry forest occurs in cloudy upland areas with fine-textured soils. These forests contain many rare and endemic species, with Pandanus boninensis and Syzygium buxifolium as the predominant trees. Type IIb: Raphiolepis-Livistona dry forest is found in upland areas with few clouds and rocky soils. Rhaphiolepis integerrima is the dominant tree species, along with the fan palm Livistona boninensis, Pandanus boninensis and Ochrosia nakaiana. Type III: Distylium-Planchonella scrub forest is found on windy and dry mountain ridges and exposed sea cliffs. These forests have the highest species diversity on the islands. Distylium lepidotum and Planchonella obovata are the dominant species, growing from tall. Other common shrubs are Myrsine okabeana, Symplocos kawakamii, and Pittosporum parvifolium. These islands are home to the northernmost outliers of the palm genus . is endemic and has been planted in Mediterranean climates with success. Other unique species include , a plant related to similar species growing in Fiji and New Caledonia. Fauna Due to its isolation and recent colonization, the Bonin Islands contain several endemic animal species, most of them recently extinct. Birds The range of the Bonin petrel extends beyond the Bonins themselves to other islands in the North Pacific. There are two restricted-range species of birds on the islands, the Japanese wood pigeon () and the near-threatened Bonin white-eye (), formerly known as the Bonin honeyeater. The Japanese wood pigeon was extirpated from the Iwo Island groups in the 1980s. The formerly endemic Bonin pigeon (), Bonin thrush () and Bonin grosbeak () are now extinct. Mammals A small extinct bat, Sturdee's pipistrelle, is only known in one record and has not been seen since 1915. The Bonin flying fox (), also called the Bonin fruit bat, is endemic to the islands. It is currently listed as endangered, and a survey published by the Ogasawara Office of Education in 1999 estimated their number at around 100. The Bonin sambar (R. u. boninensis), an extinct subspecies of the sambar deer, is known from subfossil remains. Invertebrates The islands are also renowned for the many species of snails that are found across the islands, especially the snails. Most of the native snails are now endangered or extinct because of introduced species and habitat loss. The giant squid ( dux) was photographed off the Bonins for the first time in the wild on 30 September 2004 and was filmed alive there in December 2006. Transportation Water transport The main port is Futami on Chichijima. Since 2016, the main line connecting the islands to the mainland is the Ogasawara Shipping Company (). It operates the Ogasawara Maru (), an 11,035-ton long vessel with 170 private rooms and a total capacity of 894 passengers. With a top speed of , it makes the trip from Takeshiba Pier in Tokyo in about 24 hours in good weather. The number of monthly voyages varies, having fallen during the coronavirus epidemic. Previously, there had been plans for a 14,500-ton "techno superliner" able to reach a maximum speed of and make the same journey in only 17 hours with a capacity of around 740 passengers. The project was canceled in July 2005, however, due to rising fuel prices and cost overruns of ¥2 billion. To get to Hahajima, one first travels to Chichijima and then crosses on the ferry Hahajima Maru. Road transport Ogasawara Village operates a bus service on Chichijima and elderly passengers may use a "silver pass". There is also a sightseeing taxi service, a rental car company, motorized scooter rental services, a bike rental service, and other amenities. Bringing one's own automobile onto the island is extremely difficult and costly. Air transport The Bonins have no airport. During severe accidents, illnesses, and other emergencies, a helicopter is dispatched from the Self-Defense Force post on Iwo Jima. The ShinMaywa US-1 seaplane from the SDF post at Iwakuni is used during visits by the Tokyo governor and other dignitaries and for any emergency requiring rapid transport back to Honshu. For several decades, there has been talk of building a full airport. Sites on Chichijima and Anijima have both been rejected. Travel time to the mainland would be cut to around 2 hours, improving tourism and the provision of emergency services, and the national, regional, and local government have all supported the idea in theory. Projects have lagged, however, due to concerns about its economic feasibility and concerns that the proposed sites are homes to numerous valuable, rare, or endangered plant species. Some locals have greatly desired an airport, while a desire to keep the natural beauty of the islands untouched has prompted othes to work to block one. The issue is quite controversial on the islands. On 26 June 2016, the Japanese minister of environment Tamayo Marukawa talked about airport construction on the Bonins after the meeting in Tokyo commemorating the 5th anniversary of their registration as World Natural Heritage. At a 27 July 2017 meeting with Ogasawara Village, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government announced that it was considering opening a regular air route between Tokyo and the Bonins using a proposed runway that would be built on Chichijima. This would allow it to land propeller aircraft with up to 50 passengers. The Tokyo government said that construction would depend on future assessment of the impact on the natural environment and economic feasibility. Ogasawara Village supported the runway in preference to expanding either the current helicopter or seaplane access. In fiscal 2019, 490 million yen was included in the Japanese budget for a feasibility study and a survey on Chichijima to determine the best location to construct the runway. In August 2020, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government held a council during which it affirmed its desire to open an airport but claimed that it would not occur until 2030 at the earliest. To address environmental concerns, they further proposed shortening the runway to about and using tiltrotor aircraft to compensate. Demography, language, and education In 2021, the Bonins had a total population of 2560, divided between Chichijima (2120) and Hahajima (440). Virtually all of the Bonin Islands' permanent inhabitants are Japanese citizens. This includes the significant proportion with ancestors from the United States, Europe, and other Pacific islands, who can often be distinguished by their physical features, family names spelled out with katakana, and adherence to Christianity. During and after the US military occupation of 1946–68, a small minority of islanders opted for US citizenship and/or emigrated from the islands. However, most islanders with non-Japanese ancestry now appear to be reassimilating with the ethnic Japanese majority. Japanese is the common language. Because settlers from the United States, Europe and other Pacific islands preceded ethnic Japanese residents, an English-lexified pidgin which subsequently developed into a creole, known as Bonin English, Ogasawara Creole or Ogasawara Mixed Language, emerged on the islands during the 19th century. This was the result of Japanese being hybridised with island English, resulting in a mixed language that can still be heard. The Ogasawara Village municipality operates public elementary and junior high schools, while Tokyo Metropolitan Government Board of Education operates Ogasawara High School. Fictional references The Bonins have been referenced in a number of works of fiction. Bonin by Robert Standish describes itself as 'a novel', but claims 'this book is an accurate history of the Bonin Islands', based mainly on information from Nathaniel Savory's great-granddaughter, and includes descriptions of maltreatment of the Anglo-Polynesian population by the later Japanese settlers and authorities and a detailed map of the Chichijima group (on the back end-paper), including over 50 English place-names. Chapter XVI of Jack London's autobiographical novel John Barleycorn says "This isolated group, belonging to Japan, had been selected as the rendezvous of the Canadian and American sealing fleets", and describes the drunken visit of a young sailor and his shipmates to the Bonin Islands. In the television series The Super Dimension Fortress Macross, a fictional island in the chain, South Ataria Island (which would have laid at the southernmost position in the chain, surpassing Minami Iwo Jima), is the landing site of the SDF-1 Macross. In the 1963 film Matango, a luxury yacht is set adrift and lands on an island. Upon approaching the island, one of the crew members shouts: "I wonder if it's the Bonin Islands?" The English subtitles for the film misspell Bonin "Bonan". The 2017 anime film The Irregular at Magic High School: The Movie – The Girl Who Summons the Stars takes place on fictional islands in the Bonins. Gallery See also List of extreme points of Japan List of World Heritage Sites in Japan María de Lajara References Citations Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . External links Ogasawara Village (Japanese) The Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands Language and Culture Site (no longer maintained, apparently as of 2001) Ogasawara Channel (Japanese) National Archives of Japan: The faked map of 1752 mentioned in Hiroyuki Tanaka's 1998 article. Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Ogasawara-mura: maps/photos Archipelagoes of Japan Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park Islands of Tokyo Ecoregions of Japan World Heritage Sites in Japan Archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune%20thrombocytopenic%20purpura
Immune thrombocytopenic purpura
Immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), also known as idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura or immune thrombocytopenia, is a type of thrombocytopenic purpura characterized by a low platelet count in the absence of other causes, and accompanied by a red-purple rash called purpura. It leads to an increased risk of bleeding. ITP manifests in two distinct clinical syndromes: an acute form observed in children, and chronic conditions observed in adults. The acute form often follows an infection and typically resolves within two months, while chronic immune thrombocytopenia persists for longer than six months and its specific cause is unknown. ITP is considered an autoimmune disease, as antibodies against several platelet surface structures (antigens) can be detected. Diagnosis of ITP involves identifying a low platelet count through a complete blood count, a common blood test. However, since the diagnosis relies on excluding other potential causes of a low platelet count, additional investigations, such as a bone marrow biopsy, may be necessary in certain cases. For mild cases, careful observation may be sufficient. However, in instances of very low platelet counts or significant bleeding, treatment options may include corticosteroids, intravenous immunoglobulin, anti-D immunoglobulin, or immunosuppressive medications. Refractory ITP, which does not respond to conventional treatment or shows constant relapse after splenectomy, requires treatment to reduce the risk of significant bleeding. Platelet transfusions may be used in severe cases with extremely low platelet counts in individuals experiencing bleeding. In some cases, the body may compensate by producing abnormally large platelets. Signs and symptoms Signs of ITP include the spontaneous formation of bruises (purpura) and petechiae (tiny bruises), especially on the extremities. Additionally, bleeding from the nostrils and/or gums, as well as menorrhagia (excessive menstrual bleeding), may occur if the platelet count falls below 20,000 per μl. A platelet count below 10,000 per μl can lead to the spontaneous formation of hematomas (blood masses) in the mouth or on other mucous membranes. Furthermore, bleeding time from minor lacerations or abrasions is usually prolonged. In cases where platelet counts drop to extremely low levels (<5,000 per μl), serious and potentially fatal complications may arise. These complications include subarachnoid or intracerebral hemorrhage (bleeding inside the skull or brain), lower gastrointestinal bleeding, or other internal bleeding. A person with ITP with an extremely low platelet count is susceptible to internal bleeding resulting from blunt abdominal trauma, such as in a motor vehicle crash. These complications are unlikely to occur when the platelet count is less than 20,000 per μl. Pathogenesis In approximately 60 percent of cases, antibodies against platelets can be detected. Most often these antibodies are against platelet membrane glycoproteins IIb-IIIa or Ib-IX, and are of the immunoglobulin G (IgG) type. The Harrington–Hollingsworth experiment established the immune pathogenesis of ITP. The coating of platelets with IgG renders them susceptible to opsonization and phagocytosis by splenic macrophages, as well by Kupffer cells in the liver. The IgG autoantibodies are also thought to damage megakaryocytes, the precursor cells to platelets, although this is believed to contribute only slightly to the decrease in platelet numbers. Recent research now indicates that impaired production of the glycoprotein hormone, thrombopoietin, which is the stimulant for platelet production, may be a contributing factor to the reduction in circulating platelets. This observation has led to the development of a class of ITP-targeted medications referred to as thrombopoietin receptor agonists. The stimulus for auto-antibody production in ITP is probably abnormal T cell activity. Preliminary findings suggest that these T cells can be influenced by medications that target B cells, such as rituximab. Diagnosis The diagnosis of ITP is a process of exclusion. First, it has to be determined that there are no blood abnormalities other than a low platelet count, and no physical signs other than bleeding. Then, secondary causes (5–10 percent of suspected ITP cases) should be excluded. Such secondary causes include leukemia, medications (e.g., quinine, heparin), lupus erythematosus, cirrhosis, HIV, hepatitis C, congenital causes, antiphospholipid syndrome, von Willebrand factor deficiency, onyalai and others. All patients with presumed ITP should be tested for HIV and hepatitis C virus, as platelet counts may be corrected by treating the underlying disease. In approximately 2.7 to 5 percent of cases, autoimmune hemolytic anemia and ITP coexist, a condition referred to as Evans syndrome. Despite the destruction of platelets by splenic macrophages, the spleen is normally not enlarged. In fact, an enlarged spleen should lead to a search for other possible causes for the thrombocytopenia. Bleeding time is usually prolonged in ITP patients. However, the use of bleeding time in diagnosis is discouraged by the American Society of Hematology practice guidelines and a normal bleeding time does not exclude a platelet disorder. Bone marrow examination may be performed on patients over the age of 60 and those who do not respond to treatment, or when the diagnosis is in doubt. On examination of the marrow, an increase in the production of megakaryocytes may be observed and may help in establishing a diagnosis of ITP. An analysis for anti-platelet antibodies is a matter of clinician's preference, as there is disagreement on whether the 80 percent specificity of this test is sufficient to be clinically useful. Treatment With rare exceptions, there is usually no need to treat based on platelet counts. Many older recommendations suggested a certain platelet count threshold (usually somewhere below 20.0/µl) as an indication for hospitalization or treatment. Current guidelines recommend treatment only in cases of significant bleeding. Treatment recommendations sometimes differ for adult and pediatric ITP. Steroids Initial treatment usually consists of the administration of corticosteroids, a group of medications that suppress the immune system. The dose and mode of administration is determined by platelet count and whether there is active bleeding: in urgent situations, infusions of dexamethasone or methylprednisolone may be used, while oral prednisone or prednisolone may suffice in less severe cases. Once the platelet count has improved, the dose of steroid is gradually reduced while the possibility of relapse is monitored. 60–90 percent will experience a relapse during dose reduction or cessation. Long-term steroids are avoided if possible because of potential side-effects that include osteoporosis, diabetes and cataracts. Anti-D Another option, suitable for Rh-positive patients with functional spleens is intravenous administration of Rho(D) immune globulin [Human; Anti-D]. The mechanism of action of anti-D is not fully understood. However, following administration, anti-D-coated red blood cell complexes saturate Fcγ receptor sites on macrophages, resulting in preferential destruction of red blood cells (RBCs), therefore sparing antibody-coated platelets. There are two anti-D products indicated for use in patients with ITP: WinRho SDF and Rhophylac. The most common adverse reactions are headache (15%), nausea/vomiting (12%) chills (<2%) and fever (1%). Steroid-sparing agents There is increasing use of immunosuppressants such as mycophenolate mofetil and azathioprine because of their effectiveness. In chronic refractory cases, where immune pathogenesis has been confirmed, the off-label use of the vinca alkaloid and chemotherapy agent vincristine may be attempted. However, vincristine has significant side effects and its use in treating ITP must be approached with caution, especially in children. Intravenous immunoglobulin Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) may be infused in some cases in order to decrease the rate at which macrophages consume antibody-tagged platelets. However, while sometimes effective, it is costly and produces improvement that generally lasts less than a month. Nevertheless, in the case of an ITP patient already scheduled for surgery who has a dangerously low platelet count and has experienced a poor response to other treatments, IVIg can rapidly increase platelet counts, and can also help reduce the risk of major bleeding by transiently increasing platelet counts. Thrombopoietin receptor agonists Thrombopoietin receptor agonists are pharmaceutical agents that stimulate platelet production in the bone marrow. In this, they differ from the previously discussed agents that act by attempting to curtail platelet destruction. Two such products are currently available: Romiplostim (trade name Nplate) is a thrombopoiesis stimulating Fc-peptide fusion protein (peptibody) that is administered by subcutaneous injection. Designated an orphan drug in 2003 under United States law, clinical trials demonstrated romiplostim to be effective in treating chronic ITP, especially in relapsed post-splenectomy patients. Romiplostim was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for long-term treatment of adult chronic ITP on August 22, 2008. Eltrombopag (trade name Promacta in the US, Revolade in the EU) is an orally-administered agent with an effect similar to that of romiplostim. It too has been demonstrated to increase platelet counts and decrease bleeding in a dose-dependent manner. Developed by GlaxoSmithKline and also designated an orphan drug by the FDA, Promacta was approved by the FDA on November 20, 2008. Thrombopoietin receptor agonists exhibited the greatest success so far in treating patients with refractory ITP. Side effects of thrombopoietin receptor agonists include headache, joint or muscle pain, dizziness, nausea or vomiting, and an increased risk of blood clots. Surgery Splenectomy (removal of the spleen) may be considered in patients who are either unresponsive to steroid treatment, have frequent relapses, or cannot be tapered off steroids after a few months. Platelets which have been bound by antibodies are taken up by macrophages in the spleen (which have Fc receptors), and so removal of the spleen reduces platelet destruction. The procedure is potentially risky in ITP cases due to the increased possibility of significant bleeding during surgery. Durable remission following splenectomy is achieved in 60 - 80 percent of ITP cases. Even though there is a consensus regarding the short-term efficacy of splenectomy, findings on its long-term efficacy and side-effects are controversial. After splenectomy, 11.6 - 75 percent of ITP cases relapsed, and 8.7 - 40 percent of ITP cases had no response to splenectomy. The use of splenectomy to treat ITP has diminished since the development of steroid therapy and other pharmaceutical remedies. Platelet transfusion Platelet transfusion alone is normally not recommended except in an emergency and is usually unsuccessful in producing a long-term platelet count increase. This is because the underlying autoimmune mechanism that is destroying the patient's platelets will also destroy donor platelets, and so platelet transfusions are not considered a long-term treatment option. H. pylori eradication In adults, particularly those living in areas with a high prevalence of Helicobacter pylori (which normally inhabits the stomach wall and has been associated with peptic ulcers), identification and treatment of this infection has been shown to improve platelet counts in a third of patients. In a fifth, the platelet count normalized completely; this response rate is similar to that found in treatment with rituximab, which is more expensive and less safe. In children, this approach is not supported by evidence, except in high prevalence areas. Urea breath testing and stool antigen testing perform better than serology-based tests; moreover, serology may be false-positive after treatment with IVIG. Other agents Dapsone (also called diphenylsulfone, DDS, or avlosulfon) is an anti-infective sulfone medication. Dapsone may also be helpful in treating lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, and as a second-line treatment for ITP. The mechanism by which dapsone assists in ITP is unclear but an increased platelet count is seen in 40–60 percent of recipients. The off-label use of rituximab, a chimeric monoclonal antibody against the B cell surface antigen CD20, may sometimes be an effective alternative to splenectomy. However, significant side-effects can occur, and randomized controlled trials are inconclusive. Prognosis In general patients with acute ITP will only rarely have life-threatening bleeding. most of the patients ultimately have stable but lower platelet counts which is hemostatic for a person. Unlike in pediatric patients who can be cured, most of the adults will run a chronic course even after splenectomy. Epidemiology A normal platelet count is considered to be in the range of 150,000–450,000 per microlitre (μl) of blood for most healthy individuals. Hence one may be considered thrombocytopenic below that range, although the threshold for a diagnosis of ITP is not tied to any specific number. The incidence of ITP is estimated at 50–100 new cases per million per year, with children accounting for half of that number. At least 70 percent of childhood cases will end up in remission within six months, even without treatment. Moreover, a third of the remaining chronic cases will usually remit during follow-up observation, and another third will end up with only mild thrombocytopenia (defined as a platelet count above 50,000). A number of immune related genes and polymorphisms have been identified as influencing predisposition to ITP, with FCGR3a-V158 allele and KIRDS2/DL2 increasing susceptibility and KIR2DS5 shown to be protective. ITP is usually chronic in adults and the probability of durable remission is 20–40 percent. The male to female ratio in the adult group varies from 1:1.2 to 1.7 in most age ranges (childhood cases are roughly equal for both sexes) and the median age of adults at the diagnosis is 56–60. The ratio between male and female adult cases tends to widen with age. In the United States, the adult chronic population is thought to be approximately 60,000—with women outnumbering men approximately 2 to 1, which has resulted in ITP being designated an orphan disease. The mortality rate due to chronic ITP varies but tends to be higher relative to the general population for any age range. In a study conducted in Great Britain, it was noted that ITP causes an approximately 60 percent higher rate of mortality compared to sex- and age-matched subjects without ITP. This increased risk of death with ITP is largely concentrated in the middle-aged and elderly. Ninety-six percent of reported ITP-related deaths were individuals 45 years or older. No significant difference was noted in the rate of survival between males and females. Pregnancy The incidence of ITP in pregnancy is not well known. It may occur during any trimester of pregnancy. It is the most common cause of significant thrombocytopenia (platelets less than 100,000) in the second trimester, and it is a common cause of significant thrombocytopenia in the first and third trimesters. As in non-pregnant individuals, ITP in pregnancy is a diagnosis of exclusion and other potential causes of low platelets in pregnancy require consideration. These include obstetrical causes such as pre-eclampsia, HELLP syndrome (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes and low platelets), or thrombotic microangiopathies that may occur during pregnancy. Other causes of thrombocytopenia which may occur in pregnancy, such as drug induced thrombocytopenia, hereditary thrombocytopenia and pseudothrombocytopenia should also be ruled out. ITP can be difficult to distinguish from gestational thrombocytopenia (which is by far the most common cause of thrombocytopenia in pregnancy). Unlike ITP, the platelet count in gestational thrombocytopenia rarely goes below 100,000, and a platelet count below 80,000 is even more rare (seen in less than 0.1% of cases of gestational thrombocytopenia). Also unlike ITP, gestational thrombocytopenia is not a cause of neonatal or maternal bleeding, or neonatal thrombocytopenia. Women with ITP often have a decrease in their platelet counts when they become pregnant, often requiring treatment. Pregnant women with ITP are 1.83 times more likely to have bleeding episodes during pregnancy compared to non-pregnant females with ITP, however, with proper treatment, platelets rarely drop below 30,000. In ITP severe bleeding is a rare occurrence, and with treatment maternal deaths due to ITP are extremely rare. ITP has not been found to increase the risk of some common obstetrical complications; with no increased risk of pre-eclampsia, premature delivery, placental abruption or blood clots observed. Further, in those with ITP, platelet counts usually return to pre-pregnancy levels after delivery. Anti-platelet autoantibodies in a pregnant woman with ITP will attack the patient's own platelets and will also cross the placenta and react against fetal platelets leading to thrombocytopenia. Thrombopoietin levels are also increased during pregnancy (which is thought to be due to placental production of estradiol) and this estradiol leads to decreased megakaryocyte activity and therefore decreased platelet production. Therefore, ITP is a significant cause of fetal and neonatal immune thrombocytopenia. Approximately 10% of newborns affected by ITP will have platelet counts <50,000/uL and 1% to 2% will have a risk of intracerebral hemorrhage, comparable to that of infants with neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia (NAIT). No lab test can reliably predict if neonatal thrombocytopenia will occur. The risk of neonatal thrombocytopenia is increased with: Mothers with a history of splenectomy for ITP Mothers who had a previous infant affected with ITP Gestational (maternal) platelet count less than 100,000/uL It is recommended that pregnant women with thrombocytopenia or a previous diagnosis of ITP should be tested for serum antiplatelet antibodies. Indications for treatment of pregnant people with ITP include the presence of bleeding, platelet counts less than 20-30,000, planned procedures (such as an amniocentesis), and raising platelet levels prior to delivery (the minimum platelet level for a vaginal delivery is 30,000 and for a cesarean section is 50,000). Rarely, a platelet transfusion may be needed to facilitate safe delivery. First line therapies for ITP include steroids such as prednisone, IVIG or both. Second line therapies (usually used in those in whom first line therapies fail and thrombocytopenia persists) include rituximab, thrombopoetin receptor agonsists (such as romiplostim), or a splenectomy. Platelet transfusions may be performed in newborns, depending on the degree of thrombocytopenia. IVIG and steroids (methylprednisolone) may also be given to raise the platelet counts. It is recommended that neonates be followed with serial platelet counts for the first few days after birth. Ultrasound or MRI are also recommended for severely thrombocytopenic infants to rule out a brain bleed. History After initial reports by the Portuguese physician Amato Lusitano in 1556 and Lazarus de la Rivière (physician to the King of France) in 1658, it was the German physician and poet Paul Gottlieb Werlhof who in 1735 wrote the most complete initial report of the purpura of ITP. Platelets were unknown at the time. The name "Werlhof's disease" was used more widely before the current descriptive name became more popular. Platelets were described in the early 19th century, and in the 1880s several investigators linked the purpura with abnormalities in the platelet count. The first report of a successful therapy for ITP was in 1916, when a young Polish medical student, Paul Kaznelson, described a female patient's response to a splenectomy. Splenectomy remained a first-line remedy until the introduction of steroid therapy in the 1950s. References External links Coagulopathies Vascular-related cutaneous conditions Idiopathic diseases Rare diseases
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektra%20%28character%29
Elektra (character)
Elektra Natchios (, ) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, usually in supporting roles featuring the superhero Matt Murdock / Daredevil, to whom Elektra has functioned as a villainous adversary, love interest, and later, a heroic ally. Created by Frank Miller, the character first appeared in Daredevil #168 (Jan. 1981). In the various storylines in which the character has appeared since her debut, her violent nature and mercenary lifestyle has served as a divisive point of conflict between her and Daredevil, which in 2022, culminated in her becoming the second Daredevil. The character is a highly trained assassin of Greek descent who wields a pair of sai as her trademark weapons. Elektra is one of Frank Miller's best-known creations, and has appeared in numerous modern storylines even though Marvel had originally promised not to revive the character without Miller's permission. She has also appeared as a supporting character of the X-Men's Wolverine and in other series and mini-series, as well as in adaptations for the screen. Jennifer Garner portrayed Elektra in the films Daredevil (2003) and Elektra (2005), and will reprise the role in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Deadpool 3 (2024), while Élodie Yung portrayed the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe television series Daredevil and The Defenders. Publication history Created by Frank Miller, Elektra first appeared in Daredevil #168 (January 1981). Miller initially based the character's appearance on Lisa Lyon, a female bodybuilder. Miller originally intended this issue, which was essentially a filler story, to be Elektra's only appearance, but she instead became a frequently appearing villain in Daredevil until her death in issue #181 (April 1982). She was resurrected shortly after, but the story contained a narrative note which indicates that Daredevil must never encounter her again. After over a decade's absence, she reappeared in Daredevil #324–327 (Jan.–April 1994), and went on to a brief stint as a supporting character in Wolverine (in #100–106). Daredevil writer D. G. Chichester recounted that he and editor Ralph Macchio had discussed the character's return several times: This upset Frank Miller, who claimed that Marvel had previously promised him that the character would not be used in any publication. She has since appeared in two eponymous ongoing series and several mini-series. Fictional character biography Family and early life Elektra was born on a Greek island near the Aegean Sea, to Hugo Kostas Natchios and Christina Natchios. She had an older brother named Orestez. Two contradictory accounts of her family history have been given. In Elektra: Root of Evil #1–4 (March–June 1995), Christina is killed by assassins hired by Orestez, while in Elektra #18 (1995), she is killed by an insurrectionist during the Greek Civil War. In both accounts, she gives premature birth to Elektra just before dying. When nine-year-old Elektra was assaulted by kidnappers, the men were all killed by Orestez, who had grown into an accomplished martial artist after leaving home. Orestez advised his father that Elektra needed to learn self-defense. Hugo hired a sensei to teach her the martial arts. In Elektra: Assassin #1 (Aug. 1986), the adult Elektra has vague memories of being raped by her father as a five-year-old. Years of counseling and medication had convinced her this was a false memory, but the doubt remained. Elektra grew up close to her father but was plagued by dark visions and voices with no known source. She occasionally reacted to them with self-harm. Her father eventually sent her away to psychotherapy to become more stable. It was uncertain whether Elektra actually became more stable or merely appeared to be. Activities as an adult Hugo Natchios eventually served as a Greek ambassador to the United States. Nineteen-year-old Elektra attended Columbia University in New York City. There, Elektra began dating classmate Matt Murdock. A year later, Elektra and her father were kidnapped by terrorists. A rescue attempt by Matt went wrong, and Hugo was gunned down. Elektra lost faith and hope. She quit Columbia and returned to China to study martial arts. Stick, a member of the benevolent Chaste organization, recognized the darkness in her soul and attempted to train her himself, but she ultimately sided with the Hand, a sect of mystical ninja who trained her as an assassin. She later broke away from them and became an independent agent, and in this role she encountered Daredevil. She defeated Daredevil in her mission to kill the criminal Alarich Wallenquist. However, she failed her assignment, and Daredevil had to save her from being killed by Eric Slaughter, revealing his secret identity to her in the process. Although the pair worked together to fight the Hand, they also came into conflict frequently. Elektra later battled the Hand alongside Daredevil and Gladiator. She then battled Kirigi. She soon became the chief assassin in the employ of the Kingpin, New York City's premier crime lord. She attempted to kill Daredevil after he tried to stop her from terrorizing Ben Urich. The Kingpin then assigned her to kill Franklin "Foggy" Nelson, Matt's partner. When Nelson recognized Elektra as Matt's college girlfriend, she was unable to kill him. Elektra was fatally stabbed by Bullseye with one of her own sai in a battle over which of them would be the Kingpin's assassin. Elektra managed to crawl to Daredevil's house before dying in his arms as Bullseye watched the two, hidden among a crowd that had gathered to see what was going on. Later, members of The Hand stole her body and attempted to resurrect her. Daredevil, with the assistance of Stone, a member of Stick's order, intervened, defeating The Hand ninja. Daredevil then tried to revive Elektra himself. Although his attempt failed, it did have the effect of purifying Elektra's soul. Elektra's body subsequently disappeared, as did Stone. Later, Elektra was found to have been resurrected by Stone and residing upon the Chaste mountain, where she claimed to have found peace. It was revealed that when Elektra was resurrected, the evil aspect of her soul had physically split apart from her and had been placed in its own body by the Snakeroot (a part of The Hand), as a consequence of the ritual performed by Daredevil. Her darker half, calling itself Erynys (), was tasked to get the About Face Virus for the Snakeroot so that the merger of the corpse and Elektra's essence would become permanent, allowing them complete control over an obedient version of the assassin. Confronted by Daredevil, Stone and Elektra, the Snakeroot fought back in a gruelling battle over the virus. Eventually, Erynys was killed, thus returning the dark side to Elektra's soul. Some time later, Stick sent Elektra to help Wolverine at a time when physically and mentally regressed to a bestial form. She helped retrain Logan to the point where the latter could think and vocalise as a human once more, and spent time thereafter as the X-Man returned to a normal form, including taking Logan with her on a visit to her ancestral home. Seeking a focus for her life, Elektra recruited her own order of fighters and mercenaries called the Ryu, to oppose the Snakeroot. She proved to be a poor leader, however, and the entire Ryu was killed trying to prevent the Snakeroot from assassinating a set of pure souls for their cause. Elektra ultimately completed the destruction of the Snakeroot and the protection of the last soul alone. Later, Elektra asked martial-artist King Lau and boxer McKinley Stewart to help her open a Dojo. After a showdown with Bullseye led to the death of a young woman’s father, Elektra took in the girl, Nina, as her roommate and ward. During this time, a villain named the Architect was calling all super-villains to meet in New York City, for a competition to have Elektra kill him so that he could be reborn in a new host body. With the help of Doctor Strange, the Architect was killed and his essence was trapped in the body of a small demon, caged by Strange. She was hired by Nick Fury to assassinate Saddam Abed Dassam, the leader of Iraq who was in league with HYDRA, and retrieve the Scorpio Key. Fury hired her as a way to avoid accountability in global political circles. HYDRA tried to hire her, an offer she refused. They then set the Silver Samurai on to her and it appeared she killed the Silver Samurai though the latter appeared alive and well in other comics. When she eventually obtained the Scorpio Key, she refused to give it to Fury, believing that Fury could not be trusted with such a powerful weapon. She instead gave it to the police officer who had killed her father, stating that the officer had a debt to her and would not let her down. Wolverine: Enemy of the State Elektra worked with S.H.I.E.L.D. HYDRA and The Hand joined forces, killing off various heroes and resurrecting them into their possessed warriors, including Wolverine, who became their killing machine. Based on her relationship with Logan and her ties to the Hand, Fury hired Elektra to lead the mission, paying her in excess of $200,000, more money in one day than the (then) yearly salary of the President of the United States. She worked to stop Wolverine from killing others as well as to try to turn him back to his normal self. During a fight with The Hand, Elektra was killed and resurrected as a Hand warrior, eventually becoming their leader. Along with the X-Man Northstar and other superhumans killed and resurrected by the Hand, Elektra attacked Fury, injuring the latter badly and causing the destruction of a S.H.I.E.L.D. helicarrier. Thanks to S.H.I.E.L.D., Wolverine eventually came to his senses and wanted revenge. During a fight with Elektra, she mentally spoke to Wolverine, using new abilities given to her by the Hand. She explained that being killed by The Hand was all part of a plan she had from the beginning. She explained that she had been resurrected by The Hand and infiltrated the organization, making them believe they had been successful in resurrecting her as a brainwashed warrior. She told him that they would take The Hand and HYDRA down together. They fought off many ninjas and were victorious. Gorgon, however, attacked Elektra and threw off her mental blocks, enabling him to read her thoughts and see where Fury was being treated for his injuries (he also discovered that the Vatican also hired her, to kill him). Gorgon teleported, with Elektra, to kill Fury. When they arrived, Elektra ordered the S.H.I.E.L.D. soldiers to attack. Gorgon used his power on her neck and she collapsed. Wolverine eventually used Gorgon's own powers against him, defeating him. In an email to Kitty Pryde, Fury says that Elektra has survived albeit missing and probably in Eastern Europe, creating her own militia group which intends to be her own version of The Hand. Fury also says that Elektra is at present, no threat. It is during the time following the helicarrier's destruction that she is abducted by Skrulls and replaced with an imposter. Daredevil and the Kingpin Elektra resurfaces to help Daredevil with a situation with the Kingpin. The crime lord, in exchange for his freedom, offered the FBI irrefutable evidence that Matt was Daredevil. It is revealed that Elektra actually helped the Kingpin gain all the needed information back when she was Daredevil's enemy, and she returned because she felt an obligation to help Matt out of the trouble for which she felt responsible. It was also revealed by the Black Widow that Elektra is now the leader of The Hand. Daredevil meets up with Elektra, the Black Widow, and the new White Tiger in front of the building that holds the "Murdock Papers" (the evidence Kingpin was talking about). They intended to retrieve the papers before the FBI could get there, but were suddenly attacked by Bullseye. Daredevil and Elektra fought the villain and, after a lengthy and bloody battle, won. However, Daredevil was suddenly shot by Paladin (who was working for FBI operatives) and was left bleeding profusely in Elektra's arms. Elektra then takes Matt to the Night Nurse, but insists that The Hand should cure him. Black Widow appears and objects. While Elektra and Black Widow fight, The Hand heals Murdock. Outside the Night Nurse's medical office, reporters and police gather. Elektra then jumps out the side window, along with The Hand to drive off the police and FBI. She gets in a quarrel with Luke Cage, and quickly exits the scene at Matt's request. It was later revealed that "Elektra" was actually a Skrull and not the real Elektra. Replacement by Skrulls Elektra seemingly reappears, appearing to be corrupted by the Hand. She kills, resurrects, and imprisons the vigilante Maya Lopez to use as a weapon. The New Avengers rescue Lopez who ends up stabbing Elektra to death, however, her death revealed that "Elektra" is actually a Skrull in disguise. It turns out that the real Elektra was selected to be replaced by the Skrull Siri. Elektra was targeted by several Skrull impostors while staying in Japan, but she fought and killed most of these Skrulls (including Siri). Elektra gets blindsided and severely beaten by the Super-Skrull Pagon who ultimately took Elektra's place (since Siri was killed by Elektra) as a major "reveal" of Veranke's intent to take over the world's superheroes. The real Elektra was revealed to be alive upon one of the Skrull ships and was released during the final battle between the heroes and the Skrulls. Iron Man immediately orders her held in protective custody at S.H.I.E.L.D. "Dark Reign" Being the only Skrull captive showing signs of experimentation and torture, Elektra finds herself weakened by multiple injuries. Norman Osborn orders her studied and monitored to obtain information as to why this was the case. Paladin breaks into H.A.M.M.E.R. headquarters intending to kill Elektra for $82 million. She overpowers Paladin and chokes him by spitting her broken tooth down his throat. She forces him to surrender the keys to her to escape. Before leaving the cell, she murders the interrogator who was torturing her for information. She finally makes her escape after taking down several H.A.M.M.E.R. operatives and manages to reach Murdock's office to raid his stash of first aid supplies. After being confronted by Nelson, she collapses from extensive blood loss due to her injuries. Elektra wakes up handcuffed to a hospital bed in the Night Nurse's clinic. The nurse explains that she bound Elektra for her own safety, although the ninja easily frees herself. Their conversation is interrupted when a hit woman named Nico breaks in and attempts to kill both of them. Elektra sends Nico flying out the window then arms herself with the ninja's weapons while telling the Night Nurse to escape. Elektra jumps into the alley and battles Nico, only to find that another hit man named Carmine is also attempting to kill her with a sniper rifle from a rooftop. She manages to defeat Nico while evading Carmine's shots and obtains some clues from Nico as to why she was being targeted for assassination. On the rooftop, Carmine is murdered by Bullseye (in the guise of Hawkeye) who was sent by Osborn to kill Elektra. Elektra climbs to the top of the building to confront the third assassin, only to be taken aback when she discovers that he is Bullseye. Although initially hesitant, she stands her ground and faces her killer. The two begin to fight when Nico manages to reach the rooftop to check on Carmine. Bullseye attempts to kill her with a drug laced arrow, but she is saved by Elektra (who accidentally gets the drugs on the arrow in her system in the process). Bullseye then kicks the seemingly sedated Elektra off the building, but she manages to land safely. Bullseye follows and confronts her on the street, attempting to kill her with her own sai, much like their first encounter. However, this time Elektra outmaneuvers him and stabs him through the back with one of his own arrows. Nico once more interrupts the fight, attempting to shoot the fleeing Bullseye, then confronting the heavily drugged, helpless Elektra. H.A.M.M.E.R. agents enter the fray and shoot Nico, but are ambushed and killed by Wolverine before they can finish Elektra off. After escaping H.A.M.M.E.R., Wolverine reveals to Elektra where Nico ran, and Elektra tries to confront the problem head on and peaceably end the conflict. Arriving at the Blackhawk crash site, she discovers that Agent Brothers, a former S.H.I.E.L.D. agent, was the one who put a price on her head. Brothers claims that she was responsible for killing hundreds of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents during the Blackhawk incident. Elektra, having no memory of the incident, denies the accusations and urges both Brothers and Nico to go in peace, stating that it was her Skrull impostor who was responsible for the incident. However, Osborn then appears, and reveals that Elektra was in fact abducted after the Helicarrier attack, although she has no memory of this because she had used a mind trick to "forget" her resurrections and the incidents surrounding them to prevent the Skrulls from accessing them during her abduction. Osborn taunts Elektra to undo this mind trick, and Elektra obliges. It is then revealed that Elektra is actually guilty of the accusations. She then proceeds to kill both Nico and Brothers. Code Red Elektra was involved in an incident with the Red Hulk, X-Force, a new villain, the Red She-Hulk, and a few other well known mercenaries such as Deadpool and the Punisher. Shadowland In "Shadowland" storyline, Stick tries to convince Elektra to help stop the Hand from corrupting Matt. But she refuses, because she wanted him to be cold-hearted just like her out of spite for him. She reconsiders when she witnessed the broadcast of Daredevil killing Bullseye. She joins the Hand so she can gain intel on the Shadowland fortress to help the super heroes infiltrate it. Later upon rejoining the Hand, Elektra visits Daredevil and Typhoid Mary at Bullseye's grave intending to resurrect him. She then helps sneak the super heroes into the building, to stop Daredevil from resurrecting Bullseye. A fight erupts and just when Elektra tried to reach out to Matt, the Demon of the Hand finally possesses him. Once he defeats all of the super heroes, Iron Fist used his chi energy on the demon to help heal Matt's soul. While that was happening, Elektra entered Matt's mind to encourage him fight the evil presence of the demon. Matt killed himself to stop the demon from causing any more chaos. Elektra later resurrected him. Thunderbolts As part of the 2012 Marvel NOW! branding, Elektra becomes a member of Red Hulk's Thunderbolts. Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. During the "Avengers: Standoff!" storyline, Elektra was incarcerated for some unknown reason in Pleasant Hill, a gated community established by S.H.I.E.L.D. S.H.I.E.L.D. used the powers of Kobik to turn her into Sheriff Eva. During this time, she was in love with Absorbing Man's altered human form of an ice cream vendor named Henry. After Baron Helmut Zemo and Fixer started using a machine to turn all the inmates back to normal, Elektra was among those restored. She talked Absorbing Man out to harming the innocent lives at Pleasant Hill. During the 2016 "Civil War II" storyline, Elektra joined S.H.I.E.L.D. to free her conscience of the deaths of the passengers of the crashed Black Hawk. She took the position of field director when Phil Coulson left the group. When Coulson was trying to interfere with Captain Marvel's plans to use Ulysses Cain's abilities to stop crime before it happens, Elektra discovered that Leo Fitz was Coulson's mole in her group which Maria Hill was alerted to. At the same time, she also reinstated Grant Ward into S.H.I.E.L.D. and placed an explosive collar on his neck to ensure his loyalty. Becoming Daredevil During Chip Zdarsky's run on Daredevil, Elektra seeks out Murdock to help form an organization called The Fist to take down The Hand once and for all. Matt is not interested in this, so, to prove herself trustworthy to Matt, she takes up the mantle of Daredevil and protects Hell Kitchen while Matt is in prison. Powers and abilities Elektra's primary abilities are a strong knowledge of martial arts and weaponry. Elektra learned ancient martial arts of China, Siam, and Japan. She is a master combatant with the Okinawan sai, her usual weapon of choice. She is also highly skilled with the katana, daggers, three-section staff, and shuriken. She is a master of many Japanese combat forms including Ninjutsu, Aikido and Karate. Elektra is an Olympic-level athlete, strong in gymnastics and swimming, with a high level in athleticism, human strength, speed, stamina, agility, dexterity, reflexes and reactions, coordination, balance, and endurance. She is resistant to pain and extreme heat and cold. She is also able to keep to the shadows and move with such speed that she can remain unseen even in daylight. Elektra has the ability to mesmerize others, and as such make them see illusions or other phenomena. Elektra also has the ability to "throw" her mind into those of others. For instance, she was able to track down her enemy, Ken Wind, by temporarily "borrowing" people's minds and acting through them while she hunted around for her prey. This temporary mind control enables her to metaphorically sniff out the psyche, or intent, of her targets. It saw extensive use during Elektra: Assassin, in which she was heavily reliant on only her ninja powers. Elektra can communicate telepathically with individuals possessing similar levels of mental discipline, such as the Chaste.She mastered this ability during training with The Hand, which mentally links her to The Beast, the demigod of The Hand. She is able to shield her mind from others. She can see glimpses of future events across precognitive visions. Reception Critical reception Lukas Shayo of Screen Rant has stated, "Her background makes her nature as a hero all the more interesting. Much like Matt Murdock used Daredevil to help cope with his doubts and guilt, Elektra used the mantle to prove that she was more than a mercenary. Desperate to prove that she was not all terrible, her need for redemption made her an extraordinary hero." Accolades In 2011, Comics Buyer's Guide ranked Elektra 22nd in their "100 Sexiest Women in Comics" list. in 2017, The Daily Dot ranked Elektra 16th in their "Top 33 female superheroes of all time" list. In 2020, TheWrap included Elektra in their "24 Badass Female Superheroes" list. In 2020, CBR.com ranked Elektra 1st in their "10 Deadliest Female Assassins Of The Marvel Universe" list. In 2021, Screen Rant included Elektra in their "10 Best Marvel Martial Artists" list. In 2022, CBR.com ranked Elektra 1st in their "15 Best Daredevil Love Interests" list, 7th in their "Marvel: 10 Best Reformed Villains" list, 8th in their "Marvel's 10 Best Infiltrators" list, and 10th in their "10 Most Violent Marvel Heroes" list. In 2022, Screen Rant included Elektra in their "10 Best Street-Level Heroes In Marvel Comics" list and in their "15 Most Powerful Daredevil Villains" list. Other versions What If? In the story "What If Elektra Had Lived?", penned by Frank Miller, Elektra's murder at the hands of Bullseye does not occur as Bullseye is cut down and killed while trying to escape from prison. Elektra spares Franklin Nelson's life, irritating the Kingpin, who swiftly orders her execution. After fighting off several assassination attempts, Elektra flees to Matt Murdock's brownstone home. Murdock initially wants to take Elektra into custody, but she warns him that with the Kingpin putting a bounty on her head, she will die at the hands of his agents if she is sent to prison. Murdock decides to flee New York with Elektra, putting up his home for sale and cutting off contact with Nelson. The couple are last seen enjoying a quiet sunset on a beach, far removed from society and seemingly happy. Exiles In one of the universes visited by the Exiles, Elektra was one of the few remaining survivors in a world ravaged by HYDRA and their leader, Sue Storm. Elektra is shown to be the lover of Reed Richards, and is a key player in the revival of the inhabitants of that earth. Her abilities are identical to that of her mainstream version. House of M Elektra appears as one of the assassins of the Kingpin and is later hired by John Proudstar to bring down Luke Cage's "Avengers". Marvel Mangaverse In the Marvel Mangaverse, Elektra is evil and works for the Hand. When she is first introduced she encounters Daredevil who at first refuses to believe that she was working for the enemy. After a tearful reunion they kiss and she says to him "You tried to save my soul once. Unfortunately there was nothing there worth saving" and then proceeds to cut him in half. Later, during her fight with Carol Danvers, she shows remorse for having killed him. Elektra thanks Carol when Carol cuts her in half with her own blades. Marvel Zombies In the Ultimate Fantastic Four arc "Crossover", Elektra is seen among the zombie hordes preparing to attack Magneto, Mr. Fantastic, and the few living humans they are protecting. She is also among the zombies that attack (and infect) Frank Castle. The infected Wolverine from this incident travels to another Earth where he kills the human Elektra with his claws, impaling her through the stomach in the manner of Bullseye. MC2 In the MC2 Universe (an alternate future primarily focused on the children of current Marvel superheroes), Elektra married Wolverine and the two had a daughter named Rina Logan, a.k.a. Wild Thing. Very little is said about the future of Elektra, although we do see that she is actively involved in parenting Rina. Additionally, it is shown that she is wealthy enough to have an "extra-dimensional" credit rating. Elektra also has a cameo in Spider-Girl where she is hired by the Black Tarantula to be Spider-Girl's martial arts instructor. Though not knowing Spider-Girl's true identity, Elektra quickly surmises that she is the daughter of Spider-Man based on how she talks, fights and carries herself. Mutant X In the Mutant X Universe – an alternate world which was visited by the Earth-616 (mainstream Marvel Universe) Havok – Elektra (surname: Stavros), while still equally trained as a martial artist and assassin, is the nanny and bodyguard of Scotty Summers. Scotty is the son of that reality's Alex Summers and Madelyne Pryor. Elektra stays close to Scotty, protecting him from repeated assaults by his mother, the Goblin Queen, and her brainwashed allies. Following the disappearance of the Goblin Queen, she indulges in an affair with Havok. She seemingly dies near the end of the series, though Scotty reassures Alex that she will come back. Ultimate Marvel See also: Ultimate Daredevil and Elektra and Ultimate Elektra for information on the two starring miniseries. In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Elektra Natchios is a student at Columbia University who has a knack for martial arts and is a great fan of Bruce Lee. Her mother died of breast cancer when she was 6, and her father is trying to make money with a laundromat. In this universe, she starts out as a sweet, innocent girl who cares deeply for her loved ones – so deeply that she is willing to go over dead bodies to help them. This trait starts her descent into becoming one of the most deadly assassins in the world. There is a gap between the Elektra featured in Ultimate Daredevil and Elektra and Ultimate Elektra and the one shown in Ultimate Spider-Man. In the first two arcs, she is a normal college student, but in the last arc – which is set a few years later – she has become the Kingpin's right hand and is a villainess. She is hired by an unknown person to kill a Latverian terrorist, but Spider-Man prevented her from doing it. She is shown in this universe as a highly dangerous and skilled killer, and was able to take down the likes of Hammerhead, Black Cat, Moon Knight, and Spider-Man easily. She was later put into a coma when Moon Knight threw one of his crescent blades at her, hitting her in the head when she was about to kill Black Cat. PunisherMax A more "realistic" version of Elektra appears in the PunisherMAX series, from Marvel's MAX imprint. This version of the character is Japanese: the Hand lends her services as a bodyguard to the Kingpin, especially to protect him from the Punisher. She also becomes the Kingpin's lover. It is revealed that Elektra was secretly hired by Kingpin's ex-wife Vanessa to assassinate him for failing to prevent the murder of their son Richard. It is also revealed that she is in a lesbian relationship with her. Elektra eventually has a final confrontation with the Punisher to save Vanessa. She manages to seriously wound the Punisher, but is shot several times and left permanently incapacitated. Later, a representative from the Hand has one of his men finish her with a sword. Secret Wars (2015) During the Secret Wars storyline, there are two different Elektras that exist in Battleworld: A Wild West version of Elektra resides on the Battleworld domain of the Valley of Doom. She is seen as a minion of Governor Roxxon alongside Bullseye, Grizzly, and Otto Octavius where they were first seen intimidating Judge Franklin Nelson into leaving town so that he wouldn't preside over Red Wolf's trial. Sheriff Steve Rogers and Red Wolf later fought the villains which ended with Otto Octavius being killed in battle, Bullseye killing Sheriff Rogers, and Natasha Barnes diverting the remaining villains in the other direction so that she can hide Red Wolf. Elektra and Grizzly later fought Red Wolf again where they end up defeated by him. Elektra is known as Red Sai, the leader of the Red Hand school in the wuxia-inspired K'un-L'un region of Battleworld. Due to an oath made by a previous master of the Red Hand to serve every emperor of K'un-L'un, she serves as Emperor Zheng Zu's assassin. Red Sai is also the former friend and lover of Shang-Chi, the emperor's son, who was exiled for the murder of Lord Tuan, the previous master of the Iron Fist. During the tournament to decide the new ruler of K'un-L'un, Red Sai and Rand-K'ai, Tuan's pupil, fight Shang-Chi in the penultimate round of the Thirteen Chambers. During the fight, Red Sai confesses that Zu had sent her to assassinate his rival Tuan but ultimately failed. To spare his lover and her students from the emperor's wrath, Shang-Chi killed Tuan; Zu implicated and exiled his son for the murder to cover his own involvement. After the truth is revealed, Red Sai and Rand-K'ai let Shang-Chi pass so that he could defeat his father. After Shang-Chi emerges victorious, Red Sai pledges herself to the new emperor. In other media Television Elektra appears in Marvel's Netflix television series, portrayed by Élodie Yung as an adult and by Lily Chee in flashbacks. First appearing in the second season of Daredevil (2015), this version was trained by Stick from childhood until the Chaste deemed her too dangerous and he had her adopted by a Greek ambassador to keep her safe. While in college, she met and dated Matt Murdock. In the present, Stick sends her back to New York City to make him return to his side and help defeat the Hand. Though she falls in love with him, they break up after she fails to make Murdock kill Roscoe Sweeney for killing his father years prior. Murdock attempts to reconcile with her by convincing her to leave Stick and become her own person, but she seeks revenge on Stick after one of his assassins attacks her. When Stick gets kidnapped by the Hand, Elektra and Murdock work together to find him, discovering she was destined to become the Hand's leader "Black Sky" in the process, though he helps her choose her own path. She later sacrifices herself to save Murdock from the Hand's forces, but they dig up her body and prepare to revive her. Elektra appears in The Defenders. Revived and now working for the Hand as a brainwashed assassin, she is tasked with killing Chaste members and anyone who can threaten their plans, running afoul of Danny Rand, Colleen Wing, and Jessica Jones in the process. When Murdock, Rand, Jones, and Luke Cage join forces to form the Defenders and combat the Hand, Elektra is sent to attack them, but is defeated by Rand. Following this, she slowly regains her memories, but kills Stick and kidnaps Rand for the Hand's leader Alexandra Reid before killing her, assuming control of the group, and manipulating Rand into helping her unearth ancient caverns filled with dragon skeletons said to contain the secret to eternal life. As the Defenders rescue Rand and set explosives in the Hand's headquarters, Murdock stays behind to reach Elektra before they share a kiss and disappear in the explosion. While Murdock survives, Elektra's fate is left ambiguous. Film Elektra appears in the 20th Century Fox film Daredevil (2003), portrayed by Jennifer Garner. This version is the daughter of billionaire Nikolas Natchios, who had her trained in martial arts after she witnessed her mother's death at a young age. In the present, she encounters and falls in love with Matt Murdock before witnessing Nikolas' death. Initially assuming Daredevil was the culprit, she attacks him, only to learn he is Murdock. Realizing Bullseye is her father's killer, she confronts him, but is fatally stabbed, left for dead, and dies in Murdock's arms. Elektra appears in the 2005 spin-off Elektra, portrayed again by Jennifer Garner. In this film, it is revealed that she was once a martial arts prodigy called the "Treasure". Following her death, Stick resurrected her and trained her in Kimagure, which grants the practitioner precognition and the ability to resurrect the dead. Due to her rage and fear of seeing her mother's killer however, she is expelled from Stick's training compound and becomes a contract killer. Years later, she finds herself protecting a target she was meant to kill but became acquainted with, Mark Miller, and his daughter Abby Miller, the current "Treasure", from the Hand. Following her previous film appearances, Elektra's film rights reverted to Marvel Studios in 2014 and became available for use in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Garner will reprise her role as Elektra in the upcoming MCU film Deadpool 3 (2024). Video games Elektra makes a cameo appearance in Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter as one of Apocalypse's prisoners. Elektra appears as a boss in the Daredevil (2003) tie-in game as a brainwashed servant of the Kingpin until Daredevil eventually frees her. Elektra appears in a self-titled film tie-in mobile game. Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Nemesis: Rise of the Imperfects, voiced by Jani Jakovac. Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, voiced by Gabrielle Carteris. Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online. Elektra appears in LittleBigPlanet via the "Marvel Costume Kit 2" DLC. Elektra appears as a boss, later unlockable character in Marvel Avengers Alliance. Elektra appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by Laura Bailey. This version works for the Kingpin. Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Heroes, voiced by Kathryn Cressida. Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Contest of Champions. Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel: Future Fight. A Marvel Noir-inspired incarnation of Elektra named Eliza appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2. Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Strike Force. Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced by Kathryn Cressida. Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest. Elektra appears in Marvel Snap. Miscellaneous Elektra appears in the Marvel Comics Super Heroes collection of commemorative postage-stamps. Elektra appears in a Marvel-licensed slot machine. Bibliography By Frank Miller In addition to her signature appearances in Daredevil, Elektra starred in three series produced by her creator, Frank Miller: Elektra Saga #1–4 (Marvel Comics, 1984) (reprints of material from Daredevil #168, 174-177, 181-182, 187-190 and Bizarre Adventures #28) Elektra: Assassin #1–8 (Marvel Comics, 1986, with Bill Sienkewicz) Elektra Lives Again original graphic novel (Marvel Comics / Epic Comics, 1990) Additional series Elektra has also headlined the following series: Elektra vol. 1 #1–4 (Marvel Comics, 1995) Elektra Megazine #1–2 (Marvel Comics, 1996, reprint series) Elektra vol. 2, #1–19 (Marvel Comics, 1996–1998) Elektra vol. 2, #-1 (Marvel Comics, 1997, "FlashBack Month" issue) Peter Parker: Spider-Man / Elektra '98 Annual (Marvel Comics, 1998) Elektra vol. 3, #1–35 (Marvel Comics / Marvel Knights, 2001–2004) Issue 3 was recalled by Marvel due to featuring nude images of the character. An edited version was later reissued to retailers. Elektra and Wolverine: The Redeemer #1–3 (Marvel Comics, 2002) Elektra: Glimpse & Echo #1–4 (Marvel Comics / Marvel Knights, 2002) Elektra: The Hand #1–5 (Marvel Comics, 2004) Dark Reign: Elektra #1–5 (Marvel Comics, 2009) Shadowland: Elektra one-shot (Marvel Comics, 2010) Elektra vol. 4, #1–11 (Marvel Comics, 2014–2015) Elektra vol. 5, #1-5 (Marvel Comics, 2017) Daredevil: Woman Without Fear #1-3 (Marvel Comics, 2021) Elektra: Black, White & Blood #1-4 (Marvel Comics, 2021) Ultimate Marvel An alternate version of Elektra starred in the following series set in the fictional Ultimate Marvel Universe: Ultimate Daredevil and Elektra #1–4 (Marvel Comics, 2002) Ultimate Elektra #1–5 (Marvel Comics, 2004) Collected editions Ultimate Universe Intercompany crossovers Elektra has been featured in crossovers with characters from other publishing companies: Elektra/Cyblade one-shot (Marvel Comics / Top Cow Productions, 1997) Witchblade/Elektra one-shot (Top Cow Productions / Marvel Comics, 1997) See also Women warriors in literature and culture Electra References External links Elektra at Marvel.com Elektra at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on June 17, 2016. Characters created by Frank Miller (comics) Comics characters introduced in 1981 Daredevil (Marvel Comics) characters Female soldier and warrior characters in comics Fictional aikidoka Fictional assassins in comics Fictional Columbia University people Fictional Greek people Fictional hypnotists and indoctrinators Fictional illusionists Fictional immigrants to the United States Fictional karateka Fictional melee weapons practitioners Fictional murdered people Fictional Ninjutsu practitioners Fictional female assassins Fictional female ninja Marvel Comics adapted into video games Marvel Comics female superheroes Marvel Comics martial artists Marvel Comics orphans Marvel Comics sidekicks Marvel Comics telepaths
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic%20orthography
Phonemic orthography
A phonemic orthography is an orthography (system for writing a language) in which the graphemes (written symbols) correspond to the phonemes (significant spoken sounds) of the language. Natural languages rarely have perfectly phonemic orthographies; a high degree of grapheme–phoneme correspondence can be expected in orthographies based on alphabetic writing systems, but they differ in how complete this correspondence is. English orthography, for example, is alphabetic but highly nonphonemic; it was once mostly phonemic during the Middle English stage, when the modern spellings originated, but spoken English changed rapidly while the orthography was much more stable, resulting in the modern nonphonemic situation. On the contrary the Albanian, Serbian/Croatian/Bosnian/Montenegrin, Romanian, Italian, Turkish, Spanish, Finnish, Czech, Latvian, Esperanto, Korean and Swahili orthographic systems come much closer to being consistent phonemic representations. In less formal terms, a language with a highly phonemic orthography may be described as having regular spelling. Another terminology is that of deep and shallow orthographies, in which the depth of an orthography is the degree to which it diverges from being truly phonemic. The concept can also be applied to nonalphabetic writing systems like syllabaries. Ideal phonemic orthography In an ideal phonemic orthography, there would be a complete one-to-one correspondence (bijection) between the graphemes (letters) and the phonemes of the language, and each phoneme would invariably be represented by its corresponding grapheme. So the spelling of a word would unambiguously and transparently indicate its pronunciation, and conversely, a speaker knowing the pronunciation of a word would be able to infer its spelling without any doubt. That ideal situation is rare but exists in a few languages. A disputed example of an ideally phonemic orthography is the Serbo-Croatian language. In its alphabet (Latin as well as Serbian Cyrillic alphabet), there are 30 graphemes, each uniquely corresponding to one of the phonemes. This seemingly perfect yet simple phonemic orthography was achieved in the 19th century—the Cyrillic alphabet first in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, and the Latin alphabet in 1830 by Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj. However, both Gaj's Latin alphabet and Serbian Cyrillic do not distinguish short and long vowels, and non-tonic (the short one is written), rising, and falling tones that Serbo-Croatian has. In Serbo-Croatian, the tones and vowel lengths were optionally written as (in Latin) ⟨e⟩, ⟨ē⟩, ⟨è⟩, ⟨é⟩, ⟨ȅ⟩, and ⟨ȇ⟩, especially in dictionaries. Another such ideal phonemic orthography is native to Esperanto, employing the language creator L. L. Zamenhof's then-pronounced principle “one letter, one sound”. There are two distinct types of deviation from this phonemic ideal. In the first case, the exact one-to-one correspondence may be lost (for example, some phoneme may be represented by a digraph instead of a single letter), but the "regularity" is retained: there is still an algorithm (but a more complex one) for predicting the spelling from the pronunciation and vice versa. In the second case, true irregularity is introduced, as certain words come to be spelled and pronounced according to different rules from others, and prediction of spelling from pronunciation and vice versa is no longer possible. Common cases of both types of deviation from the ideal are discussed in the following section. Deviations from phonemic orthography Some ways in which orthographies may deviate from the ideal of one-to-one grapheme-phoneme correspondence are listed below. The first list contains deviations that tend only to make the relation between spelling and pronunciation more complex, without affecting its predictability (see above paragraph). Case 1: Regular Pronunciation and spelling still correspond in a predictable way A phoneme may be represented by a sequence of letters, called a multigraph, rather than by a single letter (as in the case of the digraph ch in French and the trigraph sch in German). That only retains predictability if the multigraph cannot be broken down into smaller units. Some languages use diacritics to distinguish between a digraph and a sequence of individual letters, and others require knowledge of the language to distinguish them; compare goatherd and loather in English. Examples: sch versus s-ch in Romansch ng versus n + g in Welsh ch versus çh in Manx Gaelic: this is a slightly different case where the same digraph is used for two different single phonemes. ai versus aï in French This is often due to the use of an alphabet that was originally used for a different language (the Latin alphabet in these examples) and so does not have single letters available for all the phonemes used in the current language (although some orthographies use devices such as diacritics to increase the number of available letters). Sometimes, conversely, a single letter may represent a sequence of more than one phoneme (as x can represent the sequence /ks/ in English and other languages). Sometimes, the rules of correspondence are more complex and depend on adjacent letters, often as a result of historical sound changes (as with the rules for the pronunciation of ca and ci in Italian and the silent e in English). Case 2: Irregular Pronunciation and spelling do not always correspond in a predictable way Sometimes, different letters correspond to the same phoneme (for instance u and ó in Polish are both pronounced as the phoneme /u/). That is often for historical reasons (the Polish letters originally stood for different phonemes, which later merged phonologically). That affects the predictability of spelling from pronunciation but not necessarily vice versa. Another example is found in Modern Greek, whose phoneme /i/ can be written in six different ways: ι, η, υ, ει, οι and υι. Conversely, a letter or group of letters can correspond to different phonemes in different contexts. For example, th in English can be pronounced as /ð/ (as in this) or /θ/ (as in thin), as well as /th/ (as in goatherd). Spelling may otherwise represent a historical pronunciation; orthography does not necessarily keep up with sound changes in the spoken language. For example, both the k and the digraph gh of English knight were once pronounced (the latter is still pronounced in some Scots varieties), but after the loss of their sounds, they no longer represent the word's phonemic structure or its pronunciation. Spelling may represent the pronunciation of a different dialect from the one being considered. Spellings of loanwords often adhere to or are influenced by the orthography of the source language (as with the English words ballet and fajita, from French and Spanish respectively). With some loanwords, though, regularity is retained either by nativizing the pronunciation to match the spelling (as with the Russian word шофёр, from French chauffeur but pronounced in accordance with the normal rules of Russian vowel reduction; see also spelling pronunciation) or by nativizing the spelling (for example, football is spelt fútbol in Spanish and futebol in Portuguese). Spelling may reflect a folk etymology (as in the English words hiccough and island, so spelt because of an imagined connection with the words cough and isle), or distant etymology (as in the English word debt in which the silent b was added under the influence of Latin). Spelling may reflect morphophonemic structure rather than the purely phonemic (see next section) although it is often also a reflection of historical pronunciation. Most orthographies do not reflect the changes in pronunciation known as sandhi in which pronunciation is affected by adjacent sounds in neighboring words (written Sanskrit and other Indian languages, however, reflect such changes). A language may also use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items such as the Japanese hiragana and katakana syllabaries (and the different treatment in English orthography of words derived from Latin and Greek). Morphophonemic features Alphabetic orthographies often have features that are morphophonemic rather than purely phonemic. This means that the spelling reflects to some extent the underlying morphological structure of the words, not only their pronunciation. Hence different forms of a morpheme (minimum meaningful unit of language) are often spelt identically or similarly in spite of differences in their pronunciation. That is often for historical reasons; the morphophonemic spelling reflects a previous pronunciation from before historical sound changes that caused the variation in pronunciation of a given morpheme. Such spellings can assist in the recognition of words when reading. Some examples of morphophonemic features in orthography are described below. The English plural morpheme is written -s regardless of whether it is pronounced as or , e.g. cats and dogs, not cats and dogz. This is because the and sounds are forms of the same underlying morphophoneme, automatically pronounced differently depending on its environment. (However, when this morpheme takes the form , the addition of the vowel is reflected in the spelling: churches, masses.) Similarly the English past tense morpheme is written -ed regardless of whether it is pronounced as , or . Many English words retain spellings that reflect their etymology and morphology rather than their present-day pronunciation. For example, sign and signature include the spelling , which means the same but is pronounced differently in the two words. Other examples are science vs. conscience , prejudice vs. prequel , nation vs. nationalism , and special vs. species . Phonological assimilation is often not reflected in spelling even in otherwise phonemic orthographies such as Spanish, in which obtener "obtain" and optimista "optimist" are written with b and p, but are commonly neutralized with regard to voicing and pronounced in various ways, such as both [β] in neutral style or both [p] in emphatic pronunciation. On the other hand, Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin) spelling reflects assimilation so one writes Србија/Srbija "Serbia" but српски/srpski "Serbian". The final-obstruent devoicing that occurs in many languages (such as German, Polish and Russian) is not normally reflected in the spelling. For example, in German, Bad "bath" is spelt with a final even though it is pronounced , thus corresponding to other morphologically related forms such as the verb baden (bathe) in which the d is pronounced . (Compare , ("advice", "advise") in which the t is pronounced in both positions.) Turkish orthography, however, is more strictly phonemic: for example, the imperative of eder "does" is spelled et, as it is pronounced (and the same as the word for "meat"), not *ed, as it would be if German spelling were used. Korean hangul has changed over the centuries from a highly phonemic to a largely morphophonemic orthography. Japanese kana are almost completely phonemic but have a few morphophonemic aspects, notably in the use of ぢ di and づ du (rather than じ ji and ず zu, their pronunciation in standard Tokyo dialect), when the character is a voicing of an underlying ち or つ. That is from the rendaku sound change combined with the yotsugana merger of formally different morae. The Russian orthography is also mostly morphophonemic, because it does not reflect vowel reduction, consonant assimilation and final-obstruent devoicing. Also, some consonant combinations have silent consonants. Defective orthographies A defective orthography is one that is not capable of representing all the phonemes or phonemic distinctions in a language. An example of such a deficiency in English orthography is the lack of distinction between the voiced and voiceless "th" phonemes ( and , respectively), occurring in words like this (voiced) and thin (voiceless) respectively, with both written . Comparison between languages Languages whose current orthographies have a high grapheme-to-phoneme and phoneme-to-grapheme correspondence (excluding exceptions due to loan words and assimilation) include: Afrikaans Amharic Kurdish Maltese Estonian (apart from palatalization or long and "over-long" phoneme length distinction) Finnish Albanian Georgian Hindi (apart from schwa deletion) Sanskrit Kannada Telugu Malayalam Dhivehi Turkish (apart from ğ and various palatal and vowel allophones) Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin; written in either Cyrillic or Latin script) Slovenian Bulgarian Macedonian (if the apostrophe denoting schwa is counted, though slight inconsistencies may be found) Eastern Armenian (apart from o, v) Basque (apart from palatalized l, n) Haitian Creole Spanish (apart from h, x, b/v, and sometimes k, c, g, j, z) Czech (apart from ě, ů, y, ý) Polish (apart from ó, ch, rz and nasal vowels ą and ę) Romanian (apart from â or î (see Î versus Â)) Ukrainian (mainly phonemic with some other historical/morphological rules, as well as palatalization) Belarusian (phonemic for vowels but mostly morphophonemic for consonants except ў written phonetically) Swahili (missing aspirated consonants, which do not occur in all varieties and anyway are sparsely used) Mongolian (Cyrillic) (apart from letters representing multiple sounds depending on front or back vowels, the soft and hard sign, silent letters to indicate from and voiced versus voiceless consonants) Azerbaijani (apart from k) Hungarian (apart from j and ly) Oromo Many otherwise phonemic orthographies are slightly defective: Malay (incl. Malaysian and Indonesian), Italian, Maltese, Welsh, and Kazakh do not fully distinguish their vowels; Lithuanian and Serbo-Croatian do not distinguish tone and vowel length (also additional vowels for Lithuanian); Latvian does not distinguish tone and some of its vowels; Somali does not distinguish vowel phonation; and the graphemes b and v represent the same phoneme in all varieties of Spanish (except in Valencia), while in the Spanish of the Americas, can be represented by graphemes s, c, or z. Modern Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Maithili and several others feature schwa deletion, where the implicit default vowel is suppressed without being explicitly marked as such. Others, like Marathi, do not have a high grapheme-to-phoneme correspondence for vowel lengths. Bengali and Assamese, despite having a slightly shallow orthography, has a deeper orthography than its Indo-Aryan cousins as it features silent consonants at places. Moreover, due to sound mergers, the same phonemes are often represented by different graphemes. This also leads to existence of many homophones in these languages. French, with its silent letters and its heavy use of nasal vowels and elision, may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. The phoneme-to-letter correspondence, on the other hand, is often low and a sequence of sounds may have multiple ways of being spelt, often with different meanings. Orthographies such as those of German, Hungarian (mainly phonemic with the exception ly, j representing the same sound, but consonant and vowel length are not always accurate and various spellings reflect etymology, not pronunciation), Portuguese, and modern Greek (written with the Greek alphabet), as well as Korean hangul, are sometimes considered to be of intermediate depth (for example they include many morphophonemic features, as described above). Similarly to French, it is much easier to infer the pronunciation of a German word from its spelling than vice versa. For example, for speakers who merge /eː/ and /ɛː/, the phoneme /eː/ may be spelt e, ee, eh, ä or äh. English orthography is highly non-phonemic. The irregularity of English spelling arises partly because the Great Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography was established; partly because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels; and partly because the regularisation of the spelling (moving away from the situation in which many different spellings were acceptable for the same word) happened arbitrarily over a period without any central plan. However even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and several of these rules are successful most of the time; rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate. Most constructed languages such as Esperanto and Lojban have mostly phonemic orthographies. The syllabary systems of Japanese (hiragana and katakana) are examples of almost perfectly shallow orthography – exceptions include the use of ぢ and づ (discussed above) and the use of は, を, and へ to represent the sounds わ, お, and え, as relics of historical kana usage. There is also no indication of pitch accent, which results in homography of words like 箸 and 橋 (はし in hiragana), which are distinguished in speech. Xavier Marjou uses an artificial neural network to rank 17 orthographies according to their level of Orthographic depth. Among the tested orthographies, Chinese and French orthographies, followed by English and Russian, are the most opaque regarding writing (i.e. phonemes to graphemes direction) and English, followed by Dutch, is the most opaque regarding reading (i.e. graphemes to phonemes direction); Esperanto, Arabic, Finnish, Korean, Serbo-Croatian and Turkish are very shallow both to read and to write; Italian is shallow to read and very shallow to write, Breton, German, Portuguese and Spanish are shallow to read and to write. Realignment of orthography With time, pronunciations change and spellings become out of date, as has happened to English and French. In order to maintain a phonemic orthography such a system would need periodic updating, as has been attempted by various language regulators and proposed by other spelling reformers. Sometimes the pronunciation of a word changes to match its spelling; this is called a spelling pronunciation. This is most common with loanwords, but occasionally occurs in the case of established native words too. In some English personal names and place names, the relationship between the spelling of the name and its pronunciation is so distant that associations between phonemes and graphemes cannot be readily identified. Moreover, in many other words, the pronunciation has subsequently evolved from a fixed spelling, so that it has to be said that the phonemes represent the graphemes rather than vice versa. And in much technical jargon, the primary medium of communication is the written language rather than the spoken language, so the phonemes represent the graphemes, and it is unimportant how the word is pronounced. Moreover, the sounds which literate people perceive being heard in a word are significantly influenced by the actual spelling of the word. Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a spelling reform to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself, as when Turkey switched from the Arabic alphabet to a Turkish alphabet of Latin origin. Phonetic transcription Methods for phonetic transcription such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) aim to describe pronunciation in a standard form. They are often used to solve ambiguities in the spelling of written language. They may also be used to write languages with no previous written form. Systems like IPA can be used for phonemic representation or for showing more detailed phonetic information (see Narrow vs. broad transcription). Phonemic orthographies are different from phonetic transcription; whereas in a phonemic orthography, allophones will usually be represented by the same grapheme, a purely phonetic script would demand that phonetically distinct allophones be distinguished. To take an example from American English: the sound in the words "table" and "cat" would, in a phonemic orthography, be written with the same character; however, a strictly phonetic script would make a distinction between the aspirated "t" in "table", the flap in "butter", the unaspirated "t" in "stop" and the glottalized "t" in "cat" (not all these allophones exist in all English dialects). In other words, the sound that most English speakers think of as is really a group of sounds, all pronounced slightly differently depending on where they occur in a word. A perfect phonemic orthography has one letter per group of sounds (phoneme), with different letters only where the sounds distinguish words (so "bed" is spelled differently from "bet"). A narrow phonetic transcription represents phones, the sounds humans are capable of producing, many of which will often be grouped together as a single phoneme in any given natural language, though the groupings vary across languages. English, for example, does not distinguish between aspirated and unaspirated consonants, but other languages, like Korean, Bengali and Hindi do. The sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather small universal phonetic alphabet. A standard for this is the International Phonetic Alphabet. See also Alphabetic principle English-language spelling reform Spelling Morphophonology Orthographic depth Orthographic transcription References Orthography Phonetics Phonology Spelling
377397
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20lobster
American lobster
The American lobster (Homarus americanus) is a species of lobster found on the Atlantic coast of North America, chiefly from Labrador to New Jersey. It is also known as Atlantic lobster, Canadian lobster, true lobster, northern lobster, Canadian Reds, or Maine lobster. It can reach a body length of , and a mass of over , making it not only the heaviest crustacean in the world, but also the heaviest of all living arthropod species. Its closest relative is the European lobster Homarus gammarus, which can be distinguished by its coloration and the lack of spines on the underside of the rostrum. American lobsters are usually bluish green to brown with red spines, but several color variations have been observed. Distribution Homarus americanus is distributed along the Atlantic coast of North America, from Labrador in the north to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, in the south. South of New Jersey, the species is uncommon, and landings in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia and North Carolina usually make up less than 0.1% of all landings. A fossil claw assigned to Homarus americanus was found at Nantucket, dating from the Pleistocene. In 2013, an American lobster was caught at the Farallon Islands off the coast of California. It has been introduced to Norway and potentially Iceland. Description Homarus americanus commonly reaches long and weighs in weight, but has been known to weigh as much as , making this the heaviest crustacean in the world. Together with Sagmariasus verreauxi, it is also the longest decapod crustacean in the world; an average adult is about long and weighs . The longest American lobsters have a body (excluding claws) long. According to Guinness World Records, the heaviest crustacean ever recorded was an American lobster caught off Nova Scotia, Canada, weighing . The closest relative of H. americanus is the European lobster, Homarus gammarus. The two species are very similar, and can be crossed artificially, although hybrids are unlikely to occur in the wild since their ranges do not overlap. The two species can be distinguished by several characteristics: The rostrum of H. americanus bears one or more spines on the underside, which are lacking in H. gammarus. The spines on the claws of H. americanus are red or red-tipped, while those of H. gammarus are white or white-tipped. The underside of the claw of H. americanus is orange or red, while that of H. gammarus is creamy white or very pale red. Head The antennae measure about long and split into Y-shaped structures with pointed tips. Each tip exhibits a dense zone of hair tufts staggered in a zigzag arrangement. These hairs are covered with multiple nerve cells that can detect odors. Larger, thicker hairs found along the edges control the flow of water, containing odor molecules, to the inner sensory hairs. The shorter antennules provide a further sense of smell. By having a pair of olfactory organs, a lobster can locate the direction a smell comes from, much the same way humans can hear the direction a sound comes from. In addition to sensing smells, the antennules can judge water speed to improve direction finding. Lobsters have two urinary bladders, located on either side of the head. Lobsters use scents to communicate what and where they are, and those scents are in the urine. They project long plumes of urine in front of them, and do so when they detect a rival or a potential mate in the area. Thorax The first pair of pereiopods (legs) is armed with a large, asymmetric pair of claws. The larger one is the "crusher", and has rounded nodules used for crushing prey; the other is the "cutter" or "gripper", which has sharp inner edges and is used for holding or tearing the prey. Whether the crusher claw is on the left side or right side of its body determines whether a lobster is left or right handed. Coloration The normal coloration of Homarus americanus is bluish green to brown with red spines due to a mixture of yellow, blue, and red pigments that occur naturally in the shell. On rare occasions these colors are distorted due to genetic mutations or conditions creating a spectacle for those who catch them. In 2012 it was reported that there has been an increase in these "rare" catches due to unclear reasons. Social media influence making reporting and sharing more accessible to a drop in predator populations have been suggested as possible reasons. The lobsters mentioned below thus usually receive media coverage due to their rarity and eye appeal. Life cycle Mating only takes place shortly after the female has molted and her exoskeleton is still soft. The female releases a pheromone which causes the males to become less aggressive and to begin courtship, which involves a courtship dance with claws closed. Eventually, the male inserts spermatophores (sperm packets) into the female's seminal receptacle using his first pleopods; the female may store the sperm for up to 15 months. The female releases eggs through her oviducts, and they pass the seminal receptacle and are fertilized by the stored sperm. They are then attached to the female's pleopods (swimmerets) using an adhesive, where they are cared for until they are ready to hatch. The female cleans the eggs regularly and fans them with water to keep them oxygenated. The large telolecithal eggs may resemble the segments of a raspberry, and a female carrying eggs is said to be "in berry". Since this period lasts 10–11 months, berried females can be found at any time of year. In the waters off New England, the eggs are typically laid in July or August, and hatch the following May or June. The developing embryo passes through several molts within the egg, before hatching as a metanauplius larva. When the eggs hatch, the female releases them by waving her tail in the water, setting batches of larvae free. The metanauplius of H. americanus is long, transparent, with large eyes and a long spine projecting from its head. It quickly molts, and the next three stages are similar, but larger. These molts take 10–20 days, during which the planktonic larvae are vulnerable to predation; only 1 in 1,000 is thought to survive to the juvenile stage. To reach the fourth stage – the post-larva – the larva undergoes metamorphosis, and subsequently shows a much greater resemblance to the adult lobster, is around long, and swims with its pleopods. At this stage, the lobster's claws are still relatively small so they rely primarily on tail-flip escapes if threatened. After the next molt, the lobster sinks to the ocean floor and adopts a benthic lifestyle. It molts more and more infrequently, from an initial rate of ten times per year to once every few years. After one year it is around long, and after six years it may weigh . By the time it reaches the minimum landing size, an individual may have molted 25–27 times, and thereafter each molt may signal a 40%–50% increase in weight, and a 14% increase in carapace length. If threatened, adult lobsters will generally choose to fight unless they have lost their claws. Ecology The American lobster thrives in cold, shallow waters where there are many rocks and other places to hide from predators. It typically lives at a depth of , but can be found up to below the surface. Diet The natural diet of H. americanus is relatively consistent across different habitats. It is dominated by mollusks (especially mussels, clams and snails), echinoderms and polychaetes, although a wide range of other prey items may be eaten, including other crustaceans (such as crabs), brittle stars, cnidarians and small fish. It will also feed on dead animals, as well as algae and eelgrass. Since lobsters sometimes eat their own molted shell, they were thought to be cannabalistic, but this has never been recorded in the wild. Lobsters in Maine have been shown to gain 35–55% of their calories from herring, which is used as bait for lobster traps. Only 6% of lobsters entering lobster traps to feed are caught. Diseases Bacterial Gaffkaemia or red-tail is an extremely virulent infectious disease of lobsters caused by the bacterium Aerococcus viridans. It only requires a few bacterial cells to cause death of otherwise healthy lobsters. The "red tail" common name refers to a dark orange discoloration of the ventral abdomen of affected lobsters. This is, in fact, the hemolymph or blood seen through the thin ventral arthrodial membranes. The red discoloration comes from astaxanthin, a carotenoid pigment exported to the blood during times of stress. The same sign is also seen in other diseases of lobsters and appears to be a nonspecific stress response, possibly relating to the antioxidant and immunostimulatory properties of the astaxanthin molecule. Epizootic shell disease is a bacterial infection which causes black lesions on the lobsters' dorsal carapaces, reducing their saleability and sometimes killing the lobsters. Limp lobster disease caused by systemic infection by the bacterium Vibrio fluvialis (or similar species) causes lobsters to become lethargic and die. Parasitic Paramoebiasis is an infectious disease of lobsters caused by infection with the sarcomastigophoran (amoeba) Neoparamoeba pemaquidensis. This organism also causes amoebic gill disease in farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Infection occurs throughout the tissues, causing granuloma-like lesions, especially within the ventral nerve cord, the interstices of the hepatopancreas and the antennal gland. Paramoebiasis is strongly suspected to play a prominent role in the rapid die-off of American lobsters in Long Island Sound that occurred in the summer of 1999. Environmental Excretory calcinosis in American lobsters in Long Island Sound was described in 2002. The disease causes mineralized calculi to form in the antennal glands and gills. These cause a loss of surface area around the gills, and the lobster eventually asphyxiates. Several reasons have been proposed for the cause of a recent outbreak of the disease. The most generally attributed factor is an increased duration of warmer temperatures in the bottom of the Long Island Sound. Plastic pollution is harmful for American lobsters. Consumption of microplastic particles may be deadly to early-stage larvae. For later stage larvae, oxygen consumption rate decreases with high level of microplastic fibers. Taxonomy The American lobster was first described by Thomas Say in 1817, with a type locality of "Long-branch, part of the coast of New Jersey". The name Say chose – "Astacus marinus" – was invalid as a junior homonym of Astacus marinus Fabricius, 1775, which is in turn a junior synonym of Homarus gammarus. The American lobster was given its current scientific name of Homarus americanus by Henri Milne-Edwards in his 1837 work ("Natural History of the Crustacea"). The common name preferred by the Food and Agriculture Organization is "American lobster", but the species is also known locally as the "northern lobster", "Maine lobster" or simply "lobster". As food American lobsters are a popular food. They are commonly boiled or steamed. Hard-shells (lobsters that are several months past their last molt) can survive out of water for up to four or five days if kept refrigerated. Soft-shells (lobsters that have only recently molted) do not survive more than a few hours out of water. Lobsters are usually cooked alive, which may be illegal in certain areas and which some people consider inhumane. One common way of serving lobster 'tail' (actually the abdomen) is with beef, known as surf and turf. Lobsters have a greenish or brownish organ called the tomalley, which, like the liver and pancreas in a human, filters out toxins from the body. Some diners consider it a delicacy, but others avoid it because they consider it a toxin source; dislike eating innards; or are put off by its texture and appearance, that of a grainy greenish paste. A set of nutcrackers and a long, thin tool for pulling meat from inaccessible areas are suggested as basics, although more experienced diners can eat the animal with their bare hands or a simple tool (a fork, knife or rock). Eating a lobster can get messy, and most restaurants offer a lobster bib. Meat is generally contained in the larger claws and tails, and stays warm quite a while after being served. There is some meat in the legs and in the arms that connect the large claws to the body. There is also some small amount of meat just below the carapace around the thorax and in the smaller legs. North American lobster industry Most lobsters come from the northeastern coast of North America, with the Atlantic Provinces of Canada and the U.S. state of Maine being the largest producers. They are caught primarily using lobster traps, although lobsters are also harvested as bycatch by bottom trawlers, fishermen using gillnets, and by scuba divers in some areas. Maine prohibits scuba divers from catching lobsters; violations are punishable by fines of up to $1000. Maine also prohibits the landing of lobsters caught by bottom trawlers and other "mobile gear". Massachusetts offers scuba divers lobster licenses for a fee, and they are only available to state residents. Rhode Island also requires divers to acquire a permit. Lobster traps are rectangular cages made of vinyl-coated galvanized steel mesh or wood, with woven mesh entrances. These are baited and lowered to the sea floor. They allow a lobster to enter, but make it difficult for the larger specimens to turn around and exit. This allows the creatures to be captured alive. The traps, sometimes referred to as "pots", have a buoy floating on the surface, and lobstermen check their traps between one and seven days after setting them. The inefficiency of the trapping system has inadvertently prevented the lobster population from being overfished. Lobsters can easily escape the trap, and will defend the trap against other lobsters because it is a source of food. An estimated 10% of lobsters that encounter a trap enter, and of those that enter 6% will be caught. United States In the United States, the lobster industry is regulated. Every lobster fisher is required to use a lobster gauge to measure the distance from the lobster's eye socket to the end of its carapace: if the lobster is less than long, it is too young to be sold and must be released back to the sea. There is also a legal maximum size of in Maine, meant to ensure the survival of a healthy breeding stock of adult males, but in parts of some states, such as Massachusetts, there is none. Also, traps must contain an escape hole or "vent", which allows juvenile lobsters and bycatch species to escape. The law in Maine and other states dictates a second large escape hole or "ghost panel" must be installed. This hole is held shut through use of degradable clips made of ferrous metal. Should the trap become lost, the trap eventually opens, allowing the catch to escape. To protect known breeding females, lobsters caught carrying eggs are to be notched on a tail flipper (second from the right, if the lobster is right-side up and the tail is fully extended). Following this, the female cannot be kept or sold, and is commonly referred to as a "punch-tail" or as "v-notched". This notch remains for two molts of the lobster exoskeleton, providing harvest protection and continued breeding availability for up to five years. Canada In Canada, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans is responsible for the governance of fisheries under the authority of the Fisheries Act. The governance structure also includes various other acts, regulations, orders and policies. American Lobster is fished in Canada by lobster licence holders hailing from ports located in provinces on Canada's east coast. Lobster is Canada's most valuable seafood export, worth over CAD$2 billion in 2016. Management American lobster tends to have a stable stock in colder northern waters, but gradually decreases in abundance moving southward. To manage lobster populations, more regulations and restrictions, geared towards achieving sustainable populations, are implemented gradually southward. Genetics Currently there is no published genome for the American lobster, although a transcriptome was published in 2016. See also References Further reading External links Crustaceans described in 1837 Commercial crustaceans Crustaceans of North America Crustaceans of the Atlantic Ocean Crustaceans of the United States Edible crustaceans Extant Pleistocene first appearances Least concern biota of North America Least concern biota of the United States Natural history of Maine Pleistocene animals of North America True lobsters
377401
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle%20Reis
Michelle Reis
Michelle Monique Reis (born Michele Monique Reis, 20 June 1970) is a former actress, model and beauty queen based in Hong Kong of Macanese descent. In 1988, she won the Miss Chinese International Pageant and Miss Hong Kong beauty pageants. Afterwards, she became a prominent actress in 1990s Hong Kong, often appearing in introspective and independent fare rather than mainstream releases. Reis often played dynamic characters, with a significant number of her roles centering around characters deemed more "difficult" to portray in Hong Kong cinema, such as prostitutes, femme fatales, and professional killers. Known for her youthful beauty and often deemed "one of the most beautiful women in Asia", Reis has continued to remain in the public eye long after her film career subsided in the early 2000s. Outside of the Chinese-speaking world, she is most famous for her role as the Hitman's Assistant in Fallen Angels (1995), which brought her critical acclaim internationally, as well as status as a cult film character and saw her nominated for “Best Actress" at the 1996 Golden Bauhinia Awards. Early life Reis was born in Macau, then a Portuguese colony, on 20 June 1970 as Michele Monique Reis. She did not acquire her Chinese name, Lee Ka Yan or Li Jiaxin (李嘉欣), until after elementary school. She is of mixed ancestry; her father, Francis Reis, was a Hong Kong-born ethnically Portuguese Macanese, and her mother, Wu Guofang (Chinese: 吴国芳), is Chinese and was raised in Shanghai before moving to British Hong Kong after World War II. Reis also has an older sister, born in August 1962, known as "Yuet Chi" (Joanna Francisca Reis or Li Jiaming; 李嘉明). She is Catholic. Her father, a member of the Hong Kong Volunteers, was captured by the Japanese when defending Hong Kong in 1941 during World War II and was imprisoned by the Imperial Japanese Army in the Sham Shui Po Barracks for two years. Francis was reportedly popular and well-liked by the other prisoners. Still, because of his height, he was sent to work in coal mines in Sendai, Japan, until Japan's surrender. After the liberation of Hong Kong in 1945, he returned to Hong Kong, married Michelle's mother, and entered a business career. In 1973, a modeling scout discovered Reis, and she was subsequently shot in a one-time baby advertisement. Reis recalls her childhood as an unhappy one. She recalls her childhood being devoid of toys or new clothes and dominated by "her mother's tears and parents' endless bickering". Her father became more absent, resulting in Reis being raised primarily by her mother. Francis Reis was unsuccessful in his career, "achieving nothing", resulting in the family living in poverty. Wu Guofang, Reis' mother, worked two jobs a day to provide for the family. The family lived in a tin roof house, which they built themselves and was typical of Hong Kong's impoverished, and then lived in the highly dense and impoverished Chungking Mansions. Conditions at the tin roof house were very poor, with summers being extremely hot and rain easily dripping through cracks in their roof. In 1980, at the age of 10, Reis’ father ran away from the family household because of an affair he was having, reportedly an affair abroad. By the end of his lifetime, he would come to have had three marriages and four children. Reis has also stated that in childhood, she did not pay attention to her appearance, and that in elementary school she wore large myopic glasses. In 1982, when she was 12, Reis filmed a second advertisement. At 14, she began part-time studies as a student, which her mother emphasised, completing these studies by modelling part-time. During her studies, modelling scouts offered her casting and commercial film opportunities, but Reis declined as she wanted to be a flight attendant. Reis attended Maryknoll Convent School and matriculated from St. Paul's Secondary School throughout her studies. At Maryknoll Convent School, she received excellent grades, with 2A (English, Bible) results and ranking 7B in the five-year secondary education graduation exam. As Reis and her sister grew older, the family's financial situation gradually improved, yet they remained impoverished. In 1987, Reis' parents officially divorced. Many years after Reis' father abandoned the family and as Reis began to become well-known in Hong Kong, he tried to contact Reis by phone, asking for money. Despite her worries about his deteriorating health, she had no intention of reconnecting. Years later, Reis recalled the phone call, which she found hurtful. Reis' father died at the Prince of Wales Hospital in Hong Kong on 22 August 1995 after fighting a blood disorder for eight months. She attended his funeral. Education Reis had excellent results when she attended Maryknoll Convent School, receiving a 2A (English, Bible) result and ranking 7B in her five-year secondary education graduation exam. She participated in the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination shortly after she won the 1988 Miss Hong Kong Pageant. Career Beauty queen career and early actress career (1988–1993) In 1988, after encouragement from others, Reis auditioned for the 1988 Miss Hong Kong Pageant. She was predicted to win the "Best Photogenic Award", which gave Reis the self-confidence to continue on this career path. However, Sheila Chin won the "Best Photogenic Award" instead. She reportedly cried after leaving the stage. However, her mother's words reminded Reis that the road to success was difficult and that there would be many setbacks in the future on this career path, which proved highly influential and inspirational to Reis, encouraging her to press ahead with the Miss Hong Kong Pageant. The competition between Reis and Sheila Chin was tense in the pageant and was "neck-to-neck". Reis won the pageant, becoming Miss Hong Kong 1988 at the age of 18 and winning the contest's "Miss International Goodwill" title. While both women would soon receive entertainment careers, with both taking a direction towards acting, Reis would, by the mid-1990s, ultimately become a more acclaimed celebrity than Chin, with distinctive film roles. Later that year, in late 1988, Reis would also become the first Miss Chinese International and was awarded the "Best Photogenic Award". Following her Miss Chinese International crowning, she participated in the Miss World 1988 pageant in London, where she promoted the image of Hong Kong. Continuing her newfound status as an acclaimed beauty queen, Reis was then supposed to compete in the Miss Universe 1989 pageant but withdrew due to health problems, citing "personal reasons".    Reis would later reveal in 1998 that her beauty queen career proved to be a difficult time for her, stating: “The Miss Hong Kong time was very confusing for me. I wouldn’t have the courage to do it again.” After spending a year as the "Miss International Goodwill" Ambassador, a title she received from the Miss Hong Kong 1988 pageant, Reis later remarked that she "wasn’t sure what I would do after it." As is customary for many Miss Hong Kong winners, Reis would receive a career offer from TVB – with Mona Fong, the Deputy chairman and general manager of TVB, personally stepping forward and trying her best to persuade Reis to sign a contract. Fong offered Reis very favourable conditions, such as not pushing Reis to star in the TV station's low budget series, which is what usually happens with new, young faces in TVB, as well as offering Reis more beyond a normal monthly salary. As such, Reis soon appeared in a 5-episode TVB drama series called “I Do I Do” (花月佳期), which aired in late March 1989. While the drama is fairly unremarkable, it marked the first acting role of Reis, who had had no formal acting training when she was offered a contract by TVB, and later remarked that filming the series "seemed like the right thing to do." In 1990, having first worked in commercials, appearing in music videos and then on TVB television episodes, Reis made her formal entry into showbiz with her first film roles such as Declaration Of Help (1990) – her film debut – and although a newcomer to films, played a role such as the "rebel sister" Yuet Chi / Moon in her second film, A Chinese Ghost Story Part II (1990). That year, she would also go on to star in comedies like No Risk, No Gain (1990), starring as Winnie, and as a streetwise tough beauty in Perfect Girls (1990). Her next films, in the years 1990–1993 would mostly be comedies, and she would often play roles dependent on her beauty. As such, she would to some degree cultivate an idol image, starring in popular films such as The Banquet (1991), Royal Tramp II (1992), and replacing Cecilia Yip in starring as the tomboyish disciple Kiddo in Swordsman II (1992) – starring alongside her favourite actress Brigitte Lin. Reis would also star in A Kid from Tibet (1992). However, Reis also starred in some roles in this early part of her acting career that would distinctly represent her acting style, and bring her out as an actress. These included starring as "Windy" in the anime-inspired, science-fiction future noir The Wicked City (1992), where her full-mouthed looks were deemed just right for the anime-inspired film, and her performance as an actress was brought out significantly in a way previously not before. Telling a story of conflicts and relationship between demon-like creatures and humans in 1990s Hong Kong, the film was a big success, being one of the most popular Tsui Hark productions in the USA and Europe, and still playing in festivals and midnight screenings around the USA and Europe. Reis would also dominate the film's promotional material. Actress breakthrough (1993–1995) By the dawn of the mid-1990s however, most of Reis’ film roles, with the exception of a few notable, acclaimed roles, had been relatively undemanding, being mainly known for her minor girl-next-door, "nice girl" roles, and she was often only used for simply window dressing, a common phenomenon amongst good-looking talents in Hong Kong's entertainment industry. Ambitious and wishing to attempt further, more elaborate roles with greater complexity, such as successful women, women with sex appeal, editresses or "mad women", Reis expanded the scope of her acting career significantly from 1993. Starring in Jet Li’s movie The Legend of Fong Sai Yuk (1993), she starred as the beautiful Ting-Ting. The film was a box office hit and Reis then starred in its sequel released later that year, Fong Sai-Yuk II (1993). Moving into television, Reis began to increase the complexity of her roles as she so desired, starring as the beautiful and deceptive top agent of a doomsday cult in the cross-genre TVB drama The Legendary Ranger (1993) alongside her good friend Leon Lai. The drama's eclectic setting and merger of wuxia, science fiction and fantasy genres, as well as its visual aesthetic was considered at the time groundbreaking in Hong Kong, and the demented mixture of beauty and darkness in the acting material Reis worked with cemented her signature acting style. In The Black Morning Glory (1993), Reis was to establish her acting style a step further – playing a complex dual-role as a professional killer employed by the Japanese Yakuza. The film also dealt into the mental complexity of Reis’ character, with a drama-based storyline that sees her character fend off the police and Yakuza while also attempting to reconcile with her own turmoil after she realises who she has killed. The film would then go on to serve as premise for Reis starring in The Other Side of the Sea (1994), where Reis would again portray a cold-blooded professional killer who must reckon with going on the run and betrayal after becoming disillusioned with a life of killing. By 1995, Reis would star again alongside Leon Lai; this time in Wong Kar-wai’s neo-noir crime thriller Fallen Angels (1995), playing a sexually frustrated, jealous, cold-blooded hitman's assistant. Reis’ character was a notable departure from her earlier roles, allowing herself to be filmed at fisheye lens angles, in grungy colours and with an appearance that was glamorously-dressed, stylish, and decidedly grunge, an appearance that would become emblematic of Reis’ style, but at times also dishevelled in contrast to the polished appearance of her Miss Hong Kong days. Reis’ character was described as a "chain-smoking, quivering, obsessive mess who faxes kill-plans and masturbates in PVC fetish dresses", and was also interpreted as a ironic depiction of supermodel glamour or MTV music videos. Fully declaring herself as an actress, and breaking away completely from any kind of innocent or clean-cut image in a way that likely shocked many of her fans, Reis received critical acclaim for her portrayal of the role and immediately established herself as an A-list actress, becoming amongst Hong Kong's most famous actresses. Fallen Angels would go on to become a cult classic of the "Golden Age" of Hong Kong cinema, and Reis’ film character would also become a cult film character and a grunge icon – a reputation Reis has continued to have to this day. The role would also establish Reis as having fame beyond the Chinese-speaking world, becoming her most well-known role outside of the Chinese-speaking world. The role has often been called as the “bravest film choice" in Reis’ film career, marking a moment where she began to build a reputation for starring in introspective and high-quality movies, and by far her most iconic role – it has also been called her "very best performance". Continued film and modelling success (1995-early 2000s) After the success of Fallen Angels, Reis’ film output began to fall dramatically, with only 8 films over the next 5 years, representing how she was only willing to only star in higher-quality movies with more challenging film roles, though she continued to pick up large success in her modelling work. In 1996, she starred as Laura in 13 July (1996), a horror film about mental problems, suicide, and sleepless pressure in the chaos of Hong Kong city life. In 1997, Reis starred in the action sci-fi mystery thriller Armageddon (1997) as Adele, Andy Lau’s character's dead fiancé. The film was visually and thematically a departure from many other works in Hong Kong cinema at the time, and she also starred in Young And Dangerous IV (1997), the fourth film in the hugely-popular Young and Dangerous series of films. By the late 1990s, Reis’ career was also taking her abroad for further success – Reis was so popular in Japan that she was able to pick up "millions" from a day's work of working in Tokyo, and she was also doing a lot of advertising work in Los Angeles. Around the 21st century, Reis began to withdraw from acting to focus on family and charity businesses whilst making occasional public appearances. Her last role to date was 2009's Bodyguards and Assassins. On 25 December 2021, Reis made an appearance as a guest/main judge on HK Television Entertainment's fourth season of the talent variety show King Maker (Chinese: 全民造星IV), sparking internet discussion and hype. Personal life On 23 November 2008, following a public two-year courtship, Reis married business tycoon Julian Hui, son of real-estate billionaire Hui Sai Fun (1921–2018). Their son Jayden Max Hui was born on 8 February 2011. His initials are derived from the first initials, "J" and "M", of his parents' names. In 2007, a viral audio of Reis and business tycoon Joseph Lau leaked onto the internet caused controversy, in which Reis and Lau had a heated argument regarding actresses he had signed, including Ada Choi and Catherine Hung. Reis' use of profanity directed at Lau led netizens to imply the two to be in a relationship and being able to swear profusely behind his wife's back during that time, although the quality and time has indicated it originated from the 90s. Reis' famous line "I'm really gonna congratulate you/I give my congratulations!" () is often used by people nowadays as a sarcastic manner online or in real life. On 15 January 2022, Reis was rushed to ICU after a near death experience due to breathing complications. Partial filmography Sources: No Risk, No Gain (1990) – Winnie A Chinese Ghost Story Part II (1990) – Yuet Chi / Moon Perfect Girls (1990) – Lo Hsaio-Hsiao Qiang qian xiong di zhi zei yu shi da e (1990) Doctor's Heart (1990) – Anita Yeung Party of a Wealthy Family (1991) – Kar-Yan Li A Kid from Tibet (1991) – Chiu Seng-Neng Swordsman II (1992) – Kiddo Casino Tycoon II (1992) – Ti Yun Royal Tramp II (1992) – Li Ming-ke / A-ke Zen of Sword (1992) – Princess Choi Siu-Ling The Wicked City (1992) – Wan-Gei The Legend of Fong Sai Yuk (1993) – Ting Ting The Sword of Many Loves (1993) – Ching Ling The Black Morning Glory (1993) – Michelle Lam Man-Ting / Fan Lin The Legend of Fong Sai Yuk II (1993) – Ting Ting Drunken Master III (1994) – Sum Yu The Other Side of the Sea (1994) – Yip Man-Sau Fallen Angels (1995) – The Killer's Agent 100 Ways to Kill Yourself (1996) – Laura Heaven Earth Great Ambition (1997) – Adele Young and Dangerous 4 (1997) – Lee Yan-Kin Flowers of Shanghai (1998) – Emerald Prince Charming (1999) – 'Ice' Poa Round About Midnight (1999) – Linda The Island Tales (2000) – Sharon When I Fall in Love... with Both (2000) – Cecilia / Xixi (Chinese pinyin transliteration) The City of Strangers (2000) – Jackie Fong Healing Hearts (2000) – Kei Bakery Amour (2001) – Lok To Every Dog Has His Date (2001) – Sharon Lee Beauty and the Breast (2002) – Yuki The Irresistible Piggies (2002) – Mo Miss Du Shi Niang (2003) – Lady Ten Bodyguards and Assassins (2009) – Prince Lau's lover (final film role) Name as a wordplay In mainland China in 2010, it was a popular meme for several Chinese white-collar workers to display images of Michelle Reis at the office to subtly ask for a raise in salary because her Chinese name Jiāxīn (嘉欣) is an exact homophone of 加薪 ("pay raise") in Mandarin Chinese, and is a near-homophone in Cantonese language (ga1yan1/ga1san1). Awards and nominations See also Cinema of Hong Kong Macanese people Notes References External links hkcinemagic entry 1970 births Living people Miss World 1988 delegates Miss Hong Kong winners Miss Chinese International winners 20th-century Hong Kong actresses 21st-century Hong Kong actresses Hong Kong female models Hong Kong beauty pageant winners Hong Kong Roman Catholics Hong Kong people of Macanese descent Hong Kong people of Portuguese descent Macau emigrants to Hong Kong Macau people Macanese people Hong Kong film actresses Macau film actresses
377403
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf%20Air
Gulf Air
Gulf Air () is the state-owned airline and the flag carrier of Bahrain, which was founded in 1950 by British pilot Freddie Bosworth as Gulf Aviation. Headquartered in Muharraq, the airline operates scheduled flights to 59 destinations in 28 countries across Africa, Asia, and Europe. The airline's main hub is Bahrain International Airport. Gulf Air currently serves all its destinations with a combination of the narrow body jets Airbus A320, Airbus A321, Airbus A320neo and Airbus A321neo, as well as the wide body Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner. Gulf Air is the sponsor of the Bahrain Grand Prix and Bahrain International Airshow. It has been certified with a 5-Star COVID-19 Airline Safety Rating by Skytrax, becoming one of just sixteen airlines and only the third airline in the world and in the Middle East respectively to currently achieve this top recognition. Dubai–International is the busiest route served by the airline, with over 95 flights a week back and forth. History 1949–1973: Gulf Aviation as operating company In the late 1940s, Freddie Bosworth, a British pilot and entrepreneur, began an air taxi service to Doha and Dhahran from Bahrain. Bosworth later expanded the service and, on 24 March 1950, registered Gulf Aviation Company Limited as a private shareholding company. This makes its current operating company, Gulf Air, one of the oldest carriers in the Middle East. The early fleet contained seven Avro Ansons and three de Havilland DH.86B four-engine biplanes. In October 1951, British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) became a major shareholder in Gulf Aviation, holding a 22% stake through the BOAC subsidiary company BOAC Associated Companies. 1970s: multinational ownership In 1973 the governments of the Emirate (now Kingdom) of Bahrain, the State of Qatar, the Emirate of Abu Dhabi and the Sultanate of Oman agreed to purchase the BOAC Associated Companies holding in Gulf Aviation. The Foundation Treaty was signed on 1 January 1974 and gave each government a 25% shareholding in Gulf Aviation, which became a holding company. The operating company was now branded as Gulf Air and became the flag carrier for the four states. With leased Lockheed L-1011 Tristar and Boeing 737 aircraft joining the fleet, by 1976 Gulf Air had expanded its route network to include Amman, Amsterdam, Athens, Baghdad, Bombay, Bangkok, Beirut, Cairo, Colombo, Delhi, Dhaka, Hong Kong, Jeddah, Karachi, Khartoum, Larnaca, Manila, Paris, Ras al-Khaimah and Sana'a. The fleet comprised four Vickers VC10, three BAC One-Elevens, two Lockheed L-1011 Tristar 200s and five Boeing 737-200s. In 1978, the airline doubled the Tristar fleet to replace the VC10s. Meanwhile, the airline increased the Boeing 737 fleet to nine and phased out the One-Elevens. 1980s–1992: expansion The 1980s saw an increase in air travel and growth for Gulf Air. In 1981, Gulf Air became an IATA member, and in the following year became the first international airline to land at Riyadh. In 1985, Emirates, the startup national carrier of Dubai, began operating. During their first year of operations, Gulf Air profits fell 30%, prompting the airline to drop its privatization plans. In 1986, Gulf Air posted a loss. In 1988, Boeing 767s joined the fleet, and the airline launched service to Frankfurt, Istanbul, Damascus, Dar es Salaam, Fujairah and Nairobi, and resumed service to Shiraz and Baghdad. The original Gulf Air livery consisted of a white fuselage with three stripes: maroon brown, green and red with a golden falcon on the three-striped tail fin. This livery was used in the following Gulf Air airliners: Lockheed L1011-200 TriStar (1976), Boeing 737-200 (1977), Boeing 767-300ER (1988), Airbus A320-200 (1992), Airbus A340-300 (1994) and Airbus A330-200 (1999). Gulf Air celebrated its 40th anniversary in 1990. The light-blue and peach Balenciaga-designed uniform was introduced. Services to Singapore, Sydney and Thiruvananthapuram were launched, Gulf Air thereby becoming the first Arab airline to fly to Australia. Gulf Air added services to Johannesburg and Melbourne in 1992, becoming the first Arab airline to fly directly to these cities. In 1993, it opened a flight-simulator centre in Qatar and introduced service to Casablanca, Entebbe, Jakarta, Kilimanjaro, Madras, Rome, San'a', Zanzibar and Zürich. 1993–2005: new livery and destinations In May 1994, Gulf Air received its first Airbus A340-300. Two months later, the carrier began flights to New York City using an A340. The Gulf Air website opened in January 1997, and New York left the network the following month. A no-smoking policy was established in 1998 on flights to Singapore and Australia, which was later extended through its whole network. In 1999, Gulf Air launched three new routes in northern Pakistan: Islamabad, Lahore and Peshawar. It also took delivery of two out of six Airbus A330-200 aircraft, and introduced a new Balmain uniform. In 2000, the airline celebrated its 50th anniversary. It took delivery of the remaining Airbus A330-200 aircraft in June, and launched service to Milan. Later in August 2000, one of the Airbus A320s was lost in a fatal crash which resulted in 143 deaths, known as Gulf Air Flight 072, operating on a flight from Cairo to Bahrain. In May 2002, James Hogan became president and CEO of Gulf Air and instigated a restructuring and turnaround programme in response to a drastic fall in profits and increasing debt. By 1 August 2002, Qatar announced its intentions to withdraw from Gulf Air to focus on its own national airline, Qatar Airways. The state remained a member state for a six-month period after announcing the intention to withdraw. In 2003, Gulf Air introduced a new Landor Associates-designed gold and blue livery and, in June, established Gulf Traveller, a subsidiary, all-economy, full-service airline. It also announced a sponsorship deal for the Bahrain Grand Prix through 2010, creating the Gulfair Bahrain Grand Prix, of which the first was staged in 2004. The airline also introduced daily flights to Athens and Sydney via Singapore on 23 November 2003. In 2004, Gulf Air introduced direct flights between Dubai and London, Muscat and London, and a daily service between Abu Dhabi and Ras Al Khaimah. The airline carried a record 7.5 million passengers during that year. Gulf Air's sponsorship of the Bahrain Formula 1 Grand Prix continued, with a record race crowd and a global TV audience. The airline announced a return to profit, with the best financial performance since 1997. Despite a BD30 million (US$80 million) cost to the business through fuel price rises during the year, Gulf Air recorded a profit of BD1.5 million (US$4.0 million) in the calendar year to December 2004, on revenues up 23.8% to BD476.3 million (US$1.26 billion) (2003: BD 384.6 million / USD1,020.2 million). The results meant the airline out-performed the targets set under Project Falcon, the three-year restructuring plan approved by the Board in December 2002. The owner states of Gulf Air at that time—the Kingdom of Bahrain, the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, and the Sultanate of Oman—confirmed their support for further expansion of the airline through a new three-year strategic plan which would include re-equipment of the aircraft fleet and recapitalization of the business through private-sector financing. Gulf Air was also placed on the IOSA registry following its successful completion of the IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA). 2006–2009: full ownership by Bahrain The new summer schedule commencing 28 April 2006 saw the complete withdrawal from Abu Dhabi as a hub, following the decision on 13 September 2005 by the Emirate of Abu Dhabi to withdraw from Gulf Air and establish UAE flag carrier Etihad Airways. Gulf Air changed its operations to a dual-hub basis between Bahrain and Muscat airports. The airline ran a series of advertisements in local newspapers, thanking Abu Dhabi for its contribution to Gulf Air. As the national carrier for the United Arab Emirates for over 35 years, it has a large customer base located in Abu Dhabi. Gulf Air endeavoured to show continuing support for flights to Abu Dhabi from Bahrain and Muscat, connecting to the rest of the Gulf Air network, via advertisements placed in local newspapers. James Hogan resigned as president and chief executive officer as of 1 October 2006 (subsequently becoming CEO at rival airline Etihad). Ahmed Al Hammadi was named acting chief executive officer, until Swiss national André Dosé, the former chief executive officer of Crossair and Swiss International Air Lines, became CEO on 1 April 2007. A few days later, Dosé announced a BD310 million (US$825 million) restructuring plan. This included originating or terminating all flights in Bahrain; ceasing routes to Johannesburg, Dublin, Jakarta, Singapore, Hong Kong and Sydney; eliminating all Boeing 767s and Airbus A340-300s from the fleet; introducing the Airbus A321 in July 2007 and the Airbus A330-300 in 2009; and potentially terminating employment based on performance, and without regard for nationality. This led to some employees applying for jobs in other airlines and, in less than a month, Gulf Air lost 500 persons from its workforce, prompting the airline to rule out mass layoffs as part of its recovery plan, except for performance reasons. On 5 May 2007, the government of Bahrain claimed full ownership of the airline following an extraordinary general meeting, as joint-owner Oman withdrew from the airline to focus on Oman Air. Gulf Air had also announced cutbacks to 25% of its workforce or roughly 1,500 jobs as part of a 2-year restructuring program to stop losses of $1 million a day. André Dosé resigned on 23 July 2007 and was replaced by Bjorn Naf, prompting the Bahraini government to call for further transparency in the airline's running, and delegating parliament's financial and economic affairs committee to investigate Gulf Air's situation. On 6 November 2007, Gulf Air started its third daily non-stop flight to London Heathrow Airport from Bahrain. The airline inaugurated services to Shanghai Pudong International Airport on 16 June 2008 (the route was terminated on 25 December 2009). It also placed orders with Boeing (for 16 787s) and Airbus (for 15 A320s and 20 A330s) to upgrade its fleet. The airline's last commercial Boeing 767 flight was on 29 May 2008. On 3 July 2008, Gulf Air was announced as the official sponsor of London association football club, Queens Park Rangers. The same year, Gulf Air signed a lease agreement for five aircraft with International Lease Finance Corporation (ILFC) as part of its growth and expansion strategy. The lease was for six years for two Airbus A319s and three Airbus A330-200s, due for delivery in March, April and May 2009. In March 2009, Gulf Air signed a 42-month lease agreement with Jet Airways for four Boeing 777-300ERs, but the aircraft were returned to Jet Airways starting in September 2009. In May, Gulf Air inaugurated summer seasonal flights to Alexandria, Aleppo and Salalah. On 1 September 2009, Gulf Air resumed flights to Baghdad. Services to Najaf and Erbil began shortly afterward. Starting June 2009, Gulf Air's Golden Falcon logo was seen on the streets of London, emblazoned on the side of the city's taxi cabs, as part a two-year marketing deal. Fifty Hackney Carriages were to be rolled out in full Gulf Air livery to promote the airline's flights from London Heathrow to Bahrain and beyond. Later in June, the carrier announced the departure of CEO Bjorn Naf and the appointment of Samer Majali (who worked previously for Royal Jordanian) as CEO effective 1 August 2009. 2010s: restructuring On 1 March 2010, Gulf Air launched its new "Falcon Gold" cabin, a single premium cabin merging business and first class together, aimed at offering higher standards of comfort for the standard premium price. As of August 2011, the new Flat Beds were installed on all aircraft except short-haul aircraft. In 2011, Gulf Air temporarily suspended flights to Iran, Iraq and Lebanon during the height of the Bahraini uprising. The airline originally was to resume service to Iran from November 2012, but cancelled the plan as it was unable to receive approval from the Iranian authorities. Flights to Iran resumed in March 2014. In November 2012, Gulf Air phased out its last Airbus A340-300. At the end of November 2012, it was announced that Gulf Air CEO Samer Majali's resignation had been accepted by the board of directors. Majali left by the end of 2012, after serving the company for three years. In March 2013, the airline announced that it cut 15% of its total staff alongside four unprofitable routes as part of its restructuring program. Maher Salman Al Musallam was the acting CEO of Gulf Air until May 2016, when he was officially appointed to the role. Musallam later resigned in June 2017 with his tenure being praised with reducing the airline's debts by 88%. On 12 November 2017, Gulf Air appointed former Croatia Airlines CEO Krešimir Kučko as the airline's new CEO. At the Bahrain International Airshow in January 2016, Gulf Air ordered 17 A321neo and 12 A320neo aircraft for delivery from June 2018, and cancelled a commitment to acquire six A330-300 aircraft. In addition, the airline also announced an restructured order for 16 Boeing 787-9 aircraft. The new order of 16 Boeing 787-9 aircraft replaced an existing order for 16 of the smaller Boeing 787-8 aircraft. In June 2017, Gulf Air suspended its flights to Qatar during the Qatar diplomatic crisis. In February 2018, Gulf Air revealed its new livery. It consisted of an all-white fuselage with a smaller golden falcon on the tail and with dark blue 'Gulf Air' titles. In February 2019, the airline briefly suspended flights to Pakistan after the country temporarily closed its airspace due to increased tensions with India. In January 2020, Gulf Air retired its last Airbus A330-200. Corporate affairs Ownership and structure Gulf Air is state-owned. The airline's sole shareholder is the Gulf Air Group Holding Company, which holds the aviation assets of Bahrain Mumtalakat, the sovereign wealth fund of the government of the Kingdom of Bahrain. The Gulf Air Group Holding board on December 5, 2022 announced the appointment of Jeffrey Goh as its group chief executive officer. Goh, who was previously CEO at Star Alliance, was due to take up his new role on January 1, 2023. The Gulf Air Group Holding comprises national carrier Gulf Air, Bahrain Airport Company, BAC Jet Fuel Company, and Gulf Aviation Academy. The group is also a substantial shareholder in Bahrain Airport Services Company and Bahrain Duty Free Company. Business trends Gulf Air continues to be loss-making. In 2011, due largely to political unrest in the state of Bahrain, Gulf Air lost BHD95 million, and the loss grew to BHD196 million in 2012. A decision was taken in 2013 to implement a turnaround plan that involved reducing the airline's fleet, number of staff and number of destinations, and the losses reduced - and in 2015, the loss reported was BHD24.1 million, an 88% reduction from 2012. Efforts to become profitable have continued; in January 2019, the carrier announced a "boutique business model" as part of its business plans for 2019, as it aims to turn around its fortunes. Few business figures are released on a regular basis, but those available are shown below (as at year ending 31 December): Sponsorship Gulf Air sponsors events, of which the most prestigious is the Bahrain Grand Prix. This is usually the first, second, third, or fourth race of the Formula One season, and is held in March or April. Gulf Air was also the first ever shirt sponsor of Chelsea F.C. in 1983 and 1984. More recently, it was shirt sponsor of Queens Park Rangers F.C. from 2008 to 2011. It also sponsors the Bahrain International Airshow. Destinations As of March 2023, Gulf Air flies to 59 destinations with 6 being seasonal in 28 countries across Africa, Asia and Europe from its hub at Bahrain International Airport. Gulf Air's own Falcon Gold lounge can be found at the airports of Bahrain, Dubai and London–Heathrow. Codeshare agreements Gulf Air has codeshare agreements with the following airlines: Aegean Airlines American Airlines Biman Bangladesh Airlines EgyptAir El Al Emirates Ethiopian Airlines Etihad Airways KLM Kuwait Airways Middle East Airlines Oman Air Philippine Airlines Qatar Airways Royal Jordanian Royal Air Maroc Saudia SpiceJet SriLankan Airlines Thai Airways Turkish Airlines Cathay Pacific Fleet Current fleet As of August 2023, the Gulf Air fleet consists of the following aircraft: Historical fleet Over the years, Gulf Air has operated the following aircraft types: Accidents and incidents On 22 November 1976, a Gulf Air Short SC.7 Skyvan cargo plane travelling from Bahrain to Abu Dhabi-Al Bateen Airport experienced an engine failure. The crew abandoned the aircraft off Das Island. The two occupants were rescued while the airplane sank. On 23 September 1983: Gulf Air Flight 771 was a flight from Karachi, Pakistan to Qatar via Abu Dhabi. While the Boeing 737-200 was on approach to Abu Dhabi International Airport, a bomb exploded in the baggage compartment. The aircraft crashed in the desert near Mina Jebel Ali between Abu Dhabi and Dubai in the UAE. All seven crew members and 105 passengers died. Most of the fatalities were Pakistani nationals, many returning to jobs in the Gulf after spending the Eid ul-Adha holiday with their families in Pakistan. The bomb was apparently planted by the Abu Nidal Organization, to pressure the Gulf States to pay protection money to Abu Nidal so as to avoid attacks on their soil. On 10 March 1997, a Gulf Air A320 (A4O-EM) aborted takeoff at Abu Dhabi International Airport and overran the runway, causing the nosegear to collapse. Everyone on board survived. On 23 August 2000: Gulf Air Flight 072 crashed into the waters of the Persian Gulf on approach to Bahrain International Airport from Cairo. The Airbus A320, with 143 passengers and crew on board, approached the landing at higher speeds than normal, and carried out an unusual low altitude orbit in an attempt to correct the approach. The orbit was unsuccessful and a go-around was attempted. While carrying out a turning climb the aircraft entered a descent at 15 degrees nose down. The aircrew did not respond to repeated GPWS warnings and approximately one minute after starting the go-around the aircraft disappeared from radar screens. All 143 passengers and crew, including 36 children, were killed in the accident. The accident investigation concluded that the primary cause of the crash was pilot error (including spatial disorientation), with a secondary factor being systemic organizational and oversight issues. Flight 072 was the highest death toll of any accident involving an Airbus A320 at that time. It was subsequently surpassed by TAM Airlines Flight 3054, which crashed on 17 July 2007 with 199 fatalities. On 29 August 2011, Gulf Air Flight 270, using an Airbus A320-214, from Bahrain to Cochin carrying 143 people, skidded off the runway on landing due to pilot error of loss of situational awareness during reduced visibility conditions. The weather was poor with heavy rain and strong winds. The aircraft was badly damaged with nose gear collapsed and seven passengers were injured. Some people were reported to have jumped from an emergency exit when the evacuation slide failed to deploy. References Citations Bibliography Kaminski-Morrow, David. "Gulf Air must expand or risk being smothered: chief executive." Flight International. 13 June 2008. Kaminski-Morrow, David. "Gulf Air insists alliances will need Middle Eastern partners." Flight International. 10 June 2008. Trade Arabia Pilling, Mark. "Is Gulf Air relevant anymore?" Flight International. 12 August 2008. Wigglesworth, Robin. "Gulf Air faces stormy skies." Financial Times. 12 August 2008. External links Official website Airlines of Bahrain Arab Air Carriers Organization members Airlines established in 1950 Government-owned airlines 1950 establishments in Bahrain
377410
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia%20Maesa
Julia Maesa
Julia Maesa (7 May before 160 AD – AD) was a member of the Severan dynasty of the Roman Empire who was the grandmother of emperors Elagabalus and Severus Alexander, elder sister of empress Julia Domna, and mother of Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea. She wielded influence during the reigns of her grandsons as Augusta of the Empire from 218 to her death, especially on their elevation to emperors. Born in Emesa, Syria (modern day Homs), to an Arab family of priests of the deity Elagabalus, Maesa and her sister Domna were the daughters of Julius Bassianus. Through her sister's marriage, Maesa became sister-in-law to Septimius Severus and aunt of Caracalla and Geta, who all became emperors. She married fellow Syrian Julius Avitus, who was of consular rank. They had two daughters, Soaemias and Mamaea, who became mothers of Elagabalus and Severus Alexander, respectively. As one of the Severan dynasty's prominent women, Maesa sought to return to power after her sister's suicide. She was closely involved in raising her grandson Elagabalus, and after his murder, another grandson, Severus Alexander, as emperors, which resulted in the restoration of the Severan dynasty to the Roman throne after the assassination of Caracalla and the usurpation of the throne by Macrinus. Sometime after Alexander's accession, she died in Rome. She was later deified in Syria along with her sister. Early life and marriage Julia Maesa was born on 7 May before 160 AD, the elder daughter of the priest Julius Bassianus in Emesa, Syria, modern day Homs, as part of the Emesan dynasty. She had a younger sister, Julia Domna, who would later become Roman empress after her marriage to Septimius Severus, who was, by the time of their marriage, a senator. As Maesa was an Arab, her cognomen, Maesa, is the feminine agent noun of the Arabic verb masa (), which signifies walking with a swinging gait. This would be an appropriate female name, as the verb from which it was derived was used by Arab poets to describe the figures of the women they wrote about. Although no written account describing her appearance survives, her sharp and formidable features, which contradict the soft and sensitive ones of her sister, are well displayed on the coins minted during the reign of her grandchildren. Maesa later married a fellow Syrian, Julius Avitus, a consul who also served as provincial governor in the empire. They had two daughters; her eldest daughter, Julia Soaemias, was born around 180 AD or some time before, and was followed by another daughter, Julia Mamaea, not long after. Life in Rome After her sister's arrival in Rome and the beginning of her tenure as empress consort, Maesa, accompanied by her family, travelled to Rome where they took up residence in the imperial court, although her husband, Julius Avitus, who held several important posts, did not stay in Rome for long and had to make many journeys across the empire; she did not accompany him on the journeys. During their time in Rome, Maesa and her family amassed great wealth and fortune, and rose to high positions in the Roman government and court of Septimius Severus and later, his son and successor, Caracalla. Her two daughters attained prominent positions in the court while their Syrian husbands held important posts as provincial governors and consuls, with Maesa's husband, along with that of her daughter rising from the Equestrian rank to reach Senatorial rank. Return to Emesa In 217 AD, after the murder of emperor Caracalla and the usurpation of the throne by Macrinus, Maesa's sister Domna, now suffering from breast cancer and bereft of the power and influence she had held during the reigns of her husband and her son, having lost both of her children, chose to commit suicide by starvation. Maesa and her family, who had resided in Rome for the last two decades, were spared and ordered by Macrinus to leave Rome and return to their home town of Emesa in Syria, likely because Macrinus wanted to avoid any action that would seem disloyal to Caracalla's memory and thus avoid any reprisals from the Roman army. Macrinus left Maesa's great wealth, amassed over a period of over twenty years, intact. Maesa arrived in Emesa some time between spring 217 and spring 218. Restoration of the Severan dynasty Macrinus was in a difficult position after Caracalla's assassination and was struggling to gain legitimacy and maintain loyalty to his rule. This situation encouraged Maesa to act against Macrinus. Being located in Emesa, she was close to a military base where many soldiers still held the Severans in high esteem and were loyal to the dynasty. The soldiers were also discontented with Macrinus' peace with the Parthians, making Emesa an excellent location to launch a coup to restore her family to power. Her first step was to choose a male candidate from within the family to replace the usurper, Macrinus. Maesa's husband died in Cyprus shortly before 217, as had her eldest daughter's husband. Julia Soaemias had a 14-year-old son, Varius Avitus Bassianus, who was the hereditary priest of the Emesan sun god Elagabalus. But Maesa had a different future in mind for him. He had begun attracting the soldiers of the Legio III Gallica stationed near Emesa, who would visit the city's temple occasionally to view what they considered to be the extravagant yet amusing religious rituals of Bassianus. Maesa proceeded with her plot of trying to challenge the legitimacy of emperor Macrinus, and she did so by claiming that Bassianus, who greatly resembled Caracalla, was indeed the former emperor's bastard son and that Caracalla had slept with both her daughters. The claim that Bassianus was the love child of Caracalla and Soaemias, despite almost certainly being untrue, was not so easily refuted, as aside from the young boy's resemblance to the emperor, Soaemias had been living in the Roman court at the time of Caracalla's reign. Maesa did not seem to mind that this claim would be sacrificing the honour and reputation of her daughters. Julia Maesa began offering to distribute her great wealth and fortune to the Roman soldiers based in Emesa in exchange for their support. This news spread throughout the army camps. Maesa, her daughter and Bassianus were taken into the army camp at night where the 14-year-old boy was immediately acknowledged and hailed as emperor by the soldiers and clad in imperial purple. Historian Cassius Dio narrates a slightly different version of events. He mentions a certain Gannys, who is not mentioned as partaking in the plot in any other source, as the main instigator of the revolt. Allegedly a 'youth who has not yet reached manhood', Dio claims he was raised by Maesa and was Soaemias' lover and the protector of her son. On a certain night, Bassianus was dressed in clothes worn by Caracalla as a child. Without the knowledge of either Soaemias or Maesa, Gannys then took him to the army camp and claimed he was the murdered emperor's son. It is unlikely that Maesa and Soaemias, with much to gain from Bassianus becoming emperor, would have been completely unaware of the actions of Gannys. On the other hand, it is also unlikely that Maesa alone orchestrated the young boy's ascension. In her plan she probably had the support of many important figures from the city of Emesa and even some figures in Rome's ruling elite. Reaction of Macrinus With the support of an entire legion, other legionaries, prompted by discontent over pay, deserted Macrinus and joined Elagabalus' ranks as well. In response to the growing threat, Macrinus sent out a cavalry force under the command of Ulpius Julianus to try to regain control of the rebel soldiers. Rather than capturing the rebel forces, the cavalry instead killed Ulpius and defected to Elagabalus. Following these events, Macrinus travelled to Apamea to ensure the loyalty of Legio II Parthica before setting off to march against Emesa. According to Dio, Macrinus appointed his son Diadumenian to the position of Imperator, and promised the soldiers 20,000 sesterces each, with 4,000 of these to be paid on the spot. Dio further says that Macrinus hosted a dinner for the residents of Apamea in honour of Diadumenian. At the dinner, Macrinus was supposedly presented with the head of Ulpius Julianus who had been killed by his soldiers. In response, Macrinus left Apamea and headed south. Macrinus and Elagabalus' troops met somewhere near the border of Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice. Despite Macrinus' efforts to quell the rebellion at this engagement, his whole legion defected to Elagabalus forcing Macrinus to retire to Antioch. Elagabus took to the offensive and marched on Antioch. Battle of Antioch Elagabalus' armies, commanded by the inexperienced but determined Gannys, engaged Macrinus' Praetorian Guard in a pitched battle. Gannys commanded at least two full legions and held numerical superiority over the fewer levies that Macrinus had been able to raise. Macrinus had ordered the Praetorian Guard to set aside their scaled armour breastplates and grooved shields in favour of lighter oval shields prior to the battle. This made them lighter and more manoeuvrable and negated any advantage light Parthian lancers had. The Praetorian Guards broke through the lines of Gannys' force, which turned to flee. During the retreat, however, Julia Maesa and Soaemias, in a surprising act of heroism joined the fray, leaping from their chariots to rally the retreating forces, while Gannys charged on horseback headlong into the enemy. These actions effectively ended the retreat with the troops resuming the assault with renewed morale, thus turning the tide of battle. Fearing defeat, Macrinus fled back to the city of Antioch. He attempted to escape north but was captured and executed in Cappadocia, while his son Diadumenian was captured in Zeugma and executed as well. Elagabalus entered Antioch as effectively Rome's new emperor. He stopped the soldiers from sacking the city and sent a message to the senate who were forced to accept the young boy as their new emperor. Upon ascension as emperor he took the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus. Reign of Elagabalus Although now declared emperor, Elagabalus' claim was not uncontested, as several others laid claim to the Roman throne. These included Verus, the commander of Legio III Gallica, who ironically was the first to proclaim Elagabalus as emperor, and Gellius Maximus, the commander of Legio IV Scythica. These rebellions were quashed and their instigators executed. Elagabalus spent the winter of 218–219 in Nicomedia before he set off for Rome. Maesa allegedly urged him to enter the capital draped in Roman clothes, but instead, he had a painting of him made as a priest making offerings to the Emesene deity El-Gabal. The painting was hung right above the statue of Victoria in the senate, putting senators in the awkward position of having to make offerings to the Syrian deity whenever they wanted to make offerings to Victoria. Both Maesa and her daughter Soaemias are featured heavily in all literary accounts of his reign, and are credited with having a significant influence over the young emperor. Julia Maesa was honoured with the titles of 'Augusta, mater castrorum et senatus' (Augusta, mother of the camp and the senate) and 'avia Augusti' (grandmother of the emperor). She and her daughter Soaemias received senatorial titles and later appeared in the Senate beside Elagabalus during his adoption of Severus Alexander, an honour previous imperial women had not received. Soon, the young emperor lost his popularity with the praetorian guards, who did not approve of his behaviour and his unusual religious rituals. Considering how their support was crucial for his rule to survive, this was an extremely dangerous development. Julia Maesa decided to take measures to prevent things from getting too out of hand. When she opposed his move to raise his lover Hierocles to caesar, he threatened her life. However, she convinced her grandson to adopt his cousin, her grandson Alexander, and declare him caesar, with the argument that it would leave more time for Elagabalus to devote himself to religious matters. The adoption of the 12 years old Alexander provided a strategic shift for the supporters of Elagabalus, as some of the supporters felt it was no longer wise to tie their fate with that of the priest-emperor and now saw an alternative in his adopted son. Rivalry was soon increasing between the two boys and Elagabalus regretted adopting his more popular cousin. The soldiers began to look favourably upon Elagabalus' cousin, and the allies and supporters of the dynasty as well as the imperial family itself became divided, with Elagabalus and Soaemias on one side, and Mamaea, Maesa and Alexander on the other. By the beginning of 222, Alexander and Elagabalus had become so estranged from each other that they no longer appeared together in public. An assassination attempt against Alexander by Elagabalus enraged the praetorian guards who demanded an assurance of Alexander's safety from Elagabalus and the dismissal of certain officials. Elagabalus broke his promise to do so, prompting the praetorian guard to slay Elagabalus and his mother, cutting their heads off and throwing aside their bodies. Alexander was now proclaimed emperor. A traditionally held belief is that while Elagabalus was mainly involved in religious matters, Julia Maesa and her daughter were the ones effectively running the state. This claim has been treated with caution by contemporary historians such as Barabara Levick, as in ancient Rome, politics and religion were intertwined and the rule of Elagabalus and the supremacy of his particular deity broke this relationship. In any case it is certain that Maesa had influence over the young boy, but Elagabalus' disagreements and dismissal of Maesa's advice, who was an advocate of Roman traditionalism, can be seen as the primary cause of his downfall. Julia Maesa may have been involved in the assassination of her daughter and grandson by conspiring with the praetorian guards, or at least she tolerated it. However, it may have helped her to retain her family's grip on power and preserve the empire's stability. Reign of Severus Alexander Alexander ascended the throne at the age of around 14, and he was kept in check by his mother and grandmother who were determined to erase the negative impression left by Elagabalus' rule. Alexander was given the name Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander to emphasize his relationship to Septimius Severus, the founder of the dynasty. Julia Mamaea and Julia Maesa also helped guide the smooth running of the empire in Alexander's minority. The inscriptions carrying the emperor's name referred to him as Juliae Mamaeae Aug(ustae) filio Juliae Maesae Aug(ustae) nepote (the son of Julia Mamaea and grandson of Julia Maesa), showing their status. The changes introduced by Maesa and her daughter included selecting a council of sixteen chosen for their moderation and experience to control the affairs of the administration and provide advice to the young emperor, restoring an aristocratic and non-tyrannical form of government. Under the new regime, new measures reversing Elagabalus' policies were introduced. The eastern religious practices introduced by the former emperor were eradicated in Rome and his religious edicts were reversed, the sacred stone of El-Gabal was returned to Emesa and the vast temple which had been dedicated to him by Elagabalus was re-dedicated to Jupiter. Death Maesa likely died between November 224 and 227. Her death deprived her daughter, Julia Mamaea, not only of a mother but also of a political mentor and colleague, and Julia Mamaea was now alone in her family in guiding her son's rule. Deification Like her sister Julia Domna, Julia Maesa was deified. In the Feriale Duranum, the list of religious observances of the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum, dating to AD, Maesa is subject to a supplication on her birthday (7 May). Coins commemorating her deification show her borne aloft on the back of a peacock. The coins are undated, but she also appears deified on the Acta Fratrum Arvalium of 7 November 224, which lists the number of gods and goddesses the Arval Brethren made sacrifices to on that certain date. Severan dynasty family tree See also Emesan dynasty Julia Domna Elagabalus References Citations Bibliography Augustae Severan dynasty Deified ancient Roman women 2nd-century Roman women 3rd-century Roman women 2nd-century Arab people 3rd-century Arab people 150s births 224 deaths People from Homs Emesene dynasty Julii
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nishapur
Nishapur
{{Infobox settlement | official_name = Neyshabur | native_name = | settlement_type = City | other_name = Raēvant (), Abarshahr (), Shadiyakh () | image_skyline = Nishapur, officially romanized as Neyshabur, (; from Middle Persian "New-Shapuhr", meaning: "The New City of Shapur", "The Fair Shapur", or "The Perfect built of Shapur") is the second-largest city of Razavi Khorasan Province in the Northeast of Iran. Nishapur is situated in a fertile plain at the foot of Binalud Mountain Range and has been the historic capital of the Western Quarter of Greater Khorasan, the historic capital of the 9th-century Tahirid dynasty, the initial capital of the 11th-century Seljuk Empire, and is currently the capital city of Nishapur County and a historic Silk Road city of cultural and economic importance in Iran and the region of Greater Khorasan. At the 2006 census, Nishapur's population was 205,972 in 56,652 households. The following census in 2011 counted 239,185 people in 71,263 households. The latest census in 2016 showed a population of 264,375 people in 83,143 households. It is the third most-populous city in the eastern provinces of Iran after Mashhad and Zahedan. Nearby are turquoise mines that have supplied the world with turquoise of the finest and the highest quality for at least two millennia. The city was founded in the 3rd century by Shapur I as a capital city of Sasanian satrapy known as Abarshahr or Nishapur. Nishapur later became the capital of Tahirid dynasty and was reformed by Abdullah Tahir in 830, and was later selected as the capital of Seljuk dynasty by Tughril in 1037. From the Abbasid era to the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia and Eastern Iran, the city evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center within the Islamic world. Nishapur, along with Merv, Herat and Balkh, was one of the four great cities of Greater Khorasan and one of the greatest cities of the Old World in the Islamic Golden Age with strategic importance, a seat of governmental power in the eastern section of caliphates, a dwelling place for diverse ethnic and religious groups and a trading stop on commercial routes from Transoxiana, China, Iraq and Egypt. Nishapur reached the height of its prosperity under the Samanids in the 10th century but was destroyed and most of its population was slaughtered by the Mongols in 1221. This massacre, combined with subsequent earthquakes and other invasions, is believed to have destroyed the city several times. Unlike its near neighbor Merv, Nishapur managed to recover from these cataclysmic events, and survive until the present day as an active modern city and county in tourism, agriculture, health care, industrial production and commerce in Razavi Khorasan Province of Iran; however, many of its older and historical archeological remains are left to be uncovered. The modern city of Nishapur is composed of three main administrative areas/districts (Persian: منطقه های شهر نیشابور) and is surrounded by many villages which are joining in to the urban area and structure of the city. The Area/district 1 of the city comprises the newer urban developments (initiated mostly in the 1980s and the 1990s) made to the north of the Road 44 and is home to the most of the main higher educational institutions of Nishapur such as the University of Neyshabur and the IAUN. The Area/district 2 of the city comprises the downtown of the city and the older and more historic urban structures situated on the south of the Road 44. It is home to some of the main tourists attractions of the city such as the National Garden of Nishapur and the Khanate Mansion of Amin Islami. The Area/district 3 of the city is home to the ruins and the remains of the ancient city of Nishapur destroyed by Mongols in the Middle Ages and is located on the south and the southeast of the city. The third district of the city is a national and registered protected archeological area by law and any unauthorized archeological excavation is considered illegal. This district is also home to the burial and historical monuments (some are shown on the city infobox) of most of the renowned persons of the city throughout history such as the Mausoleum of Omar Khayyám and the Mausoleum of Attar of Nishapur. The third district is also used as one of the main touristic hotspots of the city. Many of this city's archeological discoveries are held and shown to the public in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, the British Museum in London, the National Museum of Iran in Tehran, other international museums and the museums of the city of Nishapur. The city of Nishapur is also a member of international organizations such as the LHC and the ICCN UNESCO. History History of Nishapur has been intermingled with myths and different historical narratives. According to different mythological and historical narratives, the city was founded 7500 years ago during the reign of mythical line of primordial kings known as the Pishdadian dynasty. According to Arthur Christensen, Nishapur was founded in the year 260 A.D. Nishapur was founded by the Sasanian emperor Shapur II () during the last years of his rule, as demonstrated by new archaeological findings. In the 9th century, Nishapur became the capital of the Tahirid dynasty, and by the 10th century, was under Samanid rule. The city became an important and prosperous administrative center under the Samanids. In 1037, it was conquered by the Seljuks. Despite being sacked by the Oghuz Turks in 1154, and suffering several earthquakes in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, yet continued as an important urban center until it was destroyed again by Genghis Khan and the Mongols in 1221. During the Sasanian dynasty and medieval ages, the Nishapur quarter (Persian: ربع نیشابور) included Khorasan Province and Ahal Province. Ancient history Abarshahr of Sassanid Empire Abarshahr was a satrapy (province) of the Sassanid Empire. Cities in the region were Candac, Artacauan, Apameia, and Pushang (founded by Shapur I). Nishapur was the capital. Abarshar was the name used for Nishapur during the Sassanid Empire and Rashidun Caliphate. The capital was a vital center of administration and of communications between Bactria, India, and Sagistan. The region was involved in the Indian and Chinese trade. Its governor bore the title of kanarang. Names of Nishapur throughout history Abarshahr or Aparshahr was a satrapy (province) of the Sassanid Empire now located in Nishapur. Cities in the region were Candac, Artacauan, and Apameia, and Pushang (founded by Shapur I) and the capital was Nishapur. Abarshar was the name of Nishapur during the Sassanid Empire and the Rashidun Caliphate. The capital was a vital point of administration and of communications between Bactria, India, and Sagistan. The region was involved in the Indian and Chinese trade. Its governor bore the unique title of kanarang. Neysabur or Naysabur was named Abarshahr during the Muslim occupation of Khorasan and Nishapur, and was the city's official name during the Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyad Caliphate, and Abbasid Caliphate. Middle Ages Muslim Conquest Nishapur was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, without struggle, during the caliphate of Umar. The Caliph appointed Ahnaf Ibn Qais as the chief command of the Rashidun army out of Isfahan. From Isfahan, two routes led to Khorasan: the main route via Rayy and the other via Nishapur. The people of Nishapur chose not to fight and surrendered on the condition of paying a tribute. Having conquered the region around Nishapur, the Muslim force advanced to Nishapur itself. The city was divided into four sectors, with each sector under a Persian chief. These chiefs shut themselves in the city and closed the gates. The Muslims laid siege to the city for some days. In the meantime, the Persian chiefs quarreled among themselves. One of the chiefs entered into negotiations with the Muslims. He offered to open one of the gates for the Muslim army to enter, provided he was granted immunity. The Muslims accepted the offer. The Persians were taken by surprise, and the Muslims became the new rulers of Nishapur. After consolidating their position at Nishapur, the Muslims conquered other cities around Nishapur, including Pusht, Ashband, Rukh, Zar, Khaf, Osparain and Arghian. Nishapur capital of Abu Muslim Abu Muslim became the governor of Khorasan, and chose Nishapur as his capital. He seems to have initiated a huge building program in which he stimulated the growth of the city. Nishapur increased in importance, and two of the ‘Abbasids were governors of this city before becoming caliphs. It was the governor of Khurasan (‘Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan) who presented the large gift of Chinese imperial porcelains to Harun al-Rashid (see Abbasid Ceramics Section), demonstrating the strategic importance of the province on trade routes. Tahirid dynasty in Nishapur The Tahirid dynasty was an Iranian Persian dynasty that ruled from 820 to 872 in Khorasan, northeastern Greater Iran, a region now split between Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The Tahirid capital was originally Merv but was moved to Nishapur. The Tahirid dynasty is considered to be the first Iranian dynasty independent from the Abbasid caliphate established in Khorasan. Although nominally subject to the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad, the Tahirid rulers were effectively independent. The dynasty was founded by Tahir ibn Husayn, a leading general in the service of the Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun. Tahir's military victories were rewarded with the gift of lands in the east of Persia, which were subsequently extended by his successors as far as the borders of India. Tahirid influence extended to Baghdad when the Abbasids granted them the military affairs in Mesopotamia. Saffarids In 872, the Tahirids were replaced by the Saffarids. Saffarids expanded their sphere of influence through the north of Khurasan and also in south towards Sistan. They also made Nishapur their capital and rebuilt the Tahirid palace, only to be overrun early in the tenth century by their powerful eastern neighbours, the Samanids. This dynasty had been placed in power in Transoxiana by Caliph Al-Ma'mun, and ruled first from Samarqand and then moved to Bukhara. After defeating the Saffarids, their "empire", with nominal sanction from the Abbasids, extended from India to Iraq. Khurasan was thus an international entrepôt, with merchants coming not only from Iraq, India and Egypt, but also from Russia; additionally, Vikings came from Scandinavia to trade with the Bulghars and Khazars on the Caspian Sea. Nishapur occupies an important strategic position astride the old Silk Road that linked Anatolia and the Mediterranean Sea with China. On the Silk Road, Nishapur has often defined the flexible frontier between the Iranian plateau and Central Asia. The town derived its name from its reputed founder, the Sassanian king Shapur I, who is said to have established it in the third century CE. Nearby are the turquoise mines that supplied the world with turquoise for at least two millennia. It became an important town in the Greater Khorasan region but subsequently declined in significance until a revival in its fortunes in the 9th century under the Tahirid dynasty, when the glazed ceramics of Nishapur formed an important item of trade to the west. For a time Nishapur rivaled Baghdad or Cairo: Toghrül, the first ruler of the Seljuk dynasty, made Nishapur his residence in 1037 and proclaimed himself sultan there, but it declined thereafter, as Seljuk fortunes were concentrated in the west. In the year 1000 CE, it was among the ten largest cities on earth. Mongol siege of Nishapur In 1221, after the death of Tuqachar, the husband of Genghis Khan's daughter, the entire city of Nishapur was destroyed by the Mongols over the course of 10 days. Genghis Khan's daughter requested the death of every resident of the city as vengeance for her husband's death. In order to become sure that no wounded would survive the massacre, Khan's troops killed and beheaded most of the population of the city and their skulls were reputedly piled in pyramids by the Mongols. Women, Infants, children, and even cats and dogs were among the beheaded. After the massacre a much smaller settlement was established just north of the ancient town, and the once bustling metropolis lay underground—until a team of excavators from the Metropolitan Museum of Art arrived in the mid-20th century. They worked at Nishapur between 1935 and 1940, returning for a final season in the winter of 1947–48. What remains of old Nishapur is a 3500-hectare "Kohandejh (Persian: کهن دژ)" area, south of the current city of Nishapur. Ilkhanate and Timurid reign After the fall of Nishapur in 1221 by the Mongols, the structures of the city were weakened and the agricultural output of the city was reduced. Mahmud Ghazan and Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan tried to make the city flourish again and the city's population grew once more and some of the villages around the city were improved and rebuilt. Hamdallah Mustawfi had visited the city of Nishapur in the Year 1339 or 1340. During this era, the ambassador of Henry III of Castile, Ruy González de Clavijo reached Nishapur and according to him, Nishapur had become a highly productive agricultural center with 40 non-stop working mills along the ''Abe Bostan'' (Mir Ab River of Nishapur). The current position of the city was formed during this era and on the North West of the older position of the city which is now home to the Mausoleum of Attar of Nishapur and Shadiyakh Archeological Site and other remains of the old position of the city (the old position of the city is also now a protected archeological site by law though it is endangered). Mausoleum of Attar of Nishapur and the Jame mosque of Nishapur (congregational mosque of the city) are among the examples of the buildings built during this era in Nishapur. Many poets, scholars and renowned historical figures of the city and the wider region of Abarshahr (one of the main four regions of Greater Khorasan with the city capitals of Nishapur, Merv, Herat and Balkh) were also born in this period. Early modern era Safavid Era (16th to early 18th century) Due to a conflict between the supporters of the Mohammad Khodabanda, the Safavid Shah of Persia, and his son Abbas the Great. In 1581, the castle of Nishapur went under siege. This siege became one of the events that helped the Abbas the Great to become the Ruler of Greater Khorasan and later the Shah of Persia in the Safavid Empire. In 1592 Abbas the Great took back the control of Nishapur from the Shaybanids. Shah Abbasi Caravanseri of Nishapur was also built during his reign and later on, he left his two epigraphs on Jame Mosque of Nishapur on the Ramadan of October 1612. Saadat Ali Khan I Nishapuri, Nawab of Awadh (the ruler who governed the state of Awadh of India), was also born in this period in an influential family in Nishapur. Independence and Qajar Era (18th & 19th century) After the death of Nader Shah Afshar in 1747, the area became an independent khanate under the reign of the Bayat chieftains. In 1754 Ahmad Shah Durrani captured Nishapur with the support of heavy artillery and imposed Shahrokh Shah as the ruler (Shah) of the western part of Greater Khorasan as a protectorate of the Durrani Empire. The city was conquered in 1800 by the Qajars. In 1828, the city came under the influence of the Zafaranlu Confederacy but was given back to the Qajars in 1829. During the Revolt of Hasan Khan Salar, the city was an isolated outpost of Qajar rule led by Imamverdi Khan Bayat when most of Khorasan was under the wrath of Hasan Khan Salar. On March 21, 1849, Qajar forces entered Nishapur. Contemporary history Pahlavi dynasty The reconstruction of the Mausoleum of Omar Khayyam in Nishapur was commissioned by Reza Shah. Omar's previous tomb was separated from his tomb, and a white marble monument (Current Mausoleum), designed by the Iranian architect Hooshang Seyhoun, was erected over it. This mausoleum became one of the main symbols of the city and one of the known works of the modern Persian architecture. The influence of the architectural design of this mausoleum is visible on the coat of arms of the University of Neyshabur, Neyshabur University of Medical Sciences (NUMS) and other public, civil and private organizations of the city. The construction of the new mausoleum was completed in the year 1963. The Tomb of Kamal-ol Molk was also built in Nishapur and designed by Seyhoun. The Wooden Mosque of Neyshabur was also built in the year 2000. The Second Asia-Pacific Jamboree was held at Baghrud Scots Park of Nishapur in preparation for The 15th World Scout Jamboree which was scheduled to be held 15–23 July 1979 in Nishapur but due to the political uncertainty of the Iranian Revolution in the country, the event was cancelled. Post Iranian revolution On February 18, 2004, in the Nishapur train disaster, a train carrying flammable goods derailed and caught fire near the town. Five hours later, during fire fighting and rescue work, a massive explosion destroyed the train and many nearby buildings. Around 300 people were said to have been killed, mainly fire and rescue workers but also the local governor and mayor and the heads of the fire and rail services. This disaster has become known as one of the worst railway industry disasters of the world. Archaeological discoveries Little archaeology has been done on this vast and complicated site. George Curzon remarked that Nishapur had been destroyed and rebuilt more times than any other city in history, an evocative statement whether or not it is statistically true. The Metropolitan Museum of Art undertook excavations from 1935 that were interrupted in 1940. Searching largely for museum-worthy trophies that they shared with the government of the Shah, the Metropolitan's publications were limited to its own Nishapur ceramics. The site of Nishapur has been ransacked for half a century since World War II, to feed the international market demand for early Islamic works of art. Shadiyakh ("Palace of Happiness") was one of the main palaces of old Nishapur up to the 9th century AD, which became more important and populated after that. Some notable people like Attar lived there. Attar's tomb is nowadays in that area. This palace was perhaps completely ruined in the 13th century. Geography Nishapur is located at an elevation of 1250 meters on a wide fertile plain at the southwestern foot of the Binalud Mountain range in northcentral Razavi Khorasan Province. The city is connected by both railways and highways to the cities of Mashhad and Tehran. The city also has local routes and highways to the cities of Kashmar and Quchan. Weather and climate Sources of the Middle Ages Throughout the Middle Ages, Nishpaur had been praised by many due to its many gardens and its healthy climate in Khorasan. Ibn Hawqal has commented the following about the weather and the climate of this city at that time:Throughout all of Khorasan, no such companion as enriched with the health of the air, quantity and the vastness of its mansions can be found.In the same cited work, Hakim Nishapuri praises Nishapur with many favourable nicknames such as " " and compares and claims that the weather and climate (or air Persian: هوا) of Nishapur was better and more healthier (according to him, cholera and other such diseases and disasters could not be found in Nishapur) than many neighboring regions such as Sistan (due to its winds), Indus valley (or سند in Persian) and Hindustan (due to their severe hotness), Khwarazm and Turkestan (due to their coldness) and Merv (due to presence of many insects). Modern Nishapur generally has a warm and semi-dry climate called ''central Iranian plateau climate''. Precipitation mostly happens in spring and winter. Nishapur is situated on a relatively higher elevation (1250 meters) than its neighboring cities such Sabzevar and Mashhad hence the weather is milder and better than these cities. Climate Nishapur has a cold semi-arid climate (BSk). Geology The city of Nishapur lies on a Holocene alluvial plain on top of the Pleistocene sediments in the southwestern part of the Binalud Mountains. The Binalud Range, running northwest–southeast, is made predominantly of Triassic and Jurassic rocks. On the southern side of the northwestern part of the range there is a section of Eocene rocks that are volcanic in origin. The well-known Nishabur turquoise comes from the weathered and broken trachytes and andesites of the Eocene volcanic rocks of this part of the mountain range. The main turquoise mines are situated about 50 kilometers northwest of the city of Nishapur in the foothills of the Binalud Range. Seismicity Nishapur is located in a region with a rather high risk of earthquakes. Many earthquakes have seriously harmed the city; among the important ones are the historical earthquakes that ruined the city in the 12th and 13th centuries. Economy The economy of Nishapur is diverse and it is based on several industries like Agriculture, Industrial parks, mining, tourism, health-care, retailing, banking etc. Food & Agriculture Many agricultural products such as saffron, cereals, cotton, herbs, plums, walnut, wheat, corn, apples, cherries and pistachio are exported from the county of Nishapur. The city is also a dairy and sugar exporter. Water supply Most of the water supply of the city is provided from the Binalud Mountain Range's mostly seasonal rivers, qanats, dams and modern wells. Mining Natural recourses such as turquoise and salt are mined from around the city. Energy The electrical power supply of the city is provided from Neyshabur Combined Cycle Power Plant and Binalood Wind Farm. The excessive electrical energy of the city is mostly exported from the city's public power grid. Industry Khorasan Steel Complex and two main industrial parks called the Khayyam Industrial Park and the Attar Industrial Park are near the city of Nishapur. Many industrial products such as sugar, cooking oils and gas heaters are exported from the city and its county. Tourism Several hotels, ecolodges, resorts, parks, tourist hot-spots, restaurants, museums, a planetarium, cultural centers, mausoleums, religious pilgrimage sites and historic mosques are in and near the city. The tourism industry of the city has a lot of protentional but it needs further development. Health care There are two active hospitals (Hakim Hospital and 22 Bahman Hospital) in the city of Nishapur and a third one is also currently under construction. Banks Nearly all of reputable public and private Iranain banks have branches in the city. Companies Major Iranian companies such as Refah Chain Stores Co., Iran Hyper Star, Ofoqh Kourosh and other companies have active branches in Nishapur. Transportation Road 44 Road 44, a major national expressway that connects the two major cities of Tehran and Mashhad, is connected to the city of Nishapur and it passes through it. Rail transport Nishapur is connected to the Trans-Iranian Railway System which is a UNESCO world heritage. The Nishapur train station became operational during the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and it is located on the southern part of the city. Nishapur train disaster On 18 February 2004, runaway train wagons crashed into the village of Khayyam near Nishapur. This accident caused several major explosions and it kill over 300. The entire village of Khayyam was destroyed due to the explosions. Public transport The intercity bus terminal of the city is located at the eastern part of the city close to the road 44. Several public bus lines and stations are also active within the city. Airport Currently there is only one airport near the north of the city that is only authorized to be used for gliders and small aircraft however, there are plans for building a proper airport near the south of the city of Nishapur. People Language Most people speak Persian and are monolingual, however, there are several private foreign language-teaching institutions in the city that teach English and other languages. Mythology and religion Nishapur has been of importance in Iranian mythology. Before the Islamization of Iran, Zoroastrianism had been the major religion of Nishapur. Rivand (one of the ancient names of Nishapur) has been mentioned in Avesta and subsequently in Shahnameh. Adur Burzen-Mihr a Zoroastrian fire temple of the highest grade was situated in Rivand Mountains (Binalud mountains) of Nishapur and the lake Rivand of Nishapur was built due to a fight between Ahriman and water (probably by water it was meant Anahita in the Persian text of the Persian wiki). Also, according to Hakim Nishapuri, Dež-e Sɑngi was built by Seth on a giant round soft (flat) stone There are also signs of the influence of Christianity in Nishapur (a street in Nishapur has been called and is still called Masih and also a village on the south of the city was called Masih Abad). After the rise of Islam however, the people living in and near the city of Neyshabur became Muslims. Nishapur and its people have also had an influence on Sufism (an Islamic mystic practice). Poets and Sufis such as Attar of Nishapur who had been born in this city had had a profound influence on Islamic mysticism. In the 10th century, Nishapur had been one of the centers of Ismaili missionary spread in Iran and Greater Khorasan. Most of the Ismailis of Nishapur now live in Dizbad and some in the main city itself. Jama'at Khana Dizbad is the most important Ismaili center in Nishapur today. From the third to the sixth of Hejri Ghamari, Nishapur was one of the centers of Sufism. Most Sufis and Sufi elders in Nishapur were Sunnis and followers of the Shafi'i school. Notable people Sorted by date Mazdak – (died c. 524 or 528) was a Zoroastrian prophet, Iranian reformer and religious activist Kanarang – was a unique title in the Sassanid army, given to the commander of the Sassanid Empire's northeastern most frontier province, Abarshahr (encompassing the cities of Tus, Nishapur and Abiward). Behafarid – was an 8th-century Persian Zoroastrian heresiarch Sunpadh – (died 755) cleric Ishaq Ibn Rahwayh – muhaddith, faqih Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri – 9th-century philosopher, mathematician, natural scientist, historian of religion, astronomer and author Ibn Khuzaymah – Muslim scholar Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj – Muslim scholar and one of the most prominent muhaddith in history Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri – (died 992) was a Muslim theologian and philosopher Abū al-Wafā' Būzjānī – (10 June 940 – 15 July 998) was a mathematician and astronomer Hakim al-Nishaburi – (933–1012), was a Sunni scholar and historian Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Naysaburi – Isma'ili theologian and historian Tha'ālibī -(961–1038), Muslim philologist, writer and poet Ahmad ibn 'Imad al-Din – was a Persian physician and alchemist. He was probably from Nishapur in the 11th century. Ibn Abi Sadiq – was an 11th-century Persian physician Abū-Sa'īd Abul-Khayr – (December 7, 967 – January 12, 1049) was a famous Persian Sufi and poet Al-Juwayni (1028–1085 CE) was a Sunni Shafi'i Faqih and Mutakallim. Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Tha'labi – was an 11th-century Islamic scholar. Abd al-Karīm ibn Hawāzin Qushayri – was born in 986 CE (376 AH), Philosopher and Sufi Omar Khayyám – (18 May 1048 – 4 December 1131) was a Persian polymath, philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and poet. Abd al-Ghafir al-Farsi – (1059-1135), Persian scholar of Arabic, history and hadith Mu'izzi – was an 11th and 12th-centuries poet Haji Bektash Veli – was a Muslim mystic Attar of Nishapur – (c. 1145 – c. 1221), was a Muslim poet, theoretician of Sufism, and hagiographer. Abu al-Qasim al-Habib Neishapuri – physician mid-15th century. Saadat Ali Khan I – (b. c. 1680 – d. 19 March 1739) was the Subahdar Nawab of Oudh. All the rulers of Oudh State in India belonged to a Shia Muslim dynasty of Persian origin from Nishapur. They were renowned for their secularism and broad outlook. After they rebelled against the British their state was annexed to form the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Hamid Hussain Musavi – i (born 1830 – died 1880) was a leading Shia scholar Heydar Yaghma – Badi' – Abolghasem Sakhdari – wrestler Saeed Khani – footballer Yaghoub Ali Shourvarzi – wrestler Nur-Ali Shushtari – Esmail Shooshtari – Parviz Meshkatian – Mohammad-Reza Shafiei Kadkani – i (born 1939) is a Persian writer, poet, literary critic, editor, and translator. Hossein Vahid Khorasani(born January 1, 1921) is an Iranian Twelver Shia Marja Abdolreza Kahani Director Hamed Behdad(1973) Actor Culture and Art During the 10th century, Nishapur was a thriving economic center home to many religious scholars and artists. Nishapur was located along the Silk Road. An influential trade route connecting China to the Mediterranean Sea. It was a center for cotton, silk, textile and ceramic production. In efforts to uncover the history of life in this city, the Metropolitan Museum of Art put together an excavation team composed of researchers Joseph Upton, Walter Hauser and Charles Wilkinson. From 1935 to 1940, the team worked to rediscover the ancient city. They were authorized to work under the conditions that half of the material found must be shared with the Iran Bastan Museum in Tehran. Along with pottery, excavators uncovered glass, metalwork, coins and decorated wall fragments. Over the years of excavations, thousands of items were uncovered which provided information on local artistic traditions. Tepe Madraseh The most elaborate architectural excavation took place at the site called Tepe Madraseh. This massive complex had been thoughtfully planned and embellished with many decorative elements. Plaster panels had been carved and painted, along with walls, brickwork and glazed ceramic tiles. A madraseh is a place for religious learning. Such sites have peaked the interest of scholars for centuries for their function and architectural designs. Like most Islamic architecture the entire complex of Tepe Madaseh was oriented to face Mecca. The bricks used to construct most of the structures had been dried in the kilns located on the outskirts of the complex. Pottery Nishapur during the Islamic Golden Age, especially the 9th and 10th centuries, was one of the great centers of pottery and related arts. Most of the Ceramic artifacts discovered in Nishapur are preserved in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Museums in Nishapur, Tehran and Mashhad. Ceramics produced at Nishapur showed links with Sassanid art and Central Asian. Nowadays there are 4 Pottery workshops in Nishapur. Bowls including bold black inscriptions in the so-called Kufic angular calligraphy were apparently produced in the important ceramic centers of Nishapur in eastern Iran, and Afrasiyab, or Old Samarqand, in present-day Uzbekistan. The text often contains a proverb in Arabic or, as in this case, a series of wishes: "Blessing, happiness, prosperity, good health, and success." Form and function of Nishapur pottery "Although the decoration of pottery may only tell us a little about the people who used it, the form of a vessel is directly related to its function". The Pottery of Nishapur incorporated strong colored slips and bold patterns. Common decoration included geometric and vegetal patterns, calligraphy, figures and animals. The ceramic pieces uncovered at Nishapur consisted mainly of vessels and utilitarian wares. Objects such as plates, bowls, bottles, jars, pitchers, coin banks and even a toy hen were found. One decorative technique specifically utilized by Nishapur potters was the refined use of chattering, a rippled texture achieved when trimming a vessel on the wheel. The polychrome ware of Nishapur indicates the significant advances in glaze technology that were being discovered during the 10th century. It also indicates how an objects aesthetic became an important part of the piece as a whole. A selection of these discoveries is shown in the gallery below: Anthem of Nishapur The special Anthem of Nishapur was unveiled for the first time on April 14, 2011; it has introduction and three parts, noted on three invasive and destructive in the history of Nishapur, delineated by frightening sounds of bells, along with sounds of percussion and wailing women represent the miseries caused by these attacks. Literature Throughout history, Nishapur has been mentioned and praised in the Persian literature for several times (Mostly due to its prosperity and gardens). This city has been the birthplace and home of many famous Persian poets such as Omar Khayyam, Attar of Nishapur, Heydar Yaghma, Shafiei Kadkani and more. Foreign writers such as André Gide (in The Fruits of the Earth) and Jorge Luis Borges have also mentioned this city in their work(s). Music Throughout history, music in Nishapur has been influenced by Sassanid, Maqami and traditional styles and is a part of the Khorasani Folk Music that has been popular in Nishapur. Following the UNESCO World Register of Maqami Music in Northern Khorasan, research on music in Nishapur has been considered. Maghami music festivals have been also active in Nishapur. One of the oldest study sources related to Iranian music is Resal-e Neyshaburi (in Persian:رساله نیشابور) written by Mohammad bin Mahmoud of Nishapur, which highlights the importance of music in old Nishapur. Among the influential people of Nishapur in music Ratebe Neyshaburi (during the reign of Tahirids), and the contemporary Parviz Meshkatian can be named. Other influences Yo-Yo Ma released an instrumental track entitled "Blue as the Turquoise Night of Neyshabur" as part of the Silk Road Project. US band Santana released an instrumental track entitled "Incident at Neshabur" on their 1970 LP release, Abraxas. Carlos Santana says this was a reference to a place in Haiti. Sports The 15th World Scout Jamboree was scheduled to be held 15–23 July 1979 and was to be hosted by Pahlavi Iran at Nishapur, but was cancelled due to the Iranian Revolution in 1979. Video games Nishapur is included as a playable setting in a historical video game series called ''Crusader Kings''. Nishapur is included as a playable setting in a historical video game called ''Historinica''. Films and cinema Paintings Local and cultural days Gastronomy and food culture The most important foods and drinks in Nishapur are rhubarb and sharbat. Rhubarb (Persian or '), a sour vegetable, grows at the foot of the eponymous Rivand Mountains (Mount Binalud). Soft drinks made from the stems of the plant, such as () and (), are sold at some Nishapur resorts. ''Aush Komay'' is also a local Aush made from a vegetable called ''کمای''. Haleem of Neyshabur is also popular in the region along with other common Iranian foods and drinks. Carpet-weaving Weaving carpets and rugs common in the more than 470 villages in Nishapur County, the most important carpet Workshop located in the villages of: Shafi' Abad, Garineh, Darrud, Baghshan, Kharv, Bozghan, Sayyed Abad, Sar Chah, Suleymani, Sultan Abad and Eshgh Abad. Nishapur Carpet workshops weaved the biggest Carpets in the world, like carpets of: Sheikh Zayed Mosque, Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque, Armenian Presidential Palace, Embassy of Finland in Tehran, Mohammed Al-Ameen Mosque in Oman. Modern art of carpet in Nishapur began in 1946 after inauguration of a carpet-weaving workshop in a caravansary. Turquoise masonry For at least 2,000 years, Iran, known before as Persia, has remained an important source of turquoise, which was named by Iranians initially "pirouzeh" meaning "victory" and later after Arab invasion "firouzeh". As an important source of turquoise, Nishapur has been sometimes referred to as the "city of turquoise" throughout history. In Iranian architecture, the blue turquoise was used to cover the domes of the Iranian palaces because its intense blue color was also a symbol of heaven on earth. This deposit, which is blue naturally, and turns green when heated due to dehydration, is restricted to a mine-riddled region in Nishapur, the mountain peak of Ali-mersai, which is tens of kilometers from Mashhad, the capital of Khorasan province, Iran. Nishapur's turquoise has been sold as souvenirs and jewelry in Nishapur and Mashhad. A weathered and broken trachyte is host to the turquoise, which is found both in situ between layers of limonite and sandstone, and amongst the scree at the mountain's base. These workings, together with those of the Sinai Peninsula, are the oldest known. Architecture and monuments A selection of historical buildings and monuments of the city is shown in the city info box on the top of this article, and on the gallery below: Popular culture Nasir Khusraw saw Nishapur and wrote about it in Safarnama. Abraham Valentine Williams Jackson in "From Constantinople to the home of Omar Khayyam" explain ending of his Travel in Nishapur. Education Schools, universities and colleges High schools There are several high schools in the city and the county. The most famous and the oldest of which is Omar Khayyam High School. Higher education The University of Neyshabur, Neyshabur University of Medical Sciences (NUMS), the Islamic Azad University of Neyshabur (IAUN), the Payame Noor University of Neyshabur and the Technical and Vocational University of Neyshabur, are the main universities of the city along with several other public and private technical, vocational, and part-time colleges and schools. Sport centers Enghelab Sports Complex is an indoor arena in Nishapur. The arena houses Nishapur's basketball, volleyball, and futsal teams. Nishapur has one professional football team, Jahan Electric Nishapur, that competes in the Razavi Khorasan's Provincial Leagues. Mass media Newspaper publishing General publications in Nishapur includes the weekly and local newspapers. The first local newspaper of Khorasan province is Morning of Nishapur, published since 1989. Others include Shadiakh, published since 2000, Khayyam Nameh, since 2004, Nasim, since 2006, and Far reh Simorgh, since 2010. Public Broadcasting IRIB center of Mashhad covers the news of Nishapur. Printing Two book publishers working in the city are Klidar & Abar Shahr. Twin towns – sister cities Nishapur is twinned with: Baghdad, Iraq Balkh, Afghanistan Basra, Iraq Bukhara, Uzbekistan Ghazni, Afghanistan Herat, Afghanistan Kairouan, Tunisia Karbala, Iraq Khiva, Uzbekistan Khoy, Iran Khujand, Tajikistan Konya, Turkey Kulob, Tajikistan Merv, Turkmenistan Samarkand, Uzbekistan See also Greater Khorasan Adur Burzen-Mihr Merv Herat Balkh Samarkand Bukhara Neyshabur county Omar Khayyam Neyshaburi Attar of Nishapur The Great Seljuik Empire University of Neyshabur IAUN Saeedi Garden Notes References Bibliography Tarkhi Al Naisaburiin Bye Hakim al-Nishaburi EARTHQUAKES IN THE HISTORY OF NISHAPUR By Charles Melville Encyclopedia Iranica metmuseum iranica The Patricians of Nishapur: A Study in Medieval Islamic Social History by Richard Bulliet France-Diplomatie Further reading Nishapur: Glass of the Early Islamic Period by Jens Kroger, Jens Kröger (1995) (free download & online version) Nishapur: Some Early Islamic Buildings and Their Decoration by Charles Kyrle Wilkinson (1987) (free download & online version) Nishapur: Metalwork of the Early Islamic Period by James W. Allan (1982) (free download & online version) Nishapur: Pottery of the Early Islamic Period by Charles Kyrle Wilkinson (1973) (free download & online version) External links Nishapur Mayors Nishapur governors Ceramics of Nishapur and other centers Nishapur Mathhouse Neyshabur bonyad The Metropolitan Museum Excavations at Nishapur Elias Pirasteh, Neyshabur, Photo Set, flickr Ardavan Ruzbeh, When National Heritage is not an equal to the Emām-Jom'eh, a reportage on the demolition of a national monument, Madreseh-ye Golshan (مدرسه گلشن), in Nishabur, in Persian, Radio Zamāneh, May 29, 2008: Text, Audio. Hossein Davoudi, Dizbād: A Staircase to History, in Persian, Jadid Online, 2008.A Slide Show of Dizbād, by Hossein Davoudi, Jadid Online, 2008, (5 min 39 sec).Note: Dizbād is a small village between Mashhad and Neyshābūr, located at some 40 km distance from Mashhad. Nishapur County Populated places in Nishapur County Cities in Razavi Khorasan Province Populated places along the Silk Road Sasanian cities Ancient Iranian cities Archaeological sites in Iran Ismaili centres Amṣar Capitals of caliphates Former capitals of Iran Seljuk Empire Shapur I National works of Iran
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan%20Air%20Force
Pakistan Air Force
The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) (; ) is the aerial warfare branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces, tasked primarily with the aerial defence of Pakistan, with a secondary role of providing air support to the Pakistan Army and Navy when required, and a tertiary role of providing strategic airlift capability to Pakistan. , as per the International Institute for Strategic Studies, the PAF has more than 70,000 active-duty personnel and operates at least 970 aircraft.PAF stands as the eight largest Air Force in the world while holds the title of being largest Air Force of the Muslim World in terms of aircraft fleet. Its primary mandate and mission is "to provide, in synergy with other inter-services, the most efficient, assured and cost effective aerial defence of Pakistan." Since its establishment in 1947, the PAF has been involved in various combat operations, providing aerial support to the operations and relief efforts of the Pakistani military. Under Article 243, the Constitution of Pakistan appoints the President of Pakistan as the civilian Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Armed Forces. The Chief of the Air Staff (CAS), by statute a four-star air officer, is appointed by the President with the consultation and confirmation needed from the Prime Minister of Pakistan. History 1959 Indian aerial intrusion On 10 April 1959, on the occasion of the Eid ul-Fitr festival holiday in Pakistan, an Indian Air Force (IAF) English Electric Canberra B(I)58 of No. 106 Squadron entered Pakistani airspace on a photo reconnaissance mission. Two PAF F-86F Sabres (Flt. Lt. M. N. Butt (leader) and Flt. Lt. M. Yunis) of No. 15 Squadron on Air Defence Alert (ADA) were scrambled from Sargodha Air Base to intercept the IAF aircraft. Butt attempted to bring down the Canberra by firing his Sabre's machine guns, but the Canberra was flying at an altitude of more than 50,000 feet—beyond the operational ceiling of the F-86F. When Yunis took over from his leader, the Canberra suddenly lost height while executing a turn over Rawalpindi. Yunis fired a burst that struck the Canberra at an altitude of 47,500 feet and brought it down over Rawat, marking the first direct aerial victory of the PAF. Both crew members of the IAF Canberra ejected and were captured by Pakistani authorities. They were subsequently released after remaining in detention for some time. Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 The PAF fleet at the time consisted of 12 F-104 Starfighters, some 120 F-86 Sabres and around 20 B-57 Canberra bombers. The PAF claims to have had complete air superiority over the battle area from the second day of operations. However, IAF Air Chief Marshal Arjan Singh claimed that, despite having been qualitatively inferior to the PAF, the IAF allegedly achieved total air superiority in three days. Many publications have credited the PAF's successes in combat with the IAF to its U.S.-quality equipment, claiming it to be superior to the aircraft operated by the IAF and giving the PAF a "qualitative advantage". This statement has been refuted by some officials in Pakistan, who say that the IAF's MiG-21, Hawker Hunter and Folland Gnat aircraft had better performance than the PAF's F-86 fighters, without accounting for the obvious quantitative advantage that the IAF possessed. According to retired PAF Air Commodore Sajad Haider, the F-86 Sabre was inferior in terms of both power and speed to the IAF's Hawker Hunter. Sajad Haider, who flew with No. 19 squadron also stated that the F-104 Starfighter did not deserve its reputation as "the pride of the PAF" because it "was unsuited to the tactical environment of the region. It was a high-level interceptor designed to neutralize Soviet strategic bombers in altitudes above 40,000 feet." Nevertheless, the IAF is believed to have feared facing the Starfighter in combat despite its lack of effectiveness in comparison to the IAF's fleet of Folland Gnats. According to Indian sources, the F-86F performed reasonably well against the IAF's Hunters but not as well against the Gnat, which was nicknamed the Sabre Slayer by the IAF. Per India, most of the aircraft losses of the IAF were allegedly on the ground while the PAF suffered most of their losses in aerial combat, a claim that has widely been accepted by most international sources as "a stretch". The IAF ran a larger offensive air campaign by devoting 40% of its air effort to offensive air support alone. The two countries have made contradictory claims of combat losses during the war and few neutral sources have verified the claims of either country, as is the case with most India-Pakistan conflicts. The PAF claims that it shot down 104 IAF aircraft and lost 19 of its own, while the IAF claimed it shot down 73 PAF aircraft while losing 60 of its own. According to most independent and neutral sources, the PAF lost some 20 aircraft while the IAF lost somewhere between 60 and 75. Despite the intense fighting throughout the course of the war, the conflict was effectively a stalemate and inconclusive in its result. Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 By late 1971, the intensification of the independence movement in erstwhile East Pakistan led to the Bangladesh Liberation War between West Pakistan and East Pakistan (later joined by India). On 22 November 1971, 10 days before the start of a full-scale war, four PAF F-86 Sabre jets attacked Indian and Mukti Bahini positions at Garibpur, near the international border. Two of the four PAF Sabres were shot down and one damaged by the IAF's Gnats. On 3 December, India formally declared war against Pakistan following massive preemptive strikes by the PAF against IAF installations in Srinagar, Ambala, Sirsa, Halwara and Jodhpur. However, the IAF did not suffer any significant losses because the leadership had anticipated such a move and consequently, precautions were taken. The IAF was quick to respond to Pakistani airstrikes, following which the PAF carried out mostly defensive sorties. Hostilities officially ended at 14:30 GMT on 17 December, after the fall of Dacca on 15 December. The PAF flew about 2,840 sorties and destroyed 71 IAF aircraft while losing 43 of its own. 1979–1989 Soviet–Afghan War In 1979, the PAF's Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Anwar Shamim, was told by then-President and Chief of the Army Staff General Zia-ul-Haq, that Pakistan had reliable intelligence on Indian plans to attack and destroy Pakistan's nuclear research facilities in Kahuta. ACM Shamim told General Zia-ul-Haq that, in the PAF's current state, "Indian aircraft could reach the area in three minutes whereas the PAF would take eight minutes, allowing the Indians to attack the facility and return before the PAF could defend or retaliate". Because Kahuta was close to the Indian border, a consensus was reached acknowledging that the best way to deter a possible Indian attack would be to procure new advanced fighters and weaponry. These could be used to mount a retaliatory attack on India's nuclear research facilities in Trombay in the event of an Indian attack on Kahuta. It was decided the most suitable aircraft would be the F-16 Fighting Falcon, which the United States eventually agreed to supply after the PAF refused to purchase the F-5. In 1983, when the first batch of F-16s reached Pakistan, ACM Shamim informed Zia of the PAF's increasing capability to effectively respond to an attack on the nuclear research facilities at Kahuta. Due to rising tensions with the Soviet Union due to its invasion of Afghanistan, Pakistan's ISI systematically coordinated with the CIA, MI6 and Mossad to secure American resources and armaments for the Afghan mujahideen who were combating the invading Soviet forces. Various reports during this period widely indicated that the PAF had in fact covertly engaged in aerial combat against the Soviet Air Force in support of the Afghan Air Force during the course of the conflict; one of which belonged to Alexander Rutskoy. A letter of agreement for up to 28 F-16A and 12 F-16B was signed in December 1981. The contracts, Peace Gate I and Peace Gate II were for 6 and 34 Block 15 models respectively, which would be powered by the F100-PW-200 engine. The first Peace Gate I aircraft was accepted at Fort Worth in October 1982. Two F-16A and four F-16B were subsequently delivered to Pakistan in 1983, with the first F-16 arriving at PAF Base Sargodha (now known as PAF Base Mushaf) on 15 January 1983 flown by Squadron Leader Shahid Javed. The 34 remaining aircraft as part of Peace Gate II were delivered between 1983 and 1987. Between May 1986 and November 1988, the PAF's newly acquired F-16s had shot down at least eight intruding aircraft from Afghanistan. The first three of these (one Su-22, one probable Su-22, and one An-26) were shot down by two pilots from No. 9 Squadron. Pilots of No. 14 Squadron destroyed the remaining five intruders (two Su-22s, two MiG-23s, and one Su-25). Most of these kills were by the AIM-9 Sidewinder, but at least one (a Su-22) was destroyed by cannon fire. Pakistani Flight Lieutenant Khalid Mahmoud is credited with three of these kills. The PAF is believed to have evaluated the French Dassault Mirage 2000 in early 1981 and was planning to evaluate the F-16 Fighting Falcon afterwards. U.S. arms embargo (1990–2001) After the Pressler amendment was passed, the United States placed sanctions and an arms embargo on Pakistan starting on 6 October 1990 due to the continuance of the country's nuclear weapons research program. All eleven Peace Gate III F-16s, along with seven F-16A and ten F-16B of the 60 Peace Gate IV F-16s, which had been built by the end of 1994 were embargoed and put into storage on U.S. soil. Desperate for a new high-tech combat aircraft, between late 1990 and 1993 the PAF evaluated the European Panavia Tornado MRCA (multi-role combat aircraft), and ultimately rejected it. France's Dassault Mirage 2000E and an offer from Poland for the supply of MiG-29s and Su-27s were also considered, but no deal materialized. In 1992, the PAF once again looked towards the French Mirage 2000, reviving a proposal from the early 1980s to procure around 20–40 aircraft, but a sale did not occur because France did not want to sell a fully capable version due to pressure from the United States. In August 1994, the PAF was offered the Saab JAS-39 Gripen by Sweden, but the sale did not occur because 20% of the Gripen's components were sourced from the U.S., which was still maintaining sanctions on Pakistan. In mid-1992, Pakistan was close to signing a contract for the supply of 40 Dassault Mirage 2000s, equipped with Thomson-CSF RDM/7 radars from France, although U.S. sanctions also prevented this deal from finalizing In mid-1994, it was reported that Russian manufacturers Sukhoi and Mikoyan were offering the Su-27 and MiG-29, but Pakistan was reported to be negotiating for supply of the Mirage 2000–5. French and Russian teams visited Pakistan on 27 November 1994 and it was speculated that the interest in Russian aircraft was to pressure France into reducing the price of the Mirage 2000. The stated requirement was for up to 40 aircraft. War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) The Pakistan Air Force is believed to have had a primary role in the alleged evacuation of Taliban personnel by the Pakistani military from Afghanistan. However, Pakistani and American officials have denied any such airlift taking place. 2008 post-Mumbai attacks air alert After the 2008 Mumbai attacks, the Pakistan Air Force was put on high alert in anticipation of any potential Indian accusations and offensives. It deployed to all its wartime locations and started routine combat air patrols. The speed and intensity of the deployment and PAF's readiness took the Indian Army High Command by surprise and later reports suggest that was the main factor to influence the Indians' decision of not going for cross border raids inside Pakistan. The PAF was issued a standing order to launch an immediate counter-attack in case of an air attack from India, after a call from the Indian Foreign Minister Pranab Mukherjee to the Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari (the call later turned out to be a hoax). 2011 U.S. raid in Abbottabad An initial investigation report revealed that the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) reported the movement of some half-a-dozen planes near the Jalalabad border at 23:00 before American helicopters entered Abbottabad to kill Osama bin Laden. "One aircraft was identified as a US AWACS and the remaining five were recognized as F-18 jets of the US. These planes flew near the Pakistani border, but did not cross into the airspace of Pakistan," On the detection of an intrusion, PAF jets on air defence alert were scrambled and the PAF immediately took adequate operational measures as per standard operating procedure. The PAF aircraft continued their presence in the Abbottabad area until early morning and later returned to their air bases. However, the fact that so many non-stealth aircraft had entered Pakistani airspace, stayed for three hours to carry out a major operation, and that PAF jets only arrived at the location 24 minutes after the American helicopters had left made a senior PAF official term it "one of the most embarrassing incidents in Pakistan's history". Counter-insurgency operations in North-West Pakistan (2001–2021) The Pakistan Army faced several problems during its 2009 offensive against the Taliban in North-West Pakistan. Hundreds of thousands of Pakistanis vacated the area when the offensive was announced and, eventually, over two million had to be accommodated in refugee camps. The offensive was to be completed as quickly as possible to allow the refugees to return to their homes but the army's fleet attack helicopters were not sufficient enough to provide adequate support to infantry on the ground. The PAF was sent into action against the Taliban to make up for the lack of helicopter gunships. Because the PAF was trained and equipped to fight a conventional war, a new "counter-terrorist doctrine" had to be improvised. The PAF's Saffron Bandit exercise focused on extensive training of combat personnel to undertake COIN operations. New equipment was inducted to improve the PAF's joint intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities. A C-130 transport aircraft was indigenously modified for day/night ISR operations. Use of laser-guided bombs was increased to 80% of munitions used, as compared to 40% in the previous 1960s Bajaur campaign. A small corps of ground spotters were trained and used by the PAF, in addition to Pakistan Army spotters, to identify high-value targets. Prior to the Pakistan Army's offensive into South Waziristan, the PAF attacked militant infrastructure with 500 lb and 2000 lb bombs. A number of civilian casualties occurred during PAF airstrikes on 10 April 2010 in the FATA tribal region. According to sources from the Pakistani military, the first bombing was targeted at a gathering of militants in a compound. Locals who had quickly moved onto the scene of the first airstrike to recover the dead and wounded were then killed by a second airstrike. While there is no confirmed death toll, it is widely believed that at least 30 civilian deaths had occurred according to the military approximations, whereas a local official stated that at least 73 locals, including women and children, were killed. A six-member committee of tribal elders from the area tasked with finding the exact number of civilian casualties reported that 61 civilians were killed and 21 were wounded. This was not confirmed by government figures but Pakistan's then-Chief of the Army Staff, General Ashfaq Kayani, gave a public apology on 17 April. It is reported that BBC News and several other media correspondences were not allowed to take interviews from the injured. 2019 India–Pakistan standoff Following the Pulwama attack in Jammu and Kashmir, India accused involvement of Pakistani hands in this incident. In response, India carried out airstrikes in the vicinity of the town of Balakot in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, several miles inside the province's boundary with Pakistan-administered Kashmir. Pakistan's militaryclaimed that the Indian planes dropped their payload in an uninhabited wooded hilltop area near Balakot after being intercepted by PAF fighter jets. On 27 February 2019, when a standoff between India and Pakistan had begun, Pakistan claimed to have struck six targets near Indian military installations inside Indian Controlled Kashmir, which hit open spaces through a codenamed "Operation Swift Retort". Indian Air Force jets were scrambled to intercept the PAF jets inside Jammu and Kashmir. Following the interception, a fierce dogfight ensued and Pakistani aircraft shot down an Indian MiG-21. Meanwhile a MI 17 helicopter of the Indian Army Aviation branch carrying 6 Indian soldiers was shot down by Indian air defense system resulting in losses of all crew and 6 Indian soldiers. India stated that it had only lost a single aircraft (a MiG-21) while claiming to have shot down a Pakistani F-16. Pakistan rejected India's statement, stating that no F-16s were deployed. Pakistan would later go on to accept that F-16s had been used, but maintained that none of them were shot down. Pakistan also claimed to have shot down a Sukhoi Su-30 MKI, a claim rejected by Indian authorities. Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman, who was piloting the MiG-21 Bison, was captured and arrested by the Pakistani military upon being shot down. He was held for two days before being released at the Wagah-Attari border crossing on 1 March. Initially, Pakistani Military officials claimed to have had two pilots in custody, one of whom died while undergoing treatment, a claim which was later changed to having only Abhinandan in custody. This was taken to be evidence of a Pakistani pilot being shot down by some Indian sources. 2022 Pakistani airstrikes in Afghanistan At least 47 people were killed and 22 injured in two airstrikes by Pakistani forces along the border with Afghanistan on 16 April 2022. The Taliban summoned Pakistan's ambassador in Kabul and registered their protest against the military airstrikes inside Afghanistan. Structure Headquarters Air Headquarters (AHQ), Islamabad Commands Northern Air Command (NAC), Peshawar Central Air Command (CAC), Sargodha Southern Air Command (SAC), Karachi Air Defence Command (ADC), Rawalpindi Air Force Strategic Command (AFSC), Islamabad PAF Cyber Command (PAFCC), Islamabad PAF Space Command (PAFSC), Islamabad Training Establishments Pakistan Air Force Academy, Risalpur Combat Commanders' School (CCS), Sargodha PAF Airpower Centre of Excellence (PAF ACE), Sargodha PAF Air War College, Karachi Air University, Islamabad Weapons Production Establishments Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC), Kamra Air Weapons Complex (AWC), Kamra Bases The PAF has 22 airbases of which 14 are flying bases and 8 are non-flying bases. Flying bases are operational bases from which aircraft operate during both peacetime and wartime; whereas non-flying bases conduct either training, administration, maintenance, air defence operations, or mission support. Flying bases 1 PAF Base Mushaf (Sargodha) 2 PAF Base Bholari (Bholari) Jamshoro District, Sindh 3 PAF Base Masroor (Karachi) 4 PAF Base Rafiqui (Shorkot) 5 PAF Base Peshawar (Peshawar) 6 PAF Base Murid (Chakwal) 7 PAF Base Samungli (Quetta) 8 PAF Base M.M. Alam (Mianwali) 9 PAF Base Minhas (Kamra) 10 PAF Base Nur Khan (Rawalpindi) 11 PAF Base Faisal (Karachi) 12 PAF Base Risalpur (Pakistan Air Force Academy) (Risalpur) 13 PAF Base Shahbaz (Jacobabad) 14 PAF Base Sukkur (Dadu) Non-flying bases PAF Base Korangi Creek (Karachi) PAF Base Malir (Karachi) PAF Base Lower Topa (Murree) PAF Base Kallar Kahar (Kallar Kahar) PAF Base Kohat (Kohat) PAF Base Lahore (Lahore) PAF Base Sakesar (Sakesar) PAF Base Kalabagh (Nathia Gali) Squadrons Rank structure Structure of commissioned officer ranks: Structure of enlisted ranks: Civilian occupations Gazetted Officer Steganographer Stenotypist Warehouse and Factory Personnel Clerk Special forces The Pakistan Air Force's Special Services Wing (SSW) is the branch's elite special operations fighting force. Originally coming into existence following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the SSW is heavily modelled off of the United States Air Force's Special Tactics Squadrons with some elements inspired by the United States Army Rangers. The unit remained active but saw little prioritization by the Pakistani military until after the Kargil War. In late 1999, the SSW was largely revived and restructured for active service and is currently fielding around 1,200 troops. Women in the Pakistan Air Force In its early history, women had been employed by Pakistan's armed forces—albeit in non-combat roles only. It was commonplace to find women serving in service branches such as the medical corps (as nurses or in other similar disciplines). Aside from these exceptions, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) had remained strictly all-male throughout its history, and women (as well as male youths under the age of 18) were prohibited from being deployed for combat, despite Muhammad Ali Jinnah's contradictory views on the subject upon Pakistan's independence. However, since 2003, women have been allowed to enrol in the aerospace engineering program and others at the PAF Academy in Risalpur—including fighter pilot training programmes. It has been stated that physical and academic standards are not compromised or exploited to favour women, and those who do not achieve the same performance as their male counterparts are immediately dropped from the course, however the level of enforcement of this rule is unknown. Within the structure of the PAF, a level of segregation between the genders is maintained in line with traditional views. For example, early-morning parades are performed together but some parts of training—mainly physical exercises—are done with males and females separated. According to Squadron Leader Shazia Ahmed, the officer in charge of the first female cadets in the PAF and a psychologist, this seems to improve the confidence levels of women. In 2005, it was reported that two batches in the PAF Academy's flying wing contained at least ten women, with many more in the engineering and aerospace wings. One such woman—Cadet Saba Khan from Quetta, Balochistan—applied after reading a newspaper advertisement stating that the PAF was seeking female cadets. She was one of the first four women to pass the first stages of flying training on propeller-driven light aircraft and move onto faster jet-powered training aircraft. In March 2006, the PAF officially inducted a batch of 34 fighter pilots which included the organization's first four female fighter pilots. Three years of training had been completed by the pilots at PAF Academy - Risalpur before they graduated and were awarded their Flying Badges during the ceremony. Certificates of honour were handed to the successful cadets by General Ahsan Saleem Hayat, then the vice-chief of the Pakistan Army, who acknowledged that the PAF was the first branch of the Pakistani military to introduce women to its combat units. One of the women, Flying Officer Nadia Gul, was awarded a trophy for best academic achievement. The other female graduates were Mariam Khalil, Saira Batool and the above-mentioned Cadet Saba Khan. A second batch of pilots, including three female pilots, graduated from the 117th GD(P) course at PAF Academy - Risalpur in September 2006. The Sword of Honour for best all-round performance was awarded to Aviation Cadet Saira Amin, the first female pilot to win the award. Aviation Cadet Saira Amin also had won the Asghar Hussain Trophy for best performance in academics. In September 2009, it was reported that seven women had qualified as operational fighter pilots on the Chengdu F-7, the first female combat pilots to do so in the PAF's history. Commanding Officer Tanvir Piracha emphasized that if the female pilots "are not good enough as per their male counterparts, we don't let them fly." It was noted that some of the female pilots wear the hijab while others do not, as it is an optional exception to uniform standards should the woman wish to don one. Religious minorities in the Pakistan Air Force Since its inception, religious minorities have been free to pursue careers within the Pakistan Armed Forces, with the exception of Hindus until 2001. Following its involvement in the global U.S.-led War on Terror, Pakistan released the Hindu minority in the country from the discriminatory law and granted them the same freedoms that were already present for their Christian, Sikh and other various counterparts. Some notable religious minority figures in the Pakistan Air Force include: Air Vice Marshal Eric Gordon Hall, a Christian who served as the Base Commander of Chaklala Air Base during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. Air Commodore Nazir Latif and Group Captain Cecil Chaudhry (both Christians) fought in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and later helped establish the Combat Commanders School (CCS). Wing Commander Melvin Leslie Middlecoat was the Commanding Officer of No. 9 Squadron during the 1965 war, he and Squadron Leader Peter Christy fought and were KIA in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Patrick Desmond Callaghan was another Christian officer who rose to the rank of Air Vice Marshal. Wing Commander Ronald Felix has been a notable Christian pilot known for being the first to fly the jointly-built Chinese and Pakistani JF-17 Thunder fighter jet since 2010 and was one of two PAF pilots flying the JF-17 at the 2011 Izmir Air Show in Turkey. In 2020, the Pakistan Air Force recruited Rahul Dev, a Hindu from Tharparkar, Sindh in a major breakthrough for the Hindu minority from this remote distant area of Sindh . He was commissioned as a general duty pilot officer on 6 May 2020. Aircraft inventory Combat aircraft General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon: The F-16 Fighting Falcon currently serves as the primary air fighter of the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) in addition to its ground attack capabilities. The PAF currently has ~75 F-16s in active service, comprising 44 F-16AM/BM Block 15 MLU, 13 F-16A/B ADF and 18 F-16C/D Block 52+ variants. PAC/CAC JF-17 Thunder: A multirole combat aircraft produced by Pakistan with Chinese assistance, the JF-17 was developed to replace Pakistan's aging fleets of A-5, F-7P/PG, Mirage III, and Mirage 5 aircraft. Currently, 134 JF-17s are in active service with the PAF, comprising 47 JF-17A Block 1, 62 JF-17A Block 2, and 25 JF-17B Block 2 variants. A further 50 aircraft of the Block III model, incorporating advanced avionics systems and a new AESA radar, are expected to be produced. In addition the PAF is also expected to order 26 of the two-seat JF-17B variant. The JF-17 is set to become the "backbone" of the PAF alongside its fleet of American F-16s. Chengdu J-10C: The J-10C is a multirole combat aircraft. The PAF have ordered at least 25 aircraft on June 25, 2021 with the number is expected to rise to at least 36. In March 2022, the initial batches of J-10s began to arrive in Pakistan, with at least 12 aircraft in operation in September 2022. Dassault Mirage III: Having been in service since 1967, the Mirage III, together with the Mirage 5, serves as the primary strike aircraft of the PAF. The PAF operates more than 80 Mirage III aircraft, comprising multiple variants including the Mirage IIIEP, IIIEL and IIIO fighter-bomber variants, the latter of which have been upgraded under Project ROSE, the Mirage IIIRP reconnaissance variant and the Mirage IIIBE, IIID, IIIDL and IIIDP training variants, the latter of which have also been upgraded under Project ROSE. Dassault Mirage 5: The Mirage 5, together with the Mirage III, serves as the PAF's primary strike aircraft. The PAF operates around 90 Mirage 5 aircraft of multiple variants, including Mirage 5PA, PA2, PA3 and 5F ground attack aircraft, the latter of which have been upgraded under Project ROSE, the Mirage 5DR reconnaissance variant and the Mirage 5DD and DPA2 training variants. Chengdu F-7PG: The Chengdu F-7 serves primarily as an interceptor, and around 140 aircraft are in service. The PAF has phased out most of its F-7P aircraft from active service, with the remaining aircraft set to be replaced by the JF-17 Thunder in the coming years. The F-7PG variant remains the primary variant to remain in service with the PAF, while the two seat FT-7P and FT-7PG variants are in use as operational conversion trainers. Special mission aircraft Saab 2000: The PAF has been operating the Saab 2000 using the Erieye radar as its primary AEW&C platform since 2009. Out of the original four Saab 2000 in service, one was destroyed and two were damaged in a Taliban attack on PAF Base Minhas in August 2012. The damaged aircraft were subsequently repaired and put back into service. The PAF had ordered three more Erieye AEW&C aircraft from Saab with the first batch having been delivered in 2017. Shaanxi Y-8: Four ZDK-03 variants, locally designated as the Karakoram Eagle, are also in service. These incorporate a Chinese AESA radar mounted on a Y-8F-600 airframe. Dassault Falcon 20: The PAF operates three modified Dassault Falcon 20 aircraft with a primary role in electronic warfare. Transport aircraft Lockheed C-130 Hercules: The C-130 Hercules has served as the backbone of the PAF's transport fleet since its induction in 1962. 15 aircraft, five C-130Bs, nine C-130Es and one L-100, are currently in service. PAF C-130s have been upgraded with Allison T56-A-15 turboprops and extended fatigue lives. CASA/IPTN CN-235: The PAF operates three CN-235-220 STOL transporters as medium transport, in addition to one aircraft equipped for VIP transport operations. Harbin Y-12: Three Harbin Y-12 are operated as light utility aircraft by the PAF. Gulfsteam IV: The PAF currently operates two Gulfstream IV-SP variants. Embraer Phenom 100: Approximately four of these aircraft are in service with the PAF for transportation purposes. Cessna Citation Excel: Currently, only one of these aircraft are used by the PAF. Aerial refuelling aircraft Ilyushin Il-78: The PAF operates four Il-78MPs equipped with UPAZ refuelling pods, procured from Ukraine, as aerial refuelling tankers. The Il-78 can also be used as a general transporter by removing the refuel tanks from the cargo hold. Trainer aircraft PAC MFI-17 Mushshak: The Mushshak serves as the PAF's basic trainer. The PAF operates 120 Mushshak aircraft, including the improved Super Mushshak variant. Cessna T-37 Tweet: The PAF has operated the T-37 as a basic jet trainer since 1962, and these have been supplemented over the years with additional aircraft from Turkey and the United States. Hongdu JL-8: The K-8 is operated as an intermediate trainer, before cadets move on to conversion trainers. The K-8 is also operated by the PAF's aerobatics display team, the Sherdils. Shenyang J-6: A small number of FT-6s remain in service as jet trainers. Helicopters Aérospatiale Alouette III: The Alouette III served as the PAF's primary search and rescue platform since the 1960s, also serving as a liaison aircraft. AgustaWestland AW139: Beginning in 2018, the PAF started inducting the AW139 to replace the venerable Alouette. The first AW139 unit became operational in March of that same year. Mil Mi-17: The PAF also operates the Mi-171, which serves primarily in CSAR roles. Air defence systems MBDA Spada 2000 – A medium altitude air defence system consisting of a radar with a range of 60 kilometres and four 6-cell missile launchers that can intercept enemy missiles and aircraft at a range of over 20 kilometres. A contract for ten batteries was signed when Aspide was selected over competing systems from Raytheon, Diehl BGT and Saab AB after pre-contract firing tests in Pakistan with assistance from the Italian Air Force. Reports state that Pakistan tested the air defence system in July 2010, following deliveries of the first few batteries. Deliveries of all ten batteries are reported to have been completed in 2013 with further orders possible upon immediate request. The missile system was tested by the Range & Instrumentation Division of SUPARCO in synergy with the PAF. Three drones were successfully intercepted and shot down by the missile system following extensive testing. With the procurement of the Spada 2000, Pakistan reportedly decommissioned most of its Crotale short-range air defence missile systems. HQ-2 – The PAF extensively uses a Chinese adaptation of the Soviet S-75 Dvina high altitude air defence system, with reportedly 12 or more batteries procured in the 1970s. HQ-9 – In October 2003, it was reported that China had closed a deal with Pakistan to supply an unspecified number of FT-2000 systems, an anti-radiation variant of the HQ-9 long-range air defence system. However, in March 2009, a report was published stating that Pakistan was not considering importing the missile. It was reported in mid-2008 that Pakistan intended to purchase a high altitude air-missile defence system and the FD-2000, another variant of HQ-9, was expected to be chosen. AML HE 60-20: A modified version of the French Panhard armoured vehicle equipped with a 20mm anti-aircraft cannon used primarily for on-base security. At least five were originally in service in the late 1990s. Drone technology On 7 September 2015, Pakistan became the fifth nation globally to develop and use an armed unmanned combat aerial vehicle (drone), the NESCOM Burraq. Pakistan first started exploring drone technology when it acquired Falco drones from Selex Galileo for approximately $40 million in 2008. Since then, Pakistan has been developing variants of the original Falco drone in the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC) in collaboration with the Italian firm. The Burraq was developed which was based on the Falco's technology. By March 2015, Pakistan was able to test-fire Burraq armed with an air-to-surface missile named Barq with pin-point precision. Burraq drones were used extensively to provide support to the Pakistan Army during Operation Zarb-e-Azb. Pakistan has already talked with Turkey to manufacture parts for Anka UAV and possibly to produce the combat drones locally. Also the CAIG Wing Loong II UCAVs will be produced in Pakistan with joint collaboration with China. Modernisation and acquisitions For a brief period, the Pakistan Air Force experienced a stall in modernization efforts, however this ended in April 2006 when the Pakistani cabinet approved the PAF's proposals to procure new aircraft and systems from several sources, including modern combat aircraft from the United States and China. The AFFDP 2019 (Armed Forces Development Programme 2019) would oversee the extensive modernization of the PAF from 2006 to 2019. On 24 July 2008, the Bush administration informed the U.S. Congress that it planned to shift nearly $230 million of $300 million in aid from counter-terrorism programs to upgrading Pakistan's ageing F-16s. The administration had previously announced on 27 June 2008 that it was proposing to sell ITT Corporation's electronic warfare gear valued at up to $75 million to enhance Pakistan's existing inventory of F-16s. Pakistan has asked about buying as many as 21 AN/ALQ-211(V)9 Advanced Integrated Defensive Electronic Warfare Suite Pods (AIDEWS) as well as other related equipment. The proposed sale will ensure that the existing fleet is "compatible" with new F-16 Block 50/52 fighters being purchased by Islamabad. After 9/11, the U.S. and Pakistan began discussing the release of the embargoed F-16s and Pakistan's ability to purchase new aircraft. Of the 28 F-16A/B built under the Peace Gate III/IV contracts and embargoed in 1990, 14 were delivered as EDA (Excess Defense Articles) from 2005 to 2008, two of which were delivered on 10 July 2007. Between 2005 and 2008, 14 F-16A/B Block 15 OCU fighters were delivered to the PAF under renewed post-9/11 ties between the U.S. and Pakistan. These had originally been built for Pakistan under the Peace Gate III/IV contracts but were never delivered due to the subsequent U.S. arms embargo imposed on Pakistan in 1990. To upgrade the F-16A/B fleet, 32 Falcon STAR kits were purchased for the original Peace Gate I aircraft and 35 Mid-Life Update (MLU) kits were ordered, with 11 more MLU kits optional. Four F-16A/B being upgraded in the U.S. to F-16AM/BM had an expected delivery date of December 2011. F-16A/B in the PAF's service were to be upgraded starting in October 2010 by Turkish Aerospace Industries, at a rate of one per month. The Peace Drive I contract for 12 F-16C and six F-16D Block 52+ (Advanced Block 52) aircraft, powered by F100-PW-229 engines was signed on 30 September 2006. The first F-16 to be completed, an F-16D, was rolled out on 13 October 2009 and began flight testing immediately. The first batch of F-16C/D Block 52+, two F-16D and one F-16C landed at PAF Base Shahbaz, Jacobabad, on 26 June 2010. One more F-16C was received by 5 July 2010. On 13 December 2008, the Government of Pakistan stated that two Indian Air Force aircraft were intercepted by the Pakistan Air Force a few kilometres inside Pakistani airspace. This charge is denied by the Indian government. During talks with a delegation from the French Senate on 28 September 2009, Prime Minister Yousuf Raza Gilani stated that the PAF had used most of its stockpile of laser-guided munitions against militants in the Malakand and FATA regions and that replacements for such types of equipment were urgently required. In December 2009, Pakistan saw the delivery of the PAF's first Saab 2000 Erieye AEW&C from Sweden and an Il-78MP aerial refuelling tanker/military transport aircraft from Ukraine. The PAF was reported to be considering purchasing the Chinese Hongdu L-15 advanced jet trainer to train pilots for high-tech fighters such as the FC-20. Extensive evaluations of the aircraft took place in Pakistan in December 2009. According to Air Chief Marshal (ACM) Rao Qamar Suleman (then Chief of the Air Staff), the new fighters would eliminate the PAF's limitations in conducting precision night-time strike operations, as the existing capability was based on around 34 Dassault Mirage 5 fighters upgraded with new avionics for night-time precision strike missions under the Retrofit of Strike Element (ROSE) programme during 1999–2004. The SABIR (Special Airborne Mission Installation & Response System), a FLIR system that has Brite Star II and Star Safire III EO/IR sensors installed on a C-130 saw extensive usage during the Pakistani military's operations against militants in the FATA region. In 2021, Pakistan agreed to buy 36 Chengdu J-10CP multirole fighter aircraft from China to counter the Dassault Rafale which India bought from France. On March 11, 2022, PAF inducted modern J-10C fighter aircraft in its fleet, the formal ceremony was conducted at the Minhas Airbase Kamra. Planned acquisitions Mass production of the PAC JF-17 Thunder A Block-3, a 4.5 generation aircraft, is underway to replace the F-16 as the "backbone" of the Pakistan Air Force's arsenal. After every 3–5 years, newer blocks of the aircraft are expected to be produced. Pakistan has been in extensive talks with China to acquire between 40 and 60 upgraded fifth-generation Shenyang FC-31 stealth fighter aircraft (J-31 for short). The TAI TF-X, another fifth-generation aircraft under development by Turkey (intended to operate with critical assets such as the American F-35 Lightning II) has also been a viable offer for Pakistan, as these fighters can greatly strengthen the PAF's fleet before the country's own fifth-generation fighter is developed under Project Azm. Pakistan is also reportedly working on developing a strong arsenal of UAVs alongside China's CAIG GJ-2 MALE-UCAV. Project Azm On 7 July 2017, the Pakistan Air Force announced the development of a fifth-generation fighter aircraft, a medium-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicle (MALE UAV) and munitions under the banner of Project Azm (Urdu for resolve/determination). Air Chief Marshal (ACM) Sohail Aman stated that the design phase for the MALE UAV was in its final stages. Military exercises The Pakistan Air Force sent a contingent of six F-16 A/B fighters to the 2004 international Anatolian Eagle exercise in Turkey. In 2005, after around one year of planning, the PAF held the High Mark 2005 military exercise which lasted for one month and also involved the Pakistan Army and Pakistan Navy. The scenario saw two opposing forces, Blueland and Foxland, engaging in simulated combat which involved both offensive and defensive operations. It was stated that the exercise would consist of three stages and PAF aircraft would fly around 8200 sorties. The involvement of units from the Pakistan Army and Navy was aimed at providing more realistic operational scenarios. High Mark 2005 followed the Tempest-1 military exercise which was focused purely on air power but differed in terms of the duration, intensity and complexity of all air operations being conducted. In 2008, the Turkish Air Force sent five F-16C/D fighters and 50 personnel from 191 Cobras Squadron to Pakistan to take part in the joint Indus Viper exercise at PAF Base Mushaf. In the summer of 2005, a PAF team of 20 airmen, including pilots, navigators, engineers, maintenance technicians and a C-130E was sent to the United States to take part in the AMC (Air Mobility Command) Rodeo. The PAF again took part in the AMC Rodeo two years later, in July 2007. In 2009, while undertaking combat operations against militants in the FATA and Swat regions, the PAF initiated the Saffron Bandit exercise with the aim of training the PAF's entire combat force to undertake such anti-terrorist operations. In December 2009, the PAF sent six Chengdu F-7PG fighters of No. 31 Wing based at PAF Base Samungli to the United Arab Emirates to take part in the Air Tactics Leadership Course (ATLC)—also known as Exercise Iron Falcon—at Al Dhafra Air Base. The PAF's High Mark 2010 exercise was launched on 15 March 2010, the first time a High Mark exercise had been conducted since 2005, after all PAF received their Air Tasking Orders (ATO). The country-wide exercise involved units based all over Pakistan, from Skardu to the Arabian Sea, at all Main Operating Bases and Forward Operating Bases. Joint operations involving the Pakistan Army and Pakistan Navy were also conducted, aiming to test and improve integration and co-operation between the three branches of the Pakistan Armed Forces. Operations emphasized a near-realistic simulation of a wartime environment, exposure of PAF aircrews to contemporary concepts of air combat, new employment concepts and joint operations between the Pakistan Air Force, Army and Navy. New inductions such as the JF-17 Thunder, Saab 2000 Erieye AEW&C and Il-78 MRTT also saw service in this exercise. On 6 April 2010, the end of the first phase of exercise High Mark 2010 was celebrated with a 90-minute firepower demonstration at the PAF's firing range facility in the deserts of Thal. The H-2 SOW was also shown to the public for the first time, being launched from around 60 km away before hitting its target, and a mock counter-insurgency operation was performed by participating forces. The demo heralded the beginning of High Mark 2010's second phase, where the PAF would practice joint operations with the Pakistan Army during its own exercise Azm-e-Nau-3 (New Resolve 3). During High Mark 2010, a Chengdu F-7 and Mirage 5 fighter practiced landing, refuelling and take-off operations from a motorway. It was reported that the PAF is in negotiations with the Ministry of Communications to set up any required facilities for PAF operations on various motorways in Pakistan. In July 2010, the PAF sent six F-16B fighters of No. 9 Griffins Squadron and 100 PAF personnel to Nellis Air Force Base in the U.S. to participate in the international Red Flag exercise for the first time. During the exercise, the PAF pilots practiced in-flight refuelling with their F-16s using the Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker. In October 2010, the PAF's No. 7 Bandits Squadron sent a team of its Dassault Mirage III ROSE fighters to Jordan to participate in the Falcon Air Meet 2010 exercise at the Azraq Royal Jordanian Air Base. January 2011 saw a PAF contingent of F-16A/B and Dassault Mirage fighters take part in the Al-Saqoor II exercise in Saudi Arabia with the Royal Saudi Air Force. In March 2011, a joint Sino-Pakistani exercise, codenamed Shaheen-1, was conducted involving a contingent of Chinese aircraft and personnel from the PLAAF. Information on which aircraft were used by each side in the exercise remained classified, but photos of Pakistani pilots inspecting what appeared to be Chinese Shenyang J-11B fighters were released on the internet. The exercise lasted for around four weeks and was the first time the PLAAF had deployed to Pakistan and conducted "operational" aerial manoeuvres with the PAF. Involvement in Pakistani society The Pakistan Air Force, alongside other branches of the armed forces has played an integral part in the civil society of Pakistan since its inception. In 1996, General Jehangir Karamat described the Pakistani military's relations with Pakistan's populace: In times of natural disaster such as the chaotic floods of 1992 or the October 2005 earthquake, PAF engineers, medical and logistics personnel alongside the rest of the armed forces played a major role in bringing relief aid and supplies to those who were affected. In addition to the PAF's involvement in relief activities at home, it has also helped the Pakistani military's responses to natural disasters in many other countries globally. The PAF was involved in the dispatching of relief to Indonesia, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka after they were hit by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Coordinating a synergized response, the Pakistan Armed Forces sent ships and helicopters with aid and personnel to assist in the international relief operation. In popular culture In Pakistani literature, the shaheen falcon has a special association with the poetry of the country's national poet, Allama Muhammad Iqbal. The bird also appears on the official representative badge of the Pakistan Air Force. Various Urdu-language drama serials on the PAF have been written, produced, directed, and televised nationwide. Notable Urdu drama serials and films involving the PAF are Shahpar and Sherdil, which were televised on PTV and ARY Digital, respectively. Notable personnel The Nishan-e-Haider (), is the highest military award of Pakistan, and is roughly equivalent in value to the United States' Medal of Honor. Pilot Officer Rashid Minhas (1951 – 20 August 1971) is the only officer of the PAF to have been awarded the Nishan-e-Haider for sacrificing his life to save an aircraft from being hijacked to India. Other notable recipients of major military awards include: Air Commodore Muhammad Mahmood Alam – awarded for downing nine fighters (of which five were downed within one minute) of the Indian Air Force in direct air-to-air combat. (Sitara-e-Jurat) Air Commodore Najeeb Ahmed Khan – B-57 Canberra bomber pilot who raided the Adampur Airbase several times during the 1965 war. (Sitara-e-Jurat) Squadron Leader Sarfaraz Ahmed Rafiqui – awarded for refusing to abandon his group of fighters during a battle despite his guns being jammed. He continued his attempts to assist his squadron in the battle by chasing enemy fighters until eventually being shot down. (Hilal-e-Jurat, Sitara-e-Jurat) Air Marshall Nur Khan - awarded for personally leading several operational missions that uplifted morale and enabled the air force to assert control over a larger and better-equipped enemy. (Hilal-e-Jurat) See also Air Force Strategic Command List of Pakistan Air Force bases List of Pakistan Air Force squadrons List of retired Pakistan Air Force aircraft Special Services Wing - (SSW) Pakistan Air Force Museum Pakistan Aeronautical Complex Notes References External links Aircraft of the Pakistan Air Force and general equipment 1947 establishments in Pakistan Military units and formations established in 1947 Government of Pakistan
377434
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy%20Richardson
Dorothy Richardson
Dorothy Miller Richardson (17 May 1873 – 17 June 1957) was a British author and journalist. Author of Pilgrimage, a sequence of 13 semi-autobiographical novels published between 1915 and 1967—though Richardson saw them as chapters of one work—she was one of the earliest modernist novelists to use stream of consciousness as a narrative technique. Richardson also emphasises in Pilgrimage the importance and distinct nature of female experiences. The title Pilgrimage alludes not only to "the journey of the artist ... to self-realisation but, more practically, to the discovery of a unique creative form and expression". Biography Richardson was born in Abingdon in 1873, the third of four daughters. After the fourth daughter was born her father (Charles) began referring to Dorothy as his son. Richardson "also attributed this habit to her own boylike willfulness". She lived at 'Whitefield' a large mansion type house on Albert Park (built by her father in 1871 and now owned by Abingdon School. Her family moved to Worthing, West Sussex in 1880 and then Putney, London in 1883. In London she "attended a progressive school influenced by the ideas of John Ruskin", and where "the pupils were encouraged to think for themselves". Here she "studied French, German, literature, logic and psychology". At seventeen, because of her father's financial difficulties she went to work as a governess and teacher, first in 1891 for six months at a finishing school in Hanover, Germany. In 1895 Richardson gave up work as a governess to take care of her severely depressed mother, but her mother committed suicide the same year. Richardson's father had become bankrupt at the end of 1893. Richardson subsequently moved in 1896 to an attic room, 7 Endsleigh Street, Bloomsbury, London, where she worked as a receptionist/secretary/assistant in a Harley Street dental surgery. While in Bloomsbury in the late 1890s and early 1900s, Richardson associated with writers and radicals, including the Bloomsbury Group. In 1904 she took a holiday in the Bernese Oberland, financed by one of the dentists, which was the source for her novel Oberland. H. G. Wells (1866–1946) was a friend and they had a brief affair which led to a pregnancy and then miscarriage, in 1907. Wells was married to a former schoolmate of Richardson's. On leave from work she stayed in Pevensey, Sussex and went to Switzerland for the winter. Then she resigned from her Harley Street job and left London "to spend the next few years in Sussex ... on a farm run by a Quaker family". Richardson's interest in the Quakers led to her writing The Quakers Past and Present and editing an anthology Gleanings from the Works of George Fox, which were both published in 1914. She spent much of 1912 in Cornwall, and then in 1913 rented a room in St John's Wood, London, though she also lived in Cornwall. While she had first published an article in 1902, Richardson's writing career, as a freelance journalist really began around 1906, with periodical articles on various topics, book reviews, short stories, and poems, and as well as she translated during her life eight books into English from French and German. The subjects of Richardson's book reviews and early essays range "for Whitman and Nietzsche to French philosophy and British politics" demonstrating both "the range of her interests and the sharpness of her mind". Starting in 1908 Richardson regularly wrote short prose essays, "sketches" for the Saturday Review, and around 1912 "a reviewer urged her to try writing a novel". She began writing Pointed Roofs, in the autumn of 1912, while staying with J. D. Beresford and his wife in Cornwall, and it was published in 1915. She married the artist Alan Odle (1888–1948) in 1917—a distinctly bohemian figure, associated with an artistic circle that included Augustus John, Jacob Epstein, and Wyndham Lewis. He was fifteen years younger than her, tubercular and an alcoholic, and was not expected to live long. However, he stopped drinking and lived until 1948. Odle was very thin and "over six feet tall with waist-length hair wound around the outside of his head", which he never cut. He also rarely cut his finger nails. From 1917 until 1939, the couple spent their winters in Cornwall and their summers in London; and then stayed permanently in Cornwall until Odle’s death in 1948. She supported herself and her husband with freelance writing for periodicals for many years, as Alan made little money from his art. Between 1927 and 1933 she published 23 articles on film in the avant-garde little magazine, Close Up, with which her close friend Bryher was involved. In 1954, she had to move into a nursing home in the London suburb of Beckenham, Kent, where she died in 1957. The last chapters (books) of Pilgrimage, published during Richardson's lifetime, were Clear Horizon in 1935 and Dimple Hill with the 1938 Collected Edition. This Collected Edition was poorly received and Richardson only published, during the rest of her life, three chapters of another volume in 1946, as work in "Work in Progress," in Life and Letters. The final chapter (13th book) of Pilgrimage, March Moonlight, was not published until 1967, where it forms the conclusion to Volume IV of the Collected Edition; though the first three chapters had appeared as "Work in Progress," Life and Letters, 1946. This novel is incomplete. Apparently because of the poor sales and disappointing reception of the Collected Edition of 1938, she lost heart. She was 65 in 1938. Stream of consciousness In a review of Pointed Roofs (The Egoist April 1918), May Sinclair first applied the term "stream of consciousness" in her discussion of Richardson's stylistic innovations. Pointed Roofs was the first volume of Pilgrimage, the first complete stream of consciousness novel published in English. The term was coined by William James in 1890 in his The Principles of Psychology. In a letter to the bookseller and publisher Sylvia Beach in 1934, Richardson comments that "Proust, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf & D.R. ... were all using 'the new method', though very differently, simultaneously". Richardson hated the term, calling it in 1949 "that lamentably meaningless metaphor 'The Shroud of Consciousness' borrowed ... by May Sinclair from the epistemologists, ... to describe my work, & still, in Lit. criticism. pushing its inane career". Pilgrimage Miriam Henderson, the central character in the Pilgrimage novel sequence, is based on author's own life between 1891 and 1915. Richardson, however, saw Pilgrimage as one novel for which each of the individual volumes were "chapters". Pilgrimage was read as a work of fiction and "its critics did not suspect that its content was a reshaping of DMR's own experience", nor that it was a roman à clef. Feminist writer Richardson is also an important feminist writer, because of the way her work assumes the validity and importance of female experiences as a subject for literature. She records that when she began writing, "attempting to produce a feminine equivalent of the current masculine realism", and after setting aside "a considerable mass of manuscript" finding "a fresh pathway". Her wariness of the conventions of language, her bending of the normal rules of punctuation, sentence length, and so on, are used to create a feminine prose, which Richardson saw as necessary for the expression of female experience. Virginia Woolf in 1923 noted, that Richardson "has invented, or, if she has not invented, developed and applied to her own uses, a sentence which we might call the psychological sentence of the feminine gender." In her 1938 "Foreword" to the Collected Edition of Pilgrimage Richardson responded to criticism of her writing, "for being unpunctuated and therefore unreadable", arguing that "Feminine prose, as Charles Dickens and James Joyce show themselves to be aware, should properly be unpunctuated, moving from point to point without formal obstruction". John Cowper Powys, writing in 1931, saw Richardson as a "pioneer in a completely new direction" because she has created in her protagonist Miriam the first woman character who embodies the female "quest for the essence of human experience". Powys contrasts Richardson with other women novelists, such as George Eliot and Virginia Woolf whom he sees as betraying their deepest feminine instincts by using "as their medium of research not these instincts but the rationalistic methods of men". Likewise in 1975 Sydney Janet Kaplan describes Pilgrimage as "conceived in revolt against the established tradition of fiction. ... [Richardson's] writing marks a revolution in perspective, a shift from a 'masculine' to a 'feminine' method of exposition". London novelist After first working as a governess in Germany and then England, early in her life Richardson "lived in a Bloomsbury attic ... [and] London became her great adventure. And although Pointed Roofs focuses on Miriam's experience as a governess in Germany, much of Pilgrimage is set in London. London "is an 'elastic' material space that facilitates Miriam’s public life. London’s streets, cafés, restaurants and clubs figure largely in her explorations, which extend her knowledge of both the city and herself". John Cowper Powys in his 1931 study of Richardson, describes her as London's William Wordsworth, who instead of "the mystery of mountains and lakes" gives us "the mystery of roof-tops and pavements". Reputation Rebecca Bowler wrote in August 2015: "Given Richardson’s importance to the development of the English novel, her subsequent neglect is extraordinary". The first few of her novels "were received with rapturous enthusiasm and occasional confusion", but by the 1930s interest had declined—despite John Cowper Powys championing her in his short critical study Dorothy M. Richardson (1931). In 1928 Conrad Aiken, in a review of Oberland had attempted to explain why she was so "curiously little known," and offered the following reasons: her "minute recording" which tires those who want action; her choice of a woman's mind as centre; and her heroine's lack of "charm." By 1938 "she was sufficiently obscure for Ford Madox Ford to bewail the 'amazing phenomenon' of her 'complete world neglect. However, Richardson changed publishers and Dent & Cresset Press published a new Collected Edition of Pilgrimage in 1938. This was republished by Virago Press "in the late 1970s, in its admirable but temporary repopularisation of Richardson". In 1976 in America, a four volume Popular Library (New York) edition appeared. Now scholars are once again reclaiming her work and the Arts and Humanities Research Council in England is supporting the Dorothy Richardson Scholarly Editions Project, with the aim of publishing a collected edition of Richardson's works and letters. Pointed Roofs was translated into Japanese in 1934, French in 1965 and German in 1993. There were subsequent French translations of Backwater, 1992 and Deadlock, 1993. A blue plaque was unveiled, in May 2015, at Woburn Walk in Bloomsbury, where Richardson lived, in 1905 and 1906, opposite W. B. Yeats, and The Guardian comments that "people are starting to read her once more, again reasserting her place in the canon of experimental modernist prose writers". Bibliography A much fuller bibliography can be found at The Dorothy Richardson Society's website Works The Quakers Past and Present, London: Constable, 1914. Gleanings from the Works of George Fox, London: Headley Brothers, 1914. John Austen and the Inseparables, London: William Jackson, 1930 (about the artist John Austen). Journey to Paradise: Short Stories and Autobiographical Sketches, London: Virago, 1989. Pilgrimage Four-volume collected editions: 1938 (first 12 "chapters"; Dent and Cresset, London, and A.A. Knopf, New York), 1967 (J. M. Dent, London, and A.A. Knopf, New York), 1976 (Popular Library, New York), 1979 (Virago, London) {| |+Publication history of Pilgrimage |- ! Vol !! Title !! London publisher !! Year !! Notes |- | 1 || Pointed Roofs || Duckworth || 1915 || New York publication by A.A. Knopf was in 1916 |- | 2 || Backwater || Duckworth || 1916 || |- | 3 || Honeycomb || Duckworth || 1917 || |- | 4 || The Tunnel || Duckworth || 1919 || |- | 5 || Interim || Duckworth || 1920 || Serialized in 1919 in The Little Review, alongside Ulysses |- | 6 || Deadlock || Duckworth || 1921 || |- | 7 || Revolving Lights || Duckworth || 1923 || |- | 8 || The Trap || Duckworth || 1925 || |- | 9 || Oberland || Duckworth || 1927 || |- | 10 || Dawn's Left Hand || Duckworth || 1931 || |- | 11 || Clear Horizon || JM Dent and Cresset Press || 1935 || |- | 12 || Dimple Hill || JM Dent and Cresset Press || 1938 || First published in volume 4 of the 1938 collected edition |- | 13 || March Moonlight || JM Dent || 1967 || First published in full in volume 4 of the 1967 collected edition. The first three chapters had appeared as "A Work in Progress" in Life and Letters in 1946 |} See also the following feminist anthologies: Scott, Bonnie Kime, The Gender of Modernism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, c1990. Gilbert, Sandra M & Gubar, Susan Norton Anthology of Literature by Women. New York, N.Y.: Norton, c1985. Early reviews Sinclair, M., "The novels of Dorothy Richardson", The Egoist, April 1918. [Woolf, V.], review of The Tunnel, (Times Literary Supplement, 13 Feb 1919); [V. Woolf], review of Revolving Lights, The Nation and the Athenaeum, 19 May 1923); both repr. in V. Woolf, Women and writing, ed. M. Barrett 1979. Dorothy Richardson Society Bibliography: Reviews and Obituaries Obituaries The Times, 18 June 1957. Manchester Guardian, 18 June 1957. Bibliographical studies Buchanan, Averill, Journal of Modern Literature, Vol. 24, No. 1, Autumn, 2000, 'Dorothy Miller Richardson: A Bibliography 1900 to 1999', pp. 135–160. Biographies and letters Fouli, Janet (ed.). The Letters of John Cowper Powys and Dorothy Richardson. London: Cecil Wolf, 2008. Fromm, Gloria G. Dorothy Richardson: A Biography. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977. Fromm, Gloria G. (ed.). Windows on Modernism: Selected Letters of Dorothy Richardson. Athens, Georgia, U. of Georgia Press, 1995. Gregory, Horace. Dorothy Richardson: An Adventure in Self-Discovery. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1967. Rosenberg, John D. Dorothy Richardson: The Genius They Forgot. A Critical Biography. London: Duckworth; New York: Knopf, 1973. Thomson, George H. Dorothy Richardson: A Calendar of the Letters. ELT Press E-Book no.4, University of North Carolina at Greenboro. Critical studies Blake, Caesar R. Dorothy M. Richardson. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1960. Bluemel, Kristin. Experimenting on the Borders of Modernism: Dorothy Richardson's 'Pilgrimage' . Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1997. Eagleson, Harvey. Pedestal for Statue: 'The Novels of Dorothy M. Richardson. Sewanee, Tenn.: The University Press, 1934. Fouli, Janet. Structure and Identity: the Creative Imagination in Dorothy Richardson's Pilgrimage. Faculté des Lettres de la Manouba, Tunis, 1995. Gevirtz, Susan. Narrative's Journey: the Fiction and Film Writing of Dorothy Richardson. New York: P. Lang, 1996. Hanscombe, Gillian E. The Art of Life: Dorothy Richardson and the Development of Feminist Consciousness. London: Owen, 1982; Athens: Ohio University Press, 1983. Powys, John Cowper. Dorothy M. Richardson. London: Joiner & Steele, 1931. Radford, Jean. Dorothy Richardson. New York & London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991. Staley, Thomas F. Dorothy Richardson. Boston: Twayne, 1976. Thomson, George H. Notes on 'Pilgrimage': Dorothy Richardson Annotated. Greensboro, N.C.: ELT Press, 1999. Thomson, George H. with Thomson, Dorothy F. The Editions of Dorothy Richardson's Pilgrimage: A Comparison of Texts. Greensboro, N.C.: ELT Press, 2001. Tucker, Eva. Pilgrimage: The Enchanted Guest of Spring and Summer: Dorothy Richardson 1873-1954: a Reassessment of Her Life and Work. Penzance: Hypatia Press, 2003. Watts, Carol. Dorothy Richardson. Plymouth: Northcote House in association with the British Council, 1995. Winning, Joanne. The Pilgrimage of Dorothy Richardson. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2000. Works partially on Richardson Kaplan, Sydney Janet. Feminine Consciousness in the Modem British Novel. Urbana & London: University of Illinois Press, 1975. Linett, Maren Tova. Modernism, Feminism, and Jewishness. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Parsons, Deborah. Theorists of the modernist novel: James Joyce, Dorothy Richardson, Virginia Woolf. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007. Main archives Beinecke Library, Yale University. A large collection of letters. British Library. Letters to E. B. C. Jones; letters to S. S. Koteliansky. Berg Collection, New York Public Library. Letters to P. P. Wadsworth Harry Ransom HRC, Austin, Texas. Library of Pennsylvania State University University of Tulsa. Letters and mss. References External links Dorothy Richardson Society Dorothy Richardson Online Exhibition of Letters Calendar of Letters Dorothy Richardson Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. 1873 births 1957 deaths 20th-century British novelists 20th-century British women writers British feminists British journalists British women novelists Modernist women writers Modernist writers People from Abingdon-on-Thames
377441
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sei%20whale
Sei whale
The sei whale ( , ; Balaenoptera borealis) is a baleen whale, the third-largest rorqual after the blue whale and the fin whale. It inhabits most oceans and adjoining seas, and prefers deep offshore waters. It avoids polar and tropical waters and semi-enclosed bodies of water. The sei whale migrates annually from cool, subpolar waters in summer to temperate, subtropical waters in winter with a lifespan of 70 years. Reaching in length and weighing as much as , the sei whale consumes an average of of food every day; its diet consists primarily of copepods, krill, and other zooplankton. It is among the fastest of all cetaceans, and can reach speeds of up to (27 knots) over short distances. The whale's name comes from the Norwegian word for pollock, a fish that appears off the coast of Norway at the same time of the year as the sei whale. Following large-scale commercial whaling during the late 19th and 20th centuries, when over 255,000 whales were killed, the sei whale is now internationally protected. , its worldwide population was about 80,000, less than a third of its prewhaling population. Etymology Sei is the Norwegian word for pollock, also referred to as coalfish, a close relative of codfish. Sei whales appeared off the coast of Norway at the same time as the pollock, both coming to feed on the abundant plankton. The specific name is the Latin word borealis, meaning northern. In the Pacific, the whale has been called the Japan finner; "finner" was a common term used to refer to rorquals. In Japanese, the whale was called iwashi kujira, or sardine whale, a name originally applied to Bryde's whales by early Japanese whalers. Later, as modern whaling shifted to Sanriku—where both species occur—it was confused for the sei whale. Now the term only applies to the latter species. It has also been referred to as the lesser fin whale because it somewhat resembles the fin whale. The American naturalist Roy Chapman Andrews compared the sei whale to the cheetah, because it can swim at great speeds "for a few hundred yards", but it "soon tires if the chase is long" and "does not have the strength and staying power of its larger relatives". Taxonomy On 21 February 1819, a 32-ft whale stranded near Grömitz, in Schleswig-Holstein. The Swedish-born German naturalist Karl Rudolphi initially identified it as Balaena rostrata (=Balaenoptera acutorostrata). In 1823, the French naturalist Georges Cuvier described and figured Rudolphi's specimen under the name "rorqual du Nord". In 1828, Rene Lesson translated this term into Balaenoptera borealis, basing his designation partly on Cuvier's description of Rudolphi's specimen and partly on a 54-ft female that had stranded on the coast of France the previous year (this was later identified as a juvenile fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus). In 1846, the English zoologist John Edward Gray, ignoring Lesson's designation, named Rudolphi's specimen Balaenoptera laticeps, which others followed. In 1865, the British zoologist William Henry Flower named a 45-ft specimen that had been obtained from Pekalongan, on the north coast of Java, Sibbaldius (Balaenoptera) schlegelii—in 1946 the Russian scientist A.G. Tomilin synonymized S. schlegelii and B. borealis, creating the subspecies B. b. schlegelii and B. b. borealis. In 1884–85, the Norwegian scientist G. A. Guldberg first identified the "sejhval" of Finnmark with B. borealis. Sei whales are rorquals (family Balaenopteridae), baleen whales that include the humpback whale, the blue whale, Bryde's whale, the fin whale, and the minke whale. Rorquals take their name from the Norwegian word røyrkval, meaning "furrow whale", because family members have a series of longitudinal pleats or grooves on the anterior half of their ventral surface. Balaenopterids diverged from the other families of suborder Mysticeti, also called the whalebone whales, as long ago as the middle Miocene. Little is known about when members of the various families in the Mysticeti, including the Balaenopteridae, diverged from each other. Two subspecies have been identified—the northern sei whale (B. b. borealis) and southern sei whale (B. b. schlegelii). Description The sei whale is the third-largest balaenopterid, after the blue whale (up to 180 tonnes, 200 tons) and the fin whale (up to 70 tonnes, 77 tons) but close to the humpback whale. In the North Pacific, adult males average and adult females average , weighing 15 and 18.5 tonnes (16.5 and 20.5 tons), while in the North Atlantic adult males average and adult females , weighing 15.5 and 17 tonnes (17 and 18.5 tons) In the Southern Hemisphere, they average 14.5 (47.5 ft) and , respectively, weighing 17 and 18.5 tonnes (18.5 and 20.5 tons). ( In the Northern Hemisphere, males reach up to and females up to , while in the Southern Hemisphere males reach and females —the authenticity of an alleged female caught 50 miles northwest of St. Kilda in July 1911 is doubted. The largest specimens taken off Iceland were a female and a male, while the longest off Nova Scotia were two females and a male. The longest measured during JARPN II cruises in the North Pacific were a female and a male. The longest measured by Discovery Committee staff were an adult male of and an adult female of , both caught off South Georgia. Adults usually weigh between 15 and 20 metric tons—a pregnant female caught off Natal in 1966 weighed 37.75 tonnes (41.6 tons), not including 6% for loss of fluids during flensing. Females are considerably larger than males. At birth, a calf typically measures in length. Anatomy The whale's body is typically a dark steel grey with irregular light grey to white markings on the ventral surface, or towards the front of the lower body. The whale has a relatively short series of 32–60 pleats or grooves along its ventral surface that extend halfway between the pectoral fins and umbilicus (in other species it usually extends to or past the umbilicus), restricting the expansion of the buccal cavity during feeding compared to other species. The rostrum is pointed and the pectoral fins are relatively short, only 9%–10% of body length, and pointed at the tips. It has a single ridge extending from the tip of the rostrum to the paired blowholes that are a distinctive characteristic of baleen whales. The whale's skin is often marked by pits or wounds, which after healing become white scars. These are now known to be caused by "cookie-cutter" sharks (Isistius brasiliensis). It has a tall, sickle-shaped dorsal fin that ranges in height from and averages , about two-thirds of the way back from the tip of the rostrum. Dorsal fin shape, pigmentation pattern, and scarring have been used to a limited extent in photo-identification studies. The tail is thick and the fluke, or lobe, is relatively small in relation to the size of the whale's body. Adults have 300–380 ashy-black baleen plates on each side of the mouth, up to long. Each plate is made of fingernail-like keratin, which is bordered by a fringe of very fine, short, curly, wool-like white bristles. The sei's very fine baleen bristles, about are the most reliable characteristic that distinguishes it from other rorquals. The sei whale looks very similar to other large rorquals, especially its smaller relative the Bryde's whale. The best way to distinguish between it and Bryde's whale, apart from differences in baleen plates, is by the presence of lateral ridges on the dorsal surface of the Bryde's whale's rostrum. Large individuals can be confused with fin whales, unless the fin whale's asymmetrical head coloration is clearly seen. The fin whale's lower jaw's right side is white, and the left side is grey. When viewed from the side, the rostrum appears slightly arched (accentuated at the tip), while fin and Bryde's whales have relatively flat rostrums. Life history Surface behaviors Sei whales usually travel alone or in pods of up to six individuals. Larger groups may assemble at particularly abundant feeding grounds. Very little is known about their social structure. During the southern Gulf of Maine influx in mid-1986, groups of at least three sei whales were observed "milling" on four occasions – i.e. moving in random directions, rolling, and remaining at the surface for over 10 minutes. One whale would always leave the group during or immediately after such socializing bouts. The sei whale is among the fastest cetaceans. It can reach speeds of up to over short distances. However, it is not a remarkable diver, reaching relatively shallow depths for 5 to 15 minutes. Between dives, the whale surfaces for a few minutes, remaining visible in clear, calm waters, with blows occurring at intervals of about 60 seconds (range: 45–90 sec.). Unlike the fin whale, the sei whale tends not to rise high out of the water as it dives, usually just sinking below the surface. The blowholes and dorsal fin are often exposed above the water surface almost simultaneously. The whale almost never lifts its flukes above the surface, and are generally less active on water surfaces than closely related Bryde's whales; it rarely breaches. Feeding This rorqual is a filter feeder, using its baleen plates to obtain its food by opening its mouth, engulfing or skimming large amounts of the water containing the food, then straining the water out through the baleen, trapping any food items inside its mouth. The sei whale feeds near the surface of the ocean, swimming on its side through swarms of prey to obtain its average of about of food each day. For an animal of its size, for the most part, its preferred foods lie unusually relatively low in the food chain, including zooplankton and small fish. The whale's diet preferences has been determined from stomach analyses, direct observation of feeding behavior, and analyzing fecal matter collected near them, which appears as a dilute brown cloud. The feces are collected in nets and DNA is separated, individually identified, and matched with known species. The whale competes for food against clupeid fish (herring and its relatives), basking sharks, and right whales. In the North Atlantic, it feeds primarily on calanoid copepods, specifically Calanus finmarchicus, with a secondary preference for euphausiids, in particular Meganyctiphanes norvegica and Thysanoessa inermis. In the North Pacific, it feeds on similar zooplankton, including the copepod species Neocalanus cristatus, N. plumchrus, and Calanus pacificus, and euphausiid species Euphausia pacifica, E. similis, Thysanoessa inermis, T. longipes, T. gregaria and T. spinifera. In addition, it eats larger organisms, such as the Japanese flying squid, Todarodes pacificus pacificus, and small fish, including anchovies (Engraulis japonicus and E. mordax), sardines (Sardinops sagax), Pacific saury (Cololabis saira), mackerel (Scomber japonicus and S. australasicus), jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus) and juvenile rockfish (Sebastes jordani). Some of these fish are commercially important. Off central California, they mainly feed on anchovies between June and August, and on krill (Euphausia pacifica) during September and October. In the Southern Hemisphere, prey species include the copepods Neocalanus tonsus, Calanus simillimus, and Drepanopus pectinatus, as well as the euphausiids Euphausia superba and Euphausia vallentini and the pelagic amphipod Themisto gaudichaudii. Parasites and epibiotics Ectoparasites and epibiotics are rare on sei whales. Species of the parasitic copepod Pennella were only found on 8% of sei whales caught off California and 4% of those taken off South Georgia and South Africa. The pseudo-stalked barnacle Xenobalanus globicipitis was found on 9% of individuals caught off California; it was also found on a sei whale taken off South Africa. The acorn barnacle Coronula reginae and the stalked barnacle Conchoderma virgatum were each only found on 0.4% of whales caught off California. Remora australis were rarely found on sei whales off California (only 0.8%). They often bear scars from the bites of cookiecutter sharks, with 100% of individuals sampled off California, South Africa, and South Georgia having them; these scars have also been found on sei whales captured off Finnmark. Diatom (Cocconeis ceticola) films on sei whales are rare, having been found on sei whales taken off California and South Georgia. Due to their diverse diet, endoparasites are frequent and abundant in sei whales. The harpacticoid copepod Balaenophilus unisetus infests the baleen of sei whales caught off California, South Georgia, South Africa, and Finnmark. The ciliate protozoan Haematophagus was commonly found in the baleen of sei whales taken off South Georgia (nearly 85%). They often carry heavy infestations of acanthocephalans (e.g. Bolbosoma turbinella, which was found in 40% of sei whales sampled off California; it was also found in individuals off South Georgia and Finnmark) and cestodes (e.g. Tetrabothrius affinis, found in sei whales off California and South Georgia) in the intestine, nematodes in the kidneys (Crassicauda sp., California) and stomach (Anisakis simplex, nearly 60% of whales taken off California), and flukes (Lecithodesmus spinosus, found in 38% of individuals caught off California) in the liver. Reproduction Mating occurs in temperate, subtropical seas during the winter. Gestation is estimated to vary around 10 months, 11 months, or one year, depending which model of foetal growth is used. The different estimates result from scientists' inability to observe an entire pregnancy; most reproductive data for baleen whales were obtained from animals caught by commercial whalers, which offer only single snapshots of fetal growth. Researchers attempt to extrapolate conception dates by comparing fetus size and characteristics with newborns. A newborn is weaned from its mother at 6–9 months of age, when it is long, so weaning takes place at the summer or autumn feeding grounds. Females reproduce every 2–3 years, usually to a single calf. In the Northern Hemisphere, males are usually and females at sexual maturity, while in the Southern Hemisphere, males average and females . The average age of sexual maturity of both sexes is 8–10 years. The whales can reach ages up to 65 years. Vocalizations The sei whale makes long, loud, low-frequency sounds. Relatively little is known about specific calls, but in 2003, observers noted sei whale calls in addition to sounds that could be described as "growls" or "whooshes" off the coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. Many calls consisted of multiple parts at different frequencies. This combination distinguishes their calls from those of other whales. Most calls lasted about a half second, and occurred in the 240–625 hertz range, well within the range of human hearing. The maximum volume of the vocal sequences is reported as 156 decibels relative to 1 micropascal (μPa) at a reference distance of one metre. An observer situated one metre from a vocalizing whale would perceive a volume roughly equivalent to the volume of a jackhammer operating two metres away. In November 2002, scientists recorded calls in the presence of sei whales off Maui. All the calls were downswept tonal calls, all but two ranging from a mean high frequency of 39.1 Hz down to 21 Hz of 1.3 second duration – the two higher frequency downswept calls ranged from an average of 100.3 Hz to 44.6 Hz over 1 second of duration. These calls closely resembled and coincided with a peak in "20- to 35-Hz irregular repetition interval" downswept pulses described from seafloor recordings off Oahu, which had previously been attributed to fin whales. Between 2005 and 2007, low frequency downswept vocalizations were recorded in the Great South Channel, east of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, which were only significantly associated with the presence of sei whales. These calls averaged 82.3 Hz down to 34 Hz over about 1.4 seconds in duration. This call has also been reported from recordings in the Gulf of Maine, New England shelf waters, the mid-Atlantic Bight, and in Davis Strait. It likely functions as a contact call. BBC News quoted Roddy Morrison, a former whaler active in South Georgia, as saying, "When we killed the sei whales, they used to make a noise, like a crying noise. They seemed so friendly, and they'd come round and they'd make a noise, and when you hit them, they cried really. I didn't think it was really nice to do that. Everybody talked about it at the time I suppose, but it was money. At the end of the day that's what counted at the time. That's what we were there for." Range and migration Sei whales live in all oceans, although rarely in polar or tropical waters. The difficulty of distinguishing them at sea from their close relatives, Bryde's whales and in some cases from fin whales, creates confusion about their range and population, especially in warmer waters where Bryde's whales are most common. In the North Atlantic, its range extends from southern Europe or northwestern Africa to Norway, and from the southern United States to Greenland. The southernmost confirmed records are strandings along the northern Gulf of Mexico and in the Greater Antilles. Throughout its range, the whale tends not to frequent semienclosed bodies of water, such as the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, Hudson Bay, the North Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea. It occurs predominantly in deep water, occurring most commonly over the continental slope, in basins situated between banks, or submarine canyon areas. In the North Pacific, it ranges from 20°N to 23°N latitude in the winter, and from 35°N to 50°N latitude in the summer. Approximately 75% of the North Pacific population lives east of the International Date Line, but there is little information regarding the North Pacific distribution. , the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service estimated that the eastern North Pacific population stood at 374 whales. Two whales tagged in deep waters off California were later recaptured off Washington and British Columbia, revealing a possible link between these areas, but the lack of other tag recovery data makes these two cases inconclusive. Occurrences within the Gulf of California have been fewer. In Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsk, whales are not common, although whales were more commonly seen than today in southern part of Sea of Japan from Korean Peninsula to the southern Primorsky Krai in the past, and there had been a sighting in Golden Horn Bay, and whales were much more abundant in the triangle area around Kunashir Island in whaling days, making the area well known as sei – ground, and there had been a sighting of a cow calf pair off the Sea of Japan coast of mid-Honshu during cetacean survey. Sei whales have been recorded from northern Indian Ocean as well such as around Sri Lanka and Indian coasts. In the Southern Hemisphere, summer distribution based upon historic catch data is between 40°S and 50°S latitude in the South Atlantic and southern Indian Oceans and 45°S and 60°S in the South Pacific, while winter distribution is poorly known, with former winter whaling grounds being located off northeastern Brazil (7°S) and Peru (6°S). The majority of the "sei" whales caught off Angola and Congo, as well as other nearby areas in equatorial West Africa, are thought to have been predominantly misidentified Bryde's whales. For example, Ruud (1952) found that 42 of the "sei whale" catch off Gabon in 1952 were actually Bryde's whales, based on examination of their baleen plates. The only confirmed historical record is the capture of a female, which was brought to the Cap Lopez whaling station in Gabon in September 1950. During cetacean sighting surveys off Angola between 2003 and 2006, only a single confirmed sighting of two individuals was made in August 2004, compared to 19 sightings of Bryde's whales. Sei whales are commonly distributed along west to southern Latin America including along entire Chilean coasts, within Beagle Channel and possibly feed in the Aysen region. The Falkland Islands appears to be a regionally important area for the Sei Whale, as a small population exists in coastal waters off the eastern Falkland archipelago. For reasons unknown, the whales prefer to stay inland here, even venturing into large bays. This provides scientists with a rare opportunity to study this normally pelagic species without having to travel far out into the ocean. Migration In general, the sei whale migrates annually from cool and subpolar waters in summer to temperate and subtropical waters for winter, where food is more abundant. In the northwest Atlantic, sightings and catch records suggest the whales move north along the shelf edge to arrive in the areas of Georges Bank, Northeast Channel, and Browns Bank by mid- to late June. They are present off the south coast of Newfoundland in August and September, and a southbound migration begins moving west and south along the Nova Scotian shelf from mid-September to mid-November. Whales in the Labrador Sea as early as the first week of June may move farther northward to waters southwest of Greenland later in the summer. In the northeast Atlantic, the sei whale winters as far south as West Africa such as off Bay of Arguin, off coastal Western Sahara and follows the continental slope northward in spring. Large females lead the northward migration and reach the Denmark Strait earlier and more reliably than other sexes and classes, arriving in mid-July and remaining through mid-September. In some years, males and younger females remain at lower latitudes during the summer. Despite knowing some general migration patterns, exact routes are incompletely known and scientists cannot readily predict exactly where groups will appear from one year to the next. F.O. Kapel noted a correlation between appearances west of Greenland and the incursion of relatively warm waters from the Irminger Current into that area. Some evidence from tagging data indicates individuals return off the coast of Iceland on an annual basis. An individual satellite-tagged off Faial, in the Azores, traveled more than to the Labrador Sea via the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone (CGFZ) between April and June 2005. It appeared to "hitch a ride" on prevailing currents, with erratic movements indicative of feeding behavior in five areas, in particular the CGFZ, an area of known high sei whale abundance as well as high copepod concentrations. Seven whales tagged off Faial and Pico from May to June in 2008 and 2009 made their way to the Labrador Sea, while an eighth individual tagged in September 2009 headed southeast – its signal was lost between Madeira and the Canary Islands. Whaling The development of explosive harpoons and steam-powered whaling ships in the late nineteenth century brought previously unobtainable large whales within reach of commercial whalers. Initially their speed and elusiveness, and later the comparatively small yield of oil and meat partially protected them. Once stocks of more profitable right whales, blue whales, fin whales, and humpback whales became depleted, sei whales were hunted in earnest, particularly from 1950 to 1980. North Atlantic In the North Atlantic between 1885 and 1984, 14,295 sei whales were taken. They were hunted in large numbers off the coasts of Norway and Scotland beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and in 1885 alone, more than 700 were caught off Finnmark. Their meat was a popular Norwegian food. The meat's value made the hunting of this difficult-to-catch species profitable in the early twentieth century. In Iceland, a total of 2,574 whales were taken from the Hvalfjörður whaling station between 1948 and 1985. Since the late 1960s to early 1970s, the sei whale has been second only to the fin whale as the preferred target of Icelandic whalers, with meat in greater demand than whale oil, the prior target. Small numbers were taken off the Iberian Peninsula, beginning in the 1920s by Spanish whalers, off the Nova Scotian shelf in the late 1960s and early 1970s by Canadian whalers, and off the coast of West Greenland from the 1920s to the 1950s by Norwegian and Danish whalers. North Pacific In the North Pacific, the total reported catch by commercial whalers was 72,215 between 1910 and 1975; the majority were taken after 1947. Shore stations in Japan and Korea processed 300–600 each year between 1911 and 1955. In 1959, the Japanese catch peaked at 1,340. Heavy exploitation in the North Pacific began in the early 1960s, with catches averaging 3,643 per year from 1963 to 1974 (total 43,719; annual range 1,280–6,053). In 1971, after a decade of high catches, it became scarce in Japanese waters, ending commercial whaling in 1975. Off the coast of North America, sei whales were hunted off British Columbia from the late 1950s to the mid-1960s, when the number of whales captured dropped to around 14 per year. More than 2,000 were caught in British Columbian waters between 1962 and 1967. Between 1957 and 1971, California shore stations processed 386 whales. Commercial Sei whaling ended in the eastern North Pacific in 1971. Southern Hemisphere A total of 152,233 were taken in the Southern Hemisphere between 1910 and 1979. Whaling in southern oceans originally targeted humpback whales. By 1913, this species became rare, and the catch of fin and blue whales began to increase. As these species likewise became scarce, sei whale catches increased rapidly in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The catch peaked in 1964–65 at over 20,000 sei whales, but by 1976, this number had dropped to below 2,000 and commercial whaling for the species ended in 1977. Post-protection whaling Since the moratorium on commercial whaling, some sei whales have been taken by Icelandic and Japanese whalers under the IWC's scientific research programme. Iceland carried out four years of scientific whaling between 1986 and 1989, killing up to 40 sei whales a year. The research is conducted by the Institute of Cetacean Research (ICR) in Tokyo, a privately funded, nonprofit institution. The main focus of the research is to examine what they eat and to assess the competition between whales and fisheries. Dr. Seiji Ohsumi, Director General of the ICR, said, "It is estimated that whales consume 3 to 5 times the amount of marine resources as are caught for human consumption, so our whale research is providing valuable information required for improving the management of all our marine resources." He later added, "Sei whales are the second-most abundant species of whale in the western North Pacific, with an estimated population of over 28,000 animals. [It is] clearly not endangered." Conservation groups, such as the World Wildlife Fund, dispute the value of this research, claiming that sei whales feed primarily on squid and plankton which are not hunted by humans, and only rarely on fish. They say that the program is "nothing more than a plan designed to keep the whaling fleet in business, and the need to use whales as the scapegoat for overfishing by humans." At the 2001 meeting of the IWC Scientific Committee, 32 scientists submitted a document expressing their belief that the Japanese program lacked scientific rigor and would not meet minimum standards of academic review. In 2010, a Los Angeles exclusive Sushi restaurant confirmed to be serving sei whale meat was closed by its owners after a covert investigation and protests lead to prosecution by authorities for handling an endangered/protected species. Conservation status The sei whale did not have meaningful international protection until 1970, when the International Whaling Commission first set catch quotas for the North Pacific for individual species. Before quotas, there were no legal limits. Complete protection from commercial whaling in the North Pacific came in 1976. Quotas on sei whales in the North Atlantic began in 1977. Southern Hemisphere stocks were protected in 1979. Facing mounting evidence that several whale species were threatened with extinction, the IWC established a complete moratorium on commercial whaling beginning in 1986. In the late 1970s, some "pirate" whaling took place in the eastern North Atlantic. There is no direct evidence of illegal whaling in the North Pacific, although the acknowledged misreporting of whaling data by the Soviet Union means that catch data are not entirely reliable. The species remained listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2000, categorized as "endangered". Northern Hemisphere populations are listed as CITES Appendix II, indicating they are not immediately threatened with extinction, but may become so if they are not listed. Populations in the Southern Hemisphere are listed as CITES Appendix I, indicating they are threatened with extinction if trade is not halted. The sei whale is listed on both Appendix I and Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). It is listed on Appendix I as this species has been categorized as being in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of their range and CMS parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them and also on Appendix II as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements. Sei whale is covered by the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MOU) and the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (ASCOBAMS). The species is listed as endangered by the U.S. government National Marine Fisheries Service under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Population estimates The current population is estimated at 80,000, nearly a third of the prewhaling population. A 1991 study in the North Atlantic estimated only 4,000. Sei whales were said to have been scarce in the 1960s and early 1970s off northern Norway. One possible explanation for this disappearance is that the whales were overexploited. The drastic reduction in northeastern Atlantic copepod stocks during the late 1960s may be another culprit. Surveys in the Denmark Strait found 1,290 whales in 1987, and 1,590 whales in 1989. Nova Scotia's population estimates are between 1,393 and 2,248, with a minimum of 870. A 1977 study estimated Pacific Ocean totals of 9,110, based upon catch and CPUE data. Japanese interests claim this figure is outdated, and in 2002 claimed the western North Pacific population was over 28,000, a figure not accepted by the scientific community. In western Canadian waters, researchers with Fisheries and Oceans Canada observed five Seis together in the summer of 2017, the first such sighting in over 50 years. In California waters, there was only one confirmed and five possible sightings by 1991 to 1993 aerial and ship surveys, and there were no confirmed sightings off Oregon coasts such as Maumee Bay and Washington. Prior to commercial whaling, the North Pacific hosted an estimated 42,000. By the end of whaling, the population was down to between 7,260 and 12,620. In the Southern Hemisphere, population estimates range between 9,800 and 12,000, based upon catch history and CPUE. The IWC estimated 9,718 whales based upon survey data between 1978 and 1988. Prior to commercial whaling, there were an estimated 65,000. Mass deaths Mass death events for sei whales have been recorded for many years and evidence suggests endemic poisoning (red tide) causes may have caused mass deaths in prehistoric times. In June 2015, scientists flying over southern Chile counted 337 dead sei whales, in what is regarded as the largest mass beaching ever documented. The cause is not yet known; however, toxic algae blooms caused by unprecedented warming in the Pacific Ocean, known as the Blob, may be implicated. See also List of cetaceans Marine biology Pacific Islands Cetaceans Memorandum of Understanding HMS Daedalus (1826) References Further reading National Audubon Society Guide to Marine Mammals of the World, Reeves, Stewart, Clapham and Powell, 2002, Eds. C. Michael Hogan and C.J.Cleveland. Sei whale. Encyclopedia of Earth, National Council for Science and Environment; content partner Encyclopedia of Life Whales & Dolphins Guide to the Biology and Behaviour of Cetaceans, Maurizio Wurtz and Nadia Repetto. Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals, editors Perrin, Wursig and Thewissen, Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises, Carwardine (1995, reprinted 2000), External links US National Marine Fisheries Service Sei Whale web page ARKive – images and movies of the sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis) World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) – species profile for the Sei Whale Official website of the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area Voices in the Sea – Sounds of the Sei Whale Cetaceans of the Arctic Ocean Baleen whales Mammals of Japan Cetaceans of the Indian Ocean Cetaceans of the Atlantic Ocean Cetaceans of the Pacific Ocean Mammals described in 1828 ESA endangered species Endangered Fauna of China
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabataeans
Nabataeans
The Nabataeans or Nabateans (; Nabataean Aramaic: , , vocalized as ; Arabic: , , singular , ; compare ; ) were an ancient Arab people who inhabited northern Arabia and the southern Levant. Their settlements—most prominently the assumed capital city of Raqmu (present-day Petra, Jordan)—gave the name Nabatene () to the Arabian borderland that stretched from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. The Nabateans emerged as a distinct civilization and political entity between the 4th and 2nd centuries BCE, with their kingdom centered around a loosely controlled trading network that brought considerable wealth and influence across the ancient world. Described as fiercely independent by contemporary Greco-Roman accounts, the Nabataeans were annexed into the Roman Empire by Emperor Trajan in 106 CE. Nabataeans' individual culture, easily identified by their characteristic finely potted painted ceramics, was adopted into the larger Greco-Roman culture. They converted to Christianity during the Later Roman Era. Jane Taylor describes them as "one of the most gifted peoples of the ancient world". Name The original form of the name of the Nabataeans was , which is recorded in Babylonian Akkadian as , and was the "broken" plural form of the Arabic term , meaning "distinguished man." This name underwent two principal evolutions, with the omission of the glottal stop producing the form , and the replacement of by a voiced palatal approximant producing the form . The name of the Nabataeans is recorded in Akkadian sources as , , , , , , and . In Latin sources, the name of the Nabataeans was recorded as . Identity The Nabataeans were an Arab tribe who had come under significant Babylonian-Aramaean influence. Some scholars have identified the people named as in Neo-Assyrian Akkadian records and in the Hebrew Bible based on the similarity of their names with , which is the Arabic name of the Nabataeans. The scholar Israel Ephʿal has rejected this identification because of the use of a in the Akkadian and Hebrew forms while the Arabic form uses a , and because the former forms possess a which is absent from the Arabic form, as attested by to the discovery of a Taymanitic inscription in the Jabal Ġunaym which records the name of the as . The scholar Edward Lipiński has however refuted this rejection by demonstrating that these various forms of the name were derived from an original form , from which the glottal stop was replaced by a palatal approximant, hence producing the Akkadian and Hebrew forms and , while omission of the glottal stop produced the Arabic form . History Hellenistic period The first mention of the Nabataeans dates from 312/311 BCE, when they were attacked at Sela or perhaps at Petra without success by Antigonus I's officer Athenaeus in the course of the Third War of the Diadochi; at that time Hieronymus of Cardia, a Seleucid officer, mentioned the Nabataeans in a battle report. About 50 BCE, the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus cited Hieronymus in his report, and added the following: "Just as the Seleucids had tried to subdue them, so the Romans made several attempts to get their hands on that lucrative trade." They wrote a letter to Antigonus in Syriac letters, and Aramaic continued as the language of their coins and inscriptions when the tribe grew into a kingdom and profited by the decay of the Seleucids to extend its borders northward over the more fertile country east of the Jordan river. They occupied Hauran, and in about 85 BCE their king Aretas III became lord of Damascus and Coele-Syria. Nabataean Kingdom Petra was rapidly built in the 1st century BCE, and developed a population estimated at 20,000. The Nabataeans were allies of the first Hasmoneans in their struggles against the Seleucid monarchs. They then became rivals of the Judaean dynasty, and a chief element in the disorders that invited Pompey's intervention in Judea. According to popular historian Paul Johnson, many Nabataeans were forcefully converted to Judaism by Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus. It was this king who, after putting down a local rebellion, invaded and occupied the Nabataean towns of Moab and Gilead and imposed a tribute of an unknown amount. Obodas I knew that Alexander would attack, so was able to ambush Alexander's forces near Gaulane destroying the Judean army (90 BCE). The Roman military was not very successful in their campaigns against the Nabataeans. In 62 BCE, Marcus Aemilius Scaurus accepted a bribe of 300 talents to lift the siege of Petra, partly because of the difficult terrain and the fact that he had run out of supplies. Hyrcanus II, who was a friend of Aretas, was despatched by Scaurus to the King to buy peace. In so obtaining peace, King Aretas retained all his possessions, including Damascus, and became a Roman vassal. In 32 BCE, during King Malichus II's reign, Herod the Great, with the support of Cleopatra, started a war against Nabataea. The war began with Herod plundering Nabataea with a large cavalry force, and occupying Dium. After this defeat, the Nabataean forces regrouped near Canatha in Syria, but were attacked and routed. Cleopatra's general, Athenion, sent Canathans to the aid of the Nabataeans, and this force crushed Herod's army, which then fled to Ormiza. One year later, Herod's army overran Nabataea. After an earthquake in Judaea, the Nabateans rebelled and invaded Judea, but Herod at once crossed the Jordan river to Philadelphia (modern Amman) and both sides set up camp. The Nabataeans under Elthemus refused to give battle, so Herod forced the issue when he attacked their camp. A confused mass of Nabataeans gave battle but were defeated. Once they had retreated to their defences, Herod laid siege to the camp and over time some of the defenders surrendered. The remaining Nabataean forces offered 500 talents for peace, but this was rejected. Lacking water, the Nabataeans were forced out of their camp and battled but were defeated. Roman period An ally of the Roman Empire, the Nabataean kingdom flourished throughout the 1st century. Its power extended far into Arabia along the Red Sea to Yemen, and Petra was a cosmopolitan marketplace, though its commerce was diminished by the rise of the Eastern trade-route from Myos Hormos to Coptos on the Nile. Under the Pax Romana, the Nabataeans lost their warlike and nomadic habits and became a sober, acquisitive, orderly people, wholly intent on trade and agriculture. The kingdom was a bulwark between Rome and the wild hordes of the desert except in the time of Trajan, who reduced Petra and converted the Nabataean client state into the Roman province of Arabia Petraea. By the 3rd century, the Nabataeans had stopped writing in Aramaic and begun writing in Greek instead. By the 5th century they had converted to Christianity. The new Arab invaders, who soon pressed forward into their seats, found the remnants of the Nabataeans transformed into peasants. Their lands were divided between the new Qahtanite Arab tribal kingdoms of the Byzantine vassals, the Ghassanid Arabs, and the Himyarite vassals, the Kingdom of Kinda in North Arabia. The city of Petra was brought to the attention of Westerners by the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1812. Legacy The Nabataeans are mentioned under the name of in the Hebrew Bible, where they are often grouped with . The Roman author Pliny the Elder also listed the Nabataeans under the name of along with the (Qedarites) in his . Biblical The Nabateans appear in the Hebrew Bible as a tribe descended from Nəḇāyōṯ, the first son of Yīšmāʿēʾl, himself the son of ʾAḇrāhām and Hāgār, In the Bible, Yīšmāʿēʾl's eldest son Nəḇāyōṯ is given prominence due to the rule of primogeniture, with Yīšmāʿēʾl's second son Qēḏār also being given some level of prominence due to being the second-born son, making him the closest of Yīšmāʿēʾl's sons to the one standing for primogeniture. Islamic The tradition of claiming descent from Ibrāhīm's son ʾIsmāʿīl, called "genealogical Ishmaelism," was already present among some pre-Islamic Arabs, and, in Islamic sources, ʾIsmāʿīl is the eponymous ancestor of some of the Arab peoples of north-west Arabia, with prominence being accorded to his two eldest sons, Nābit () or Nabīt () (Biblical Nəḇāyōṯ) and Qaydar () or Qaydār ((; Biblical Qēḏār), who lived in eastern Transjordan, Sinai and the Ḥijāz, and whose descendant tribes were the most prominent ones among the twelve tribes of the Ishmaelites. According to Islamic tradition, the Islamic prophet Muhammad is believed to have been a descendant of ʾIsmāʿīl through either Nābit or Qaydār depending on the scholar. According to the scholar Irfan Shahîd, genealogical Ishmaelism was academically viewed with suspicion due to confusion in the Islamic period which led to ʾIsmāʿīl being considered as the ancestor of all Arabian tribes. According to Shahîd, genealogical Ishamelism in its original variant is instead more limited and applicable to only some Arab tribes. Culture Many examples of graffiti and inscriptions—largely of names and greetings—document the area of Nabataean culture, which extended as far north as the north end of the Dead Sea, and testify to widespread literacy; but except for a few letters no Nabataean literature has survived, nor was any noted in antiquity. Onomastic analysis has suggested that Nabataean culture may have had multiple influences. Classical references to the Nabataeans begin with Diodorus Siculus. They suggest that the Nabataeans' trade routes and the origins of their goods were regarded as trade secrets, and disguised in tales that should have strained outsiders' credulity. Diodorus Siculus (book II) described them as a strong tribe of some 10,000 warriors, preeminent among the nomads of Arabia, eschewing agriculture, fixed houses, and the use of wine, but adding to pastoral pursuits a profitable trade with the seaports in frankincense, myrrh and spices from Arabia Felix (today's Yemen), as well as a trade with Egypt in bitumen from the Dead Sea. Their arid country was their best safeguard, for the bottle-shaped cisterns for rain-water which they excavated in the rocky or clay-rich soil were carefully concealed from invaders. Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq's Kitab al-Tabikh, the earliest known Arabic cookbook, contains a recipe for fermented Nabatean water bread (). The yeast-leavened bread is made with a high quality wheat flour called samidh that is finely milled and free of bran and is baked in a tandoor. Language Historians such as Irfan Shahîd, Warwick Ball, Robert G. Hoyland, Michael C. A. Macdonald, and others believe Nabataeans spoke Arabic as their native language. John F. Healy states that "Nabataeans normally spoke a form of Arabic, while, like the Persians etc., they used Aramaic for formal purposes and especially for inscriptions." Proper names on their inscriptions suggest that they were ethnically Arabs who had come under Aramaic influence, and the Nabataeans had already some trace of Aramaic culture when they first appear in history. Some of the authors of Safaitic inscriptions identified themselves as Nabataeans. Religion The extent of Nabataean trade resulted in cross-cultural influences that reached as far as the Red Sea coast of southern Arabia. The gods worshiped at Petra were notably Dushara and Al-‘Uzzá. Dushara was the supreme deity of the Nabataean Arabs, and was the official god of the Nabataean Kingdom who enjoyed special royal patronage. His official position is reflected in multiple inscriptions that render him as "The god of our lord" (The King). The name Dushara is from the Arabic "Dhu ash-Shara": which simply means "the one of Shara", a mountain range south-east of Petra also known as Mount Seir. Therefore, from a Nabataean perspective, Dhushara was probably associated with the heavens. However, one theory which connects Dushara with the forest gives a different idea of the god. The eagle was one of the symbols of Dushara. It was widely used in Hegra as a source of protection for the tombs against thievery. Nabataean inscriptions from Hegra suggest that Dushara was linked either with the sun, or with Mercury, with which Ruda, another Arabian god, was identified. "His throne" was frequently mentioned in inscriptions, certain interpretations of the text consider it as a reference for Dhushara's wife, goddess Harisha. She was probably a solar deity. However, when the Romans annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, Dushara still had an important role despite losing his former royal privilege. The greatest testimony to the status of the god after the fall of the Nabataean Kingdom was during the 1000th anniversary of the founding of Rome where Dushara was celebrated in Bostra by striking coins in his name, Actia Dusaria (linking the god with Augustus victory at Actium). He was venerated in his Arabian name with a Greek fashion in the reign of an Arabian emperor, Philip. Sacrifices of animals were common and Porphyry’s De Abstenentia reports that, in Dumat Al-Jandal, a boy was sacrificed annually and was buried underneath an altar. Some scholars have extrapolated this practice to the rest of the Nabataeans. The Nabataeans used to represent their gods as featureless pillars or blocks. Their most common monuments to the gods, commonly known as "god blocks", involved cutting away the whole top of a hill or cliff face so as to leave only a block behind. However, over time the Nabataeans were influenced by Greece and Rome and their Gods became anthropomorphic and were represented with human features. Language The Nabataeans spoke an Arabic dialect but, for their inscriptions, used a form of Aramaic that was heavily influenced by Arabic forms and words. When communicating with other Middle Eastern peoples, they, like their neighbors, used Aramaic, the region's lingua franca. Therefore, Aramaic was used for commercial and official purposes across the Nabataean political sphere. The Nabataean alphabet itself also developed out of the Aramaic alphabet, but it used a distinctive cursive script from which the Arabic alphabet emerged. There are different opinions concerning the development of the Arabic script. J. Starcky considers the Lakhmids' Syriac form script as a probable candidate. However, John F. Healey states that: "The Nabataean origin of the Arabic script is now almost universally accepted". In surviving Nabataean documents, Aramaic legal terms are followed by their equivalents in Arabic. That could suggest that the Nabataeans used Arabic in their legal proceedings but recorded them in Aramaic. The name may be derived from the same root as Akkadian nabatu, to shine brightly. Agriculture Although not as dry as at present, the area occupied by the Nabataeans was still a desert and required special techniques for agriculture. One was to contour an area of land into a shallow funnel and to plant a single fruit tree in the middle. Before the 'rainy season', which could easily consist of only one or two rain events, the area around the tree was broken up. When the rain came, all the water that collected in the funnel would flow down toward the fruit tree and sink into the ground. The ground, which was largely loess, would seal up when it got wet and retain the water. In the mid-1950s, a research team headed by Michael Evenari set up a research station near Avdat (Evenari, Shenan and Tadmor 1971). He focused on the relevance of runoff rainwater management in explaining the mechanism of the ancient agricultural features, such as terraced wadis, channels for collecting runoff rainwater, and the enigmatic phenomenon of "Tuleilat el-Anab". Evenari showed that the runoff rainwater collection systems concentrate water from an area that is five times larger than the area in which the water actually drains. Another study was conducted by Y. Kedar in 1957, which also focused on the mechanism of the agriculture systems, but he studied soil management, and claimed that the ancient agriculture systems were intended to increase the accumulation of loess in wadis and create an infrastructure for agricultural activity. This theory has also been explored by E. Mazor, of the Weizmann Institute of Science. Architects and stonemasons Apollodorus of Damascus - Greek-Nabataean architect and engineer from Damascus, Roman Syria, who flourished during the 2nd century CE. his massive architectural output gained him immense popularity during his time. He is one of the few architects whose name survives from antiquity, and is credited with introducing several Eastern innovations to the Roman Imperial style, such as making the dome a standard. Wahb'allahi - a first century stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra. Wahb'allahi was the brother of the stonemason 'Abdharetat and the father of 'Abd'obodat. He is named in an inscription as the responsible stonemason on the oldest datable grave in Hegra in the ninth year of the Nabataean king Aretas IV (1 BCE-CE). 'Abd'obodat son of Wahballahi - a 1st-century Nabatean Stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra. He is named by inscriptions on five of the grave facades typical of Hegra as the executing craftsman. On the basis of the inscriptions, four of the facades can be dated to the reigns of kings Aretas IV and Malichus II. 'Abd'obodat was evidently a successful craftsman. He succeeded his father Wahb'allahi and his uncle 'Abdharetat in at least one workshop in the second generation of Nabatean architects. 'Abd'obodat is considered to be the main representative of one of the two main schools of the Nabataean stonemasons, to which his father, his uncle belonged. Two more grave facades are assigned to the school on the basis of stylistic investigations; 'Abd'obodat is probably to be regarded as the stonemason who carried out the work. 'Aftah - a Nabatean stonemason who became prominent in the beginning of the third decade of the first century. 'Aftah is attested in inscriptions on eight of the grave facades in Hegra and one grave as the executing stonemason. The facades are dated to the late reign of King Aretas IV. On one of the facades he worked with Halaf'allahi, on another with Wahbu and Huru. A tenth facade without an inscription was attributed to the 'Aftah sculpture school due to technical and stylistic similarities. He is the main representative of one of the two stonemason schools in the city of Hegra. Halaf'allahi - Nabatean stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra in the first century. Halaf'allahi is named in inscriptions on two graves in Hegra as the responsible stonemason in the reign of the Nabataean king Aretas IV. The first grave, which can be dated to the year 26-27 CE, was created together with the stonemason 'Aftah. He is therefore assigned to the workshop of the 'Aftah. Nabataean architects and sculptors were in reality contractors, who negotiated the costs of specific tomb types and their decorations. Tombs were therefore executed based on the desires and financial abilities of their future owners. The activities of Halaf'allahi offer an excellent example of this, as he had been commissioned with the execution of a simple tomb for a person who apparently belonged to the lower middle class. However, he was also in charge of completing a more sophisticated tomb for one of the local military officials. Archeological sites Petra and Little Petra in Jordan Bosra in Syria Mada'in Saleh in northwest Saudi Arabia. Jabal al-Lawz in northwest Saudi Arabia. Shivta in the Negev Desert of Israel; disputed as a Nabataean precursor to a Byzantine colony. Avdat in the Negev Desert of Israel Mamshit in the Negev Desert of Israel Haluza in the Negev Desert of Israel Dahab in South Sinai, Egypt; an excavated Nabataean trading port. See also List of Nabataean kings Azd References Sources Healey, John F., The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus (Leiden, Brill, 2001) (Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, 136). "Nabat", Encyclopedia of Islam, Volume VII. External links Hecht Museum - Catalogues | The Nabateans in the Negev Hecht Museum - Exhibitions | The Nabateans in the Negev The Bulletin of Nabataean Studies online—links on Petra and the Nabataeans NABATÆANS in the Jewish Encyclopedia Cincinnati Art Museum—the only collection of ancient Nabataean art outside of Jordan Archaeological Studies—Ancient Desert Agriculture Systems Revived (ADASR) Petra: Lost City of Stone Exhibition—Canadian Museum of Civilization "Solving the Enigma of Petra and the Nabataeans", Biblical Archaeology Review Nabataeans a nation civilization—Petra Crown Quellen zur Geschichte der Nabatäer—Ursula Hackl, Hanna Jenni, and Christoph Schneider Ancient Arab peoples Tribes of Arabia Arab groups Arabs in the Roman Empire History of Saudi Arabia History of Palestine (region) Ancient history of Jordan Ancient Syria Ancient Israel and Judah Gilead
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chengdu%20J-7
Chengdu J-7
The Chengdu J-7 (Chinese: 歼-7; third generation export version F-7; NATO reporting name: Fishcan) is a People's Republic of China fighter aircraft. It is a license-built version of the Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21, and thus shares many similarities with the MiG-21. The aircraft is armed with short-range, infrared homing air-to-air missiles and mainly designed for short range air-to-air combat. The aircraft is also used for close air support. On 30 March 1962, the Soviet Union and China signed a technology transference arrangement pertaining to the MiG-21. Allegedly, while various kits, components, completed aircraft and associated documents were delivered to the Shenyang Aircraft Factory, the design documentation was incomplete, and Chinese designers made efforts to reverse engineer the aircraft. While the two aircraft are greatly similar, areas of difference include the hydraulic systems and internal fuel arrangements. During March 1964, domestic production of the J-7 reportedly commenced at the Shenyang Aircraft Factory, but due to various factors including the Cultural Revolution, mass production was only truly achieved during the 1980s. Numerous models of the J-7 were developed, featuring improvements in areas such as the armament, avionics, and wing design. The aircraft is principally operated by the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF), but numerous international operators have bought their own J-7s. Outside of China, the largest operator of the J-7 is the Pakistan Air Force. Later generation Chinese aircraft, such as the Shenyang J-8 interceptor, were developed with the lessons learned from the J-7 programme. Several nations, including Zimbabwe, Tanzania, and Sri Lanka, deployed the type in offensive roles. In 2013, production of the J-7 was terminated after the delivery of 16 F-7BGI to the Bangladesh Air Force. Newer fighter aircraft, such as the JF-17 Thunder multirole fighter, have succeeded it in the export market. To date, large numbers of J-7s remain in service with multiple export customers, with PLAAF set to retire the fleet in 2023. Design and development Background In the 1950s and early 1960s, the Soviet Union shared a large proportion of its conventional weapons technology with its neighbor, the People's Republic of China. One such example is the MiG-19, which was locally produced by China as the Shenyang J-6 from as early as 1958. During the same decade, the even more capable MiG-21 had been developed by the Soviets; this fighter, being inexpensive but fast, suited the strategy of forming large groups of 'people's fighters' to overcome the technological advantages of Western aircraft. However, the Sino-Soviet split abruptly ended initial cooperation efforts; between 28 July and 1 September 1960, the Soviet Union withdrew its advisers from China, resulting in the J-7 project coming to a halt in China. During February 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev unexpectedly wrote to Mao Zedong to inform him that the Soviet Union was willing to transfer MiG-21 technology to China, and he asked the Chinese to promptly send their representatives to the Soviet Union to discuss arrangements. The Chinese viewed this offer as a Soviet gesture to make peace, while suspicious, they were nonetheless eager to take up the Soviet offer of an aircraft deal. A delegation headed by General Liu Yalou, the commander-in-chief of the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) and himself a Soviet military academy graduate, was dispatched to Moscow immediately; the Chinese delegation was given three days to visit the MiG-21's production facility, which was previously off-limits to foreigners. The visit's authorization was personally given by Nikita Khrushchev, and on 30 March 1962, the technology transfer deal was signed. Establishing production However, given the state of political relations between the two countries, the Chinese were not optimistic about gaining the technology, and allegedly made preparations to reverse engineer the aircraft. Russian sources state that several complete MiG-21s were sent to China, flown by Soviet pilots, while MiG-21Fs in kit form was also sent along with parts and technical documents. As the Chinese had expected, following the delivery of kits, parts and documents to Shenyang Aircraft Factory five months after the deal was signed, it was discovered that some technical documents provided by the Soviets were incomplete and that several parts could not be used. China set about to engineer the aircraft for local production; in doing so, they successfully solved 249 major issues and reproduced eight major technical documents that were not provided by the Soviet Union. One of the major flaws was with the hydraulic systems, which grounded up to 70% of some squadron's aircraft until upgrades were made. Another major modification was to the fuel storage, increasing the aircraft's stability. The MiG-21 carries most of its fuel in the forward fuselage, causing the center of gravity to shift and become unstable after about 45 minutes of operation. The J-7 has redesigned fuel tanks and significantly larger drop tanks in order to maintain a more stable center of gravity, and therefore better Longitudinal static stability. The cockpit was also revised to replace the Soviet ejection seat, which was deemed to be unacceptable. The forward opening canopy was replaced by a standard rear-hinged canopy, which was jettisoned prior to ejection. The re-engineering effort was largely successful, as the Chinese-built J-7 showed only minor differences in design and performance from the original MiG-21. During March 1964, domestic production of the J-7 reportedly commenced at the Shenyang Aircraft Factory. However, mass production efforts were severely hindered by an unexpected social and economic problem—the Cultural Revolution—that resulted in poor initial quality and slow progress. Achieving full domestic production had involved not only the local assembly of the aircraft itself, but the production of its various components and systems, including its turbojet powerplant. As a consequence, full-scale production of the J-7 was only truly achieved during the 1980s, by which time the original aircraft design was showing its age. By the 1980s, quantity production of the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon fighter was well underway in the United States; this relatively-affordable single-engined western fighter was considerably more agile than the J-7, even with the former carrying a greater payload. Further development In 1987, the J-7E was released, having a greatly improved wing, among other improvements. It was roughly 45% more maneuverable, and its takeoff and landing performance was greatly increased. It was also equipped with a helmet mounted sight, as well as being the first MiG-21 variant to be equipped with HOTAS and a multipurpose display. Many of the electronic components were British in origin, such as the gun sight and the multi purpose display. The aircraft is capable of using PL-8/Python 3 missiles with both the helmet mounted sight or the radar fire control, but the two are not connected. The pilot may use only one system at a time. In the mid 1980s, Pakistan requested an aircraft with greater radar capabilities. Both the standard radar and the British Marconi radar were plagued by ground clutter, but China did not have any experience with air to ground radar at the time. In 1984, Pakistan provided assistance by having their American-trained F-16 pilots provide training on proper ground attack radar operation, which enabled the Chinese to develop the J-7M. In the late 1980s, the J-7MP and J-7PG introduced significant upgrades to the radar system by converting to an Italian FIAR Grifo-7 radar, more than tripled the effective range of the radar, as well as greatly increased the maximum angle for target detection. The J-7 only reached its Soviet-designed capabilities in the mid 1980s. Being relatively affordable, it was widely exported as the F-7, often with Western systems incorporated, such as to Pakistan. There are over 20 different export variants of the J-7, some of which are equipped to use European weaponry, such as French R.550 Magic missiles. The Discovery Channel's Wings Over The Red Star series claims that the Chinese intercepted several Soviet MiG-21s en route to North Vietnam (during the Vietnam War), but these aircraft did not perform in a manner consistent with their original specifications, suggesting that the Chinese actually intercepted down-rated aircraft that were intended for export, rather than fully capable production aircraft. For this reason, the Chinese had to re-engineer the intercepted MiG-21 airframes in order to achieve their original capabilities. China later developed the Shenyang J-8 based both on the expertise gained by the program, and by utilizing the incomplete technical information acquired from the Soviet Ye-152 developmental jet. During May 2013, production of the J-7 was permanently terminated, bringing to a close a period of manufacturing stretching almost 50 years. At the China International Aviation & Aerospace Exhibition in 2018, a display showing the J-7 as an unmanned platform was shown. Operational history Africa Namibia During August 2005, Namibia ordered 12 F-7NMs for its air force; Chinese sources reported the delivery in November 2006. The model procured is believed to be a variation of the F-7PG acquired by Pakistan with Grifo MG radar. Nigeria In early 2008, Nigeria procured 12 F-7NI fighters and three FT-7NI trainers to replace its existing inventory of MiG-21 fighters. On September 20, 2018, two Nigerian F-7Ni aircraft crashed into Katamkpehir, Abuja, killing one pilot after a mid-air collision during a rehearsal of an aerial display for the 58th anniversary of Nigeria's independence. Sudan During the lengthy Second Sudanese Civil War, Sudan procured a number of F-7s. In November 1993, it was reported that Iran had allegedly financed Sudan's purchase of around 20 Chinese ground-attack aircraft, having pledged $17 million in financial aid to the Sudanese government and arranged for $300 million in Chinese arms to be delivered to the Sudanese Army. Tanzania The Tanzanian Air Force deployed its F-7As during the Uganda–Tanzania War against Uganda and Libya, fought between 1978 and 1979. Forming a major component of Tanzania's combat aircraft, the type facilitated the defeat of the nominally stronger Uganda Army Air Force during the air campaign. Zimbabwe Due to their very limited operational capabilities in the absence of ground support from radars, Zimbabwean F-7s were never used in combat operations during the Second Congo War. Their only deployment in the DR Congo took place in January 2001, when four aircraft were to participate in the burial ceremony for the assassinated president, Laurent-Désiré Kabila. During the journey from Zimbabwe to Kinshasa, one of them crashed, with its pilot ejecting safely. Moreover, on the return trip, two aircraft were damaged on landing, although both were repaired and returned to service. Europe Albania The deployment of F-7As near the country's northern border successfully checked Yugoslav incursions into Albanian airspace. East and Southeast Asia China Throughout the mid-1990s, the PLAAF began to replace its J-7B inventory with the substantially redesigned and improved J-7E variant. The wings of the J-7E have a new "double delta" design offering improved aerodynamics and increased fuel capacity, and the J-7E also features a more powerful engine and improved avionics. The newest version of the J-7, the J-7G, entered service with the PLAAF in 2003. The principal role of the J-7 in Chinese service is to provide local air defense and tactical air superiority. Large numbers are to be employed to deter enemy air operations. In June 2021, four J-7s participated in a combat drill conducted near Taiwan's air defense identification zone. The decommissioning of the J-7 began in 2018, with the whole fleet set to retire in 2023. According to the US Air Force China Aerospace Studies Institute, the retirement of J-7 marked the PLAAF's transition to a fleet composed of only fourth-generation and fifth-generation aircraft. According to the Chinese media, PLAAF also considered turning J-7 into drones for training tools and aerial decoys. Myanmar During the 1990s, Myanmar reportedly established four squadrons of F-7s, which have been primarily used for air defense duties. Technical difficulties have reportedly plagued the fleet early on, and their ground-attack performance was not deemed sufficient. Since then, Myanmar has improved the F-7 fleet's capabilities via a modernisation programme. A series of upgrades were allegedly performed by a combination of Chinese and Israeli enterprises; although confirmed details on the arrangements have remained sparse, changes reportedly include the adoption of various Israeli-built missiles. Middle East Iran During the 1980s, Iran procured a number of F-7s, despite Chinese officials issuing denials of directly supplying military equipment to the country at that time. Despite its use as a frontline fighter, the type has not been involved in any known combat actions. By the 21st century, it was largely relegated to use as a trainer aircraft. The F-7 has also been used as a flying test bed for various indigenous technologies. In the recent years, maintaining the fleet's operational status has reportedly become difficult. This is caused by the limited availability of spare parts, despite efforts by domestic industries to fill in, but also by the age of the airframes, which have accumulated excessive numbers of flight hours. Iranian F-7s have featured in several movies, often portraying Iraqi MiG-21s during the Iran–Iraq War. One tells the story of an Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force strike on the Iraqi nuclear reactor at Osirak on 30 September 1980. Another one, "Attack on H3", tells the story of the 810 km-deep raid against Iraqi Air Force airfields on 4 April 1981, and other movies depicting the air combat in 1981 that resulted in the downing of around 70 Iraqi aircraft. Iraq Iraqi F-7Bs were never used in combat, but only as advanced trainers. South Asia Bangladesh The Bangladeshi Air Force currently operates FT-7MB Airguards, and F-7BG and F-7BGI interceptors. The 16 F-7BGIs of the Bangladesh Air Force entered service in 2013. The F-7BGI is one of the most advanced variants, and the last production model of the F-7/J-7 family. Pakistan Pakistan has been the largest non-Chinese operator of the F-7, having procured around 120 F-7P and 60 F-7PG to equip the Pakistan Air Force. During the 1980s, seeking to increase the effectiveness of its F-7 fleet, Pakistan engaged in Project Sabre II, a design study involving both China and the US aircraft manufacturer Grumman, aimed at redesigning and upgrading the F-7; however, by 1989, this effort was abandoned largely as a consequence of economic sanctions having been imposed by the US. That same year, China and Grumman started a new design study to develop the Super 7, another redesign of the F-7. Grumman left the project when sanctions were placed on China following the political fallout from the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. During 1991, another initiative was launched; originally known as the Fighter China project, this would eventually result in the JF-17 Thunder multirole fighter. Pakistan has long planned to replace its entire F-7 fleet, along with various other fighters in its inventory, with JF-17s, which was principally developed in order to satisfy a requirement issued by the Pakistan Air Force for an affordable and modern combat aircraft. Sri Lanka In 1991, the Sri Lanka Air Force (SLAF) was looking for a jet attack aircraft to provide fast close air support to its army. With western countries refusing to sell attack aircraft, the Government of Sri Lanka approached China for the purchase of several Nanchang Q-5s, which had the range and payload capacity needed by the SLAF, and was already used by Pakistan and Bangladesh. Due to pressure from the west, China agreed to sell a small number of F-7BS fighters which allowed the SLAF to restore its capabilities that were lost a decade back. Due to the type's comparative lack of endurance and payload, the SLAF has periodically used its F-7s for pilot training purposes. Early in 2008, the air force received six more advanced F-7Gs, to use primarily as interceptors. All of the F-7Gs, F-7BS' and FT-7s are flown by the No 5 Jet Squadron. The SLAF has repeatedly deployed its F-7BS to conduct ground-attack missions against the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). Sri Lankan officials reported that on 9 September 2008, three F-7s were scrambled after two rebel-flown Zlín-143s were detected by a ground radar. Two F-7s were sent to bomb two rebel airstrips in the Mullaitivu and Kilinochchi areas, while the third reportedly intercepted one Zlín-143. According to the Sri Lankan government, the rebel-flown aircraft was shot down by the chasing F-7G using an air-to-air missile, as it was returning to Mullaitivu after a bombing run against Vavuniya Airport. Variants Operators Current Bangladesh Air Force: 20 aircraft delivered between 1989 and 1990, with an additional 20 aircraft delivered between 1999 and 2006. 16 F-7BGI delivered between 2012 and 2013. 36 F-7 fighters and 11 FT-7 trainers listed as active in 2022 People's Liberation Army Air Force: 290 × J-7 plus 40× J-7 trainers remained in service (). 387 F-7s and 35 JJ-7s active as of 2022. People's Liberation Army Naval Air Force: 30× J-7D/E remained in service (). 30 J-7s remain in service as of 2022. Egyptian Air Force: 74 × F-7 in service. Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force: 17 F-7s and 1 FT-7 in service as of 2022. Myanmar Air Force: 62 aircraft were received between 1990 and 1999. 24 × F-7M and 6 × FT-7 trainers remained in service (). Namibian Air Force: 6 × F-7NM and 2 × FT-7NM in active service. A total of 12 F/FT-7NM aircraft were delivered between 2006 and 2008. Nigerian Air Force: 12 × F-7 and 2 × FT-7. North Korean Air Force: , 180 × F-7 remained in service. However, reports of dire levels of serviceability suggest an airworthiness rate of less than 50%. Pakistan Air Force: , 48 × F7-PG (out of the original 60) plus 6 × FT-7 remained in service. Last few F7P retired from CCS Dashings squadron in 2021. 53 F-7PG still in service. No. 19 Squadron Sherdils – Operated F-7P/FT-7P from 1990 until April 2014. Replaced by F-16A/B Block 15 ADF. CCS Dashings – Operated F-7P from 1992 until 2021. Replaced by JF-17 Block 1. Sri Lankan Air Force: , 5 × F-7GS/BS and 1 × FT-7 trainer remained in service. Tanzanian Air Force: Originally having had 11 × F-7 in service, Tanzania replaced them with 12 new J-7's (single-seat) under the designation J-7G and 2 dual-seat aircraft designated F-7TN in 2011. Originally ordered in 2009, the deliveries were completed and the aircraft are now fully operational at the air bases in Dar es Salaam and Mwanza. The new aircraft are equipped with a KLJ-6E Falcon radar, thought to be developed from the Selex Galileo Grifo 7 radar. The J-7G's primary weapon is the Chinese PL-7A short-range infrared air-to-air missile. Air Force of Zimbabwe: 12 x F-7II/IIN and 2 x FT-7BZ delivered. , 7 × F-7 remained in service. Former Albanian Air Force: Total 12 F-7A in service from 1969 through 2004, now retired. Iraqi Air Force: 100 × F-7B, retired after the 2003 invasion of Iraq United States Air Force (Foreign Technology Evaluation: MiG-21F-13) Specifications (J-7MG) Accidents and incidents On April 8, 2008, Squadron Leader Morshed Hasan died when F-7 of Bangladesh Air Force (BAF) crashed in Ghatail upazila of Tangail.The pilot ejected from the aircraft but was critically injured when its parachute malfunctioned. He died at Combined Military Hospital (CMH) in Dhaka after he had been rescued from the scene. On May 6, 2010, a Chinese PLAAF J-7 crashed due to engine failure near Jinan, China. On April 13, 2011, a Chinese PLAAF J-7 crashed near Liu Jiang County and Xin Cheng County, Liu Zhou City during a training flight. On December 4, 2012, a Chinese PLAAF J-7 crashed into a residential building in Shantou, Guangdong province. 4 civilians were injured as a result of the crash. On June 29, 2015, Flight Lieutenant Tahmid went missing when F-7MB of Bangladesh Air Force (BAF) crashed into Bay of Bengal. The Aircraft took off around 10:27am from the Johurul Haque air base, lost contact with the control room around 11:10am which later crashed in the Bay of Bengal in Patenga around 11:30am. On 24 November 2015, flying officer Marium Mukhtiar – the first female fighter pilot in the Pakistan Air Force (PAF), died when a twin-seat FT-7PG crashed at PAF Base M.M. Alam near Kundian in Punjab province on a training mission. Both pilots ejected, but she succumbed to injuries received on landing. She was occupying the rear seat for Instrument Flight Rules training. On November 23, 2018, Wing Commander Arif Ahmed Dipu died when F-7BG of Bangladesh Air Force (BAF) crashed in Tangail's Madhupur upazila on a training mission. The fuel tanker of the aircraft reportedly caught fire once it used weaponry in the sky, leading the pilot to eject in low altitude. On 7 January 2020, Pakistan Air Force (PAF) F-7 crashed while on a routine operational training mission near Mianwali. Both pilots lost their lives in the crash. On 24 May 2022, 2 Iranian pilots were killed when their F7 crashed near Anarak, 200 km (124 miles) east of the city of Isfahan. On 9 June 2022, a PLAAF J-7 crashed in a residential area in Hubei, China, destroying several houses and killing at least one person on the ground. The pilot ejected with minor injuries. See also References Citations Bibliography Gordon, Yefim and Dmitry Komissarov. Chinese Aircraft: China's Aviation Industry since 1951. Manchester, UK: Hikoki Publications, 2008. . Jackson, Paul. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 2003–2004. Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Information Group, 2003. . Medeiros, Evan S., Roger Cliff, Keith Crane and James C. Mulvenon. A New Direction for China's Defense Industry. Rand Corporation, 2005. . "World Air Forces". Flight International, 14–20 December 2010. pp. 26–53. External links F-7 Fighter Family FT-7/JJ-7 Trainer Technical Data from MiG-21.de Sino Defense Today J-7 JJ-7 1960s Chinese fighter aircraft JJ-07 Single-engined jet aircraft China–Soviet Union relations Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 Aircraft first flown in 1966 Mid-wing aircraft Second-generation jet fighters
377549
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic%20Alliance%20for%20the%20Betterment%20and%20Progress%20of%20Hong%20Kong
Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong
The Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong (DAB) is a pro-Beijing conservative political party in Hong Kong. Chaired by Gary Chan and holding 13 Legislative Council seats, it is currently the largest party in the legislature and in terms of membership, far ahead of other parties. It has been a key supporting force to the SAR administration and the central government's policies on Hong Kong. The party was established in 1992 as the "Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong" by a group of traditional Beijing loyalists who pledged allegiance to the Chinese Communist Party. As the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong was approaching, the party actively participated in elections in the last years of the colonial rule and became one of the major party and the ally to the government in the early post-handover era. The DAB took a major blow in the 2003 District Council election due to the unpopular Tung Chee-hwa administration and the proposed legislation of the Article 23 of the Basic Law. However, the party still managed to recover its loss in the following decades, further expanded its electoral base and membership and absorbed the pro-business Hong Kong Progressive Alliance in 2005, becoming the a dominant force in Hong Kong politics. The party received electoral successes in the 2007 and 2011 District Council elections, winning 136 local elected offices at its peak, and won 13 seats in the 2012 Legislative Council election thanks to its effective electoral strategy. In the 2019 District Council election, however, the party received a significant loss of four-fifth of its seats the midst of the widespread anti-government protests. History Founding and the reunification (1992–1998) The Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong was founded as part of a wave of political party formations as Hong Kong approached its handover to China and amid electoral reform initiated by Governor Chris Patten. The 1991 Legislative Council election, which saw the defeat of all pro-Beijing candidates, was a catalyst to the forming of the DAB. In January 1992, director of the Hong Kong and Macau Affairs Office Lu Ping publicly encouraged the organisation of pro-Beijing political parties for the 1995 elections. Politicians from the Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions (FTU) and other pro-Beijing organisations including the Hong Kong Federation of Education Workers (FEW) formed the DAB on 10 July 1992, with Tsang Yok-sing as the party's first chairperson. The DAB was the first major pro-Beijing party as a part of the "United Front" on the eve of the handover of Hong Kong. Compared with other pro-Beijing parties in Hong Kong, the DAB was more grassroots-oriented. The 56 founding members of the DAB held political views that were sympathetic towards China and emphasised friendly Sino-Hong Kong relations. At the time of founding, many of them held political positions associated with the Chinese government or pro-Beijing groups in Hong Kong. Chairman Tsang Yok-sing was a delegate to Guangdong Province People's Political Consultative Conference, vice-chairman Tam Yiu-chung and Chan Yuen-han were executive members of the pro-Beijing trade union FTU, and secretary Cheng Kai-nam was appointed by the Chinese government as the Hong Kong Affairs Advisor. Political scientist Sonny Lo Shiu-hing notes that early DAB members are also "pro-Hong Kong" in the sense that they advocate for the interests of Hong Kong and lobby Chinese officials. The DAB became the direct rival to the major pro-democracy party United Democrats of Hong Kong and its successor Democratic Party, which was formed in 1994. The DAB first fielded a candidate in the 1993 Regional Council by-election and lost. In the following year, the DAB participated in the 1994 District Board elections, where 37 of its 83 candidates were elected. In 1995, it participated in the municipal elections, winning eight directly elected and two indirectly elected seats. Major leaders of the DAB participated in the 1995 Legislative Council election. It was regarded as test cases of the popularity of the new party. Three of the four party leaders were defeated by pro-democracy candidates in the election, including party chairman Tsang Yok-sing who lost to Liu Sing-lee of the Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood (ADPL) in the Kowloon Central constituency. The DAB took part in the preparation for establishing the Special Administrative Region on the eve of the handover of Hong Kong. In January 1996, Tsang Yok-sing, Tam Yiu-chung, Ng Hong-mun and Lee Cho-jat were appointed to the Preparatory Committee. It had 46 members elected to the Beijing-controlled Selection Committee in November 1996. In the following month, the Selection Committee elected 10 DAB members to the Provisional Legislative Council (PLC). The DAB and the Hong Kong Progressive Alliance (HKPA), another pro-Beijing party, allied with each other in the crucial Provisional Legislative Council debate on the substantial arrangements for the 1998 LegCo elections. This move was tacitly endorsed by the Heung Yee Kuk, and heralded as the unofficial merger of the parties. The Provisional Legislative Council, which was controlled by the pro-Beijing camp, vetoed the democratic reform introduced by the last British governor Chris Patten and replaced the first-past-the-post with the proportional representation method in the Legislative Council elections, so that the weaker DAB would be able to exploit the benefit of the proportional representation by taking a seat in every geographical constituency without having a majority of the votes. After the SAR was established, Tam Yiu-chung and was also appointed to the Executive Council by Chief Executive Tung Chee-hwa as the representative of the party. Early Tung Chee-hwa administration and Article 23 setback (1998–2003) The DAB's electoral campaigns have been largely assisted by Beijing and its united front organs. The Liaison Office would mobilise various social groups and organisations to campaign for and to vote for the party, including employees of PRC state-owned companies and grassroots organisations such as the New Territories Association of Societies (NTAS) and the Kowloon Federation of Associations (KFA). The DAB's sister organisation FTU also mobilised its workers to campaign for the DAB members. The FTU also sent a recommendation letter to its four hundred thousand members to seek support for DAB candidates. In the 1998 LegCo election, the DAB took five directly elected seats with a quarter of the popular vote, compared to only two seats with 15% of the votes in the 1995 elections. According to Karl Ho, the change from a candidate-based system to an electoral list proportional representation system benefitted the DAB. In December 1998, the party's 5th Central Committee decided to increase a Vice-Chairmanship, Ip Kwok-him and Cheng Kai-nam were subsequently elected as vice-chairmen. In the first District Council elections in November 1999, the party filled in 176 candidates, 83 of which were elected, more than double compared to the 1994 elections. In the second SAR LegCo elections in September 2000, despite the conflict of interests scandal of Cheng Kai-nam, the DAB became a clear winner, capturing 11 seats in total, 7 in geographical constituency direct elections, 3 in functional constituencies and 1 Election Committee constituency. Although Cheng Kai-nam was elected, he soon resigned his party posts and LegCo seat under public pressure. After DAB candidate Christopher Chung Shu-kun losing to pro-democracy Independent Audrey Eu in the 10 December Hong Kong Island by-election, the DAB commanded 10 LegCo seats by the end of 2000. In July 2002 the beginning of the second term of Tung Chee-hwa's administration, Chairman Tsang Yok-sing was appointed to the Executive Council under the Principal Officials Accountability System (POAS), succeeding Tam Yiu-chung. However the governing coalition between Tung Chee-hwa the DAB and the pro-business Liberal Party suffered from growing disunity as the popularity of Tung administration dropped. Although it continued provide stable support to the government as Beijing's demand, it paid a hefty political price in the sense of increasing middle-class disaffection with the party and growing rank-and file complaint. The DAB was increasingly frustrated by unequal political exchange with the government and the skimpy political rewards meted out by Tung. Tsang Yok-sing even openly aired his displeasure and advocated power sharing with the government. In the wake of the controversies over the legislation of Article 23 of the Basic Law, which outlaws treason, sedition, subversion and secession against the central government, the image of DAB was severely undermined by its unconditional support and defence of the legislation. The November 2003 District Councils elections saw the worst electoral performance in party's history, only 62 of the 206 candidates were elected. The party vice-chairman and LegCo member Ip Kwok-him was defeated in his own power base and long-time headquarter Kwun Lung by the pro-democracy The Frontier member and LegCo member Cyd Ho Sau-lan by a narrow margin of 64 votes. The election results led to the resignation of chairman Tsang Yok-sing. Tsang claimed that the electoral setback was due to the DAB's "Tung loyalist" public image. In December the party's Standing Committee elected Ma Lik as Tsang's successor. Late 2000s expansion and electoral victories (2004–2012) The 2004 LegCo electoral campaign unfolded amid an economic rebound partly engineered by Beijing's up-lifting measures. The PRC athletes' impressive gains in the August 2004 Athens Olympics and the 50 Chinese Gold Medalists' visit to Hong Kong right before the polling induced among the voters a strong nationalistic pride that was beneficial to DAB candidates. The DAB also managed to exploit the proportional representation to equalise votes for two of the candidates the party endorsed standing in the same constituency. Although support of Chan Yuen-han (FTU) was far higher than Chan Kam-lam (DAB) in Kowloon East, according to earlier polls, the two organisations managed to have both elected. At Hong Kong Island constituency, the ticket of Ma Lik and Choy So-yuk ultimately benefitted from a democratic camp mix-up that led to the resignation of the Democratic Party Chairman, Yeung Sum. The DAB become the largest political party in the Legislative Council to be represented with 12 seats (if including the two members ran under the FTU banner), with the pro-business Liberal Party coming second with 10 seats and the Democratic Party coming third with 9 seats. On 16 February 2005, the DAB merged with the Hong Kong Progressive Alliance, and was renamed as the Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong. The two parties were merged with new committees and leadership in May, Ma Lik was re-elected as chairman and Ip Kwok-him, Tam Yiu-chung, Maria Tam and Lau Kong-wah as vice-chairmen. Since the merge with the Progressive Alliance, the DAB has gradually leaned to a more pro-middle-class position. In April 2007 leadership election, solicitor Gregory So succeeded Maria Tam as the vice-chairman of the party. The four new Standing Committee members were all professionals; besides Gregory So, Cheung Kwok-kwan, the Chairman of the Young DAB was a solicitor, Starry Lee Wai-king was an accountant, Ben Chan Han-pan was an engineer. Meanwhile, the pro-labour and pro-grassroots FTU faction began to run in elections in their own banner. On 8 August 2007, Chairman Ma Lik died of cancer in Guangzhou. Tam Yiu-chung was elected as the new chairman by the Standing Committee on 28 August. The District Council Elections in 2007 saw the great bounce back of the DAB by winning 115 seats, more than a quarter of the seats in the district level, far ahead of other political parties. Gregory So resigned as the vice-chairman and was succeeded by Ann Chiang when he was appointed as the Under Secretary for Commerce and Economic Development by Chief Executive Donald Tsang in May 2008, among other DAB members appointed to the government. Gregory So was later revealed by the media as having Canadian citizenship, which he had to renounce as a result. The scandal became an electoral issue in the following 2008 LegCo Election that the pan-democracy camp used to attack the DAB candidates. Nevertheless, the DAB remained as the largest party in the Legislative Council in the election, winning 13 seats in total (if including the FTU candidates who had DAB membership). Chan Yuen-han and Wong Kwok-hing were founding members of the DAB and used to run for the DAB, they began to run under the FTU banner with more pro-labour position. In October, Tsang Yok-sing, the founding Chairman of the DAB, was elected as the President of the Legislative Council, becoming the first LegCo President with party membership. His seat at the Executive Council was succeeded by vice-chairman Lau Kong-wah. In the 2011 District Council Elections, the DAB recorded a greatest victory in party's history, accumulating 136 seats, about one-third of the total, more than all pro-democratic parties combined. Leung Chun-ying era (2012–2017) The DAB supported Leung Chun-ying in the 2012 Chief Executive election. In the Legislative Council elections in September, with the party's first use of the electoral tactics of splitting candidate lists, the DAB won three seats in the New Territories West for the first time and two seats Hong Kong Island since 2004. It continued as the largest political force supporting the SAR administration today. The DAB stood firmly with the government in the constitutional reform debate in 2014–15, and subsequently the massive Occupy protests against the 2014 NPCSC decision. On 17 April 2015, Starry Lee Wai-king became the first woman to chair the party, succeeding the outgoing Tam Yiu-chung. In the 2015 District Council election, the first election under Starry Lee's chairmanship, the DAB retained its largest party status by winning 119 seats (including two who also ran under FTU banner), although incumbent legislators Christopher Chung and Elizabeth Quat were ousted by newcomers. After the 2014 Occupy protests, there was an emerging pro-independence movement in which the DAB strongly opposed. In the 2016 New Territories East by-election, DAB member Holden Chow ran against the Civic Party's Alvin Yeung and pro-independence Hong Kong Indigenous' Edward Leung. Chow received about 35 per cent and about 10,000 votes short of the Civic Party candidate. With four veteran incumbents, LegCo president Tsang Yok-sing, Tam Yiu-chung, Chan Kam-lam and Ip Kwok-him, retiring, the DAB set a more conservative electoral strategy in the 2016 Legislative Council election, fielding only nine candidate lists in the geographical constituencies and District Council (Second) functional constituency, two fewer than the last election. The DAB got all their nine candidate lists elected as a result with three traditional functional constituencies with a drop of their vote share from 20.22 to 16.68 per cent vote share. Chan Hak-kan succeeded Ip as the new caucus convenor. In the 2017 Chief Executive election, the DAB which commanded over 100 seats in the Election Committee, endorsed and nominated former Chief Secretary for Administration Carrie Lam, which help her to defeat former Financial Secretary John Tsang with 777 votes. In return, the Carrie Lam administration appointed Cheung Kwok-kwan to be a new member in the Executive Council. Carrie Lam era (2017–2022) In the March 2018 Legislative Council by-election triggered by the disqualification of Youngspiration's Yau Wai-ching over the oath-taking controversy, the DAB supported its member Vincent Cheng and the former FTU legislator Tang Ka-piu who joined the DAB before the election to run in Kowloon West and New Territories East respectively. Despite Tang's loss, Cheng made a surprising upset by narrowly defeating independent democrat Yiu Chung-yim, making it the first time the pro-Beijing camp received greater vote share than the pro-democrats in a geographical constituency since 2000 and the first time a pro-Beijing candidate won in a geographical constituency by-election since 1992. In October 2020, Apple Daily reported that Carrie Lam had blamed the DAB for failing to raise political support for her administration, saying the DAB had failed for years in providing the government with "talent." Lam was also reported to be unhappy with two government ministers from the DAB, and fired one but kept the other to avoid embarrassing the DAB. In November 2020, following the expulsion of 4 pro-democracy lawmakers from the Legislative Council, the DAB expressed support for the decision and accused the pro-democracy lawmakers of harming the country's interest. In February 2021, following calls from Xia Baolong that only "patriots" should be part of the government, the DAB supported his position and said that it should be done, as it claimed pro-democracy figures had done things "[I]ncluding advocating Hong Kong independence to poison young people, supporting black violence to damage the rule of law, colluding with foreign forces to interfere in Hong Kong's affairs and even attempting to steal the power to govern by running in an election to paralyse the government." John Lee era (2022–present) In August 2022, after Nancy Pelosi visited Taiwan, the DAB said it fully supported the mainland Chinese government and military in response to the visit. Ideology The DAB is known as a Beijing loyalist party of "loving China and loving Hong Kong". It stresses the "one country" part of the "One country, two systems" principle. As for issues on democratic reform, it takes a position to support slower pace in relative to what the Democratic Party supports, DAB claims by doing so stability and prosperity will be achieved. Former party chairman Tam Yiu-chung claims the DAB to be "rational and pragmatic". The party's main claim is that it is natural for ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong to be "patriotic" and support the government of the People's Republic of China. The party supports nearly every policy of the HKSAR Government. Furthering co-operation between Hong Kong and the mainland, promoting mutual trust, and creating opportunities economically. "Constructive monitor" of the HKSAR government, scrutinising various government policies and decisions, providing "constructive policy alternatives" whilst securing the progress, prosperity, social stability and harmony for Hong Kong. To break down social barriers based on the common interest of Hong Kong; to strengthen communications with Hong Kong residents to better reflect their opinion; to be more accountable to the public. To nurture political talent by committing the necessary funding, organising training, providing opportunities for those who want to take part in politics. The DAB's support of social welfare improvements, including greater spending on education, housing, and employee retraining, has given it strong grassroots support. The party in general embraces big tent positions, but has gradually leaned to a more pro-middle-class position and professional-oriented since its merger with the Hong Kong Progressive Alliance (HKPA) in 2005. The party also takes a social conservative stance, espousing 'traditional family values' and opposing same-sex marriage despite it not being in the party's official platform. The DAB collaborated with evangelical Christian organisations in 2006 in drafting a submission on "harmonious families". These organisations include the Hong Kong branches of the Full Gospel Business Men's Fellowship International and the Christian Broadcasting Network. Internal factions As the largest political party of Hong Kong, the party can be divided into several main factions: Business sector, with business and professionals background and also former members of the Hong Kong Progressive Alliance. Rural leaders representing the interests of Indigenous inhabitants of the New Territories. Members with Hong Kong Federation of Education Workers background. Unionists, i.e. members belonging or came from the Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions. Controversies Comments of Tiananmen massacre On 15 May 2007, then-party chairman Ma Lik provoked widespread condemnation within the local community when he claimed that "there was not a massacre" during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, as there was "no intentional and indiscriminate shooting". He said the popular belief of foreigners' "rash claims" that a massacre took place showed Hong Kong's lack of maturity. He said that Hong Kong showed, through this lack of patriotism and national identity, that it would thus "not be ready for democracy until 2022". Vice-chairman Tam Yiu-chung defended Ma, but questioned the timing: "people will understand it gradually". However, Vice-chairman Lau Kong-wah, immediately offered to apologise, and distanced the party from Ma, saying that Ma had expressed "a personal opinion". The DAB Central committee declined any further action against Ma following their meeting, and there was no official apology. Allegations of irregularities The DAB has been accused by pro-democracy media and politicians of providing benefits to certain people, including seafood meals and local trips to outlying islands at prices significantly lower than market rates to win their support. Other allegations include arranging free transport to mobilise people for their causes. During the 2015 District Council elections, the South China Morning Post reported that elderly residents of care homes were being bussed to polling stations by DAB-arranged transport. A DAB candidate, Daniel Lam Tak-shing, was alleged to have instructed them on who to vote for outside of a polling station, raising questions on whether those votes were cast of their own will. He was also accused of giving out free gifts to these residents. However, none of these practices are strictly illegal in Hong Kong. Young DAB The youth wing is the Young Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong (Young DAB). In August 2022, it released results of a survey, showing that 30% of those polled in Hong Kong did not identify as being Chinese. The Young DAB said that the government should enhance national identity, and vice-chairman Nicholas Muk Ka-chun said that "If you've looked at the Education Bureau's website [...] you would have noticed that the word 'patriot' does not exist". Election performances Legislative Council elections Municipal elections District Councils elections Leadership Chairpersons Vice-Chairpersons Tam Yiu-chung, 1992–1997, 2002–2007 Cheng Kai-nam, 1997–2000 Ip Kwok-him, 1998–2009 Lo Chi-keung, 2000–2005 Maria Tam Wai-chu, 2005–2007 Lau Kong-wah, 2005–2012 Gregory So Kam-leung, 2007–2008 Ann Chiang Lai-wan, 2008–2015 Carson Wen, 2009–2011 Horace Cheung Kwok-kwan, 2011–2022 Starry Lee Wai-king, 2011–2015 Thomas Pang Cheung-wai, 2013–2019 Brave Chan Yung, 2013–present Gary Chan Hak-kan, 2015–2023 Holden Chow Ho-ding, 2015–present Chan Hok-fung, 2019–2021 Thomas Pang Cheung-wai, 2021–2023 Ben Chan Han-pan, 2023–present Elizabeth Quat, 2023–present Secretaries general Cheng Kai-nam, 1992–1997 Ma Lik, 1997–2003 Kan Chi-ho, 2003–2009 Thomas Pang Cheung-wai, 2009–2013 Chan Hok-fung, 2013–2019 Albert Wong Shun-yee, 2019–2021 Chan Hok-fung, 2021–present Treasurers Wong Kine-yuen, 1992–2017 Chong Wai-ming, 2017–present Deputy secretaries general Tso Wong Man-yin, 2005–2009 Albert Wong Shun-yee, 2009–2011 Chan Hok-fung, 2011–2013 Chris Ip Ngo-tung, 2013–present Kin Hung Kam-in, 2017–present Vincent Cheng Wing-shun, 2017–present Joe Lai Wing-ho, 2017–present Frankie Ngan Man-yu, 2019–present Senate chairmen Jose Sun-Say Yu, 2005–2015 Lo Man-tuen, 2015–present Representatives Executive Council Ip Kwok-him Cheung Kwok-kwan Legislative Council District Councils The DAB has won 21 seats in 10 District Councils (2020–2023): National People's Congress Chan Yung Choy So-yuk Ip Kwok-him Tam Yiu-chung (NPCSC member) Wong Ting-chung Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference Chau On Ta-yuen Rock Chen Chung-nin Chong Shaw-swee Chung Shui-ming Ip Shun-hing Starry Lee Wai-king Leung Che-cheung Lo Siu-kit Nancy Wong Michael Ngai Ming-tak Thomas Pang Cheung-wai Irons Sze Ricky Tsang Chi-ming Wong Ming-yeung Yu Kwok-chun Zhou Chun-ling See also United Front Work Department United Front (China) Politics of Hong Kong List of political parties in Hong Kong References External links Official website Chinese nationalism Conservative parties in Hong Kong Chinese Communist Party Political parties established in 1992 Political parties in Hong Kong 1992 establishments in Hong Kong Conservative parties in China Social conservative parties
377585
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Fort%20Donelson
Battle of Fort Donelson
The Battle of Fort Donelson was fought from February 11–16, 1862, in the Western Theater of the American Civil War. The Union capture of the Confederate fort near the Tennessee–Kentucky border opened the Cumberland River, an important avenue for the invasion of the South. The Union's success also elevated Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant from an obscure and largely unproven leader to the rank of major general, and earned him the nickname of "Unconditional Surrender" Grant. Following his capture of Fort Henry on February 6, Grant moved his army (later to become the Union's Army of the Tennessee) overland to Fort Donelson, from February 11 to 13, and conducted several small probing attacks. On February 14, Union gunboats under Flag Officer Andrew H. Foote attempted to reduce the fort with gunfire, but were forced to withdraw after sustaining heavy damage from the fort's water batteries. On February 15, with the fort surrounded, the Confederates, commanded by Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd, launched a surprise attack, led by his second-in-command, Brig. Gen. Gideon Johnson Pillow, against the right flank of Grant's army. The intention was to open an escape route for retreat to Nashville, Tennessee. Grant was away from the battlefield at the start of the attack, but arrived to rally his men and counterattack. Pillow's attack succeeded in opening the route, but Floyd lost his nerve and ordered his men back to the fort. The following morning, Floyd and Pillow escaped with a small detachment of troops, relinquishing command to Brig. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner, who accepted Grant's demand of unconditional surrender later that evening. The battle resulted in virtually all of Kentucky as well as much of Tennessee, including Nashville, falling under Union control. Background Military situation The battle of Fort Donelson, which began on February 12, took place shortly after the surrender of Fort Henry, Tennessee, on February 6, 1862. Fort Henry had been a key position in the center of a line defending Tennessee, and the capture of the fort now opened the Tennessee River to Union troop and supply movements. About 2,500 of Fort Henry's Confederate defenders escaped before its surrender by marching the 12 miles (19 km) east to Fort Donelson. In the days following the surrender at Fort Henry, Union troops cut the railroad lines south of the fort, restricting the Confederates' lateral mobility to move reinforcements into the area to defend against the larger Union forces. With the surrender of Fort Henry, the Confederates faced some difficult choices. Grant's army now divided Confederate Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston's two main forces: P.G.T. Beauregard at Columbus, Kentucky, with 12,000 men, and William J. Hardee at Bowling Green, Kentucky, with 22,000 men. Fort Donelson had only about 5,000 men. Union forces might attack Columbus; they might attack Fort Donelson and thereby threaten Nashville, Tennessee; or Grant and Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell, who was quartered in Louisville with 45,000 men, might attack Johnston head-on, with Grant following behind Buell. Johnston was apprehensive about the ease with which Union gunboats defeated Fort Henry (not comprehending that the rising waters of the Tennessee River played a crucial role by inundating the fort). He was more concerned about the threat from Buell than he was from Grant, and suspected the river operations might simply be a diversion. Johnston decided upon a course of action that forfeited the initiative across most of his defensive line, tacitly admitting that the Confederate defensive strategy for Tennessee was a sham. On February 7, at a council of war held in the Covington Hotel at Bowling Green, he decided to abandon western Kentucky by withdrawing Beauregard from Columbus, evacuating Bowling Green, and moving his forces south of the Cumberland River at Nashville. Despite his misgivings about its defensibility, Johnston agreed to Beauregard's advice that he should reinforce Fort Donelson with another 12,000 men, knowing that a defeat there would mean the inevitable loss of Middle Tennessee and the vital manufacturing and arsenal city of Nashville. Johnston wanted to give command of Fort Donelson to Beauregard, who had performed ably at Bull Run, but the latter declined because of a throat ailment. Instead, the responsibility went to Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd, who had just arrived following an unsuccessful assignment under Robert E. Lee in western Virginia. Floyd was a wanted man in the North for alleged graft and secessionist activities when he was Secretary of War in the James Buchanan administration. Floyd's background was political, not military, but he was nevertheless the senior brigadier general on the Cumberland River. On the Union side, Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck, Grant's superior as commander of the Department of the Missouri, was also apprehensive. Halleck had authorized Grant to capture Fort Henry, but now he felt that continuing to Fort Donelson was risky. Despite Grant's success to date, Halleck had little confidence in him, considering Grant to be reckless. Halleck attempted to convince his own rival, Don Carlos Buell, to take command of the campaign to get his additional forces engaged. Despite Johnston's high regard for Buell, the Union general was as passive as Grant was aggressive. Grant never suspected his superiors were considering relieving him, but he was well aware that any delay or reversal might be an opportunity for Halleck to lose his nerve and cancel the operation. On February 6, Grant wired Halleck: "Fort Henry is ours. ... I shall take and destroy Fort Donelson on the 8th and return to Fort Henry." This self-imposed deadline was overly optimistic due to three factors: miserable road conditions on the twelve-mile march to Donelson, the need for troops to carry supplies away from the rising flood waters (by February 8, Fort Henry was completely submerged), and the damage that had been sustained by Foote's Western Gunboat Flotilla in the artillery duel at Fort Henry. If Grant had been able to move quickly, he might have taken Fort Donelson on February 8. Early in the morning of February 11, Grant held a council of war in which all of his generals supported his plans for an attack on Fort Donelson, with the exception of Brig. Gen. John A. McClernand, who had some reservations. This council in early 1862 was the last one that Grant held for the remainder of the Civil War. Opposing forces Union Grant's Union Army of the Tennessee of the District of Cairo consisted of three divisions, commanded by Brig. Gens. McClernand, C.F. Smith, and Lew Wallace. (At the start of the attack on Fort Donelson, Wallace was a brigade commander in reserve at Fort Henry, but was summoned on February 14 and charged with assembling a new division that included reinforcements arriving by steamship, including Charles Cruft's brigade on loan from Buell.) Two regiments of cavalry and eight batteries of artillery supported the infantry divisions. Altogether, the Union forces numbered nearly 25,000 men, although at the start of the battle, only 15,000 were available. The Western Gunboat Flotilla under Flag Officer Andrew H. Foote consisted of four ironclad gunboats (flagship USS St. Louis, USS Carondelet, USS Louisville, and USS Pittsburg) and three timberclad (wooden) gunboats (USS Conestoga, USS Tyler, and USS Lexington). USS Essex and had been damaged at Fort Henry and were being repaired. Confederate Floyd's Confederate force of approximately 17,089 men consisted of three divisions (Army of Central Kentucky), garrison troops, and attached cavalry. The three divisions were commanded by Floyd (replaced by Colonel Gabriel C. Wharton when Floyd took command of the entire force) and Brig. Gens. Bushrod Johnson and Simon Bolivar Buckner. During the battle, Johnson, the engineering officer who briefly commanded Fort Donelson in late January, was effectively superseded by Brig. Gen. Gideon J. Pillow (Grant's opponent at his first battle at Belmont). Pillow, who arrived at Fort Donelson on February 9, was displaced from overall command of the fort when the more-senior Floyd arrived. The garrison troops were commanded by Col. John W. Head and the cavalry by Col. Nathan Bedford Forrest. Fort Donelson was named for Brig. Gen. Daniel S. Donelson, who selected its site and began construction in 1861. It was considerably more formidable than Fort Henry. Fort Donelson rose about 100 feet (30 m) on approximately 100 acres of dry ground above the Cumberland River, which allowed for plunging fire against attacking gunboats, an advantage Fort Henry did not enjoy. The river batteries included twelve guns: ten 32-pounder smoothbore cannons, two 9-pounder smoothbore cannons, an 8-inch howitzer, a 6.5-inch rifle (128-pounder), and a 10-inch Columbiad. There were three miles (5 km) of trenches in a semicircle around the fort and the small town of Dover. The outer works were bounded by Hickman Creek to the west, Lick Creek to the east, and the Cumberland River to the north. These trenches, located on a commanding ridge and fronted by a dense abatis of cut trees and limbs stuck into the ground and pointing outward, were backed up by artillery and manned by Buckner and his Bowling Green troops on the right (with his flank anchored on Hickman Creek), and Johnson/Pillow on the left (with his flank near the Cumberland River). Facing the Confederates, from left to right, were Smith, Lew Wallace (who arrived on February 14), and McClernand. McClernand's right flank, which faced Pillow, had insufficient men to reach overflowing Lick Creek, so it was left unanchored. Through the center of the Confederate line ran the marshy Indian Creek, this point defended primarily by artillery overlooking it on each side. Battle Preliminary movements and attacks (February 12–13) On February 12, most of the Union troops departed Fort Henry, where they were waiting for the return of Union gunboats and the arrival of additional troops that would increase the Union forces to about 25,000 men. The Union forces proceeded about 5 miles (8 km) on the two main roads leading between the two forts. They were delayed most of the day by a cavalry screen commanded by Nathan Bedford Forrest. Forrest's troops, sent out by Buckner, spotted a detachment from McClernand's division and opened fire against them. A brief skirmish ensued until orders from Buckner arrived to fall back within the entrenchments. After this withdrawal of Forrest's cavalry, the Union troops moved closer to the Confederate defense line while trying to cover any possible Confederate escape routes. McClernand's division made up the right of Grant's army with C.F. Smith's division forming the left. USS Carondelet was the first gunboat to arrive up the river, and she promptly fired numerous shells into the fort, testing its defenses before retiring. Grant arrived on February 12 and established his headquarters near the left side of the front of the line, at the Widow Crisp's house. On February 11, Buckner relayed orders to Pillow from Floyd to release Floyd's and Buckner's troops to operate south of the river, near Cumberland City, where they would be able to attack the Union supply lines while keeping a clear path back to Nashville. However, this would leave the Confederate forces at Fort Donelson heavily outnumbered. Gen. Pillow left early on the morning of February 12 to argue these orders with Gen. Floyd himself leaving Buckner in charge of the fort. After hearing sounds of artillery fire, Pillow returned to Fort Donelson to resume command. After the events of the day, Buckner remained at Fort Donelson to command the Confederate right. With the arrival of Grant's army, General Johnston ordered Floyd to take any troops remaining in Clarksville to aid in the defense of Fort Donelson. On February 13, several small probing attacks were carried out against the Confederate defenses, essentially ignoring orders from Grant that no general engagement be provoked. On the Union left, C. F. Smith sent two of his four brigades (under Cols. Jacob Lauman and John Cook) to test the defenses along his front. The attack suffered light casualties and made no gains, but Smith was able to keep up a harassing fire throughout the night. On the right, McClernand also ordered an unauthorized attack. Two regiments of Col. William R. Morrison's brigade, along with one regiment, the 48th Illinois, from Col. W.H.L. Wallace's brigade, were ordered to seize a battery ("Redan Number 2") that had been plaguing their position. Isham N. Haynie, colonel of the 48th Illinois, was senior in rank to Colonel Morrison. Although rightfully in command of two of the three regiments, Morrison volunteered to turn over command once the attack was under way; however, when the attack began, Morrison was wounded, eliminating any leadership ambiguity. For unknown reasons Haynie never fully took control and the attack was repulsed. Some wounded men caught between the lines burned to death in grass fires ignited by the artillery. General Grant had Commander Henry Walke bring the Carondelet up the Cumberland River to create a diversion by opening fire on the fort. The Confederates responded with shots from their long-range guns and eventually hit the gunboat. Walke retreated several miles below the fort, but soon returned and continued shelling the water batteries. General McClernand, in the meantime, had been attempting to stretch his men toward the river but ran into difficulties with a Confederate battery of guns. McClernand ultimately decided that he did not have enough men to stretch all the way to the river, so Grant decided to call on more troops. He sent orders to General Wallace, who had been left behind at Fort Henry, to bring his men to Fort Donelson. With Floyd's arrival to take command of Fort Donelson, Pillow took over leading the Confederate left. Feeling overwhelmed, Floyd left most of the actual command to Pillow and Buckner. At the end of the day, there had been several skirmishes, but the positions of each side were essentially the same. The night progressed with both sides fighting the cold weather. Although the weather had been mostly rainy up to this point in the campaign, a snow storm arrived the night of February 13, with strong winds that brought temperatures down to 10–12 °F (−12 °C) and deposited 3 inches (8 cm) of snow by morning. Guns and wagons were frozen to the earth. Because of the proximity of the enemy lines and the active sharpshooters, the soldiers could not light campfires for warmth or cooking, and both sides were miserable that night, many having arrived without blankets or overcoats. Reinforcements and naval battle (February 14) At 111:00 a.m. on February 14, Floyd held a council of war in his headquarters at the Dover Hotel. There was general agreement that Fort Donelson was probably untenable. General Pillow was designated to lead a breakout attempt, evacuate the fort, and march to Nashville. Troops were moved behind the lines and the assault readied and they broke through Union lines, but Grant sent them back to Fort Donelson reeling. Pillow, normally quite aggressive in battle, was unnerved and announced that since their movement had been detected, the breakout was sent back. On February 14, General Lew Wallace's brigade arrived from Fort Henry around noon, and Foote's flotilla arrived on the Cumberland River in mid-afternoon, bringing six gunboats and another 10,000 Union reinforcements on twelve transport ships. Wallace assembled these new troops into a third division of two brigades, under Cols. John M. Thayer and Charles Cruft, and occupied the center of the line facing the Confederate trenches. This provided sufficient troops to extend McClernand's right flank to be anchored on Lick Creek, by moving Col. John McArthur's brigade of Smith's division from the reserve to a position from which they intended to plug the gap at dawn the next morning. As soon as Foote arrived, Grant urged him to attack the fort's river batteries. Although Foote was reluctant to proceed before adequate reconnaissance, he moved his gunboats close to the shore by 3:00 p.m. and opened fire, just as he had done at Fort Henry. Confederate gunners waited until the gunboats were within to return fire. The Confederate artillery pummeled the fleet and the assault was over by 4:30 p.m. Foote was wounded (coincidentally in his foot). The wheelhouse of his flagship, USS St. Louis, was carried away, and she floated helplessly downriver. USS Louisville was also disabled and the Pittsburg began to take on water. The damage to the fleet was significant and it retreated downriver. Of the 500 Confederate shots fired, St. Louis was hit 59 times, Carondelet 54, Louisville 36, and Pittsburg 20 times. Foote had miscalculated the assault. Historian Kendall Gott suggested that it would have been more prudent to stay as far downriver as possible, and use the fleet's longer-range guns to reduce the fort. An alternative might have been to overrun the batteries, probably at night as would be done successfully in the 1863 Vicksburg Campaign. Once the Union fleet was past the fixed river batteries, Fort Donelson would have been defenseless. Eight Union sailors were killed and 44 were wounded while the Confederates lost none. (Captain Joseph Dixon of the river batteries had been killed the previous day during Carondelet's bombardment.) On land the well-armed Union soldiers surrounded the Confederates, while the Union boats, although damaged, still controlled the river. Grant realized that any success at Fort Donelson would have to be carried by the army without strong naval support, and he wired Halleck that he might have to resort to a siege. Breakout attempt (February 15) Despite their unexpected naval success, the Confederate generals were still skeptical about their chances in the fort and held another late-night council of war, where they decided to retry their aborted escape plan. At dawn on February 15, the Confederates launched an assault led by Pillow against McClernand's division on the unprotected right flank of the Union line. The Union troops, unable to sleep in the cold weather, were not caught entirely by surprise, but Grant was. Not expecting a land assault from the Confederates, he was up before dawn and had headed off to visit Flag Officer Foote on his flagship downriver. Grant left orders that none of his generals was to initiate an engagement and no one was designated as second-in-command during his absence. The Confederate plan was for Pillow to push McClernand away and take control of Wynn's Ferry and Forge Roads, the main routes to Nashville. Buckner was to move his division across Wynn's Ferry Road and act as rear guard for the remainder of the army as it withdrew from Fort Donelson and moved east. A lone regiment from Buckner's division—the 30th Tennessee—was designated to stay in the trenches and prevent a Federal pursuit. The attack started well, and after two hours of heavy fighting, Pillow's men pushed McClernand's line back and opened the escape route. It was in this attack that Union troops in the West first heard the famous, unnerving rebel yell. The attack was initially successful because of the inexperience and poor positioning of McClernand's troops and a flanking attack from the Confederate cavalry under Forrest. The Union brigades of Cols. Richard Oglesby and John McArthur were hit hardest; they withdrew in a generally orderly manner to the rear for regrouping and resupply. Around 8:00 a.m. McClernand sent a message requesting assistance from Lew Wallace, but Wallace had no orders from Grant, who was still absent, to respond to an attack on a fellow officer and declined the initial request. Wallace, who was hesitant to disobey orders, sent an aide to Grant's headquarters for further instructions. In the meantime, McClernand's ammunition was running out, but his withdrawal was not yet a rout. (The army of former quartermaster Ulysses S. Grant had not yet learned to organize reserve ammunition and supplies near the frontline brigades.) A second messenger arrived at Wallace's camp in tears, crying, "Our right flank is turned! ... The whole army is in danger!" This time Wallace sent a brigade, under Col. Charles Cruft, to aid McClernand. Cruft's brigade was sent in to replace Oglesby's and McArthur's brigades, but when they realized they had run into Pillow's Confederates and were being flanked, they too began to fall back. Not everything was going well with the Confederate advance. By 9:30 a.m., as the lead Union brigades were falling back, Nathan Bedford Forrest urged Bushrod Johnson to launch an all-out attack on the disorganized troops. Johnson was too cautious to approve of a general assault, but he did agree to keep the infantry moving slowly forward. Two hours into the battle, Gen. Pillow realized that Buckner's wing was not attacking alongside his. After a confrontation between the two generals, Buckner's troops moved out and, combined with the right flank of Pillow's wing, hit W. H. L. Wallace's brigade. The Confederates took control of Forge Road and a key section of Wynn's Ferry Road, opening a route to Nashville, but Buckner's delay provided time for Lew Wallace's men to reinforce McClernand's retreating forces before they were completely routed. Despite Grant's earlier orders, Wallace's units moved to the right with Thayer's brigade, giving McClernand's men time to regroup and gather ammunition from Wallace's supplies. The 68th Ohio was left behind to protect the rear. The Confederate offensive ended around 12:30 p.m., when Wallace's and Thayer's Union troops formed a defensive line on a ridge astride Wynn's Ferry Road. The Confederates assaulted them three times, but were unsuccessful and withdrew to a ridge away. Nevertheless, they had had a good morning. The Confederates had pushed the Union defenders back one to two miles (2–3 km) and had opened their escape route. Grant, who was apparently unaware of the battle, was notified by an aide and returned to his troops in the early afternoon. Grant first visited C. F. Smith on the Union left, where Grant ordered the 8th Missouri and the 11th Indiana to the Union right, then rode over icy roads to find McClernand and Wallace. Grant was dismayed at the confusion and a lack of organized leadership. McClernand grumbled "This army wants a head." Grant replied, "It seems so. Gentlemen, the position on the right must be retaken." True to his nature, Grant did not panic at the Confederate assault. As Grant rode back from the river, he heard the sounds of guns and sent word to Foote to begin a demonstration of naval gunfire, assuming that his troops would be demoralized and could use the encouragement. Grant observed that some of the Confederates (Buckner's) were fighting with knapsacks filled with three days of rations, which implied to him that they were attempting to escape, not pressing for a combat victory. He told an aide, "The one who attacks first now will be victorious. The enemy will have to be in a hurry if he gets ahead of me." Despite the successful morning attack, access to an open escape route, and to the amazement of Floyd and Buckner, Pillow ordered his men back to their trenches by 1:30 p.m. Buckner confronted Pillow, and Floyd intended to countermand the order, but Pillow argued that his men needed to regroup and resupply before evacuating the fort. Pillow won the argument. Floyd also believed that C. F. Smith's division was being heavily reinforced, so the entire Confederate force was ordered back inside the lines of Fort Donelson, giving up the ground they gained earlier that day. Grant moved quickly to exploit the opening and told Smith, "All has failed on our right—you must take Fort Donelson." Smith replied, "I will do it." Smith formed his two remaining brigades to make an attack. Lauman's brigade would be the main attack, spearheaded by Col. James Tuttle's 2nd Iowa Infantry. Cook's brigade would be in support to the right and rear and act as a feint to draw fire away from Lauman's brigade. Smith's two-brigade attack quickly seized the outer line of entrenchments on the Confederate right from the 30th Tennessee, commanded by Col. John W. Head, who had been left behind from Buckner's division. Despite two hours of repeated counterattacks, the Confederates could not repel Smith from the captured earthworks. The Union was now poised to seize Fort Donelson and its river batteries when light returned the next morning. In the meantime, on the Union right, Lew Wallace formed an attacking column with three brigades—one from his own division, one from McClernand's, and one from Smith's—to try to regain control of ground lost in the battle that morning. Wallace's old brigade of Zouaves (11th Indiana and 8th Missouri), now commanded by Col. Morgan L. Smith, and others from McClernand's and Wallace's divisions were chosen to lead the attack. The brigades of Cruft (Wallace's Division) and Leonard F. Ross (McClernand's Division) were placed in support on the flanks. Wallace ordered the attack forward. Smith, the 8th Missouri, and the 11th Indiana advanced a short distance up the hill using Zouave tactics, where the men repeatedly rushed and then fell to the ground in a prone position. By 5:30 p.m. Wallace's troops had succeeded in retaking the ground lost that morning, and by nightfall, the Confederate troops had been driven back to their original positions. Grant began plans to resume his assault in the morning, although neglecting to close the escape route that Pillow had opened. John A. Logan was gravely injured on February 15. Soon after the victory at Donelson, he was promoted to brigadier general in the volunteers. Surrender (February 16) Nearly 1,000 soldiers on both sides had been killed, with about 3,000 wounded still on the field; some froze to death in the snowstorm, many Union soldiers having thrown away their blankets and coats. Inexplicably, generals Floyd and Pillow were upbeat about the day's performance and wired General Johnston at Nashville that they had won a great victory. General Simon Bolivar Buckner, however, argued that they were in a desperate position that was getting worse with the arrival of Union reinforcements. At their final council of war in the Dover Hotel at 1:30 a.m. on February 16, Buckner stated that if C.F. Smith attacked again, he could only hold for thirty minutes, and he estimated that the cost of defending the fort would be as high as a seventy-five percent casualty rate. Buckner's position finally carried the meeting. Any large-scale escape would be difficult. Most of the river transports were currently transporting wounded men to Nashville and would not return in time to evacuate the command. Floyd, who believed if he was captured, he would be indicted for corruption during his service as Secretary of War in President James Buchanan's cabinet before the war, promptly turned over his command to Pillow, who also feared Northern reprisals. In turn, Pillow passed the command to Buckner, who agreed to remain behind and surrender the army. During the night, Pillow escaped by small boat across the Cumberland. Floyd left the next morning on the only steamer available, taking his two regiments of Virginia infantry. Disgusted at the show of cowardice, a furious Nathan Bedford Forrest announced, "I did not come here to surrender my command." He stormed out of the meeting and led about seven hundred of his cavalrymen on their escape from the fort. Forrest's horsemen rode toward Nashville through the shallow, icy waters of Lick Creek, encountering no enemy and confirming that many more could have escaped by the same route, if Buckner had not posted guards to prevent any such attempts. On the morning of February 16, Buckner sent a note to Grant requesting a truce and asking for terms of surrender. The note first reached General Smith, who exclaimed, "No terms to the damned Rebels!" When the note reached Grant, Smith urged him to offer no terms. Buckner had hoped that Grant would offer generous terms because of their earlier friendship. (In 1854 Grant was removed from command at a U.S. Army post in California, allegedly because of alcoholism. Buckner, a fellow U.S. Army officer at that time, loaned Grant money to return home to Illinois after Grant had been forced to resign his commission.) To Buckner's dismay, Grant showed no mercy towards men rebelling against the federal government. Grant's brusque reply became one of the most famous quotes of the war, earning him the nickname of "Unconditional Surrender": Grant was not bluffing. Smith was now in a good position to move on the fort, having captured the outer lines of its fortifications, and was under orders to launch an attack with the support of other divisions the following day. Grant believed his position allowed him to forego a planned siege and successfully storm the fort. Buckner responded to Grant's demand: Grant, who was courteous to Buckner following the surrender, offered to loan him money to see him through his impending imprisonment, but Buckner declined. The surrender was a personal humiliation for Buckner and a strategic defeat for the Confederacy, which lost more than 12,000 men, 48 artillery pieces, much of their equipment, and control of the Cumberland River, which led to the evacuation of Nashville. This was the first of three Confederate armies that Grant would capture during the war. (The second was John C. Pemberton's at the Siege of Vicksburg and the third Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox). Buckner also turned over considerable military equipment and provisions, which Grant's troops badly needed. More than 7,000 Confederate prisoners of war were eventually transported from Fort Donelson to Camp Douglas in Chicago, Camp Morton in Indianapolis, and other prison camps elsewhere in the North. Buckner was held as a prisoner at Fort Warren in Boston until he was exchanged in August 1862. Aftermath The casualties at Fort Donelson were heavy, primarily because of the large Confederate surrender. Union losses were 2,691 (507 killed, 1,976 wounded, 208 captured/missing), Confederate 13,846 (327 killed, 1,127 wounded, 12,392 captured/missing). Cannons were fired and church bells rung throughout the North at the news. The Chicago Tribune wrote that "Chicago reeled mad with joy." The capture of Forts Henry and Donelson were the first significant Union victories in the war and opened two great rivers to invasion in the heartland of the South. Grant was promoted to major general of volunteers, second in seniority only to Henry W. Halleck in the West. After newspapers reported that Grant had won the battle with a cigar clamped in his teeth, he was inundated with cigars sent from his many admirers. Before that he'd been only a light smoker, but after finding that he couldn't give them all away, took to smoking them, which probably contributed to his later death from throat cancer. Grant had written in his memoirs that if all Union troops in the west were unified under a single commander to capitalize on the victory at Fort Donelson, the fighting in the western theaters of the civil war would've been closed quickly. Close to a third of all of Albert Sidney Johnston's forces were now prisoners. Grant had captured more soldiers than all previous American generals combined, and Johnston was thereby deprived of more than twelve thousand soldiers who might have provided a decisive advantage at the impending Battle of Shiloh in less than two months time. The rest of Johnston's forces were 200 miles (320 km) apart, between Nashville and Columbus, with Grant's army between them. Grant's forces also controlled nearby rivers and railroads. General Buell's army threatened Nashville, while John Pope's troops threatened Columbus. Johnston evacuated Nashville on February 23, surrendering this important industrial center to the Union and making it the first Confederate state capital to fall. Columbus was evacuated on March 2. Most of Tennessee fell under Union control, as did all of Kentucky, although both were subject to invasion and periodic Confederate raiding. Battlefield preservation The site of the battle has been preserved by the National Park Service as Fort Donelson National Battlefield. Through November 2021, the American Battlefield Trust and its partners in battlefield land preservation have acquired and preserved of the battlefield, most of which has been conveyed to the park service and incorporated into the park. See also Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant Ulysses S. Grant and the American Civil War Shiloh National Military Park Battle of Fort Henry Battle of Island Number Ten Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1862 List of costliest American Civil War land battles Armies in the American Civil War Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Turning point of the American Civil War Mary Ann Brown Newcomb, nursed Union Army soldiers Notes Bibliography Cooling, Benjamin Franklin. The Campaign for Fort Donelson. National Park Service Civil War series. Fort Washington, PA: U.S. National Park Service and Eastern National, 1999. . Cooling, Benjamin Franklin. Fort Donelson's Legacy: War and Society in Kentucky and Tennessee, 1862–1863. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1997. . Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. . Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. . The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website. Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 1, Fort Sumter to Perryville. New York: Random House, 1958. . Hamilton, James J. "The Battle of Fort Donelson." The Journal of Southern History 35.1 (1969): 99–100. JSTOR. Web. 21 Mar. 2015. Gott, Kendall D. Where the South Lost the War: An Analysis of the Fort Henry—Fort Donelson Campaign, February 1862. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003. . Kennedy, Frances H., ed. The Civil War Battlefield Guide. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. . Knight, James R. The Battle of Fort Donelson: No Terms but Unconditional Surrender. Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2011. . Knight, James R. "Nothing but God Almighty Can Save That Fort." Civil War Trust website, accessed March 21, 2015. McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. . Nevin, David, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. The Road to Shiloh: Early Battles in the West. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1983. . Simpson, Brooks D. Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph over Adversity, 1822–1865. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. . Stephens, Gail. The Shadow of Shiloh: Major General Lew Wallace in the Civil War. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society Press, 2010. . Woodworth, Steven E. Nothing but Victory: The Army of the Tennessee, 1861–1865. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. . National Park Service battle description Memoirs and primary sources Robert Underwood Johnson, Clarence Clough Buell, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War: The Opening Battles, Volume 1 (Pdf), New York: The Century Co., 1887. U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901. Further reading Bush, Bryan S. Lloyd Tilghman: Confederate General in the Western Theatre. Morley, MO: Acclaim Press, 2006. . Catton, Bruce. Grant Moves South. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1960. . Cummings, Charles Martin. Yankee Quaker, Confederate General: The Curious Career of Bushrod Rust Johnson. Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1971. . Engle, Stephen Douglas. Struggle for the Heartland: The Campaigns from Fort Henry to Corinth. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001. . Hamilton, James J. The Battle of Fort Donelson. South Brunswick, NJ: T. Yoseloff, 1968. . Huffstodt, James. Hard Dying Men: The Story of General W. H. L. Wallace, General Thomas E. G. Ransom, and the "Old Eleventh" Illinois Infantry in the American Civil War (1861–1865). Bowie, MD: Heritage Press. . Hurst, Jack. Men of Fire: Grant, Forrest, and the Campaign that Decided the Civil War. New York: Basic Books, 2007. . McPherson, James M., ed. The Atlas of the Civil War. New York: Macmillan, 1994. . Perry, James M. Touched with Fire: Five Presidents and the Civil War Battles That Made Them. New York: PublicAffairs, 2003. . Slagle, Jay. Ironclad Captain: Seth Ledyard Phelps & the U.S. Navy, 1841–1864. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1996. . Smith, Timothy B. Grant Invades Tennessee: The 1862 Battles for Forts Henry and Donelson. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2016. . Wallace, Isabel, and William Hervy Lamme Wallace. Life and Letters of General W.H.L. Wallace. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2000. . External links Battle of Fort Donelson: Battle Maps, histories, photos, and preservation news (Civil War Trust) Animated history of the Battles of Forts Henry and Donelson Newspaper coverage of the Battle of Fort Donelson paintings of Fort Donelson Battlefield Battles for Forts Henry, Heiman & Donelson BATTLE OF FORT DONELSON American Civil War: Battle of Fort Donelson The Battle of Fort Donelson, Tennessee Battle of Fort Donelson Battle of Fort Donelson: Brief Summary of Location, Strategies, and Casualties Battle of Fort Donelson – Bombardment Siege of Fort Donelson, 12–16 February 1862 Fort Donelson Fort Donelson Fort Donelson Fort Donelson Fort Donelson Stewart County, Tennessee 1862 in the American Civil War 1862 in Tennessee Riverine warfare February 1862 events Battles commanded by Ulysses S. Grant
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cessna%20T-37%20Tweet
Cessna T-37 Tweet
The Cessna T-37 Tweet (designated Model 318 by Cessna) is a small, economical twin-engined jet trainer aircraft. It was flown for decades as a primary trainer of the United States Air Force (USAF) as well as in the air forces of several other nations. The T-37 was developed in response to the launch of the "Trainer Experimental (TX)" program for the United States Air Force (USAF) in early 1952. On 12 October 1954, the prototype XT-37 performed its maiden flight. While the first prototype was lost during spin tests, features to improve handling were installed upon subsequent prototypes, such as nose-mounted strakes and a heavily redesigned large tail unit, after which the USAF chose to order the aircraft into production as the T-37A. The service received the first production aircraft during June 1956. In response to the T-37A being somewhat underpowered, the USAF ordered an improved version, the T-37B, that was powered by uprated J-69-T-25 engines and was also equipped with improved avionics. A total of 552 new-built T-37Bs was constructed through 1973; all surviving T-37As were eventually upgraded to the T-37B standard as well. The T-37 served as the USAF's primary pilot training vehicle for over 50 years after its first flight. After completing initial training in the T-37, students progressed on to other advanced Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps or Allied trainers. A total of 1,269 T-37s were constructed prior to production ending in 1975. In 2009, the USAF withdrew its final T-37, having replaced the type with the newer turboprop-powered Beechcraft T-6 Texan II. In addition to its use as a trainer, an armed T-37C variant was developed as a weapons trainer. A dedicated attack variant, the A-37 Dragonfly, was also developed by Cessna during the 1960s in response to a need for counter-insurgency aircraft (COIN) aircraft for the Vietnam War. Both the A-37 and T-37C were exported to various other countries, leading to their adoption by the air forces of several South American nations. Development Origins The T-37 can be traced back to the spring of 1952 and the issuing of a request for proposals by the United States Air Force (USAF) for what would become the "Trainer Experimental (TX)" program. The request called for a lightweight twin-seat basic trainer that would be suitable for introducing USAF cadets to jet aircraft. More specifically, the aircraft had to be simple to operate, easy to maintain, structurally strong, possess favourable low-speed handling qualities, be relatively safe while performing high altitude maneuvers, adequate fuel capacity for at least two flight hours, a service ceiling of 30,000 feet, a maximum approach speed of 113 knots, a maximum all-up weight of 4,000 lbs, and the ability to land and take off in less than 4,000 feet. Cessna was one of eight aircraft manufacturers to respond to the TX request, the company designed a twin-jet aircraft with side-by-side seating that it internally designated as the Model 318. The USAF favorably received Cessna's submission, particularly the use of the side-by-side seating configuration as it let the student and instructor interact more closely than would be possible with tandem seating. In the spring of 1954, the USAF issued a contract to Cessna for the production of three prototypes of the Model 318 along with a separate contract for a single static test aircraft. The aircraft was designated XT-37 by the USAF. According to aviation author Kev Darling, the selection of Cessna was a surprising result as the company was only experienced with piston-engined aircraft at the time. The XT-37 was an all-metal aircraft with a semi-monocoque fuselage. It was an aerodynamically clean aircraft, so much so that a speedbrake was fitted behind the nosewheel doors that would be deployed to increase drag when the aircraft was landing as well as in other phases of flight. Since the relatively short landing gear placed the engine's air intakes close to the ground, screens pivoted over the intakes from underneath when the landing gear was extended to prevent foreign object damage. The wide track and a steerable nosewheel enabled it to be relatively easy to handle on the ground while the short landing gear avoided the need for access ladders and service stands. For simplicity of maintenance, the fuselage featured in excess of 100 access panels and doors; an experienced ground crew could change an engine in about half an hour. The XT-37 was fitted with a pair of Continental-Teledyne J69-T-9 turbojet engines, which were French Turbomeca Marboré engines produced under license, each being capable of generating up to 920 lbf (4.1 kN) of thrust. These engines were equipped with thrust attenuators that permitted them to remain spooled-up (i.e. rotating at speeds above idle) during landing approach, permitting shorter landings while still allowing the aircraft to easily make another go-around in case something went wrong. The empty weight of the XT-37 was . The XT-37 had a low, straight wing while the engines buried in the wing roots, a clamshell-type canopy hinged to open vertically to the rear, a control layout similar to that of contemporary operational USAF aircraft, ejection seats, and tricycle landing gear with a wide track of 14 ft (4.3 m). Many of the aircraft's components were designed and built internally by Cessna, relatively few external contractors were involved in the production On 12 October 1954, the XT-37 performed its maiden flight. Flight testing revealed the XT-37 to have a maximum speed of at altitude and a range of . Furthermore, it possessed a service ceiling of ; however, due to the cockpit being unpressurized, it was limited to an operational ceiling of by USAF regulations. The initial prototype crashed during spin tests. To improve handling, subsequent prototypes were equipped with new aerodynamic features, such as lengthy strakes along the nose and an extensively redesigned and enlarged tail. On 3 May 1955, the third and final prototype took flight for the first time. After these modifications were implemented, the USAF found the aircraft to be acceptable to their needs and ordered it into production as the T-37A. Despite the changes, production aircraft remained tricky to correctly recover from a spin; it had a relatively complex recovery procedure in comparison to most aircraft. If fuel distribution was not managed correctly, a weight imbalance situation could be created that may lead to an unrecoverable stall. Production The production T-37A was similar to the XT-37 prototypes, differing only in only minor ways as to address problems revealed by flight testing. During September 1955, the first T-37A was completed, it made its first flight later that year. The USAF ultimately ordered 444 T-37As, the last of which was produced in 1959. During 1957, the US Army evaluated three T-37As for battlefield observation and other combat support roles, but eventually procured the Grumman OV-1 Mohawk for this purpose instead. Darling alleges that this outcome had been largely due to political factors, including the opposition of the USAF. USAF officials reportedly liked the T-37A but often considered it to be underpowered; consequently, the service ordered an improved version, the T-37B. It was outfitted with uprated J-69-T-25 engines that provided roughly 10 percent more thrust as well as being more reliable. The new variant also featured improved avionics, fuel flow improvements, as well as various changes to reduce maintenance requirements. A total of 552 newly built T-37Bs was constructed through 1973. All surviving T-37As were progressively upgraded to the T-37B configuration as well, the rebuilding program being completed by July 1960. Following a series of accidents caused by bird strikes between 1965 and 1970, all T-37s were later retrofitted with a new windshield made of Lexan polycarbonate plastic 0.5 in (12.7 mm) thick; this had sufficient strength to reliably withstand the impact of a bird at a relative speed of . While early examples of this new windshield suffered from distortion, this was rectified via production changes. In 1962, Cessna suggested the T-37B as a replacement for the North American F-100 Super Sabre as the primary aircraft for the USAF aerobatic demonstration team, the Thunderbirds, but the USAF was satisfied with the F-100. The T-37A and T-37B had no built-in armament and lacked any stores pylons for external armament. During 1961, Cessna began developing a modest enhancement of the T-37 for use as a weapons trainer. The new variant, the designated T-37C, was intended for export and could be used for light attack duties if required. The prototype T-37C was a modified T-37B; the principal changes made included strengthened wings and the addition of a stores pylon under each wing outboard of the main landing gear well. The T-37C could also be fitted with a reconnaissance camera mounted inside the fuselage. It could also be fitted with wingtip fuel tanks, each with a capacity of 65 US gal (245 L), that could be dropped in an emergency. The primary armament of the T-37C was the General Electric "multipurpose pod" with a .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine gun with 200 rounds, two 70 mm (2.75 in) folding-fin rocket pods, and four practice bombs. Other stores, such as folding-fin rocket pods or Sidewinder air-to-air missiles, could be carried. A computing gunsight and gun camera were also added. The changes increased the weight of the T-37C by . As the engines were not upgraded, the changes caused a reduction in the aircraft's top speed to 595 km/h (370 mph), though the wingtip tanks increased its maximum range to 1,770 km (1,100 mi). Production of the T-37 slowed considerable during the early 1960s, although there was an uptake during the latter half of the decade, both to address attrition and an uptick in demand as the Vietnam War intensified. Around this time, the aircraft was authorised for supply to friendly overseas operators under the Military Aid for Assistance programme. Production of the T-37 was terminated in 1975. By this point, export sales of the type included 273 T-37Cs. This was on top of the 444 T-37As and 552 T-37Bs produced for both domestic and export customers for a total of 1,269 aircraft built. Further development and concept aircraft A dedicated attack variant of the T-37, referred to as the A-37 Dragonfly, was developed during the 1960s. This was largely in response to the Vietnam War, for which the USAF came to recognize the need for dedicated counter-insurgency aircraft (COIN) aircraft to engage with the ground forces of North Vietnam. Being derived from the T-37, the USAF had determined that an prospective COIN model would need to be able to carry a far greater payload, have more endurance, and possess better short-field performance. Specific alterations made included the adoption of strengthened wings, the use of larger wingtip fuel tanks of capacity, additional avionics suitable for battlefield communications, navigation, and targeting, toughened landing gear that were suitable for rough-field operation, and the fitting of a General Electric-supplied GAU-2B/A "Minigun" Gatling-style machine gun capable of a rate of fire of 3,000 rounds/minute and 1,500 rounds of ammunition that was installed in the aircraft's nose along with an accompanying gunsight and gun camera. Three stores pylons were installed on each wing that were compatible with various munitions. This A-37 would not only be used in frontline combat in Vietnam, but was also exported to various other air forces, including several South American nations. Cessna proposed a number of innovative variants of the T-37 that never went into production. In 1959, Cessna built a prototype of a light jet transport version of the T-37, designated the Cessna Model 407, which was stretched to accommodate a four-place pressurized cockpit with an automobile-type configuration. Only a wooden mockup of the Model 407 was constructed. The project was cancelled due to insufficient customer interest. The company also proposed a similar four-place military light transport, the Model 405, with a big, clamshell canopy, but it was never built. In response to a United States Navy "Tandem Navy Trainer" (TNT) requirement, Cessna proposed a T-37 with a modified fuselage featuring a tandem cockpit. The Navy selected the North American T-2 Buckeye, instead. Cessna proposed various other trainer derivatives for the US Navy and USAF, including a vertical takeoff version based on the TNT configuration and incorporating lift-jet pods in the wings, but none of them reached the prototype stage. Operational history During June 1956, deliveries of the T-37A commenced to the USAF; the service began both Aviation Cadet and commissioned officer pilot training using the type during the following year. The first T-37B was delivered in 1959. Instructors and students typically considered the T-37A to be a pleasant aircraft to fly, handling relatively well, being agile and responsive, though it was definitely not overpowered. It was capable of all traditional aerobatic maneuvers. Students intentionally placed the aircraft into a spin as part of their pilot training. The T-37A was very noisy even by the standards of jet aircraft. The intake of air into its small turbojets emitted a high-pitched shriek that led some to describe the trainer as the "Screaming Mimi", the "6,000 pound dog whistle" or "Converter" (converts fuel and air into noise and smoke). The piercing whistle gave rise to the T-37's nickname of "Tweety Bird", which was regularly shortened to "Tweet". The USAF expended a considerable amount of time and money on soundproofing buildings at bases where the T-37 was stationed while ear protection were mandatory for all personnel when near an operating aircraft. By 1996, a total of 132 aircraft had been lost in Class A accidents and 75 fatalities had been incurred, the majority of which were attributed to pilot error. Common errors included inadvertently shutting down the engines via throttle mismanagement, use of the aircraft in cold weather conditions, and oil system issues. During the late 1970s, amid rising tensions between Argentina and Chile over conflicting territorial claims, commonly referred to be as the Beagle conflict, the Chilean Air Force retrofitted their T-37s into an armed configuration near identical to that of the A-37. Similarly, the Colombian Air Force decided to reorient its T-37Cs from training to light attack duties during the early 1980s. Over the decades, the USAF made several attempts to replace the T-37, such as the abortive Fairchild T-46, however it remained in service with the USAF into the twenty-first century. The T-37 was ultimately phased out in favor of the Beechcraft T-6 Texan II between 2001 and 2009. The T-6 is a turboprop aircraft that possesses more power, better fuel efficiency, and more modern avionics than the T-37. The final USAF student training sortie by a T-37B in the Air Education and Training Command took place on 17 June 2009. The last USAF operator of the T-37B, the 80th Flying Training Wing, flew the sortie from its home station at Sheppard Air Force Base, Texas. The last T-37B was officially retired from active USAF service on 31 July 2009. Variants XT-37 Two-seat jet trainer prototype aircraft, powered by two Continental YJ69-T-9 turbojet engines; three built (54-716 - 54-718). T-37A Two-seat basic jet trainer aircraft, powered by two Continental J69-T-9 turbojet engines; 534 built. T-37B Two-seat basic jet trainer aircraft, powered by two Continental J69-T-25 turbojet engines, fitted with improved navigation and communications equipment. T-37C Two-seat basic jet trainer, light-attack aircraft, fitted with two weapons pylons, one under each wing; 269 built. XAT-37D Two-seat counter-insurgency, light-attack prototype aircraft; two built. YT-48A Proposed development with two Garrett F109-GA-100 engines; none built. Operators Ecuadorian Air Force – 10 T-37Bs. Pakistan Air Force – 63 aircraft, including 24 T-37Bs and 39 T-37Cs. In 2008 20 T-37s were delivered that were ordered from the U.S. On 28 October 2015, the Turkish Air Force gave the Pakistan Air Force 34 T-37Cs, including spares in an agreement between Turkey and Pakistan. Former operators T-37s, including both new-build and ex-USAF aircraft, were supplied to a number of countries, including: Bangladesh Air Force received total of 12 T-37B aircraft from US. Deal for additional T-37s from Pakistan never transpired, all remaining Cessna T-37Bs Tweet in reserve at Jessor Air Base under squadron 15. Retired from active service. Brazilian Air Force – 65 T-37Cs, later passing 30 on to South Korea and 12 on to Paraguay, which were never delivered due to US veto. Burmese Air Force – 12 T-37Cs. Chilean Air Force – 32 aircraft, including 20 T-37Bs and 12 T-37Cs. Both variants were phased out in 1998. Colombian Air Force – 14 aircraft, including 4 T-37Bs and 10 T-37Cs. The last two aircraft were retired on July 10, 2021. German Air Force – 47 T-37Bs now retired, superseded by the T-6 Texan II Hellenic Air Force – 32 aircraft, including 8 T-37Bs and 24 T-37Cs. Royal Jordanian Air Force – 15 aircraft, apparently ex-USAF T-37Bs. Khmer Air Force – 24 T-37Bs. Portuguese Air Force – 30 T-37Cs, received from 1963, grounded in 1991 and phased out in 1992. Superseded by the Alpha Jet. From 1977 to 1991, some of the T-37Cs were used by the aerobatic demonstration team Asas de Portugal (Wings of Portugal). Peruvian Air Force – 32 T-37Bs. ROK Air Force – originally 25 T-37Cs, plus 30 later bought from Brazil. First introduced: June 1973. Republic of Vietnam Air Force – 24 T-37Bs. Royal Thai Air Force – 16 aircraft, including 10 T-37Bs and 6 T-37Cs. Turkish Air Force – 65 T-37Cs. United States Air Force Vietnam People's Air Force – captured ex-South Vietnamese T-37Bs Royal Moroccan Air Force – 14 aircraft, received in 1995. Retired from active service. Survivors Specifications (T-37B) See also References Citations Sources External links Official website Cessna history T-37 Cessna T-37 Twinjets Low-wing aircraft Cruciform tail aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1954
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Ireland
Music of Ireland
Irish music is music that has been created in various genres on the island of Ireland. The indigenous music of the island is termed Irish traditional music. It has remained vibrant through the 20th and into the 21st century, despite globalising cultural forces. In spite of emigration and a well-developed connection to music influences from Britain and the United States, Irish traditional music has kept many of its elements and has itself influenced many forms of music, such as country and roots music in the United States, which in turn have had some influence on modern rock music. It has occasionally been fused with rock and roll, punk rock, and other genres. Some of these fusion artists have attained mainstream success, at home and abroad. In art music, Ireland has a history reaching back to Gregorian chants in the Middle Ages, choral and harp music of the Renaissance, court music of the Baroque and early Classical period, as well as many Romantic, late Romantic and twentieth-century modernist music. It is still a vibrant genre with many composers and ensembles writing and performing avant-garde art music in the classical tradition. On a smaller scale, Ireland has also produced many jazz musicians of note, particularly after the 1950s. Early Irish music By the High and Late Medieval Era, the Irish annals were listing native musicians, such as the following: 921BC: Cú Congalta, priest of Lann-Leire, the Tethra (i. e. the singer or orator) for voice, personal form and knowledge, died. 1011: Connmhach Ua Tomhrair, priest and chief singer of Cluain-mic-Nois, died. 1168: Amhlaeibh Mac Innaighneorach, chief ollamh of Ireland in harp-playing, died. 1226: Aed mac Donn Ó Sochlachain, erenagh of Cong, a man eminent for chanting and for the right tuning of harps and for having made an instrument for himself which none had made before, distinguished also in every art such as poetry, engraving and writing and in every skilled occupation, died. 1269: Aed Ó Finn, master of music and minstrelsy, died. 1329: Maol Ruanaidh Cam Ó Cearbhaill, tiompanist, murdered during the Braganstown Massacre in County Louth. 1330: Mael Sechlainn Mac Carmaic, a general entertainer, died. 1343: Donnchad Clereach Ó Maol Braonáin, a choral canon of Elphin, was killed by an arrow. 1357: Donn Shléibhe Mac Cerbaill, an accomplished musician ... died. 1360: Gilla na Naem Ó Conmaigh, music ollamh of Thomond ... died. 1361. Magraith Ó Fionnachta, Chief Musician and Tiompanist to the Síol Muireadaigh, died. 1364: Bran Ó Brain, a skilful tympanist ... died. 1369: John Mac Egan, and Gilbert Ó Bardan, two accomplished young harpers of Conmaicne, died. 1469: Ruaidrí mac Donnchad Ó Dálaigh, the most musical-handed harpist in all Ireland. 1490: Diarmait MacCairbre, harper, was executed. 1553: Tadhg, son of Ruaidhri Ó Comhdhain, i.e. the ollamh of Éire and Alba in music, died. 1561: Naisse mac Cithruadh, drowned on Lough Gill. 1589. Daighre Ó Duibhgeannáin, a most affable, musical man, died.Modern interpretation Early Irish poetry and song has been translated into modern Irish and English by notable Irish poets, song collectors and musicians. The 6th century hymn Rop tú mo baile by Dallán Forgaill for example, was published in 1905 in English by Mary Elizabeth Byrne, and is widely known as Be Thou My Vision. The Blackbird of Belfast Lough (; ) has been notably translated by poets such as Seamus Heaney, Ciaran Carson and Frank O'Connor. Notable recordings of modern interpretations of early Irish music include Pádraigín Ní Uallacháin's Songs of the Scribe, various music albums by choral group Anúna, and the recordings of Caitríona O'Leary with Dúlra and the eX Ensemble. Early Irish musicians abroad Some musicians were acclaimed in places beyond Ireland. Cú Chuimne (died 747) lived much of his adult life in Gaelic Scotland, and composed at least one hymn. Foillan, who was alive in the seventh century, travelled through much of Britain and France; around 653 at the request of St. Gertrude of Brabant, taught psalmody to her nuns at Nievelle. Tuotilo (c.850–c. 915), who lived in Italy and Germany, was noted both as a musician and a composer. Helias of Cologne (died 1040), is held to be the first to introduce Roman chant to Cologne. His contemporary, Aaron Scotus (died 18 November 1052) was an acclaimed composer of Gregorian chant in Germany. Donell Dubh Ó Cathail (c. 1560s-c.1660), was not only musician of Viscount Buttevant, but, with his uncle Donell Óge Ó Cathail, harper to Elizabeth I. Early modern times Up to the seventeenth century, harp musicians were patronised by the aristocracy in Ireland. This tradition died out in the eighteenth century with the collapse of Gaelic Ireland. Turlough Carolan (1670–1738) is the best known of those harpists, and over 200 of his compositions are known. Some of his pieces use elements of contemporary baroque music, but his music has entered the tradition and is played by many folk musicians today. Edward Bunting collected some of the last-known Irish harp tunes at the Belfast Harp Festival in 1792. Other important collectors of Irish music include Francis O'Neill and George Petrie. Other notable Irish musicians of this era included Cearbhall Óg Ó Dálaigh (fl. c. 1630); Piaras Feiritéar (1600?–1653); William Connellan (fl. mid-17th century) and his brother, Thomas Connellan (c. 1640/1645–1698), composers; Dominic Ó Mongain (alive 18th century); Donnchadh Ó Hámsaigh (1695–1807); poet and songwriter Eoghan Rua Ó Súilleabháin (1748–1782); Arthur O'Neill (fl. 1792); Patrick Byrne (c.1794–1863); world-renowned piper Tarlach Mac Suibhne (c. 1831–1916); poet and songwriter Colm de Bhailís (1796–1906). Traditional music Irish traditional music includes many kinds of songs, including drinking songs, ballads and laments, sung unaccompanied or with accompaniment by a variety of instruments. Traditional dance music includes reels (4/4), hornpipes and jigs (the common double jig is in 6/8 time). The polka arrived at the start of the nineteenth century, spread by itinerant dancing masters and mercenary soldiers, returning from Europe. Set dancing may have arrived in the eighteenth century. Later imported dance-signatures include the mazurka and the highlands (a sort of Irished version of the Scottish strathspey). The Irish fiddle was said by one nationalist researcher to have been played in Ireland since the 8th century, although this has never been proved by texts or artifacts. The bagpipes have a long history of being associated with Ireland Great Irish warpipes were once commonly used in Ireland especially in battle as far back as the 15th century. A revival of Irish traditional music took place around the turn of the 20th century. The button accordion and the concertina were becoming common. Irish stepdance was performed at céilís, organised competitions and at some country houses where local and itinerant musicians were welcome. Irish dancing was supported by the educational system and patriotic organisations. An older style of singing called sean-nós ("in the old style"), which is a form of traditional Irish singing was still found, mainly for very poetic songs in the Irish language. From 1820 to 1920 over 4,400,000 Irish emigrated to the US, creating an Irish diaspora in Philadelphia, Chicago (see Francis O'Neill), Boston, New York and other cities. O'Neill made the first recordings of Irish music on Edison wax cylinders. Later, Irish musicians who were successful in the USA made commercial recordings which found their way around the world and re-invigorated musical styles back in the homeland. For example, American-based fiddlers like Michael Coleman, James Morrison and Paddy Killoran did much to popularise Irish music in the 1920s and 1930s, while Ed Reavy composed over a hundred tunes that have since entered the tradition in both Ireland and the diaspora. After a lull in the 1940s and 1950s, when (except for Céilidh bands) traditional music was at a low ebb, Seán Ó Riada's Ceoltóirí Chualann, The Chieftains, Tom Lenihan, The Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem, The Irish Rovers, The Dubliners, Ryan's Fancy and Sweeney's Men were in large part responsible for a second wave of revitalisation of Irish folk music in the 1960s. Several of these were featured in the 2010 TV movie "My Music: When Irish Eyes are Smiling". Sean O'Riada in particular was singled out as a force who did much for Irish music, through programming on Radio Éireann in the late 1940s through the 1960s. He worked to promote and encourage the performing of traditional Irish music, and his work as a promoter and performer led directly to the formation of the Chieftains. His work inspired the likes of Planxty, The Bothy Band and Clannad in the 70s. Later came such bands as Stockton's Wing, De Dannan, Altan, Arcady, Dervish and Patrick Street, along with a wealth of individual performers. More and more people play Irish music and new bands emerge every year such as Téada, Gráda, Dervish, and Lúnasa. Classical music in Ireland There is evidence of music in the "classical" tradition since the early 15th century when a polyphonic choir was established at Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, and "city musicians" were employed in the major cities and towns, who performed on festive occasions. In the 18th century, Dublin was known as the "Second City" of the British Isles, with an active musical life culminating in, among other events, the first performance of Handel's famous oratorio Messiah. The ballad opera trend, caused by the success of the Beggar's Opera, has left noticeable traces in Ireland, with many works that influenced the genre in England and on the continent, by musicians such as Charles Coffey and Kane O'Hara. Composers of note Apart from the harper-composers of the 16th century, composers in the 16th and 17th century usually came from a Protestant Anglo-Irish background, as due to the discrimination of Catholics no formal musical education was available to them. Composers were often associated with either Dublin Castle or one of the Dublin cathedrals (St Patrick's and Christ Church). These include immigrants in the 18th century such as Johann Sigismund Cousser, Matthew Dubourg, and Tommaso Giordani. Thomas Roseingrave and his brother Ralph were prominent Irish baroque composers. Among the next generation of composers were the Cork-born Philip Cogan (1750–1833), a prominent composer of piano music including concertos, John Andrew Stevenson (1761–1833), who is best known for his publications of Irish Melodies with poet Thomas Moore, who also wrote operas, religious music, catches, glees, odes, and songs. In the early 19th century Irish-born composers dominated English-language opera in England and Ireland, including Charles Thomas Carter (c.1735–1804), Michael Kelly (1762–1826), Thomas Simpson Cooke (1782–1848), William Henry Kearns (1794–1846), Joseph Augustine Wade (1801–1845) and, later in the century, Michael W. Balfe (1808–1870) and William Vincent Wallace (1812–1865). John Field (1782–1837) has been credited with the creation of the Nocturne form, which influenced Frédéric Chopin. John William Glover (1815–1899), Joseph Robinson (1815–1898) and Robert Prescott Stewart (1825–1894) kept Irish classical music in Dublin alive in the 19th century, while mid-19th-century emigrants include George William Torrance and George Alexander Osborne. Charles Villiers Stanford (1852–1924) and Hamilton Harty (1879–1941) were among the last emigrants in Irish music, combining a late romantic musical language with Irish folklorism. Their contemporary in Ireland was the Italian immigrant Michele Esposito (1855–1929), a figure of seminal importance in Irish music who arrived in Ireland in 1882. The years after Irish independence were a difficult period in which composers tried to find an identifiable Irish voice in an anti-British climate, which included ressentiments against classical music as such. The development of Irish broadcasting in the 1920s and the gradual enlargement of the Radio Éireann Orchestra in the late 1930s improved the situation. Important composers in these years were John F. Larchet (1884–1967), Ina Boyle (1889–1967), Arthur Duff (1899–1956), Aloys Fleischmann (1910–1992), Frederick May (1911–1985), Joan Trimble (1915–2000), and Brian Boydell (1917–2000). The middle decades of the 20th century were also shaped by A.J. Potter (1918–1980), Gerard Victory (1921–1995), James Wilson (1922–2005), Seán Ó Riada (1931–1971), John Kinsella (1932–2021), and Seóirse Bodley (b. 1933). Prominent names among the older generation of composers in Ireland today are Frank Corcoran (b. 1944), Eric Sweeney (1948–2020), John Buckley (b. 1951), Gerald Barry (b. 1952), Raymond Deane (b. 1953), Patrick Cassidy (b. 1956), and Fergus Johnston (b. 1959) (see also List of Irish classical composers). Performers of note Performers of note in classical music include Catherine Hayes (1818–1861), Ireland's first great international prima donna and the first Irish woman to perform at La Scala in Milan; tenor Barton McGuckin (1852–1913), a much-demanded singer in the late 19th century; tenor Joseph O'Mara (1864–1927), a very prominent singer around the turn of the century; tenor John McCormack (1884–1945), the most celebrated tenor of his day; opera singer Margaret Burke-Sheridan (1889–1958); pianist Charles Lynch (1906–1984); tenor Josef Locke (1917–1999) achieved global success and was the subject of the 1991 film Hear My Song; the concert flautist Sir James Galway and pianist Barry Douglas. Douglas achieved fame in 1986 by claiming the International Tchaikovsky Competition gold medal. Mezzo-sopranos Bernadette Greevy and Ann Murray have also had success internationally. Choral music Choral music has been practised in Ireland for centuries, initially at the larger churches such as Christ Church Cathedral, St Patrick's Cathedral, and St Mary's Pro-Cathedral, as well as the University of Dublin Choral Society (founded in 1837). Founded and directed by composer Michael McGlynn in 1987, Anúna contributed significantly to raising the profile of choral music, particularly through their contributions to Riverdance which they were a part of from 1994 to 1996. They were nominated for a Classical Brit Award in the UK and appeared at the BBC Proms series in the Royal Albert Hall in 1999. In 2012 they featured as the voices of Hell in the video game Diablo III. In February 2018 the group won the Outstanding Ensemble category of the Annual Game Music Awards 2017 for their contributions to the video game Xenoblade Chronicles 2. The Chamber Choir Ireland, formerly National Chamber Choir of Ireland, is principally funded by the Arts Council of Ireland. Their artistic director is Paul Hillier. The choir has produced a number of CDs with international (including Irish) repertoire. There are many semi-professional choirs in Ireland at local level, too. Many perform and compete at the annual Cork International Choral Festival (since 1954). Opera Although Ireland has never had a purpose-built opera house (the Cork Opera House is a multi-purpose theatre), opera has been performed in Ireland since the 17th century. In the 18th century, Ireland was a centre for ballad opera and created important works that helped to develop the genre in the direction of operetta, with works by Charles Coffey and Kane O'Hara. Nationally identifiable Irish operas have been written by immigrants such as Tommaso Giordani and Johann Bernhard Logier as well as by native composers such as John Andrew Stevenson and Thomas Simpson Cooke, continued in the 19th century with works by John William Glover and Paul McSwiney. Michael William Balfe and Vincent Wallace were the most prominent representatives of mid-19th-century English-language operas. The Celtic Renaissance after 1900 created works such as Muirgheis (1903) by Thomas O'Brien Butler, Connla of the Golden Hair (1903) by William Harvey Pélissier, Eithne (1909) by Robert O'Dwyer, and The Tinker and the Fairy (1910) by Michele Esposito. Muirgheis and Eithne have librettos in Irish, as have a number of works by Geoffrey Molyneux Palmer and several 1940s and '50s works by Éamonn Ó Gallchobhair. Most of the Irish operas written since the 1960s have a contemporary international outlook, with important works by Gerard Victory, James Wilson, Raymond Deane, Gerald Barry, and a number of young composers since the turn of the century. There have been subsequent attempts to revive the Irish-language tradition in opera. A brother-sister team previewed sections of the opera Clann Tuireann publicly, and in 2017 musician John Spillane told the Evening Echo that he was then working on a Gaelic opera to be titled Legends of the Lough. Wexford Festival Opera is a major international festival that takes place every October and November. Popular music Early popular performers Performers of popular music began appearing as early as the late 1940s; Delia Murphy popularised Irish folk songs that she recorded for HMV in 1949; Margaret Barry is also credited with bringing traditional songs to the fore; Donegal's Bridie Gallagher shot to fame in 1956 and is considered 'Ireland's first international pop star'; Belfast-born singer Ruby Murray achieved unprecedented chart success in the UK in the mid-1950s; Dublin native Carmel Quinn emigrated to the US and became a regular singer on Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts and appeared frequently on other TV variety shows in the 1950s and '60s. The Bachelors were an all-male harmony group from Dublin who had hits in the UK, Europe, US, Australia and Russia; Mary O'Hara was a soprano and harpist who was successful on both sides of the Atlantic in the 1950s and early 1960s; Waterford crooner Val Doonican had a string of UK hits and presented his own TV show on the BBC from 1965 to 1986. Showbands in Ireland Irish Showbands were a major force in Irish popular music, particularly in rural areas, for twenty years from the mid-1950s. The showband played in dance halls and was loosely based on the six or seven piece Dixieland dance band. The basic showband repertoire included standard dance numbers, cover versions of pop music hits, ranging from rock and roll, country and western to jazz standards. Key to the showband's success was the ability to learn and perform songs currently in the record charts. They sometimes played Irish traditional or Céilidh music and a few included self-composed songs. Country and Irish With the rise in popularity of American country music, a new subgenre developed in Ireland known as 'Country and Irish'. It was formed by mixing American Country music with Irish influences, incorporating Irish folk music. This often resulted in traditional Irish songs being sung in a country music style. It is especially popular in the rural Midlands and North-West of the country. It also remains popular among Irish emigrants in Great Britain. Big Tom and The Mainliners were the first major contenders in this genre, having crossed over from the showband era of the 1960s. Other major artists were Philomena Begley and Margo, the latter even being bestowed the unofficial title of Queen of Country & Irish. The most successful performer in the genre today is Daniel O'Donnell, who has garnered success in the UK, US and Australia. O'Donnell's frequent singing partner Mary Duff has also had success in this genre and most recently County Carlow native Derek Ryan has enjoyed Irish chart hits doing this type of music. Fusion Traditional music played a part in Irish popular music later in the century, with Clannad, Van Morrison, Hothouse Flowers and Sinéad O'Connor using traditional elements in popular songs. Enya achieved international success with New Age/Celtic fusions. The Afro-Celt Sound System achieved fame adding West African influences and electronic dance rhythms in the 1990s while bands such as Kíla fuse traditional Irish with rock and world music representing the Irish tradition at world music festivals across Europe and America. The most notable fusion band in Ireland was Horslips, who combined Irish themes and music with heavy rock. The Shamrock Wings is a Colombian band that fuses Irish music with Caribbean rhythms.Riverdance is a musical and dancing interval act which originally starred Michael Flatley and Jean Butler and featuring the choir Anúna. It was performed during the Eurovision Song Contest 1994 as "Riverdance". Popular reaction to the act was so immense that an entire musical revue was built around the act. Pop/Rock The 1960s saw the emergence of major Irish rock bands and artists, such as Them, Van Morrison, Emmet Spiceland, Eire Apparent, Skid Row, Taste, Rory Gallagher, Dr. Strangely Strange, Thin Lizzy, Gary Moore, Mellow Candle. In 1970 Dana put Ireland on the pop music map by winning the Eurovision Song Contest with her song All Kinds of Everything. She went to number one in the UK and all over Europe and paved the way for many Irish artists. Gilbert O'Sullivan went to the top of the charts on both sides of the Atlantic in 1972 with a string of hits, and the all-sister line-up of The Nolans gained international chart success in the late 1970s. Chris de Burgh achieved international acclaim with his 1986 hit "Lady in Red". Some groups who formed during the emergence of punk rock in the mid-late 1970s included U2, Virgin Prunes, The Boomtown Rats, The Undertones, Aslan, Gavin Friday, and Stiff Little Fingers. Later in the 80s and into the 90s, Irish punk fractured into new styles of alternative rock, which included That Petrol Emotion, In Tua Nua, Fatima Mansions, My Bloody Valentine and Ash. In the 1990s, pop and rock bands like The Corrs, B*Witched, Boyzone, Westlife and The Cranberries emerged. In the same decade, Ireland also contributed a subgenre of folk metal known as Celtic metal with exponents of the genre including Cruachan, Primordial, Geasa, and Waylander. In recent decades Irish music in many different genres has been very successful internationally; however, the most successful genres have been rock, popular and traditional fusion, with performers such as (in alphabetical order): Altan, The Answer, Ash, Aslan, B*Witched, Bell X1, Frances Black, Mary Black, The Blizzards, The Bothy Band, Brendan Bowyer, Boyzone, Paul Brady, Jimmy Buckley, Chris de Burgh, Paddy Casey, The Cast of Cheers, Celtic Thunder, Celtic Woman, The Chieftains, The Clancy Brothers, Clannad, Codes, Rita Connolly, The Coronas, The Corrs, Phil Coulter, Nadine Coyle (of Girls Aloud), The Cranberries, Peter Cunnah (of D:Ream), Dana, De Dannan, Cathy Davey, Damien Dempsey, The Divine Comedy, Joe Dolan, Val Doonican, Ronnie Drew, The Dubliners, Mary Duff, Duke Special, EDEN, Enya, Julie Feeney, Fight Like Apes, Mick Flannery, The Frames, The Fureys, Bridie Gallagher, Rory Gallagher, Lisa Hannigan, Glen Hansard of The Frames, Keith Harkin, Gemma Hayes, The High Kings, Niall Horan (of One Direction), Horslips, The Hothouse Flowers, Hozier, In Tua Nua, Andy Irvine, Laura Izibor, Gavin James, Jape, Jerry Fish & The Mudbug Club, Siva Kaneswaran (of The Wanted), Dolores Keane, Sean Keane, Luke Kelly, Dermot Kennedy, Keywest, Kíla, James Kilbane, Kodaline, Jack L, Johnny Logan, Dónal Lunny, Phil Lynott and Thin Lizzy, Tommy Makem, Imelda May, Eleanor McEvoy, Christy Moore, Gary Moore, Van Morrison, Moving Hearts, Samantha Mumba, Mundy, Róisín Murphy, Ruby Murray, My Bloody Valentine, Declan Nerney, Maura O'Connell, Sinéad O'Connor, Daniel O'Donnell, Annmarie O'Riordan, Declan O'Rourke, Gilbert O'Sullivan, Picturehouse, Picture This, Pillow Queens, Planxty, Carmel Quinn, Republic of Loose, Damien Rice, The Riptide Movement, Dickie Rock, Derek Ryan, The Saw Doctors, The Script, Sharon Shannon, Pa Sheehy (of Walking on Cars), Snow Patrol, Something Happens, Davy Spillane, Stiff Little Fingers, Stockton's Wing, The Strypes, Tebi Rex, Therapy?, The Thrills, The Undertones, Walking on Cars, The Wolfe Tones, Two Door Cinema Club, U2, VerseChorusVerse, Villagers, Westlife, Bill Whelan, Finbar Wright, all achieving success nationally and internationally. Best selling Irish acts of all time Top 5 'most standout' Irish acts of all time In 2010, PRS for Music conducted research to show which five Irish musicians or bands the public considered to be the 'most standout'. U2 topped the list with sixty-eight percent while Westlife, Van Morrison, Boyzone and The Cranberries came in 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th, respectively. The research also suggested that the 'top-five' had sold over 341 million albums up to March 2010. See also Celtic music Sean-nós singing Lilting Irish traditional music session List of Irish ballads Irish rebel music List of Irish musicians List of All-Ireland Champions List of Irish music collectors List of artists who reached number one in Ireland List of songs that reached number one on the Irish Singles Chart One Hit Wonders in Ireland References Bibliography Boydell, Barra: A History of Music at Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin (Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2004). Boydell, Brian: A Dublin Musical Calendar, 1700–1760 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1988). Boydell, Brian: Rotunda Music in Eighteenth-Century Dublin (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1992). Breathnach, Breandán: Folk Music and Dances of Ireland (Cork: Mercier Press, 1971). Breathnach, Breandán: Ceól Rince na hÉireann (Dublin: Oifig an tSoláthair, 1963 (vol. 1), 1976 (vol. 2), vol. 3 (1985)). Clayton-Lea, Tony & Taylor, Rogan: Irish Rock. Where it’s Come From, Where it’s At, Where it’s Going (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1992). Daly, Kieran Anthony: Catholic Church Music in Ireland, 1878–1903. The Cecilian Reform Movement (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1995). Dervan, Michael (ed.): The Invisible Art. A Century of Music in Ireland, 1916–2016 (Dublin: New Island, 2016). Dwyer, Benjamin: Different Voices. Irish Music and Music in Ireland (Hofheim: Wolke, 2014). Fitzgerald, Mark & O’Flynn, John (ed.): Music and Identity in Ireland and Beyond (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2014). Fleischmann, Aloys (ed.): Music in Ireland. A Symposium (Cork: Cork University Press, 1952). Grindle, William Henry: Irish Cathedral Music. A History of Music at the Cathedrals of the Church of Ireland (Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies, Queen's University of Belfast, 1989). Hast, Dorothea & Scott, Stanley: Music in Ireland. Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). Hogan, Ita M.: Anglo-Irish Music, 1780–1830 (Cork: Cork University Press, 1966). Klein, Axel: Die Musik Irlands im 20. Jahrhundert (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1996). Klein, Axel: Irish Classical Recordings. A Discography of Irish Art Music (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2001). Mangaoang, Áine; O'Flynn, John & Ó Briain, Lonán (ed.): Made in Ireland: Studies in Popular Music. (Routledge, 2020). . McAvoy, Mark: Cork Rock: From Rory Gallagher to the Sultans of Ping (Cork: Mercier Press, 2009). McCarthy, Marie: Passing it on. The Transmission of Music in Irish Culture (Cork: Cork University Press, 1999). Ó Canainn, Tomás: Traditional Music in Ireland (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978; new ed. Cork: Ossian Publications, 1993). O'Connor, Nuala: Bringing it all back home. The Influence of Irish Music (London: BBC Books, 1991; rev. ed. Dublin: Merlin Publications, 2001). Ó Dochartaigh, Seóirse: Sunlight & Shadow. A Listener's Guide to Irish Classical Music (Leckemy, Co. Donegal: Seóirse Ó Dochartaigh, 2016). O'Dwyer, Simon: Prehistoric Music of Ireland (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus Publishing, 2004). Pine, Richard: Music and Broadcasting in Ireland (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2005). Pine, Richard & Acton, Charles (eds.): To Talent Alone. The Royal Irish Academy of Music, 1848–1998 (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1998). Porter, James: The Traditional Music of Britain and Ireland: A Select Bibliography and Research Guide (New York: Garland Publishing, 1989). Power, Vincent: Send 'Em Home Sweatin'. The Showband Story (Cork: Mercier Press, 1990; rev. ed. 2000). Prendergast, Mark J.: Irish Rock. Roots, Personalities, Directions (Dublin: O’Brien Press, 1987). Shields, Hugh: Narrative Singing in Ireland (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1993). Smith, Thérèse: Ancestral Imprints. Histories of Irish Traditional Music and Dance (Cork: Cork University Press, 2012). Smyth, Gerry: Noisy Island. A Short History of Irish Popular Music (Cork: Cork University Press, 2005). Smyth, Gerry & Campbell, Seán: Beautiful Day. Forty Years of Irish Rock (Cork: Atrium Press, 2005). Vallely, Fintan: The Companion to Irish Traditional Music (Cork: Cork University Press 1999), . Wallis, Geoff & Wilson, Sue: The Rough Guide to Irish Music (London: Rough Guides Ltd., 2001), . Walsh, Basil: Michael W. Balfe. A Unique Victorian Composer (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2008), . Walsh, Basil: Catherine Hayes, The Hibernian Prima Donna(Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2000), . Walsh, T.J.: Opera in Dublin, 1705–1797. The Social Scene (Dublin: Allen Figgis, 1973). Walsh, T.J.: Opera in Dublin, 1798–1820. Frederick Jones and the Crow Street Theatre (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). White, Harry: The Keeper’s Recital. Music and Cultural History in Ireland, 1770–1970 (Cork: Cork University Press, 1998). White, Harry & Boydell, Barra: The Encyclopaedia of Music in Ireland (Dublin: UCD Press, 2013). Zimmermann, Georges-Denis: Songs of Irish Rebellion. Political Street Ballads and Rebel Songs, 1780–1900'' (Dublin: Allen Figgis, 1967; 2nd ed. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2002). External links Audio clips: Traditional music of Ireland. Musée d'ethnographie de Genève. Accessed 25 November 2010. A History of Irish Music, by W. H. Flood Contemporary Music Centre, Dublin Ireland's national resource and archive centre for contemporary Irish classical music. Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann A global movement promoting Irish traditional music and culture The Journal of Music in Ireland Ireland's bi-monthly music magazine: reviews, interviews, in-depth articles, sessions TheSession.org an online tune database and discussion site for adherents of Irish Traditional Music Fleadh Cheoil Music & dance Competition IRMA.ie – The Irish Recorded Music Association BreakingTunes.com Arts Council of Ireland Website that specialises in the promotion of contemporary Irish Music. TradTune.com Online database of traditional Celtic tunes with many from Ireland. Chief O'Neill Blog Blog covering multiple aspects of the life and legacy of Francis O'Neill Vashon Celtic Tunes Irish (mostly) dance tunes with sheet music and chords. TTA – The Traditional Tune Archive The Traditional Tune Archive : The Semantic Index of North American, British and Irish traditional instrumental music with annotation, formerly known as "The Fiddler's Companion" Culture of Ireland Irish styles of music
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elijah%20Parish%20Lovejoy
Elijah Parish Lovejoy
Elijah Parish Lovejoy (November 9, 1802 – November 7, 1837) was an American Presbyterian minister, journalist, newspaper editor, and abolitionist. After his murder by a mob, he became a martyr to the abolitionist cause opposing slavery in the United States. He was also hailed as a defender of free speech and freedom of the press. Lovejoy was born in New England and graduated from what is today Colby College. Unsatisfied with a teaching career, he was drawn to journalism and decided to 'go west'. In 1827, he reached St. Louis, Missouri. Under the Missouri Compromise of 1820, Missouri entered the United States as a slave state. Lovejoy edited a newspaper but returned east for a time to study for the ministry at Princeton University. On his return to St. Louis, he founded the St. Louis Observer, in which he became increasingly more critical of slavery and the powerful interests protecting slavery. Facing threats and violent attacks, Lovejoy decided to move across the river to Alton in Illinois, a free state. However, Alton was also tied to the Mississippi River economy, easily reachable by anti-Lovejoy Missourians, and badly split over abolitionism. In Alton, Lovejoy was fatally shot during an attack by a pro-slavery mob. The mob was seeking to destroy a warehouse owned by Winthrop Sargent Gilman and Benjamin Godfrey, which held Lovejoy's printing press and abolitionist materials. According to John Quincy Adams, the murder "[gave] a shock as of an earthquake throughout this country." The Boston Recorder wrote that "these events called forth from every part of the land 'a burst of indignation which has not had its parallel in this country since the Battle of Lexington.'" When informed about the murder, John Brown said publicly: "Here, before God, in the presence of these witnesses, from this time, I consecrate my life to the destruction of slavery." Lovejoy is often seen as a martyr to the abolitionist cause and to a free press. The Lovejoy Monument was erected in Alton in 1897. Early life and education Elijah Parish Lovejoy was born at his paternal grandparents' frontier farmhouse near Albion, Maine (then part of Massachusetts), the eldest of nine children of Elizabeth (Pattee) Lovejoy and Daniel Lovejoy. Lovejoy's father was a Congregational preacher and farmer, and his mother was a homemaker and a devout Christian. Daniel Lovejoy named his son in honor of his close friend and mentor, Elijah Parish, a minister who was also involved in politics. Due to his own lack of education, the father encouraged his sons – Elijah, Daniel, Joseph Cammett, Owen, and John – to become educated. Elijah was taught to read the Bible and other religious texts by his mother at an early age. After completing early studies in public schools, Lovejoy attended the private Academy at Monmouth and China Academy. When sufficiently proficient in Latin and mathematics, he enrolled at Waterville College (now Colby College) as a sophomore in 1823. Lovejoy received financial support from minister Benjamin Tappan to continue his studies there. Based on faculty recommendations, from 1824 until his graduation in 1826, he also served as headmaster of Colby's associated high school, the Latin School (later known as the Coburn Classical Institute). In September 1826, Lovejoy graduated cum laude from Waterville, and was class valedictorian. Journey westward During the winter and spring, he taught at China Academy in Maine. Dissatisfied with teaching, Lovejoy considered moving to the American South or westward to the Northwest Territory. His former teachers at Waterville College advised him that he would best serve God in the West (now considered the American Midwest). In May 1827, he went to Boston to earn money for his journey, having settled on the free state of Illinois as his destination. Unsuccessful at finding work, he started for Illinois by foot. He stopped in New York City in mid-June to try to find work. He eventually landed a position with the Saturday Evening Gazette as a newspaper subscription peddler. For nearly five weeks, he worked to sell subscriptions. Struggling with his finances, he wrote to Jeremiah Chaplin, president of Waterville College, explaining his situation. Chaplin sent the money that his former student needed. Before embarking on his journey westward, Lovejoy wrote a poem which later seemed to prophesy his death: Career in Missouri In 1827, Lovejoy arrived in St. Louis, Missouri, a major port in a slave state that shared its longest border with the free state of Illinois. Although it had a large slave market, St. Louis identified itself less with the plantation South and more as the "gateway to the West" and the American "frontier." Lovejoy initially ran a private school in St. Louis with a friend, which they modeled after academies in the East. Lovejoy's interest in teaching waned, however, when local editors began publishing his poems in their newspapers. St. Louis Times In 1829, Lovejoy became a co-editor with T. J. Miller of the St. Louis Times, which promoted the candidacy of Henry Clay for president of the United States. Working at the Times introduced him to like-minded community leaders, many of whom were members of the American Colonization Society. They supported sending freed American blacks to Africa, considering it a kind of "repatriation." Opponents of the ACS including Frederick Douglass noted most African Americans had been native-born for generations and considered their future to be in the U.S. Among Lovejoy's new acquaintances were prominent St. Louis attorneys and slaveholders such as Edward Bates (later U.S. Attorney General under President Abraham Lincoln); Hamilton R. Gamble, later Chief Justice of the Missouri Supreme Court; and his brother Archibald Gamble. Lovejoy occasionally hired slaves who were leased out by owners, to work with him at the paper. Among them was William Wells Brown, who later recounted his experience in a memoir. Brown described Lovejoy as "a very good man, and decidedly the best master that I had ever had. I am chiefly indebted to him, and to my employment in the printing office, for what little learning I obtained while in slavery." Theological training Lovejoy struggled with his interest in religion, often writing to his parents about his sinfulness and rebellion against God. He attended revival meetings in 1831 led by William S. Potts, pastor of First Presbyterian Church, that rekindled his interest in religion for a time. However, Lovejoy admitted to his parents that "gradually these feelings all left me, and I returned to the world a more hardened sinner than ever." A year later, Lovejoy found the call to God he had been yearning for. In 1832, influenced by Christian revivalist meetings led by abolitionist David Nelson, he joined the First Presbyterian Church and decided to become a preacher. He sold his interest in the Times, and returned East to study at Princeton Theological Seminary. While he was at Princeton, Lovejoy debated the question of slavery with an abolitionist named Bradford. Although Lovejoy had opposed abolitionism during the debate, after returning to St. Louis he would write to Bradford repeatedly asking him to write articles for his newspaper. After graduation, he went to Philadelphia, where he became an ordained minister of the Presbyterian Church on April 18, 1833. St. Louis Observer In 1833, a group of Protestants in St. Louis offered to finance a religious newspaper if Lovejoy would agree to return and edit it. Lovejoy accepted and on November 22, 1833, he published the first issue of the St. Louis Observer. His editorials criticized both the Catholic Church and slavery. By 1830, sixty percent of the population of St. Louis was Catholic, and the proprietors of the Observer tasked Lovejoy with countering the increasing influence of Catholicism. From the fall of 1833 to the summer 1836, Lovejoy regularly published articles criticizing the Catholic Church and church doctrine. Some were written by Lovejoy, while others were contributed by other authors. Initially, he criticized Catholic beliefs such as transubstantiation, clerical celibacy, and the influence of Catholicism on foreign governments. He also argued that "Popery" undermined the fundamental principles of American democracy. Local Catholics and clergy were offended by these attacks and regularly responded in articles of their own in The Shepherd of the Times, a Catholic newspaper funded by Bishop Joseph Rosati. In 1834, the St. Louis Observer began to increase its coverage of slavery, the most controversial issue of the day. At first, Lovejoy resisted calling himself an abolitionist, because he disliked the negative connotations associating abolitionism with social unrest. Even as he expressed antislavery views, he claimed to be an "emancipationist" rather than an "abolitionist." In the spring of 1835, the Missouri Republican advocated the gradual emancipation of slaves in Missouri, and Lovejoy voiced his support through the Observer. Lovejoy urged antislavery groups in Missouri to push for the issue to be addressed during a proposed state constitutional convention. To their dismay, the editors of both newspapers soon found that their "moderate" proposal to end slavery gradually could not be discussed without igniting a polarizing political debate. Over time, Lovejoy became bolder and more outspoken about his antislavery views, advocating the outright emancipation of all slaves on religious and moral grounds. Lovejoy condemned slavery and "implored all Christians who owned slaves to recognize that slaves were human beings who possessed a soul," and famously wrote:Slavery, as it exists among us . . . is demonstrably an evil. In every community where it exists, it presses like a nightmare on the body politic. Or, like the vampire, it slowly and imperceptibly sucks away the life-blood of society, leaving it faint and disheartened to stagger along the road of improvement.St. Louis Observer, April 30, 1835. Threats of violence Lovejoy's views on slavery began to incite complaints and threats. Pro-slavery proponents condemned anti-slavery coverage which appeared in newspapers, stating that it was against "the vital interests of the slaveholding states." Lovejoy was threatened to be tarred and feathered if he continued to publish anti-slavery content. By October 1835, there were rumors of mob action against The Observer. A group of prominent St. Louisans, including many of Lovejoy's friends, wrote a letter pleading with him to cease discussion of slavery in the newspaper. Lovejoy was away from the city at this time, and the publishers declared that no further articles on slavery would be published during his absence. They said that when he returned, he would follow a more rigorous editorial policy. Lovejoy responded by expressing disagreement with the publishers' policy. As tensions over slavery escalated in St. Louis, Lovejoy would not back down from his convictions; he sensed that he would become a martyr for the cause. He was asked to resign as editor of The Observer, to which he agreed. After the newspaper's owners released The Observer property to the moneylender who held the mortgage, the new owners asked Lovejoy to stay on as editor. Lynching of Francis McIntosh Lovejoy and The Observer continued to be embroiled in controversy. In April 1836, Francis McIntosh, a free man of color and boatman, was arrested by two policemen. En route to the jail, McIntosh grabbed a knife and stabbed both men. One was killed and the other seriously injured. McIntosh attempted to escape, but was caught by a white mob, who tied him up and burned him to death. Some of the mob were brought before a grand jury to face charges. The presiding judge, Judge Luke Lawless, refused to convict anyone; he said the crime was a spontaneous mob action without any specific people to prosecute. The judge made remarks suggesting that abolitionists, including Lovejoy and The Observer, had incited McIntosh into stabbing the policemen. Marriage and family Lovejoy also served as an evangelist preacher. He traveled a circuit across the state, during which he met Celia Ann French of St. Charles, located on the Missouri River west of St. Louis, now a suburb of the city. She was the daughter of Thomas French, a lawyer who came to St. Charles in the 1820s. The couple were married on March 4, 1835. Their son Edward P. Lovejoy was born in 1836. Their second child was born after Elijah's death and died as an infant. In a letter to his mother, Elijah had written about Celia:My dear wife is a perfect heroine... never has she by a single word attempted to turn me from the scene of warfare and danger – never has she whispered a feeling of discontent at the hardships to which she has been subjected in consequence of her marriage to me, and those have been neither few nor small. Move to Illinois In the summer of 1836, Lovejoy attended the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Pittsburgh and met several followers of abolitionist Theodore Weld. At the assembly, Lovejoy was frustrated by the church's hesitation to fully support petitions for abolition and drafted a protest submitted to church leadership. By this time, he had fully embraced the label of "abolitionist." In the face of all the negative publicity and two break-ins in May 1836, Lovejoy decided to move The Observer across the Mississippi River to Alton, Illinois. At the time, Alton was large and prosperous, many times larger than the frontier city of Chicago. Although Illinois was a free state, Alton was also a center for slave catchers and pro-slavery forces active in the southern area. Many refugee slaves crossed the Mississippi River from Missouri. Among Alton's residents were pro-slavery Southerners who thought Alton should not become a haven for escaped slaves. On July 21, 1836, Lovejoy published a scathing editorial criticizing the way that Judge Luke Lawless had handled the murder trial of Francis McIntosh. Arguing that the judge's actions appeared to condone the murder, he wrote that Lawless was "a Papist; and in his charge we see the cloven foot of Jesuitism." He also announced that his next issue would be printed in Alton. Before he could move the press, an angry mob broke into The Observer office and vandalized it. Only Alderman and future mayor Bryan Mullanphy attempted to stop the crime, and no policemen or city officials intervened. Lovejoy packed what remained of the office for shipment to Alton. The printing press sat on the riverbank, unguarded, overnight; vandals destroyed it and threw the remains into the Mississippi River. Alton Observer Lovejoy served as pastor at Upper Alton Presbyterian Church (now College Avenue Presbyterian Church). In 1837, he started the Alton Observer, also an abolitionist, Presbyterian paper. Lovejoy's views on slavery became more extreme, and he called for a convention to discuss forming an Illinois state chapter of the American Anti-Slavery Society, established in Philadelphia in 1833. Many residents of Alton began to question whether they should continue to allow Lovejoy to print in their town. After an economic crisis in March 1837, Alton citizens wondered if Lovejoy's views were contributing to hard times. They felt Southern states, or even the city of St. Louis, might not want to do business with their town if they continued to harbor such an outspoken abolitionist. Lovejoy held the Illinois Antislavery Congress at the Presbyterian church in Upper Alton on October 26, 1837. Supporters were surprised to see two pro-slavery advocates in the crowd, John Hogan and Illinois Attorney General Usher F. Linder. The Lovejoy supporters were not happy to have his enemies at the convention, but relented as the meeting was open to all parties. On November 2, 1837, Lovejoy responded to threats in a speech, saying: Mob attack and death Lovejoy had acquired a fourth press and hid it in a warehouse owned by Winthrop Sargent Gilman and Gilford, major grocers in the area. A mob, said by Appleton's to be composed mostly of Missourians, attacked the building on the evening of November 6, 1837. Pro-slavery partisans approached Gilman's warehouse, where Lovejoy had hidden his printing press. The conflict continued. According to the Alton Observer, the mob fired shots into the warehouse. When Lovejoy and his men returned fire, they hit several people in the crowd, killing a man named Bishop. After the attacking party had apparently withdrawn, Lovejoy opened the door and was instantly struck by five bullets, dying in a few minutes. Jon Meacham in his book And There Was Light: Abraham Lincoln and the American Struggle notes that Lovejoy was murdered on November 7, 1837, after he helped William Lloyd Garrison found an Illinois chapter of Garrison's Anti-Slavery Society. Elijah Lovejoy was buried in Alton Cemetery; his grave was unmarked to prevent vandalism. The ceremony was kept small. In 1864, Thomas Dimmock "reclaimed from oblivion" Lovejoy's grave. Dimmock had "succeeded in establishing the location of the grave... in a roadway where vehicles were passing over it... Mr. Dimmock had the bones disinterred and... laid in a new grave where they would be free from trespass." He also arranged for a gravestone and helped found a committee to create a monument to the editor. Dimmock was principal orator at the dedication of a later monument erected in 1897 to commemorate Lovejoy. The Chicago Tribune said of the grave marking and association to fund a monument: Alton riot trial Francis B. Murdoch, the district attorney of Alton, prosecuted charges of riot related to both assailants and defenders of the warehouse in January 1838, on Wednesday and Friday of the same week. He called the Illinois Attorney General, Usher F. Linder, to assist him. Murdoch (with Linder) first prosecuted Gilman, owner of the warehouse, and eleven other defenders of the new press and building. They were indicted on two charges related to the riot at a trial opening January 16, 1838, for "unlawful defence", so defined and charged because it was "violently and tumultuously done." Gilman moved to be tried separately; his counsel said he needed to be able to show his lack of criminal intent. The court agreed on the condition that the other eleven defendants would be tried together. Although the proceedings lasted until 10 p.m. that night, in the case of Gilman, the jury returned after ten minutes to declare him "Not Guilty." The next morning the "City Attorney entered a 'Nulle Prosequi' as to the other eleven defendants", effectively dismissing the charges against them. A new jury was called to hear the case against the assailants of the warehouse. The attackers allegedly responsible for destruction of the warehouse and Lovejoy's death were tried beginning January 19, 1838. Concluding it was not possible to assign responsibility among the several suspects and others not indicted, the jury gave a verdict of "not guilty". The jury foreman had been identified as a member of the mob and was wounded in the attack. The presiding judge doubled as a witness to the proceedings. These conflicts of interest are believed to have contributed to the "not guilty" verdict. Legacy and honors After Lovejoy was killed, there was a dramatic increase in the number of people in the North and the West who joined anti-slavery societies, which formed beginning in the 1830s. Partly because he was a clergyman, there was outrage about his death. It became a catalyst for other pro- and anti-slavery events, like the John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, that culminated with the American Civil War. Lovejoy was considered a martyr by the abolition movement. In his name, his brother Owen Lovejoy became the leader of the Illinois abolitionists. Owen and his brother Joseph wrote a memoir about Elijah, which was published in 1838 by the Anti-Slavery Society in New York and distributed widely among abolitionists in the nation. With his killing symbolic of the rising tensions within the country, Lovejoy is called the "first casualty of the Civil War." Abraham Lincoln referred to Lovejoy's murder in his Lyceum address in January 1838. About Lovejoy, Lincoln said, "Let every man remember that to violate the law, is to trample on the blood of his father, and to tear the charter of his own, and his children’s liberty… Let reverence for the laws be breathed by every American mother…in short let it become the political religion of the nation…" John Brown was inspired by Lovejoy's death, declaring in church, "Here, before God, in the presence of these witnesses, from this time, I consecrate my life to the destruction of slavery." John Glanville Gill completed his Ph.D. at Harvard in 1946 on The Issues Involved in the Death of the Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy, Alton, 1837. This thesis was adapted and published in 1958 as the first biography of Lovejoy, entitled Tide Without Turning: Elijah P. Lovejoy and Freedom of the Press. Awards and scholarships The Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award was established by Colby College in his honor. It is awarded annually to a member of the press who "has contributed to the nation's journalistic achievement." A major classroom building at Colby is also named for Lovejoy. An inscribed memorial rock from his birthplace was installed in a grassy square at Colby. In 2003, Reed College established the Elijah Parish and Owen Lovejoy Scholarship, which it awards annually. Memorials and plaques In 1897, the 110-foot tall Elijah P. Lovejoy Monument was erected at Alton's City Cemetery; $25,000 had been appropriated by the state legislature, and $5,000 raised by residents of Alton and other supporters. A plaque honoring Elijah Parish Lovejoy was installed on an external wall at the Mackay Campus Center at his alma mater, Princeton Theological Seminary. He is the first person listed in the "Journalists Memorial" located at the Newseum, 555 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, DC. Elijah Lovejoy is recognized by a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame. Numerous places and institutions were named after him: The majority African-American village of Brooklyn, Illinois, located just north of East St. Louis, is popularly known as 'Lovejoy' in his honor. The Presbytery of Giddings-Lovejoy, Presbyterian Church (USA), formed on January 3, 1985, from the merger of Elijah Parish Lovejoy Presbytery and the Presbytery of Southeast Missouri. Lovejoy Health Center in Albion, Maine, his birthplace. The Lovejoy School in Washington, DC was named in his honor in 1870. It closed in 1988. It was adapted and converted to the Lovejoy Lofts condominiums in 2004. Lovejoy Elementary School in Alton, Illinois. LoveJoy United Presbyterian Church, Wood River, Illinois Lovejoy Library at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville See also List of lynchings and other homicides in Illinois Censorship in the United States List of journalists killed in the United States List of unsolved murders Rev. John R. Anderson who worked for Lovejoy and witnessed his murder Notes References Citations Works cited (first published in Chicago, 1881; reprint edition 1971) Further reading (most recent first) (Biography for middle-grade readers.) External links Biography from the Alton, Illinois web "Elijah Parish Lovejoy: 'a Martyr on the Altar of American Liberty' " , Reprint, Alton Observer, November 7, 1837 St. Louis Walk of Fame "Elijah Lovejoy, Correspondence & manuscripts, 1804–1891", at Southwest Collection/Special Collections Library, Texas Tech University. See also papers of nephew Austin Wiswall, officer with 9th United States Colored Troops, captured and held in prison at Andersonville, Georgia. Anne Silverwood Twitty, Slavery and Freedom in the American Confluence, from the Northwest Ordinance to Dred Scott, Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 2010, via ProQuest subscription (Preview online) "Old Des Peres Presbyterian Church" (1834), Frontenac, MO, where Lovejoy preached in its early years Biography from Spartacus Educational 1802 births 1837 deaths 1837 murders in the United States 19th-century American clergy 19th-century American newspaper editors 19th-century male writers 19th-century American Presbyterian ministers Abolitionists from Maine American anti-abolitionist riots and civil disorder American male journalists Assassinated American journalists Colby College alumni Deaths by firearm in Illinois Free speech activists Journalists from Maine Journalists killed in the United States Lynching deaths in Illinois Male murder victims November 1838 events Origins of the American Civil War People from Alton, Illinois People from Albion, Maine People murdered in Illinois Princeton Theological Seminary alumni Presbyterian abolitionists Presbyterian Church (USA) teaching elders Riots and civil disorder in Illinois Riots and civil disorder in Missouri St. Louis Observer people Unsolved murders in the United States Writers from Illinois Writers from Maine Writers from Missouri
377622
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh%20Air%20Force
Bangladesh Air Force
The Bangladesh Air Force (BAF) () is the aerial warfare branch of the Bangladesh Armed Forces. The air force is primarily responsible for air defence of Bangladesh's sovereign territory as well as providing air support to the Bangladesh Army and Bangladesh Navy. Furthermore, the BAF has a territorial role in providing tactical and strategic air transport and logistics capability for the country. Since its establishment on 28 September 1971, the Air Force has been involved in various combat and humanitarian operations, from the Bangladesh Liberation War in which it was born, to supporting international efforts including United Nations peacekeeping missions. Operation Kilo Flight was a famous operation conducted by the Bangladesh Air Force during the Bangladesh Liberation War. History Foundation The Bangladesh Air Force was officially formed on 28 September 1971 consisting of the revolting Bengali officers and airmen of the Pakistan Air Force at Dimapur Airport in the Indian state of Nagaland and it was launched formally by flying three repaired vintage aircraft on 8 October 1971. BAF's initial personnel were around a 1000 Bengali members of the Pakistan Air Force who were stationed in East Pakistan at the outbreak of the war and who deserted to the Bangladeshi side. At that time, the embryo of Bangladesh Air Force BAF was formed with less than a hundred officers and around 900 airmen and warrant officers. These numbers were gradually strengthened by the slow but steady defection from among the around 3000 Bengali officers and airmen stationed and grounded in West Pakistan. By the first week of December a total of 700 Bengali officers and airmen had defected from the Western border. A significant number of BAF personnel participated in the Ground Warfare roles in the Bangladesh War of Independence. During the independence war, initially, officers of the BAF attached to the then Bangladesh Government were Chief Representative to Chakulia Guerrilla Training Camp Squadron Leader M. Hamidullah Khan, Group Captain A. K. Khandekar, DCOS Army(Liaison) later Sub-Sector Commander and as Commander - Sector 11, Flight Lieutenant Liaqat as Battalion Adjutant, Flying Officer Rouf, Flying Officer Ashraf and Flight Sergeant Shafiqullah as company commanders. Squadron Leader Sadruddin Hossain, Squadron Leader Wahidur Rahim, Squadron Leader Nurul Qader, Squadron Leader Shamsur Rahman and Squadron Leader Ataur Rahman as sub sector company commanders. Squadron Leader Khademul Bashar participated in the war as Commander-Sector 6. Indian civilian authorities and the IAF donated 1 DC-3 Dakota (gifted by the Maharaja of Jodhpor), 1 Twin Otter plane, and 1 Alouette III helicopter for the newborn Bangladesh Air Force. The Bengali rank and file fixed up the World War II vintage runway at Dimapur Airport, then began rigging the aircraft for combat duty. The Dakota was modified to carry 500 pound bombs, but for technical reasons it was only used to ferry Bangladesh government personnel. The Alouette III helicopter was rigged to fire 14 rockets from pylons attached to its side and had .303 Browning machine guns installed, in addition to having 1-inch (25 mm) steel plate welded to its floor for extra protection. The Twin Otter boasted 7 rockets under each of its wings and could deliver ten 25 pound bombs, which were rolled out of the aircraft by hand through a makeshift door. This tiny force was dubbed Kilo Flight, the first fighting formation of the nascent Bangladesh Air force. Squadron Leader Sultan Mahmud was appointed as the commander of the 'Kilo Flight'. Bangladesh Air Force first went in action on 3 December 1971 and attacked the Chattogram-based Oil tank depot and oil tank depot was totally destroyed by that air attack. The Air attack was conducted by Capt. Akram Ahmed. The second Bangladesh Air Force attack was on 6 December 1971 at Moulvibazar Pakistani Army barracks under the command of Squadron Leader Sultan Mahmud, where Captain Shahabuddin Ahmed was co-pilot. After the surrender of Pakistan, all personnel reported to Bangladesh Forces commander-in-chief, Col. M. A. G. Osmani. On 7 April 1972, the post of the chief of air staff went into effect by order of the President of Bangladesh. The combined command of Bangladesh Forces had been abolished with effect from 7 April 1972 and replaced by three separate commands for the three services with acting chiefs of staff. The Bangladesh air force gradually began to reoccupy the reform all the airbase structures throughout the country, HQ administrative buildings, fuel and weapons depots. After independence After independence, in November–December 1972 the BAF received a significant donation from the former USSR. Among the aircraft delivered were ten single-seat Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21MFs, two twin-seat Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21UMs, and twelve Mil Mi-8 utility helicopters. Later China also supplied some equipment. Apart from the aircraft of Kilo Flight which were donated by India, most Pakistan Air Force aircraft grounded in Dhaka due to runway cratering by the Indian Air Force during the liberation war, were sabotaged before surrender. Of these, four Canadair Sabres were also returned to service by Bangladeshi ground technicians in 1972. The Pakistan Air Force prior to 1971 had many Bengali pilots, air traffic controllers, technicians and administrative officers and the general Bengali representation in the Pakistan Air Force was around 15% (and 18% in the officer corps) of the 25,000 odd manpower of the Pakistan Air Force in 1971, which although lower than their share in the population (50%) was much higher than the 6% numbers in the Army. Many of them distinguished themselves during the Bangladesh Liberation War, they provided the nascent Bangladesh Air Force with a good number of trained personnel. It had grown with the repatriation of the around 2000 Air Force personnel from Pakistan in 1973 after the Simla Agreement. In 1977 some personnel of Bangladesh Air Force, led by Sergeant Afsar, attempted to stage a coup, which resulted in the deaths of 11 air force officers. After the mutiny was put down by the then Provost marshal Wing Commander M. Hamidullah Khan, TJ, SH, BP, President Ziaur Rahman even considered disbanding the Bangladesh Air Force, in favour of an army aviation wing. However, this plan did not go ahead. President Ziaur Rahman placed Hamidullah in charge of Command and Communication Control at the old Parliamentary building, present day Prine Ministers office. Hamidullah reorganized the Forces intelligence to directorate general level under the authority of the President. Hence the DGFI was born. Defence co-operation improved with Pakistan considerably under the government of Ziaur Rahman and the military regime of Hossain Mohammad Ershad in Bangladesh, which had grown more distant from its war ally, India. Common concerns over India's regional meddling have influenced strategic co-operation leading to a gift of several squadrons of refurbished Shenyang F-6 fighter aircraft from Pakistan to the Bangladesh Air Force in the late 1980s. Bangladesh bought 8 Mig-29 from Russia in 1999 under Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina. Bangladesh Air Force Academy (BAFA) received National colours in 2003 by the then Prime Minister Khaleda Zia. The Recruits' Training School (RTS) has been awarded with BAF Colours by ex-Chief of Air Staff (AVM Fakhrul Azam) in 2004. In 2017 Bangladesh Air Force was awarded the Independence Day Award. Covid-19 pandemic operations Bangladesh Air Force was very active during COVID-19 pandemic . BAF provided emergency Medivac for many critical COVID-19 patients by their helicopters. BAF also evacuated immigrants, migrants workers and airlifted tons of relief materials for home and abroad by their C-130B and C-130J cargo aircraft. Forces Goal 2030 The Bangladesh Air Force has an ambitious modernisation plan to be implemented in upcoming years under Forces Goal 2030. As per the goal, air force is to be a strong deterrent force to well protect the sky of Bangladesh. Plans are made to strengthen both air power and land based air defence capabilities. Since the formulation of the forces goal 2030, the BAF has developed in many folds. The Air Force has set up an advanced training unit named 105 Advance Jet Training Unit which is a dedicated fighter pilot training unit of BAF. The unit consists of three training squadrons which will provide advanced training to the pilots selected for operating the fighter jets. Since 2010, BAF has taken the delivery of sixteen Chengdu F-7BGI fighter aircraft, sixteen Yakovlev Yak-130 advanced jet trainers, two C-130J transport aircraft, nine K-8W jet trainer aircraft, three Let L-410 Turbolet transport trainer aircraft and twenty three CJ-6 basic trainers. Process is going on for the procurement of sixteen multirole combat aircraft. BAF has also taken the delivery of 21 Mi-171Sh combat transport helicopters, four AgustaWestland AW139 maritime SAR helicopters and two AW 119KX training helicopters since 2010. Procurement process of eight attack helicopters is going on. BAF earned the Surface to Air Missile capability by introducing FM-90 short range air defence missile in 2011. Till date, BAF Has taken the delivery of two regiments of FM-90 systems. Bangladesh air force received an Italian origin long range Selex RAT-31DL air defence radar in 2019. Bangladesh has signed a government to government contract with the United Kingdom for the supply of two off-the-shelf C-130J aircraft currently in service with the Royal Air Force. In June 2019, another contract was signed for the procurement of additional three off-the-shelf C-130J aircraft from UK. As of September 2020, three of the aircraft have been delivered. On 20 June 2018, the Bangladesh Air Force signed a contract with China National Aero-Technology Import & Export Corporation (CATIC) for the procurement of seven K-8 jet training aircraft. On 15 October 2020 BAF received those seven procured K-8 jet training aircraft. UN mission deployment More than 600+ BAF personnel, including officers and airmen, 10 BAF helicopters and are currently deployed to various UN Missions. Another C-130 transport aircraft is providing support to UN Mission in Africa. With the deployment of C-130 aircraft and its personnel, Bangladesh became the largest troops contributing country in UN peacekeeping missions. Women in Bangladesh Air Force On 25 November 2020, 64 female recruits completed airmens recruit training in Recruits Training School, Shamshernagar; this was the first time that the air force took females as airwomen. As officers, women can join since the early 2000s but women were not allowed to become pilots till 2014, in 2014 two females received pilots training. Now female pilots of BAF have flown Mi-17s, Bell-206s, L-410s and recently C-130Js. List of the Chiefs of Air Staff Organisation According to the Constitution of Bangladesh, President of Bangladesh act as the civilian commander-in-chief, and Chief of Air Staff (COAS), by statute a four-star air officer (air chief marshal), commands the Air Force. The Bangladesh Air Force is currently commanded by Air Chief Marshal Shaikh Abdul Hannan. The Bangladesh Air Force (BAF) has its headquarters at Dhaka Cantonment. HQ has 4 branches, Operations & Training (Ops. & Trng.), Administration (Admin.), Maintenance (Mte.) and Plannings (Plans). Each branch is headed by officers who are considered as principal staff officer (PSO) and known as assistant chief of air staff, e.g. ACAS (Ops & Trng). Under each PSO there are various directorates headed by directors of air commodore rank. Under each director there are deputy directors (DD) headed by group captain and staff officers (SO) with the rank of wing commander and below. Office of the Chief of Air Staff (COAS) Air Secretary's Branch Chief Inspector's Office Directorate of Air Intelligence Judge Advocate General Operations and Training Branch Directorate of Air Defence Directorate of Air Operations Directorate of Air Traffic Services Directorate of Air Training Directorate of Education Directorate of Flight Safety Directorate of Cyber Warfare and Information Technology Directorate of Meteorology Directorate of Overseas Air Operations Administration Branch Directorate of Provost Marshal Directorate of Administrative Co-ordination Directorate of Finance Directorate of Medical Services (Air) Directorate of Personnel Chief Engineer's Office (Air) Directorate of Works Directorate of Welfare and Ceremony Maintenance Branch Directorate of Armament and Weapons Directorate of Communication and Electronics Directorate of Engineering Directorate of Supply Planning Branch Directorate of Plans Directorate of Flight Safety Directorate of Recruitment Directorate of Project Directorate of Administrative Co-ordination Senior commanders Branches (officer) Branches of officers of Bangladesh Air Force are: General Duties (Pilot), abbreviation: GD(P) General Duties (Navigator), abbreviation: GD(N) Engineering Air Defense Weapons Controlling (ADWC) Air Traffic control (ATC) Meteorology Logistics Administration Finance/Accounts Education Legal Medical (officers are seconded from army) Trade groups (airmen) Trade Groups of airmen are: Rank structure Officers Airmen Installations and bases Bangladesh Air Force Academy, Jessore Recruits Training School, Shamshernagar, Moulvibazar Airmen Training Institute, Chattogram Flying Instructor's School, Bogra Equipment Aircraft See also: List of active Bangladesh military aircraft & List of historic Bangladesh Air Force aircraft Ordnance Air Defense Radars Future modernisation plans The BAF has an ongoing modernisation programme under Forces Goal 2030. To perform its increasing duties and responsibilities, the air force is being divided into two separate commands: Southern air command and Northern air command. A new air base is being set up under southern command at Barishal with an emphasis on maritime security. Another air base is under construction at Sylhet. On 29 October 2019, Italian company Leonardo announced that it has secured a contract to supply Kronos Land 3D AESA radar systems to the Bangladesh Air Force to provide air surveillance and detect and track targets in tactical environments. The number of radars ordered were not disclosed. In the third Bangladesh-UK strategic dialogue held in May 2019, the two countries desired to further strengthen the defence ties between them. The United Kingdom expressed its readiness to support Bangladesh with procurement of high calibre multi-role combat aircraft alongside other modernisation programmes. In October 2019, US officials said Bangladesh had proposed to the United States to purchase advanced military equipment including multi-role combat fighters, attack helicopters and surface-to-air missile systems. They offered Bangladesh Air Force two types of attack helicopters and the BAF opted for the AH-64 Apache helicopters. In January 2020, Boeing confirmed that the AH-64E attack helicopter has been down-selected by the BAF after a competitive bidding process. Any purchase of AH-64 Apache helicopters depends on Bangladesh and the United States signing Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA) and General Security of Military Information Agreement (GSOMIA) agreements. However, in late December 2021, it was reported that Bangladesh is now finalizing a government-to-government (G2G) deal with Russia to buy 8 Mi-28NEs with necessary equipment, along with operation and maintenance training. As of 2023, the Bangladesh government has not signed the deal yet. In January 2020, the minister responsible for defence affairs in the parliament, Anisul Huq told the parliament that process is going on to procure 16 multirole combat aircraft, eight attack helicopters, three VVIP helicopters, two air defence radar units, 24 primary trainer aircraft, two light aircraft, one K-8W simulator, four MRAP vehicles, one AW-119 simulator, 2 counter drone surveillance radar system and one mobile ATC tower and life extension and upgrade of Mig-29 aircraft. In 2021, Bangladesh Air Force requested Bangladesh Government to earmark around 25,200-crores taka (2.5 billion euro) for 16 western-origin multirole fighter jet. In order to sign the agreement and for the first installment council, Bangladesh Air Force has requested for allocation of 6,300-crores taka from the 2021-22 financial year. In 2021, Eurofighter World Magazine stated Bangladesh as a potential customer for the Eurofighter Typhoon. France also offered the Dassault Rafale to the Bangladesh Air Force. Plans and procedures for the procurement of 16 western-origin multirole fighter jet were established after cancellation of the older tender for 8 to 12 Russian made MRCA. As of 2023, the Bangladesh government has not signed any deal for the multirole fighter jets. In June 2021, Bangladesh Air Force revealed the order of 24 Grob G 120TP trainer aircraft. According to Masihuzzaman Serniabat, previous COAS, Bangladesh Air Force has ordered 24 trainer aircraft from Grob. Under the deal, Grob Aircraft will also install a composite material (fiberglass reinforced plastic and carbon fibre composites) repair workshop and a propeller repair workshop in Bangladesh. Accidents 8 April 2008: Squadron leader Morshed Hasan died when a Chengdu F-7 crashed in Ghatail upazila of Tangail. The pilot ejected from the aircraft but was critically injured when its parachute malfunctioned. He died at Combined Military Hospital (CMH) in Dhaka after he had been rescued from the scene. 20 December 2010: Squadron Leaders Ashraf Ibne Ahmed and Mahmudul Haque were killed as Bangladesh Air Force PT-6 aircraft crashed near Barisal Airport. 8 April 2012: A pilot officer Shariful Haque died and a squadron leader Muhammad Mamunur Rashid was injured when an Aero L-39 training aircraft crashed in Madhupur upazila of Tangail. 26 April 2012: A PT-6 aircraft was on a training mission belonging to Bangladesh Air Force crash landed in West Bengal, India. Trainee pilot Rashed Sheikh's escaped the aircraft safely with minor injuries. India arranged a safe return of the pilot to Bangladesh. 13 May 2015: A Mi-17 helicopter on a training flight belonging to Bangladesh Air Force crash landed at the airport and caught fire. All three people on board sustained major injuries and were hospitalized. 29 June 2015: Flight Lieutenant Tahmid went missing when his F-7MB crashed into the Bay of Bengal. The Aircraft took off around 10:27am from Johurul Haque air base, lost contact with the control room around 11:10am and later crashed in the Bay of Bengal in Patenga around 11:30am. 11 July 2017: A Yak-130 'Mitten' training aircraft crashed at Lohagara in Bangladesh's southeastern Chittagong District. Two pilots were unharmed. 27 December 2017: Two Yak-130 aircraft crashed at Maheshkhali Island in Cox's Bazar due to a mid-air collision. The official report states that the accident happened during the breaking of formation at a training exercise. All four pilots of two aircraft were rescued alive. 3 January 2018: 1 Mil Mi-17 helicopter crashed in Sreemangal whilst carrying Kuwaiti delegates. Everyone was rescued alive. 1 July 2018: Squadron Leader Md Serajul Islam and Squadron Leader Enayet Kabir Polash were killed when their K-8W trainer aircraft crashed at Bookbhora oxbow lake near Jessore Airport on a night training mission. 23 November 2018: Wing Commander Arif Ahmed Dipu died when his F-7BG crashed in Tangail's Madhupur upazila on a training mission. The fuel tank of the aircraft reportedly caught fire after it used weaponry in the sky, leading the pilot to eject in low altitude. The pilot was later found dead and parts of plane were seen scattered. Latest Updates The five ex-RAF 'short-bodied' C-130Js were ordered in two batches - in 2018 and 2019 - to replace Bangladesh's ageing, second-hand C-130Bs. The first aircraft was delivered in August 2019. They will be used to transport troops and equipment, both home and abroad, as well as provide humanitarian assistance and support UN peacekeeping mission. The fourth aircraft landed at the Bangabandhu Airbase in Dhaka on 20 February. Bangladesh has ordered five air lifters. See also Bangabandhu Aeronautical Centre List of historic Bangladesh military aircraft Bangladesh Air Force Academy Bangladesh Army Bangladesh National Cadet Corps Bangladesh Navy References External links Official Website of Bangladesh Air Force Bangladesh Air Force Order of Battle, Scramble magazine Bangladesh National Cadet Corps (BNCC) Military units and formations established in 1971 Military of Bangladesh Recipients of the Independence Day Award Uniformed services of Bangladesh
377634
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peugeot%20205
Peugeot 205
The Peugeot 205 is a supermini (B-segment) car produced by the French manufacturer Peugeot from 1983 to 1999. It was declared "car of the decade" by CAR Magazine in 1990. It also won What Car?s Car of the Year for 1984. The 205 was developed from 1977 as Projet M24, and introduced on 25 February 1983 as a replacement for the Peugeot 104 and Talbot Samba. It ended production in 1998, to be replaced by the Peugeot 206. History Before the 205, Peugeot was considered the most conservative of France's "big three" car manufacturers, producing large saloons such as the 504 and 505, although it had entered the modern supermini market in 1973 with the Peugeot 104. The genesis of the 205 lay within Peugeot's takeover in 1978 of Chrysler's European divisions Simca and the former Rootes Group, which had the necessary expertise in making small cars including the Simca 1100 in France and Hillman Imp in Britain. It was around this time that Peugeot began to work on the development of a new supermini for the 1980s. It was launched on 24 February 1983, and was launched in right-hand drive form for the UK market in September that year. Shortly after its launch, it was narrowly pipped to the European Car of the Year award by the similar sized Fiat Uno, but ultimately (according to the award organizers) it would enjoy a better image and a longer high market demand than its Italian competitor. It was one of five important small cars to be launched onto the European market within a year of each other: the other four were the Uno, the second generation Ford Fiesta, the original Opel Corsa (sold as the Vauxhall Nova on the British market) and the original Nissan Micra. Its launch also closely followed that of the Austin Metro and Volkswagen Polo Mk2. The styling of the 205 is often thought to be a Pininfarina design, although Gerard Welter claims that it is an in-house design; Pininfarina only styled the Cabriolet. It is often credited as the car that turned Peugeot's fortunes around. The fully independent suspension used the now standard PSA Peugeot Citroën layout that had debuted in the Peugeot 305 estate. A key ingredient of the success of the 205, it had MacPherson struts at the front and trailing arms with torsion bars at the rear. The rear suspension was very compact, designed to minimise suspension intrusion into the boot, giving a wide flat loadspace, while providing excellent ride and handling. Early 205s used the X petrol engine from the older Peugeot 104, although these were later (1987–1988) replaced with the newer XU and TU-series engines, which were of PSA design. Engines ranged in displacement from 954 cc to 1905 cc, in carburettor or fuel injected versions. The diesel models employed the PSA XUD engine, lifted from the Citroën BX which was introduced in September 1982. These engines had a capacity of 1769 cc (XUD7) and 1905 cc (XUD9) and are closely related to the XU5 and XU9 petrol engines in the BX16 and BX19 of the time. The diesel engines were world-beating and so petrol-like that many buyers were won over by petrol car performance combined with diesel economy. For instance, the 205 GRD (1.8 Diesel, , ) was as fast as, yet smoother than, the 205 GR (1.4 Petrol, , ), due to the engine developing peak torque at much lower rpm, while using much less fuel. There were various versions intended for commercial use, such as the two-seater XA-series. There was also the "205 Multi", a tall-bodied special version on XA or XE-basis built by independent coachbuilders like Gruau and Durisotti. Gruau called their XA-based two-seater version the "VU", while the five-seat XE-based version was called the "VP". Durisotti began building the 205 Multi in 1986; it was called the "205 Multi New Look". 1990 and onwards The 205 was an instant hit, and its styling was echoed in every Peugeot model that was to follow, as well as markedly changing the company's perception with buyers - having long been regarded as the most conservative of France's major manufacturers, and had long been associated with large saloon and station wagon type cars. Such was the success of the 205, its exterior styling was never facelifted or significantly altered in its 15-year production run apart from details. There was a dashboard redesign for the 1988 model year, and in late 1990 the 205 received new door design and cards, clear front indicators, new 'smoked' rear light clusters, single point petrol injection and catalytic converters were introduced, to meet the new 1992 pollution limits. These updates came at a crucial time, as 1990 also saw the arrival of a completely new French competitor, the Renault Clio, while the Rover Metro and Volkswagen Polo were also heavily updated, and Ford had already replaced its Fiesta with a third generation model. Still, the 205 was still widely regarded in the motoring press as the benchmark car in this sector by 1990. Indeed, Top Gear's Jeremy Clarkson described the 1990 edition as "an instant modern Classic." At the beginning of 1993, Peugeot launched the 306, which officially replaced the 309; the arrival of this car also diminished the 205's role (and its sales figures) in the Peugeot range, as had the arrival of the smaller 106 in September 1991 – although the final demise of the 205 was still some years away. The engines were continuously updated, with the new TU engines introduced in 1988. In 1991, the 205 dTurbo was launched with a powerful turbocharged version of the 1,769 cc xud diesel engine. After several years of gradually declining sales, the Peugeot 205 was discontinued in the United Kingdom in 1996. The Peugeot 205 was still offered in the "Sacré Numéro" and "Génération" models until the end of the production in 1998. The last models were GLD 1.8 configuration and were sold in Argentina. Most of the later European versions were only sold in France. Due to the pressure from the market, with buyers wanting a Peugeot supermini in the mould of the 205 again, the company finally built a direct replacement in the 206, which was launched in 1998. 5,278,050 Peugeot 205s have been sold, and a significant percentage of them were still in circulation as of 2009. By 2014, there were still as many as 14,000 on the road in the United Kingdom, compared to the peak high of 374,773 in 1994. With potentially as many 400,000 sales in the UK, it became the best selling car ever sold by Peugeot in the UK – although its success was emulated a few years later by the larger 306 and later by the 206. It also helped boost the popularity of the Peugeot brand there, and was at least a factor in Peugeot's decision to phase out the Talbot brand in the mid 1980s when launching new models to be built at the former Rootes Group plant near Coventry and the former Simca plant at Poissy. The 205 was first available as a GTI in 1984 (the same year that the three-door bodystyle debuted) and was initially powered by a fuel injected 1.6 petrol engine. The 1.9 GTI was launched in 1986 and the 1.9-litre engine was also used in the GTI version of the larger 309. The 205 GTI was discontinued in 1994, by which time Peugeot was producing high performance versions of the 106 and 306. Range Versions Most of the versions had manual transmission. The 205 had a rather unusual trim level scheme for its models; three-door models (apart from the GTI) were badged 'X' and five-door models were badged 'G'. Trim levels were: XA and XAD, two-seater commercial versions. There was also the "Multi", tall-bodied special versions built by independents such as Gruau and Durisotti. 1.1 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1124 cc 1.8 litre diesel, 4-cylinder – , 1769 cc XE/GE, available with: 1.0 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 954 cc 1.1 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1124 cc Five-door versions were badged GE XL/GL, available with: 1.0 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 954 cc 1.1 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1124 cc 1.1 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1124 cc (in Spain, 1118 cc Simca/Talbot engine) 1.8 litre diesel, 4-cylinder – , 1769 cc 1.6 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1580 cc Automatic Five-door versions were badged GL (Note: The 1.0 litre GL was not offered in the UK). The 1.8 litre GLD diesel model was popular, and What Car? magazine recommended it as a Used Car Buy in August 1992. It was also a Which? magazine best buy for five years running in the late 1980s and early 1990s. It was, (and is as a used buy), a better car than the 106 diesel that replaced it. XR/GR, available with: 1.1 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1124 cc (higher output for fuel injected and catalyzed version) 1.2 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1204 cc (GR only, Spain only, Simca/Talbot engine) 1.3 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1294 cc (In Spain, Simca/Talbot engine) 1.4 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1360 cc 1.6 litre petrol, 4-cylinder 1.9 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1905 cc Automatic 1.8 litre diesel – , 1769 cc Five-door versions were badged GR. The 1.4 litre GR was a five-door version only, launched in 1986. A 1.4 litre XR three-door was also available, 1991–92. XT, available with: 1.4 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1360 cc (catalyzed) 1.4 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1360 cc (In Spain, Simca/Talbot engine) 1.4 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1442 cc (Spain only, Simca/Talbot engine) XS/GT, available with: 1.3 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1294 cc (Spain only, Simca/Talbot engine) 1.4 litre petrol I4 – 85 bhp 1360 cc TU3S engine. 1.6 litre (1580 cc) petrol The 5 door model was called the GT, and used the same 1360 cc TU3s engine as the XS (UK) GTX, only available in Spain with: 1.6 litre petrol, 4-cylinder – , 1592 cc (Simca/Talbot engine) GTX (UK Version), 1993–94. 1,360 cc TU3M/Z PSA engine with Bosch Mono-jetronic injection system with Catalytic converter. Power output (75 bhp) 0–62 mph in 10.6 sec. Fuel consumption (MPG) constant speed driving: = & = . 3 and 5-door versions were available with sliding sunroof, remote central locking, 5 speed MA gearbox. From 1994, the X/G trim scheme was replaced by Mardi Gras, Colorline, Forever and Accent. 'GT' versions were now offered only in Continental Europe with a 1.6-litre engine; the UK models were badged Mardi Gras. However, GTI versions continued unchanged. SI''', There is also an SI version believed to have been released in Australia and Japan, featuring a 65 kW 1.6 engine with max torque of 132 Nm offered in either 4-speed automatic or 5-speed manual transmission, it had styling from the GTI inside and out, drive.com.au were quoted as saying: "Although the 205 graced Australian shores with the GTi model in 1988, It wasn't until 1992 (with the Japanese Yen rising and memories of the Rainbow Warrior fading) that it made fiscal sense for Peugeot to start selling a version that could compete on price with the Toyota Corolla, which at the time was Australia's biggest selling small car. The SI model, with its 1.6 litre motor, was introduced to do this. Although the 1.6 in the SI was larger than most of the motors in its European siblings, it was regarded as a bit of an escargot in Australia." High performance variants 205 GTI/CTI The 1.6 litre GTI was launched in 1984, and came with a XU5J engine, producing , for the 1987 model year the XU5J received the cylinder head with larger valves thus becoming XU5JA. The new engine was quoted for . The 1.9 litre GTI came with an XU9JA engine producing , although later models with a catalytic converter produce . Internally these engines are very similar, the main differences on 1.9 litre versions being the longer stroke, oil cooler, and some parts of the fuel injection system. The shorter stroke 1.6 litre engine is famed for being revvy and eager, while the 1.9 litre feels lazier and torquier. Outside the engine bay the main differences between the 1.6 GTI and the 1.9 GTI are half-leather seats (1.9 GTI) vs. cloth seats (1.6 GTI); and disc brakes all-round (1.9 GTI) vs. discs at the front and drum brakes at the back (1.6 GTI); as well as the 14" alloy (Speedline SL201) wheels (1.6 GTI) vs. 15" (Speedline SL299) alloys (1.9 GTI). The 205 is still often treated as a benchmark in group car tests of the newest GTI models or equivalent. Peugeot itself has never truly recreated this success in future GTI models, although they came very close with the highly regarded GTI-6 variant of the Peugeot 306. A cabriolet version of the 205, known as the CJ/CT/CTI, was designed and partially assembled by Pininfarina of Italy. The CTI version offered the same plastic arches and wheels as the 1.6 GTI. Some later models incorporated the catalysed 1.9-litre engine. The main aesthetic difference between the GTI/CTi versions and other 205 models were the plastic wheel arches and trim, beefier front and rear bumper valances. The shell also underwent some minor changes, including larger wheel arches (to suit the larger wheels on the GTI and CTi), and the suspension was redesigned and sat lower on the GTI with stiffer springs, different wishbones and a drop-linked anti-roll bar. With the early success of the 205 GTI in Europe, Motor Trend'' reported in 1984 that Peugeot was seriously considering adding it to its US lineup, even though Peugeot had a more upmarket image in the United States. Nothing ever came of such rumours, however, and any talk of Peugeot expanding its presence in US became moot when the company was forced to pull out in 1991. Sales of the GTI in the United Kingdom in the early 1990s were badly hit by soaring insurance premiums, brought about by high theft and 'joyriding' of cars of this sort. Increasingly stringent emissions regulations meant the 1.6 GTI went out of production in 1992, while the 1.9-litre was sold for a couple more years thanks to re-engineering of the engine to enable it to work properly with a catalytic converter, which dropped power to . In October 2020 Peugeot announced that their heritage brand "l'Aventure Peugeot" would make a factory restoration program for the 205 GTI available in 2021 as part of the company's 210th anniversary celebration. This program is intended to be expanded to other Peugeot (and possibly Citroën) models later, but will begin with the 205 GTI as it is one of the most desirable Peugeot built that is also available in large numbers. The cars will be restored to as-new condition, with certain no longer available parts being made on 3D-printers. Special 205 GTI editions Peugeot produced a number of limited edition 205 GTI models over the car's life: Across 1989–1990, 1200 GTIs were made in the then new colours of Miami blue (bright metallic blue) and Sorrento Green (a very dark pearlescent green). The cars were made in an equal mix of 300 blue 1.6 litre, 300 green 1.6 litre, 300 blue 1.9 litre and 300 green 1.9 litre. The cars had a sliding sunroof, power steering and full grey leather interior as standard, together with grey carpets and doorcards. These paint colours were later added to the list of available colours for mainstream models. The Gentry was a limited edition version of the 205, it had 1.6 GTI suspension combined with a detuned 1.9 litre engine (as fitted to export market GTIs such as those for Australia and Switzerland) but with an automatic gearbox. Only 300 models were made in Sorrento Green and Aztec Gold (sometimes called Mayfair Beige). They came with full leather trim and real wood trim, power steering and heated mirrors in the UK, as well as the same body side trims as the GTI – which led to the Gentry often being mistaken for a GTI. A production run of 200 limited edition 1.9 GTI cars was commenced in 1991 for the Japanese market. Due to a breakdown in trade negotiations the production run ceased at what was believed to be 33 units which were subsequently sold off to the European market. All the cars were in automatic transmission guise, having power steering sunroof and air conditioning as standard. The Japanese edition was easily identifiable by having the raised bonnet normally attributed to the diesel models. Pepperpot alloys and cloth trim were used, more reminiscent of the 1.6 GTI cars. The Griffe was a special GTI edition for mainland Europe, and was sold in France, Germany and the Netherlands. It was bright green (called 'Laser' Green or 'Vert Fluorite'), and came equipped with all available vendor options at that time except air-conditioning, but including full black leather interior, ABS, power steering and sunroof. 1652 Griffes were made, all in laser green and with grey alloy wheels with a silver rim. The 1FM was produced for the UK market in 1992 to coincide with the 25th birthday of BBC Radio 1. Only 25 were made and each car was individually numbered with a small brass plate. The car was black with 'Radio 1FM 25th' bodywork decals, grey Speedline alloy wheels and came with all options fitted as standard, including ABS, air conditioning, full leather interior, remote central locking, catalytic converter and power steering. A bespoke stereo system including a CD changer, CD head unit, amplifier, uprated door speakers and an acoustic rear shelf containing 200W 6x9 speakers was specified by Clarion. One was raffled at a Radio 1 event, and Radio 1 ran a competition on air to win one. 205 STDT In 1993 Peugeot introduced the 205 and 405 STDT, higher performance diesel models that offered some of the GTI's sporting qualities in the diesel engined part of the range. The 205 STDT (special trim diesel turbo) was available only in the 3-door bodyshell with a 1,769 cc turbo diesel engine (XUD7 T/K) with the trim and luxuries of the 205 GTI. The car was initially marketed towards executives, with soft cloth bucket seats in Beige with matching carpet and dashboard, as also found in the Gentry models. The car featured PAS, central locking, electric windows and also electrically heated mirrors. Many were fitted with a large, vacuum-seal slide sunroof. The brochure specification from 1993 on the STDT lists its equipment as: 1769cc, 78 bhp turbo diesel engine 5-speed manual gearbox Power steering Alloy wheels (different from the GTI models) Bodyside mouldings, wheelarch finishers and bumper inserts (chrome inserts) Long range driving lamps Optional sliding sunroof Heated door mirrors Choice of body colours: Aztec Gold; Oberon Green; Steel Grey Sports front seats, velour trim 50/50 split rear seats Leather-trimmed sports steering wheel Remote control central locking (base models were not remote control, running off the key only) Electric front windows Tinted glass Clarion 97001F digital stereo radio/stereo cassette with 4 speakers Lockable glove box with lamp Its performance data is defined in the brochure from 1993 as: Maximum speed: 108 mph Acceleration 0–100 km/h: 12.2 s, 0–1000 m: 34.2 secs. Fuel consumption – mpg (L/100 km): constant driving speed 56 mph (90 km/h) – 61.4 (4.6); 75 mph (120 km/h) – 40.9 (6.9); simulated urban driving – 42.8 (6.6) The 205 STDT is only found in three colours; Oberon Green, Steel Grey and Aztec Gold. Production of the car was approximately one year between 1993 and 1994. As of the fourth quarter of 2019, there were only 24 STDTs left on the roads and 148 SORN in the UK. 205 Rallye From 1988 to 1992 Peugeot produced another variant of the 205, the 205 Rallye, which was engineered and produced by Peugeot–Talbot sport. This edition of the 205 was positioned as a cost-effective alternative to the 205 GTI, retaining its sporty character, but being less expensive to buy or maintain. To achieve this, Peugeot used a derivative of the TU-series engine used in the post-1987 205s, which was designated TU24. The engine is essentially the same engine as was in the 1.1-litre 205 with the cylinders bored out to a total engine displacement of 1294 cc, a sports camshaft and twin Weber carburetors. The 1.3-litre engine produced at 6,800 rpm. The car got the 1.6 GTI front suspension with ventilated brake discs, and the 1.6 GTI rear axle with drum brakes. The 205 Rallye was completely stripped of almost all soundproofing, electrical systems or other luxury items, bringing down the weight to no more than . Its minimalistic equipment, together with the high revs needed to unleash all of the engine's horsepower, gives the 205 Rallye a very spartan character and makes it a difficult but rewarding car to drive hard, which is one of the reasons it is now very popular among 205 GTI enthusiasts. Peugeot expected to build around 5000 Rallyes. In the end 30,111 Rallyes were produced, even though they were only sold in certain mainland European markets (including France, Belgium, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and the Netherlands). The distinctive aesthetic features of the 205 Rallye include the squarer wheel arches (which are different from GTI arches), the steel body-coloured wheels and the rainbow-coloured Peugeot-Talbot sport decals on the front grille and the tailgate. They were only available in white. The Rallye was sold with a reduced-weight interior with the Peugeot-Talbot sport logo embroidered in the front seats. From 1990 to 1992 Peugeot also built a 1.9 litre version of the 205 Rallye. Only about 1000 of them were produced and they were only sold in Germany, because the 1.3 litre version did not meet German road regulations. The 1.9 Rallye is just a 1.9 GTI with the Rallye bodyshell and the new-style clear indicators and rear light units. Although they are even rarer than the 1.3 Rallye, they are less popular among Peugeot enthusiasts, because they lack the raw and spartan character of the 1.3 Rallye and are heavier. In 1992 Peugeot introduced the Rallye to the UK market, it was available in three colours (500 white, 250 yellow, 80 blue) and was essentially a re-badged XT. It came equipped with black cloth seats embroidered with the Peugeot-Talbot Sport logo, the Peugeot-Talbot sports colours behind the front arches and over the back arches, as well as the same markings on the grill and tailgate of its European brother. It was powered by an iron-blocked 1360 cc TU3.2 engine with the same twin-choke Solex carburettor found on the earlier XS engine. It produced and achieved with a 0–60 mph of 11.7 seconds. After the 205 Rallye, Peugeot again used the 'Rallye' designation for some of its 106 and 306 models. 205 Turbo 16 (T16) To homologate the 205 T16 ("Turbo 16" in France) Group B rally car, Peugeot had to produce 200 road-going examples. According to the Group B regulations, these had to be based on a current production road car. Peugeot decided to base the Group B rally car on the two door version of the 205. The body was built by Heuliez, where standard three door bodyshells from the production line were delivered and heavily modified. Heuliez cut off the complete rear of the car and welded in a transverse firewall between the B-posts. The rear frame was then built in a mixture of sheet steel profiles and tubes. The front was modified in a similar way with a tube frame carrying the front suspension. The completed bodies were delivered to Simca (Talbot) for the 200-series production cars and to Peugeot Talbot Sport for the competition versions. The engine, based on the cast iron block of the diesel version of the then new XU engine family, albeit with a specially developed 16-valve head, was moved from the front of the vehicle to the rear, transforming it from a front-engine, front-wheel-drive to a rear-mid engine four-wheel-drive automobile. The gearbox came from the Citroën SM but was mounted transversely. The car had all wheel drive. All street versions (VINs P1 to P200) were left hand drive and identically kitted out in dark grey colour, except the first (VIN P1) that was painted white and carried all the competition cars' decoration for demonstration purposes. The competition cars of the first evolution series (VIN C1 to C20) were built at the sport department Peugeot Talbot Sport and presented to the public at the same day as the standard street version. Later competition vehicles of the Evolution 2 series (VIN C201 to C220) were built differently as the rear spaceframe had no more sheet steel profiles in it but was composed entirely of tubes. Apart from the appearance, the road variants had practically nothing in common with the regular production model. They shared the with a bore × stroke of transversely-mounted, mid-engine, four-wheel-drive layout of the rally car. It did, however, have less than half the power at around at 6,750 rpm and at 4,000 rpm of torque. The T was for (KKK) Turbo, fuel fed by Bosch K-Jetronic fuel injection and a compression ratio of 6.5:1; the 16 stands for DOHC 16 valves. Outwardly similar to a normal 205, the T16 had wider wheel arches, and the whole rear section lifted up to give access to the engine. Underneath, the complex drivetrain from the rally car was kept to abide by the Group B rules. In addition to the Group B model, the lesser 205 GTI was also FIA approved for competition in the Group N and Group A categories. Peugeot Talbot Sport's factory 205 T16s under Jean Todt were the most successful cars to compete in the last two years of the World Rally Championship's Group B era, winning the 1985 and 1986 Constructors' and Drivers' titles with Timo Salonen and Juha Kankkunen respectively against such notable competition from Audi, Lancia and Ford, with an Evolution 2 model being introduced for the latter of those two seasons. The chassis and engine from this model would later underpin the Peugeot Quasar concept car. World Rally Championship victories Peugeot 205s have won the following World Rally Championship rounds: See also Citroën Saxo Peugeot 405 Saipa 111 References Works cited 205 Pininfarina Subcompact cars Hatchbacks Convertibles Rally cars Group B cars Touring cars Dakar Rally winning cars Cars introduced in 1983 1990s cars Front-wheel-drive vehicles All-wheel-drive vehicles Cars discontinued in 1999
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sportsnet
Sportsnet
Sportsnet is a Canadian English-language discretionary sports specialty channel owned by Rogers Sports & Media. It was established in 1998 as CTV Sportsnet, a joint venture between CTV, Liberty Media, and Rogers Media. CTV parent Bell Globemedia then was required to divest its stake in the network following its 2001 acquisition of competing network TSN. Rogers then became the sole owner of Sportsnet in 2004 after it bought the remaining minority stake that was held by Fox. The Sportsnet license comprises four 24-hour programming services; Sportsnet was originally licensed by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) as a category A service, operating as a group of regional sports networks offering programming tailored to each feed's region (in contrast to TSN, which was licensed at the time to operate as a national sports service, and could only offer limited regional opt-outs). Since 2011, the service has operated under deregulated category C licensing, which allows Sportsnet to operate multiple feeds with no restrictions on alternate programming. In each region, only the local Sportsnet channel is available on analogue cable, but all four channels are available nationally via digital cable (subject to blackouts for some out-of-market teams). The four Sportsnet feeds air some common programming and simulcast major, national events, but are capable of airing programming autonomously—most prominently regional programming. Sportsnet is the national cable rightsholder of the National Hockey League, and also holds full regional rights to three (and partial regional rights to one) of the league's Canadian franchises. It is also the national rightsholder of Major League Baseball in Canada (although most of ESPN's MLB broadcasts are sub-licensed to rival network TSN), and the exclusive broadcaster of the co-owned Toronto Blue Jays. It splits regional coverage of the NHL's Toronto Maple Leafs and national coverage of the NBA's Toronto Raptors with TSN; Rogers Communications and TSN's parent company Bell Canada own a joint majority stake in the teams' parent company. The Sportsnet brand has since been extended beyond the original regional channels, now encompassing the national channels Sportsnet 360, Sportsnet One (and its regional part-time companion channels), and Sportsnet World; Sportsnet Radio stations in Toronto, Vancouver and Calgary; and Sportsnet Magazine. With these brand extensions, Rogers now generally uses "Sportsnet" (by itself) to denote its sports media properties as a whole, and on-air promotions for programs being carried nationally by these four regional feeds often list all four channels separately, or refer to the Sportsnet "regional" (or "main") channels, to avoid any ambiguity. However, standalone mentions of "Sportsnet" in reference to a specific channel can still generally be assumed to be referring to the four regional channels (or the specific regional channel available locally on analogue cable). History Sportsnet was approved by the CRTC in September 1996 under the tentative name S3, with Baton Broadcasting Inc. (later renamed to CTV Inc.) holding a 40% controlling interest in the network, and 20% minority stakes held by Rogers Media and Liberty Media (in turn a spin-off of TCI, an American cable-television group). The network proposed a structure with an emphasis on regional programming, operating four feeds to serve different areas of the country. The network launched on October 9, 1998, as CTV Sportsnet, under the ownership of CTV, Rogers, and Liberty; the latter which owned some of the Fox Sports Net operations that Fox ran in the United States after which the channel was named. The new network gained credibility before it went on the air, having acquired national cable rights to the National Hockey League from long-time holder TSN. From 1998–99 until 2001–02, Sportsnet aired NHL games to a national audience throughout the regular season, and covered first-round playoff series not involving Canadian teams. Its first live sports event was an NHL opening night telecast between the Philadelphia Flyers and New York Rangers. The national cable rights to the NHL returned to TSN in 2002, though Sportsnet retained regional broadcast rights for most Canadian NHL teams. Acquisition by Rogers When CTV purchased NetStar, the former parent company of TSN, in 2000, the CRTC ordered CTV to sell either TSN or its stake in Sportsnet. CTV ultimately chose to retain TSN, and sell its stake in Sportsnet. The other shareholders had first right of refusal; as Rogers was the only interested party, it acquired CTV's stake in the summer of 2001, and soon after renamed it Rogers Sportsnet. During part of the transition period, during which time the channel was known as "Sportsnet", CTV was allowed to control programming on both networks, and some cross-affiliation and programs that were going to be tape-delayed on TSN, most notably figure skating, were given to Sportsnet. In 2004, Rogers then bought the remaining 20 percent stake from Fox. While Sportsnet had been based there from the beginning, TSN's operations would move to CTV's suburban Toronto complex, 9 Channel Nine Court, following the acquisition. This led to some peculiarities related to the fact that the two rival sports channels were only separated by a "parking lot", leading to jokes and references from both networks. On April 30, 2008, Rogers Sportsnet moved its broadcast operations from 9 Channel Nine Court to the Rogers Building, a cluster of buildings in the Mount Pleasant-Jarvis Street area of Downtown Toronto. Expansion In 2010, Rogers began to extend the Sportsnet brand beyond the original regional networks with the August 14 launch of Rogers Sportsnet One – a national companion channel promising 800 hours of live events per year. The channel was also accompanied by additional part-time feeds to serve as overflow channels for its regional NHL coverage. In January 2011, Rogers' sports radio stations, CJCL Toronto ("The Fan 590") and CFAC Calgary ("The Fan 960"), were rebranded as "Sportsnet Radio Fan 590" and "Sportsnet Radio Fan 960" respectively. Critics speculated that the Sportsnet Radio branding was intended to increase synergy with its television counterparts, upon rumors that TSN would be launching a sports radio network of its own. In July 2011, Rogers announced that it would be rebranding its premium international sports channel Setanta Sports Canada as "Sportsnet World" on October 3, 2011 – a move that would allow the channel better opportunities for cross-promotion with other Sportsnet services. As part of the transition, Setanta Sports sold its minority ownership interest in the channel to MLM Management. On September 29, 2011, Rogers published the first issue of Sportsnet Magazine, a bi-weekly sports magazine positioned "for Canadian sports fans", covering professional sports from a Canadian perspective. Sports writer Stephen Brunt left his position at The Globe and Mail newspaper to become the magazine's back page columnist. "Fuelled By Fans" re-launch On October 3, 2011, Rogers Sportsnet underwent a major rebranding, introducing a revamped logo and visual appearance designed in conjunction with Troika Design Group, and a new image campaign ("Fuelled By Fans"). Additionally, the network's official name was shortened to just Sportsnet. The new logo does not incorporate the previous "player" emblem that had been used in the network's branding since its original launch, as research performed by Rogers indicated that its association with Sportsnet did not resonate well with viewers. The redesign of Sportsnet was overseen by Dean Bender, who served as the network's creative director upon its original launch as CTV Sportsnet. 2013–2018 On August 25, 2012, Rogers announced that it would acquire the television assets of Score Media, owners of The Score Television Network (a competing sports network which primarily airs sports news and highlights, alongside event coverage), in a transaction valued at $167 million. The acquisition itself closed on October 19, 2012, at which point Score Media's digital assets (including its website and mobile apps) were spun off into another company, theScore Inc., in which Rogers Media would retain a 10% interest. Score Media's TV properties were immediately placed into a blind trust, under trustee Peter Viner, pending final CRTC approval. Rogers plans to continue running the network as a sports news service. The acquisition and Rogers' proposed amendments (which included a reduction in the frequency of sports updates during live events) were approved by the CRTC on April 30, 2013; the same day, The Score also began to air more Sportsnet-produced programming, including a simulcast of CJCL's afternoon show Tim & Sid and Hockey Central Playoff Extra. However, the CRTC rejected the use of a proposed winter sports competition, the Sportsnet Winter Games, for its tangible benefits requirements. On June 4, 2013, Rogers announced that The Score would be rebranded as a Sportsnet channel; the channel changed its name to Sportsnet 360 on July 1, 2013. As of 2014, Sportsnet is available in 8.2 million Canadian homes. On October 2, 2018, Scott Moore, Rogers' head of Sportsnet and NHL properties, stepped down. Regional feeds Similarly to regional sports networks in the United States, Sportsnet is operated in four regional feeds. While the feeds carry national programming as well, they primarily broadcast sporting events tailored to the region they serve. The four regional feeds are listed in the table below. All four feeds are available in both standard and high-definition formats. Although cable providers in Canada are permitted to carry only the local Sportsnet feed on analogue cable packages, all four feeds can be carried on digital television services. However, in some instances, programming on the out-of-market Sportsnet feeds, particularly regional NHL games, are blacked out due to league restrictions on teams' regional broadcast rights. Since the revival of the Winnipeg Jets in 2011, regional Flames and Oilers games on Sportsnet West have also been blacked out in Manitoba, despite it being the "local" Sportsnet feed for that province. Programming Sportsnet is the main television outlet for Major League Baseball in Canada: it is the exclusive television outlet for the Toronto Blue Jays (which are also owned by Rogers), airing all of its games and other Blue Jays-related programming throughout the season. It also holds Canadian rights to Fox Saturday Baseball, the All-Star Game and the postseason (through Fox, TBS and MLB International). Sportsnet also carries other MLB games simulcast from U.S. regional sports networks. Sportsnet began airing National Football League games Starting with the 2005 season, splitting late games across the Pacific and West feeds, and the East and Ontario feeds. The games not shown in the opposite regions were carried out regionally by City. It also had rights to Thursday Night Football and the American Thanksgiving games. Sportsnet lost all NFL broadcasting rights for the 2017 season. Sportsnet carried a large amount of soccer programming; it has been the Canadian broadcaster of the Premier League since 1998 until 2018/19 season (from 2013/14 to 2018/19 season, Sportsnet jointly held Canadian rights to the Premier League with TSN), and also held rights to the FA Cup, UEFA Champions League and Europa League. Sportsnet lost UEFA coverage to TSN for 2015, but gained rights to Bundesliga matches beginning in the 2015–16 season. Sportsnet aired the Amway Canadian Championship, an annual competition featuring Canada's five professional soccer teams – Toronto FC, CF Montréal, Vancouver Whitecaps FC, FC Edmonton, and Ottawa Fury FC, until TSN acquired full rights in 2017. In 2006, Sportsnet aired coverage of the FIFA World Cup as part of a consortium with TSN and CTV. From 2011 through 2014, beginning with the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup, CBC sub-licensed cable rights to FIFA tournaments to Sportsnet, including the 2014 FIFA World Cup. On February 8, 2011, Sportsnet announced that it had signed a multi-year deal with Tennis Canada to acquire early round rights to the Rogers Cup. Sportsnet also acquired rights to the ATP World Tour Masters 1000 and ATP World Tour 500 series events. As per an extension of Rogers' sponsorship rights to the tournament, Sportsnet holds sole rights to the Rogers Cup beginning in 2016. In 2016, Sportsnet lost the ATP tours to TSN, but it still maintains exclusive rights to the Rogers Cup, as well as the Davis Cup and Fed Cup. In February 2013, Sportsnet announced that it would become the official Canadian broadcaster of the IndyCar Series beginning in the 2013 season in a five-year deal with the series. The new contract includes broadcasts on Sportsnet's networks and City, and French rights sub-licensed to TVA Sports. That season, Sportsnet also originated coverage from the Honda Grand Prix of St. Petersburg, Indianapolis 500 and Honda Indy Toronto, with Bill Adam, Todd Lewis and Rob Faulds. Canadian driver Paul Tracy joined Sportsnet as an analyst. As of the 2019 season, all but the Honda Indy Toronto and Indianapolis 500 moved exclusively to Sportsnet World and Sportsnet Now+. In May 2013, Sportsnet reached a six-year deal for rights to the national championships of U Sports (then known as Canadian Interuniversity Sport), including coverage of the Vanier Cup. Hockey coverage Sportsnet is a major broadcaster of National Hockey League games; the network is the current national cable rightsholder to the league, and regularly airs nationally televised games on Wednesday, Saturday nights as part of Hockey Night in Canada, and Monday nights as part of Rogers Hometown Hockey. Sportsnet is also a major regional broadcaster of the NHL; its four regional feeds carry regional telecasts of five of the seven Canadian franchises, including the Toronto Maple Leafs on Sportsnet Ontario (split with TSN4 beginning in 2014–15; Rogers and Bell Canada own a joint, majority stake in the team's parent company Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment), the Calgary Flames and Edmonton Oilers on Sportsnet West, and the Vancouver Canucks on Sportsnet Pacific. In January 2014, Sportsnet lost the Ottawa Senators to TSN, who acquired regional rights to the team in English and French under a 12-year deal, beginning in the 2014–15 season. In September 2014, Sportsnet announced its acquisition of regional English-language television rights to the Montreal Canadiens under a 3-year deal, replacing the Senators on Sportsnet East and succeeding TSN as regional rightsholder, until 2016–17. Sportsnet held the rights to the Canadian Hockey League under a 12-year deal renewed in the 2014–15 season. Its coverage included a package of national broadcasts from the CHL's member leagues, coverage of the CHL Canada/Russia Series and the CHL/NHL Top Prospects Game, along with coverage of the season-ending Memorial Cup tournament. In the 2021–22 season, Sportsnet lost the rights to CBC Sports and TSN, with the latter covering the Memorial Cup. National NHL contracts From its launch through 2002, Sportsnet was the national cable broadcaster of the NHL in Canada, displacing the rival TSN; it aired a package of Tuesday night games, along with coverage of non-Canadian matchups from the first round of the Stanley Cup Playoffs. On November 26, 2013, Rogers Communications announced that it had reached a 12-year deal to become the exclusive national rightsholder for the National Hockey League, again displacing TSN, along with CBC, a deal which began in the 2014–15 season. Valued at $5.2 billion and covering both television and digital media rights to the league, the value of the contract surpassed the league's most recent U.S. rights deal with NBC. Alongside its existing regional rights, Sportsnet now airs Scotiabank Wednesday Night Hockey, along with games during Hockey Night in Canada. Olympics coverage In early 2005, Rogers Media and CTVglobemedia jointly acquired broadcast rights to the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics, as well as the London 2012 Summer Olympics. This was considered a serious coup, as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) had consistently won Olympic broadcast rights from the 1996 Summer Olympics through to the 2008 Summer Olympics. CTV and V were the primary broadcasters; Sportsnet, TSN and RDS provided supplementary coverage. Rogers announced in 2011 that it would not bid with CTVglobemedia's predecessor Bell Media for the rights to the 2014 and 2016 games, citing scheduling and financial issues. While Bell Media did attempt to partner with the CBC in 2011 to bid for coverage, CBC reached a deal of its own in August 2012, winning the rights to the 2014 and 2016 Games. On February 7, 2013, CBC announced that it had reached deals with Sportsnet and TSN for both networks to become their official cable partners, beginning at the 2014 Winter Olympics. CBC will continue this sub-licensing agreement through the 2020 Summer Olympics. Sportsnet televised coverage of the 2015 Pan-American Games, also as part of a sub-license with CBC; it aired coverage of the soccer tournaments, as well as a Men's basketball semi-final game involving Canada. Summary of sports rights Baseball Major League Baseball: All Toronto Blue Jays games, All-Star Game (through MLB International), post-seasons (through Fox, TBS), World Series (through MLB International), other MLB games simulcast from U.S. broadcasters Hockey National Hockey League: National rights through 2026, including weekly national games, all playoff games, and other NHL games simulcast from U.S. broadcasters. Holds regional rights to the Calgary Flames, Edmonton Oilers, Toronto Maple Leafs (split with TSN), and Vancouver Canucks Basketball National Basketball Association: splits regional coverage of Toronto Raptors and NBA playoffs with TSN; selected NBA games FIBA (through 2025) Football England: FA Cup, FA Community Shield (until 2024), FA WSL, Women's FA Cup (from 2020-21 season) Tennis Canadian Open Davis Cup Billie Jean King Cup Curling Grand Slam of Curling (2012–present) (selected events sub-licensed to CBC Sports) Olympics Summer and Winter Olympics, sublicensed from CBC Original programs Sportsnet Central – The daily sports news/highlights program of Sportsnet. Hosted by various personalities. Formerly known as Sportscentral, Sportsnetnews, and Sportsnet Connected. Hockey Central – News and reports from the NHL. Hosted by Caroline Cameron, and features hockey analysts Nick Kypreos, Bill Watters and Gord Stellick. Hockey Central at Noon – Simulcast from CJCL; News and reports from the NHL. Hosted by Marek and features either Nick Kypreos or Bill Berg as co-host. Notable on-air staff David Amber (also with CBC Sports) Colby Armstrong (also with TNT) Kevin Bieksa Jennifer Botterill (also with TNT) Caroline Cameron Cassie Campbell-Pascall (also with ESPN) Jamie Campbell Anthony Carelli Anson Carter (also with TNT) Sam Cosentino Chris Cuthbert Louie DeBrusk Rob Faulds Brad Fay Elliotte Friedman (also with CBC Sports) Martine Gaillard Garry Galley John Garrett Kelly Hrudey Ron MacLean (also with CBC Sports) Hazel Mae Jeff Marek Buck Martinez Jack Michaels Greg Millen Dan Murphy Scott Oake (also with CBC Sports) Evanka Osmak Gene Principe Cabbie Richards John Shannon John Shorthouse Dan Shulman (also with ESPN) Christine Simpson Craig Simpson Gord Stellick Jason York Notable alumni This list includes the all time Sportsnet 360 staff dated to its days as The Score. Carly Agro R.J. Broadhead Dean Brown (at TSN Radio 1200) Hugh Burrill Don Cherry Bob Cole Damien Cox James Cybulski Steve Dangle Gerry Dee Chantal Desjardins Gerry Dobson Brendan Dunlop Darren Dreger (at TSN) Craig Forrest (at CBC Television and OneSoccer) Erin Hawksworth (at WJLA-TV) Glenn Healy Jim Hughson Mike Johnson (at TSN) Chris Johnston (at TSN) Nick Kypreos Steve Kouleas (at TSN) Doug MacLean Bob McCown Daren Millard Deb Matejicka Roger Millions Gabriel Morency (at The Fight Network) Arda Ocal (at ESPN) Sara Orlesky (at TSN) Renee Paquette (at WWE as Renee Young) Kevin Quinn Rick Ralph Jackie Redmond (at NHL Network (U.S. TV Network), MLB Network, TNT) Dave Randorf (at Bally Sports Sun) Drew Remenda Paul Romanuk Greg Sansone P.J. Stock (at RDS) George Stroumboulopoulos Pat Tabler Don Taylor (at TSN Radio 1040) Adnan Virk (at ESPN) Gregg Zaun Other services Sportsnet+ In 2014, Sportsnet announced the launch of a new TV Everywhere service known as Sportsnet Now, allowing online streaming of the Sportsnet regional channels, Sportsnet One, and Sportsnet 360 for cable subscribers. On March 31, 2016, Rogers announced that Sportsnet Now would be made available as an over-the-top streaming service for cord cutters, initially priced at $24.99 per-month, in addition to remaining available at no additional charge to cable subscribers. In October 2018, the price was dropped to $19.99, annual subscription options were added, and an additional tier known as Sportsnet Now+ was introduced, adding additional international soccer and rugby events, and out-of-market streaming of regional NHL games for Canadian teams whose rights are owned by Sportsnet. NHL Live, the NHL's digital out-of-market sports package, was later added to Sportsnet Now+ in January 2021. In April 2022, the plan structures were changed; a $24.99 tier was reintroduced which adds WWE Network, while Now+ was replaced with Sportsnet Now Premium, which is priced at $34.99 per-month and includes WWE Network and out-of-market NHL games beginning the 2022–23 season (replacing NHL Live). The service was quietly renamed Sportsnet+ ahead of the 2023–24 NHL season. High-definition television Sportsnet operates four high-definition feeds, one for each regional channel. Originally, Sportsnet operated one national feed that consisted primarily of a simulcast of Sportsnet Ontario, carrying nationally televised events, or separate content from other regional feeds. That feed was launched on September 1, 2003. In 2007, Sportsnet began using a second high-definition feed in order to broadcast selected regional NHL games in HD, beginning in the 2007–08 NHL season, activated only in the regions where a game is set to be televised. On January 26, 2009, the national HD feed was replaced by individual HD feeds for each region. 4K On October 5, 2015, Rogers announced that it planned to produce 101 sports telecasts in 4K ultra-high-definition format in 2016, including all Toronto Blue Jays home games, and "marquee" NHL games beginning in January 2016. These broadcasts are offered via a part-time Sportsnet 4K channel on participating television providers. On January 14, 2016, in cooperation with BT Sport, Sportsnet broadcast the first ever NBA game produced in 4K, and the first live sporting event in 4K in Canadian history—a Toronto Raptors/Orlando Magic game at O2 Arena in London. Sportsnet's first domestic 4K telecast, a Toronto Maple Leafs/Montreal Canadiens game, aired January 23, 2016. References Sources External links Rogers Communications Sports television networks in Canada Television channels and stations established in 1998 English-language television stations in Canada Analog cable television networks in Canada Franchised radio formats Former News Corporation subsidiaries Category C services 1998 establishments in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokey%20Pokey
Hokey Pokey
The Hokey Cokey, also known as Hokey Pokey in the United States is a campfire song and participation dance with a distinctive accompanying tune and lyric structure. It is well-known in English-speaking countries. It originates in a British folk dance, with variants attested as early as 1826. The song and accompanying dance peaked in popularity as a music hall song and novelty dance in the mid-1940s in the UK. The song became a chart hit twice in the 1980s. The first UK hit was by the Snowmen, which peaked at UK No. 18 in 1981. Origins and meaning Despite several claims of a recent invention, numerous variants of the song exist with similar dances and lyrics dating back to the 19th century. One of the earlier variants, with a very similar dance to the modern one, is found in Robert Chambers' Popular Rhymes of Scotland from 1842. The words there are given as: A later variant of this song is the Shaker song "Hinkum-Booby", which had more similar lyrics to the modern song and was published in Edward Deming Andrews' A gift to be simple in 1940: (p. 42). A song rendered ("with appropriate gestures") by two sisters from Canterbury, England while on a visit to Bridgewater, N.H. in 1857 start an "English/Scottish ditty" thus: As the song continues, the "left hand" is put in, then the "right foot," then the "left foot," then "my whole head." . . . [I]t does not seem to have been much used in Shaker societies. A version known as "Ugly Mug" is described in 1872: A version from c. 1891 from the town of Golspie in Scotland was published by Edward W. B. Nicholson: In the book English Folk-Rhymes, published 1892, a version of the song originating from Sheffield is given: Some early versions of this song thus show a marked resemblance to the modern song Looby Loo, and the songs have been described as having a common origin. In the book Charming Talks about People and Places, published circa 1900, there is a song with music on page 163 entitled "Turn The Right Hand In". It has 9 verses, which run thus: "Turn the right hand in, turn the right hand out, give your hands a very good shake, and turn your body around." Additional verses include v2. left hand...; v3. both hands...; v4. right foot...; v5. left foot...; v6. both feet...; v7. right cheek...; v8. left cheek...; and, v9. both cheeks... The tune is not the same as the later popular version of the Hokey Cokey but the verse is more similar as it states to "turn your body around." No author or composer was credited. In recent times various other claims about the origins of the song have arisen, though they are all contradicted by the publication history. According to one such account, in 1940, during the Blitz in London, a Canadian officer suggested to Al Tabor, a British bandleader of the 1920s–1940s, that he write a party song with actions similar to "Under the Spreading Chestnut Tree". The inspiration for the song's title that resulted, "The Hokey Pokey", supposedly came from an ice cream vendor whom Tabor had heard as a boy, calling out, "Hokey pokey penny a lump. Have a lick make you jump". A well-known lyricist/songwriter/music publisher of the time, Jimmy Kennedy, reneged on a financial agreement to promote and publish it, and finally, Tabor settled out of court, giving up all rights to the number. In 2008, an Anglican cleric, Canon Matthew Damon, Provost of Wakefield Cathedral, West Yorkshire, claimed that the dance movements were a parody of the traditional Catholic Latin Mass. Up until the reforms of Vatican II, the priest performed his movements facing the altar rather than the congregation, who could not hear the words very well, nor understand the Latin, nor clearly see his movements. At one point the priest would say "Hoc est corpus meum" Latin for "This is My body" (a phrase that has also been suggested as the origin of the similar-sounding stereotypical magician's phrase "hocus-pocus"). That theory led Scottish politician Michael Matheson in 2008 to urge police action "against individuals who use it [the song and dance] to taunt Catholics". Matheson's claim was deemed ridiculous by fans from both sides of the Old Firm (the rival Glasgow football teams Celtic and Rangers) and calls were made on fans' forums for both sides to join together to sing the song on 27 December 2008 at Ibrox Stadium. Close relatives of Jimmy Kennedy and Al Tabor have publicly stated their recollections of the origin and meaning of the Hokey Cokey, and have denied its connection to the Mass. Those accounts differ, but they are all contradicted by the fact that the song existed and was published decades before its supposed composition in the 1940s. Dance across the world Australia In Australia, the dance may be called the "hokey pokey" or the "hokey cokey." It was a hit for Johnny Chester & The Chessmen in 1961. Denmark Mostly performed in the British style of the dance, it is known as the "boogie woogie" (pronounced ). Germany Performed mainly in the carnival in a variation of the British style of the dance, it is known as "Rucki-Zucki". Mexico Released as a commercial recording by Tatiana (singer) as "Hockey-Pockey". New Zealand In the North Island, the dance is usually known as the "hokey tokey", or the "hokey cokey" because hokey pokey is the usual term for honeycomb toffee. In the South Island it's just The Hokey Pokey. United Kingdom Known as the "hokey cokey" or the "hokey kokey", the song and accompanying dance peaked in popularity as a music hall song and novelty dance in the mid-1940s in Britain. There is a claim of authorship by the British/Irish songwriter Jimmy Kennedy, responsible for the lyrics to popular songs such as the wartime "We're Going to Hang out the Washing on the Siegfried Line" and the children's song "Teddy Bears' Picnic". Sheet music copyrighted in 1942 and published by Campbell Connelly & Co Ltd, agents for Kennedy Music Co Ltd, styles the song as "the Cokey Cokey". In the 1973 Thames Television documentary, May I Have the Pleasure?, about the Hammersmith Palais de Danse, Lou Preager comments on how his was the first band to record the 'Okey Cokey'. EMI Gold released a Monsta Mash CD featuring the "Monsta Hokey Cokey" written and produced by Steve Deakin-Davies of "The Ambition Company". The song was used by comedian Bill Bailey during his "Part Troll" tour, however, it was reworked by Bailey into a style of the German electronic group Kraftwerk, including quasi-German lyrics and Kraftwerk's signature robotic dance moves. The comedy act Ida Barr, a fictional East End pensioner who mashes up music hall songs with rap numbers, almost always finishes her shows with the hokey cokey, performed over a thumping RnB backing. Ida Barr is performed by a British comedian Christopher Green. United States and Canada Known as the "hokey pokey", it became popular in the US in the 1950s. Its originator in the US is debatable: Larry LaPrise, Charles Macak, and Tafit Baker of the musical group the Ram Trio, better known as the Sun Valley Trio, recorded the song in 1948 and it was released in 1950. They have generally been credited with creating this novelty dance as entertainment for the ski crowd at the Sun Valley, Idaho resort. However, two club musicians from Scranton, Pennsylvania, Robert Degen and Joseph P. Brier, had previously copyrighted a very similar song, "The Hokey Pokey Dance", in 1944. (One account says that copyright was granted in 1946.) According to Degan's son in The New York Times, Degan and Brier wrote the song while playing for the summer at a resort near the Delaware Water Gap. Degan resided at Richmond Place Rehabilitation and Health Center in Lexington, Kentucky, until he died on November 23, 2009, aged 104. Degen and Brier, who died in 1991, sued the members of the Ram Trio, and several record companies and music publishers for copyright infringement, demanding $200,000 in damages and $1 for each record of the LaPrise "Hokey Pokey". The suit was settled out of court. LaPrise later sold the rights to his version to country-western music star Roy Acuff's Nashville publishing company, Acuff-Rose Music; that company was sold to Sony/ATV Music Publishing in 2002. A competing authorship claim is made by or on behalf of British bandleader Gerry Hoey from around 1940, under the title "The Hoey Oka". In 1953, Ray Anthony's big band recording of the song turned it into a nationwide sensation. The distinctive vocal was by singer Jo Ann Greer, who simultaneously sang with the Les Brown band and dubbed the singing voices for such film stars as Rita Hayworth, Kim Novak, June Allyson, and Esther Williams. (She also charted with Anthony later the same year with the song "Wild Horses".) In 1978, Mike Stanglin produced a "skating version" of the Hokey Pokey, for use in skating rinks. Dance moves United Kingdom, Australia and Ireland style of dance The instruction set goes as follows: You put your [left arm] in, Your [left arm] out: In, out, In, out Shake it all about. You do the hokey cokey, And you turn around. That's what it's all about! On "You do the hokey cokey", each participant joins their right and left hands at the fingertips to make a chevron and rocks the chevron from side to side. After that the participants separately, but in time with the others, turn around (usually clockwise when viewed from above – novices may go in the opposite direction to the main group, but this adds more hilarity to this joyous, novelty dance). The hands are either still joined together or moved as in a jogging motion – dependent on local tradition or individual choice. Each instruction set is followed by a chorus, entirely different from other parts of the world. There is either a caller, within or outside the group, or the instructions are called by the whole group – which can add to the confusion and is laughed off as part of the dance's charm and amusement. Whoa, hokey cokey cokey Whoa, hokey cokey cokey Whoa, hokey cokey cokey Knees bend, arms stretch, Rah, rah, rah! The first three lines of this chorus are sometimes rendered 'Whoa, the hokey cokey', with the 'whoa' lasting three beats instead of two. It can also be said "Whoa, the hokey cokey cokey". For this chorus, all participants stand in a circle and hold hands: on each "Whoa" they raise their joined hands in the air and run in toward the centre of the circle, and on "...the hokey cokey" they run backwards out again. This instruction and chorus are repeated for the other limb, then for the upper right, and then the upper left arm. Either the upper or lower limbs may start first, and either left or right, depending on local tradition, or by random choice on the night. On the penultimate line they bend their knees then stretch their arms, as indicated, and on "Rah, rah, rah!" they either clap in time or raise their arms above their heads and push upwards in time. Sometimes each subsequent verse and chorus is a little faster and louder, with the ultimate aim of making people chaotically run into each other in gleeful abandon. There is a final instruction set with "you put your whole self in, etc", cramming the centre of the dance floor. Often, the final chorus is sung twice, the second time even faster and the song ends with the joyous chant, 'aye tiddly aye tie, brown bread!'. United States style of dance The dance follows the instructions given in the lyrics of the song, which may be prompted by a bandleader, a participant, or a recording. A sample instruction sequence would be: You put your [right leg] in, You put your [right leg] out; You put your [right leg] in, And you shake it all about. You do the hokey pokey, And you turn yourself around. That's what it's all about! Yeah! Participants stand in a circle. On "in" they put the appropriate body part in the circle, and on "out" they put it out of the circle. On "And you shake it all about", the body part is shaken three times (on "shake", "all", and "-bout", respectively). Throughout "You do the hokey pokey, / And you turn yourself around", the participants spin in a complete circle with the arms raised at 90° angles and the index fingers pointed up, shaking their arms up and down and their hips side to side seven times (on "do", "hoke-", "poke-", "and", "turn", "-self", and "-round" respectively). For the final "That's what it's all about", the participants clap with their hands out once on "that's" and "what" each, clap under the knee with the leg lifted up on "all", clap behind the back on "a-", and finally one more clap with the arms out on "-bout". The body parts usually included are, in order, "right foot", "left foot", "right hand", "left hand", "head", "buttocks" (or "backside"), fingers, toes, hair, lips, tongue and "whole self"; the body parts "right elbow", "left elbow", "right hip", and "left hip" are often included as well. The final verse goes: You do the hokey pokey, The hokey pokey, The hokey pokey. That's what it's all about! Yeah! On each "pokey", the participants again raise the arms at 90° angles with the index fingers pointed up, shaking their arms up and down and their hips side to side five times. Copyright In the United States, Sony/ATV Music Publishing controls 100% of the publishing rights to the "hokey pokey." In popular culture Advertising It was used in a 2005 Velveeta Salsa Dip commercial. In a 1982 radio advert for Video 2000 by Mel Smith and Griff Rhys Jones, a character refers to a television called the "Hokey Cokey 2000". It was used in a Marvel toy commercial with parody lyrics in the mid-2010s. It was used in a 2019 Apple Watch commercial. Comedy and humor Comedian Jim Breuer performs the hokey pokey as he imagines it would be interpreted by AC/DC, commenting on the band's ability to turn any song, no matter how mundane, into a rock anthem. Comedian Bill Bailey performed a Kraftwerk inspired version for his Part Troll tour. There is a joke about when Larry LaPrise died, his family had trouble getting him into his coffin ("they put his left leg in, and that's where the tragedy began…"). Music (Alphabetical by group) In 2003, Filipina actress Ai-Ai delas Alas did a Tagalog version of "Hokey Pokey", entitled Ang Tanging Ina which from the movie of the same title and a TV series of the same title. In 2004, Bill Bailey performed a version of the "Hokey Kokey" in German and in the style of Kraftwerk, on his Part Troll tour. In 1985, the British pop band Black Lace released their version of the song as a single under the title "The Hokey Cokey". This version peaked at #31 in the UK. The horror-themed heavy metal band Haunted Garage recorded a humorous hardcore punk version of the hokey pokey on their album Possession Park (1991). The Canadian kids' bands Judy & David (1993) and Sharon, Lois & Bram (1998) did covers. In 1979, the rock group Slade released a version titled "Okey Cokey" as a single. It did not chart but was later included on the group's EP Xmas Ear Bender (1980) and album Crackers: The Christmas Party Album (1985). In 1981, a band of uncredited musicians known as The Snowmen had a #18 UK hit with the song; there have been persistent unsubstantiated rumours that the vocalist was Ian Dury, yet it was session guitarist and singer Martin Kershaw, as revealed by author Richard Balls in 2015. Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer is also played during the break. In 1974 the UK singer Kristine Sparkle released her glam pop rock version as a single and on her first album. Alternative band The Three O'Clock used the roller skating version of the Hokey Cokey in the video for their song "Her Head's Revolving." The video opens and ends with them doing the hokey cokey. It is available at YouTube. In 2017, Jimmy Buffett released "What If the Hokey Pokey Is All It Really Is About?", on his album Far Side of the World. After listing all the ills and mysteries to which our modern world is prey, he imagines the solution in its simplest form: The Hokey Pokey. The song 'Petty Sessions' from Half Man Half Biscuit's 2008 album CSI:Ambleside is the Hokey Cokey with alternative satirical lyrics - the title being a pun on a form of magistrate's court for minor public nuisance offences in England and Wales which had been abolished in 2004. Sports The Marching Virginians of Virginia Tech play this song (known as the "Hokie Pokie" at Virginia Tech because of their mascot) between the third and fourth quarters at all Virginia Tech football games. Much of the crowd participates in the dance, as do the tubas during much of the song and the rest of the band during the tuba feature. The song is also generally used as the Marching Virginians' dance number in the first half-time field show of the year, and an abbreviated version is played as a "Spirit Spot" (short song used between plays during the football game) after a big play. The University of Iowa Hawkeye football team, under coach Hayden Fry, used to perform the hokey pokey after particularly impressive victories, such as over Michigan and Ohio State. On September 3, 2010, a crowd of 7,384 – with Fry present – performed the hokey pokey in Coralville, Iowa, establishing a new world record. Television The BBC TV comedy series 'Allo 'Allo! showed one of its characters (Herr Otto Flick) demonstrating a variation of the Hokey Cokey in an episode from season 3. Being a Gestapo officer the lyrics are changed to reflect his sinister nature, as follows: In the Arthur episode "Best of the Nest", Francine remarks that the only way to scare off a bear is to do the Hokey-Pokey. Binky claims that it's stupid, but when a bear attacks the campsite, Binky and his friends start doing the Hokey-Pokey. In the Babylon 5 episode "A Voice in the Wilderness, Part I", the Centauri Ambassador, Londo Mollari refers to the song as further evidence of the incomprehensible nature of human culture. In the Full House episode "Greek Week", Papouli says that according to Pompadoras tradition, getting married consists of "giving a girl flowers, walking around the table, and that's what it's all about". Danny Tanner replies to this comment by saying, "That's not a wedding. That's the Hokey-Pokey." Pinkie Pie performs a variation of the hokey cokey, titled "The Pony Pokey", in the My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic episode "The Best Night Ever". In the Pee-wee's Playhouse episode "Party", Pee-wee Herman and his playhouse visitors perform this dance. In the Sesame Street segment Elmo's World, the hokey pokey was performed on The Dancing Channel in the episode, "Dancing". Elmo does the dance from the 2003 hot toy "Hokey Pokey". In the episode "Chinga" (5×10) of the TV series The X-Files, the song is featured at multiple times during the episode. The song was also featured on The Backyardigans in the "Cave Party" episode. On a May 24, 2019, episode of The Tonight Show starring Jimmy Fallon, host Jimmy Fallon and radio personality Howard Stern danced the hokey pokey in a Times Square billboard in front of a crowd in New York City. The song was featured in BBC's Wartime Farm episode 8, showing the characteristic choreography. In the Count Duckula episode "Dead Eye Duck", the shoot-out takes place at the Okay Kokay Corral, which is an obvious pun on the O.K. Corral as well as this dance. In the Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode "Intervention", Giles performs a ritual with elements similar to the Hokey-pokey. Buffy remarks: "I know this ritual! The ancient shamans were next called upon to do the hokey-pokey and turn themselves around." After the ritual, she adds, "And that's what it's all about." A portion of the song was danced by the Bay of Pigswatch cast in Muppets Tonight episode 204. In the final episode of Bojack Horseman, "Nice While It Lasted", Todd Chavez and Bojack Horseman discuss the meaning of life by using the Hokey-Pokey as a metaphor. Todd observes that most people think the song (and life) is about 'the Hokey-Pokey', where as he believes differently and observes "It's like the song says. You do the Hokey-Pokey and you turn yourself around. 'You turn yourself around!'; that's what it's all about!" - Implying that life isn't about 'the Hokey-Pokey' parts of life, but that it's about making changes and fixing mistakes. Bojack Horseman gives little credit to the song and quips "Yeah, I don't know if the song writers put that much thought into the existential significance of the lyrics; they literally rhyme 'about' with 'about'." Film The 1947 British film Frieda features a group of dancers in a dance hall singing and performing the hokey cokey. In the 1988 film Cherry 2000, the Hokey Pokey is performed by the fanatical followers of the film's antagonist Lester (Tim Thomerson) after he murders a tracker. Video games In the video game Constructor (1997), the Thief in the Pawn Shop can be heard mentioning a computer called the "Hokey Cokey 2000". Other uses The Washington Post'' has a weekly contest called The Style Invitational. One contest asked readers to submit "instructions" for something (anything) but written in the style of a famous person. The popular winning entry was "The Hokey Pokey (as written by William Shakespeare)", by Jeff Brechlin, Potomac Falls, and submitted by Katherine St. John. References External links Printed lyrics with synthesized music (no sung lyrics), with U.S. copyright information (audio plays automatically). Action songs British popular music Group dances Novelty and fad dances Novelty songs Songs with lyrics by Jimmy Kennedy Slade songs Song recordings produced by Chas Chandler
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renata%20Tebaldi
Renata Tebaldi
Renata Tebaldi ( , ; 1 February 1922 – 19 December 2004) was an Italian lirico-spinto soprano popular in the post-war period, and especially prominent as one of the stars of La Scala, San Carlo and, especially, the Metropolitan Opera. Often considered among the great opera singers of the 20th century, she focused primarily on the verismo roles of the lyric and dramatic repertoires. Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini called her voice "" ("the voice of an angel"), and La Scala music director Riccardo Muti called her "one of the greatest performers with one of the most extraordinary voices in the field of opera." Early years and education Born in Pesaro, Tebaldi was the daughter of cellist Teobaldo Tebaldi and Giuseppina Barbieri, a nurse. Her parents separated before her birth and Tebaldi grew up with her mother in her maternal grandparents' home in Langhirano. Stricken with polio at the age of three, Tebaldi became interested in music and sang with the church choir in Langhirano. Her mother sent her, at age 13, for piano lessons with Giuseppina Passani in Parma, who took the initiative that Tebaldi study voice with Italo Brancucci at the Parma Conservatory. She was admitted to the conservatory at 17, where she studied with Brancucci and Ettore Campogalliani. She later transferred to Liceo musicale Rossini in Pesaro, taking lessons with Carmen Melis, and on her suggestion with Giuseppe Pais. She then studied with Beverley Peck Johnson in New York City. Italian career Tebaldi made her stage debut as Elena in Boito's Mefistofele in Rovigo in 1944. Wartime conditions made for a difficult trip, with Tebaldi partly travelling by horse cart to Rovigo, and her return trip coming under machine-gun fire. Her early career was also marked by a performance in Parma in La bohème, L'amico Fritz and Andrea Chénier. She caused a stir when in 1946 she made her debut as Desdemona in Verdi's Otello alongside Francesco Merli as the title role in Trieste. Her major breakthrough came in 1946, when she auditioned for Arturo Toscanini, who says she had the "voce d'angelo" (voice of an angel). Tebaldi made her La Scala debut that year at the concert marking the reopening of the theatre after World War II. She sang the "Prayer" ("Dal tuo stellato soglio") from Rossini's biblical opera, Mosè in Egitto, and the soprano part in Verdi's Te Deum. She was given the roles of Margherita and Elena in Mefistofele and Elsa in Lohengrin in 1946. The next year she appeared in La bohème and as Eva in Die Meistersinger. Toscanini encouraged her to sing the role of Aida and invited her to rehearse it in his studio. She believed the role was reserved for a dramatic soprano; but Toscanini convinced her otherwise, and she debuted in the role at La Scala in 1950 with Mario del Monaco and Fedora Barbieri, conducted by Antonino Votto. It was the greatest success in her budding career, and led to international opportunities.. During the first decade of her career, Tebaldi's repertoire included roles by Rossini, Spontini, Handel, Mozart, Wagner, Gounod, Mascagni, Tchaikovsky and contemporary composers such as Refice, Casavola and Cilea. Tebaldi provided Sophia Loren's singing in the film version of Aida (1953). International career Tebaldi went on a concert tour with the La Scala ensemble in 1950, first to the Edinburgh Festival and then to London, where she made her debut as Desdemona in two performances of Otello at the Royal Opera House and in the Verdi Requiem, both conducted by Victor de Sabata. The Met Tebaldi made her American debut in 1950 as Aida at the San Francisco Opera; her Metropolitan Opera debut took place on 31 January 1955, as Desdemona opposite Mario Del Monaco's Otello. For some 20 years she made the Met the focus of her activities. For the 1962-1963 season, she convinced Met director Rudolf Bing to stage a revival of Cilea's Adriana Lecouvreur, an opera Bing said he "detested". Unfortunately, Tebaldi was not in top form and cancelled performances; and, as Bing was quoted in 1000 Nights at the Opera, "We had to do the wretched thing without her." However, her Lecouvreur was a practical move for the Met, as she was "the greatest box-office draw since Flagstad", according to Francis Robinson, then assistant manager of ticket sales. Tebaldi however returned triumphantly to the role of Adriana for the opening night of the 1968-69 season. The MET scored a box office record of $126,000. One of the public's favorite Tebaldi roles was Minnie in Puccini's La fanciulla del West of which she sang only five performances in February and March 1970. When she made her debut in the role at the Met, she was told that, as all Minnies do, she would have to enter in the 3rd act on horseback. Tebaldi, who had a lifelong fear of horses, refused to go near the animal until she was sure he was safe. At her first rehearsal, she approached him, patted his mane, and said, "Well, Mr. Horse, I am Tebaldi. You and I are going to be friends, eh?" She conquered her fear and the performances were successful. She sang more at the Met and far less elsewhere. She developed a special rapport with the Met audiences and became known as "Miss Sold Out", as her name on the marquee was considered a performance that could hardly be matched. She sang there some 270 times in La bohème, Madama Butterfly, Tosca, Manon Lescaut, La fanciulla del West, Otello, La forza del destino, Simon Boccanegra, Falstaff, Andrea Chénier, Adriana Lecouvreur, La Gioconda, and as Violetta in a production of La Traviata created specially for her. Puccini's Tosca was her most regular role there, with 45 performances. She was the Leonora in La forza del destino on the night in 1960 when Leonard Warren suddenly died mid-performance; and she was Adriana Lecouvreur on the night Placido Domingo made his Met debut in 1968. She made her last appearance there on 8 January 1973 as Desdemona in Otello; it was the role in which she made her Met debut 18 years earlier, and which had become one of her signature roles. Tebaldi was widely admired by the American operatic public. She did not become a classically temperamental diva, but trusted her artistic instincts. Rudolf Bing, referring to her more assertive side, famously said of her, "She has dimples of iron". Tebaldi and Callas During the early 1950s, controversy arose regarding a supposed rivalry between Tebaldi and the great Greek-American soprano Maria Callas. The contrast between Callas's often unconventional vocal qualities and Tebaldi's classically beautiful sound resurrected an argument as old as opera itself, namely, beauty of sound versus the expressive use of sound. In 1951, Tebaldi and Maria Callas were jointly booked for a vocal recital in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Although the singers supposedly agreed that neither would perform encores, Tebaldi took two, and Callas was reportedly incensed. This incident began the rivalry, which reached a fever pitch in the mid-1950s, at times even engulfing the two women themselves, who were said by their more fanatical followers to have engaged in verbal barbs in each other's direction. Tebaldi was quoted as saying, "I have one thing that Callas doesn't have: a heart" while Callas was quoted in Time magazine as saying that comparing her with Tebaldi was like "comparing Champagne with Cognac. No, with Coca Cola". However, witnesses to the interview stated that Callas only said "champagne with cognac", and it was a bystander who quipped, "No, with Coca-Cola", but the Time reporter attributed the latter comment to Callas. According to John Ardoin, however, these two singers should never have been compared. Tebaldi was trained by Carmen Melis, a noted verismo specialist, and she was rooted in the early 20th century Italian school of singing just as firmly as Callas was rooted in 19th century bel canto. Callas was a dramatic soprano, whereas Tebaldi considered herself essentially a lyric soprano. Callas and Tebaldi generally sang a different repertoire: in the early years of her career, Callas concentrated on the heavy dramatic soprano roles and later in her career on the bel canto repertoire, whereas Tebaldi concentrated on late Verdi and verismo roles. They shared a few roles, including Tosca in Puccini's opera and La Gioconda, which Tebaldi performed only late in her career. The alleged rivalry aside, Callas made remarks appreciative of Tebaldi, and vice versa. During an interview with Norman Ross in Chicago, Callas said, "I admire Tebaldi's tone; it's beautiful – also some beautiful phrasing. Sometimes, I actually wish I had her voice." Francis Robinson of the Met wrote of an incident in which Tebaldi asked him to recommend a recording of La Gioconda to help her learn the role. Being fully aware of the alleged rivalry, he recommended Zinka Milanov's version. A few days later, he went to visit Tebaldi, only to find her sitting by the speakers, listening intently to Callas's recording. She then looked up at him and asked, "Why didn't you tell me Maria's was the best?" According to Time magazine, when Callas quit La Scala, "Tebaldi made a surprising maneuver: she announced that she would not sing at La Scala without Callas. 'I sing only for artistic reasons; it is not my custom to sing against anybody', she said." Callas visited Tebaldi after a performance of Adriana Lecouvreur at the Met in 1968, and the two were reunited. In 1978, Tebaldi spoke warmly of her late colleague and summarized this rivalry: This rivality [sic] was really building from the people of the newspapers and the fans. But I think it was very good for both of us, because the publicity was so big and it created a very big interest about me and Maria and was very good in the end. But I don't know why they put this kind of rivality [sic], because the voice was very different. She was really something unusual. And I remember that I was very young artist too, and I stayed near the radio every time that I know that there was something on radio by Maria. Voice Tebaldi's voice was reputed to be one of the most beautiful of the day, with rich, perfectly produced tones. At the start of her career, her audition in bomb-ravaged La Scala's reopening was marked by Arturo Toscanini praising Tebaldi, calling her la voce d'angelo with enthusiastic "Brava!"s and applauds. British musicologist Alan Blyth posited that in posterity, Tebaldi holds a position of being one of the last and best spinto sopranos of the last 50 years, due to Tebaldi's successors in the fach not having the right vocal equipment for her parts. Blyth attributed this in part to Tebaldi's recordings, and her live performances onstage. Tebaldi's voice added a frisson of urgency when she sang in an opera house. This was noted in two of her performances as Leonora in Verdi's La forza del destino, evident in a recording done at the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino in 1953, where conductor Dimitri Mitropoulos urged her to great heights of vocal and dramatic achievement, and a live video recording in Naples. Montserrat Caballe remarked on an interview that Tebaldi, "She was our Aida, our Traviata, our Manon Lescaut. She was all the roles, and she was the most perfect human voice we ever heard", likewise, Robert Merrill and Licia Albanese commented on the sumptuous and beautiful quality of Tebaldi's voice. Tebaldi withdrew from performances in 1963 to restudy, made in part due to the emotional stress after eighteen years of singing. After thirteen months of reworking her voice, Tebaldi possessed an unmistakable metallic edge in her voice which only strengthened over the years. On her mid-to-later career, Tebaldi shifted from being a spinto to one with a near-dramatic sound. Adding La Gioconda in her repertoire, Tebaldi had chest notes carried high, bearing ample size and strength but little of the known beauty of Tebaldi's tone. Similarly, in her recorded Puccini roles at that time, one can't always count on the "floats" being easily produced or accurately pitched. Some critics of Tebaldi have commented adversely on her seemingly incomplete technique; sometimes she took on strident, full-voiced top notes when tackling material above the high B-flat, and had occasional lapses in her pitch. For most audiences however, there was the sheer and deep richness of Tebaldi's voice, her melting legato phrases, the deeply expressive but never maudlin quality of singing, the beauty of her floated pianissimo high notes, and her temperament when dwelling in moments of dramatic intensity. Tebaldi's often mentioned alleged rival, Maria Callas, said in an interview, "I admire Tebaldi's tone; it's beautiful – also some beautiful phrasing. Sometimes, I actually wish I had her voice." Tebaldi herself mentioned that recording presented challenges for her, as she missed the stimulation of an audience, and her powerful voice would often cause sound engineers to insist that she turn away from the microphone at moments of climactic intensity. Personal life Tebaldi enjoyed a beloved relationship with her mother, who helped nurture and was devoted to her career and well-being from an early age. Her mother's death in 1957 was a huge blow to Tebaldi, whose grief was unbearable and it took effort to go back to the stage. Tebaldi never married. In a 1995 interview with The Times, she said she had no regrets about her single life. "I was in love many times," she said. "This is very good for a woman." But she added, "How could I have been a wife, a mother and a singer? Who takes care of the piccolini when you go around the world? Your children would not call you Mama, but Renata." She also wrote, "I started my career at 22 and finished it at 54. Thirty-two years of success, satisfaction and sacrifices. Singing was my life's scope to the point that I could never have a family." Tebaldi had a short relationship with bass Nicola Rossi-Lemeni. A longer one with conductor Arturo Basile was formed in 1958, Basile reportedly saying their plans to marry were ended by Tebaldi in 1962 due to Basile's behavior. Later years By the end of her career, Tebaldi had sung in 1,262 performances, 1,048 complete operas, and 214 concerts. Tebaldi retired from the opera stage in 1973 as Desdemona in Verdi's Otello in the Metropolitan Opera, the same role she debuted there nearly 20 years previously. In January 1976, she retired from giving recitals, making her last one in New York's Carnegie Hall where she was overcome with emotion and had to return to perform after a few weeks in a successful but shaky performance. She received six curtain calls and standing ovations from the audience. She then moved out of her New York apartment, her home for many years during her stint in the Met and returned to Italy, where she gave her final public appearance in a vocal recital in La Scala in May 1976. She also made recitals around the globe, in one recital held in Manila with frequent partner Franco Corelli, Tebaldi's voice cracked in a Manon Lescaut aria, she then massaged her throat and genuflected to great applause from the audience. Regarding her decision to retire, Tebaldi said that she stopped singing while she still had a powerful voice to avoid "the mortifying season of decline." She spent the majority of her last days in Milan. She died at age 82 at her home, in San Marino. She is buried in the Tebaldi family chapel at Mattaleto cemetery in Langhirano. At her death, audiences at Venice's La Fenice observed a moment of silence in her memory. Luciano Pavarotti said, "Farewell, Renata, your memory and your voice will be etched on my heart forever". Honours Tebaldi won the first Grammy Award Best Classical Performance - Vocal Soloist in 1959 for her album Operatic Recital. Their joint recording of Puccini's Turandot, conducted by Erich Leinsdorf and starring Birgit Nilsson as Turandot, Jussi Björling as Calaf, Tebaldi as Liù and Giorgio Tozzi as Timur with the Rome Opera Orchestra won the Grammy Award for Best Opera Recording in 1961. She became a member of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic as a Grand Officer in 1968 and a Knight Grand Cross in 1992. She was also made a Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres from France. Proclamation of the "Tebaldi day", announced in her honor on 11 December 1995 by Rudy Giuliani, then Mayor of New York City. Legacy From February 2010 until 2013, the 15th-century Castle of Torrechiara – Langhirano – hosted within its rooms an exhibition dedicated to Renata Tebaldi. This “Castle for a Queen” unveils the many sides of this great diva, whose artistic and personal life remain on display. The items showcased followed her over the arc of time as she spread the world-class tradition of Italian lyrical art, all the way from the beginning of her career and throughout her artistic achievements. The exhibition is presented by the Renata Tebaldi Committee in collaboration with Superintendence of Environmental Heritage and Landscape of the province of Parma and Piacenza, the Regio Theatre Foundation of Parma and the Municipality of Langhirano and with the patronage of the province of Parma. On June 7, 2014, the museum dedicated to Renata Tebaldi was inaugurated in the stables of Villa Pallavicino in Busseto. Tebaldi has been awarded a star for recording in 1960 in Hollywood Walk of Fame in 6628 Hollywood Boulevard, Hollywood, California. Discography Lohengrin (Richard Wagner): conducted by Franco Capuana, with Giacinto Prandelli and Elena Nicolai. (1947). Performed in Italian. Andrea Chénier (Umberto Giordano): Victor de Sabata conducting the Teatro alla Scala, with Mario Del Monaco and Paolo Silveri. (1949) Giulio Cesare (George Frideric Handel): Herbert Albert conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Cesare Siepi and Elena Nicolai. (1950) Tannhäuser (Richard Wagner): Karl Boehm conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Hans Beirer and Carlo Tagliabue. (1950). Performed in Italian. La traviata (Giuseppe Verdi): Antonino Votto conducting the Orchestra-Theatro Municipal do Rio de Janeiro, with Giuseppe Campora and Paolo Silveri. (1950) (Gramophone Company) Andrea Chénier (Umberto Giordano): Gabriele Santini conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Mario Filippeschi and Carlo Tagliabue. (1951) La bohème (Giacomo Puccini): Gabriele Santini conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Giacomo Lauri-Volpi and Tito Gobbi. (1951) Falstaff (opera) (Giuseppe Verdi): Victor de Sabata conducting the Teatro alla Scala, with Mariano Stabile and Cesare Valletti. (1951) (Urania Records) Fernand Cortez (Gaspare Spontini): Gabriele Santini conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Gino Penno and Italo Tajo. (1951). Performed in Italian. Giovanna d'Arco (Giuseppe Verdi): Gabriele Santini conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Gino Penno and Ugo Savarese. (1951) Giovanna d'Arco (Giuseppe Verdi): Alfredo Simonetto conducting the RAI Milano Orchestra, with Carlo Bergonzi and Rolando Panerai. (1951) La bohème (Giacomo Puccini): Alberto Erede conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Giacinto Prandelli and Fernando Corena. (1951) (Decca Records) Madama Butterfly (Giacomo Puccini): Alberto Erede conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Giuseppe Campora, Giovanni Inghilleri and Nell Rankin. (1951) (London Records) Adriana Lecouvreur (Francesco Cilea): Gabriele Santini conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Gianni Poggi and Augosto Romani. (1952) Falstaff (opera) (Giuseppe Verdi): Victor de Sabata conducting the Teatro alla Scala, with Mariano Stabile and Cesare Valletti. (1952) Otello (Giuseppe Verdi): Gabriele Santini conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Ramón Vinay and Gino Bechi. (1952) Le siège de Corinthe (Gioachino Rossini): Gabriele Santini conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Miriam Pirazzini and Mario Petri. (1952). Performed in Italian. La traviata (Giuseppe Verdi): Gabriele Santini conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Giuseppe Campora and Pina Angelici. (1952) La traviata (Giuseppe Verdi): Carlo Maria Giulini conducting the RAI Milano Orchestra, with Giacinto Prandelli and Liliana Pellegrino. (1952) Aida (Giuseppe Verdi): Alberto Erede conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Mario del Monaco and Ebe Stignani. (1952) (Decca Records) Tosca (Giacomo Puccini): Alberto Erede conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Giuseppe Campora and Enzo Mascherini. (1952) (Decca Records) Aida (Giuseppe Verdi): Giuseppe Morelli conducting the RAI Milano Orchestra, with Giuseppe Campora and Ebe Stignani. (1953) Aida (Giuseppe Verdi): Tullio Serafin conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Gino Penno and Ebe Stignani. (1953) Cecilia (Licinio Refice): Licinio Refice conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Pina Ulisse and Alvino Misciano. (1953) La forza del destino (Giuseppe Verdi): Dimitri Mitropoulos conducting the Teatro Comunale Orchestra, with Mario Del Monaco, Silvio Maionica and Giorgio Tozzi. (1953) La Wally (Alfredo Catalani): Carlo Maria Giulini conducting the Teatro alla Scala, with Mario Del Monaco and Giangiacomo Guelfi. (1953) Andrea Chénier (Umberto Giordano): Arturo Basile conducting the RAI Torino Orchestra, with José Soler and Ugo Savarese. (1953) (Cetra Records) Tosca (Giacomo Puccini): Oliviero De Fabritiis conducting the Orchestra-Theatro Municipal do Rio de Janeiro, with Giuseppe Di Stefano and Tito Gobbi. (1953) (Decca Records) Le nozze di Figaro (Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart): Ionel Perlea conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Giulietta Simionato, Italo Tajo and Alda Noni. (1954). Performed in Italian. Manon Lescaut (Giacomo Puccini): Francesco Molinari-Pradelli conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Mario Del Monaco, Mario Boriello, Fernando Corena. Coro dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia. (1954) (Decca Records). La traviata (Giuseppe Verdi): Francesco Molinari-Pradelli conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Gianni Poggi and Angela Vercelli. (1954) (Decca) Turandot (Giacomo Puccini): Alberto Erede conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Inge Borkh, Mario del Monaco and Nicola Zaccaria. (1955) (Decca Records) Tosca (Giacomo Puccini): Dimitri Mitropoulos conducting, with Leonard Warren, Fernando Corena, Richard Tucker. 7 January 1956 Metropolitan Opera Historic Broadcast Recording. Il trovatore (Giuseppe Verdi): Alberto Erede conducting the Grand Théâtre de Genève Orchestra, with Mario Del Monaco and Giulietta Simionato. (1956) (Decca) La traviata (Giuseppe Verdi): Fausto Cleva conducting the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra in 1957, with Giuseppe Campora and Leonard Warren. Cavalleria rusticana (Pietro Mascagni): Alberto Erede conducting the Orchestra and Chorus of the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino in 1957, with Jussi Björling and Ettore Bastianini. (RCA/London Records) Andrea Chénier (Umberto Giordano): Gianandrea Gavazzeni conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Mario Del Monaco, Fiorenza Cossotto, Ettore Bastianini. Coro dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia. (1957) (Decca). Madama Butterfly (Giacomo Puccini): Angelo Questa conducting the Orchestra del Teatro San Carlo, with Gianni Raimondi, Giuseppe Valdengo, Anna Di Stasio. (1958) La fanciulla del West (Giacomo Puccini): Franco Capuana conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Mario Del Monaco, Cornell MacNeil, Giorgio Tozzi. Coro dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia. (1958) (Decca Import). Madama Butterfly (Giacomo Puccini): Tullio Serafin conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Carlo Bergonzi, Fiorenza Cossotto, Enzo Sordello. Coro dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia. (1958) (Decca Records). Mefistofele (Arrigo Boito): Tullio Serafin conducting the Coro e Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Mario Del Monaco, Cesare Siepi. (1958) (Decca). La bohème (Giacomo Puccini): Tullio Serafin conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Carlo Bergonzi, Gianna D'Angelo, Ettore Bastianini. Coro dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia. (1959) (Decca Records). Tosca (Giacomo Puccini): Francesco Molinari-Pradelli conducting the Coro e Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Mario Del Monaco and George London. (1959) (Decca Records). Tosca (Giacomo Puccini): Gianandrea Gavazzeni conducting the La Scala Theatre Orchestra, with Giuseppe di Stefano and Tito Gobbi. La Scala Theatre Chorus. Recorded live at La Scala in 1959. Opera d'Oro. Aida (Giuseppe Verdi): Herbert von Karajan conducting the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, with Carlo Bergonzi, Giulietta Simionato, Cornell MacNeil. Singverein der Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. (1959) (Decca Legends). Turandot (Giacomo Puccini): Erich Leinsdorf conducting the Rome Opera Orchestra, with Birgit Nilsson, Jussi Bjoerling and Giorgio Tozzi. Rome Opera Chorus. (1960) (RCA). Otello (Giuseppe Verdi): Herbert von Karajan conducting the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, with Mario Del Monaco, Aldo Protti, Nello Romanato. Singverein der Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. (1961) (Decca Legends). Adriana Lecouvreur (Francesco Cilea): Franco Capuana conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Mario Del Monaco, Giulietta Simionato, Giulio Fioravanti. Coro dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia. (1961) (Decca). Il trittico (Giacomo Puccini): Lamberto Gardelli conducting Chorus and Orchestra of the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, with Giulietta Simionato, Mario del Monaco, Robert Merrill, Fernando Corena (1962) (London Records) Adriana Lecouvreur (Francesco Cilea): Silvio Varviso conducting the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, with Franco Corelli and William Wilderman. (1963) Tosca (Giacomo Puccini): Fausto Cleva conducting the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, with Franco Corelli and Tito Gobbi. (1964) Don Carlos (opera) (Giuseppe Verdi): Georg Solti conducting Orchestra of the Royal Opera House, with Carlo Bergonzi, Nicolai Ghiaurov, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Grace Bumbry (1965) (Decca) La Gioconda (opera) (Amilcare Ponchielli): Fausto Cleva conducting the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, with Franco Corelli, Cornell MacNeil, Biserka Cvejić and Cesare Siepi. (1966). (Stradivarius Records) Otello (Giuseppe Verdi): Alberto Erede conducting the Teatro Regio Orchestra, with Mario Del Monaco and Tito Gobbi. (1966) Otello (Giuseppe Verdi): Anton Guadagno conducting the Philadelphia Lyric Opera Orchestra, with Jon Vickers and Louis Quilico. (1967) La Gioconda (opera) (Amilcare Ponchielli): Lamberto Gardelli conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Carlo Bergonzi, Robert Merrill, Marilyn Horne and Oralia Domínguez. (1968). (Decca Records) La Gioconda (opera) (Amilcare Ponchielli): Fausto Cleva conducting Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, with Carlo Bergonzi, Cornell MacNeil and Fiorenza Cossotto. (1968). La Wally (Alfredo Catalani): Fausto Cleva conducting Orchestra of the American Opera Society, with Carlo Bergonzi, Peter Glossop. (1968). La Wally (Alfredo Catalani): Fausto Cleva conducting L'Orchestre National de l'Opéra de Monte-Carlo, with Mario Del Monaco, Piero Cappuccilli, Justino Diaz. Coro Lirico di Torino. (1968) (Decca Records). Adriana Lecouvreur (Francesco Cilea): Fausto Cleva conducting the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, with Franco Corelli and Morley Meredith. (1969) La bohème (Giacomo Puccini): Anton Guadagno conducting the Philadelphia Lyric Opera Orchestra, with Franco Corelli and Seymour Schwartzman. (1969) La bohème (Giacomo Puccini): Anton Guadagno conducting the Philadelphia Lyric Opera Orchestra, with Franco Corelli and Alan Wagner. (1969) La bohème (Giacomo Puccini): Fausto Cleva conducting the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, with Richard Tucker and Gene Boucher. (1970) La fanciulla del west (Giacomo Puccini): Jan Behr conducting the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, with Sándor Kónya and Anselmo Colzani. (1970) Simon Boccanegra (Giuseppe Verdi): James Levine conducting the Cleveland Orchestra, with Cornell MacNeil and Ezio Flagello. (1970) (Legato Classics) Un ballo in maschera (Giuseppe Verdi): Bruno Bartoletti conducting the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, with Luciano Pavarotti and Sherrill Milnes. (1970) (Decca Records) Otello (Giuseppe Verdi): Anton Guadagno conducting the Philadelphia Lyric Opera Orchestra, with Jon Vickers and Peter Glossop. (1972) Falstaff (opera) (Giuseppe Verdi): Christoph von Dohnányi conducting the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra. with Tito Gobbi and Luigi Alva. (1972) Otello (Giuseppe Verdi): James Levine conducting the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra. with James McCracken and Sherrill Milnes. (1973) References Further reading External links Official Website of the Committee Renata Tebaldi Tebaldi, Renata – Encyclopædia Britannica 'La Tebaldi' app Site Renata Tebaldi a New Tribute International Jose Guillermo Carrillo Foundation A Tribute to Renata Tebaldi (including discography) Retrieved May 17, 2013 Tebaldi sings "Un Bel Di Vedremo" from Puccini's Madama Butterfly in this 1959 video. Renata Tebaldi sings Un bel dì vedremo in a live performance Renata Tebaldi sings Si, mi chiamano Mimì in Puccini's La bohème , by Renata Tebaldi in a studio recording of Puccini's Turandot with Mario del Monaco and Alberto Erede conducting, 1955 Tebaldi in a live performance of La forza del destino, Firenze, 1956 Tebaldi performing Pace, pace mio Dio, Napoli, 1958 , televised performance by Renata Tebaldi, 1959 by Renata Tebaldi Discography (Capon's Lists of Opera Recordings) 1922 births 2004 deaths People from Pesaro Italian operatic sopranos Grammy Award winners Musicians from the Province of Parma Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic 20th-century Italian women opera singers Decca Records artists Parma Conservatory alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpukhov
Serpukhov
Serpukhov () is a city in Moscow Oblast, Russia, located at the confluence of the Oka and the Nara Rivers, 99 kilometers (62 miles) south from Moscow and 72 kilometers (45 miles) from Moscow Ring Road on the Moscow—Simferopol highway. The Moscow—Tula railway passes through Serpukhov. Serpukhov is at the centre of the Serpukhov Urban District which in turn lies at the heart of the with a population of more than 260,000 inhabitants. In the 14th and early 15th centuries, Serpukhov was the capital of the principality. It was allocated to an independent administrative and economic unit with direct subordination to the executive committee of the regional council on September 14, 1939. Now a city of regional subordination, it is part of the municipal education of the city district of Serpukhov. In the modern era, Serpukhov has become a local industrial center with textile, mechanical engineering, furniture, and paper-producing industries. The SeAZ factory produces the Lada Oka microcar since the 1980s. The Prioksko-Terrasny Nature Reserve sprawls within from the city. By a resolution of the Moscow Regional Duma of April 28, 2016, the city was awarded the honorary title "The Inhabited Point of Military Valor". Geography Serpukhov is located in the southern part of the Moscow region on the Nara River, 99km from the center of Moscow and 73km from Moscow. Two regional centres, Tula and Kaluga, are located at approximately the same distance (about 80km) from Serpukhov. The city is located on the border of 3 regions (Moscow Oblast, Tula Oblast and Kaluga Oblast). There were two large landfills in the city. The landfill "Syanovo-1" was closed after a major fire in 2017. The landfill "Lesnaya" was closed in 2021. It was the last landfill in Moscow Oblast. Climate The climate is moderately continental. Conditions are determined by the impact of the transfer of air masses of western and south-western cyclones, the removal of Arctic air from the north and the transformation of air masses of different origins. The consequence of exposure to air masses from the Atlantic Ocean is the probability of winter thaws and wet cool periods in the summer. The influence of arctic cold masses affects in the form of severe cold snaps in the winter months and in the form of "return of colds" in the spring-summer period, in which the temperature drops down to frosts on the soil. The coldest month of the year is January: The average temperature is 8.6 degrees C. The warmest month is July with an average temperature of 18.5 degrees C. Absolute maximum temperature is recorded on August 6, 2010: 39.4 degrees C. Days with frosts are recorded even in summer, except July and August. The average duration of a warm period is above 0 degrees Celsius, with an average daily temperature above 216 days per year. The growing season of plants is 180 days. During the year, the southwest quarter winds prevail - south, southwest and west, the recurrence of which is 15%, 19% and 17%, respectively, and a total of 51%. The average annual wind speed is 3.0m/s. The average monthly wind speed is observed in winter, reaching a magnitude of 3.3m/s, the minimum in summer - 2.5-2.6m/s. In winter, the largest forces are the south-east and northwest winds (3.6m/s), in the summer - northern and north westerly (3.1-2.8m/s). Wind speed, the recurrence of which is 5% - 6m/s. Precipitation is mainly determined by cyclonic activity. Precipitation associated with local circulation, even in summer, is a smaller proportion. The average long-term rainfall is 580–590mm. During the warm period falls the main (up to 70%) - the amount of precipitation. The height of snow cover in open spaces is on average 38cm. In lowered and forested places the height of snow cover is much higher than specified, and it comes off later. The highest height of the snow cover reaches in March. The timing of the formation of a stable snow cover, as well as the timing of its appearance and convergence, vary greatly from year to year depending on the nature of the weather. Etymology The city in 1336 is referred to as The Serpokhov, only from the 16th century entered into use the modern form of Serpukhov. There is still no clear explanation of the origin of Serpukhov's place-by-point. There are several variants of the origin of the name, none of which, however, is generally accepted: - from the hypothetical name "Serpoch" (derived from "Serp") with suffix -; - from the name of the River Serpeiki; - from the sickle plant; - from the fact that the River Serpeika sickly skirted the Cathedral (Red) mountain; - from the fact that sickles were forged in the vicinity of the city; - from the canonical name Serapion; - different versions of the Finno-Ugric origin and other versions. History Serpukhov was established in 1339 to protect the southern approaches to Moscow. Two years later it was made a seat of the powerful princedom ruled by a cousin and close associate of Dmitry Donskoy, Vladimir the Bold. Town status was granted to it in 1374. The princedom continued until 1456, when the last prince escaped to Lithuania. The town frequently fell prey to the hordes of Tokhtamysh, Crimean Tatars, and other steppe conquerors. It was necessary to protect it with a stone citadel, or kremlin, which was completed by 1556 as part of the Great Abatis Belt. Located on the Oka frontiers and serving as a fortress during the long struggle with the Mongol-Tatar and Lithuanian-Polish conquerors, Serpukhov, for a long time, remained a reliable outpost of the Moscow Principality. The Serpukhov principality, led by Prince Vladimir Brave, participated in the Battle of Kulikov. It was here that Tsar Ivan IV once conducted a large look at his military forces, here stood the camp of Boris Godunov with "rat people", in Serpukhov collected regiments "for the enemy of his Crimean tsar" Vasily Shuisky. One of the strongholds was the city for the peasant army of Ivan Bolotnikov. In the mid-16th century Serpukhov maintained the role of an important strategic, administrative and economic center, experienced a revival in crafts and trade. The city consisted of three parts: the Kremlin, the posada and the suburb. Historically, Serpukhov's urban districts were formed from monastic suburbs and factory huts, and have been merged into a single whole already now. The Middle There is no written evidence of Serpukhov's existence in the Domangol era. However, as a result of archaeological research of Serpukhovsky fortification, conducted in 1926-1927 by A.N. Voronkov, numerous remains of ceramics, glass, iron products of the 10th and 13th centuries were found. On the site of the fortification between the rivers Nara and Serpeika at the mouth of the last in the 14th century, there was already a city. The first mention of Serpukhov in written sources is the spiritual letter of Ivan Kalita. In the will of the Moscow prince, the city is presented as one of his possessions. The text of the document exists in two versions with different dating. There are several opinions about the date of the will: According to L. V. Cherepnin, both copies of the spiritual lettering were drawn up before Ivan Kalita's fourth trip to Orda in 1339. According to A. A. Simin, the document was created earlier than 1331 - either in 1327 or in 1328. A. V. Kuchkin believes that one copy of the will was made in 1336 (during the third trip of the prince to Orda), and the other - after this event. The official date from which the age of the city is counted is 1339, according to the first version. According to spiritual literacy, the third son of Ivan Kalita Andrei Ivanovich inherited part of the land of the Moscow Principality, including Serpukhov, which became the center of the parish, and in the future - the basis of the new specific principality. In the middle of the 14th century, an epidemic of plague, known as "black death", swept across Europe. Prince Andrew fell to one of her victims in 1353. The deal is inherited by Prince Vladimir Andreevich. During the age of the prince's possessions are run by influential boyars. At this time in the history of the city is a significant event - Moscow Metropolitan Alexis in 1360 on the right bank of Nara founded the Monastery of The Lord. In 1367, in order to settle relations between Vladimir and his cousin Dmitry signed a contract, which confirms the subordinatium of the first second, as well as the right of Vladimir Andreevich to his fate and duties in relation to the Moscow prince. Soon Vladimir begins to pay considerable attention to the development of his possessions. Since the seventies of the 14th century, Serpukhov has been building a period of active construction. So in 1374, according to the chronicles on the Red (Cathedral) mountain begins the construction of a wooden kremlin, the city appointed the viceroy of the prince - Yakov Yuryevich Novosylets, established benefits to attract traders and artisans. In the same year, on the site of the Domongolian Slavic settlement of the High on the left bank of Nara, south of the Red Mountain, Prince Vladimir Andreevich founded a monastery named Vysotsky. The laying and consecration of the monastery was carried out by Sergiy Radonezki. Serpukhov's military, political and economic importance is growing, around which a full-fledged principality is formed, the core of which became parishes with centers in Lopasna, Darker and Rostovets. Since the end of the 14th century, the Serpukhov prince has been chasing his own coins. As the main ally of Prince Dmitry (and part-time cousin), Vladimir help participate in the events of 1380. Serpukhov becomes one of the centers of preparation for the campaign against Mamaya. The Serpukhov militia, led by Prince Vladimir Brave, operates as part of the Ambush Regiment in the Battle of Kulikov, which was a turning point in Russian history. In honor of the victory in 1381, a stone cathedral and a church with a refectory are being built in the Vysotsky Monastery. Soon Serpukhov was ruined during a campaign to Moscow by Khan Tokhtamish (1382). There is an opinion that the Ordyn army deviated from the direct route to Moscow in order to commit an act of revenge for the participation of the local prince and militia in the Battle of Kulikov. 1389 was marked by feudal conflict: Vladimir severed relations with the Moscow prince, who did not satisfy the demands of his cousin for new possessions. At the height of the quarrel, the grand prince captured the boyar of Serpukhov's prince, Vladimir, in turn, carried out the seizure of land belonging to Dmitry. The quarrel ended with the signing of another contract between feudal lords. In the 15th century Serpukhov was twice ruined: in 1408 by the army of Edigea and in 1409 by Lithuanians under the leadership of Prince Svidrigailo. After the death of Vladimir the Brave in 1410, the principality was divided between five sons. Serpukhov went to the eldest - Ivan Vladimirovich. Later, Vladimir's descendants participated in feudal wars on the side of The Moscow Princes until the independent principality was liquidated in 1456, when Prince Vasily Yaroslavich, grandson of Vladimir the Brave, was imprisoned. Serpukhovsky brigade as part of the Moscow army participated in the campaign to Novgorod in 1478, and in 1480 in standing on the Egre. Period between the Tatar-Mongolian yoke and the Time of Troubles Between 1496-1502, the former Kazan khan Mohammad-Amin of the Ulu-Muhammad dynasty, who was given Serpukhov, Hatun, and Kashira, was in the service of the Moscow ruler. This period in the history of the city is characterized by the oppression of local residents and violence by the henchman Ivan III. The next time Serpukhov was fed in 1532-1533 at another exiled Khan from Kazan, Shigale, who belonged to the Astrakhan dynasty of the Kasimov rulers. Shigalei, who was found to be in contact with Kazan, who violated feeding conditions, was exiled to Beloozeroin January 1533. From the end of the 15th century, a period of grueling raids of Crimean Tatars, who were dependent on the Ottoman Empire, began. The main of their routes to Moscow was Muravsky nobility, who walked from Perekop to Tula between the upper rivers of two basins - Dnipro and North Donets. A key element of the system of protection against raids was a line of fortifications along the banks of the Oki, where up to 65,000 warriors, annually assembled in Moscow, were held in the deep autumn. The most important part of the line of protective structures was the Tarus-Serpukhov-Kashir-Kolomna section. Thus, in 1512 there was a threat of a breakthrough of the Crimeans to Moscow, and in Serpukhov were concentrated troops led by The brother of Vasily III, Yuri Ivanovich, which became a barrier on the way of nomads to the capital. Five years later, in 1517, the Russian army stood up to the enemy. As a result of this campaign, the enemy was defeated the losses of the Crimeans amounted to 15,000 people. The campaign of Mehmed I Girey in 1521 led to the ruin of Serpukhov, Borovsk, Kashira and the central counties of the state. The result of the disaster was the decision of Basil III on the construction of stone fortresses on the southern borders. In 1556, the construction of the white-stone Serpukhov Kremlin. In the same year in Serpukhov Ivan IV held a large viewing of serving people. In 1565, after Tsar Ivan the Terrible divided the Russian state into an oprichnina and the land, the city became part of the last. With the construction of the new fortress Serpukhov increases its role in the defensive system and since 1572 the Grand Regiment of the Russian Armyhas been located here. In 1571 there was a campaign of The Virgin I Giret. In April, the Crimean army crossed the Oma in the area of Orla, and in May it was already near Serpukhov, where the Volynsky detachment was defeated by J. F. Vosodo, led by Ivan IV, but could not gain a foothold in it. As a result, a retreat to Moscow was undertaken, the tsar fled to the Alexandrov suburb. Devlet I besieged Moscow and burned it. On the way back, the Crimeans ravaged several counties, including Serpukhovsky. Crimean troops in the described campaign were helped by traitors, among whom was Serpukhovich Rusin, one of the children of the Boyar Shishkins. In 1572, Devlet I Girey prepared a second raid on the Russian state. A regiment of up to 10,000 men was sent to meet the enemy, led by Prince Mikhail Vorotynsky, who was stationed in Serpukhov. On June 25, 1572, the Crimean army approached Eke. Crossing the river and breaking several guard Russian detachments, the 120,000-year-old army of Devlet Gireya headed to Moscow. Vorotynsky organized the pursuit of the advancing troops, which ended with a convincing victory of the Russians in the Battle of the Young. The last breakthrough of the Crimean Tatars to Moscow dates back to 1581, when the army of Gaza II Gireya, crossing under Serpukhov through Alone and destroying the city plantation, moved to Moscow, where it failed and was pushed south. The leadership of the Russian army was conducted from Serpukhov by the tsarist governors. Boris Godunovtook an active part in the persecution of Gaza. This moment was one of the key moments in his political ascent. A significant event in history was the Serpukhov campaign of Godunov in 1598. The Russian army, which came to meet the Tatars, was located on the shore of Oki near Serpukhov. Boris Godunov's camp is located in a meadow near the Vlad monastery. Several weeks in a row were conducted inspections of troops and demonstration of force in front of the enemy. As a result, the ambassadors of Gaza Gireya recognized Godunov's royal title and passed offers of friendship and peace. By this time, significant donations to local monasteries on the part of the king, which began stone construction. The Temple of the Great Martyr George the Victorious, the Gated Temple of the Martyr Theod of Ankirsky and the wall of the Lord's Monastery were built. Time of Troubles The famine of 1601, the increase in the number of robber gangs, the uprising of peasants in 1603 did not bypass Serpukhovsky county. In a heated environment, false Dmitry I is on a trip to Moscow. In May 1605 the population of Serpukhov accepts False Dmitry I as king. The imposter's army, preparing to enter the capital, sets up a camp near the Monastery of The Lord. After the murder of False Dmitry I and the election of Vasily Shuisky by Tsar in 1606, Serpukhov again housed a large regiment of the tsarist army, the city became the center from which the siege of southern cities, not controlled by the official authorities, was under control. At this time, the uprising led by Ivan Bolotnikov was gaining momentum. After the Battle of Krom, the rebels advanced to Moscow, taking Kaluga and Alexin along the way. In October 1606, Bolotnikov approached Serpukhov, and the locals voluntarily surrendered the city. As a result of the unsuccessful assault of the capital, the rebels retreated to Serpukhov and then to Kaluga. In the summer of 1607, Serpukhov once again became a base for the tsarist army, which on July 5–7 participated in the battle on the River Eight between Serpukhov and Kashira, where the rebels were defeated. On June 21, Shui's captive rebels were tried here. In honor of the victory of the Lord's Monastery,the king was presented with a miraculous image of St. Dimitri Uglichsky, placed in a specially constructed aisle in the Vvedensky Cathedral (later attached to the Temple of the Great Martyr George the Victorious). During the Polish intervention, Serpukhov also did not escape military action. In January 1610 near the city a detachment of Cossacks led by Bezzubtsev defeated the Poles of Mlotsky. Soon the Cossacks left Serpukhov, who the next night was occupied by Poles. As a result, a large part of the civilian population was burnt down and a large part of the civilian population was killed. In 1610-1611, the residents of Serpukhov participated in the First Land Militia of Lyapunov, in 1612 - in the Second Militia of Minin and Pozharsky. As a result of the weakening of the state, which occurred during the Troubles, the nomads were again able to attack cities in Central Russia. In 1613, Serpukhovsky County was ruined by the Nogai Tatars along with Borovsky and Kolomensky. In 1618, hetman Piotr Sagaidachny, anally of the Polish king Vladislav, retreating with the army from Moscow to Kaluga, burned the Serpukhovsky plantation, but the fortress could not take. In 1633, the neighborhood of Serpukhov was ruined by the Crimean Tatars. 17th Century The consequences of the events of the Troubles for Serpukhov were a sharp decline in the population and the decline of the economy. Residents, trying to reduce the tax burden, move to the monastic suburbs. The state forcibly, by the forces of a detective order, returns the population to the city plantation. During the 17th century, Serpukhov continued to play the role of an important military center. At the beginning of the century the fortress survived a fire, after which it was restored and expanded. The head of the city administration at this time is appointed for a period of one to three years governor. In 1633, the urban suburbs of Serpukhov were ravaged by the Crimean army of Prince Mubarak-Gerai, who could not take the city Kremlin, however. In the "rebel age" the unrest could not bypass Serpukhov. In 1648, peasant riots engulfed the county. The estate of Kryvtsov's boyar son was burned down. As a result of the adoption in 1649 of the Council's settlement, the population reversed from monasteries to planting, which leads to the growth of the city and its population by 70-80%. In 1669 there is a big fire, Serpukhov burns almost to the ground. The main occupations of Serpukhov's population in the 17th century: iron production, blacksmithing, pottery, shoe production, food, clothing. More than 40 people were engaged in trade outside Serpukhov. The 17th century is also characterized by the rise of stone construction in the city. In different years were built: the Church of Nikola (on the site of the current cathedral), the gated Three-Sacred Church, the walls and towers of the Monastery, the Baroque Church, the church of Athanasius Athos (disassembled in 1878), the new building of the Trinity Cathedral. In 1627, the Cathedral of conception was rebuilt in the Vysotsky Monastery. 18th Century In Petrov's times, the population of Serpukhov actively participated in the construction of the fleet, new cities, and fortresses. Local craftsmen were made to participate in the king's projects. In the third decade of the 18th century, Serpukhov became one of the largest cities in the suburbs. Blacksmith production is being phased out. Trade is developing. In 1708, Serpukhov was part of the Moscow province formed. In the 1730s, one after another, linen factories began to open. In the forties, the main ones are the enterprises of Vasily and Nikolai Kishkin (the largest in the city), Vasily, Stepan and Ivan Gerasimovich Serikov, Ivan Andreevich Serikov. By the sixties, Ivan Andreevich Serikov's company was taking the leading position in Serpukhov. In addition to linen, silk and cloth factories were also opened in the city. In 1761, 30% of the sails exported from Russia were of Serpkhov's origin. The city comes in fourth place in Russia in linen production after Yaroslavl, Kostroma and Moscow. The number of people employed in the textile industry is growing from 3,000 in the 1950s to 5,500 at the end of the century. In addition to textiles in Serpukhov in the 80s there are eight tanners, seven brick and nine malt factories. The main areas of trade are the port of St. Petersburg (textile, leather), Moscow (food products). 19th Century In 1812, the population of Serpukhov and the county participated in the defense of the Russian Empire following the French invasion of Russia in 1812. The militia of the Moscow province consisted of 2,246 residents of Serpukhov county. The war did not affect the city directly. The industry continued to produce most of the canvas produced in the region. At that time there were 14 factories with 855 textile mills in Serpukhov. During this period, the industry is reoriented to the production of cotton products. If in 1812 the first cotton enterprise of Alexey Ignatieff appeared in the city, in 1814 eleven factories were functioning. The largest of them were the enterprises of A. Serikov, Ignatius Shilkin, I. Serikov, Maxim Konshin. There were also three tannery factories in Serpukhov, and a paper factory was operating in the Alexandrov suburb (now the village of Borisovo). Between 1810 and 1840, the number of people employed in urban enterprises increased to five thousand, with 950 employees employed in suburban factories in the fence, and the number of workers in other enterprises in the county to 2,000. The largest factories are owned by the Families of Konshin and Tretyakov. The leading industry of the Serpukhov industry is the production of cotton products. Thus, 4500 people are employed in seven paper-weaving and sitzenabive enterprises, 493 people are employed in ten linen. The main products of the industry: sith, mitkal, padded headscarves, canvas. Between 1840 and 1860, Serpukhov experienced a period of intense industrial growth. By the mid-1850s, the number of people employed in the city's enterprises reached 8,500, along with the suburbs - 10,400 people. In the rest of the county, the number of workers has been reduced to one thousand, indicating an increase in the territorial concentration of production. The average size of cotton mills has grown from 487 to 742 since 1843, bringing the total number of people employed in the industry to 8,900. The leaders of the Serpukhov industry were the enterprises of N.M. Konshin (later transformed by his son into the N. N. Konshin), which owned the paper-tinget and sitzenabative factory "Old Cape" (founded by Maxim Konshin in 1814), spinning enterprise (opened in the north of the city in 1846), a paper office The New Cape weaving factory (opened in the late 1850s near the village of Glazechnya) made up the complex, which allowed to perform a full cycle of processing from spinning raw materials to finished padded products. Other sub-sectors of the textile industry include the hornets operating in Serpukhov at the same time. The production of the canvas by the middle of the 19th century is in decline: the four remaining factories in 1843 employed 126 people. From a technical point of view, Serpukhov's enterprises of that time were not highly developed: most of them used manual labor, as a motor force used horse drive and water wheels. In the 1850s, steam engines appeared. Trade was an important part of the urban economy of the first half and mid-19th century. In the volume of trade operations Serpukhov took the second place in the province after Kolomna. The key trade routes were the road connecting Kharkiv with Moscow and the waterway along the Ska. The main items of trade - bread, wood, textiles. A significant role in the life of the city was occupied by craft production, which by 1861 employed more than 600 people. Key craft professions of the time: bakers, butchers, cobblers, tailors, fashionistas, blacksmiths, carpenters, carvers, stoves. 1901-1917 The city's industry in 1913 consisted of 27 plants with 17,057 people working for them, and the volume of production reached 49.6 million rubles. 1917-1941 In the first days of the war, several thousand Serpukhovich went to the mobilization front as volunteers. Air defense posts were set up. The militias assembled in Serpukhov joined the division of the People's Militia of the Bauman district of Moscow after two weeks of training. At the city's enterprises, directors were given the right to introduce overtime from one to three hours a day. Donor points were organized. In October 1941, the front line came close to the city. In the Serpukhov direction, the German-fascist troops were on the offensive as part of the 13th Army Corps, the 4th Field Army and the Motorized Units of the 2nd Guderian Tank Group. Defensive positions west of Serpukhov were occupied by the 49th Army of the Western Front under the command of Lieutenant General Saharkin, whose name is currently one of the city streets. German troops were located to the west of the city half-ring at a distance of 6-7 kilometers. The headquarters of the 49th Army was located in the village of Buturlino, east of Serpukhov. General Antipenko, the head of the army's rear, Nikolai Aleksandrovich, who was the head of the city's garrison, was in the city along with his headquarters. Serpukhov was directly defended by the 60th Infantry Division, which consisted of militias from the Leninsky district of Moscow. On October 25, 1941, the 5th Guards Rifle Division on the outskirts of Serpukhov took the line of defense of Upper-Shahlovo-Novylov-Kalinovo. On October 29, the division stopped the enemy at the turn 14 kilometers west of Serpukhov, east of Tarusa, the western outskirts of Aleksin. Parts of the 194th Infantry Division held the defense along the border of Borovna-Kremenki-Drakino. In the morning of 17.12.1941 parts of the division went on the offensive with the task of breaking through the defense on the right bank of the Protva River, on the Kremenka-Drakino section. By 25.12.1941 the division broke through the eight-kilometer defensive strip of the enemy. The air cover was carried out by the pilots of the 178th Fighter Aviation Regiment of the 6th Fighter Aviation Air Corps. The air regiment carried out a combat mission in the area of responsibility of the Southern Sector of the Moscow Air Defense Area,the leadership of which was entrusted to one of the deputy commanders of the 6th Air Defense Corps, Colonel Trifonov N.K. 178th IAP was based in the Oki border area, near the village of Lipitsa. The pilots of this regiment carried out 1695 sorties, conducted 59 air battles, shot down 22 enemy aircraft, destroyed 19 anti-aircraft guns. The regiment's commander, Lt. Col. Rakov Roman Ivanovich, personally flew 65 times on combat missions. One of Serpukhov's streets is also named after him. The most fierce battles were fought on the Line of Drakino - Kremenka - Pavlovka. At the end of November 1941, the German offensive was halted. In battles with the enemy also distinguished units and parts of the 1st Guards Cavalry Corps under the command of General Belov and military units of the 112th Tank Division under the command of Colonel Hetman. During the fierce battles, they thwarted the offensive of the 13th Wehrmacht Army Corps, inflicting heavy losses on it, liberated seven settlements and kept Serpukhov from encirclement and capture. During the Mozhai-Maloyaroslavets operation, the compound and parts of the 49th Army managed to significantly weaken parts of the advancing units of the Wehrmacht, causing them significant defeat and by early December completely stopped the enemy's offensive at the border west of Serpukhov - Sukhodol (20 km southeast of Alexin). Also in November, the evacuation of equipment of enterprises, workers, women and children began. Among the destinations were: Biysk, Ufa, Tyumen, Tashkent, Fergana. At the same time, six defensive districts are being created in Serpukhov: the Red Textile Maker, Novotkatsky, the Sitzenabive Factory District, Noginsky, the southern part of the city, and the Fence. Defensive structures are being erected: anti-tank ditches, slabs, barricades, crevices, bomb shelters, gas shelters. Hospitals were established on the basis of the surgical hospital, textile college, Semashko hospital, rabfak, schools No. 3, 11, 13, 22, 26, 28 hospitals where wounded fighters were received. On December 16, Soviet troops went on the offensive. After the breakthrough, the German defense were released Tarus and Alexin. By January 1942, the front line was more than 150 kilometers away from Serpukhov. Since 1942, the restoration of the urban industry begins. The capacity of the city's enterprises produces tools for tank and mechanized units, motorcycle equipment, ammunition, food concentrates. In 1944, the construction of a condenser plant began. Industrial production reaches 80% of the pre-war level. In the premises of the former textile enterprises are deployed metal processing plants, the share of which in the industry of the city by 1945 was 35% against 23.4% in the textile industry. During the war in Serpukhov, 597 buildings were destroyed and damaged, 202 civilians were killed and 317 wounded. In the early period of the war, 140 airstrikes were carried out on the city, 500 high-explosive and 35,000 incendiary bombs were dropped. Symbolism Based on the results of N.A. Soboleva's research, the main version of Serpukhov's coat of arms is the following. Serpukhov's coat of arms was designed by his friend (deputy) heroldmaster Franz Matveevich Santi in the mid-twenties of the 18th century. A questionnaire has been sent to the cities of Russia in order to obtain information that can be taken into account when creating the coat of arms for each particularcity. The peacock became an element of the coat of arms on the basis of a message sent to the heroldy from Serpukhov, which said that not far from the city "in the monastery one peacocks will be born". The first coat of arms of the city was approved simultaneously with other coats of arms of the cities of the Moscow province on December 20, 1781. It was subsequently reviewed four times. The first time the coat of arms was changed on March 16, 1883, in accordance with the rules developed by Bernhard Vasilyevich Koene and introduced in 1857 with the rules of the city's coats of arms. In Soviet times, Stepan Marukhin developed a new coat of arms, approved on May 30, 1967. On July 2, 1992, a version of the coat of arms from 1883 was restored. The current version was approved on 6 October 1999 and is listed on the State Heraldic Register of the Russian Federation under No.564. It is based on the coat of arms, approved in 1883, which includes the coat of arms of 1781. Attractions There are a significant number of attractions in Serpukhov. In total, there are 108 monuments of history and culture, of which 57 are objects of Russian Orthodox culture. There are 26 federal cultural heritage sites in the city: 39 of regional significance; 24 monuments of military glory, history and culture; 17 objects of cult architecture, and 2 monasteries, which are the main objects on display for tourists. Serpukhov Historical and Art Museum Vysotsky Monastery Vladychny Convent The monument to Vladimir the Bold (installed in 2009 in front of the city administration building) Lenin Square (an ensemble of historical buildings, monuments and a modern urban space with a pedestrian street) Sobornaya Gora and Orthodox Churches The building of the railway station, the square in front of it and the monument to Dmitry Donskoy and Vladimir the Bold A series of monuments to peacocks - a symbol of the city Monument to the Liberator Warrior (a mock-up of the Soviet War Memorial in Treptow Park in Berlin, sculptor Vucetich) Merchant buildings of the 19th century Factory buildings of the late 19th-early 20th Constructivist architecture The citadel commands a steep hill where the small Serpeyka River enters the Nara. However, during the 19th century, parts of the citadel were demolished by the town's inhabitants, who used its limestone for their private residences. Even now the vast majority of basements in nearby houses are built from this material. In the Kremlin, the chief monument is the Trinity cathedral, built in 1696 in Moscow Baroque style. The Vysotsky Monastery features a cathedral and refectory dating from the late 16th century, as well as the allegedly miracle-working icon Inexhaustible Chalice. Another important cloister is called Vladychny, with the Presentation cathedral and a tent-like St. George's church, both erected during Boris Godunov's reign. The latter monastery is named after the honorary title of Russian bishops, as it was founded by the holy metropolitan Alexis in 1360. Parks and squares Serpukhov is quite a green city, within its borders there are about 50 gardens and squares. There are 5 big parks in the city:Prinarsky Park, Pitomnik Park, Komsomolskiy Park, Zhemchuzhina Park, and Oleg Stepanov's City Park of Culture and Recreation. The favorite resting place of the townspeople is "the boron," which is located within the city limits. Theatres and palaces of culture These include the Musical-drama theatre, Chamber Theatre "The Looking Glass," Palace of Culture "Russia," The Palace of Culture "Istok," Korston Cinema, and the B-Class Cinema. Museums These include the Museum and Exhibition Centre, The Serpukhovsky Historical and Art Museum (opened in 1920), The Museum of Printing, the first in the suburbs, opened in September 2019 in an old printing house built on Hay Square in 1890, and The Bread Museum opened in September 2019 in a renovated 19th-century room in the Provincial Hotel and Restaurant Complex. Libraries Serpukhov's centralized library system was established in December 1977. Currently, the SCBS consists of nine libraries. These are the Central City Library of Chekhov, the Central Children's and Youth Library and branches of the library located in different parts of the city. The single fund of the system is 268,000 copies of documents, an extensive repertoire of periodicals, a unique collection of sound recordings, a local history fund of unpublished materials. Librarians serve more than 36.5 thousand readers a year. Library coverage is 29.1%. Monasteries Primarily Orthodox, those being , The Lord's Convent (founded in 1360), Vysotsky Men's Monastery (founded in 1374), and in 1665-1764 in the city there was a Rasutsky monastery. On the site of the future monastery for a long time was the wooden Church of the Nativity (mentioned in the Hundred Thon Book of 1552). The brick-laden Cathedral of the Crucifixion of Christ was built in 1719 at the expense of Princess Nazareth Mikhailovna Gagarina; at the same time the monastery changed its name. Closed during the time of Catherine II during the secularization of church and monastic lands. Temples and chapels Elijah Church of the Prophet Church of the Assumption of Our Lady Temple of the Savior of the Unmanual Temple of All Saints Nicola White Cathedral Trinity Cathedral Sreten Church Epiphany Church Temple of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God Crucifixion Church Since 2012, the Chapel of the Great Martyr Panteleimonhas been operating on the territory of Semashko Hospital. There are also chapels of Tikhvinskaya and Iberian Icon of the Mother of God. Orthodox churches of the city and the district are united in the Serpukhov deanery (dean's district) of the Russian Orthodox Church. The benefactor is the priest Igor (Chaban). Shrines Icon of Our Lady "The Unstoppable Bowl" In the Vysotsky monastery Serpukhov collected many shrines, including about three hundred particles of relics of saints. A special place is occupied by the list of the icon of the Mother of God "The Unstoppable Bowl",which, according to believers, heals from a painful addiction to alcohol, drugs and smoking (the original, which was in the Monastery of The Lord was lost after the revolution). The relics of the Rev. Athanasius Vysotsky, the younger one, are also being rethroned in the Vysotsky Monastery. In the Monastery of The Lord is the tomb of the Rev. Varlaam Serpukhovsky. In 1993, in Serpukhov,the icon of the Virgin"Help for Childbirth"(revered by the miraculous) was revealed. Currently, the icon is located in the cathedral of St. Nicholas of Serpukhov. In Serpukhov is also a miraculous list of the icon of the Mother of God "The Recovery of the Dead", which, according to legend, twice saved the city from the epidemic of cholera. Education Universities There are two universities in Serpukhov: Moscow Aviation Institute (branch) Peter the Great Military Academy of the Strategic Missile Forces From 1961 to 1975, the Serpukhov Artillery Technical School existed for the RVSN. There are also a number of colleges. Secondary schools The city is home to a number of secondary vocational schools. There are 21 comprehensive schools in the city, including the Lyceum, education center, 2 gymnasiums, "Orthodox classical gymnasium in the name of the Reverend Varlaam Serpukhovsky"; a large number of kindergartens and other institutions of pre-school education (including a municipal educational institution for children in need of psychological, educational and medical-social assistance, a diagnostics center and a "Chance"). The active construction of schools continues. Economy Economic data Municipal Budget In 2018, the budget of the Serpukhov city district by income grew by 48.5% and amounted to 6.377 billion rubles and retained its social orientation: 3.252 billion rubles or 52.9% of all expenditures were allocated to the social sphere, which is 615.3 million rubles more than in 2017. Employment The number of employed in the economy - 54.5 thousand people or 43% of the total population of the city, of which 20,000 people work in large and medium-sized enterprises, the rest in small businesses, for hire from individuals engaged in business without the formation of a legal entity, or are engaged in personal farms. Labour market indicators The local unemployment rate is 0.44%, with the number of officially registered unemployed people being 298. Serpukhov's population, which is engaged in the economy of Moscow,providing a significant pendulum migration, the balance of which is 5.8 thousand people. Industry There are about 150 large and medium-sized enterprises and organizations in all sectors of the economy, and more than 1,600 small business organizations (including micro-enterprises) operate in Serpukhova. The city's industrial enterprises produce electric motors of various purposes, electric cars of low power, gyroscopic devices and precision mechanics products for navigation systems, systems of orientation and stabilization of aircraft, chemical fibers and filaments, insulation materials, reinforced concrete products, metal structures, alarm systems, capacitors, medical equipment, food. In the first nine months of 2015, large and medium-sized manufacturing companies shipped their own products at actual prices of 13,255.3 million rubles, which is 14% more than in the same period last year. Serpukhov's construction complex consists of about 52 construction organizations, including more than 40 small enterprises engaged in design, industrial, housing- civil and communal construction. The area of built-up land is 2.24 thousand hectares, of which 26% are occupied for production facilities, 65% for housing. Serpukhov's housing stock is represented by more than 1,136 apartment buildings with a total area of more than 3319086.22 m2. The Serpukhov region is operated by the Serpukhov Chamber of Commerce and Industry (STPP). It is a non-governmental non-profit organization established in 1995 to promote the development of all forms of entrepreneurship in the southern suburbs. It brings together about 200 organizations and individual entrepreneurs. Trade Serpukhov has stores of many Russian retail chains. There are three major shopping malls in the city: Korston B-Class Atlas Serpukhov has fast food chains: McDonald's, Burger King, KFC. There are also several pizzerias. In addition, there are a variety of cafes, bars and canteens. The city also has a number of restaurants. Some of them are concentrated on the pedestrian street opened in 2020, where the veranda is located. Transport Serpukhov is conveniently located at the intersection of transport routes and has a developed infrastructure. Serpukhov's transport hub focuses on railway, road and waterways, which allows local and transit services. Rail Serpukhov is connected by regular train service with Moscow (Electric trains go to Tsaritsyno station - 1.5 hours, to Kursky railway station - 2 hours). There is also a railway connection with Tula. Moreover, trains to Oryol, Kursk, Belgorod stop at Serpukhov station Serpukhov railway station, opened in 1865. Oka railway platform. On the square near the Serpukhov station is the city bus station, from which most city, suburban and long-distance bus routes depart. Road transport Directly next to the city are the M2 "Crimea" motorway and highway A 108 "Moscow Big Ring", near the highways of federal importance M4 "Don" and M3 "Ukraine" are. There are about 600 kilometres of public roads in Serpukhov and the region. The main carrier of passengers on both urban, suburban and long-distance routes is the convoy 1790 of the Ministry of Defense "Mostransavto". Commercial trucking companies also operate in the city. In total, there are 25 city bus routes in Serpukhov. Serpukhov station is the final stop and stop for most routes. The network of long-distance bus routes, which includes in addition to Moscow, many small towns and villages. The maintenance of municipal roads and inter-municipal roads is handled by the enterprises of Serpukhovsky DRSU and Serpukhovsky Avtodor, respectively. Serpukhov's road transport is concentrated with basic freight traffic - it accounts for 97% of all cargo, the railway - about 3%. Water transport Port Serpukhov, a subsidiary of the Moscow River Shipping Company, is present in the city. The port was founded in 1858 and is located on the Nara River, two kilometres from its entry into Aku. It carries out passenger and freight transport. Main passenger lines: Serpukhov - Gardens, Serpukhov - Polenovo, Serpukhov - Tarusa, Serpukhov - Velegozh. According to the official data of the shipping company, the annual passenger flow is about 30,000 people. The port produces mineral building materials (gravel, sand, soils) in the Oki water area. It carries out loading and unloading work, transportation of goods and serves three sites: Alexinsky, Serpukhovsky, and Kashirsky. Media Only the newspaper "Communist" was present from the local media for a long time, later renamed "Serpukhovsky Vesti". The rapid development of the media began in the 1990s, when a significant number of new print publications, local television, opened, and in the 2000s it was time for radio stations. From 2004 to 2019, the city published a weekly newspaper called Oka Info. Stadiums Those being Trud Stadium, Spartak Stadium, Start Stadium, Olymp Sports Center, Typhoon Sports Centre, Physical and health complex (FOK) "Russian Bear," Ice Arena, and the Waterpark in B-Class. There are many sports sections, amateur and professional clubs in the city. In Serpukhov was based professional football club of the Second Division, zone "Center" and "Zvezda" Serpukhov. FC Zvezda played at the Trud Stadium. It accommodates 5300 spectators, has a field with artificial turf, lighting system, a total area of the complex 29591 m2. Notable people Herman of Alaska, missionary to Alaska Viktor Grishin, politician Oleg Menshikov, actor and entertainer Vladimir Shkolnik, politician Administrative and municipal status Within the framework of administrative divisions, Serpukhov serves as the administrative center of Serpukhovsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as Serpukhov City Under Oblast Jurisdiction, an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Serpukhov City Under Oblast Jurisdiction is incorporated as Serpukhov Urban Okrug. Twin towns – sister cities Serpukhov is twinned with: Balakliia Raion, Ukraine Bobigny, France Ceadîr-Lunga, Moldova Çeşme, Turkey Danilovgrad, Montenegro Forssa, Finland Pravets, Bulgaria Richmond, United States Sievierodonetsk, Ukraine Slutsk, Belarus Vratsa, Bulgaria Zaslawye, Belarus Zhanjiang, China References External links Serpukhov's history and sights Walking in Serpukhov Another brief introduction to Serpukhov Orthodox Serpukhov Serpukhov region Serpukhov region newspaper Serpukhov online news Cities and towns in Moscow Oblast Serpukhovsky Uyezd 1339 establishments in Europe 14th-century establishments in Russia Populated places established in the 1330s
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djuna%20Barnes
Djuna Barnes
Djuna Barnes (, June 12, 1892 – June 18, 1982) was an American artist, illustrator, journalist, and writer who is perhaps best known for her novel Nightwood (1936), a cult classic of lesbian fiction and an important work of modernist literature. In 1913, Barnes began her career as a freelance journalist and illustrator for the Brooklyn Daily Eagle. By early 1914, Barnes was a highly sought feature reporter, interviewer, and illustrator whose work appeared in the city's leading newspapers and periodicals. Later, Barnes's talent and connections with prominent Greenwich Village bohemians afforded her the opportunity to publish her prose, poems, illustrations, and one-act plays in both avant-garde literary journals and popular magazines, and publish an illustrated volume of poetry, The Book of Repulsive Women (1915). In 1921, a lucrative commission with McCall's took Barnes to Paris, where she lived for the next 10 years. In this period she published A Book (1923), a collection of poetry, plays, and short stories, which was later reissued, with the addition of three stories, as A Night Among the Horses (1929), Ladies Almanack (1928), and Ryder (1928). During the 1930s, Barnes spent time in England, Paris, New York, and North Africa. It was during this restless time that she wrote and published Nightwood. In October 1939, after nearly two decades living mostly in Europe, Barnes returned to New York. She published her last major work, the verse play The Antiphon, in 1958, and she died in her apartment at Patchin Place, Greenwich Village in June 1982. Life and writing Early life (1892–1912) Barnes was born in a log cabin on Storm King Mountain, near Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York. Her paternal grandmother Zadel Barnes was a writer, journalist, and Women's Suffrage activist who had once hosted an influential literary salon. Her father, Wald Barnes (born Henry Aaron Budington), was an unsuccessful composer, musician, and painter. An advocate of polygamy, he married Barnes's mother Elizabeth J. Barnes (née Chappell) in 1889; his mistress Frances "Fanny" Clark moved in with them in 1897, when Barnes was five. They had eight children (five from Elizabeth: sons Thurn, Zendon, Saxon and Shangar and daughter Djuna; four from Fanny: sons Duane and Brian and daughters Muriel and Sheila), whom Wald made little effort to support financially. One half-sibling died in childhood. Zadel, who believed her son was a misunderstood artistic genius, struggled to provide for the entire family, supplementing her diminishing income by writing begging letters to friends and acquaintances. As the second oldest child, Barnes spent much of her childhood helping care for siblings and half-siblings. She received her early education at home, mostly from her father and grandmother, who taught her writing, art, and music but neglected subjects such as math and spelling. She claimed to have had no formal schooling at all; some evidence suggests that she was enrolled in public school for a time after age ten, though her attendance was inconsistent. It is possible that at the age of 16 she was raped, either by a neighbor with the knowledge and consent of her father, or possibly by her father. However, these are rumors and unconfirmed by Barnes, who never managed to complete her autobiography. What is known is that Barnes and her father continued to write warm letters to one another until his death in 1934. Barnes does refer to a rape obliquely in her first novel Ryder and more directly in her furious final play The Antiphon. Sexually explicit references in correspondence from her grandmother, with whom she shared a bed for years, suggest incest, or overly familiar teasing, but Zadel—dead for 40 years by the time The Antiphon was written—was left out of its indictments. Shortly before her 18th birthday she reluctantly "married" Fanny Clark's brother Percy Faulkner in a private ceremony without benefit of clergy. He was 52. The match had been strongly promoted by her father, grandmother, mother, and brother, but she stayed with him for no more than two months. New York City (1912–1921) In 1912 Barnes's family, facing financial ruin, split up. Elizabeth moved to New York City with Barnes and three of her brothers, then filed for divorce, freeing Wald to marry Fanny Clark. The move gave Barnes an opportunity to study art formally for the first time; she attended the Pratt Institute for about six months from 1912 to 1913 and at the Art Student's League of New York from 1915 to 1916, but the need to support herself and her family—a burden that fell largely on her—soon drove her to leave school and take a job as a reporter at the Brooklyn Daily Eagle. Upon arriving at the Daily Eagle, Barnes declared, "I can draw and write, and you'd be a fool not to hire me", words that were inscribed inside the Brooklyn Museum. Over the next few years her work appeared in almost every newspaper in New York, including the New York Press, The World and McCall's; she wrote interviews, features, theatre reviews, and a variety of news stories, often illustrating them with her own drawings. She also published short fiction in the New York Morning Telegraphs Sunday supplement and in the pulp magazine All-Story Cavalier Weekly. Much of Barnes's journalism was subjective and experiential. Writing about a conversation with James Joyce, she admitted to missing part of what he said because her attention had wandered, though she revered Joyce's writing. Interviewing the successful playwright Donald Ogden Stewart, she shouted at him for "roll[ing] over and find[ing] yourself famous" while other writers continued to struggle, then said she wouldn't mind dying; as her biographer Phillip Herring points out, this is "a depressing and perhaps unprecedented note on which to end an interview." For "The Girl and the Gorilla", published by New York World Magazine in October 1914 she has a conversation with Dinah, a female gorilla at the Bronx Zoo. For another article in New York World in 1914, she submitted to force-feeding, a technique then being used on hunger-striking suffragists. Barnes wrote "If I, play acting, felt my being burning with revolt at this brutal usurpation of my own functions, how they who actually suffered the ordeal in its acutest horror must have flamed at the violation of the sanctuaries of their spirits." She concluded "I had shared the greatest experience of the bravest of my sex." While she mocked conservative suffrage activist Carrie Chapman Catt when Catt admonished would-be suffrage orators never to "hold a militant pose", or wear "a dress that shows your feet in front", Barnes was supportive of progressive suffragists. Barnes suggested that Catt's conservatism was an obstacle to the suffrage movement when Catt tried to ostracize fellow suffragists Alice Paul and Lucy Burns, who sought the vote for women through media attention directed at their strikes and non-violent protesting. It was their mistreatment that motivated Barnes to experience for herself the torture of being force-fed. Barnes immersed herself in risky situations in order to access experiences that a previous generation of homebound women had been denied. Writing about the traditionally masculine domain of boxing from the ringside, Barnes explored boxing as a window into women's modern identities. In 1914, she first posed the question "What do women want at a fight?" in an article titled "My Sisters and I at a New York Prizefight" published in New York World magazine. According to Irene Gammel, "Barnes' essay effectively begins to unravel an entire cultural history of repression for women". Barnes's interest in boxing continued into 1915 when she interviewed heavyweight champion Jess Willard. In 1915 Barnes moved out of her family's flat to an apartment in Greenwich Village, where she entered a thriving Bohemian community of artists and writers. Among her social circle were Edmund Wilson, Berenice Abbott, and the Dadaist artist and poet Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, whose biography Barnes tried to write but never finished. She came into contact with Guido Bruno, an entrepreneur and promoter who published magazines and chapbooks from his garret on Washington Square. Bruno had a reputation for unscrupulousness, and was often accused of exploiting Greenwich Village residents for profit—he used to charge tourists admission to watch Bohemians paint—but he was a strong opponent of censorship and was willing to risk prosecution by publishing Barnes's 1915 collection of "rhythms and drawings" Despite a description of sex between women in the first poem, the book was never legally challenged; the passage seems explicit now, but at a time when lesbianism was virtually invisible in American culture, the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice may not have understood its imagery. Others were not as naïve, and Bruno was able to cash in on the book's reputation by raising the price from fifteen to fifty cents and pocketing the difference. Twenty years later Barnes used Bruno as one of the models for Felix Volkbein in Nightwood, caricaturing his pretensions to nobility and his habit of bowing down before anyone titled or important. Barnes was a member of the Provincetown Players, an amateur theatrical collective whose emphasis on artistic rather than commercial success meshed well with her own values. The Players' Greenwich Village theater was a converted stable with bench seating and a tiny stage; according to Barnes it was "always just about to be given back to the horses." Yet it played a significant role in the development of American drama, featuring works by Susan Glaspell, Edna St. Vincent Millay, Wallace Stevens, and Theodore Dreiser, as well as launching the career of Eugene O'Neill. Three one-act plays by Barnes were produced there in 1919 and 1920; a fourth, The Dove, premiered at Smith College in 1925, and a series of short closet dramas were published in magazines, some under Barnes's pseudonym Lydia Steptoe. These plays show the strong influence of the Irish playwright J. M. Synge; she was drawn to both the poetic quality of Synge's language and the pessimism of his vision. Critics have found them derivative, particularly those in which she tried to imitate Synge's Irish dialect, and Barnes may have agreed, since in later years she dismissed them as mere juvenilia. Yet in their content, these stylized and enigmatic early plays are more experimental than those of her fellow playwrights at Provincetown. A New York Times review by Alexander Woollcott of her play Three From the Earth called it a demonstration of "how absorbing and essentially dramatic a play can be without the audience ever knowing what, if anything, the author is driving at ... The spectators sit with bated breath listening to each word of a playlet of which the darkly suggested clues leave the mystery unsolved." Greenwich Village in the 1910s was known for its atmosphere of sexual as well as intellectual freedom. Barnes was unusual among Villagers in having been raised with a philosophy of free love, espoused both by her grandmother and her father. Her father's idiosyncratic vision had included a commitment to unlimited procreation, which she strongly rejected; criticism of childbearing would become a major theme in her work. She did, however, retain sexual freedom as a value. In the 1930s she told Antonia White that "she had no feeling of guilt whatever about sex, about going to bed with any man or woman she wanted"; correspondence indicates that by the time she was 21 her family was well aware of her bisexuality, and she had a number of affairs with both men and women during her Greenwich Village years. Of these, the most important was probably her engagement to Ernst Hanfstaengl, a Harvard graduate who ran the American branch of his family's art publishing house. Hanfstaengl had once given a piano concert at the White House and was a friend of then-New York State Senator Franklin Delano Roosevelt, but he became increasingly angered by anti-German sentiment in the United States during World War I. In 1916, he told Barnes he wanted a German wife; the painful breakup became the basis of a deleted scene in Nightwood. He later returned to Germany and became a close associate of Adolf Hitler. Starting in 1916 or 1917, she lived with a socialist philosopher and critic named Courtenay Lemon, whom she referred to as her common-law husband, but this too ended, for reasons that are unclear. She also had a passionate romantic relationship with Mary Pyne, a reporter for the New York Press and fellow member of the Provincetown Players. Pyne died of tuberculosis in 1919, attended by Barnes until the end. Paris (1921–1930) In the 1920s, Paris was the center of modernism in art and literature. Barnes first traveled there in 1921 on an assignment for McCall's. She interviewed her fellow expatriate writers and artists for U.S. periodicals and soon became a well-known figure on the local scene; her black cloak and her acerbic wit are remembered in many memoirs of the time. Even before her first novel was published, her literary reputation was already high, largely on the strength of her story "A Night Among the Horses," which was published in The Little Review and reprinted in her 1923 collection A Book. She was part of the inner circle of the influential salon hostess Natalie Barney, who became a lifelong friend and patron, as well as the central figure in Barnes's satiric chronicle of Paris lesbian life, Ladies Almanack. The most important relationship of Barnes's Paris years was with the artist Thelma Wood. Wood was a Kansas native who had come to Paris to become a sculptor, but at Barnes's suggestion took up silverpoint instead, producing drawings of animals and plants that one critic compared to Henri Rousseau. By the winter of 1922 they had set up housekeeping together in a flat on the Boulevard Saint-Germain. Another close friendship that developed during this time was with the Dada artist Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, with whom Barnes began an intensive correspondence in 1923. "Where Wood gave Barnes a doll as a gift to represent their symbolic love child, the Baroness proposed an erotic marriage whose love-child would be their book." From Paris, Barnes supported the Baroness in Berlin with money, clothing, and magazines. She also collected the Baroness's poems and letters. Barnes arrived in Paris with a letter of introduction to James Joyce, whom she interviewed for Vanity Fair and who became a friend. The headline of her Vanity Fair interview billed him as "the man who is, at present, one of the more significant figures in literature," but her personal reaction to Ulysses was less guarded: "I shall never write another line ... Who has the nerve to after that?" It may have been reading Joyce that led Barnes to turn away from the late 19th century Decadent and Aesthetic influences of The Book of Repulsive Women toward the modernist experimentation of her later work. They differed, however, on the proper subject of literature; Joyce thought writers should focus on commonplace subjects and make them extraordinary, while Barnes was always drawn to the unusual, even the grotesque. Then, too, her own life was an extraordinary subject. Her autobiographical first novel Ryder would not only present readers with the difficulty of deciphering its shifting literary styles—a technique inspired by Ulysses—but also with the challenge of piecing together the history of an unconventional polygamous household, far removed from most readers' expectations and experience. Despite the difficulties of the text, Ryders bawdiness drew attention, and it briefly became a New York Times bestseller. Its popularity caught the publisher unprepared; a first edition of 3,000 sold out quickly, but by the time more copies made it into bookstores, public interest in the book had died down. Still, the advance allowed Barnes to buy a new apartment on Rue Saint-Romain, where she lived with Thelma Wood starting in September 1927. The move made them neighbors of Mina Loy, a friend of Barnes's since Greenwich Village days, who appeared in Ladies Almanack as Patience Scalpel, the sole heterosexual character, who "could not understand Women and their Ways." Due to its subject matter, Ladies Almanack was published in a small, privately printed edition under the pseudonym "A Lady of Fashion." Copies were sold on the streets of Paris by Barnes and her friends, and Barnes managed to smuggle a few into the United States to sell. A bookseller, Edward Titus, offered to carry Ladies Almanack in his store in exchange for being mentioned on the title page, but when he demanded a share of the royalties on the entire print run, Barnes was furious. She later gave the name Titus to the abusive father in The Antiphon. Barnes dedicated Ryder and Ladies Almanack to Thelma Wood, but the year both books were published—1928—was also the year that she and Wood separated. Barnes had wanted their relationship to be monogamous, but had discovered that Wood wanted her "along with the rest of the world." Wood had a worsening dependency on alcohol, and she spent her nights drinking and seeking out casual sex partners; Barnes would search the cafés for her, often winding up equally drunk. Barnes broke up with Wood over her involvement with heiress Henriette McCrea Metcalf (1888–1981), who would be scathingly portrayed in Nightwood as Jenny Petherbridge. 1930s Much of Nightwood was written during the summers of 1932 and 1933, while Barnes was staying at Hayford Hall, a country manor in Devon rented by the art patron Peggy Guggenheim. Fellow guests included Antonia White, John Ferrar Holms, and the novelist and poet Emily Coleman. Evenings at the manor—nicknamed "Hangover Hall" by its residents—often featured a party game called Truth that encouraged brutal frankness, creating a tense emotional atmosphere. Barnes was afraid to leave her work in progress unattended because the volatile Coleman, having told Barnes one of her secrets, had threatened to burn the manuscript if Barnes revealed it. But once she had read the book, Coleman became its champion. Her critiques of successive drafts led Barnes to make major structural changes, and when publisher after publisher rejected the manuscript, it was Coleman who pressed T. S. Eliot, then an editor at Faber and Faber, to read it. Faber published the book in 1936. Though reviews treated it as a major work of art, the book did not sell well. Barnes received no advance from Faber and the first royalty statement was for only £43; the U.S. edition published by Harcourt, Brace the following year fared no better. Barnes had published little journalism in the 1930s and was largely dependent on Peggy Guggenheim's financial support. She was constantly ill and drank more and more heavily—according to Guggenheim, she accounted for a bottle of whiskey per day. In February 1939 she checked into a hotel in London and attempted suicide. Guggenheim funded hospital visits and doctors, but finally lost patience and sent her back to New York. There she shared a single room with her mother, who coughed all night and who kept reading her passages from Mary Baker Eddy, having converted to Christian Science. In March 1940, her family sent her to a sanatorium in upstate New York to dry out. Furious, Barnes began to plan a biography of her family, writing to Emily Coleman that "there is no reason any longer why I should feel for them in any way but hate." This idea would eventually come to fruition in her play The Antiphon. After she returned to New York City, she quarreled bitterly with her mother and was thrown out on the street. Return to Greenwich Village (1940–1982) Left with nowhere else to go, Barnes stayed at Thelma Wood's apartment while Wood was out of town, then spent two months on a working ranch in Arizona with Emily Coleman and Coleman's lover Jake Scarborough. She returned to New York and, in September, moved into the small apartment at 5 Patchin Place in Greenwich Village where she would spend the last 41 years of her life. Throughout the 1940s, she continued to drink and wrote virtually nothing. Guggenheim, despite misgivings, provided her with a small stipend, and Coleman, who could ill afford it, sent US$20 per month (about $310 in 2011). In 1943, Barnes was included in Peggy Guggenheim's show Exhibition by 31 Women at the Art of This Century gallery in New York. In 1946, she worked for Henry Holt as a manuscript reader, but her reports were invariably caustic, and she was fired. In 1950, realizing that alcoholism had made it impossible for her to function as an artist, Barnes stopped drinking in order to begin work on her verse play The Antiphon. The play drew heavily on her own family history, and the writing was fueled by anger; she said "I wrote The Antiphon with clenched teeth, and I noted that my handwriting was as savage as a dagger." When he read the play, her brother Thurn accused her of wanting "revenge for something long dead and to be forgotten". Barnes, in the margin of his letter, described her motive as "justice", and next to "dead" she inscribed, "not dead". After The Antiphon, Barnes returned to writing poetry, which she worked and reworked, producing as many as 500 drafts. She wrote eight hours per day despite a growing list of health problems, including arthritis so severe that she had difficulty even sitting at her typewriter or turning on her desk lamp. Many of these poems never were finalized, and only a few were published in her lifetime. During her Patchin Place years, Barnes became a notorious recluse, intensely suspicious of anyone she did not know well. E.E. Cummings, who lived across the street, checked on her periodically by shouting out his window "Are you still alive, Djuna?" Bertha Harris put roses in her mailbox, but never succeeded in meeting her; Carson McCullers camped on her doorstep, but Barnes only called down "Whoever is ringing this bell, please go the hell away." Anaïs Nin was an ardent fan of her work, especially Nightwood. She wrote to Barnes several times, inviting her to participate in a journal on women's writing, but received no reply. Barnes remained contemptuous of Nin and would cross the street to avoid her. Barnes was angry that Nin had named a character Djuna, and when the feminist bookstore Djuna Books opened in Greenwich Village, Barnes called to demand that the name be changed. Barnes had a lifelong affection for poet Marianne Moore since she and Moore were young in the 1920s. Although Barnes had other female lovers, in her later years she was known to claim "I am not a lesbian; I just loved Thelma." Barnes was elected to the National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1961 and was awarded a senior fellowship by the National Endowment for the Arts in 1981. Barnes was the last surviving member of the first generation of English-language modernists when she died in her home in New York on June 18, 1982, six days after her 90th birthday. Works The Book of Repulsive Women Barnes's chapbook The Book of Repulsive Women (1915) collects eight "rhythms" and five drawings. The poems show the strong influence of late 19th century Decadence, and the style of the illustrations resembles Aubrey Beardsley's. The setting is New York City, and the subjects are all women: a cabaret singer, a woman seen through an open window from the elevated train, and, in the last poem, the corpses of two suicides in the morgue. The book describes women's bodies and sexuality in terms that have indeed struck many readers as repulsive, but, as with much of Barnes's work, the author's stance is ambiguous. Some critics read the poems as exposing and satirizing cultural attitudes toward women. Barnes came to regard The Book of Repulsive Women as an embarrassment; she called the title "idiotic," left it out of her curriculum vitae, and even burned copies. But because the copyright had never been registered, she was unable to prevent it from being republished, and it became one of her most reprinted works. Ryder Barnes's novel Ryder (1928) draws heavily on her childhood experiences in Cornwall-on-Hudson. It covers 50 years of history of the Ryder family: Sophia Grieve Ryder, like Zadel a former salon hostess fallen into poverty; her idle son Wendell; his wife Amelia; his resident mistress Kate-Careless; and their children. Barnes appears as Wendell and Amelia's daughter Julie. The story has a large cast and is told from a variety of points of view; some characters appear as the protagonist of a single chapter only to disappear from the text entirely. Fragments of the Ryder family chronicle are interspersed with children's stories, songs, letters, poems, parables, and dreams. The book changes style from chapter to chapter, parodying writers from Chaucer to Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Both Ryder and Ladies Almanack abandon the Beardsleyesque style of her drawings for The Book of Repulsive Women in favor of a visual vocabulary borrowed from French folk art. Several illustrations are closely based on the engravings and woodcuts collected by Pierre Louis Duchartre and René Saulnier in the 1926 book L'Imagerie Populaire—images that had been copied with variations since medieval times. The bawdiness of Ryder illustrations led the U.S. Postal Service to refuse to ship it, and several had to be left out of the first edition, including an image in which Sophia is seen urinating into a chamberpot and one in which Amelia and Kate-Careless sit by the fire knitting codpieces. Parts of the text were also expurgated. In an acerbic introduction, Barnes explained that the missing words and passages had been replaced with asterisks so that readers could see the "havoc" wreaked by censorship. A 1990 Dalkey Archive edition restored the missing drawings, but the original text was lost with the destruction of the manuscript in World War II. Ladies Almanack Ladies Almanack (1928) is a roman à clef about a predominantly lesbian social circle centering on Natalie Clifford Barney's salon in Paris. It is written in an archaic, Rabelaisian style, with Barnes's own illustrations in the style of Elizabethan woodcuts. Clifford Barney appears as Dame Evangeline Musset, "who was in her Heart one Grand Red Cross for the Pursuance, the Relief and the Distraction, of such Girls as in their Hinder Parts, and their Fore Parts, and in whatsoever Parts did suffer them most, lament Cruelly." "[A] Pioneer and a Menace" in her youth, Dame Musset has reached "a witty and learned Fifty"; she rescues women in distress, dispenses wisdom, and upon her death is elevated to sainthood. Also appearing pseudonymously are Élisabeth de Gramont, Romaine Brooks, Dolly Wilde, Radclyffe Hall and her partner Una Troubridge, Janet Flanner and Solita Solano, and Mina Loy. The obscure language, inside jokes, and ambiguity of Ladies Almanack have kept critics arguing about whether it is an affectionate satire or a bitter attack, but Barnes loved the book and reread it throughout her life. Nightwood Barnes's reputation as a writer was made when Nightwood was published in England in 1936 in an expensive edition by Faber and Faber, and in the United States in 1937 by Harcourt, Brace and Company, with an added introduction by T.S. Eliot, Barnes's editor. The avant-garde novel, written under the patronage of Peggy Guggenheim, made Barnes famous in feminist circles. The novel, set in Paris in the 1920s, revolves around the lives of five characters, two of whom are based on Barnes and Wood, and it reflects the circumstances surrounding the ending of their relationship. In his introduction, Eliot praises Barnes's style, which, while having "prose rhythm ... and the musical pattern which is not that of verse, is so good a novel that only sensibilities trained on poetry can wholly appreciate it." Due to concerns about censorship, Eliot edited Nightwood to soften some language relating to sexuality and religion. An edition restoring these changes, edited by Cheryl J. Plumb, was published by Dalkey Archive Press in 1995. Dylan Thomas described Nightwood as "one of the three great prose books ever written by a woman," and William Burroughs called it "one of the great books of the twentieth century." It was number 12 on a list of the top 100 gay books compiled by The Publishing Triangle in 1999. The Antiphon Barnes's verse play The Antiphon (1958) is set in England in 1939. Jeremy Hobbs, in disguise as Jack Blow, has brought his family together at their ruined ancestral home, Burley Hall. His motive is never explicitly stated, but he seems to want to provoke a confrontation among the members of his family and force them to confront the truth about their past. His sister Miranda is a stage actress, now "out of patron and of money"; her materialistic brothers, Elisha and Dudley, see her as a threat to their financial well-being. Elisha and Dudley accuse their mother Augusta of complicity with their abusive father Titus Hobbs. They take advantage of Jeremy's absence to don animal masks and assault both women, making cruel and sexually suggestive remarks; Augusta treats this attack as a game. Jeremy returns with a doll house, a miniature version of the house in America where the children grew up. As she examines it, he charges her with making herself "a madam by submission" because she failed to prevent Titus from orchestrating Miranda's rape by "a travelling Cockney thrice [her] age." The last act finds Miranda and Augusta alone together. Augusta, at once disapproving and envious of her daughter's more liberated life, exchanges clothes with her daughter and wants to pretend she is young again, but Miranda refuses to enter into this play. When Augusta hears Elisha and Dudley driving away, she blames Miranda for their abandonment and beats her to death with a curfew bell, falling dead at her side from the exertion. The play premiered in 1961 in Stockholm in a Swedish translation by Karl Ragnar Gierow and U.N. Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld. The play was translated in French and set at the Odeon Theater in Paris by the "Comedie Française" in March 1990. Creatures in an Alphabet Barnes's last book, Creatures in an Alphabet (1982), is a collection of short rhyming poems. The format suggests a children's book, but it contains enough allusiveness and advanced vocabulary to make it an unlikely read for a child: the entry for T quotes Blake's "The Tyger," a seal is compared to Jacques-Louis David's portrait of Madame Récamier, and a braying donkey is described as "practicing solfeggio." Creatures continues the themes of nature and culture found in Barnes's earlier work, and their arrangement as a bestiary reflects her longstanding interest in systems for organizing knowledge, such as encyclopedias and almanacs. Unpublished non-fiction During the 1920s and 1930s, Barnes made an effort to write a biography of Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven and edited her poems for publication. Unsuccessful in finding a publisher for the Baroness's poetry, Barnes abandoned the project. After writing a number of chapter drafts of the biography, she abandoned that project, too, after submitting the first chapter to Emily Coleman in 1939, whose response was not encouraging. Barnes's efforts at writing the biography are detailed in Irene Gammel's Baroness Elsa biography. Legacy Barnes has been cited as an influence by writers as diverse as Truman Capote, William Goyen, Karen Blixen, John Hawkes, Bertha Harris, Dylan Thomas, David Foster Wallace, and Anaïs Nin. Writer Bertha Harris described her work as "practically the only available expression of lesbian culture we have in the modern western world" since Sappho. Barnes's biographical notes and collection of manuscripts have been a major source for scholars who have brought the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven forth from the margins of Dada history. They were key in producing Body Sweats: The Uncensored Writings of Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven (2011), the first major English collection of the baroness's poems, and a biography titled Baroness Elsa: Gender, Dada and Everyday Modernity (2002). Fictional portrayals Cynthia Grant and Svetlana Zylin co-wrote the play Djuna: What of the Night based on Barnes's life and works. The play premiered in 1991. Emmanuelle Uzan played Barnes in a brief cameo role with no dialogue in Woody Allen's 2011 film Midnight in Paris. Bibliography The Book of Repulsive Women: 8 Rhythms and 5 Drawings New York: Guido Bruno, 1915. A Book (1923) – revised versions published as: A Night Among the Horses (1929) Spillway (1962) Ryder (1928) Ladies Almanack (1928) Nightwood (1936) The Antiphon (1958) Selected Works (1962) – Spillway, Nightwood, and a revised version of The Antiphon Vagaries Malicieux: Two Stories (1974) – unauthorized publication Creatures in an Alphabet (1982) Smoke and Other Early Stories (1982) I Could Never Be Lonely without a Husband: Interviews by Djuna Barnes (1987) – ed. A. Barry New York (1989) – journalism At the Roots of the Stars: The Short Plays (1995) Collected Stories of Djuna Barnes (1996) Poe's Mother: Selected Drawings (1996) – ed. and with an introduction by Douglas Messerli Collected Poems: With Notes Toward the Memoirs (2005) – ed. Phillip Herring and Osias Stutman Vivid and Repulsive as the Truth: The Early Works of Djuna Barnes (2016) - ed. Katharine Maller The Lydia Steptoe Stories (2019) Biography of Julie von Bartmann (2020) - with an introduction by Douglas Messerli Notes References Altman, Meryl (1991). "The Antiphon: 'No Audience at All'?" Broe, Silence and Power, 271–284. Burke, Carolyn (1991). "'Accidental Aloofness': Barnes, Loy, and Modernism". In Broe, Silence and Power, 67–79. Gammel, Irene (2002). Baroness Elsa: Gender, Dada and Everyday Modernity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Gammel, Irene (2012). "Lacing up the Gloves: Women, Boxing and Modernity." Cultural and Social History 9.3: 369–390. Larabee, Ann (1991). "The Early Attic Stage of Djuna Barnes". In Broe, Silence and Power, 37–44. Marcus, Jane. "Mousemeat: Contemporary Reviews of Nightwood". Broe, 195–204. Reprinted from Messerli, Douglas. Djuna Barnes: A Bibliography. New York: David Lewis, 1975. Page, Chester (2007) MEMOIRS OF A CHARMED LIFE IN NEW YORK. Memories of Djuna Barnes. iUNIVERSE. Parsons, Deborah. "Djuna Barnes: Melancholic Modernism." The Cambridge Companion to the Modernist Novel. Ed. Morag Shiach. New York: Cambridge University Press. 165–177. Google Books Ponsot, Marie (1991). "A Reader's Ryder". In Broe, Silence and Power, 94–112. Retallack, Joan (1991). "One Acts: Early Plays of Djuna Barnes". In Broe, Silence and Power, 46–52. University of London. "First International Djuna Barnes Conference." Institute of English Studies, 2012. "" External links Archives Djuna Barnes papers (102 linear ft.) are housed at the Hornbake Library at the University of Maryland Barnes family papers (13 linear ft.) are housed at the Hornbake Library at the University of Maryland Saxon Barnes papers (1.75 linear ft.) are housed at the Hornbake Library at the University of Maryland. Saxon Barnes was the brother of Djuna Barnes. His papers includes correspondence, photographs, and other materials of and by Djuna Barnes Irwin Cohen collection, which consists of artwork, clippings, manuscripts, proofs, photographs, and publications by and about Djuna Barnes and her era at the University of Maryland libraries Emily Holmes Coleman papers at Special Collections, University of Delaware Library Other links James Joyce by Djuna Barnes: Vanity Fair, March, 1922 House of Incest: Exile from the Family in Modernist Women's Literature — about the women of the Left Bank Online works The Book of Repulsive Women at A Celebration of Women Writers "The Confessions of Helen Westley" — an interview Selections from interviews by and with Barnes "What Do You See, Madam?" — one of Barnes's early newspaper short stories 1892 births 1982 deaths American women novelists American women poets American women non-fiction writers 20th-century American women journalists American satirists American expatriates in France American bisexual artists American bisexual writers American LGBT poets American LGBT novelists American LGBT journalists Bisexual women artists Bisexual women writers Bisexual poets Bisexual novelists Bisexual journalists 20th-century American poets 20th-century American novelists 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American journalists 20th-century American women writers 20th-century American women artists 20th-century American LGBT people Modernist women writers Anti-natalists LGBT people from New York (state) People from Orange County, New York Women satirists Women erotica writers Journalists from New York (state) Novelists from New York (state) Lost Generation writers Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madelyne%20Pryor
Madelyne Pryor
Madelyne Jennifer "Maddie" Pryor is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Chris Claremont and artist Paul Smith, the character first appeared in Uncanny X-Men #168 (April 1983). Madelyne Pryor is primarily featured off-and-on as an antagonist of the X-Men. Originally the love interest and first wife of X-Men leader Cyclops (Scott Summers), she became a long-standing member of the X-Men supporting cast, until a series of traumas—being abandoned by her husband, losing her infant son, and discovering that she was a clone of Jean Grey—eventually led to her being manipulated into being a supervillain known as the Goblin Queen. She is the mother of Cable. Publication history Madelyne Pryor was introduced during the acclaimed 1983 Uncanny X-Men run that saw long-time writer Chris Claremont pair with artist Paul Smith for a series of issues that would see the Jean Grey look-alike marry the retired X-Men leader Scott Summers (Cyclops). She first appeared in Uncanny X-Men #168 (April 1983). Multiple retcons in her publication history and that of Jean Grey have particularly complicated her biography. Madelyne's hairstyle design was modeled on that of the book's editor at the time, Louise Jones (later Louise Simonson)—a design retained on the character until 1988. Claremont named the character after Steeleye Span singer Maddy Prior. Claremont had already created a character named "Maddy Pryor", a little girl that appeared very briefly in Avengers Annual #10 (1981), and has no in-story connections to the X-Men character. Claremont, nonetheless, years later took an opportunity to indulge in an in-joke: in Uncanny X-Men #238 (1988), a similar child would appear as Madelyne's mental image of herself, wearing the same clothes as the little girl from The Avengers Annual #10, repeating the girl's same line of dialogue, but also singing "Gone to America", one of Steeleye Span's biggest hits. According to Claremont, the original link between Madelyne Pryor and Jean Grey was entirely the product of Mastermind. Seeking revenge against the X-Men after Jean (as Phoenix) had driven him insane, Mastermind uses his powers of illusion to convince Scott and the others that Madelyne is Phoenix incarnate—a cosmic threat—in an attempt to have the team kill her. Mastermind's plan fails, and Madelyne and Cyclops are married shortly after. Claremont had conceived Madelyne as a device to write Scott Summers out of the X-Men and have him retire "happily ever after" with Madelyne and their child. The story became more complicated in 1986 when moves by the editors and other writers to reunite the original X-Men, for the new title X-Factor, resulted in Jean Grey's resurrection and Scott leaving his wife and son. This deeply compromised the character of Cyclops and left little room for Madelyne, and Cyclops' actions then—and towards even Jean Grey much later—have been controversial ever since. Marvel avoided addressing these problems, instead resorting to a deus ex machina, in the 1989 Inferno crossover (co-scripted by Louise Simonson, with Claremont), in which Madelyne is retconned to be a clone of Jean Grey created by Mr. Sinister to produce a child with Scott Summers, and corrupted by her anger and demonic influence into becoming the Goblin Queen, leading to her elimination and into an object of damnatio memoriae (and "nonperson" status) for several years. Asked about his intended plans for Madelyne's character, Claremont said: Madelyne Pryor was brought back in 1995 as a supporting character in X-Man, a marginal X-Men related title. Though by 2001 and along with the cancellation of the X-Man title, this became a false start at reviving the character, as Pryor would again cease being featured in any Marvel titles, except when Chris Claremont included the character in his non-canon limited-series, X-Men: The End (2004-2006). In 2008, the 25th anniversary of the character's debut in Uncanny X-Men, Madelyne Pryor was brought back in the flagship X-Men title for the first time since the 1989 Inferno storyline. But the following year and the 20th anniversary since Inferno, Pryor was removed completely again, and would not be featured in another story until 2014–25 years since Inferno—in a single issue of the secondary title, X-Men (vol. 4), and was also included in a flashback story by Claremont included in a 2014 X-Men 50th-anniversary one-shot titled X-Men: Gold (unrelated to a 2017 monthly also titled X-Men Gold). Pryor was again absent for an extended time until featured in another flashback story also by Claremont, included in the one-shot X-Men: The Exterminated in 2018–35 years since her debut. She was subsequently brought back as a recurring character, first in Hellions from 2020 to 2022, and then New Mutants in 2022. Immediately following this, Pryor was featured as a main character in the crossover storyline Dark Web, a combined sequel to both Inferno and a recent Spider-Man storyline, Beyond. Released from 2022 to the following year, its 2023 conclusion—the 40th anniversary of the debut of Madelyne Pryor—featured the character granted the most significant change and elevation to her status quo by Marvel since 1989. Fictional character biography Whirlwind romance Madelyne Pryor was a cargo pilot in Anchorage, Alaska working for Scott Summers' grandparents when she and Scott meet during a Summers family reunion. A romantic relationship quickly begins between them; however, Scott is disturbed at her striking resemblance to his dead lover, Jean Grey/Phoenix. Also, she was the sole survivor of an airplane crash that occurred the same day Phoenix died on the moon. In addition, Professor X is unable to telepathically scan her mind, which he notes is a rare immunity that does exist even in normal human brains. Scott, still recovering from Jean's death, becomes obsessed with the idea that Madelyne is her reincarnation, eventually confronting her with his suspicions. Madelyne, furious and hurt, punches Scott and runs from him. As soon as she is alone, she is abducted by Mastermind, who had been manipulating the X-Men for months — as revenge for being driven temporarily insane by Phoenix due to his involvement in her corruption. To defeat him, Storm summons a violent storm which nearly kills Madelyne, but Scott resuscitates her. After the conflict, Scott comes to terms with the fact that Jean Grey is dead and that Madelyne is not her, and that he loves her all the same. The two are married, and Scott retires from active duty with the X-Men. Anodyne Giving up the life of an adventurer proves harder for Scott than imagined. Early in Madelyne and Scott's marriage, they (along with Alpha Flight and the rest of the X-Men) are taken to an abandoned city by the Asgardian trickster-god Loki. Entirely for his own purposes, Loki bestows mystical powers on a small group of non-powered humans, including Madelyne, transforming her into a healer of virtually any injury, illness, psychological issue, or physical defect. She adopts the name "Anodyne" and cures Scott's childhood head injury, enabling him to control his optic blasts without the use of ruby-quartz lenses. She also removes Aurora's DID and Wolverine's berserker rage. When it is discovered that Loki's gifts are extremely flawed, and fatal to some, everyone assembled reject the gift. Madelyne and the other beneficiaries are reverted to their original states, as are all those who had been healed by Madelyne. During this adventure Madelyne reveals that she is pregnant. Abandonment Going into premature labor, Madelyne gives birth to a baby boy (Nathan Christopher Charles Summers) alone in the X-Mansion. Sensing a reluctance on Scott's part to retire to family life, a powerless Storm challenges him to a duel for leadership of the team, which Storm wins. This in effect forces Scott to accept his new role as a husband and father. Although Scott tries to live a normal family life in Alaska, he often thinks of Jean Grey, and of his life with the X-Men. Maddie tries her best to make Scott happy, but her efforts seem wasted. Finally Scott receives a call from his former teammate Angel that Jean Grey has been found alive. Without explaining himself, Scott abandons Madelyne and their son to reunite with his lost love, and forms X-Factor with his old friends from the original X-Men. Madelyne and Nathan are then attacked by the Marauders; Nathan is kidnapped and Madelyne left for dead, but survives and is hospitalized as a "Jane Doe". A guilt-wracked and increasingly unstable Scott returned home to find his house empty, and all records of his family's existence erased. Alone and threatened, Madelyne calls the X-Men for help; they arrive and fight off another attack by the Marauders. Despairing from Scott's absence and of her son's fate, she contemplates suicide. Madelyne's brother-in-law, Alex Summers (Havok), talks her out of it, and the two of them grow closer. With the Marauders still after her, she stays with the X-Men, and they sacrifice their lives to stop the Adversary from remaking the world in Fall of the Mutants. A reporter video-interviews them before their death, and Maddie uses this to deliver a message to Scott, pleading that he find their child. With the world thinking them dead, Madelyne and the X-Men are resurrected by the Omniversal Guardian Roma and begin working secretly out of an abandoned Reavers base in Australia. Madelyne serves as the team's technical support. Demonic corruption and origins revealed Monitoring news transmissions, Madelyne learns that Jean Grey is alive and with Scott. She punches the computer monitor's screen, breaking it and causing electrical feedback that renders her unconscious. The Limbo demon S'ym invades Madelyne's mind during her unconscious state, and puts her in a Nightmare Sequence wherein her husband shows up and tells Madelyne he doesn't love her anymore, takes Nathan away from her, and then systematically takes away all her physical features — clothes, hair, mouth, nose and eyes — and puts them on a featureless mannequin revealed to be Jean Grey. When it's done, Jean is real again and Madelyne is the featureless mannequin, unable to even scream. They walk away happily with the baby, leaving the naked and faceless Maddie to struggle alone through a blistering wasteland, burning her away until she runs into S'ym, who offers her a deal to become more than she had been; he shows her images of a girl, a pilot, a woman, and a demon, which reflects what she was, is, and what she dreams to become. Thinking this all is just a dream, Madelyne chooses the demon, whereupon S'ym stabs her with his finger. She falls unconscious, dressed in a cropped black leather shirt, leather loincloth, and thigh-high Combat Stiletto boots, thus reflecting her eventual change into the Goblin Queen. Afterwards, she keeps the existence of the original X-Men as X-Factor secret from the others, filtering only information and news showing X-Factor as an anti-mutant group. Later abducted by the Genoshans and taken to their island-nation, Madelyne is subjected to psychic torture intended to transform her into a docile slave of the state. Madelyne instinctively lashes out with her developing abilities, and thus causes the deaths of her torturers. In the recorded images of the psychic probe performed on Madelyne, a connection is made to the Phoenix Force, and her attire reflects again her eventual change into the Goblin Queen. Shortly after being rescued by the X-Men, Madelyne strikes a bargain with another demon, N'astirh, to find the Marauders and return her son to her. During this time, she and Alex become lovers. To keep his end of their bargain, N'astirh takes Madelyne to the orphanage in Nebraska where Scott had grown up, actually a front for Mr. Sinister's genetic laboratory. Sinister appears and tells Madelyne about her origins. When he learned about Jean Grey, he planned to eliminate her parents and take the girl to his orphanage. Fortunately for them, Charles Xavier had already approached them and started to work with the young girl. Sinister only managed to acquire a blood and tissue sample, from which he then created a clone of her. However, the clone had no life and failed to develop any mutant powers, so Sinister left the clone in her incubation tube as a failed experiment. When Phoenix took her own life, a part of the Phoenix Force entered and awakened the clone, giving her sentience. This renewed Sinister's interest in her. Sinister named her "Madelyne Pryor" as a pun on her prior existence, and created a false background, implanted memories and a personality designed to attract Summers, and conceived a plan to use the clone to facilitate selective breeding between her and Scott. He then planted her with Scott's grandparents' company, thus ensuring the two would eventually meet. Jean Grey's return threatened to cause the truth about Madelyne to be uncovered if the two were to meet, so Sinister tasked his Marauders with killing Madelyne and bringing him Nathan, the fruit of his scheme. Broken in spirit and reduced to insanity by these revelations, when N'astirh gives Nathan back to her, Madelyne willingly decides to aid the demon in the "Inferno" invasion of Earth. Returning to New York City during the invasion, she confronts X-Factor. When the X-Men arrive, Madelyne manipulates the teams against each other at first, and convinces Alex to join her. X-Factor and the other X-Men work together to defeat N'astirh. Madelyne refuses to stop, forcing the heroes to overwhelm her. Cyclops is unable to act because, he admits, most of her accusations against him are true. He rescues his son, but Madelyne commits suicide in an attempt to telepathically take Jean with her. The Phoenix Force appears to Jean and offers to save her, but in order to survive Jean has to integrate the essence of both the Phoenix and Madelyne, gaining their memories and personalities. Mr. Sinister attempts to entrap all of the X-Men and X-Factor in Madelyne's dying mind, but forced to choose between having revenge either on the X-Men or Mr. Sinister, Madelyne ejects Mr. Sinister from her mind. With her personality influencing Jean's, she then prompts the X-Men and X-Factor to attempt lethal retribution against him. Jean, having inherited Madelyne's maternal feelings for Nathan Christopher, becomes his proxy mother and briefly raises him until Apocalypse, seeing the potential threat in the child, infects him with a techno-organic virus. Dying, the child is taken 2,000 years into the future by Askani to be saved. Reappearance Madelyne mysteriously reappears years later as an amnesiac to Nate Grey (X-Man), the "genetic offspring" of Scott Summers and Jean Grey from the alternate reality known as the Age of Apocalypse, when he arrives into Earth-616. Under the tutelage of Selene, Madelyne eventually becomes the Hellfire Club's "Black Rook" (even becoming Sebastian Shaw's mistress), has her memories of her previous life restored by Tessa, and meets her aged son Cable in an uneasy truce. While searching for Nate Grey she meets Threnody, who reveals to her that even though she is walking around and breathing, she is actually still dead. Angered, she murders Threnody. She then finds Nate Grey with Jean Grey and a fight ensues. Nate chooses to side with Jean over her. Then it is revealed that Madelyne is actually a "psionic construct" inadvertently resurrected by a combination of Nate Grey's psionic powers and his desperate need for a mother figure upon his arrival on Earth-616. Antagonistic for a time after this revelation, Madelyne walks away from the Hellfire Club, turning her back on a carefully built alliance/partnership with Sebastian Shaw, and goes looking for Nate Grey. Later they are attacked by the Strikesquad: Gauntlet, a group of operatives wearing psi-shielded armor. Madelyne is buried alive by one of them but she manages to escape by teleporting. As the battle has weakened X-Man, she looks drained and withered. In no shape to continue, whatever the plans she'd had with Nate, she leaves. Red Queen Soon after, Nate Grey is accompanied again by Madelyne alive and well. She ends up revealing herself as the Red Queen, a Jean Grey from Earth-9575, an alternate reality where she becomes a creature of violence and unquenchable desire. She seems to have taken advantage of Madelyne's fragile state and replaced her in order to worm her way into Nate's head. She also claims to be the one who had influenced Nate into latching into Madelyne's psychic energy remnants and give it form, but she is eventually killed when Nate creates a sun around her that burns her to death. The exact details of how she had replaced Madelyne are left unrevealed, but since it is shown that the Red Queen could absorb the life forces of others to enhance her own power, she may have easily absorbed Madelyne's psionic body, or at least severed her consciousness’ connection to it. Cyclops and Cable would eventually encounter Madelyne within the telepathic astral plane, where she describes herself as now only a "ghost" and unable to return to the physical world. Some years later, the X-Men investigate an anti-mutant group calling itself the "Hellfire Cult", being led by Empath. Empath is secretly being controlled and taking orders from a mysterious woman also calling herself the "Red Queen", who is particularly interested in learning about Cyclops' new lover Emma Frost. (Scott and Jean's marriage had fallen apart, and she died during a mission soon afterward.) The X-Men take down the Cult and capture Empath, but the Red Queen slips away unseen. She then psionically impersonates Frost and has virtual sex with Scott, without him realizing the deception. Afterward, the Red Queen travels to Madripoor where she recruits Chimera into a new group called the "Sisterhood of Mutants" and reveals herself to be Madelyne Pryor, returned to the living somehow. Later during a concert of Dazzler's, Scott is surprised at the sight of Madelyne observing him from a distance before losing her amongst the crowd. With Martinique Jason (recruited before the Cult's exposure) and Chimera accompanying her, Madelyne recruits Spiral and Lady Deathstrike into the Sisterhood as well. Madelyne then recruits Martinique's half-sister, Lady Mastermind, who accepts membership upon Madelyne's peculiar (and ironic) promise to bring back the half-sisters' late father, the original Mastermind. Carrying out Madelyne's orders, the Sisterhood retrieves the corpse of Revanche and performs an elaborate set of procedures on Revanche and a captured Psylocke, fully restoring the body and transferring Psylocke's mind into it. Madelyne's true priority was to restore herself back into flesh and blood. In the time since the encounter in the astral plane, Pryor had eventually managed to manifest back in the physical world as an intangible entity of psionic energy, and needed to find a body to inhabit that could contain her disembodied form and psionic powers. The experiment on Psylocke served as a test run for Pryor. The Sisterhood commences a surprise raid on the X-Men's base, quickly neutralizing several of the main X-members. Recovering from the initial attacks, the X-Men force the Sisterhood (now including a brainwashed Psylocke) to retreat. But the battle was only a distraction, as the real purpose was for Madelyne to locate Jean Grey's gravesite. Madelyne's own body had been cremated after her suicide, so Grey's seemed the only option available to her. At Jean's grave, Madelyne attempts to repeat the ritual with her corpse. However, Cyclops had correctly guessed Madelyne's goal and had arranged for Grey's body to be replaced with another, which Madelyne only learned after it is too late. The second she binds herself to the corpse, she discorporates, as the decayed body cannot contain her vast psionic energies. Avengers Vs. X-Men During the 2012 Avengers vs. X-Men storyline, Mister Sinister creates a group of six Madelyne Pryor clones in order to take the Phoenix Force energies from the Phoenix Five (consisting of the Phoenix Force-empowered Cyclops, Colossus, Emma Frost, Magik, and Namor). Unlike the original Madelyne, none of the six clones show indications of having individual personalities or free will, but instead appear to follow Sinister completely. The Madelyne Pryor clones join Sinister's other clone creations in fighting the Phoenix Five, and manage to defeat each one. They are also able to siphon some of the energy from the Phoenix Force, but are all immediately killed by the entity itself. Lady Deathstrike's Sisterhood Lady Deathstrike, whose consciousness had taken possession of a Colombian girl named Ana Cortes, formed an all-new Sisterhood initially comprising her, the mutant Typhoid Mary, and the exiled Asgardian Amora (the Enchantress). The sentient bacteria Arkea possesses Lady Deathstrike's assistant Reiko and joins. As Arkea fears being opposed by the X-Men, she wants powerhouses with the Sisterhood, so she has Enchantress use her magicks to restore Selene and makes plans to resurrect Madelyne Pryor. Ana Cortes manages to turn against Deathstrike, contact the X-Men and alert them of the Sisterhood's location, and then commit suicide in an attempt to foil Arkea's plans. Arkea is able to place Deathstrike's consciousness into Reiko, and seeing an opportunity, splices Jean Grey's DNA to Ana's body, making it a fully compatible host for Madelyne Pryor. The Enchantress then uses her magicks to retrieve Pryor's consciousness and place it into the body, reviving Madelyne (in the process, seemingly reshaping Cortes' physical appearance into Pryor's), and making her flesh-and-blood again for the first time since her own suicide. When the X-Men arrive and attack, Madelyne fights and telepathically defeats the more experienced telepath Rachel Grey. Storm offers Madelyne and Selene a deal, essentially letting them go free, as the X-Men are only after Arkea at the moment. As Madelyne and the other members of the Sisterhood don't particularly care for Arkea, they desert her, allowing all of the Arkea bacteria to be destroyed. Accompanied by Selene, Madelyne declares that she would create an all new Sisterhood. Krakoa Madelyne is not seen in "the first wave" of mutant villains who accept Xavier's invitation to join him on Krakoa. However, she is referenced in Mister Sinister's Red Diamond, a gossip sheet that cryptically lists Sinister's secrets, indicating that her legacy as the Goblin Queen is far from complete. Hellions When Mr. Sinister sent the second Hellions team of mutants to destroy his abandoned cloning farm hidden under the old Nebraska orphanage, they are surprised to find Madelyne there. In her Goblin Queen attire, Madelyne had captured and tortured Sinister's former team of killers, the Marauders, and turned them into zombie-like creatures. Madelyne commands the zombified Marauders to attack the Hellions, but captures and takes Havok prisoner, deciding to reunite with her former lover, and silences him by removing his mouth. She reveals her anger that no one cared about her return and then her seeming exclusion from Krakoa, and so plans to unleash an army of cloned Marauder zombies to attack the mutant island just to be noticed and prove her existence. Havok cuts open his mouth to speak, and impresses her by admitting that he had genuine feelings for Madelyne all along back when she and Scott were together. The Hellions thwart her plans by killing all the zombies, and Madelyne is fatally shot by John Greycrow as well. As she dies, Madelyne heals Alex's injured face and tells him that she only wanted to be acknowledged and remembered. When the team returns to Krakoa, Cyclops himself tells Havok that while the Quiet Council has decided to approve resurrection for the original Marauders, they decided not to resurrect Madelyne on the grounds that she was a clone. The decision infuriates and devastates Havok, who screams at his brother that she was a real person who did in fact exist. What Havok doesn't known is that the Council had not been able to decide whether Madelyne was a clone or her own person, so her resurrection remains undecided. Pryor's fate still weighs heavily on Havok's mind, as seen during the first Annual Hellfire Gala, when he tries to speak with Charles Xavier and Magneto about the decision. Madelyne is eventually resurrected and reunited with Havok. She is seen wearing a version of the flight suit that she had originally worn with the X-Men, positioning her as “good Madelyne” again; but when she sees herself in a mirror, it reflects her Goblin Queen persona. On top of that is the suggestion that she hadn’t wanted to be resurrected at all, recognising that she’s being cast as the prize in somebody else’s story, and understandably resentful of it. The Labors of Magik Immediately afterwards, Madelyne—back in her Goblin Queen attire—is approached by Illyana Rasputin with a proposal. Wanting to transcend her traumatic past by distancing herself from Limbo, but needing to find a new ruler for the demonic dimension, Magik—over the objections of her fellow New Mutants—offers handing over rulership of the realm to Pryor. Illyana regards Madelyne as suitable to take over due to Pryor's past connection to Limbo and because, like Magik, she too has survived painfully traumatic experiences and is still a damaged soul, as Illyana declares anyone normal and "untouched by darkness" to be ill-suited to rule Limbo. Seeing Limbo as a second chance for herself and the means to cut any ties with Krakoa and all the people (i.e. Sinister, Cyclops, Jean Grey, even Havok) who she resents for always defining her entire existence, Madelyne accepts Illyana's offer. Though only after the pair and their group found themselves forced to journey and fight together against foes trying to destroy Magik and seize her power, does the handover happen. With Rasputin's rulership of Limbo relinquished, Pryor—attired in a new outfit—is now its Queen. Dark Web Some time after, Ben Reilly, the wayward and now-vengeful clone of Peter Parker and using the alias "Chasm", feels himself being drawn to and enters Limbo, and encounters Pryor. Feeling they have much in common as victimized and outcast clones who both believed their mutual progenitors had destroyed their lives, Madelyne and Ben form an alliance and plan to strike back. As a demonstration of their teamwork, Pryor has a demon possess a mailbox and attack Spider-Man while she and Ben watch from afar. Pryor later finds Eddie Brock wandering in Limbo as he seeks a way back to Earth to reunite with his son, and convinces Venom, as a "fellow monarch [and] single parent", that participating with her and Chasm will be mutually beneficial. Reilly's girlfriend Janine Godbe (AKA Elizabeth Tyne) requests that she be provided the means to participate alongside Ben. As Janine has also been a mistreated and victimized woman for most of her life, Madelyne sympathizes with Janine and so transforms her into a new supervillain called "Hallows' Eve". Brock grows impatient and uncooperative with Pryor and Chasm, leading to them regressing Brock's mind back into the primitive and savage Venom of the past. Madelyne unleashes her demons into Manhattan, which Spider-Man and the X-Men battle against, while Chasm begins striking at some of Peter's friends. Though the rampaging demons are just a distraction to scatter and occupy the X-Men away from their Manhattan base, at which Venom is sent to attack as an added decoy to enable Hallows' Eve to raid the base and steal a device for Pryor. When Magik, Jean Grey, Havok, and Cyclops enter Limbo to confront Madelyne, they're taken prisoner. Grey eventually breaks free and battles Pryor, until Jean discovers that Maddie's plotting was all just to possess Jean's memories and experiences from the very brief time she was proxy mother to Nathan, the son that Maddie lost to Jean. Grey voluntarily shares all the memories with Pryor, also revealing that she had advocated from the start that Maddie be granted a Krakoan resurrection, finally seeming to mend her last unhealed emotional wounds and making peace between them. Pryor tries to end what she started and so approaches Chasm and Hallows' Eve with this. Having not succeeded in gaining what he wanted from his vendetta on Parker, both Chasm and Eve take Maddie's abandoning of their plotting as a betrayal and so usurp Madelyne's power as ruler of Limbo. Chasm teleports a massive tower into Manhattan and launches a massive demonic invasion. Pryor then joins with the heroes to stop him. During the climactic battle, Madelyne reasserts her rulership over the demons as Goblin Queen of Limbo and Chasm is defeated, though Hallows' Eve escapes. In the aftermath, Madelyne takes custody of Ben Reilly as her prisoner, the Limbo tower remains in place in New York as an "Embassy of Limbo", and Madelyne Pryor seems to continue to be an ally of the X-Men and Spider-Man. Leading the Dark X-Men During the "Fall of X" event, the Hellfire Gala was attacked by Orchis. In retaliation, Madelyne establishes her version of the Dark X-Men with Azazel, Emplate, Feint, Gambit, Havok, and Zero (who is possessing Albert). Powers and abilities As a clone of Jean Grey, Madelyne Pryor possesses mutant abilities of telepathy and telekinesis. These powers were completely dormant while she was believed to be a baseline human, but later manifested in ways that Jean's never had. During her brief time as Anodyne, when still believed to be human, Madelyne was endowed with Asgardian magic that manifested as eldritch flames which granted her the power to heal and cure. Among her beneficial actions were fixing the childhood brain injury that prevented Cyclops from controlling his optic blasts, curing Puck of his mystically induced dwarfism, unifying Aurora's multiple personalities, and giving Rogue the ability to control her mutant power. Madelyne also seemed to gain the physical stature of an Asgardian. As the Goblin Queen, demonic eldritch magic activated Pryor's long-dormant mutant powers, and also exponentially enhanced them to the point where she could warp reality, equivalent to the abilities of Proteus, within a localized area, possibly over an entire city. After her apparent resurrection as a non-physical entity of psionic energy (similar to the Shadow King) by Nate Grey, Madelyne regained her natural mutant abilities. Without the demonic enhancements, her powers are still considerable. Her telepathy enables her to read minds, broadcast her thoughts, create illusions, change or erase memories, and defend herself against other telepaths. With her telekinesis, Madelyne can lift and manipulate large objects, levitate, fire powerful mental force-blasts, form protective shields, and rearrange small objects on a molecular level. Madelyne also utilizes her powers to augment her physical strength and agility, making her formidable in hand-to-hand combat. Madelyne also learned how to use her powers to teleport over long distances by psychokinetically shifting in and out of the astral plane, and was shown to be able to carry along at least one other person with her when teleporting, and was also able to channel psionic energies from other psionic-powered mutants to boost her own abilities or those of another (usually Nate Grey, and on occasion Cable). It is speculated that Selene's tutelage made these added abilities possible. Since being restored back into a flesh-&-blood physical being, Pryor seems not to have these specific mutant abilities anymore. As the Red Queen, along with her usual powers, Madelyne demonstrated other abilities of a mysterious nature which she referred to as "magic", which were probably related to the eldritch magics she had previously wielded. She was shown to heal wounds, locate spirits interdimensionally, and work in conjunction with science to restore life to the dead. To prepare Madelyne to rule Limbo as its next queen, Illyana Rasputin had been teaching her other magics. The first example shown is how to channel emotions to create certain types of weapons similar to the Soulsword and the Souldagger. By channeling her emotional pain and regret, Madelyne created a mystical scythe weapon called both the "Scythe of Sorrows" and the "Soul-Scythe", and uses it as a symbol to command Limbo’s demons and as a medium to focus Limbo's magic. Illyana also handed Limbo's huge library of eldritch texts over to Pryor, which she frequently consults as needed. Reception Critical reception David Harth of CBR.com called Madelyne Pryor one of Marvel's "coolest X-Men villains", writing, "Pryor can't catch a break, which is part of what makes her interesting. She's easy to empathize with for readers, as she is definitely a character readers can feel sorry for and even root for to an extent. Her motivations make her a believable villain, and as a clone of Jean Grey, she wields a jaw-dropping amount of power." Accolades In 2014, Entertainment Weekly ranked Madelyne Pryor 30th in their "Let's rank every X-Man ever" list. In 2020, CBR.com ranked Madelyne Pryor 1st in their "X-Men: 10 Most Powerful Members of the Sisterhood of Mutants" list. In 2022, Digital Trends ranked Madelyne Pryor 6th in their "10 most powerful X-Men villains" list. In 2022, Screen Rant included Madeline Pryor in their "10 Best X-Men Characters Created By Chris Claremont" list and "10 New Characters We Can Hope To See In X-Men ’97" list. In 2022, CBR.com ranked Madelyne Pryor 9th in their "10 Coolest X-Men Villains" list. Other versions What If...? In one alternate reality (Earth-89112), Madelyne Pryor and S'ym were successful in opening a portal between Limbo and Earth (having killed baby Nathan Christopher) and demons overran the planet. The X-Men and X-Factor were dead (with the exception of a possessed Wolverine), and the only resistance left was led by Doctor Strange, who attempted to summon the Phoenix Force through Rachel Summers, the reality-hopping daughter of Scott Summers and Jean Grey. Madelyne however was successful in quelling the resistance and wresting control of the Phoenix Force from Rachel, but was ultimately betrayed and killed by S'ym, using Wolverine's reanimated adamantium skeleton. Rachel, reassuming the mantle of the Phoenix, used the Force to cleanse the planet of the demon plague. On Earth-9250, most mutants in the city of Manhattan are vampires ruled by Wolverine. Madelyne was not infected, but became the Goblyn Queen and planned on releasing a demon army to wipe out the vampire mutants and dominate the world. Madelyne made contact with the lord of the Dark Dimension, Dormammu, who became her ally. However, the vampiric Marvel Girl (Jean Grey) bonded with the Phoenix Force, became Dark Phoenix, and killed Madelyne and Dormammu. Another reality saw Madelyne Pryor as a member of an "X-Men" team formed by Mr. Sinister alongside Cyclops (Scott Summers), Havok (Alex Summers), and Sabretooth. However this version of Madelyne had never been awakened by the Phoenix Force, so she was simply a mindless shell inhabited by the psychic entity Malice. Scott noticed his physical attraction to Madelyne, but could not respond to her advances; when he encountered Professor Xavier's X-Men and their leader Jean Grey, however, much deeper emotions were stirred. Sinister called for their deaths, and under his orders Cyclops and Havok infiltrated Xavier's X-Men as double agents. Mutant X In the alternate reality known as the Mutant X universe, young Scott Summers was abducted into space along with his father Christopher and mother Kate, leaving his brother Alex to become one of the founders of the X-Men as Havok. This reality's Madelyne Pryor marries Alex and has a son, named Scotty, with him. Just like in Earth-616, Madelyne also makes a deal with Limbo's demons, unlocking her latent psionic abilities, and initiates the "Inferno Crisis". In this instance however, Madelyne survives the crisis; and, using the alias "Marvel Woman", leaves the X-Men team with her husband when he forms the splinter group called "The Six". Her evil side resurfaces a number of times, first as the "Goblyn Queen" and later as the "Goblyn Force". When it returns a second time, it merges with the Beyonder to form a nigh-omnipotent being. Havok supposedly saves Madelyne by placing the "Nexus of Realities" in her body, purging her of the malevolent Goblyn Force and reuniting her with her son Scotty, before Havok returns once more to the void. Codename: X-Men A team of mutants forced against their will to serve in the government's Weapon-X program to hunt and neutralize all other mutants, this group includes a female telepath codenamed "Goblin Queen". Although she appears that she could be either Madelyne Pryor or Jean Grey, her real name is not revealed anywhere in the story, and no discernible reason is given for her codename. Marvel Mangaverse In the Marvel Mangaverse title Legacy of Fire, Madelyne Pryor was reinvented as Madelyne Pyre, a powerful sorceress and possessor of the Phoenix Sword, who was training her sister Jena to be her successor. X-Men: The End Madelyne Pryor plays an important role in X-Men: The End, Chris Claremont's limited series about an alternate future. In the story, Madelyne — through circumstances left unexplained — makes a surprise return. Mysteriously joined with the X-Men's alien enemies (the Skrulls and the Shi'ar), Madelyne affected a disguise to infiltrate the X-Men, planting herself near Cyclops for the rest of the series. Still seeking revenge against her former husband, Madelyne wavered however and protected him instead, after eavesdropping on Scott expressing remorse for everything that happened to her, and even implied that he genuinely loved her after all. Cyclops later admitted to having recognized her at some point, and an understanding and peace was finally reached between them, for the sake of aiding their son Cable in battle. When Cable's effort leaves him dying, a grief-stricken Madelyne is accepted back with the X-Men again. After Cyclops and Jean Grey are also killed, Madelyne cryptically reveals that, since the very beginning, she was always both Madelyne Pryor and a crucial portion of Jean Grey herself (and even hinted to being the Dark Phoenix), explaining that she was the part of Jean that truly and completely loved Scott, and that was why Jean and Scott's marriage failed. Madelyne then sacrifices herself by turning into energy and fusing with Jean Grey, who is once again resurrected. Jean is able to use her power to its fullest again, which allows her and all the dead X-Men to merge with the Phoenix and transcend to a new level of existence. In the story's final panel, Madelyne's image is present next to Cyclops' among the X-Men who died heroically. X-Men Forever In Claremont's series set in an alternate universe from canon, X-Men Forever, Pryor does not appear though is mentioned a number of times, as the setting is some years after her death. While nearly every significant X-Men storyline and event from the comics before 1991 is referenced during the series, no mentions are made about Inferno or the Goblin Queen, implying that these did not happen here. And while Sinister and his clonings are present, there is also no mention of Madelyne ever being a clone of Jean Grey, implying that this was also not the case here. Except for it happening after her son was born, exactly when and how Pryor died went unrevealed in the series. Secret Wars (2015) Warzones: Inferno When Doctor Doom became the God-Emperor Doom and saved remnants of the destroyed Multiverse to form Battleworld, among the salvaged worlds was a reality where the X-Men failed to stop the Inferno event instigated by the Darkchilde and the Goblin Queen. Contrary to all assumptions, Madelyne Pryor never committed the sacrificial prolicide of her baby son, and had been raising Nathan in the years since. Doom had made Pryor the ruling Baroness of the Domain of Limbo at first, until the X-Men entrapped the demonic invasion within Manhattan and war broke out between Madelyne and Illyana, leading to Cyclops being appointed Limbo's Baron. Colossus would be forced into an alliance with Madelyne to deal with Illyana, only for Darkchilde to breach the containment and unleash Inferno on the rest of the domain. When Sinister emerged to coerce the defeated X-Men to ally with him against Darkchilde, Madelyne killed Sinister in overdue revenge. Colossus then had to kill Illyana after she massacred all the last remaining X-Men. In the aftermath, Pryor took possession of Darkchilde's demonic magic, making Madelyne the next demonic sorceress and ruler of Limbo domain, with Nathan alongside her. Epilogue Doom himself acknowledged Pryor's re-ascendence to Baroness. Pryor then became one of four Barons (among the others, an alternate version of Sinister) Doom chose as his "Generals" and ordered to field their armies to crush an uprising against the God Emperor. The Goblin Queen followed Doom's wishes, until betrayed and then beaten-down by Sinister and Captain Marvel. All-New, All-Different Marvel Following the events of the Secret Wars and the restoration of Earth-616, this version of Madelyne Pryor was able to survive the destruction of Battleworld along with her pet dragon Bamfy and a horde of goblins. They opened a portal to a storage facility in Florida, from which they planned to invade Prime Earth, however, their mustering was interrupted by Wolverine and Angel, forcing the horde to withdraw. She later opened another portal to gain access to Earth in Miami and her hordes of demons descended to wreak chaos all over the place. She also revealed that when Battleworld began collapsing, twelve hell gates inexplicably opened near the area she was and she along with Bamfy entered one that took them to Limbo where they remained in the shadows. Now once again on Earth she had her horde of demons capture the small team of X-Men that were taking a break there and was on the verge of using them for her final sacrifice until her plans were interrupted by the arrival of the mystically infused time-displaced Hank McCoy which forced her to withdraw by using Bamfy to teleport her to some unknown place. Madelyne has since been training the time-displaced Hank on how to hone his mystical capabilities. While training him, she travels across the multiverse collecting supernatural X-Men from alternate realities and promised to give them what they wanted if they help her. Madelyne then has Hank cast a ritual that summons her and her new team of supernatural X-Men, calling them her "Hex Men", and ambushes Magneto's team of X-Men in Madripoor. Her goal is to use the ritual that Beast started to summon alternate versions of herself trapped in the underworld and bring them to the surface to help her gain power. Bloodstorm sees how Madelyne has used them as a means to her own goal and knows that she will throw the Hex Men to the wolves when her main goal is accomplished. Bloodstorm convinces Beast to betray Madelyne and in doing so interrupts the ritual. Because of the interruption, the alternate versions of Madelyne drag her and all of the Hex Men to the underworld with them except for Bloodstorm and Beast. Fall of X: Dark X-Men While trapped in the depths of Limbo, Madelyne lost all human aspects and became completely demonic. The anti-mutant organization Orchis later found her in a forgotten corner of that realm and held her captive alongside her Bamf Dragon. While first used as one of Orchis' test subjects on an experimental concoction derived from Blightswill as a method of deactivating the X-gene, she nevertheless began working for Orchis, using her knowledge of dark arts to corrupt Archangel. Spider-Geddon During the Spider-Geddon event, an unseen "Goblin Queen" is mentioned by her minions, Green Goblin, Hobgoblin, Demogoblin, and Jack O'Lantern when they attempt to kill Gwen Stacy but are driven away by the "Spiders-Man". It's unrevealed if this Goblin-Queen is Madelyne Pryor or someone different. X-Men: The Exterminated A story by Claremont again, included as an addition with the main story in The Exterminated one-shot, appears as if to be a flashback from just after Cyclops and Storm's leadership duel and his moving back to Alaska with Pryor. Circumstances shown here lead to Scott and Madelyne happily reconciling (before the discovery and return of Jean Grey). This and other differences from canon seem to place this story in the setting of Claremont's X-Men Forever universe. X-Men: Grand Design A limited series that does an abridged and condensed retelling of four decades of X-Men related canon from the 1960s debut onward, Pryor's introduction and early storylines are included but substantially rewritten in the second half of the title's "Second Genesis" chapter. Pryor debuts and participates in stories which originally featured Lee Forrester, who is entirely excluded in this retelling (but is name-dropped later in the series' final panel). When Pryor and Cyclops meet and begin their relationship, she is not a pilot in Alaska but is still described as surviving a plane crash in the past, and Mastermind's actions on Pryor never happen at all in this telling before she and Cyclops marry. Pryor's history continues in the first half of the "X-Tinction" chapter that follows, starting with the birth of Nathan/Cable and the marriage's disintegration, to concluding at her death during Inferno. While the encounter with Loki with her moment as Anodyne and her later abduction by Genosha are excluded, all the rest of her story with the X-Men is here. Pryor is emphasized as the victim in everything, not culpable for Inferno nor intending to harm her son. And her death is presented as more accidental instead of suicide. In other media Television Madelyne Pryor was alluded to in the X-Men animated television series episode "Time Fugitives". Cyclops and Jean Grey learn that Cable will be important to the couple's future after Jean reads Cable's mind, showing a union between Scott Summers and a red-haired woman. Cable also revealed to know about Cyclops and Jean while researching the X-Men. Producer Larry Houston during the Podcast ‘Power of X-Men’ (formerly ‘Generations of X’) confirmed that the character was indeed Madelyne. Film Madelyne Pryor is alluded in Deadpool 2 as an Easter egg reference with an ice cream truck labeled "Pryor's Treats" appearing. Video games Madelyne Pryor in her Goblin Queen costume is available in the PC version of Marvel: Ultimate Alliance as one of Jean Grey's many custom costumes. Madelyne Pryor in her Hellfire Club Black Rook costume appears as the final villain in the Rachel Grey mission set in X-Men: Battle of the Atom. Madelyne Pryor is a playable character in Marvel Strike Force. References External links About Madelyne Pryor in Women Write About Comics ComicVine.com: Madelyne Pryor UncannyXmen.net Spotlight on Madelyne Pryor Madelyne Pryor in Fanlore Wiki Characters created by Chris Claremont Clone characters in comics Comics characters introduced in 1983 Fictional avatars Fictional aviators Fictional characters who can manipulate reality Fictional characters with elemental transmutation abilities Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities Fictional characters with evocation or summoning abilities Fictional characters with spirit possession or body swapping abilities Fictional illusionists Fictional sole survivors Fictional suicides Marvel Comics characters who can teleport Marvel Comics characters who have mental powers Marvel Comics characters who use magic Marvel Comics female supervillains Marvel Comics mutants Marvel Comics telekinetics Marvel Comics telepaths
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian%20Air%20Force
Egyptian Air Force
The Egyptian Air Force (EAF) (), is the aviation branch of the Egyptian Armed Forces that is responsible for all airborne defence missions and operates all military aircraft, including those used in support of the Egyptian Army, Egyptian Navy and the Egyptian Air Defense Forces. The latter was created as a separate command in the 1970s and it coordinates with the Air Force to integrate air and ground-based air defense operations. The EAF is headed by an air marshal (lieutenant general equivalent). Currently, the commander of the Egyptian Air Force is Air Marshal Mahmoud Fouad Abdel-Gawad. The force's motto is 'Higher and higher for the sake of glory' (, ). It was known as the Royal Egyptian Air Force until 18 June 1953 following the declaration of the Republic of Egypt by Muhammad Naguib. The Egyptian Army Air Service was formed in 1932, and became an independent air force in 1937. It had little involvement in the Second World War. From 1948 to 1973 it took part in four separate wars with Israel, as well as the quasi-War of Attrition. It also supported the Egyptian Army during the North Yemen Civil War and the Libyan–Egyptian War of 1977. From 1977 to 2011 it saw virtually no combat, but has participated in numerous exercises, including Operation Bright Star. Since 1992 the EAF has also provided aviation support for the police and other national security organizations engaged in the war against terrorism. In recent years the Air Force has acted in the Sinai insurgency, the Second Libyan Civil War and the Intervention in the Yemen. The EAF primary role is the air defence of the nation, with secondary tasks of strike and army support operations. The EAF provides official government transport and carries out international search-and- rescue operations in the desert, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Red Sea. In 2014 the IISS estimated the total active manpower of the Egyptian Air Force at approximately 30,000 personnel, including 10,000 conscripts, with reserves of 20,000 personnel. This contrasts with an estimate of some 35,000 personnel, with most aircrew being long-term professionals, in 2010. History Establishment (Royal Egyptian Air Force) In late 1928, the Parliament of Egypt proposed the creation of an Egyptian Air Force. The Egyptian ministry of war announced that it needed volunteers for the new arm to become the first four Egyptian military pilots. Over 200 Egyptian officers volunteered, but in the end only three succeeded in passing strict medical tests and technical examinations. These three went to No. 4 Flying Training School RAF at RAF Station Abu Sueir near the Suez Canal, where they were trained on a variety of aircraft. After graduation, they traveled to the United Kingdom for specialised training. On 2 November 1930, the King of Egypt and Sudan, Fuad I announced the creation of the Egyptian Army Air Force (EAAF). On 27 May 1931 the Egyptian Council of Ministers approved the purchase of five aircraft and the building of an airfield at Almaza (Cairo) with a budget of 50,000 pounds. The aircraft chosen was the British de Havilland Gipsy Moth trainer, the five modified aircraft were flown from England to Egypt and on arrival in May 1932 the air force was founded and the Almaza airfield was formally opened. The first commander of the EAAF was Squadron Leader Victor Hubert Tait RAF, a Canadian, former Senior Air Advisor on the British Military Mission in Egypt. Tait selected staff, weapons and initiated building a number of airfields. In 1934 the British government provided ten Avro 626 aircraft, which were the first real Egyptian military planes. A further 17 626s together with Hawker Audaxes for army cooperation and close support and Avro Ansons for VIP work followed shortly afterward. In 1937 the Egyptian Army Air Force was separated from the Army Command and became an independent branch named the Royal Egyptian Air Force (REAF). New stations were built in the Suez Canal Zone, and the Western Desert. During 1938 the REAF received two squadrons (Nos 2 and 5) of Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters and No. 1 Squadron of Westland Lysander reconnaissance aircraft, Egypt was the last state to use the Lysander in action, during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Second World War As the Egyptian border was threatened by an Italian and German invasion during the Second World War, the Royal Air Force established more airfields in Egypt. The Royal Egyptian Air Force was sometimes treated as a part of the Royal Air Force, at other times a strict policy of neutrality was followed as Egypt maintained its official neutrality until very late in the war. As a result, few additional aircraft were supplied by Britain, however the arm did receive its first modern fighters, Hawker Hurricanes and a small number of Curtiss P-40 Tomahawks. In the immediate post-war period, cheap war surplus aircraft, including a large number of Supermarine Spitfire Mk.IXs were acquired. A 1946 order of battle for the Air Force can be found in Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II, listing Nos 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6 Squadrons at Almaza Air Base, and No. 2 Squadron at Edku. 1948 Arab–Israeli War Following the British withdrawal from the British Protectorate of Palestine and the establishment of the State of Israel on 14 May 1948, Egyptian forces crossed into Palestine as part of a wider Arab League military coalition in support of the Palestinians against the Israelis. The Egyptian Air Force contribution included the Short Stirling bomber, Douglas C-47 Dakotas performing as light bombers and Spitfires. Two Israeli aircraft were shot down and on 22 May 1948, Egyptian Spitfires attacked the RAF Ramat David airfield, believing that it had already been taken over by Israeli forces. The first raid surprised the British, and resulted in the destruction of several RAF aircraft on the ground, and the deaths of four airmen. The British were uncertain whether the attacking Spitfires had come from Arab or Israeli forces. When second and third raids followed shortly afterwards, the British were ready and the entire Egyptian force was shot down – the last aircraft being baited for some time as the RAF pilots attempted to get a close look at its markings. Relations with Britain were soon restored and the official state of war with Israel ensured that arms purchases continued. New Spitfire Mk. 22s were purchased to replace the earlier models. In late 1949, Egypt received its first jet fighter, the British Gloster Meteor F4 and shortly after de Havilland Vampire FB5s. Republican Egypt (Egyptian Air Force) In 1955, Egypt made an agreement to buy heavy arms from Czechoslovakia, culminating four years of attempts. The Egyptian Government was determined to move away from reliance on British armaments. 1951 discussions had included 60–100 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 fighters. Initial Soviet bloc deliveries included the MiG-15s, Ilyushin Il-28 bombers, Ilyushin Il-14 transports, and Yak-11 trainers. Instructors from Czechoslovakia accompanied these aircraft. Egypt also began manufacturing its own Czechoslovak-designed Heliopolis Gomhouria (originally the German Bü 181 Bestmann) primary trainers at this time. Suez Crisis After the Egyptian Government's nationalisation of the Suez Canal in 1956, Egypt was attacked by Israel, France, and the United Kingdom in what came to be known as the Suez Crisis ("Tripartite Aggression" in Egypt). Heavy losses were sustained by the Egyptian side. After U.S. pressure, the French and British withdrew their forces after seizing the city of Suez. The war also forced the EAF to begin rebuilding without British help. In 1958, Egypt merged with Syria to form the United Arab Republic, and the previously separate Egyptian and Syrian forces were combined as the United Arab Republic Air Force. Though Syria left the union in 1961, Egypt continued to use the union's official name until 1971, including for its air force. One of the first Egyptian Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19 units was the 15th Air Brigade, consisting of Nos 20 and 21 Squadrons, which became operational at Fayid with a forward location at Milayz in the early 1960s. By the mid-1960s, British aircraft had been replaced completely by Soviet hardware. The Soviet Union became the principal supplier of the EAF, and many other Arab states. This allowed the EAF to greatly modernise and boost its combat effectiveness. The MiG-21 Fishbed arrived in the early 1960s, bringing with it a Mach 2 capability. The MiG-21 would remain Egypt's primary fighter for the next two decades. The EAF also began flying the Sukhoi Su-7 fighter/bomber in the mid-1960s. By 1966, Air Group 65, with its primary base at Cairo West Air Base, was operating three squadrons of Tupolev Tu-16 "Badgers": No. 34 and 36 Squadrons with bomber variants, and No. 95 Squadron equipped with the Tu-16KS' that could carry AS-1 Kennel air-to-surface missiles. In 1967, Egypt had 200 MiG-21s. Egypt also took over the Helwan HA-300 from Spain as its first supersonic aircraft. It never went beyond three prototypes and initial test flights, then was abandoned due to high costs and political factors. The German designers involved had to leave Egypt after death threats from the Israeli intelligence agency Mossad. Yemen War The Yemeni Royalist side received support from Saudi Arabia and Jordan, while the Yemeni Republicans were supported by Egypt. The fighting was fierce, featuring heavy urban combat as well as battles in the countryside. Both foreign irregular and conventional forces were also involved. Strategically, the Yemen War was an opportunity for Israel. It stagnated Egyptian military plans for the reinforcement of Sinai, by shifting the Egyptian military focus to another theater of operation. Egyptian historian Mohammed Heikal writes that Israel provided arms shipments and also cultivated relationships with hundreds of European mercenaries fighting for the Royalists in Yemen. Israel established a covert air-supply bridge from Djibouti to North Yemen. The war also gave the Israelis the opportunity to assess Egyptian combat tactics and adaptability. Egyptian air and naval forces began bombing and shelling raids in the Saudi southwestern city of Najran and the coastal town of Jizan, which were staging points for royalist forces. In response, the Saudis purchased British Thunderbird surface-to-air missiles and developed their King Khalid airfield near Khamis Mushait. Riyadh also attempted to convince the United States to respond on its behalf. In Operation Hard Surface, President Kennedy sent jet fighters and bombers to Dhahran Air Base from May 1963, demonstrating to Egypt the seriousness of his commitment to defending U.S. interests in Saudi Arabia. Six-Day War In the 1967 Six-Day War the EAF's combat capacity was severely damaged after the Israeli Air Force destroyed its air bases in a preemptive strike codenamed Operation Focus. During the last four days the EAF conducted only 150 sorties against Israeli units throughout the Sinai. After the war, the Soviet Union replenished EAF stocks, sending large numbers of aircraft and advisors to Egypt to revitalise the EAF. The EAF's first air-to-air victory is claimed by MiG-21 pilot Nabil Shoukry against a Mirage IIICJ fighter over Inchas air base two hours following the first Israeli strike. On 8 June 1967, a pair of Egyptian MiG-21s engaged a pair of Mirage IIIs over the Sinai. In the ensuing dogfight, the EAF's 1st Lt Fakhry El-Ashmawy managed to down one of the Mirage fighters while the second Mirage crashed from fuel exhaustion. Initial Egyptian claims were even more inflated, but were later reduced to 72 Israeli aircraft destroyed. The IDF/AF admitted 45 losses on all fronts, while outside observers put the figure between 55 and 60. Years later, unofficial Israelis sources admitted ten IDF/AF aircraft downed in air combat on all fronts. Independent sources put this figure at 11, plus another resulting in fuel exhaustion. In fact, several Israeli aircraft reportedly downed by ground fire probably fell to Egyptian fighters. Nigerian Civil War During the Nigerian Civil War, Nigeria received air support from pilots of the Egyptian Air Force, who launched air raids against the self-declared republic of Biafra. The Egyptian pilots flew aircraft procured by the Soviet Union, air force Mikoyan MiG-17 fighters and Ilyushin Il-28 bombers. War of Attrition The years between 1967 and 1970 involved a prolonged campaign of attrition against Israel. The EAF went through a massive construction program to build new air bases in order to increase its survivability. During this period Egypt also received replacements for losses it suffered during the Six Day War. The EAF was the first branch of the Egyptian armed forces to achieve full combat readiness. On 15 July 1967, six Israeli Mirage III fighters violated Egyptian airspace and orders were given for two formations each consisted of two MiG-21 fighters to intercept, another formation of 2 MiGs piloted by Major Fawzy Salama & Lieutenant Medhat Zaki was ready in West Cairo airbase. Indeed, the formation took off, but for protecting the airbase rather than supporting the interception. October War 1973 During the initial surprise air attack of the Yom Kippur War, over 220 EAF aircraft took part. Unlike their Syrian counterparts, EAF aircraft evaded Israeli radars by flying below detection height. EAF aircraft were held in reserve after that point, mainly concentrating on airfield defence in conjunction with the SA-3 'Goa', while the more mobile SA-6 'Gainful' protected Egyptian forces at low and medium level, aided by the ZSU-23-4 and shoulder-held SA-7 SAMs. Despite these limitations, the EAF conducted offensive sorties from time to time. The Su-7BM was used for quick strafe attacks on Israeli columns and the Mirage IIIE (sometimes confused with the Mirage 5), donated by Libya, carried out long-range attacks deep inside Sinai at Bir Gifgafa. However, when Israeli armoured forces used a gap between the two Egyptian armies to cross the Suez Canal (Operation Stouthearted Men), they destroyed several Egyptian SAM sites, forcing the EAF into battle against the IAF. The EAF claimed victories and continued to contest IAF operations, while also launching attacks on Israeli ground forces on the East Bank of the Suez Canal. In most of these engagements, Egyptian MiG-21s (of all types) challenged Israeli Mirage IIICJs or Neshers. The IAF did not operate freely and did not have complete air supremacy it enjoyed during the previous conflict, the 1967 war. Egyptian MiGs were used with better efficiency than before which included the tactics and lessons learned from the 1967 war. It was during this war that the EAF applied the lessons it earlier learnt from the Israelis. A 32-year-old deputy MiG-21 regiment commander who has been flying since he was 15 recalls: "During the war of attrition, the Israeli air force had a favorite ambush tactic", he told Aviation Week and Space Technology. "They would penetrate with two aircraft at medium altitude where they would be quickly picked up by radar, We would scramble four or eight to attack them. But they had another dozen fighters trailing at extremely low altitude below radar coverage. As we climbed to the attack they would zoom up behind and surprise us. My regiment lost MiGs to this ambush tactic three times. But we learned the lesson and practiced the same tactics. In the final fights over Deversoir, we ambushed some Mirages the same way, and my own 'finger four' formation shot down four Mirages with the loss of one MiG." The Egyptian Air Force commander during the war was then-Air Marshal Hosni Mubarak. On 14 October 1973 one of many Egyptian/Israeli air engagements took place. Initial Egyptian reports that 15 Israeli aircraft had been destroyed. on the day of "Air battle of Mansoura". Later on, the Egyptian government changed the country's "Air Force Day" from 2 November to 14 October, to commemorate the Mansourah air battle. Mubarak was even promoted and feted as a national hero after the war, It was estimated that over 2200 take offs were done by the Egyptian Air Force throughout the war that included dogfighting and ground attacks. Shaba I During the Shaba I crisis in Zaire on 1977, Egyptian Air Force provided 50 pilots and technicians, who operated Mirage jets for the Zairian Air Force. Libyan–Egyptian War During the 1977 Libyan–Egyptian War, there were some skirmishes between Libyan and Egyptian fighters. In one instance, two Libyan Air Force MiG-23MS engaged two EAF MiG-21MFs that had been upgraded to carry Western weaponry. The Libyan pilots made the mistake of trying to manoeuvre with the more nimble Egyptian fighters, and one MiG-23MS was shot down by EAF Maj. Sal Mohammad, while the other Libyan aircraft used its speed advantage to escape. Camp David Accords and Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords, Egypt would receive 1.3 Billion military aid while Israel would receive 3.1 Billion in aid. Ever since Egypt signed its peace treaty with Israel, Egypt shifted to American weaponry and drifted away from the Soviet style weapons. In March 1982, Egypt received its first 12 F-16 fighter Jets for its inventory. From 1980 the EAF was involved in the joint U.S.-Egyptian biannual Exercise Bright Star. Sinai Insurgency The Egyptian Air Force operated on a large scale during the Sinai insurgency which commenced in 2011. AH-64 Apache helicopters and F-16 jet fighters bombed numerous militant targets on almost a daily basis. Second Libyan Civil War During the Second Libyan Civil War there were conflicting reports that Egyptian warplanes bombed Islamist militias in support of the government based in Tobruk. The foreign ministry denied any involvement in the conflict although unnamed Egyptian military officials claimed otherwise. Egypt tightened security on Libyan border following mysterious air strikes. Egyptian forces near the Libyan border have been put on high alert following airstrikes on 2016 Jan 10 from unidentified fighter jets inside Libya. The fighter jets struck Islamic State of Iraq and Levant (ISIL) targets inside Libya, according to news reports. The Libyan coastal city of Sirte has served as ISIL's capital in North Africa since the terror group seized the city last summer. After receiving three MiG-21MFs and three Mi-8s from Egypt just half a year ago, it appears the Libyan Air Force is now further strengthened by two MiG-21MFs from the same source. The former EAF mounts are a welcome addition to the under-equipped Libyan Air Force, which is currently waging a war against Libya Dawn, Ansar al-Sharia and even the Islamic State, the latter centered around the Libyan city of Derna. On 6 March 2016, Egypt and France began on Sunday a joint military exercise termed as the "Ramses-2016" in the coastal city of Alexandria along the Mediterranean. The French nuclear-powered aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle is steaming through the Red Sea on its way to the Mediterranean via the Suez Canal for joint maneuvers with the Egyptian air force and navy in preparation for a reduced coalition offensive against Islamic State's deepening grip on Libya. 2015 Airstrikes in Libya The February 2015 Egyptian airstrikes in Libya against Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) positions in Libya took place on 16 February 2015, and were triggered by a video released by ISIL in Libya a day earlier, depicting the beheading of 21 Coptic Christians from Egypt. Within hours, the Egyptian Air Force responded with airstrikes against ISIL training camps and weapons stockpiles in retaliation for the killings. Warplanes acting under orders from the Libyan government also struck targets in Derna, reportedly in coordination with Egypt. It is believed that more than eight EAF f-16 jet fighters were used for the strikes, including the newly joined "block 52" versions. The airstrikes had allegedly killed up to 81 ISIL militants, including three of the leadership, in the coastal cities of Derna and Sirte. Libyan media reported that at least 35 more Egyptians had been rounded up by ISIL in retaliation for the air raids. 2015 Military Intervention in Yemen Egyptian Air Forces are participating in a Saudi-led joint regional military operation to halt the advance of Houthi rebels in Yemen, Egypt's presidency announced on 2015 March 25 in a statement. the Egyptian Air Force participated in airstrikes against Houthis in Yemen. Egypt's military participation "through elements of the Egyptian air and navy forces" aims to support the Saudi-led regional coalition to restore stability in Yemen "under legitimate leadership", according to the Egyptian presidency's statement. The Egyptian air force supported pro-government forces when they attacked Al Anad Air Base in the south of Yemen. "EAF and paratroopers aerial supported Yemeni ground forces who have now seized the military base killing scores of Houthi rebels". 2017 Airstrikes in Libya On May 26, 2017, armed men traveling in pickup trucks gunned down 28 Coptic Christians and wounded 26 as the Christians were on their way to visit a monastery in Egypt’s Minya province, The Islamic State claimed responsibility for this attack. That same evening, Egypt announced that its air force had carried out six air raids on ISIS camps near the Libyan city of Derna. The strikes involved F-16C/D Block 52s covered by at least two Dassault Rafales. Structure Air bases Source: Abu Suweir Air Base El Mansoura Air Base Borg al Arab Air Base Aswan Air Base Az Zagazig (Abu Hammad) Air Base Beni Sueif Air Base Bilbeis Air Base Birma/Tanta Air Base Almaza Air Base Cairo/Intl Air Base Cairo West Air Base El Minya Air Base Fayid Air Base Gebel El Basur Air Base Hurghada Air Base Inshas Air Base Gianaclis New Air Base Kom Awshim Air Base Mersa Matruh Air Base Wadi El Gandali (Khatamia) Air Base Order of battle Data from HQ EAF Direct Reporting 38sq - Almaza (Beech 1900C) 99sq - Almaza (Falcon 20, Be200, Gulfstream) 99sq - Cairo East (B707-366, B737-100) 102 Tactical Air Wing 25sq - Ismailia/Inshas (EMB-312 Tucano) 26sq - Ismailia (AT-802 Air Tractor) 35sq - Hurghada (EMB-312 Tucano) 104 Tact Fighter Wing 42sq – Wadi Abu Rish (MiG-29M/M2) 44sq – Wadi Abu Rish (MiG-29M/M2) 203 Tactical Fighter Wing 34sq – Gebel el Basur (Rafale EM/DM) 36sq - Gebel el Basur (Rafale EM/DM) 232 Tactical Fighter Wing 72sq – Mersa Matruh (F-16C/D) 74sq - Mersa Matruh (F-16C/D) 242 Tactical Fighter Wing 68sq – Aswan (F-16C/D) 70sq – Beni Sueif (F-16C/D) 252 Tactical Fighter Wing 82sq – Gebel el Basur (Mirage 2000EM/BM) 262 Tactical Fighter Wing 60sq – Abu Sueir (F-16C/D) 64sq - Abu Sueir (F-16C/D) 272 Tactical Fighter Wing 75sq – Genaclis (F-16C/D) 77sq – Genaclis (F-16C/D) 79sq – Genaclis (F-16C/D) 282 Tactical Fighter Wing 86sq – Fayid (F-16C/D) 88sq – Fayid (F-16C/D) 292 Tactical Fighter Wing 95sq - Cairo West (F-16C/D B52) 97sq - Cairo West (F-16C/D B52) 308th CAS Tactical Wing 57sq – El Mansourah (Alpha Jet MS1/2) 58sq – El Mansourah (Alpha Jet MS1/2) 516 Air Wing 4sq – Cairo East (C-130H) 16sq – Cairo East (C-130H) Ind Tpt Flt - Cairo East (Il-76MF) Air Wing - Flight Safety (Air Navigation School) 533 Air Wing 2sq – Cairo East (C-295M) 8sq - Cairo East (C-295M) Ind Tpt Flt - Cairo East (An-74T-200) 544 Air Wing 9sq - Beni Sueif (Mi-17) 81sq – Daraw (Aswan) (Mi-17V-5) 83sq - Bernice/Ras Banas (Mi-17) 545 Air Wing 11sq – Borg al Arab (AW149) 14sq - Borg al Arab (AW149) 37sq – Borg al Arab (SH-2G) 546 Air Wing 7sq (VIP's) – Almaza (AW189, S-70A-21) 12sq - Mersa Matruh (Commando Mk.2) 18sq - Almaza (AW109, SAR) 21sq - Almaza (S-70-21) 33sq (OCU) - Kom Awshim (CH-47D) 547 Air Wing 13sq - Uthman (Mi-17V-5) 55sq - Khatatbah (Mi-17V-5) 91sq - Quweisna, Ismaïla (Mi-17) 548 Air Wing 10sq – Kibrit (SA-342L HOT) 15sq – Kibrit (SA-342L HOT) 17sq – Kibrit (SA-342L HOT) Demo Team 'Horus' (SA342L HOT) 549 Air Wing 39sq - Wadi al Jandali (Ka-52) 40sq - Wadi al Jandali (Ka-52) 41sq - Wadi al Jandali (Ka-52) 43sq - Borg al Arab (Mi-24V) 550 Air Wing 51sq – Az Zaqaziq (AH-64D) 52sq – Az Zagaziq (AH-64D) 53sq – Az Zaqaziq (AH-64D) .. 601 Air Wing 87sq - Cairo West (E-2C) 700 Air Wing 6sq - Kom Awshim (EJune-30SW) 80sq - Kom Awshim (RPV-324 Scarab) 96sq - Beni Sueif (??) 702 Air Wing 20sq - Dakhla (Wing Loong) 22sq - Uthman (Wing Loong) 24sq - El Arish (Wing Loong) 770th Tactical Fighter Wing 94sq – Beni Sueif (K-8E) 98sq – El Minya (K-8E) 101 Air Brigade (Air Force Academy) 3sq – Bilbeis (Grob 115EG) 5sq – Bilbeis (Grob 115EG) 201 Air Brigade (Air Force Academy) 28sq – Bilbeis/Inshas (K-8E) 29sq – Bilbeis/Inshas (K-8E) Demo Team 'Silver Stars' (K-8E) 301 Air Wing (Air Force Academy) 30sq – Abu SUltan (SA-324L) 54sq – Bilbeis (SA-324L) 56sq – Abu Sultan (SA-342L) Advanced Helicopter School - Abu Sultan (SA-342L) Silver Stars Aerobatic Team Silver Stars is the Egyptian Air Force aerobatic display team flying 10 K-8E Karakorum jet trainer aircraft painted in white, red and black colors. All planes are equipped with red, white and black smoke generators. During the shows, the Silver Stars performs eight different formations along with several single aircraft passes. Aircraft #6325 (Star 1) carries the name "Sharaf" after the team leader. Another team's planes also carried the pilots names painted at the K-8 nose. All pilots are flying instructors at the Egyptian Air Academy based in Belbeis Airport. The Egyptian Air Force demonstration team "The Silver Stars" was formed in the mid of 1974 to participate at "October War" anniversary. Pilots of the team were flying instructors at the Air force College and flew four L-29 planes painted in dark green and brown and yellow – standard color scheme. In 1984, the Sliver Stars aerobatic team switched to six Alpha Jet training airplanes. In the following year, team's planes became nine. In 2003, the team made the switch to the K-8E Karakorum trainer and from 2005 was led by Group Captain Mostafa Fathi. Since 2010, the team is now flying ten aircraft – nine plus one solo. Aircraft The Camp David Accords caused a gradual change in the overall composition of the EAF. The EAF began to rely more on US, French and in some cases on Chinese aircraft. The addition of these aircraft from multiple sources along with the ones already in the EAF inventory caused increasing serviceability problems. In 1982, the EAF began receiving General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon fighters under the Peace Vector Program. Turkish Aerospace / TUSAS produced 46 F-16s for the Egyptian Air Force between 1993 and 1995 under the agreement signed between the Governments of Turkey and the Arab Republic of Egypt. As of 2015, the EAF received a total of 220 F-16s. 18 aircraft were lost in accidents and 7 F-16A/Bs were grounded. These grounded F-16A/Bs were later overhauled, upgraded and returned to active service, additional F-16s were acquired to replace those lost. In 1986, the EAF received the French Mirage 2000 fighters, one was lost in a training accident. Egypt also license-built Alphajets, Tucano airplanes and Westland Gazelle helicopters. In 1987 the E-2C Hawkeye Airborne Early Warning (AEW) entered service and was upgraded with advanced AN/APS-145 radars. The EAF also upgraded its F-16 fighters to C/D standard that enabled them to fire the AGM-84 Harpoon anti-ship missile. The EAF currently operates 46 AH-64 Apache attack helicopters 36 of which were initially delivered as the AH-64A variant but were later upgraded to AH-64D standard. On 22 May 2009, Egypt requested the purchase of 36 Apache Arrowhead sensor systems as part of an order for 12 Block II AH-64D Apache helicopters. The number was later reduced to 10 Helicopters. 74 Grob G-115's and 120 K-8 Karakorum trainers were also ordered. Modernization Egypt made several deals with Ukrainian companies for the modernization of its old MiG-21 fleet but these deals were not implemented, and all old MiG-21 fighters were taken out of service. On 3 March 2010, the EAF ordered 20 Lockheed Martin F-16C/D Block 52 aircraft. The contract was set to complete in 2013 and included 16 single-seat F-16C and four twin-seat F-16D aircraft. On 14 August 2012, the US Defense Department awarded a major contract to facilitate the procurement of F-16s by the EAF. The Pentagon selected American International Contractors for a $66.6 million contract to upgrade infrastructure for Egypt's order of 20 F-16 Block 52 aircraft, estimated at $2.2 billion. On 24 July 2013, the U.S. announced it would halt deliveries of the F-16s in response to the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état. In March 2015 the US announced the resumption of the deliveries of the F-16s, the last of which was delivered in October 2015. On 16 February 2015, Egypt became the Dassault Rafale's first international customer when it officially ordered 24 Rafales, as part of a larger deal (including a FREMM multipurpose frigate and a supply of missiles) worth US$5.9 billion (€5.2 billion). In July 2015, the official ceremony, marking the acceptance by Egypt of its first 3 Rafales, was held at the Dassault Aviation flight test center in Istres. In January 2016, Egypt received three more Rafale fighters, raising the number of Rafales in service to six. All six aircraft are two-seat models and were diverted from delivery to the French Air Force; Egypt's total 24-plane order is for 8 single-seat models and 16 two-seaters. In April 2014, it was reported that Egypt planned to order 24 MiG-35 fighters as part of an arms deal with Russia. MiG head Sergei Korotkov said at the 2015 Aero India exposition they will provide the fighters if Egypt orders them and are ready to negotiate. Russia agreed on a contract with Egypt for 46 MiG-29M/M2 fighters and it was expected to be worth up to US$2 billion. Russia planned to supply the Egyptian MiG-29M/M2s with 40 high precision targeting pods. Deliveries would have begun in 2016. Russia and Egypt signed a contract for delivery of 50 Ka-52 helicopters. The Ka-52's were equipped with the new OES-52 targeting system allowing it to launch Vikhr and Ataka anti-tank missiles using laser target direction systems. The execution of the contract started in 2016 and lasted until 2018. SAGEM and AOI-Aircraft Factory signed a collaboration agreement concerning the Patroller UAV. AOI-Aircraft Factory could handle final assembly of the drones and developed a dedicated training center in Egypt to train staff for the operation and maintenance of the drone systems. On 18 April 2016, Egypt signed a contract with France for the sale of a military telecommunications satellite after discussions between the Egyptian and French presidents and between the Ministers of Defense, which took place during a visit by French President Francois Hollande to Cairo. The satellite were supplied by Airbus Defence and Space and Thales Alenia Space. The price of the contract wasn't announced but was estimated at 600 million euros. In September 2016, Russian Helicopters delivered the first 3 refurbished Mi-8T helicopters to the Egyptian Air Force after a major overhaul. The company also announced that the necessary equipment for the retooling and upgrading of the Helwan Factory aircraft repair plant had been prepared for shipment and that the Egyptian service technicians had completed training. In August 2019, the Royal Jordanian Air Force transferred two of its Ilyushin Il-76MF aircraft to the Egyptian Air Force. The two aircraft are unique because they are the only stretched version of the famous Il-76 air-frame. On 4 May 2021, France agreed to sell Egypt an additional 30 Dassault Rafale warplanes in a 4 billion euro (US$4.8 billion) deal. On 15 March 2022, the United States agreed to sell Egypt variants of F-15Es to Replacing their Mikoyan MiG-29, the offer's amount of planes and price is to be determined. Current inventory Historical aircraft Future Egypt is in an advanced stage of negotiations for the purchase of the Russian strategic air lifter Il-76MD-90A. The first export contracts of the aircraft were to be signed within 4–6 months after the MAKS-2015 air show. In 2014, Egypt planned to sign a large arms deal with Russia for the purchase of 24 MiG-35 fighter jets. In February 2015, MiG Director General Sergei Korotkov announced that the company was ready to supply the MiG-35 jets to Egypt should the country request them. However, in April 2015, Egypt signed a $2 billion contract for the purchase of 46 MiG-29M/M2 multi-role fighters instead. Rosoboronexport and the Russian Helicopters holding are engaged in consultations with their Egyptian partners concerning a possible acquisition of Kamov Ka-52K ship-based helicopters for the 2 Mistral-class helicopter carriers that Egypt has agreed to buy from France. An Egyptian Air Force delegation had access to the helicopter before the official opening of the MAKS-2015. In March 2019, it was reported that Egypt had reached an initial agreement with Russia for the sale of "over 20" Su-35 air superiority fighters in a deal valued at about US$2 billion. Deliveries are expected to begin as early as 2020 or 2021. However, deputy head of the Rosoboronexport Sergei Kornev denied any contract regarding the supply of Su-35 fighters to Egypt has been signed. In May 2020 Russia reportedly started producing the Su-35 under a contract with Egypt that was signed in 2018. Pictures taken in July 2020 reportedly show five Su-35 in EAF camouflage on their delivery voyage. Possible future orders for more Su-35 and the new Mig-35. As of January 5, 2022, Egypt, Algeria, and Indonesia have cancelled plans of purchasing the SU-35 Jet. On March 15, 2022, The United States offered to sell Egypt F-15s, the offer's amount of planes and price is to be determined. Munitions Aircraft insignia The roundel of the EAF consists of three circles, with the outside one being red, the middle one white, and the inner one being black, matching the Egyptian flag. Former roundels of the EAF included a similar variant with two green stars used from 1961 to 1973, and one with the old Egyptian crescent and three stars on a green background. Changes in markings reflect political changes. Roundels Tail marking Egyptian Air Force ranks Officers Enlisted See also List of air forces National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences Atef Sadat Notes References Nicolle, David. "Arab-Italian Fighters: Fiats and Macchis in Egyptian and Syrian Service 1948-1956". Air Enthusiast, No. 55, Autumn 1994, pp. 32–36. . External links Egyptian Air Force Overview from Scramble Pictures of the Egyptian Air Force War of Attrition and the October 1973 War Al Quwwat al Jawwiya Ilmisriya Egyptian Air Force – EAF Boeing Chinook modernisation programme for Egyptian Air Force is on track Site of Egyptian Air Force Academy Military units and formations established in 1937 Military aviation in Africa 1937 establishments in Egypt hu:Egyiptom hadereje#Légierő
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Jordanian%20Air%20Force
Royal Jordanian Air Force
The Royal Jordanian Air Force (RJAF; ) is the aerial warfare branch of the Jordanian Armed Forces. History Early days Jordan gained independence in 1946, but its first air bases had been set up in 1931 by the Royal Air Force. By 1948, Jordan began to develop a small air arm which came to be known as the Arab Legion Air Force (ALAF). The Royal Air Force assisted in training this small air arm and provided equipment. The ALAF's primary fighter was the de Havilland Vampire and a Vickers VC.1 Viking was operated as a VIP aircraft for use by the King of Jordan. By 1955 King Hussein realized the need for Jordan to have a more modern air force, and on 25 September 1955 the RJAF was established. By 1958 the Royal Air Force had left Jordan and the RJAF had taken control of the airfields in the country. 1960s In 1967, in the Six-Day War, the Israeli Air Force relentlessly attacked Jordan's Air Force and air bases. Jordan lost its entire strength of 28 aircraft and their Air Force was reduced to zero. Israel was victorious in all engagements over Israeli territory. 1970s In the 1970s the RJAF was modernised. Lockheed F-104 Starfighters were acquired from the United States following heavy losses in the Six-Day War. However, the Starfighter proved superfluous and several were given to the Pakistan Air Force with the last unit withdrawn from service in 1977 leaving a fighter gap that would not be filled until the arrival of the Dassault Mirage F1 in 1981. The RJAF also acquired Northrop F-5 Tigers via Iran during the reign of the Shah who procured them from the United States. Cessna T-37 Tweets were also acquired for the training role. In 1975, the RJAF gave its fleet of 31 Hawker Hunters to the Sultan of Oman's Air Force, having failed in their efforts to sell them to Rhodesia or Honduras. The Hunters were delivered to SOAF Thumrait between May and June 1975. 1980s Following peace between Egypt and Israel in 1979, the RJAF began to modernize its fleet once again. The first part of this program was the procurement of the Dassault Mirage F1 which became the RJAF's frontline fighter supported by generous aid from wealthy oil-rich Arab states. The Mirage F1 was selected over the General Dynamics F-16/79 (an F-16A powered by the GE J79 turbojet series as opposed to the Pratt & Whitney F100, which had 25% more power in afterburn) while also acquiring the Northrop F-5 to complement the Mirage F1CJ/EJ in the process. In the 1980s, the RJAF supported Saddam Hussein and the Iraqi regime during the Iran-Iraq War, committing their aircraft for combat training alongside Iraqi aircraft squadrons with one joint aircraft squadron. It remains unknown whether RJAF pilots took part in combat with Iran, although this seems unlikely. During the 1991 Gulf War, Jordan declared political support for the Iraqi regime, but the RJAF was never committed to combat in that war. The RJAF provided instruction for Iraqi pilots who also operated the similar Mirage F1. Some six Lockheed C-130H Hercules entered RJAF service and remain critical in supporting Jordan's peacekeeping efforts. In 1987 the RJAF received CASA C-101s to replace the T-37 in the training role. 1991 Persian Gulf War and the 1990s Due to the economic ties between Jordan and Iraq, the fallout of Iraq meant that the RJAF was impacted upon but contrary to some reports, it did not lose its operational tempo and was not forced to cannibalize aircraft for shortages of spare parts. Despite this, the RJAF had to rationalise its existing resources due to a temporary downfall in spare parts and supplies. However, economic difficulties forced the RJAF to seek upgrades rather than the purchase of new equipment originally planned. Modernization schemes continued with seven F-5Es sold to Singapore and some funding used to upgrade most of the remaining others with the AN/APG-67 radar (found on the aborted Northrop F-20 Tigershark, once an aircraft under evaluation by the RJAF), modern fire control systems, and within visual range (WVR) AAMs, thus putting the F-5 on par with more modern aircraft in terms of electronics. Despite this, the F-5s lacked a BVR combat capability. Modern era Two light CASA C-295s were procured after the Gulf War and procurement is likely to continue of the type. The RJAF also received small numbers of the Antonov An-32 from Ukraine for STOL operations for Royal Special Forces, although the status of the Jordanian An-32s is uncertain. One Lockheed C-130 Hercules was received in March 1997. In 2006, two Ilyushin Il-76MF freighters were purchased from Russia. In 2011, RJAF announced the intention to turn 2 of the CASA/IPTN CN-235 transport aircraft into small aerial gunships. The Jordanian Special Operations Aviation Brigade has been using Sikorsky UH-60L Blackhawk and MD Helicopters MD-530F helicopters for special operations and border security. Two squadrons of ex-US Army AH-1F Cobra gunships were delivered in the late 1990s/early 2000s. Some have been sold to Pakistan and plans are in place to replace the AH-1Fs by the new AH-6I attack helicopters. After signing the MDAP, 18 surplus Bell UH-1H helicopters were delivered in 1994, followed by another 18 in 1996. Two C-130B Hercules transport aircraft and 16 UH-1H helicopters have been delivered to the Iraqi Air Force. Three C-130E will be received from the US in exchange. Currently two squadrons of UH-1Hs and one of AS332 Super Pumas support Army operations. Between November 2015 and 3 March 2016, 8 UH-60A Black Hawks were delivered to Jordan from the United States under a no-cost lease arrangement. The delivery of 8 newly built UH-60M Black Hawks was completed in 2017 as part of a United States grant totaling US$200 million, with Sikorsky being contracted to the U.S. Army to build them. Jordan assists the Air forces in the Middle East, training Bahraini pilots and assisting Iraq. There is also a close cooperation with the USAF. The current commander of the Royal Jordan Air Force is Brigade General Mohammad Hyasat. Operations in Syria 2014–2015 On the morning of 16 April 2014, Jordanian air force fighter jets destroyed an undetermined number of vehicles trying to enter into Jordan by crossing the border from war-torn Syria during the Syrian Civil War. On 23 September 2014, Jordanian air force aircraft joined in US-led air strikes against terrorist targets in Syria that later became known as Operation Inherent Resolve. On 24 December 2014, an RJAF F-16 crashed near Raqqa, Syria, and its pilot, Flight Lieutenant Moaz Youssef al-Kasasbeh, was captured by ISIS militants. On 30 December 2014, a member of the Jordanian parliament, Rula al-Hroob, told America's National Public Radio that the RJAF had suspended military operations over Syria in order to help secure al-Kasasbeh's release. An attempt by US special operations to rescue al-Kasasbeh from Raqqa on 1 January 2015 failed when their helicopters were driven off by heavy enemy fire. Following unsuccessful negotiations about a prisoner exchange, on 3 February 2015 it was reported that ISIS had murdered al-Kasasbeh by burning him alive, something that was done in early January but not revealed. On 5 February 2015, the RJAF resumed operations against ISIS targets. The whole daily target list was handed over to 20 Jordanian F-16s. In February 2015 the US resupplied Jordan with munitions to be used in airstrikes against ISIS, including JDAM precision bombs. In the summer of 2015 Israel transferred 16 Bell AH-1E/F Cobras (4–6 to be used as spares) to be used by RJAF in the "border patrol" role, this is counter-insurgency role and in operations against terrorist State forces. On 7 November 2015, The New York Times claimed that the RJAF had quietly suspended operations against targets in Syria, the last attack being in August, and instead diverted its aircraft to support Saudi-led operations against Houthi rebels in Yemen. This claim was contested by the Jordanian embassy in Washington, which told the paper that Jordan continued to conduct airstrikes on terrorist State targets. Mission Protect And Defend Sovereignty And The Integrity Of The Hashemite Kingdom Of Jordan. Precision Engagement The essence lies in the ability to apply selective force against specific targets because the nature and variety of future contingencies demand both precise and reliable use of military power with minimal risk and collateral damage. Information Superiority The ability of joint force commanders to keep pace with information and incorporate it into a campaign plan is crucial. Agile Combat Support Deployment and sustainment are keys to successful operations and cannot be separated. Agile combat support applies to all forces, from those permanently based to contingency buildups to expeditionary forces. Core Values The Air Force bases these core competencies and distinctive capabilities on a shared commitment to three values: Integrity first, Service before self, and Excellence in all we do. The Secondary Tasks To support Land Forces in any armed conflict with any external power. To support security forces in their tasks of maintaining internal security, anti smuggling operations and border security operations. Additional Tasks Air lift operations. Search and rescue. Medical evacuation. Relief operations. Evacuation of citizens from areas of conflict. Despite the limited funds and resources, Jordan has become actively involved in peace keeping operations, In 1994 the Jordanian Air Force participated in the airlifting operations to support the Jordanian troops serving with the United Nations in maintaining and preserving peace and resolving local disputes. RJAF achieved more than 200 flying hours in support of the Jordanian Armed Forces participating in peace keeping operations in Four ( 4 ) Continents. Organization The Royal Jordanian Air Force has a strength of 14,000 active personnel. It contains six major airbases in addition to nineteen air squadrons, fourteen I-Hawk Batteries, and two training schools (a fighter aviation training school and a school of air combat). The Royal Jordanian Air Force Headquarters is at King Abdullah I Airbase in Amman. Squadrons No. 1 Squadron RJAF – the Squadron was formed in 1958 with the Hawker Hunter and later equipped with F5s, the Mirage F1, and now the General Dynamics/Lockheed F-16. It has been based in Amman, Mafraq and now Azraq, with short periods at H5, and Habbaniya (Iraq). No. 2 Squadron RJAF – was first formed in 1958 with de Havilland Vampires then with Hunters and later in 1974 with F5As and Bs as an advanced training squadron at King Hussein Air Base, Mafraq. It subsequently flew from Amman and Mafraq as a fighter squadron, then flew again from Mafraq, renamed in 1978 as the King Hussein Air College, with the CASA C-101 as the advanced jet trainer. It is now at MSAB equipped with the F-16. No. 3 Squadron RJAF – was formed in 1959 and was a mixture of fixed-wing and helicopter until February 1973 when a helicopter squadron was formed. Its aircraft have included the de Havilland Dove; Heron; Ambassador; C47; C119; Brittan Norman Islander; CASA 212 and 235, with a helicopter flight of Westland Whirlwind; Widgeon; Scout and Alouette III. The Squadron belongs to the Air Lift Wing and is based at KAAB, Amman (Amman Civil Airport). It is now equipped with the Lockheed C-130 Hercules and CASA 295. Royal Jordanian Air Defence Royal Jordanian air defense is part of the Royal Jordanian Air Force is equipped with Surface-to-Air missiles and Anti-Aircraft guns and Radar stations, as well as modern Electronic Warfare center and electronic countermeasure which is linked to command and control (C2) centers. Jordan provided with an integrated, real-time air picture across multiple command centers and many remote sites to better protect the country's airspace. The system, known as Omnyx™, will combine sensor, voice and data communications to provide interoperability throughout the Royal Jordanian Air Force and other elements of Jordan's armed forces. With input from radars and other data links, the system will assist in detecting incoming air traffic and also provide the capabilities needed for airspace management, air sovereignty and air defense missions. RJAF C2 and EW Capability Omnyx™ System enabling Jordanian Air Force to track and identify aircraft, evaluate any threats, initiate or monitor airborne engagements and enhance situational awareness of Jordanian airspace at all times. Jordan have a C4ISR subsystem capable of serving multiple internal services and agencies within Jordan and An Air Defense subsystem capable of early warning of air attack and real-time Command and Control (C2) of national air defense forces. RADIANT C4I National EW network, connecting regional control centers, ground radars and AD assets. Jordan has the ability to detect cruise missiles, aircraft and unmanned drones at long distances through the project linking five U.S. 3D radars (1 FPS-117, 4 TPS-77), QAIA Radar and Gap-filler radars with ADSI (Air Defence System Integrator), Airbases and all Fire Units to build air defence umbrella (IADS). Air Surveillance Radars 1 AN/FPS-117 3D Radar 4 AN/TPS-77 3D Radar 5 AN/TPS-63 Tactical 2D Radar 5 Marconi S711 Radar (Upgraded by AMS UK in 2005) Gap-filler & Border Surveillance radars Medium & Long Range Air Defence 24 MIM-23B Phase III I-Hawk (upgraded in 2016) In the period from 2004 to 2012 the components of 8 Hawk Phase III batteries were acquired gradually and some old Hawk batteries were modernized to Phase III, Jordan received more than 400 MEI-23E missiles in 2014 and 2016. Equipment Aircraft Retired aircraft Previous notable aircraft operated by Jordan consisted of the de Havilland Dove, F-104 Starfighter, Dassault Mirage F1, Cessna T-37, Boeing 727, Gulfstream III, An-12 Cub, Bulldog 125, CASA C-235, Piper PA-44, Alouette III, Aérospatiale Gazelle and the Sikorsky S-76 Future developments The Royal Jordanian Air Force has received new aircraft, and other types of use have been withdrawn and put up for sale. On 24 July 2019, The Royal Jordanian Air Force Commander, Major General Yousef Huneiti, was appointed to a senior position as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the Jordanian Armed Forces. The current Commander of the Royal Jordanian Air Force is brigadier general. Pilot Zaid Al-Najrish, who aims to continue in the footsteps of his predecessor in terms of more professionalism in the Royal Jordanian Air Force. On the 3rd of March 2020, It was announced that instead of upgrading, Royal Jordanian Air Force is now looking to buy the latest F-16 Block 70/72 model to replace its current fleet of older F-16s. As early as September 2017, the Royal Jordanian Air Force was working with the U.S. Air Force Air Force Life Cycle Management Center (AFLCMC), based at Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, to begin the Viper Block-70 operational upgrade program. This study is still under way, but it is unclear whether, and when, it will apply where necessary congressional approvals are needed to sell these possibilities to Jordan. It was announced on the 28th of July 2021, that F-16 MLU fighter levels 5 and 6.5, which is approximately equivalent to F-16C/D Block 50/52 and F-16C/D Block 50/52 + the except of the radar armed with GBU, JDAM bombs, AAM and ASM missiles, and targeting and reconnaissance pods, a video was released by the Ministry of Defense showing Jordanian pilots training in the newly upgraded F-16s. With addition to the latest upgrade of F-16 fighters to MLU level, it was announced on 14 November 2021, that the latest F-16 MLU 6.5 were upgraded with fighter aircraft painted with radar-absorbent paint GLASS V PAINT. On the 3rd of February 2022, The State Department has made a determination approving a possible Foreign Military Sale to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan of F-16 C/D Block 70 aircraft and related equipment for an estimated cost of $4.21 billion. The Defense Security Cooperation Agency delivered the required certification notifying Congress of this possible sale that day. It is believed that Jordan aims to acquire 12 C models, and four D models, as well as 21 F100 engines (providing five spare engines) and associated weapon and system packages. Personnel Commanders The Royal Jordanian Air Force is headed by the Commander. The chiefs of the RJAF are as follows: 1956–1962 Major (Colonel) Ibrahim Osman 1962 Major Jereis Musharbash 1962 Major Sahal Hamzeh 1962–1970 Major (Major-General) Saleh El Kurdi 1971–1973 Brigadier Walid Sharafuddin 1973–1976 Brigadier Abboud Salem Hassan 1976–1980 Major (Major-General) Saleh El Kurdi 1980–1982 Brigadier (Major-General) Tayseer Zarour 1983–1993 Brigadier (Lieutenant-General) Ihsan Shurdom 1993–1994 Brigadier (Major-General) Awni Bilal 1994–1995 Brigadier (Major-General) Mohammed El Qudah 1995–1999 Brigadier (Major-General) Mohammed Khair Ababneh 1999–2002 Brigadier (Major-General) So'oud Nuseirat 2002–2004 Brigadier (Major-General) His Royal Highness Prince Faisal bin Hussein 2004–2006 Brigadier (Major-General) Hussein Al Biss 2006–2010 Brigadier (Major-General) Hussein Shodash 2010–2013 Brigadier (Major-General) Malek Al-Habashneh 2013–2016 Brigadier (Major-General) Mansour Al-Jbour 2016–2019 Brigadier (Major-General) Yousef Huneiti 2019–2021 Brigadier (Major-General) Zaid Naqrash 2021–Present Brigadier (Major-General) Mohammad Hyasat Notable persons Amer Khammash, the first recognized Jordanian pilot and received his pilot training in Middle Wallop in the United Kingdom in 1949, and received his wings in 1950 from the Late Founder of Jordan, King Abdullah I bin Al-Hussein. Muath al-Kasasbeh, Royal Jordanian Air Force pilot captured, held hostage, and burned alive by the Terrorist group ISIL in 2015. See also List of air forces List of Lockheed F-104 Starfighter operators References Griffin, David J., 60 Years of the Hawker Hunter, 1951 to 2011 External links Official Site of the Royal Jordanian Air Force Royal Jordanian Airforce courtesy of Scramble.nl Royal Jordanian Air Force F-16s Jordanian Air Force Air Force Air Air Force