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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20Rupert%2C%20British%20Columbia
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Prince Rupert, British Columbia
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Prince Rupert is a port city in the province of British Columbia, Canada. Its location is on Kaien Island near the Alaskan panhandle. It is the land, air, and water transportation hub of British Columbia's North Coast, and has a population of 12,220 people as of 2016.
History
Coast Tsimshian occupation of the Prince Rupert Harbour area spans at least 5,000 years. About 1500 B.C. there was a significant population increase, associated with larger villages and house construction. The early 1830s saw a loss of Coast Tsimshian influence in the Prince Rupert Harbour area.
Founding
Prince Rupert replaced Port Simpson as the choice for the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway (GTP) western terminus. It also replaced Port Essington, away on the southern bank of the Skeena River, as the business centre for the North Coast.
The GTP purchased the First Nations reserve, and received a grant from the BC government. A post office was established on November 23, 1906. Surveys and clearing, that commenced in that year, preceded the laying out of the town site. A $200,000 provincial grant financed plank sidewalks, roads, sewers and water mains. Kaien Island, which comprised damp muskeg overlaying a solid rock foothill, proved expensive both for developing the land for railway and town use.
By 1909, the town possessed 4 grocery, 2 hardware, 2 men's clothing, a furniture, and several fruit and cigar stores, a wholesale drygoods outlet, a wholesale/retail butcher, 2 banks, the GTP hotel and annex, and numerous lodging houses and restaurants. The first lot sales that year created a bidding war.
Prince Rupert was incorporated on March 10, 1910. Although he never visited Canada, it was named after Prince Rupert of the Rhine, the first Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, as the result of a nation-wide competition held by the Grand Trunk Railway, the prize for which was $250.
With the collapse of the real estate boom in 1912, and World War I, much of the company's land remained unsold. Charles Melville Hays, president of the GTP, whose business plan made little sense, was primarily responsible for the bankruptcy of the company, and the establishment of a town that would take decades to achieve even a small fraction of the promises touted. Mount Hays, the larger of two mountains on Kaien Island, is named in his honour, as is a local high school, Charles Hays Secondary School. The Prince Rupert station, a listed historic place, replaced a temporary building in 1922.
20th and 21st centuries
Local politicians used the promise of a highway connected to the mainland as an incentive, and the city grew over the next several decades. US troops finally completed the road between Prince Rupert and Terrace during World War II to help move thousands of allied troops to the Aleutian Islands and the Pacific. Several forts were built to protect the city at Barrett Point and Fredrick Point. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Mount Hays, the largest mountain to the southeast of the city, was planned to be levelled off by the Canadian government to allow for a potential airstrip due to its tactical location and advantage.
After World War II, the fishing industry, particularly for salmon and halibut, and forestry became the city's major industries. Prince Rupert was considered the halibut capital of the world from the opening of the Canadian Fish & Cold Storage plant in 1912 until the early 1980s. A long-standing dispute over fishing rights in the Dixon Entrance to the Hecate Strait between American and Canadian fisherman led to the formation of the 54-40 or Fight Society. The United States Coast Guard maintains a base in nearby Ketchikan, Alaska.
In 1946, the Government of Canada, through an order in council, granted the Department of National Defence the power to administer and maintain facilities to collect data for communications research. The Royal Canadian Navy was allotted forty positions, seven of which were in Prince Rupert. In either 1948 or 1949, Prince Rupert ceased operations, and the positions were relocated to RCAF Station Whitehorse, Yukon. The 1949 Queen Charlotte earthquake, with a surface wave magnitude of 8.1 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (severe), broke windows and swayed buildings on August 22.
In summer 1958, Prince Rupert endured a riot over racial discrimination. Ongoing discontent with heavy-handed police practices towards Aboriginals escalated to rioting during BC centennial celebrations following the arrest of an Aboriginal couple. As many as 1,000 people (one-tenth of the city's population at the time) began smashing windows and skirmishing with police. The Riot Act was read for only the second time since Confederation.
Over the years, hundreds of students were said to have largely paid their way through school by working in the lucrative fishing industry. Construction of a pulp mill began in 1947 and it was operating by 1951. In 1958, Indo-Canadian industrialist Sohen Singh Gill established Prince Rupert Sawmills at the location of the old dry dock on Prince Rupert's waterfront. In the 1960s, the majority of the town's workforce was employed either in the fishery or at Gill's sawmill. The construction of coal and grain shipping terminals followed. From the 1960s into the 1980s, the city constructed many improvements, including a civic centre, swimming pool, public library, golf course and performing arts centre (recently renamed "The Lester Centre of the Arts"). These developments marked the town's changes from a fishing and mill town into a small city.
In the 1990s, both the fishing and forestry industries suffered a significant downturn. In July 1997, Canadian fishermen blockaded the Alaska Marine Highway ferry M/V Malaspina, keeping it in the port as a protest in the salmon fishing rights dispute between Alaska and British Columbia. The forest industry declined when a softwood lumber dispute arose between Canada and the USA. After the pulp mill closed, many people were unemployed, and much modern machinery was left unused. After reaching a peak of about 18,000 in the early 1990s, Prince Rupert's population began to decline, as people left in search of work.
The years from 1996 to 2004 were difficult for Prince Rupert, with closure of the pulp mill, the burning down of a fish plant and a significant population decline. 2005 may be viewed as a critical turning point: the announcement of the construction of a container port in April 2005, combined with new ownership of the pulp mill, the opening in 2004 of a new cruise ship dock, the resurgence of coal and grain shipping, and the prospects of increased heavy industry and tourism may foretell a bright future for the area. The port is becoming an important trans-Pacific hub.
Geography
Prince Rupert is on Kaien Island (approximately northwest of Vancouver), just north of the mouth of Skeena River, and linked by a short bridge to the mainland. The city is along the island's northwestern shore, fronting on Prince Rupert Harbour. It lies at similar latitudes to Cumbria and the city of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne in the northeast of England.
At the secondary western terminus of Trans-Canada Highway 16 (the Yellowhead Highway), Prince Rupert is approximately 16 km west of Port Edward, 144 km west of Terrace, and 715 km west of Prince George.
Climate
Prince Rupert has an oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) and is also in a temperate rainforest. Prince Rupert is known as "The City of Rainbows", as it is Canada's wettest city, with of annual precipitation on average, of which is rain; in addition, 240 days per year receive at least some measurable precipitation, and there are only 1230 hours of sunshine per year, so it is regarded as the municipality in Canada which receives the lowest amount of sunshine annually. Tourist brochures boast about Prince Rupert's "100 days of sunshine". However, Stewart, British Columbia receives even less sunshine, at 985 sunshine hours per year.
Out of Canada's 100 largest cities, Prince Rupert has the coolest summer, with an average high of . Winters in Prince Rupert are mild by Canadian standards, with the average afternoon temperature in December, January and February being which is the tenth warmest in Canada, surpassed only by other British Columbia cities.
Summers are mild and comparatively less rainy, with an August daily mean of . Spring and autumn are not particularly well-defined; rainfall nevertheless peaks in the autumn months. Winters are chilly and damp, but warmer than most locations at a similar latitude, due to Pacific moderation: the January daily mean is , although frosts and blasts of cold Arctic air from the northeast are not uncommon.
Snow amounts are moderate for Canadian standards, averaging and occurring mostly from December to March. Snowfall in Prince Rupert is rare and the snow normally melts within a few days, although individual snowstorms may bring copious amounts of snow. Wind speeds are relatively strong, with prevailing winds blowing from the southeast.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Prince Rupert was on 6 June 1958. The lowest temperature ever recorded was on 4 January 1965.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Prince Rupert had a population of 12,300 living in 5,072 of its 5,747 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of 12,220. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
Population by age group (2001 Canadian census and BC Stats Population Estimates, 2004):
Under 18 years = 4,320 (28.2%)
18 – 34 years = 3,370 (22.0%)
35 – 54 years = 5,020 (32.8%)
55 – 74 years = 2,075 (13.6%)
75 years and over = 515 (3.4%)
Total = 15,300 (100.0%)
Median age = 34.8
Ethnicity
As of the 2001 Canadian census, among Canadian municipalities with a population of 5,000 or more, Prince Rupert had the highest percentage of First Nations population.
Religion
According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Prince Rupert included:
Irreligion (6,825 persons or 56.0%)
Christianity (4,335 persons or 35.6%)
Sikhism (415 persons or 3.4%)
Buddhism (190 persons or 1.6%)
Hinduism (165 persons or 1.4%)
Islam (95 persons or 0.8%)
Indigenous Spirituality (30 persons or 0.2%)
Judaism (15 persons or 0.1%)
Government
Prince Rupert is part of the Skeena—Bulkley Valley federal riding (electoral district). Taylor Bachrach is the Member of Parliament for the riding, and is a member of the New Democratic Party.
In the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia, Prince Rupert is a large portion of the North Coast riding. Jennifer Rice is the Member of the Legislative Assembly. She is a member of the New Democratic Party of British Columbia. The NDP traditionally has strong support in the region.
Education
Prince Rupert is in BC School District 52 along with Port Edward. A Coast Mountain College campus is located at 353 5th Ave that also serves as a campus for the University of Northern British Columbia.
Notable residents
Thomas Dufferin "Duff" Pattullo, politician: mayor of Prince Rupert, and Premier of British Columbia (1933 to 1941); member of the Liberal Party.
Alexander Malcolm Manson, the first lawyer in Prince Rupert, was elected in 1916 to the BC Legislature in the riding of Omineca, Speaker of the House in 1921, appointed as both Attorney-General and Minister of Labour in 1922; later appointed to the BC Supreme Court.
Iona Campagnolo, politician: Prince Rupert City Council, Liberal Party candidate elected in the federal riding of Skeena; in 1976 she was appointed Minister of Amateur Sports. President of the Liberal Party of Canada in 1982, and served as British Columbia's Lieutenant-Governor from 2001 to 2007.
Dan Miller, politician: elected to the Prince Rupert Electoral District, and from August 1999 through February 2000 was Premier.
Frederick Peters, former Premier of Prince Edward Island and legal partner of Sir Charles Hibbert Tupper, served as City Solicitor from 1911 to 1919.
Rod Brind'Amour, former captain of the NHL's Carolina Hurricanes
Lisa Walters, LPGA golf champion
Paul Wong, Canadian Video Artist, now based in Vancouver, British Columbia
Sid Dickens, an artist, now based in Vancouver, British Columbia
Gloria Macarenko, Canadian Journalist, co-anchor CBC Vancouver, born and raised in Prince Rupert
Takao Tanabe, CM, OBC is a painter
Bernice Liu, is an actress and singer
John S. MacDonald, University Professor, founding principal of MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates Ltd
Don Yeomans, Haida artist
Industry
Prince Rupert relies on the fishing industry, port, and tourism.
Transport
Seaport
A belief at the beginning of the 1900s that trade expansion was shifting from Atlantic to Pacific destinations, and the benefit of being closer to Asia than existing west coast ports, proved wishful. Reduced transit times to eastern North America and Europe did not outweigh the fact that rail transport has always been far more expensive than by sea. The opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 exacerbated the problem.
During 1906–08, the federal government undertook a hydrographic survey of the Prince Rupert harbour and approaches, finding it free of rocks or obstructions, and sufficient depth for good anchorage. Furthermore, it offered an easy entrance, fine shelter, and ample space. By 1909, a 1,500-foot wharf had been constructed.
The port possesses the deepest ice-free natural harbour in North America, and the 3rd deepest natural harbour in the world. Situated at 54° North, the harbour is the northwesternmost port in North America linked to the continent's railway network. The port is the first inbound and last outbound port of call for some cargo ships travelling between eastern Asia and western North America since it is the closest North American port to key Asian destinations. The CN Aquatrain barge carries rail cargo between Prince Rupert and Whittier, Alaska.
Passenger ferries operating from Prince Rupert include BC Ferries' service to the Haida Gwaii and to Port Hardy on Vancouver Island, and Alaska Marine Highway ferries to Ketchikan, Juneau and Sitka and many other ports along Alaska's Inside Passage. The Prince Rupert Ferry Terminal is co-located with the Prince Rupert railway station, from which Via Rail offers a thrice-weekly Jasper – Prince Rupert train, connecting to Prince George and Jasper, and through a connection with The Canadian, to the rest of the continental passenger rail network.
The Prince Rupert Port Authority is responsible for the port's operation.
Much of the harbour is formed by the shelter provided by Digby Island, which lies windward of the city and contains the Prince Rupert Airport. The city is on Kaien Island and the harbour also includes Tuck Inlet, Morse Basin, Wainwright Basin, and Porpoise Harbour, as well as part of the waters of Chatham Sound which takes in Ridley Island.
Port facilities
Prince Rupert is ideally located for a port, having the deepest natural harbour depths on the continent. The city's port capacity is comparable with the Port of Vancouver's. Unlike most west coast ports, there is little traffic congestion at Prince Rupert. Finally, the extremely mountainous nature and narrow channels of the surrounding area leaves Prince Rupert as the only suitable port location in the inland passage region.
The Prince Rupert Port Authority (PRPA) is a federally appointed agency which administers and operates various port properties on the harbour. Previously run by the National Harbours Board and subsequently the Prince Rupert Port Corporation, the PRPA is now a locally run organization.
PRPA port facilities include:
Atlin Terminal
Northlands Terminal
Lightening Dock
Ocean Dock
Westview Dock
Fairview Terminal
Prince Rupert Grain
Trigon Pacific Terminals (formerly Ridley Terminals)>
Sulphur Corporation
All PRPA facilities are serviced by CN Rail.
The Canadian Coast Guard maintains CCG Base Seal Cove on Prince Rupert Harbour where vessels are homeported for search and rescue and maintenance of aids to navigation throughout the north coast. CCG also bases helicopters at Prince Rupert for servicing remote locations with aids to navigation, as well as operating a Marine Communications Centre, covering a large Vessel Traffic Services zone from Port Hardy at the northern tip of Vancouver Island to the International Boundary north of Prince Rupert.
Both BC Ferries and the Alaska Marine Highway operate ferries which call at Prince Rupert, with destinations in the Alaska Panhandle, the Haida Gwaii, and isolated communities along the central coast to the south.
Airport
Prince Rupert Airport (YPR/CYPR) is on Digby Island. Its position is , and its elevation is ) above sea level. The airport consists of one runway, one passenger terminal, and two aircraft stands. Access to the airport is typically achieved by a bus connection that departs from downtown Prince Rupert (Highliner Hotel) and travels to Digby Island by ferry. The airport is served by Air Canada from Vancouver International Airport (YVR).
Prince Rupert is also served by the Prince Rupert/Seal Cove Water Aerodrome, a seaplane facility with regularly scheduled, as well as chartered, flights to nearby villages and remote locations.
Railway
CN Rail has a mainline that runs to Prince Rupert from Valemount, British Columbia. At Valemount, the Prince Rupert mainline joins the CN mainline from Vancouver. Freight traffic on the Prince Rupert mainline consists primarily of grain, coal, wood products, chemicals, and as of 2007, containers. As the renovations at the Port of Prince Rupert continue, traffic on CN will steadily rise in future years.
In addition, a three times weekly Jasper – Prince Rupert train operated by Via Rail connects Prince Rupert with Prince George and Jasper. Running during daylight hours to allow passengers to be able to see the scenery along the entire route; the service takes two days and requires an overnight hotel stay in Prince George. The route ends in Jasper and connects passengers with Via's The Canadian, which runs between Toronto and Vancouver.
Communications
Telephone, mobile, and Internet service are provided by CityWest (formerly CityTel). CityWest is owned by the City of Prince Rupert. CityWest provides long-distance telephone service, as does Telus.
In September 2005, the city changed CityTel from a city department into an independent corporation named CityWest. The new corporation immediately purchased the local cable company, Monarch Cablesystems, expanding CityWest's customer base to other northwest British Columbia communities.
Since January 2008, Rogers Communications has offered GSM and EDGE service in the area—the first real competition to CityWest's virtual monopoly. Rogers offers local numbers based in Port Edward (prefix 600), which is in the local calling zone for the Prince Rupert area. The introduction of Rogers service forced Citywest to form a partnership with Bell Canada to bring digital services to Citywest Mobility, using CDMA.
In December 2013, CityWest and TELUS announced it was transitioning out of the cellular business over 2014 and would partner with TELUS to bring CityWest wireless customers onto TELUS' 4G wireless network.
Media
Radio
AM 860 – CFPR, CBC Radio One
FM 98.1 – VF2119, classic rock (repeats CFNR-FM, Terrace)
FM 99.1 – CHTK-FM, EZ Rock 99.1
FM 100.7 – CIAJ-FM, Christian programming
FM 101.9 – CJFW-FM-2, country music (repeats CJFW-FM, Terrace)
Television
Channel 6 – CFTK-TV-1, CTV 2 (repeats CFTK-TV, Terrace)
Newspapers
Prince Rupert Daily News, daily newspaper, (1911–2010)
The Northern View, local weekly newspaper, 2006–present, owned by Black Press
The Northern Connector, regional weekly newspaper covering Prince Rupert, Kitimat and Terrace areas, 2006–present, owned by Black Press
Tourist attractions
Prince Rupert is a central point on the Inside Passage, a route of relatively sheltered waters running along the Pacific coast from Vancouver, British Columbia to Skagway, Alaska. Due to the Passenger Vessel Services Act of 1886, many cruise ships visit during the summer en route between Alaska to the north and Seattle and the Lower 48 to the south.
Prince Rupert is also the starting point for many wildlife viewing trips, including whales, eagles, salmon and grizzly bears. The Khutzeymateen Grizzly Bear sanctuary features one of the densest remaining populations in North America; tours can be arranged by water, air (using float planes) or land departing from Prince Rupert.
Neighbouring communities
By virtue of location, Prince Rupert is the gateway to many destinations:
Dodge Cove (, west)
Metlakatla (, west)
Port Edward (, south)
Lax Kw'alaams (Port Simpson) (, northwest)
Oona River (, southwest)
Kitkatla (, south)
Kisumkalum (, east)
Kitselas (, east)
Terrace (, east)
Hartley Bay (, southeast)
The Haida Gwaii are to the west of Prince Rupert, across the Hecate Strait. Alaska is north of Prince Rupert.
In popular culture
The book Unmarked: Landscapes Along Highway 16, written by Sarah de Leeuw, includes an essay about Prince Rupert entitled "Highway of Monsters".
Ra McGuire of the band Trooper wrote the song "Santa Maria" on a boat in Prince Rupert's Harbour.
Amuro Ray, the protagonist of the anime series Mobile Suit Gundam, was born and raised in Prince Rupert.
See also
Royal eponyms in Canada
School District 52 Prince Rupert
Notes
References
External links
Cities in British Columbia
North Coast of British Columbia
Populated places on the British Columbia Coast
Port cities and towns on the Canadian Pacific coast
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385653
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali%20Khamenei
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Ali Khamenei
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Seyyed Ali Hosseini Khamenei (, ; born 19 April 1939), mostly known as Ali Khamenei (), is a Twelver Shia marja' and the second and current supreme leader of Iran, in office since 1989. Previously, he served as the third president of Iran from 1981 to 1989. Khamenei is the longest serving head of state in the Middle East, as well as the second-longest serving Iranian leader of the last century, after Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.
According to his official website, Khamenei was arrested six times before being sent into exile for three years during Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's reign. After the Iranian revolution overthrowing the shah, he was the target of an attempted assassination in June 1981 that paralyzed his right arm. Khamenei was one of Iran's leaders during the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s, and developed close ties with the now powerful Revolutionary Guards which he controls, and whose commanders are elected and dismissed by him. The Revolutionary Guards have been deployed to suppress opposition to him. Khamenei served as the third president of Iran from 1981 to 1989, while becoming a close ally of the first supreme leader, Ruhollah Khomeini. Shortly before his death, Khomeini had a disagreement with the heir he had chosen – Hussein Ali Montazeri – so there was no agreed-on successor when Khomeini died. The Assembly of Experts elected Khamenei as the next supreme leader on 4 June 1989, at age 50. According to Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, Khamenei was the man Khomeini had chosen as his successor before dying. Khamenei has been head of the servants of Astan Quds Razavi since 14 April 1979.
As supreme leader, Khamenei is the most powerful political authority in the Islamic Republic. He is the head of state of Iran, the commander-in-chief of its armed forces, and can issue decrees and make the final decisions on the main policies of the government in many fields such as economy, the environment, foreign policy, and national planning in Iran. As supreme leader, Khamenei has either direct or indirect control over the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government, as well as the military and media, according to Karim Sadjadpour. All candidates for the Assembly of Experts, the presidency and the Majlis (Parliament) are vetted by the Guardian Council, whose members are selected directly or indirectly by the Supreme Leader of Iran. There have also been instances when the Guardian Council reversed its ban on particular people after being ordered to do so by Khamenei.
There have been major protests during Khamenei's reign, including the 1994 Qazvin protests, the 1999 student protests, the 2009 presidential election protests, the 2011–12 protests, the 2017–18 protests, the 2018–19 general strikes and protests, the 2019–20 protests, the 2021–22 protests, and the ongoing Mahsa Amini protests. Journalists, bloggers and others have been imprisoned in Iran for insulting Supreme Leader Khamenei, often in conjunction with blasphemy charges. Their sentences have included lashing and jail time; some have died in custody. Regarding the nuclear program of Iran, Khamenei issued a fatwa in 2003 forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of all kinds of weapons of mass destruction.
Early life and education
Born to Seyyed Javad Khamenei, an Alim and Mujtahid born in Najaf, and Khadijeh Mirdamadi (daughter of Hashem Mirdamadi) in Mashhad, Khamenei is the second of eight children. Two of his brothers are also clerics; his younger brother, Hadi Khamenei, is a newspaper editor and cleric. His elder sister Fatemeh Hosseini Khamenei died in 2015, aged 89. His father was an ethnic Azerbaijani from Khamaneh, while his mother was an ethnic Persian from Yazd. Some of his ancestors are from Tafresh in today's Markazi Province and migrated from their original home in Tafresh to Khamaneh near Tabriz. Khamenei's great ancestor was Sayyid Hossein Tafreshi, a descendant of the Aftasi Sayyids, whose lineage supposedly reached to Sultan ul-Ulama Ahmad, known as Sultan Sayyid, a grandchild of Shia fourth Imam, Ali ibn Husayn.
Education
Khamenei's education began at the age of four, by learning Quran at Maktab; he spent his basic and advanced levels of seminary studies at the hawza of Mashhad, under mentors such as Sheikh Hashem Qazvini and Ayatollah Milani. Then, he went to Najaf in 1957, but soon returned to Mashhad due to his father's unwillingness to let him stay there. In 1958, he settled in Qom where he attended the classes of Seyyed Hossein Borujerdi and Ruhollah Khomeini. Like many other politically active clerics at the time, Khamenei was far more involved with politics than religious scholarship.
Political life and presidency
Khamenei was a key figure in the Iranian Revolution in Iran and a close confidant of Ruhollah Khomeini.
Since the founding of the Islamic Republic, Khamenei has held many government posts.
Muhammad Sahimi claims that his political career began after the Iranian Revolution, when the former President of Iran, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, then a confidant of Khomeini, brought Khamenei into Khomeini's inner circle. Later on, Hassan Rouhani, then a member of Parliament, arranged for Khamenei to get his first major post in the provisional revolutionary government as deputy defense minister.
Khomeini appointed Khamenei to the post of Tehran's Friday prayers Imam in 1980, after the resignation of Hussein-Ali Montazeri from the post. He served briefly as the vice Minister of National Defence from late July to 6 November 1979 and as a supervisor of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards. He also went to the battlefield as a representative of the parliament's defense commission.
Assassination attempt
Khamenei narrowly escaped an assassination attempt by the Mujahedin-e Khalq when a bomb, concealed in a tape recorder, exploded beside him.
On 27 June 1981, while Khamenei had returned from the frontline, he went to the Aboozar Mosque according to his Saturday's schedule. After the first prayer, he lectured to worshipers who had written their questions on paper. Meanwhile, a young man who pressed a button put a tape recorder accompanied by papers on the desk in front of Khamenei. After a minute the recorder began whistling, then suddenly exploded. "A gift of Furqan Group to the Islamic Republic" was written on the inner wall of the tape recorder. Ayatollah Khamenei's treatment took several months and his arm, vocal cords and lungs were seriously injured. He was permanently injured, losing the use of his right arm.
As president
In 1981, after the assassination of Mohammad-Ali Rajai, Khamenei was elected President of Iran by a landslide vote (97%) in the October 1981 Iranian presidential election in which only four candidates were approved by the Council of Guardians. Khamenei became the first cleric to serve in the office. Ruhollah Khomeini had originally wanted to keep clerics out of the presidency but later changed his views. Khamenei was reelected in 1985 Iranian presidential election where only three candidates were approved by the Council of Guardians, receiving 87% of the votes. The only Iranian presidential election with fewer candidates approved by the Council of Guardians was the 1989 Iranian presidential election, where only two candidates were approved by the Council of Guardians to run, and Rafsanjani easily won 96% of the votes.
In his presidential inaugural address, Khamenei vowed to eliminate "deviation, liberalism, and American-influenced leftists". According to the Iran Chamber, vigorous opposition to the government, including nonviolent and violent protest, assassinations, guerrilla activity and insurrections, was answered by state repression and terror in the early 1980s, both before and during Khamenei's presidency. Thousands of rank-and-file members of insurgent groups were killed, often by revolutionary courts. By 1982, the government announced that the courts would be reined in, although various political groups continued to be repressed by the government in the first half of the 1980s.
During Iran–Iraq war
Khamenei was one of Iran's leaders during the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s and developed close ties with the now-powerful Revolutionary Guards. As president, he had a reputation for being deeply interested in the military, budget and administrative details.
After the war
In its 10 April 1997 ruling regarding the Mykonos restaurant assassinations, the German court issued an international arrest warrant for Iranian intelligence minister Ali Fallahian after declaring that the assassination had been ordered by him with knowledge of Khamenei and Rafsanjani. Iranian officials, however, have categorically denied their involvement. The then-Iranian Parliament speaker Ali Akbar Nategh-Nouri dismissed the ruling as political, untrue and unsubstantiated. The ruling led to a diplomatic crisis between the governments of Iran and several European countries, which lasted until November 1997. The accused assassins, Darabi and Rhayel, were finally released from prison on 10 December 2007 and deported back to their home countries.
Supreme Leader
Khamenei has fired and reinstated presidential cabinet appointments. Iran's Chief Justice Sadeq Larijani, a Khamenei appointee, has warned the president of Iran against voicing opposition to Khamenei.
Election as Supreme Leader
In 1989 Ayatollah Khomeini dismissed Ayatollah Montazeri as his political successor, giving the position to Khamenei instead. Because Khamenei was neither a marja or ayatollah, the Assembly of Experts had to modify the constitution to award him the position of Iran's new Supreme Leader (a decision opposed by several grand ayatollahs).
Khamenei officially succeeded Ruhollah Khomeini after Khomeini's death, being elected as the new Supreme Leader by the Assembly of Experts on 4 June 1989.
Leadership Council proposal
Initially, some members of the Assembly of Experts proposed the idea of a leadership council. Various lists were proposed and Khamenei was named in all of them. For instance, a council of three members, Ali Meshkini, Mousavi Ardebili and Khamenei, was proposed to lead Iran. According to Rafsanjani, he and Khamenei were against the proposal, while Ayatollah and Ayatollah Ebrahim Amini were in favor of it. Supporters of the council proposal believed that having a council would produce a higher degree of unity in society and more positive characteristics would be found in a council. In contrast, the opposers believed that an individual leader was more efficient according to past experiences in the case of the Judiciary Council.
Ebrahim Amini listed the summary of the reasons presented by the two sides. According to him, the opposers rejected the proposal because i) Evidence for Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist was true only for the guardianship of an individual and it was not clear who held the guardianship when there was a council. The guardianship of a council was not rooted in Hadiths and Islamic jurisprudence. ii) Previous council-type organizations, such as the broadcasting council and supreme judicial council, were not successful in practice and the leadership council would not do well for similar reasons. iii) People were accustomed to the leadership of an individual and a council of leaders was something unfamiliar to them. iv) An individual leader could act more decisively when dealing with critical and essential decisions and solving problems and crisis. On the other hand, the supporters of the proposal believed that: i) At the time, there were no Faqih equal to Khomeini or even two or three levels lower than him so that he could fulfill the expectation of people. ii) In the case of a council of leaders, the members could compensate each other, if any of them had some shortage in a field.
Finally, 45 members voted against the leadership council proposal while more than 20 people were in favor of it and the proposal was rejected. After the assembly rejected the idea of a Leadership Council, Khamenei was elected Leader by 60 of the 74 members present with Grand Ayatollah Mohammad-Reza Golpaygani receiving the remaining 14 votes. Khamenei made protestations of his unworthiness -- "my nomination should make us all cry tears of blood" and debated with the mujtahids of the Assembly—but eventually accepted the post.
Marjaʿiyyat criteria
Since Khamenei was not a marja' at the time—which the Iranian constitution required—he was named as the temporary Supreme Leader. Later, the constitution was amended to remove that requirement and the Assembly of Experts reconvened on 6 August 1989, to reconfirm Khamenei with 60 votes out of 64 present. On 29 April 1989, responding to the letter of Ayatollah Meshkini, the head of committee responsible for revising the Constitution, asking Khomeini's viewpoint regarding the 'marjaʿiyyat criteria, Khomeini said: "From the very beginning, I believed and insisted that there is no need for the requirements of marjaʿiyyat (authority in jurisprudence). A pious mujtahid (jurist-intellectual), who is approved by the esteemed Assembly of Experts (Majlis-i Khobregan), will suffice." In a video that surfaced during the 2017–18 Iranian protests, Khamenei is seen before the assembly said he was not religiously qualified to be a Supreme leader. Khamenei, who was ranked as a Hujjat al-Islam and not a Marja' as required by the Iranian constitution, said he would only be a "ceremonial leader", and was reassured by Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani the position would be "temporary" until a referendum, apparently planned for one year later.
On August 29, 2022, al-Haeri announced his resignation from the position of Marja, due to old age and illness. This was described as the first time in history a Marja has ever resigned from his position. He called on his followers to follow Ali Khamenei, Supreme Leader of Iran as "the best person for the leadership of our people and removing the aggressors".
Political strategy and philosophy
Khamenei's era has differed from that of his predecessor. He has, however, continued Khomeini's policy of "balancing one group against another, making sure that no single side gains too much power." But lacking Khomeini's charisma and clerical standing, he has developed personal networks, first inside the armed forces and then among the clerics, while administering the major bonyads and seminaries of Qom and Mashhad. Having been Supreme Leader for three decades, Khamenei has been able to place many loyalists throughout Iran's major institutions, "building a system that serves and protects him". Former cleric Mehdi Khalaji and Saeid Golkar, describe Khamenei's system as having creating a "parallel structure" for each of the country's institutions (army, intelligence agencies, etc.) to keep those institutions weak.
According to Vali Nasr of the Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies, "[Khamenei] [took] many of the powers of the presidency with him and [turned] the office of the supreme leader into the omnipotent overseer of Iran's political scene". In Nasr's view, Khamenei is an "unusual sort of dictator". Officials under Khamenei influence the country's various powers, and sometimes bickering, institutions, including "the parliament, the presidency, the judiciary, the Revolutionary Guards, the military, the intelligence services, the police agencies, the clerical elite, the Friday prayer leaders and much of the media", as well as various "nongovernmental foundations, organizations, councils, seminaries and business groups".
Khamenei issues decrees and makes the final decisions on the economy, environment, foreign policy and everything else in Iran. Khamenei regularly meets with the president, cabinet members, head and officials of the judiciary branch, parliamentarians, among others, and tells them what to do. Khamenei has also fired and reinstated presidential cabinet appointments. Khamenei meets with foreign dignitaries, however, he does not travel overseas; if anyone wishes to see him, that person must travel to Iran. Apart from his time in Najaf as a student, Khamenei traveled to Libya during his time as president.
In his speeches, Khamenei regularly mentions many familiar themes of the 1979 revolution: justice, independence, self-sufficiency, Islamic government and resolute opposition to Israel and the United States, while rarely mentioning other revolutionary ideals such as democracy and greater government transparency. According to Karim Sadjadpour of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Khamenei has "resisted Rafsanjani's attempts to find a modus vivendi with the United States, Khatami's aspirations for a more democratic Islamic state, and Ahmadinejad's penchant for outright confrontation."
Privatization of state-owned businesses
In 2007, Khamenei called for privatizing state-owned companies, including the telephone company, three banks and dozens of small oil and petrochemical enterprises. After a few months, at a televised meeting with then-President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and his Cabinet ministers, important clerics, the leader of parliament and provincial governors, the heads of state broadcasting and the Iranian chamber of commerce, Khamenei ordered: "to pass some laws, sell off some businesses, and be quick about it." Khamenei warned that "those who are hostile to these policies are the ones who are going to lose their interests and influence."
Dispute regarding status as Grand Ayatollah
In 1994, after the death of Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Ali Araki, the Society of Seminary Teachers of Qom declared Khamenei a new marja. Several ayatollahs, however, declined to recognize him as such. Some of those dissidents clerics included Mohammad Shirazi, Hossein-Ali Montazeri, Hassan Tabatabai-Qomi, and Yasubedin Rastegar Jooybari. In 1997, for example, Montazeri "questioned the powers of the Leader" and was subsequently punished for his comments with the closure of his religious school, an attack on his office in Qom, and a period of house arrest.
Appointments
The table below lists some of the incumbent senior officeholders in Iran directly appointed by the supreme leader (sorted by date of appointment):
Political power following reform era
Khamenei developed a cult of personality; with supporters describing him as a "divine gift to mankind" and in which Khamenei critics are persecuted.
According to Karim Sadjadpour of the American Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, several factors have strengthened Khamenei in recent years:
According to Christopher Dickey, to consolidate his power base, Khamenei has developed close relations with the security and military establishment while also expanding the bureaucracy inside the government and around his Beit Rahbari compound.
Financial assets
Writing in The Daily Telegraph, Damien McElroy and Ahmad Vahdat observed: "The ayatollah likes to cultivate an image of austerity but receives major commissions from the Iranian oil and arms industries and there have been regular claims that he and his son have amassed a fortune running into billions of dollars." A six-month investigation by Reuters has said that Khamenei controls a "financial empire" worth approximately US$95 billion that the Iranian Parliament does not oversee, a figure much larger than the estimated wealth of the late Shah of Iran. According to the Reuters investigation, Khamenei uses the assets of a company called Headquarters for Executing the Order of the Imam or "Setad" in Farsi, to increase his grip on power. Reuters "found no evidence that Khamenei is tapping Setad to enrich himself," but did find that he used Setad's funds, which "rival the holdings of the shah", for political expedience – "Setad gives him the financial means to operate independently of parliament and the national budget, insulating him from Iran's messy factional infighting." According to The Daily Telegraph, money from Setad is used to fund Khamenei's Beit Rahbari compound, which employs over 500 stewards, as was reported in 2013. Hamid Vaezi, Setad's head of public relations, said the information "was far from realities and is not correct". The six-month investigation by Reuters found that, regarding the source of Setad's funds, "Setad built its empire on the systematic seizure of thousands of properties belonging to ordinary Iranians: members of religious minorities like Vahdat-e-Hagh, who is Baha'i, as well as Shi'ite Muslims, business people and Iranians living abroad."
Despite the negative accounts of Western sources, Iranian official authorities depict Setad as a vast charity foundation. In an interview in October 2014 with Islamic Republic News Agency, Muhammad Mukhber, the head of Setad, stated that over 90% of profits from Setad business activities are spent on improving infrastructure in the poor regions of the country, creating jobs and improving the well-being of people in these regions reflecting the top concerns of Iran's Supreme Leader, Khamenei for the Iranian society. He states that 85 percent of Setad's charitable works occur in poor Iran regions. He cited the construction of several hundred schools, mosques and hussainiyas, as well as direct and indirect contributions to the formation of over 350 thousand jobs expecting a total of 700 thousands for the upcoming three years. Mukhber also cited a sum total grant of 2.21 trillion rials of Qard al-Hasan, interest-free loans, to 41 thousands families in poor regions of the country. He also revealed plans of gradual sell-off of Setad profitable businesses in the stock market with the aim of transferring their ownership into the hands of Iranian people. He also envisioned the construction and delivery of 17 thousand housing units to families in poor regions of Iran by 2018.
Challenges following 2009 election protest
In mid-August 2009, a group of unnamed former reformist lawmakers appealed to the Assembly of Experts – the constitutional body charged with electing and (in theory) supervising and removing the Leader – to investigate Leader Ali Khamenei's qualification to rule. A week later another anonymous letter was issued "calling Iran's leader a dictator and demanding his removal", this one by a group of Iranian clerics. The letters were called a blow to Khamenei's "status as a neutral arbiter and Islamic figurehead" and an "unprecedented challenge to the country's most powerful man" though not a blow to his actual power as a leader. The New York Times reports "the phrase 'death to Khamenei' has begun appearing in graffiti on Tehran walls, a phrase that would have been almost unimaginable not long ago."
The letter was addressed to the head of the Assembly of Experts, Ayatollah Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, a "powerful former president" who also questions the election results. According to the Associated Press, it is unlikely the letter's demands would be met as "two-thirds of the 86-member assembly are considered strong loyalists of Khamenei and would oppose" any investigation of him.
According to The New York Times reporting in mid-August 2009, a "prominent Iranian cleric and a former lawmaker said on Sunday that they had spoken to some of the authors and had no doubt the letter was genuine". According to this cleric, the letter's signatories number "several dozen, and are mostly midranking figures from Qum, Isfahan and Mashhad", and that "the pressure on clerics in Qum is much worse than the pressure on activists because the establishment is afraid that if they say anything they can turn the more traditional sectors of society against the regime".
Relations with former President Ahmadinejad
Early in his presidency, Ahmadinejad was sometimes described as "enjoy[ing] the full backing" of the Supreme Leader , and even as being his "protege." In Ahmadinejad's 2005 inauguration the supreme leader allowed Ahmadinejad to kiss his hand and cheeks in what was called "a sign of closeness and loyalty," and after the 2009 election fully endorsed Ahmadinejad against protesters. However, as early as January 2008 signs of disagreement between the two men developed over domestic policies, and by the period of 2010–11 several sources detected a "growing rift" between them. The disagreement was described as centered on Esfandiar Rahim Mashaei, a top adviser and close confidant of Ahmadinejad and opponent of "greater involvement of clerics in politics", who was first vice president of Iran until being ordered to resign from the cabinet by the supreme leader.
In 2009, Ahmadinejad dismissed Intelligence Minister Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i, an opponent of Mashaei. In April 2011, another Intelligence minister, Heydar Moslehi, resigned after being asked to by Ahmadinejad but was reinstated by the supreme leader within hours. Ahmadinejad declined to officially back Moslehi's reinstatement for two weeks and in protest engaged in an "11-day walkout" of cabinet meetings, religious ceremonies, and other official functions. Ahmadinejad's actions led to angry public attacks by clerics, parliamentarians and military commanders, who accused him of ignoring orders from the supreme leader. Conservative opponents in parliament launched an "impeachment drive" against him, four websites with ties to Ahmadinejad reportedly were "filtered and blocked", and several people "said to be close" to the president and Mashaei (such as Abbas Amirifar and Mohammed Sharif Malekzadeh) were arrested on charges of being "magicians" and invoking djinns. On 6 May 2011, it was reported that Ahmadinejad had been given an ultimatum to accept the leader's intervention or resign, and on 8 May he "apparently bowed" to the reinstatement, welcoming back Moslehi to a cabinet meeting. The events have been said to have "humiliated and weakened" Ahmadinejad. However, the president denied that there had been any rift between the two, and according to the semiofficial Fars News Agency, he stated that his relationship with the supreme leader "is that of a father and a son."
In 2012, Khamenei ordered a halt to a parliamentary inquiry into Ahmadinejad's mishandling of the Iranian economy. In 2016, Khamenei advised Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, his former ally with whom his relationship was strained after Ahmadinejad accused his son Mojtaba Khamenei of embezzling from the state treasury, to not run for president again.
2023 riots
Khamenei rejected talks for referendums on the state's future, questioning people's judgment and causing public outrage.
Fatwas and messages
Fatwa against nuclear weapons
Khamenei has reportedly issued a fatwa saying the production, stockpiling, and use of nuclear weapons was forbidden under Islam.
The fatwa was cited in an official statement by the Iranian government at an August 2005 meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna. It's been widely discussed by international officials and specifically recognized by the US administration.
The Iranian official website for information regarding its nuclear program has provided numerous instances of public statements by Khamenei wherein he voices his opposition to the pursuit and development of nuclear weapons in moral, religious and Islamic juridical terms. Khamenei's official website specifically cites a 2010 version of these statements in the fatwa section of the website in Farsi as a fatwa on "Prohibition of Weapons of Mass Destruction".
Doubts have been cast by experts on the existence of the fatwa as it can be changed or modified as and when deemed necessary, as well as doubts on its authenticity, its impact, and its apparently religious nature. Gareth Porter believes that the fatwa is "sincere" and Gholam-Hossein Elham commented that it will not change.
Fatwa on Islamic legal interpretation
In 2000, Ali Khamenei sent a letter to the Iranian parliament forbidding the legislature from debating a revision of the Iranian press law to allow more press freedom. He wrote: "The present press law has prevented this big plague. The draft bill is not legitimate and in the interests of the system and the revolution."
In 1996, he issued a fatwa stating, "The promotion of music [both traditional and Western] in schools is contrary to the goals and teachings of Islam, regardless of age and level of study."
(Many music schools were closed and public (but not private) music instruction to children under 16 was banned thereafter.) Khamenei stated,
In 1999, Khamenei issued a fatwa stating that it was permitted to use a third party (donor sperm, ova or surrogacy) in fertility treatments. This was different in "both style and substance" to the fatwa on Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) by Gad El-Hak Ali Gad El-Hak of Egypt's Al-Azhar University in the late 1980s which permitted ART (IVF and similar technologies) as long there is no third-party donation (of sperm, eggs, embryos, or uteruses).
In 2002, he ruled that human stem cell research was permissible under Islam, with the condition that it be used to create only parts instead of a whole human.
In 2002, after protests erupted in the capital, Khamenei intervened against the death sentence given to Hashem Aghajari for arguing that Muslims should re-interpret Islam rather than blindly follow leaders. Khamenei ordered a review of the sentence against Aghajari, which was later commuted to a prison sentence.
Other messages
Sayyid Ali Khamenei annually issues message(s) on the occasion of Hajj for all Muslims (pilgrims) in Hajj. He commenced to issue such messages since the start of his responsibility as the supreme leader of Iran (1989). He continually invites all Muslims to Tawhid, and afterward expresses the significance of Hajj in spiritual/social life. He also asks the Muslims to be aware of what he considers "the conspiracy of the enemies" by having a right comprehension and advises them to "not be deceived by them". So far, Iran's supreme leader has issued 32 messages (since 1989). A part of his last message (6 August 2019) is as follows:
Khamenei was one of the Ulama signatories of the Amman Message, which gives a broad foundation for defining Muslim orthodoxy. as well as elaborating on the factors needed to create Islamic unity, he argues: "neither the Shia Muslims allied with the British MI6 are Shias, nor the Sunni mercenaries of the American CIA are Sunnis, as they are both anti-Islamic."
Other fatwas
In 2010, Khamenei issued a fatwa that bans any insult to the Sahabah (companions of Muhammad) as well as Muhammad's wives. The fatwa was issued to reconcile legal, social, and political disagreements between Sunni and Shia. In 2017, he issued a fatwa against women riding bicycles in public.
Domestic policy
Some regard Khamenei as the figurehead of the country's conservative establishment.
Khamenei supported Mesbah Yazdi, describing him as one of Iran's most credible ideologues before the 2005 election, but has reportedly "recently been concerned about Mesbah's political ambitions."
In 2007, Khamenei requested that government officials speed up Iran's move towards economic privatization. Its last move towards such a goal was in 2004 when Article 44 of the constitution was overturned. Article 44 had decreed that Iran's core infrastructure should remain state-run. Khamenei also suggested that ownership rights should be protected in courts set up by the Justice Ministry; the hope was that this new protection would give a measure of security to and encourage private investment. In 2007, Iranian police under the direction of Khamenei launched a "Public Security Plan", arresting dozens of "thugs" to increase public security.
Additionally, Khamenei has stated that he believes in the importance of nuclear technology for civilian purposes because "oil and gas reserves cannot last forever."
On 30 April 2008, Ali Khamenei backed President Ahmadinejad's economic policy and said the West was struggling with more economic difficulties than Iran, with a "crisis" spreading from the United States to Europe, and inflation was a widespread problem. The Iranian leader said that the ongoing economic crisis which has debilitated the world has been unprecedented in the past 60 years. "This crisis has forced the UN to declare state of emergency for food shortages around the globe but foreign radios have focused on Iran to imply that the current price hikes and inflation in the country are the results of carelessness on the part of Iranian officials which of course is not true", he said. Khamenei emphasized that no one has the right to blame the Iranian government for Iran's economic problems. He also advised people and the government to be content and avoid waste in order to solve economic problems. "I advise you to keep in your mind that this great nation is never afraid of economic sanctions", he added.
Presidential, parliamentary, and Assembly of Experts elections
As Supreme Leader, Khamenei has influence over elections in Iran since the Constitution of Iran allows him to appoint half of the members of the Guardian Council and the Chief Justice of Iran. The Constitution also establishes that the Council approves or disqualifies candidates for office. At the same time, the Chief Justice presents the other half of the members of the council to be selected by Parliament. These constitutional provisions give Khamenei direct and indirect influence over the council; an entity that, in turn, has direct influence over who can run for government. This influence was evident in the 2004 parliamentary elections, in which the Guardian Council disqualified thousands of candidates from running—including 80 incumbents, many of the reformist members of Parliament, and all the candidates of the Islamic Iran Participation Front party. Subsequently, the Conservatives won about 70 percent of parliamentary seats. The election became a key turning point in the country's political evolution as it marked the end of the campaign for political and social reform initiated by former President Mohammad Khatami.
During the 2005 presidential election, Khamenei's comments about the importance of fighting corruption, being faithful to the ideals of the Islamic revolution, as well as on the superior intelligence and dynamism of those who studied engineering were interpreted by some as a subtle endorsement of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (who had a PhD in traffic engineering). After the election, and until recently, Khamenei was outspoken in his support for Ahmadinejad, and "defended him publicly in ways which he never" had reformist president Khatami. Khamenei would later certify the results of the 2009 Iranian presidential election.
Khamenei took a firm stand against the 2009–10 Iranian election protests, and stated that he would neither reconsider vote results nor bow to public pressure over the disputed reelection of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. "By Allah's favor, the presidential election was accurately held, and the current matters should be pursued legally." In a public appearance on 19 June, he expressed his support for the declared winner Ahmadinejad. He accused foreign powers—including Britain, Israel and the United States—of helping foment protest against the election results. In particular, he singled out Britain, perceiving the country as the "most evil" of its enemies. He said that the Iranian people would respond with an "iron fist" if Western powers meddle in Iran's internal affairs.
In response to reformist gains in the 2015–2016 election cycle, Khamenei lamented the loss of conservative clerics from the Assembly of Experts and suggested changes to the law by which the Guardian Council vets candidates may be needed because it is currently too difficult for the Guardian Council to vet so large a number of candidates.
Science and technology
Ali Khamenei has been supportive of scientific progress in Iran. He was among the first Islamic clerics to allow stem cell research and therapeutic cloning. In 2004, Khamenei said that the country's progress is dependent on investment in the field of science and technology. He also said that attaching a high status to scholars and scientists in society would help talents to flourish and science and technology to become domesticated, thus ensuring the country's progress and development.
Foreign policy
Khamenei has "direct responsibility" for foreign policy, which "cannot be conducted without his direct involvement and approval". He has a foreign policy team independent of the president's "which includes two former foreign ministers" and "can at any time of his choosing inject himself into the process and 'correct' a flawed policy or decision." His foreign policy is said to steer a course that avoids either confrontation or accommodation with the West.
Khamenei condemned the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen and compared Saudi Arabia to Israel.
Khamenei condemned the persecution of Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar and called Myanmar's de facto leader and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Aung Sang Suu Kyi a "brutal woman".
U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo criticized Khamenei for his refusal to condemn the Xinjiang re-education camps and human rights abuses against the Uyghur Muslim minority in China.
He condemned UAE as useless on several occasions.
Beliefs about the United States and its foreign policy
The United States and Iran have had no formal diplomatic relations since the Iran hostage crisis of 1980 when US embassy was taken over and US diplomats were taken prisoner. According to study by Karim Sadjadpour, speeches by Khamenei regularly mention the principle of resolute opposition to the United States; and according to Karim Sadjadpour he has "resisted Rafsanjani's attempts to find a modus vivendi with the United States", and once told reformist president Mohammad Khatami that "we need the United States as an enemy".
On 4 June 2006, Khamenei said that Iran would disrupt energy shipments from the Persian Gulf region (about 20% of the world's daily supply of oil passes from the Persian Gulf through the Strait of Hormuz very close to Iran's coast) should the country come under attack from the US, insisting that Tehran will not give up its right to produce nuclear fuel.
On 14 September 2007, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei (on the 1st Friday prayer of Ramadan) predicted that George W. Bush and American officials would one day be tried in an international criminal court to be held "accountable" for the U.S. led invasion of Iraq. He asserts that the United States is the main cause of insecurity in Iraq.
On 21 March 2009, a day after US President Barack Obama advocated a "new beginning" in diplomatic relations between the two countries, Khamenei said a change of US "words" was not enough and added: "We will watch and we will judge (the new US administration) ... You change, our behavior will change." He rejected US foreign policy since the Islamic revolution, insisted the United States is "hated in the world" and should end its interference in other countries.
Khamenei criticized the NATO-led military intervention in Libya. On 21 March 2011, Khamenei accused the West of " coming after Libyan oil". He also stressed that "Iran utterly condemns the behavior of the Libyan government against its people, the killings and pressure on people, and the bombing of its cities... but it (also) condemns the military action in Libya". Khamenei stated that he support sending mediators rather than bombing the country.
In June 2011, Khamenei accused the United States government of terrorism and rejected the American definition of terrorism; he was quoted as saying, "The U.S. and the European governments that follow it describe Palestinian combatant groups who fight for the liberation of their land as terrorists."
In June 2012, Khamenei warned Western governments that the mounting sanctions on the country would only deepen the Iranians' hatred of the West.
In October 2014, Khamenei said the U.S. and the U.K. created ISIS as a tool to fight Iran and "create insecurity" in the region.
On 19 July 2015, while speaking at a mosque in Tehran, Khamenei said to his supporters that the policies of the United States in the region were "180 degrees" opposed to Iran's political and religious movement. The speech was punctuated by chants of "Death to America" and "Death to Israel". Khamenei said in regards to the 2015 nuclear deal that "Even after this deal, our policy towards the arrogant U.S. will not change." U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry said that if the comments reflected policy, it was "very disturbing", and "very troubling".
In March 2020, Khamenei warned against a United States offer of aid to fight COVID-19 because it could be a way to hurt Iran by further spreading the disease. He also suggested the US had developed a special variety of the virus "based on Iranian genetic information they have gathered", although he provided no evidence for the theory. Khamenei explained, "There are enemies who are demons, and there are enemies who are humans, and they help one another."
In March 2022, Khamenei accused the U.S. of creating the conflict surrounding the Russo-Ukrainian War.
Condemnation of September 11 attacks
After the September 11 attacks, Khamenei condemned the act and the attackers and called for a condemnation of terrorist activities all over the world, but warned strongly against a military intervention in Afghanistan. He is quoted as saying, "Mass killings of human beings are catastrophic acts which are condemned wherever they may happen and whoever the perpetrators and the victims may be."
Zionism and Israel
Khamenei is an opponent of the State of Israel and Zionism, and has been criticized for making threats against Israel and for anti-Semitic rhetoric.
On 15 December 2000, Khamenei called Israel a "cancerous tumor of a state" that "should be removed from the region" and in 2013 called Israel a "rabid dog", as well as in 2014 during the Gaza war, for what he called attacking innocent people. In 2014, a tweet from an account attributed to Khamenei, claimed that there was no cure for Israel but its destruction.
In a September 2008 sermon for Friday prayers in Tehran, Khamenei stated that "it is incorrect, irrational, pointless and nonsense to say that we are friends of Israeli people", because he believed that the occupation is done by means of them. "[U]surpation of houses, lands, and business [of Palestinian people] are carried out using these people. They are the background actors of Zionist elements," said Khamenei in his speech. "[W]e have no problem with Jews and Christians ... we have problem with the usurpers of Palestine land," he added. Also, he said that he had raised the issue "to spell an end to any debates". In 2013, Khamenei accused France of "kneeling" before Israel, while saying that Israel was led by people unworthy of the "title human".
Nevertheless, according to anti-regime change activist Abbas Edalat, in 2005, Khamenei responded to a remark by then-President Ahmadinejad which had been widely translated as saying that the "regime occupying Jerusalem should be wiped off the map" by saying that "the Islamic Republic has never threatened and will never threaten any country."
In a September 2009 sermon, Khamenei was quoted as saying that "the Zionist cancer is gnawing into the lives of Islamic nations." In another report of the same speech, he added that "we will support and help any nations, any groups fighting against the Zionist regime across the world, and we are not afraid of declaring this."
Khamenei instead proposed that "Palestinian refugees should return and Muslims, Christians and Jews could choose a government for themselves, excluding immigrant Jews," adding, "No one will allow a bunch of thugs, lechers and outcasts from London, America and Moscow to rule over the Palestinians."
On 10 September 2015, in a speech about Israel after agreement on the nuclear program of Iran, Khamenei made a remark "Israel will not exist in 25 years". For the first time, the remark was published in Khamenei's official website and his Twitter. This statement was reported as voted as the best and most important among Khamenei's statements in 2015 by an online poll conducted by his official website.
On 21 February, at the 6th International Conference in Support of the Palestinian Intifada, Khamenei regarded the withdrawal of Israel from south Lebanon in 2000. From Gaza in 2005 as two major achievements so far. Also, he advised the Islamic countries to refrain from "useless" crises and differences and instead concentrate on the issue of Palestine which he regarded as the core issue of Islam. "Otherwise, the potentials and capabilities of the nations will go to waste in the face of vain struggles, which would provide opportunities for the Zionist regime to become even stronger," he added.
Khamenei condemned the peace agreement between Israel and the United Arab Emirates and charged UAE with betraying the Islamic world, the Arab countries and Palestine. He stated that the normalization will be only temporary, but the UAE will forever have to bear the shame regarding the deal.
In October 2023, Khamenei praised the Hamas attack on Israel, but denied Iran's involvement. He condemned Israel's bombing of the Gaza Strip in retaliation for the Hamas attack and accused Israel of committing genocide against the Palestinian people in Gaza.
Holocaust denial
On 21 March 2014, during a morning speech marking the Persian New Year, Nowruz, Khamenei called into question the Holocaust. He said that "the Holocaust is an event whose reality is uncertain and if it has happened, it's uncertain how it has happened". Additionally he commented that "No one in European countries dares to speak about [the] Holocaust" (because of the potential legal consequences in some countries), and said that in the West, "speaking about [the] Holocaust and expressing doubts about it is considered to be a great sin." The Anti-Defamation League accused Khamenei in March 2014 of making statements of explicit Holocaust denial.
On Holocaust Memorial Day, 27 January 2016, Khamenei posted a Holocaust-denying video on his official website. In the video (drawing on the March 2014 speech), lasting about three minutes, the video features images of Holocaust deniers Roger Garaudy, Robert Faurisson, and David Irving. In a series of tweets in mid-December 2019, he praised Garaudy: "The fight he engaged in against the Zionists is a #DivineDuty for all those who respect the #Truth." France's conviction of Garaudy, he said, was against the concept of freedom of speech.
Anti-semitism
At least one source (Yair Rosenberg), argues that statements by Khamenei purporting to attack "Zionism", are following an anti-Semitic tradition of avoiding censorship by using "Zionism" as a dog whistle for "Jews". For example, an 8 June 2022 statement tweeted by Khamenei:
"The Zionists have always been a plague, even before establishing the fraudulent Zionist regime. Even then, Zionist capitalists were a plague for the whole world."
makes more sense (though is just as slanderous), if "Zionists" is replaced by "Jews". (The Zionist movement not have been founded until the late 19th century, Zionists are not likely to "have always been a plague".) Other accusations of Anti-Semitism have come from Victoria Coates and Ellie Cohanim, who notes his holocaust denial and find his "nine-point plan" to "wipe" Israel "off the face of the earth" uncomfortably reminiscent of Hitler's Final Solution; and the Jerusalem Post, who quote Khamenei's attack on the 2020 Israel–United Arab Emirates normalization agreement:
and argue "filthy Zionist agents", "the Jewish member of Trump's family" (i.e. Jared Kushner), and "cruel", are all words channeling "antisemitic tropes and dog whistles".
Human rights, freedoms, protests, Islamic law
Critics have accused Khamenei of overseeing the assassination of as many as 160 exiled defectors worldwide, the heavy-handed repression of protesters, the killings of tens of thousands of members of the M.E.K. (People's Mujahedin of Iran) paramilitary group, and of making dissident writers and intellectuals in Iran "a special target" of repression, among other infractions of human rights. However, Khamenei himself has insisted human rights are a fundamental principle underlying Islamic teachings that precedes Western concern for human rights by many centuries. He has attacked Western powers who have criticized the rights record of the Islamic Republic for hypocrisy, saying that these countries economically oppress people in Third World countries and support despots and dictators. In response to Western complaints of human rights abuses in Iran he has stated that the American administration has committed many crimes and is therefore not fit to judge the Islamic Republic.
Protests during leadership
There have been several major protests during Khamenei's reign, including the 1994 Qazvin Protests—where, according to Al-Arabiya, around 40 people were killed and over 400 were injured— the 1999 Iranian student protests, the 2009 Iranian presidential election protests, when protesters chanted "death to the dictator", and ripped down pictures of Khamenei, as well as the 2011–12 Iranian protests and 2017–18 Iranian protests, among others. In 2016, Khamenei, who outlined the elections guidelines "in line with Article 110 of Iran's Constitution", asked to maximize the amount of transparency in elections in Iran, using modern technologies.
During the Mahshahr massacre, protests expanded against "government corruption, failing institutions, lack of freedoms and the repressive rule of Iran's supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei."
During the 2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests, Khameini demanded punishment for those "who disrupt economic security". According to Reuters, the remarks were "clearly intended to send a message to Iranians who may plan more demonstrations".
During the 2019–2020 Iranian protests, Khamenei met with various officials and cabinet members, saying "he would hold the assembled officials responsible for the consequences of the protests if they didn't immediately stop them." According to an official, Khamenei "made clear the demonstrations required a forceful response" and that "rioters should be crushed."
During the Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 protests, thousands of protesters demanded Ayatollah Ali Khamenei's resignation.
Minorities
The Baháʼí Faith is the largest religious minority in Iran, with around 300,000 members (8,000,000 members worldwide) and is officially considered a dangerous cult by the Iranian government. It is banned in Iran and several other countries. Khamenei has approved new legislation against Baháʼís in Iran and lessen their influence abroad. According to a letter from the Chairman of the Command Headquarters of the Armed Forces in Iran addressed to the Ministry of Information, the Revolutionary Guard, and the Police Force, Khamenei has also ordered the Command Headquarters to identify people who adhere to the Baháʼí Faith and to monitor their activities and gather any and all information about the members of the Baháʼí Faith.
Relationship with the press
In 2000, he was listed by the Committee to Protect Journalists as "one of the top ten enemies of the press and freedom of expression", and was named to the Time 100 in 2007. Opposition journalists Ahmad Zeidabadi, Mohsen Sazegara, Mohammad Nourizad and Akbar Ganji were arrested and investigated for spreading critical articles containing unproven charges against Khamenei's policies as the leader and some organizations. According to Iran's Press Law "spreading rumors and lies and distorts the words of others" is not allowed. Also, according to the law, "spreading libel against officials, institutions, organizations and individuals in the country or insulting legal or real persons who are lawfully respected, even by means of pictures or caricatures" is not allowed.
In 2000, Ali Khamenei sent a letter to the Iranian parliament forbidding the legislature from debating a revision of the Iranian press law to allow more freedom. (The law had been used "to close more than 20 independent newspapers" from 1997 to 2000.) He wrote: "The present press law has prevented this big plague. The draft bill is not legitimate and in the interests of the system and the revolution." His was called a use of "extra-legislative power" by reformists and opposition groups. but Speaker of Parliament Mehdi Karroubi reminded "deputies that the constitution contained 'elements of the absolute rule of the supreme clerical leader'".
Kayhan and Jomhuri-ye Eslami are two newspapers published under the management of Khamenei.
Among his controversial actions were his rejection of a bill presented by the Iranian parliament in 2000 that aimed to reform the country's press law, and the disqualification of thousands of parliamentary candidates for the 2004 Iranian legislative election by the Guardian Council he appointed.
In 2012, 2013, and 2014, Forbes selected Khamenei as the 21st, 23rd, and 19th most powerful person in the world, respectively, in the list of The World's Most Powerful People.
Trials of people for insulting Khamenei
Several journalists, bloggers, and other individuals were put on trial in Iran for insulting the Supreme Leader, often in conjunction with blasphemy charges.
In 1996, Abbas Maroufi was sentenced to 35 lashes and six months imprisonment for spreading lies and insulting Khamenei. Maroufi was also banned from working as a journalist and his literary monthly Gardoon was closed. Maroufi had compared Khamenei to former Shah of Iran Mohammed Reza Pahlavi.
In 2005, an Iranian was jailed for two years for insulting Khamenei and Imam Khomeini while being cleared of insulting the prophet.
In 2009, Iranian blogger Omid Reza Mir Sayafi, who was arrested for insulting Khamenei in an internet post, died while in custody in Evin Prison.
In 2010, opposition activist Ahmad Gabel was sentenced to 20 months in jail for insulting Khamenei, as well as 3 additional years for possessing a satellite receiver, a 3-year exile and a fine.
In 2014, eight men, including a Briton, were sentenced to 19 to 20 years for insulting Khamenei and other charges relating to Facebook comments.
In 2017, Sina Dehghan was sentenced to death for insulting the prophet, with an additional 16-month sentence for insulting Khamenei in a messaging application.
Gender issues
In July 2007, Khamenei criticized Iranian women's rights activists and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): "In our country ... some activist women, and some men, have been trying to play with Islamic rules to match international conventions related to women", Khamenei said. "This is wrong." Khamenei made these comments two days after Iranian women's rights activist Delaram Ali was sentenced to 34 months of jail and ten lashes by Iran's judiciary.
Khamenei advocates the Islamic practice of Hijab. He believes that hijab is aimed at honoring women. To the Western objection to the compulsory hijab in Iran, he responds by pointing out the compulsory unveiling in certain Western countries and obstacles created for veiled Muslim women who want to enter universities. He further argues that women in the West have lost their honor by pointing out a perceived high rate of sexual violence in the West as well as the widespread exploitation of female sexual appeal for commercial purposes.
Ali Khamenei believes in gender segregation. Khamenei also believes that gender equality is a Zionist plot with the purpose to "corrupt the role of women in society".
On LGBT issues, Khamenei has said: "Today, homosexuality is a major problem in the Western world. They [western nations], however ignore it. But the reality is that homosexuality has become a serious challenge, pain and unsolvable problem for the intellectuals in the west."
Personal life
Family
Khamenei is married to Mansoureh Khojasteh Bagherzadeh, with whom he has six children; four sons (Mostafa, Mojtaba, Masoud, and Meysam) and two daughters (Boshra and Hoda). One of his sons, Mojtaba, married a daughter of Gholam-Ali Haddad-Adel. His eldest son, Mostafa, is married to a daughter of Azizollah Khoshvaght. Another son, Masoud, is married to the daughter of Mohsen Kharazi. He has three brothers, including Mohammad Khamenei and Hadi Khamenei. One of his four sisters, Badri Hosseini Khamenei (wife of dissident Ali Tehrani), fled into exile in the 1980s.
Home
As Supreme Leader, Khamenei moved to a house in Central Tehran on Palestine Street. A compound grew around it that now contains around fifty buildings. Around 500 people are employed at this "Beit Rahbari compound" according to The Telegraph, "many recruited from the military and security services".
Lifestyle
According to Mehdi Khalaji, an Iran expert at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Khamenei has a decent life "without it being luxurious". Robert Tait of The Daily Telegraph commented that Khamenei is "renowned for a spartan lifestyle." Dexter Filkins describes Khamenei as presenting himself "as an ascetic, dressing and eating simply". In an interview with a women's magazine, his wife declared that "we do not have decorations, in the usual sense. Years ago, we freed ourselves from these things."
On the other hand, Mother Nature Network claims Khamenei has been seen riding around in a BMW car and published a picture of him exiting one. In a 2011 report in The Daily Telegraph, defectors from Iran claimed Khamenei has a considerable appetite of caviar and trout, a stable of 100 horses, collects items such as pipes and (reputedly) 170 antique walking sticks, and has a private court stretching over six palaces. Intelligence sources have also said his family has extensive international business interests.
Health
Khamenei's health has been called into question. In January 2007, rumors spread of his illness or death after he had not been seen in public for some weeks and had not appeared as he traditionally does at celebrations for Eid al-Adha. Khamenei issued a statement declaring that "enemies of the Islamic system fabricated various rumors about death and health to demoralize the Iranian nation", but according to the author Hooman Majd, he appeared to be "visibly weak" in photos released with the statement.
On 9 September 2014, Khamenei underwent prostate surgery in what his doctors described in state news media as a "routine operation". According to a report by Le Figaro, Western intelligence sources said Khamenei has prostate cancer.
In September 2022, it was reported that Khamenei had undergone surgery for bowel obstruction and had to cancel a number of meetings.
Sanctions
On 24 June 2019, the United States imposed sanctions on Khamenei with the signing of Executive Order 13876.
Literature and art
In late 1996, following a fatwa by Khamenei stating that music education corrupts the minds of young children and is against Islam, many music schools were closed and music instruction to children under the age of 16 was banned by public establishments (although private instruction continued).
Khamenei has stated that "poetry must be the vanguard of the caravan of the [Islamic] revolution... [T]hrough the arts and literature, the revolution can be exported more easily and honestly." It has been suggested (by Dexter Filkins) that this might explain his interest in banning books, prohibiting newspapers and imprisoning artists.
He has expressed interest in studying novels and stories since childhood and studied various world's credible novels. He was "fascinated by Jean-Paul Sartre and Bertrand Russell" in his youth. He praised the works of Mikhail Sholokhov, Alexei Tolstoy, Honoré de Balzac, and Michel Zévaco. However, Victor Hugo's Les Misérables "is the best novel that has been written in history." He explained:
He suggested reading The Grapes of Wrath to "an audience of writers and artists" and Uncle Tom's Cabin to the high-level state managers as he thought it shed light on the history of the United States.
Khamenei is fluent in Arabic in addition to his native languages, Persian and Azerbaijani. He has translated several books into Persian from Arabic, including the works of the Egyptian Islamic theoretician Sayyid Qutb.
When it comes to poetry, in Mashhad he used to participate in literary associations along with known poets and used to critique poems. Writing some poems himself, he chose the pseudonym 'Amin' for himself.
In the field of music, he is known to have a good singing voice and plays the tar, a traditional Iranian stringed instrument.
Public diplomacy
In February 2011, Ali Khamenei supported the Egyptian uprising against their government, describing it as Islamic awakening instead of Arab Spring. Trying to communicate with Arab people, he addressed Egypt's protesters in Arabic. (Even though his native language is Persian.) He introduced himself as "your brother in religion", while praising the "explosion of sacred anger". Later, in "Islamic Awakening conferences" which were held in Tehran, Khamenei praised the Muslim youths of Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Yemen and Bahrain for what he described as Islamic awakening. He also paralleled these events with Islamic revolution in Iran during his Nowruz oration in 2011. However, major protests against the Iranian regime also broke out throughout Iran in 2011, and they became known as the 2011–12 Iranian protests.
Works
Four main books of Rijal
An Outline of Islamic Thought in the Quran
Honest leader
Discourse on Patience (translation by Sayyid Hussein Alamdar available online)
Iqbal: Manifestation of the Islamic Spirit, Two Contemporary Muslim Views
Iqbal, the Poet-Philosopher of Islamic Resurgence is one of the "Two Contemporary Muslim Views", the other one is Ali Shariati's.
Replies to Inquiries about the Practical Laws of Islam (PDF version)
Lessons from the Nahjul-Balaghah
Human Rights in Islam
The Charter of Freedom
Essence of Tawhid: Denial of Servitude but to God
Translations from Arabic:
Future in the realm of Islam
Collections:
A 250 Years Old Person
Palestine
See also
Khamenei family
Motto of years in Islamic Republic of Iran
Islamic Government (book by Khomeini)
Muhammad Kazim Khurasani
Mirza Husayn Tehrani
Abdallah Mazandarani
Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi
Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai
Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani
Fazlullah Nouri
Hibatullah Akhundzada
Footnotes
References
External links
Official
The Office of the Supreme Leader of Iran
Official English-language Twitter account
Photo
Pictures in Iran-Iraq War, tarikhirani.ir
Ali Khamenei gallery in Khamenei's website
Media
Videos
Video Archive of Ayatollah Khamenei
Ayatollah Khamenei in the city of Ardabil reading different poems in Azerbaijani language about Imam Hussein and events in Karbala.
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1939 births
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20th-century translators
Al-Husayni family
Anti-Americanism
Anti-Zionism in the Middle East
Anti-Israeli sentiment
Central Council of the Islamic Republican Party members
Combatant Clergy Association politicians
Commanders-in-Chief of Iran
Council of the Islamic Revolution members
Deputies of Tehran, Rey, Shemiranat and Eslamshahr
Iranian Azerbaijanis
Iranian dissidents
Iranian grand ayatollahs
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Iranian individuals subject to the U.S. Department of the Treasury sanctions
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Iranian Qutbists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdelaziz%20Bouteflika
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Abdelaziz Bouteflika
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Abdelaziz Bouteflika (; ; 2 March 1937 – 17 September 2021) was an Algerian politician and diplomat who served as the seventh president of Algeria from 1999 to his resignation in 2019.
Before his stint as an Algerian politician, Bouteflika served during the Algerian War as a member of the National Liberation Front. After Algeria gained its independence from France, he served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs between 1963 until 1979. He served as President of the United Nations General Assembly during the 1974–1975 session. In 1983 he was convicted of stealing millions of dinars from Algerian embassies during his diplomatic career.
In 1999, Bouteflika was elected president of Algeria in a landslide victory. He would win re-elections in 2004, 2009, and 2014. As President, he presided over the end of the Algerian Civil War in 2002 when he took over the project of his immediate predecessor President Liamine Zéroual, and he ended emergency rule in February 2011 amidst regional unrest. Following a stroke in 2013, Bouteflika had made few public appearances throughout his fourth term, making his final appearance in 2017.
Bouteflika resigned on 2 April 2019 after months of mass protests. With nearly 20 years in power, he is the longest-serving head of state of Algeria to date. Following his resignation, Bouteflika became a recluse and died at the age of 84 in 2021, over two years after his resignation. After his death it became known in a Suisse secrets data leak, that he held a Credit Suisse account which overlapped with much of his presidency.
Early life and education
Abdelaziz Bouteflika was born on 2 March 1937 in Oujda, French Morocco. He was the son of Mansouria Ghezlaoui and Ahmed Bouteflika from Tlemcen, Algeria. He had three half-sisters (Fatima, Yamina, and Aïcha), as well as four brothers (Abdelghani, Mustapha, Abderahim, and Saïd) and one sister (Latifa). Saïd Bouteflika, 20 years his junior, would later be appointed special counselor to his brother in 1999. Unlike Saïd, who was raised mostly in Tlemcen, Abdelaziz grew up in Oujda, where his father had emigrated as a youngster. The son of a zaouia sheikh, he was well-versed in the Qur'an. He successively attended three schools in Oudja: Sidi Ziane, El Hoceinia, and Abdel Moumen High Schools, where he reportedly excelled academically. He was also affiliated with Qadiriyya Zaouia in Oujda.
In 1956, Bouteflika went to the village of Ouled Amer near Tlemcen and subsequently joined—at the age of 19—the National Liberation Army, which was a military branch of the National Liberation Front. He received his military education at the École des Cadres in Dar El Kebdani, Morocco. In 1957–1958, he was designated a controller of Wilaya V, making reports on the conditions at the Moroccan border and in west Algeria, but later became the administrative secretary of Houari Boumédiène. He became one of his closest collaborators and a core member of his Oujda Group. In 1960, he was assigned to leading the Malian Front in the Algerian south and became known for his nom de guerre of Abdelkader al-Mali, which has survived until today. In 1962, at the arrival of independence, he aligned with Boumédienne and the border armies in support of Ahmed Ben Bella against the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic.
Career
Following independence in 1962, Bouteflika became deputy for Tlemcen in the Constituent Assembly and Minister for Youth and Sport in the government led by Ahmed Ben Bella; the following year, he was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs.
He was a prime mover in the military coup led by Houari Boumediene that overthrew Ben Bella on 19 June 1965. Bouteflika continued as Minister for Foreign Affairs until the death of President Boumédienne in 1978.
He also served as president of the United Nations General Assembly in 1974 and of the seventh special session in 1975, becoming the youngest person to have done so. Algeria at this time was a leader of the Non-Aligned Nations Movement. He had discussions there with Henry Kissinger in the first talks between the United States and Algerian officials since the resumption of diplomatic relations between the two countries.
In 1981, he was charged with having stolen Algerian embassies' money between 1965 and 1979. On 8 August 1983, Bouteflika was convicted by the Court of Financial Auditors and found guilty of having fraudulently taken 60 million dinars during his diplomatic career. Bouteflika was granted amnesty by President Chadli Bendjedid, his colleagues Senouci and Boudjakdji were jailed. After the amnesty, Bouteflika was given back his diplomatic passport, a villa where he used to live but did not own, and all his debt was erased. He never paid back the money "he reserved for a new foreign affairs ministry's building".
Succession struggle, corruption and exile
Following Boumédienne's unexpected death in 1978, Bouteflika was seen as one of the two main candidates to succeed the powerful president. Bouteflika was thought to represent the party's "right wing" that was more open to economic reform and rapprochement with the West. Colonel Mohamed Salah Yahiaoui represented the "boumédiennist" left wing. In the end, the military opted for a compromise candidate, the senior army colonel Chadli Bendjedid. Bouteflika was reassigned the role of Minister of State, but successively lost power as Bendjedid's policies of "de-Boumédiennisation" marginalised the old guard.
In 1981, Bouteflika went into exile fleeing corruption charges. In 1983, he was convicted of corruption.
After six years abroad, in 1989, the army brought him back to the Central Committee of the FLN, after the country had entered a troubled period of unrest and disorganised attempts at reform, with power-struggles between Bendjedid and a group of army generals paralysing decision-making.
In 1992, the reform process ended abruptly when the army took power and scrapped elections that were about to bring the fundamentalist Islamic Salvation Front to power. This triggered a civil war that would last throughout the 1990s. During this period, Bouteflika stayed on the sidelines, with little presence in the media and no political role. In January 1994, Bouteflika was said to have refused the Army's proposal to succeed the assassinated president, Mohamed Boudiaf; he claimed later that this was because the army would not grant him full control over the armed forces. Instead, General Liamine Zéroual became president.
First term as President, 1999–2004
In 1999, after Zéroual unexpectedly stepped down and announced early elections, Bouteflika successfully ran for president as an independent candidate, supported by the military. All other candidates withdrew from the election immediately prior to the vote, citing fraud concerns. Bouteflika subsequently organised a referendum on his policies to restore peace and security to Algeria (involving amnesties for Islamist guerrillas) and to test his support among his countrymen after the contested election. He won with 81% of the vote, but this figure was also disputed by opponents.
Foreign policy
Bouteflika presided over the Organisation of African Unity in 2000, secured the Algiers Peace Treaty between Eritrea and Ethiopia, and supported peace efforts in the African Great Lakes region. He also secured a friendship treaty with nearby Spain in 2002, and welcomed president Jacques Chirac of France on a state visit to Algiers in 2003. This was intended as a prelude to the signature of a friendship treaty.
Algeria has been particularly active in African relations, and in mending ties with the West, as well as trying to some extent to resurrect its role in the declining non-Aligned movement. However, it has played a more limited role in Arab politics, its other traditional sphere of interest. Relations with the Kingdom of Morocco remained quite tense, with diplomatic clashes on the issue of the Western Sahara, despite some expectations of a thaw in 1999, which was also the year of King Mohamed VI's accession to the throne in Morocco.
Second term as President, 2004–2009
On 8 April 2004, Bouteflika was re-elected by an unexpectedly high 85% of the vote in an election that was accepted by Western observers as a free and fair election. This was contested by his rival and former chief of staff Ali Benflis. Several newspapers alleged that the election had not been fair. Frustration was expressed over extensive state control over the broadcast media. The electoral victory was widely seen as a confirmation of Bouteflika's strengthening control over the state, cemented through forcing General Mohammed Lamari to resign as his chief of staff and replacing him "with Ahmed Salah Gaid, his close friend and ally."
Only 17% of people in Kabylia voted in 2004, which represented a significant increase over the violence-ridden legislative elections of 2002. Country-wide, the registered turnout rate was 59%.
Reconciliation plan
During the first year of his second term, Bouteflika held a referendum on his "Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation", inspired by the 1995 "Sant'Egidio Platform" document. The law born of the referendum showed that one of Bouteflika's goals in promoting this blanket amnesty plan was to help Algeria recover its image internationally and to guarantee immunity to institutional actors.
The first year of Bouteflika's second term implemented the Complementary Plan for Economic Growth Support (PCSC), which aimed for the construction of 1 million housing units, the creation of 2 million jobs, the completion of the East–west highway, the completion of the Algiers subway project, the delivery of the new Algiers airport, and other similar large scale infrastructure projects.
The PCSC totaled $60 billion of spending over the five-year period. Bouteflika also aimed to bring down the external debt from $21 billion to $12 billion in the same time. He also obtained from Parliament the reform of the law governing the oil and gas industries, despite initial opposition from the workers unions. However, Bouteflika subsequently stepped back from this position and supported amendments to the hydrocarbon law in 2006, which propose watering down some of the clauses of the 2005 legislation relating to the role of Sonatrach, the state owned oil & gas company, in new developments.
Foreign policy
During Bouteflika's second term he was sharply critical of the law—passed after the 2005 French riots—ordering French history school books to teach that French colonisation had positive effects abroad, especially in North Africa. The diplomatic crisis which ensued delayed the signing of a friendship treaty between the two countries.
Ties to Russia were strengthened and Russia agreed to forgive debts if Algeria began buying arms and gave Russian gas companies (Gazprom, Itera, and Lukoil) access to joint fossil-fuel ventures in Algeria.
In 2004 Bouteflika organised the Arab League Summit and became President of the Arab League for one year; however his calls for reform of the League did not gain sufficient support to pass during the Algiers summit.
At the March 2005 meeting of Arab leaders, held in Algiers, Bouteflika spoke out strongly against Israel, "The Israelis' continuous killing and refusal of a comprehensive and lasting peace, which the Arab world is calling for, requires from us to fully support the Palestinian people." Despite criticism from the west, specifically the United States, Bouteflika insisted that Arab nations would reform at their own pace.
On 16 July 2009, President of Vietnam Nguyễn Minh Triết, met with Bouteflika on the sidelines of the 15th Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) summit in Egypt. President Triet and Bouteflika agreed that the two countries still have great potential for development of political and trade relations. Triet praised the Algerian government for creating favourable conditions for the Vietnam Oil and Gas Group to invest in oil and gas exploration and exploitation in Algeria.
In March 2016, the foreign ministers of the Arab league voted to declare Hezbollah a terrorist organization, Bouteflika voted with Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq to reject the motion.
In sub-Saharan Africa, a major concern of Bouteflika's Algeria had been on-and-off Tuareg rebellions in northern Mali. Algeria has asserted itself forcefully as mediator in the conflict, perhaps underlining its growing regional influence. Compromise peace agreements were reached in 2007 and 2008, both mediated by Algiers.
Constitutional amendment for a third term
In 2006, Bouteflika appointed a new Prime Minister, Abdelaziz Belkhadem. Belkhadem then announced plans that violate the Algerian Constitution to allow the President to run for office indefinitely and increase his powers. This was widely regarded as aimed to let Bouteflika run for president for a third term. In 2008, Belkhadem was shifted out of the premiership and his predecessor Ahmed Ouyahia brought in, having also come out in favor of the constitutional amendment.
The Council of Ministers announced on 3 November 2008 that the planned constitutional revision proposal would remove the presidential term limit previously included in Article 74. The People's National Assembly endorsed the removal of the term limit on 12 November 2008; only the Rally for Culture and Democracy (RCD) voted against its removal.
Third term as President, 2009–2014
Following the constitutional amendment allowing him to run for a third term, on 12 February 2009, Bouteflika announced his independent candidacy in the 2009 presidential election. On 10 April 2009, it was announced that Bouteflika had won the election with 90.24% of the vote, on a turnout of 74%, thereby obtaining a new five-year term. Several opposition parties had boycotted the election, with the opposition Socialist Forces Front citing a "tsunami of massive fraud."
2010–2012 Algerian protests
In 2010, journalists gathered to demonstrate for press freedom and against Bouteflika's self-appointed role as editor-in-chief of Algeria's state television station. In February 2011, the government rescinded the state of emergency that had been in place since 1992 but still banned all protest gatherings and demonstrations. However, in April 2011, over 2,000 protesters defied an official ban and took to the streets of Algiers, clashing with police forces. Protesters noted that they were inspired by the recent Egyptian Revolution, and that Algeria was a police state and "corrupt to the bone".
Fourth term as President, 2014–2019
Following yet another constitutional amendment, allowing him to run for a fourth term, Bouteflika announced that he would. He met the electoral law requiring a candidate to collect over 60,000 signatures from supporters in 25 provinces. On 18 April 2014, he was re-elected with 81% of the vote, while Benflis was second placed with 12.18%. The turnout was 51.7%, down from the 75% turnout in 2009. Several opposition parties boycotted the election again, resulting in allegations of fraud.
Bouteflika cabled his congratulations to freshly-reelected Bashar al-Assad on 19 April 2014. Bouteflika was admitted to a clinic at Grenoble in France in November 2014. In November 2016, he was hospitalized in France for medical checks.
On 20 February 2017, the German Chancellor Angela Merkel canceled her trip to Algeria an hour before takeoff, reportedly because Bouteflika had severe bronchitis.
In June 2017, Bouteflika made a rare, and brief, appearance on Algerian state television presiding over a cabinet meeting with his new government. In a written statement, he ordered the government to reduce imports, curb spending, and be wary of foreign debt. He called for banking sector reform and more investment in renewable energy and "unconventional fossil hydrocarbons." Bouteflika was reliant on a wheelchair and had not given a speech in public since 2014 due to aphasia following his stroke. That same year, he made his final public appearance while unveiling a new metro station and the newly renovated Ketchaoua Mosque in Algiers.
During his final term as president, Bouteflika was usually not been seen in public for more than two years, and several of his close associates had not seen him for more than one year. It was alleged that he could hardly speak and communicated by letter with his ministers.
Candidacy for fifth term, protests, and resignation
On 10 February 2019, a press release signed by the long-ailing Bouteflika announcing he would seek a fifth consecutive term provoked widespread discontent. Youth protesters demanded his picture be removed from city halls in Kenchela and Annaba in the days before the national demonstrations on 22 February, organized via social media. Those in Algiers, where street protests are illegal, were the biggest in nearly 18 years. Protestors ripped down a giant poster of Bouteflika from the landmark Algiers central post office.
On 11 March 2019, after sustained protests, Bouteflika announced that he would not seek a new term. However, his withdrawal from the elections was not enough to end the protests. On 31 March 2019, Bouteflika along with the Prime Minister Noureddine Bedoui who had taken office 20 days earlier, formed a 27-member cabinet with only 6 of the appointees being retained from the outgoing president administration. The next day, Bouteflika announced that he would resign by 28 April 2019. Acceding to demands by the army chief of staff, he ultimately resigned a day later, on 2 April 2019.
Following his resignation, Bouteflika resumed his reclusiveness and made no public appearances due to failing health. Bouteflika spent his final years in a medicalised state residence in Zéralda, a suburb of Algiers. He also had a private residence in El Biar.
Personal life and death
In November 2005, Bouteflika was admitted to a hospital in France, reportedly had a gastric ulcer hemorrhage, and discharged three weeks later. However, the length of time for which Bouteflika remained virtually incommunicado led to rumours that he was critically ill with stomach cancer. He checked into the hospital again in April 2006.
A leaked diplomatic cable revealed that, by the end of 2008, Bouteflika had developed stomach cancer.
In 2013, Bouteflika had a debilitating stroke. A journalist, Hichem Aboud, was pursued for "threatening national security, territorial integrity, and normal management of the Republic's institutions" and the newspapers for which he wrote were censored, because he wrote that the President had returned from Val-de-Grâce in a "comatose state" and had characterized Saïd Bouteflika as the puppet-master running the administration.
On 17 September 2021 Bouteflika died at his home in Zéralda from cardiac arrest at the age of 84.
His death was announced on state television by President Abdelmadjid Tebboune. He had been in failing health since he had a stroke in 2013. President Tebboune declared three days of national mourning after his death. He was buried at the El Alia Cemetery on 19 September in a subdued ceremony.
Criticism
Bouteflika's rule was marred by allegations of fraud and vote-tampering at elections from 1999 to 2019. He had already been convicted in 1983 of corruption. Per Suisse secrets he held an account, during much of his presidency with a maximum balance worth over 1.4 million Swiss francs ($1.1 million) along with other family members.
Notes
References
Official biography
Further reading
External links
Official site
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Forza Italia
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(FI; translated to "Forward Italy" or "Let's Go Italy") was a centre-right liberal-conservative political party in Italy, with Christian-democratic, liberal (especially economically liberal), social-democratic and populist tendencies. It was founded by Silvio Berlusconi, who served as Prime Minister of Italy four times.
The party was founded in December 1993 and won its first general election soon afterwards in March 1994. It was the main member of the Pole of Freedoms/Pole of Good Government, Pole for Freedoms and House of Freedoms coalitions. Throughout its existence, the party was characterised by a strong reliance on the personal image and charisma of its leader (it has been called a "personality party" or Berlusconi's "personal party"), and the skillful use of media campaigns, especially via television. The party's organisation and ideology depended heavily on its leader, so much so that its appeal to voters was based on Berlusconi's personality more than on its ideology or programme.
In November 2008, the national council of the party, presided by Alfredo Biondi, voted to merge Forza Italia into The People of Freedom (PdL), Berlusconi's new political vehicle, whose official foundation took place in March 2009. A new Forza Italia was established by Berlusconi as PdL's legal successor in 2013.
History
Foundation (1993–1994)
Forza Italia was formed in 1993 by Silvio Berlusconi, a successful businessman and owner of four of the main private television stations in Italy, along with Antonio Martino, Mario Valducci, Antonio Tajani, Marcello Dell'Utri, Cesare Previti and Giuliano Urbani.
Italy was shaken by a series of corruption scandals known as Tangentopoli and the subsequent police investigation, called Mani pulite. This led to the disappearance of the five parties which governed Italy from 1947: DC, PSI, PSDI, PLI and PRI (they formed a successful five-party coalition called Pentapartito from 1983 to 1991, and then governed without PRI from 1991 to 1994) and to the end of the so-called First Republic.
Forza Italia's aim was to attract moderate voters who were "disoriented, political orphans and who risked being unrepresented" (as Berlusconi described them), especially if the Democratic Party of the Left (the direct heirs of the Italian Communist Party) had been able to win the next election and enter in government for the first time since 1947.
The establishment of Forza Italia was supported in terms of finance, personnel and logistics by Berlusconi's Fininvest corporation: The area managers of its advertisement branch Publitalia '80 (managed by Dell'Utri) organised the selection of FI candidates, its marketing network staffed the opinion research centre Diakron that surveyed the "market potential" of the new party and the financial intermediaries of Fininvest subsidiary Programma Italia encouraged the launch of Forza Italia clubs. The new party's campaigning was strongly dependent on Fininvest's TV stations and PR resources. This earned Forza Italia labels like "virtual", "plastic" or "business-firm party". In her 2001 study of the party, political scientist Emanuela Poli described Forza Italia as "a mere diversification of Fininvest in the political market". The case of Forza Italia was unprecedented as never before had a large political party been launched by a business corporation. Only slowly it transformed into a mass-membership organisation. It took four years until the first party congress was held. To extend its representation in different regions, FI often recruited established politicians of the "old" parties, mainly DC and PSI, who defected to the new party, bringing their local clientele with them.
FI's political programme was strongly influenced by the manifesto "In Search of Good Government" (Alla ricerca del buongoverno) authored in late 1993 by Giuliano Urbani who was then a political science professor at Milan's private Bocconi University and an occasional collaborator of Fininvest. It denounced corruption, dominance of political parties and remnants of communism as Italy's ills, while advocating market economy, the assertion of civil society and more efficient politics as the solutions. In a couple of months Forza Italia became one of the leading Italian parties, achieving a large consensus through an accurate strategy of communication and pounding electoral spots aired by the Mediaset TV channels.
A short stint in power (1994–1995)
A few months after its creation, Forza Italia came to national power after the 1994 general election as the head of a political coalition called Pole of Freedoms/Pole of Good Government, composed of Lega Nord, National Alliance, Christian Democratic Centre and Union of the Centre.
Silvio Berlusconi was sworn in May 1994 as Prime Minister of Italy in a government in which the most important cabinet posts were held by fellow Forza Italia members: Antonio Martino was
Foreign Minister, Cesare Previti Defence Minister, Alfredo Biondi Justice Minister and Giulio Tremonti (at the time an independent member of Parliament) Finance Minister.
In the 1994 European Parliament election held in June, Forza Italia was placed first nationally, with 30.6% of the vote, electing 27 MEPs. The party did not join an existing group in the European Parliament, instead forming the new group Forza Europa, composed entirely of Forza Italia MEPs.
The first Berlusconi-led government had a short life and fell in December, when Lega Nord left the coalition, after disagreements over pension reform and the first avviso di garanzia (preliminary notice of an investigation) for Berlusconi, passed by Milan prosecutors. Forza Italia's leader was replaced as Prime Minister by Lamberto Dini, an independent politician who had been the administration's Treasury Minister. No members of Forza Italia joined the new government and the party leader was relegated to opposition. However, the party obtained substantial successes in the 1995 Italian regional elections, both in the North (winning in Piedmont, Lombardy and Veneto) and the South (Campania, Apulia and Calabria).
Five years of opposition (1996–2001)
In 1996 the Pole for Freedoms coalition led by Forza Italia lost that year's general election and began what Berlusconi called "the crossing of the desert", something that could have proved fatal for such a young and unstructured party. Between 1996 and 1998, the party started to strengthen its organisation under Claudio Scajola, a former Christian Democrat who served as national coordinator of Forza Italia from 1996 to 2001.
In December 1999, Forza Italia gained full membership in the European People's Party, of which Antonio Tajani, the party leader of Forza Italia in the European Parliament, became a Vice President. In the same year, the party scored well (25.2% of votes) in the European Parliament election of 1999.
In the Italian regional elections of 2000, the Pole for Freedoms, with the support of Lega Nord, won in eight out of fifteen regions (all the most populous ones, except for Campania), while three members of Forza Italia were re-elected as presidents of the Region in Piedmont (Enzo Ghigo), Lombardy (Roberto Formigoni), and Veneto (Giancarlo Galan), together with three more elected for the first time in Liguria (Sandro Biasotti), Apulia (Raffaele Fitto) and Calabria (Giuseppe Chiaravalloti).
The party regained power in the general election of 2001, gaining 29.4% of the votes with Giorgio La Malfa's tiny Italian Republican Party, in a new coalition called House of Freedoms (CdL) and composed mainly of the National Alliance, Lega Nord, Christian Democratic Centre and United Christian Democrats (the last two parties merged in 2002 to form the Union of Christian and Centre Democrats, UDC).
Five years in government (2001–2006)
In June 2001, after the huge success in May elections, Silvio Berlusconi was returned head of the Italian government, the longest-serving cabinet in the history of the Italian republic. Again all key ministerial posts were given to Forza Italia members: Interior (Claudio Scajola 2001–2002, Giuseppe Pisanu 2002–2006), Defence (Antonio Martino 2001–2006), Finance (Giulio Tremonti, 2001–2004 and 2005–2006), Industry (Antonio Marzano 2001–2005, Claudio Scajola 2005–2006) and Foreign Affairs (Franco Frattini, 2002–2004). Additionally, National Alliance leader Gianfranco Fini was appointed Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister from 2004 to 2006, while Roberto Castelli, senior figure of Lega Nord was Justice Minister from 2001 to 2006.
In 2004 European elections, Forza Italia was second place nationally, receiving 20.1% of the vote and returning 16 MEPs.
In national office, the government's popularity kept declining steadily year after year. Regional elections in April 2005 were a serious blow for the party, which however remained strong in the northern regions, such as Lombardy and Veneto, and somewhere in the South, where Sicily was a stronghold. After this disappointing electoral performance the cabinet was reshuffled, due to the insistence of the Union of Christian and Centre Democrats's leaders, and Berlusconi formed his third cabinet.
During his five years in office, Berlusconi government passed a series of reforms: a pension system reform, a labour market reform, a judiciary reform and a constitutional reform – the latter rejected by a referendum in June 2006. In foreign policy he shifted the country's position to more closeness to the United States, while in economic policy he was not able to deliver the tax cuts he had openly promised throughout all 2001 electoral campaign.
Toward The People of Freedom (2006–2009)
In the 2006 general election the party was present with a slightly different logo, with the words "Berlusconi President" (Berlusconi Presidente). It was the only party to use the word "President" in its logo. In the election for the Chamber of Deputies, FI scored 23.7% and 137 seats, in those for the Senate 24.0%, without counting Trentino-Alto Adige, whose seats were contested on first-past-the-post basis and which is a left-wing stronghold, due to its alliance with the autonomist South Tyrolean People's Party). The incumbent Berlusconi-led government narrowly lost to The Union coalition, which returned Romano Prodi as Prime Minister, relegating Forza Italia and its House of Freedoms allies to opposition.
On 31 July 2007 Berlusconi's protegee and possible successor Michela Vittoria Brambilla registered the name and the logo of the "Freedom Party" (Partito della Libertà) apparently with Berlusconi's backing. On 18 November, after Forza Italia claimed to have collected the signatures of more than 7 million Italians (including Umberto Bossi) against Romano Prodi's second government to ask the President of the Republic Giorgio Napolitano to call a fresh election, Berlusconi announced that Forza Italia would have soon merged or transformed into The People of Freedom (PdL) party.
After the sudden fall of the Prodi II Cabinet on 24 January 2008, the break-up of The Union coalition and the subsequent political crisis paving the way towards a new general election, Berlusconi hinted on 25 January that Forza Italia would have probably contested its final election and the new party would have been officially founded after that election. In an atmosphere of reconciliation with Gianfranco Fini, Berlusconi also stated that the new party could have seen the participation of other parties. Finally, on 8 February, Berlusconi and Fini agreed to form a joint list under the banner of "The People of Freedom", allied with Lega Nord. In the 2008 general election the PdL won 37.4% and a majority in both chambers, thanks to the alliance with Lega Nord (8.3%). Soon after the election Berlusconi formed his fourth government.
On 21 November 2008 the national council of the party, presided over by Alfredo Biondi and attended by Berlusconi himself, officially decided the dissolution of Forza Italia into The People of Freedom (PdL), whose official foundation took place on 27 March 2009.
Revival (2013)
In June 2013 Berlusconi announced the upcoming revival of Forza Italia, and the transformation of the People of Freedom into a centre-right coalition. The modern-day Forza Italia was launched on 18 September 2013 and the PdL was dissolved into the new party on 16 November 2013.
Ideology
Forza Italia was a centre-right party, formed mainly by former members of Christian Democracy, the Italian Socialist Party and the Italian Liberal Party. The ideology of the party ranged from libertarianism to social democracy (often referred to as "liberal socialism" in Italy), including elements of the Catholic social teaching and the social market economy. The party was a member of the European People's Party (EPP) and presented itself as the party of renewal and modernization. The core values of Forza Italia were "freedom" and the "centrality of the individual". From a comparative perspective the ideology of Forza Italia has been characterized as liberal conservative, or conservative liberal, national conservative, and liberal.
Alessandro Campi has written that "the political culture of Forza Italia – a curious and, on many respects, untold mixture of 'liberalism' and 'democratic populism' – deserves to be described as an 'anti-ideological ideology', ... as a synthesis or fusion of very diverse political families and traditions (from liberal Catholicism to social conservatism, from reformist socialism to economic liberalism), kept together by the mobilizing appeal to 'freedom'." Chiara Moroni, who explains Forza Italia's ideology as a mixture of liberal, Christian-democratic and social-democratic values (united in the concept of "popular liberalism" in party documents), wrote that "Berlusconi offered to voters liberal values through a populist style" and that "Forza Italia has made the liberal political ideal popular" among voters, so that "it was spread and shared by broad and heterogenous sectors of the Italian population".
The electoral base of Forza Italia was highly heterogeneous and the ideological differences among its voters are explained also by its different regional constituencies; while voters from the North tended to support the original libertarian line of the party, voters from the South tended to be more statist. Both its Northern strongholds (Lombardy and Veneto) and its Southern strongholds (Sicily and Apulia) were once dominated by the Christian Democracy party; while in the South most leading members of Forza Italia are former Christian Democrats, the party was highly influenced also by liberals in the North.
Forza Italia claimed to be a fresh new party, with no ties with the last governments of the so-called First Republic, and at the same time to be the heir of the best political traditions of Italy: Christian Democrat Alcide De Gasperi, Social Democrat Giuseppe Saragat, Liberal Luigi Einaudi and Republican Ugo La Malfa were considered as party icons.
The "Secular Creed", that was also the preamble to the party's constitution, described the party in this way:
Forza Italia presented itself as a bridge between Catholics and non-Catholics, who have been previously divided in the political system of the First Republic, and "the union of three political-cultural areas: that of liberal and popular Catholicism, that of secular, liberal and republican humanism and that of liberal socialism". In a speech during a party congress in 1998, Berlusconi himself proclaimed: "our liberal vision of the State is perfectly in agreement with the Catholic social teaching".
The "Secular Creed" of the party explains that FI was a party that primarily underlined freedom and the centrality of the individual, which are basic principles of both liberalism and the Catholic social teaching, often connected in party official documents:
In 2008 Berlusconi stated that:
Sandro Bondi, a leading member of the party, wrote:
The party included also non-Catholic members, but they were a minority, and it was less secular in its policies than Christian Democratic Union of Germany. The party usually gave to its members freedom of conscience on moral issues (and hence a free vote), as in the case of the referendum on stem-cell research, but leading members of the party, including Silvio Berlusconi, Giulio Tremonti and Marcello Pera (who is himself non-Catholic, although friend of Pope Benedict XVI), spoke in favour of "abstention" (as asked by the Catholic Church, to not surpass the 50% of turnout needed for making the referendum legally binding). While Pera campaigned hard for the success of the boycott along with most FI members, both Berlusconi and Tremonti explicitly said that "abstention" was their personal opinion, not the official one of the party.
The political scientist Giovanni Orsina has defined Berlusconism, as he terms the ideology of Forza Italia and its leader, as an "emulsion of populism and liberalism", more specifically right-liberalism. According to him, in the initial phase, both elements were represented about equally, only after 2000 pro-market liberal positions had receded in favour of more socially conservative ones. As the main ideologic themes of Berlusconism, Orsina identified the myth of the "good" civil society (as opposed to the state apparatus), a "friendly, minimal state" (providing services to citizens rather than regulating their lives), "hypopolitics" (i.e. the containment of political conflicts, after the hyper-politisation of Italian society during the "First Republic") and the identification of a "new virtuous elite". The concepts of a good civil society and hypopolitics were both liberal and populist; while the minimal state was a mainly liberal idea and the new virtuous elite a chiefly populist one. According to Orsina, Berlusconism sanctified "the people" that embodied all virtues while being "betrayed" by the (old) elites, a typical element of populist ideologies. However, Berlusconi viewed "the people" as a pluralistic and diverse collection of individuals, not an ethnically, historically and culturally homogeneous unit.
Members
Most members of the party were former Christian Democrats (DC): Giuseppe Pisanu (former member of the leftist faction of DC and Minister of Interior), Roberto Formigoni (President of Lombardy), Claudio Scajola (former Minister of the Interior and of Industry), Enrico La Loggia, Renato Schifani, Guido Crosetto, Raffaele Fitto, Giuseppe Gargani, Alfredo Antoniozzi, Giorgio Carollo, Giuseppe Castiglione, Francesco Giro, Luigi Grillo, Maurizio Lupi, Mario Mantovani, Mario Mauro, Osvaldo Napoli, Antonio Palmieri, Angelo Sanza, Riccardo Ventre and Marcello Vernola are only some remarkable examples.
Several members were former Socialists (PSI), as Giulio Tremonti (vice-president of the party and former Minister of Economy), Franco Frattini (Vice President of the European Commission), Fabrizio Cicchitto (national deputy-coordinator of the party), Renato Brunetta, Francesco Musotto, Amalia Sartori, Paolo Guzzanti and Margherita Boniver. Berlusconi himself was a close friend of Bettino Craxi, leader of the PSI, in spite of his own Christian Democratic and Liberal background (Berlusconi was a DC activist in occasion of the 1948 general election).
Many were former Liberals (PLI), Republicans (PRI) and Social Democrats (PSDI): Alfredo Biondi (president of Forza Italia's national council) and Raffaele Costa, both former PLI leaders, and former PSDI leader Carlo Vizzini were later MPs for Forza Italia. Also Antonio Martino and Giancarlo Galan were formers Liberals, Jas Gawronski was a leading Republican, while Marcello Pera has a Socialist and Radical background.
Even some former Communists were leading members of the party, such as national party coordinator Sandro Bondi and Ferdinando Adornato.
Factions
Members of Forza Italia were divided in factions, which were sometimes mutable and formed over the most important political issues, despite previous party allegiances; however, it is possible to distinguish some patterns. The party was divided over ethical (between social conservatives and progressives), economic (between social democrats and some Christian democrats on one side and liberals on the other one), and institutional issues.
Regarding the latter issue, generally speaking, northern party members were staunch proposers of political and fiscal federalism, and autonomy for the Regions (in some parts of Veneto and Lombardy, it was sometimes difficult to distinguish a member of FI from a member of the LN), while those coming from the South were more cold on the issue. Also some former Liberals, due to their role of unifiers of Italy in the 19th century, were more centralist.
A scheme of the internal factions within Forza Italia could be this:
Liberals. Supporters of free markets, deregulation, economic freedoms, civil rights and, in general, personal responsibility and freedom. This group was basically formed by two wings: classical liberals (former members of the Italian Liberal Party, most of them organised in Popular Liberalism, as Alfredo Biondi, Raffaele Costa, Egidio Sterpa and Enrico Nan); former Socialists, as Renato Brunetta and Paolo Guzzanti; others like Stefania Prestigiacomo and Simone Baldelli) and libertarians, as Antonio Martino (ex-PLI), Dario Rivolta, Benedetto Della Vedova (ex-Radical) and his Liberal Reformers. The latter were more staunchly pro-United States than the former and supported the idea of transforming Italy into a federal State.
Liberal-centrists. They were more moderate than Martino and Della Vedova on economic issues, and more socially conservative on ethical issues, although not being totally sided with the Catholic Church. To this broad group belonged people of various origin: former Socialists (as Giulio Tremonti, Franco Frattini, Giampiero Cantoni, Amalia Sartori and Jole Santelli), former Republicans (as Luigi Casero, Denis Verdini and Donato Bruno), former Liberals (as Giancarlo Galan, Giuseppe Vegas and Paolo Romani), some former liberal Christian Democrats (Giuseppe Cossiga and Basilio Germanà) and many others (as Giorgio Jannone, Antonio Leone, Gianfranco Micciché and Aldo Brancher). They were strong in Northern Italy and strong supporters of political and fiscal federalism.
Christian democrats. They believed in the social market economy model and were supporters of Catholic stances over ethical issues. Most former members of Christian Democracy were identifiable with this tendency (from Roberto Formigoni to Giuseppe Pisanu, from Claudio Scajola to Enrico La Loggia, from Guido Crosetto to Angelo Sanza, from Maurizio Lupi to Giuseppe Gargani, from Antonio Palmieri to Mario Mantovani), but also ex-Communists, such as Sandro Bondi and Fernando Adornato, and an ex-Socialist as Gianni Baget Bozzo, a Catholic priest who was in charge of cultural formation, fitted the category, along with former Liberals, as Isabella Bertolini. Some were more socially conservative than others (for example Formigoni and theoconservatives like Marcello Pera) and many of them were close to Giulio Tremonti, indeed this group and that described before were very close on most political issues, so that the two factions were often undistinguishable. They are probably the most europeanist wing of the party, along with former Socialists, but many of them were also the most atlanticists within it, as Adornato and Pera. In 2007 Adornato, Pisanu and Formigoni launched a faction named Liberal-Popular Union, but, the faction soon was disbanded as Adornato left Forza Italia to join UDC. Formigoni had also his own group, Network Italy, mainly composed of Catholics active in Communion and Liberation, to which group both Crosetto and Fitto showed closeness.
Social democrats. The most progressive wing of the party, especially about ethical issues. They were basically former Socialists, as Fabrizio Cicchitto, Francesco Colucci, Maurizio Sacconi, Margherita Boniver, Giorgio Stracquadanio, Chiara Moroni and Stefania Craxi, or former Social Democrats, as Carlo Vizzini, Nicola Cosentino and Paolo Russo. They considered themselves the true heirs of Pietro Nenni, Giuseppe Saragat and Bettino Craxi, continued to declare themselves 'Socialists' and were sided with Silvio Berlusconi's centre-right because they saw the Italian centre-left as too hegemonised by the Democrats of the Left, heir of the Italian Communist Party, which was the harshest rival of the Italian Socialists from the Fifties to the Nineties. Forza Italia's social democrats were organised into four sub-factions: We Blue Reformers, Free Foundation, Young Italy and the Clubs of Reformist Initiative.
Christian democrats and liberal-centrists were undoubtedly the strongest factions within the party, but all four were mainstream for a special issue: for example liberals and liberal-centrists were highly influential over economic policy, Christian democrats led the party over ethical issues (although there was a substantial minority promoting a more progressive outlook), while social democrats had their say in defining the party's policy over labour market reform and, moreover, it is thanks to this group (and to those around Tremonti, he himself a former Socialist) that constitutional reform was at the top of Forza Italia's political agenda. It is difficult to say to what faction Berlusconi was closer, what is sure is that his political record was a synthesis of all the political tendencies within the party.
Internal structure
Before being merged into the PdL, Forza Italia had a president (currently Silvio Berlusconi), two vice-presidents (Giulio Tremonti and Roberto Formigoni), a presidential committee (presided by Claudio Scajola) and a national council (presided by Alfredo Biondi).
The president was the party's leader, but a national coordinator was in charge of internal organisation and day-to-day political activity, similarly to the secretary-general in many European parties. Moreover, the party had thematic departments and regional, provincial or metropolitan coordination boards plus many affiliate clubs (Club Azzurro) all over Italy.
FI is considered a prototypical example of the business-firm party, in that it was strongly centered on Berlusconi, who had created the party to further his own private interests.
It has been claimed that Forza Italia had no internal democracy because there was no way of changing the leader of the party from below (although the party's constitution makes it possible). Key posts in the party structure were appointed by Berlusconi or by his delegates. Forza Italia's organisation was based on the idea of a "party of the elected people", giving more importance to the whole electorate than to party's members.
Party national-level conventions did not have normally elections to choose the party leadership (although the national congress elected some members of the national council), and they seemed to be more like events arranged for propaganda purposes. However, Berlusconi was highly popular among his party fellows, and it was unlikely he could have been overthrown if such an election had occurred.
Within the party there was a long debate over organisation. The original idea was the so-called "light party" (partito leggero), intended to be different from Italian traditional, bureaucratic and self-referential, party machines. This was the line of the early founders of the party, notably Marcello Dell'Utri and Antonio Martino. However Claudio Scajola and most former Christian Democrats supported a more capillary-based organisation, to make participate as much people as possible, and a more collegial, participative and democratic decision-making process.
In a 1999 study, political scientists Jonathan Hopkin and Caterina Paolucci likened the organisational model of the party to that of a business firm, describing it as having "a lightweight organisation with the sole basic function of mobilising short-term support at election time". Several other authors have adopted this comparison, and have labeled Berlusconi as a "political entrepreneur".
Given the perceived use of government responsibility to advance Berlusconi's personal and Fininvest's business interests during the period of Forza Italia-led government, the political scientist Patrick McCarthy in 1995 proposed to describe Forza Italia as a "clan" rather than a reform-minded political party. In 2004, ten years after the emergence of the party and during its second term in government, Mark Donovan summarised that this still might be an accurate description. He asserted that the party (and the centre-right camp) was only coherent and disciplined when it came to questions that strongly concerned Berlusconi, while he allowed great liberties to the diverse factions in other issues that did not concern his personal interests.
Distinctive traits
From its inception, Forza Italia used unconventional means in regards to European politics. Forza Italia’s methods more closely resembled the American model, and utilized methods such as: stickering, SMS messaging, and mass-mailing of campaign material. This additionally included the widespread distribution of Berlusconi‘s biography, which was titled "An Italian Story" (Una storia italiana).
The party was heavily dependent on the image surrounding Berlusconi's personality. The party's anthem was sung in karaoke fashion at American-style conventions. There was nominally no internal opposition (although some critical voices raised up, such as those of Senators Paolo Guzzanti and Raffaele Iannuzzi). The party used TV advertising extensively, although this was slightly restricted following 2000 by a law passed by the centre-left majority of the time.
European affiliation
Following its first European election in 1994, Forza Italia MEPs formed their own political group in the European Parliament called Forza Europa. In 1995, Forza Europa merged with the European Democratic Alliance to form the Union for Europe group alongside the Rally for the Republic of France and Fianna Fáil of Ireland. Following an abandoned attempt to form a European political party with Rally for the Republic in 1997, on 10 June 1998 Forza Italia was accepted into the
Group of the European People's Party. In December 1999 Forza Italia was finally granted full membership of the European People's Party (EPP).
Popular support
The electoral results of FI in general (Chamber of Deputies) and European Parliament elections since 1994 are shown in the chart below.
The electoral results of Forza Italia in the 10 most populated regions of Italy are shown in the table below.
Electoral results
Italian Parliament
European Parliament
Leadership
President: Silvio Berlusconi (1994–2009)
Vice President: Giulio Tremonti (2004–2009), Roberto Formigoni (2008–2009)
Spokesperson: Antonio Tajani (1994–1996), Paolo Bonaiuti (1996–2001), Sandro Bondi (2001–2004), Elisabetta Gardini (2004–2008), Daniele Capezzone (2008–2009)
President of the President's Committee: Claudio Scajola (2004–2009)
Vice President of the President's Committee: Carlo Vizzini (2005–2009)
President of the National Council: Alfredo Biondi (2004–2009)
Coordinator: Domenico Mennitti (1994), Luigi Caligaris (1994), Cesare Previti (1994–1996), Claudio Scajola (1996–2001), Roberto Antonione (2001–2003), Claudio Scajola (2003), Sandro Bondi (2003–2008), Denis Verdini (2008–2009)
Deputy-Coordinator: Giuliano Urbani / Mario Valducci (1995–1996), Fabrizio Cicchitto (2003–2009), Gianfranco Micciché (2004–2009), Renato Brunetta (2007–2009), Gian Carlo Abelli (2008–2009)
Treasurer: Mario Valducci (1994–1995), Domenico Lo Jucco (1995–1997), Giovanni Dell'Elce (1997–2003), Rocco Crimi (2003–2009)
Party Leader in the Chamber of Deputies: Raffaele Della Valle (1994), Vittorio Dotti (1994–1996), Giuseppe Pisanu (1996–2001), Elio Vito (2001–2008), Fabrizio Cicchitto (leader of PdL's group, 2008–2009)
Party Leader in the Senate: Enrico La Loggia (1994–2001), Renato Schifani (2001–2008), Gaetano Quagliariello (deputy leader of PdL's group, 2008–2009)
Party Leader in the European Parliament: Giancarlo Ligabue (1994–1997), Claudio Azzolini (1997–1999), Antonio Tajani (1999–2009)
Symbols
Bibliography
Notes
References
External links
Chart of Values
Chart of Values – Key Ideas
Secular Creed of Forza Italia
2009 disestablishments in Italy
Christian democratic parties in Italy
Catholic political parties
Liberal conservative parties
Liberal parties in Italy
Social conservative parties
Political parties established in 1993
Political parties disestablished in 2009
Conservative parties in Italy
1993 establishments in Italy
Defunct political parties in Italy
Defunct liberal political parties
Political career of Silvio Berlusconi
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The Lion King 1½
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The Lion King 1½ (also known as The Lion King 3: Hakuna Matata internationally) is a 2004 American animated direct-to-video musical comedy film produced by the Australian branch of DisneyToon Studios and released direct to video on February 13, 2004. The third and final installment released in the original Lion King trilogy, it is based on The Lion King's Timon & Pumbaa and serves as an origin story for the meerkat/warthog duo Timon and Pumbaa while the film is also set within the events of The Lion King. A majority of the original voice cast from the first film returns to reprise their roles, including Nathan Lane and Ernie Sabella as the voices of Timon and Pumbaa, respectively. The plot of the movie is inspired by Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, a tragicomedy that tells the story of Hamlet from the point of view of two minor characters.
Plot
In a dark theater (a parody of Mystery Science Theater 3000) Timon and Pumbaa were watching The Lion King until Timon uses a remote fast fowards to the scene where they appear, but Pumbaa uses another remote to rewind to the beginning. This lead to the two to fight over the remotes until Timon gets the idea of telling the story of how both of them met and how they learned about Hakuna Matata. Pumbaa agrees with his idea and Timon rewinds the film to before the beginning where the story begins.
Timon is a social outcast in his meerkat colony on the outskirts of the Pride Lands, as he frequently messes things up by accident. Though he is unconditionally supported by his mother, Timon dreams of a better life than his colony's bleak existence, continually hiding from predators, most notably the hyenas. One day, he is assigned as a sentry in an attempt by his mother to get him accepted, but his daydreaming leads to the near death of his uncle, Max, at the hands of hyenas Shenzi, Banzai and Ed.
Now ostracized, Timon decides to leave his colony to find a better place to live. He meets the mandrill Rafiki, who teaches him about "Hakuna Matata", and advises him to "look beyond what you see". Timon takes this advice literally and observes Pride Rock in the distance. Believing Pride Rock to be his dream home, Timon ventures in that direction and encounters Pumbaa the warthog on his way. The two quickly form a bond, and Pumbaa accompanies Timon on his journey.
The pair arrive at Pride Rock during the presentation of Simba to the animals of the Pride Lands, mistaking it for a land rush. As they make their way through the crowd, Pumbaa explosively passes gas due to his agoraphobia, causing the nearby animals to faint and prompting animals further away to bow to Simba. Following this, Timon and Pumbaa make multiple attempts to set up homes throughout the Pride Lands, but wind up being forced away every time upon witnessing several events from the original film.
Eventually, the pair are caught in the wildebeest stampede that killed Mufasa, and are thrown off a waterfall in their attempt to escape. Exhausted, Timon decides to give up and realizes that Pumbaa, who sympathizes with Timon over being a social outcast, is the only friend that he has ever had. The next morning, the two discover a luxurious green jungle. With their dream home found, they settle there, embracing "Hakuna Matata" as their life's philosophy.
Some time later, Timon and Pumbaa encounter Simba in a nearby desert, nearly dead. They rescue him and decide to raise him under their philosophy, while eating bugs and relaxing. Years later, Simba's childhood friend Nala appears and reunites with him. Believing Hakuna Matata to be in jeopardy, Timon and Pumbaa attempt to sabotage their dates, but fail every time. Upon witnessing Simba and Nala's argument, Simba disappears, and Timon believes they have succeeded. The next day, they and Nala learn from Rafiki that Simba has run off to challenge Scar and reclaim Pride Rock. Upset that Simba left them, Timon decides to stay behind, but Pumbaa, annoyed that Timon would callously abandon Simba when he needs him, follows Simba and Nala. Timon indulges in the jungle's luxuries by himself, but loneliness starts to overwhelm him. After feeling sad and guilty, Timon is met with Rafiki, who indirectly makes him realize that his true Hakuna Matata is with the ones he loves, not just the place he sought for, prompting Timon to follow the others.
Timon catches up and reconciles with Pumbaa before journeying onward to Pride Rock to join Simba and Nala. After helping them distract the hyenas with a hula dance, Timon and Pumbaa run into Ma and Uncle Max, who had come looking for Timon after Ma learnt from Rafiki his teaching of Hakuna Matata to Timon. Timon proposes that they all help Simba by getting rid of the hyenas. While Simba battles Scar on the top of Pride Rock, Ma and Uncle Max construct a series of tunnels beneath the hyenas, while at the same time, Timon and Pumbaa use various tactics to distract them. When the tunnels are finished, Max knocks down the support beams, breaking the ground under the hyenas. However, the last few beams get jammed, prompting Timon to dive underground and break them himself. The cave-in ensues, and the hyenas are ejected through the tunnels. Simba accepts his place as the rightful king of the Pride Lands, thanking Timon and Pumbaa for their help. Timon takes Pumbaa, Ma, Uncle Max, and the rest of the meerkat colony to live in the jungle to complete his Hakuna Matata, and he is praised as their hero, while gaining acceptance into his colony.
When the story finishes, Ma, Uncle Max, Simba, Rafiki, and eventually many other Disney characters join Timon and Pumbaa to rewatch the film in the theater, during which Pumbaa tells Timon that he still struggles with crowds.
Voice cast
Several members of the original cast, including Nathan Lane, Ernie Sabella, and Matthew Broderick, reprise their roles from The Lion King, while other actors reprise their roles from The Lion King II: Simba's Pride such as Edward Hibbert as Zazu, who replaced Rowan Atkinson in the prior film. James Earl Jones and Jeremy Irons do not reprise their characters with Mufasa and Scar respectively being silent roles. Matt Weinberg replaces Jonathan Taylor Thomas as the voice of Simba as a cub. Carolyn Gardner, Chris Sanders, Bill Farmer, Tony Anselmo, and Blayne Weaver provide the uncredited voices of several notable Disney characters in the film's final scene.
Nathan Lane as Timon, a meerkat who is Pumbaa's best friend. Though somewhat selfish, arrogant, and withdrawn, Timon shows courageous loyalty towards his friends.
Ernie Sabella as Pumbaa, a warthog who is Timon's best friend. Though slow-witted, he is very empathetic and willing to trust and befriend anyone. He is also claustrophobic and passes gas in crowds.
Julie Kavner as Ma, Timon's caring mother. She is overly protective and attached to her son, often trying to get him accepted amongst the colony, but never succeeding.
Jerry Stiller as Max, Timon's paranoid, eccentric but kind-hearted uncle. He initially doubts Timon's ability, but warms up to him at the film's climax.
Matthew Broderick as Simba, Timon and Pumbaa's second best friend, Mufasa and Sarabi's son, Scar's nephew, Nala's husband and the current King of the Pride Lands.
Matt Weinberg voices Simba as a cub.
Moira Kelly as Nala, Simba's childhood friend and eventual wife.
Robert Guillaume as Rafiki, a monkey who teaches Timon Hakuna Matata, as well as giving him faith in himself to do what he dreams of doing.
Whoopi Goldberg, Cheech Marin and Jim Cummings as Shenzi, Banzai and Ed, a trio of spotted hyenas who act as the local predators of Timon's meerkat colony before their allegiance with Scar.
Jim also voiced Doc, the leader of the Seven Dwarfs who came with Snow White to rewatch Timon and Pumbaa's film.
Edward Hibbert as Zazu, a red-billed hornbill and the majordomo to Mufasa and later Simba.
Kevin Schon as Iron Joe, a paranoid meerkat who is carried away by several other meerkats.
Schon also voiced Happy, one of the Seven Dwarfs who came to rewatch the film with Snow white.
Carolyn Gardner (uncredited) as Snow White, a princess who comes to rewatch the movie with the Seven Dwarfs.
Jeff Bennett (uncredited) as Bashful, one of the Seven Dwarfs who rewatches the film with Snow White.
Corey Burton (uncredited) as Grumpy, one the Seven Dwarfs who comes to rewatch the film with other Disney Characters.
Bob Joles (uncredited) as Sneezy, one of the Seven Dwarfs who comes with Snow White to rewatch Timon and Pumbaa's film.
Chris Sanders (uncredited) as Stitch, an alien who comes to rewatch the film with other Disney Characters and laughs at Donald when he jumps on him.
Bill Farmer (uncredited) as Goofy, a friend of Mickey Mouse who comes to rewatch the film with Timon and Pumbaa and gets jumped on the head by Stitch.
Farmer also voices Sleepy, one of the Seven Dwarfs who comes to rewatch the movie with Snow White.
Tony Anselmo (uncredited) as Donald Duck, a duck who is Mickey's short-tempered but good-natured best friend.
Blayne Weaver (uncredited) as Peter Pan, a flying boy from Neverland who comes to rewatch Timon and Pumbaa's movie with Tinker Bell and the Lost Boys.
Production
In April 2000, it was announced that the Walt Disney Company had selected Jeff Ahlholm, Colin Goldman, and Tom Rogers to write the script for The Lion King 3. It was scheduled to arrive in video stores sometime in 2001. Bradley Raymond, who had previously directed Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World (1998) and The Hunchback of Notre Dame II (2002), came on board as director. He recalled that it was then-Disney Feature Animation president Thomas Schumacher's idea to "retell Lion King through the eyes of Timon and Pumbaa". Additionally, Roger Allers and Irene Mecchi, who directed and co-wrote the screenplay for The Lion King respectively, consulted on the production. According to Raymond, it was Allers who came up with the Mystery Science Theater 3000–inspired framing of the film. Furthermore, the filmmakers drew inspiration from Tom Stoppard's play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead as the first Lion King film had drawn inspiration from Hamlet.
In May 2003, The Lion King was scheduled for home video release in early spring 2004 with Nathan Lane, Ernie Sabella, and Matthew Broderick reprising their original roles, and Elton John and Tim Rice returning to compose a new song, "That’s All I Need".
The film was animated by Walt Disney Animation Australia in Sydney, New South Wales and Disneytoon Studios in the United States.
Release
Upon its initial home video release, The Lion King was accompanied by a marketing campaign tie-in with McDonald's with six Happy Meal toys: Simba, Rafiki, Timon, Pumbaa, Mufasa and Ed. (This same promotion was used in international countries for the Special Edition release of the first Lion King with two additional toys featuring Zazu and Scar.)
The DVD edition contain music videos, deleted scenes, behind-the-scenes views of how the movie was made, and two featurettes: Timon -- The Early Years; a mockumentary tracing Timon's childhood through tongue-in-cheek interviews with family and friends; and Disney's Funniest Moments, highlighting Disney animated characters from the Seven Dwarfs to Brother Bear. Three games are also featured, including: Timon and Pumbaa's Virtual Safari 1.5, a Lion King trivia game in the format of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, titled Who Wants to Be King of the Jungle?, and hosted by Meredith Vieira, then-host of the U.S. syndicated version and a find the face game which shows pictures of several Disney Characters coming to watch Timon and Pumbaa's movie. The Lion King was released on February 13, 2004. Internationally, it was titled The Lion King 3: Hakuna Matata.
On its first day of sales, the film sold 1.5 million DVD copies, and in its first three days of release the film generated about $55 million in sales revenue, 2.5 of which were DVD copies of the film. By March 2004, six million DVD and VHS copies of the film had been sold in North America. More than 30 percent of the title's sales were from the Latino market. Later that year, the movie was released as part of a 3-movie box set along with The Lion King and The Lion King II: Simba's Pride on December 6. On January 31, 2005, the film, along with its predecessors, went back into moratorium.
The film was first released on Blu-ray as part of an eight-disc box set on October 4, 2011, along with the other two films. The movie later received a separate Blu-ray release as well as a standard DVD release on March 6, 2012, along with The Lion King II: Simba's Pride. The Blu-ray and DVD releases, along with Simba's Pride and the Diamond Edition release of The Lion King, were removed from release on April 30, 2013.
The film was re-released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on a Blu-ray combo pack and digital release along with The Lion King II: Simba's Pride on August 29, 2017 — the same day as the first film's Signature Edition was released.
Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 76% based on 17 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5/10.
Frank Lovece of TV Guide gave the film stars out of 4 stating that "This retelling of The Lion King (1994) from the point of view of comic sidekicks Timon (voice of Nathan Lane) and Pumbaa (Ernie Sabella) is one of the rare Disney direct-to-video sequels worthy of the original." He went on to say that 'the only aspect of the film that feels forced is the revisionist positioning of Timon as young Simba's step-dad, which has no emotional echo in the first film. The quality of the animation is surprisingly impressive; some static backgrounds are the primary concession to a small-screen budget and the fluid character movements and expressions are vastly superior to those of, say, The Lion King's Timon and Pumbaa TV cartoon series.'" Joe Leydon of Variety gave the film a positive review, writing "toddlers and preschoolers will be equally enchanted and amused by colorful toon shenanigans." Los Angeles Times article writer Susan King wrote that "Because Disney's made-for-video sequels to their classic animated films have been mediocre at best, expectations for this new sequel to the mouse house's 1994 blockbuster were slim. But thanks to a clever story line, snappy dialogue that kids and adults will enjoy, a couple of decent new songs and the return of the original voice actors, Lion King is an irreverent gas."
Many reviewers have suggested that the film was influenced by the Tom Stoppard play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, which follows Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, two minor characters from Shakespeare's play Hamlet, and details their experiences taking place during the same time as the events of Hamlet, similar to what the film does with its predecessor, which has been similarly compared to Hamlet. Screenwriter Tom Rogers confirmed that this was intentional in a 2019 interview, adding that the film's frame story was inspired by Mystery Science Theater 3000.
Soundtrack
The film's soundtrack album contains two original songs: "Diggah Tunnah", written by Seth Friedman and Martin Erskine, and "That's All I Need", written by Elton John and Tim Rice, who had worked on the first film. The latter song, which is performed by Nathan Lane in the film, is largely based on a deleted song from The Lion King titled "The Warthog Rhapsody", with which it shares a similar melody.
The film features the song "Hakuna Matata" from the first film, which is featured both as the original soundtrack recording in the soundtrack album and in the film as a new cover performed by Lane and Ernie Sabella. The soundtrack also consists of various covers of pop songs, such as The Friends of Distinction's "Grazing in the Grass" performed by Raven-Symoné, Kool and the Gang's "Jungle Boogie" performed by Drew K. and the French, and "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" (which appears briefly in the original film as well) by Lebo M Vinx (and with sampled vocals from Lebo M) performed "Diggah Tunnah Dance". Other featured songs not on the soundtrack include "Sunrise, Sunset" from the musical Fiddler on the Roof and the eponymous theme song from the television show Peter Gunn composed by Henry Mancini.
The film contains an original score composed by Don L. Harper, and also features Ennio Morricone's instrumental theme from the Sergio Leone film The Good, the Bad and the Ugly.
Track listing
Awards and nominations
Video game
A video game based on the film was published in 2003 for the Game Boy Advance, featuring Timon and Pumbaa as the playable characters.
References
External links
2004 films
2004 animated films
2004 direct-to-video films
2000s adventure films
2000s American animated films
2000s buddy comedy films
2000s musical comedy films
2000s adventure comedy films
American adventure comedy films
American children's animated adventure films
American children's animated comedy films
American children's animated musical films
American films with live action and animation
American musical comedy films
American sequel films
Annie Award-winning films
Animated buddy films
Animated films about lions
Films about meerkats
Films directed by Bradley Raymond
Animated films about friendship
DisneyToon Studios animated films
Disney direct-to-video animated films
Direct-to-video interquel films
Direct-to-video prequel films
Animated films set in Africa
The Lion King (franchise)
2004 comedy films
Self-reflexive films
2000s English-language films
American prequel films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility%20cycling
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Utility cycling
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Utility cycling encompasses any cycling done simply as a means of transport rather than as a sport or leisure activity. It is the original and most common type of cycling in the world. Cycling mobility is one of the various types of private transport and a major part of individual mobility.
Overview
Utility or "transportational" cycling generally involves traveling short and medium distances (several kilometres, not uncommonly 3–15 kilometres one way, or somewhat longer), often in an urban environment. It includes commuting (i.e. going to work, school or university), going shopping and running errands, as well as heading out to see friends and family or for other social activities.
It also includes economic activity such as the delivering of goods or services. In cities, the bicycle courier is often a familiar feature, and cargo bikes are capable of competing with trucks and vans particularly where many small deliveries are required, especially in congested areas. Velotaxis can also provide a public transport service like buses and taxicabs.
Utility cycling is known to have several social and economic benefits. Policies that encourage utility cycling have been proposed and implemented for reasons including: improved public health, individual health and employers' profits a reduction in traffic congestion and air pollution, improvements in road traffic safety, improved quality of life, improved mobility and social inclusiveness, and benefits to child development.
In the Chinese city of Beijing alone, there are an estimated four million bicycles in use (it has been estimated that in the early-1980s there were approximately 500 million cyclists in China). As of 2000, there were an estimated 80 million bicycles in Japan, accounting for 17% of commuter trips, and in the Netherlands, 27% of all trips are made by bicycle.
Cycling has been considered
Cycling mobility can be contrasted with mass automobility for which it is an immediate competitor in cities and for shorter distances.
Cities are a hotbed for experimenting with new bicycle-based forms of mobility like bicycle sharing, electric bicycles and transport of bulky goods with cargo bikes.
After decades of relative stagnation in bicycle development, new technologies and materials are tried to further improve upon the environmental footprint of the bicycle. Even though it is recognized that cycling - the one foremost active mobility besides walking - is the most sustainable kind of mobility and means of transportation, in some countries, cycling is still the mode of transport for the poor; in others, cycling is seen fit only for leisure purposes.
In a 2010 document requested by the European Parliament Committee on Transport and Tourism that mobility not only entails the ability to travel, but also encompasses, more importantly, the possibility for the traveller to decide when and where to travel. In terms of this flexibility and cost, bicycles rank among the top choices for shorter distances, up to several kilometers.
History
The development of the safety bicycle was arguably the most important change in the history of the bicycle. It shifted their use and public perception from being a dangerous toy for sporting young men to being an everyday transport tool for men—and, crucially, women—of all ages.
By the start of the 20th century, cycling had become an important means of transportation, and in the United States an increasingly popular form of recreation. Bicycling clubs for men and women spread across the U.S. and across European countries.
Cycling steadily became more important in Europe over the first half of the twentieth century, but it dropped off dramatically in the United States between 1900 and 1910. Automobiles became the preferred means of transportation. Over the 1920s, bicycles gradually became considered children's toys, and by 1940 most bicycles in the United States were made for children.
For most of the twentieth century, the great majority of cycling in the UK took place on roads. Cycling is one of the modes of transport for student transport.
The bicycle and the cyclist's equipment
Utility bicycles have many standard features to enhance their usefulness and comfort. Chain guards and mudguards, or fenders, protect clothes and moving parts from oil and spray. Skirt guards prevent long coats, skirts, and other trailing clothes and items catching in the wheel. Kickstands help with parking. Front-mounted wicker or steel baskets for carrying goods are often used. Rear luggage carriers can be used to carry items such as school satchels.
Panniers or special luggage carriers (including waterproof packing bags) enable the transport of goods and are used for shopping. Parents sometimes add rear-mounted child seats and/or an auxiliary saddle fitted to the crossbar to transport children. Trailers of various types and load capacities may be towed to greatly increase cargo capacity. In many jurisdictions bicycles must be fitted with a bell; reflectors; and, after dark, front and rear lights.
The use by cyclists of vests or armbands fluorescent in daylight or reflective at night can increase a cyclist's conspicuity, although these are not an alternative to a legally compliant lighting system. A report on the promotion of walking and cycling (Hydén, et al., 1999) discussed safety clothing and equipment and stated that "there is no doubt that both pedestrian reflectors and bicycle helmets are reducing the injury risk of their users quite considerably", although this assertion is not universally accepted.
Factors that influence levels of utility cycling
Many different factors combine to influence levels of utility cycling. In developing economies, a large amount of utility cycling may be seen simply because the bicycle is the most affordable form of vehicular transport available to many people. In richer countries, where people can have the choice of a mixture of transport types, a complex interplay of other factors influences the level of bicycle use.
Factors affecting cycling levels may include: town planning (including quality of infrastructure: cyclist "friendly" vs. cyclist "hostile"), trip-end facilities (particularly secure parking), retail policy, marketing the public image of cycling, integration with other transport modes, cycle training, terrain (hilly vs. flat), distance to destinations, levels of motorized transport and climate as well as cost. In developed countries cycling has to compete with, and work with, alternative transport modes such as private cars, public transport and walking. Thus cycling levels are not influenced just by the attractiveness of cycling alone, but also by what makes the competing modes more or less attractive.
In developed countries with high utility cycling levels, utility cyclists tend to undertake relatively short journeys. According to Irish 1996 Census data, over 55% of cycling workers travelled 3 miles (4.8 km) or less, 27% 5 miles (8 km) or less and only 17% travelled more than 5 miles in their daily commute. It can be argued that factors that directly influence trip length or journey time are among the most important in making cycling a competitive transport mode. Car ownership rates can also be influential. In New York City, more than half of all households do not own a car (the figure is even higher in Manhattan, over 75%), and walk/bicycle modes of travel account for 21% of all modes for trips in the city.
E-bike use was shown to increase the distance cycled for commuting as well as the amount of physical activity among E-bike users in seven European cities.
Decisions taken by various levels of government, as well as local groups, residents' organizations and public- and private-sector employers, can all affect the so-called "modal choice" or "modal split" in daily transport. In some cases, various factors may be manipulated in a manner that deliberately seeks to encourage or discourage various transport modes, including cycling.
The League of American Bicyclists has designated a set of five criteria for evaluating the friendliness of a town or city to bicycles. These criteria are classified under the headings of: Engineering, Encouragement, Evaluation and Planning, Education, Enforcement.
Town planning
Trip length and journey times are key factors affecting cycle use. Town planning may have a key effect in deciding whether key destinations, schools, shops, colleges, health clinics, public transport interchanges remain within a reasonable cycling distance of the areas where people live. The urban form can influence these issues, compact and circular settlement patterns tending to promote cycling. Alternatively, the low-density, non-circular (i.e., linear) settlement patterns characteristic of urban sprawl tends to discourage cycling. In 1990, the Dutch adopted the "ABC" guidelines, specifically limiting developments that are major attractants to locations that are readily accessible by non-car users.
Settlements that provide a dense road network consisting of interconnected streets will tend to be viable utility cycling environments. In contrast, other communities may use a cul-de-sac based, housing estate/housing subdivision model where minor roads are disconnected and only feed into a street hierarchy of progressively more "arterial" type roads. Such communities may discourage cycling by imposing unnecessary detours and forcing all cyclists onto arterial roads, which may be perceived as busy and dangerous, for all trips regardless of destination or purpose.
There is evidence that people who live in such estates are heavier than people who live in places where walking and cycling are more convenient. It is also reported that the extra motor-traffic such communities generate tends to increase overall per-capita traffic casualty rates. Designs that propose to resolve the contradiction between the cul-de-sac and the traditional interconnected network, such as the Fused Grid, have been proposed and built with varying levels of success. Particular issues have arisen with personal security and public order problems in some housing schemes using "back alley" or "back garden" type links. The UK Manual for Roads (2007) states: "The basic tenet is 'public fronts and private backs'. Ideally, and certainly, in terms of crime prevention, back gardens should adjoin other back gardens or a secure communal space. ... If streets are bounded by back-garden fences or hedges, security problems can increase, drivers may be encouraged to speed, land is inefficiently used, and there is a lack of a sense of place."
Cycling infrastructure
Cycling infrastructure attempts to maximise cyclists safety against the other road users. The risk of collision with other road users remains high due to speed differences and poor visibility. Infrastructure such as segregated cycle lanes, advance stop lines, cycle routes and networks, roundabout design, speed management, and the use of colour all provide varying degrees of separation and protection from other road users. There is, however, a lack of published evidence identifying a change in rates of collisions after implementation of cycling infrastructure.
Cycling is a common mode of transport in the Netherlands, with 36% of the people listing the bicycle as their most frequent mode of transport on a typical day as opposed to the car by 45% and public transport by 11%. Cycling has a modal share of 27% of all trips (urban and rural) nationwide.
This high modal share for bicycle travel is enabled by unusually flat topography, excellent cycling infrastructure such as cycle paths, cycle tracks, protected intersections, ample bicycle parking and by making cycling routes shorter, quicker and more direct than car routes.
In the countryside, a growing number of inter-city bicycle paths connect the Netherlands' villages, towns and cities: some of these paths are part of the Dutch National Cycle Network, a network of routes for bicycle tourism which reaches all corners of the nation.
In cities modal share for bicycles is even higher, such as Amsterdam which has 38%.
Cycling infrastructure attempts to maximise cyclists safety against the other road users. There is, however, a lack of published evidence identifying a change in rates of collisions after implementation of cycling infrastructure.
Marketing: the public image of cycling
As with other activities, cycling can be promoted by marketing. Promotors may include official agencies and authorities.
Positive marketing of cycling
Two themes predominate in cycling promotion 1) the benefits for the cyclist and 2) the benefits for society and the environment that may occur if more people choose to cycle. The benefits for the cyclist tend to focus issues like reduced journey times in congested urban conditions and the health benefits which the cyclist obtains through regular exercise. Societal benefits focus on general environmental and public health issues. Promotional messages and tactics may include:
financial savings on transportation
keeping travel times predictable; in peak traffic, cycling can be the fastest way of moving around town
ensuring best use of the space available (during trips and also while parked), therefore reducing congestion on the roads
reminding people of the advantages in terms of health and of effectiveness of using the bicycle
making maps of journeys that can be completed by bicycle
reduction of and harmful emissions by fewer people driving motor vehicles
reducing demand for oil-based fuels
the safety in numbers effect if more people cycle
reduced noise pollution in urban areas
amusement
cyclist health
lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease (when practised for more than a quarter of an hour a day at a moderate pace) and therefore improvement of individual and public health
using cycling to tackle the obesity crisis facing rich countries
the financial savings for society if general health improves
Further following positive aspects are:
transport efficiency - cycling is the fastest and most flexible mode for 'door to door' travel, like in bicycle commuting.
environmental benefits - most energy efficient means of transport, with the least pollution.
health and fitness issues - 4 hours of cycling per week or approximately 10 km of cycling per day, equivalent to the average cycle trip to and from work, is an adequate level of exercise.
economic and social impacts - cycling provides transport to segments of the population who would not otherwise be able to travel independently for reasons of age (student transport), poverty, insufficient public transport infrastructure, etc.
Negative marketing of utility cycling
Various interests may wish to portray a negative image of utility cycling on public roads for various reasons. Some governments, wishing to promote private car use, have organized and funded publicity designed to discourage road cycling. Official road safety organisations have been accused of distributing literature that emphasizes the danger of cycling on roads while failing to address attitudinal issues among the drivers of motor vehicles who are the main source of road danger. Some road safety authorities have been accused of having a deliberate policy of discouraging cycling as a means of reducing bicyclist casualty statistics. In 2003, Shanghai police officials released statements blaming cyclists as the cause of "gridlock" in the city and promoting plans to ban cyclists from the city streets. Starting in the 1970s, the authorities in the city of Jakarta declared "war" on the "becak" or Indonesian cycle rickshaw blaming them for traffic congestion among other things.
As with other sellers of consumer goods, the car industry's marketing efforts frequently try to associate the use of their product with a perception of increased social status. Observers in some car-focused cultures have noted a tendency to perceive or portray people who use bicycles as members of a social "out-group" with attributed negative connotations. In such cultures, such attitudes are displayed in attacks on cyclists in the media. Common themes include blanket descriptions of cyclists as a group who do not pay taxes, who break the law and who have no, or reduced, "right" to use public roads.
Negative aspects are:
lack of or inadequacy of road and parking infrastructures - roads are built for cars and bicycle paths are often in worse condition than roads. Cycling infrastructure and bicycle-friendliness is generally neglected in favor of a car-centric infrastructure.
cyclists’ safety and security - the common space for cars and bicycles on the road is not complemented by the same rights and significantly higher risk of accidents for cyclists.
weather conditions - rain and snow impact the unsheltered cyclist more than car drivers.
poor intermodality - because of lack of transport facilities for the bicycles themselves (in trains, buses, etc.) for longer distances.
Retail policy
If significant use of bicycles for shopping trips is to be achieved, sufficient retail services must be maintained within reasonable cycling distances of residential areas. In countries like Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany the high levels of utility cycling also includes shopping trips e.g. 9% of all shopping trips in Germany are by bicycle. It is arguable that this is related to policies that favour access to retail services by non-motorised modes. The Danish 1997 Planning Act requires that planning shall encourage a diverse mix of retail shops in small and medium-sized towns and in individual districts of large cities and ensure that retail trade uses will be placed in locations to which people have good access by walking, bicycling and public transport. From the mid-1970s the Netherlands has had policies in place to severely restrict the growth of large out-of-town retail developments. Germany has had federal planning regulations in place to restrict retail uses to designated areas since the 1960s. In addition, since the 1970s federal regulations have been in place specifying that developments above a certain size (1,200 m2) be assessed regarding potential adverse effects. These federal regulations are further strengthened by regionally adopted regulations. This includes regulations specifying that new retail centers be limited to selling products not readily provided by shops at inner city/town center locations. In Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany, this approach not restricted to planning guidelines and is also supported by a ban on below-cost selling. This supports smaller shops by preventing large multiples from engaging in predatory pricing practices by aggressively discounting key goods to use as so-called loss leaders.
Alternative retail policies
From the 1980s to mid-1990s the UK operated a system of laissez-faire with regard to retail policy. The "great car economy" philosophy of the Thatcher government directly favored the growth of out-of-town retail centers at the expense of established retail services in British towns and cities. The UK Town and Country Planning Association cites research by the New Economics Foundation that notes a continuing process of change in retail provision.
General stores are closing at the rate of one per day.
Between 1997 and 2002, specialized stores, including butchers, bakers, fishmongers, and newsagents, closed at the rate of 50 per week.
Nearly 30,000 independent food, drink, and tobacco retailers, or over 40%, have been lost over the past decade.
It is arguable that in such a retail/planning policy environment use of bicycles ceases to be a viable option for many shoppers and access to a private motor-car or public transport becomes a necessary prerequisite for access to basic services.
Cycle training
Cycle training is another measure that is advocated as a means of maintaining or increasing levels of cycle use. The training involves teaching existing or potential cyclists bike handling, various roadcraft or "cyclecraft" skills (vehicular cycling) and educating them on the safe, lawful use of the roads. Bicycle training schemes can be differentiated according to whether they are aimed at children or adults.
In the UK, the now superseded National Cycle Proficiency scheme was focused on primary schoolchildren aged 8 and above. In this, children would start by gaining an off-road certificate working up to their on-road certificate by the age of ten. Initial training and examination took place on simulated road layouts within school playgrounds. This approach has now been supplemented by the new National Standard for cycle training which is more focussed on practical on-road training. This is part of Cycling England's portfolio of practical assistance to local authorities and other bodies, aimed at achieving their aim of "More cycling, more safely, more often".
In the United States, the League of American Bicyclists Smart Cycling 101/201 courses, based on the Effective Cycling program, has modules aimed at all ages from children to adult beginners to more experienced adults. It is argued that such schemes do not just build confidence in the students but also make it more likely that parents will let their children cycle to school. Cycle training may also be offered in an attempt to overcome cultural unfamiliarity with cycling or perceived cultural obstacles to bicycle use. In the Netherlands, some cycle training courses are targeted at women from immigrant communities, as a means of overcoming such obstacles to cycling by women from developing countries.
User associations
As with other walks of life, utility cyclists may form associations in order to promote and develop cycling as an everyday form of transport. The European Cyclists' Federation is the umbrella body for such groups in Europe. These associations may lobby various institutions to encourage political support or to oppose measures that they judge counter-productive, such as to oppose the introduction of compulsory bicycle helmet legislation.
Free bicycle/short term hire schemes
Local bike-sharing schemes, a business which blossomed at the turn of the 21st century, are more oriented to utility cycling than other bike rentals.
Influence of technology
Modern bicycle technology supports the shift towards utility cycling:
easy-running thick tires or damped springs allow cycling over curbs
dynamo, brakes, and gears improved and increased the riding safety, allowing usage also for elderly
electric support was further developed in motorized bicycle or electric power-assist system and eases the take up for untrained
See also
Bicycle carrier
Bicycle commuting
Bicycle culture
Bicycle-friendly
Bicycle trailer
Bicycle transportation planning and engineering
Boda-boda
Car dependency
City bicycle
Critical Mass
Cyclability
Cycling advocacy
Fuel efficiency
Human-powered transport
Outline of cycling
Police bicycle
Quadracycle
Cycling infrastructure
Shared space
Tricycle
Tweed Run
Urban vitality
Vehicular cycling
Xtracycle
References
Notes
Bibliography
Paul Niquette, A Certain Bicyclist: An Offbeat Guide to the Post-Petroleum Age – Editor: Seven Palms Press (1985) –
Robert Hurst, The Art of Urban Cycling: Lessons from the Street – Editor: Falcon; 1st edition (1 July 2004) – , .
Sustainable transport
Transportation planning
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Discouraged worker
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In economics, a discouraged worker is a person of legal employment age who is not actively seeking employment or who has not found employment after long-term unemployment, but who would prefer to be working. This is usually because an individual has given up looking, hence the term "discouraged".
A discouraged worker, since not actively seeking employment, has fallen out of the core statistics of the unemployment rate since he is neither working nor job-seeking. Their giving up on job-seeking may derive from a variety of factors including a shortage of jobs in their locality or line of work; discrimination for reasons such as age, race, sex, religion, sexual orientation, and disability; a lack of necessary skills, training, or experience; a chronic illness or disability; or simply a lack of success in finding a job.
As a general practice, discouraged workers, who are often classified as marginally attached to the labor force, on the margins of the labor force, or as part of hidden unemployment, are not considered part of the labor force, and are thus not counted in most official unemployment rates—which influences the appearance and interpretation of unemployment statistics.
One of the reasons why people become discouraged workers is discrimination in the workplace. The research found that minorities are more likely to become discouraged workers due to discrimination. The minorities, such as African Americans, ethnic and racial minorities in Europe, and older workers, tend to become discouraged workers more than others. Discrimination leads workers to be discouraged workers because discrimination caused feelings of helplessness and uncontrollability and decreases a level of self-efficacy. The studies of discouraged workers are undertaken, as it is seen as "hidden unemployment". However, it is related to major social problems like minority discrimination and the lack of a diverse community.
There are not significant behavioral patterns of labor force participation across age-sex groups in the business cycle. It is related to the unemployment rate in the region. Generally, the discouraged worker effect gets stronger when the unemployment rate exceeds a certain level. Young workers are most dependent on the business cycle, regarding the decision of whether to participate in the labor force. There is a linear relationship only among the prime-age female between the added workers and the discouraged workers. The discouraged worker effects appear more for older workers during the exception phase, which is the phase when the unemployment rates of workers departed.
United States
In the United States, a discouraged worker is defined as a person not in the labor force who wants and is available for a job and who has looked for work sometime in the past 12 months (or since the end of his or her last job if a job was held within the past 12 months), but who is not currently looking because of real or perceived poor employment prospects.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics does not count discouraged workers as unemployed but rather refers to them as only "marginally attached to the labor force". This means that the officially measured unemployment captures so-called "frictional unemployment" and not much else. This has led some economists to believe that the actual unemployment rate in the United States is higher than what is officially reported while others suggest that discouraged workers voluntarily choose not to work. Nonetheless, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics has published the discouraged worker rate in alternative measures of labor underutilization under U-4 since 1994 when the most recent redesign of the CPS was implemented.
The United States Department of Labor first began tracking discouraged workers in 1967 and found 500,000 at the time. Today, In the United States, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics as of April 2009, there are 740,000 discouraged workers. There is an ongoing debate as to whether discouraged workers should be included in the official unemployment rate. Over time, it has been shown that a disproportionate number of young people, blacks, Hispanics, and men make up discouraged workers. Nonetheless, it is generally believed that the number of discouraged workers is underestimated because it does not include homeless people or those who have not looked for or held a job during the past twelve months and is often poorly tracked.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the top five reasons for discouragement are the following:
The worker thinks no work is available.
The worker could not find work.
The worker lacks schooling or training.
The worker is viewed as too young or too old by the prospective employer.
The worker is the target of various types of discrimination.
As the world navigates through the effects of the global coronavirus pandemic, a growing number of job seekers in the United States are becoming discouraged, leaving the labor force entirely, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of government data. The number of Americans who are out of work and have experienced long-term unemployment, while still continuing to look for a job for more than six months, has increased considerably in the year since the start of the COVID-19 recession. During periods of economic weakness, the labor force participation rate in the United States has tended to decline during economic downturns. During the 2007–09 recession, the unemployment rate for discouraged workers more than doubled. From late 2007 to early 2011, the number of discouraged workers increased from about 350,000 to a peak of about 1.3 million. The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reports that the lingering effects of the 2007–2009 recession and the slow recovery will continue to restrain participation. The effects of the coronavirus greatly impacted the United States economy. Pew Research Center reports that overall, 25% of U.S. adults say they or someone in their household was laid off or lost their job because of the coronavirus outbreak, with 15% saying this happened to them personally. Nearly 529,000 Americans were classified as discouraged workers in February 2021, roughly 100,000 more than the number one year ago. As a result of the coronavirus pandemic, labor market participation rate sharply declined due to the lack of job opportunities that perpetuated discourage people from searching for employment. Like most economic crisis as the labor market improves and jobs becomes more plentiful, unemployed workers will reenter the labor force. CBO expects that discouraged workers are likely to continue to reenter the labor force as more people find jobs and wage growth increases.
Canada
In Canada, discouraged workers are often referred to as hidden unemployed because of their behavioral pattern, and are often described as on the margins of the labour force. Since the numbers of discouraged workers and of unemployed generally move in the same direction during the business cycle and the seasons (both tend to rise in periods of low
economic activity and vice versa), some economists have suggested that discouraged workers should be included in the unemployment numbers because of the close association.
The information on the number and composition of the discouraged worker group in Canada originates from two main sources. One source is the monthly Labour Force Survey (LFS), which is a monthly survey that provides an estimate of both employment and unemployment. The LFS’ definition of discouraged workers has not changed since 1997. It is defined as people who were willing and available to work during the reference week but did not work because they believed there was no suitable work available. The other source is the Survey of Job Opportunities (SJO), which is much closer in design to the approach used in many other countries. In this survey, all those expressing a desire for work and who are available for work are counted, irrespective of their past job search activity.
In Canada, while discouraged workers were once less educated than "average workers", they now have better training and education but still tend to be concentrated in areas of high unemployment. Discouraged workers are not seeking a job for one of two reasons: labour market-related reasons (worker discouragement, waiting for recall to a former job or waiting for replies to earlier job search efforts) and personal and other reasons (illness or disability, personal or family responsibilities, going to school, and so on).
The table below uses the data from the LFS since 2016. Unemployment was slowly rising from the year 2016 where it was 10,115,700 people to 2019 where the number increased to 10,555,000 people. Similar to the rest of the world, the Covid-19 pandemic caused an even greater increase in the total unemployment, affecting a high of 11,156,000 people. Among the set of the population classified as discouraged workers, there is a greater rise, going from 21,800 people in 2019 to 70,400 in 2020.
LFS Reason for not looking for work x 1000: Both sexes, ages 15 and older.
It is worth noting that there is a vast population of Aboriginal people that reside in Canada. Canada classifies the following three groups under the broad term Aboriginal: the First Nations, Inuit, and the Metis. Statistics Canada does not measure Aboriginal unemployment separate from the population as a whole, but the Aboriginal people make up a big portion of the unemployed and discouraged worker count. The 2008 recession hit the Aboriginals harder than the rest of the population, which created a pattern of high rates of unemployment and discouraged workers.
The Aboriginal have greater restrictions to work than the normal population due to race, lower human capital, and education. These factors subject the population to more part-time-part-year work, layoffs, job loss and lower pay. Dealing with this over time produces more discouraged workers, and produces a smaller labor force participation. Aboriginal peoples were three times as likely to be discouraged workers than the rest of the population.
Australia
In Australia, discouraged workers are recorded by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) into a category of potential workers who are not actively seeking work. In order to be categorized as discouraged, individuals must a) want to work, b) be available to start working within 4 weeks, and c) are not actively applying for jobs because they are discouraged. According to ABS, there were 808,000 persons classified as unemployed in February 2021 plus an additional 1.157 million marginally attached to the labor force. The 113,000 discouraged workers fall into this marginally attached group.
The top three reasons that discouraged workers in Australia did not actively seek work in the week prior were:
Considered too young or too old by employers
No jobs in locality, line of work or no jobs at all
No jobs in suitable hours
The table below shows how there has been an overall increase in the number of discouraged workers in Australia, even with decreases from 2015 to 2016 and again from 2018 to 2019. As with many other countries, the number of discouraged workers increases during times of economic downturn which would explain the increases seen in 2020 and 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, women are more likely to be discouraged workers than men in Australia.
The Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research (CAEPR) at The Australian National University has done further research of discouraged workers within Australia’s Indigenous population. As discussed by Hunter and Gray, Indigenous Australians are more than three times more likely to become discouraged than the Australian population as a whole. Similar to what is seen in the entire Australian population, Indigenous females experience higher rates of discouraged workers as compared to males. The top two reasons for becoming discouraged for the indigenous population as a whole were “childcare and other family responsibilities” and “studying/returning to studies.”
European Union
Unemployment statistics published according to the ILO methodology may understate actual unemployment in the economy. The EU statistical bureau EUROSTAT started publishing figures on discouraged workers in 2010. According to the method used by EUROSTAT there are 3 categories that make up discouraged workers;
underemployed part-time workers
jobless persons seeking a job but not immediately available for work,
persons available for work but not seeking it
The first group are contained in the employed statistics of the European Labour Force Survey while the second two are contained in the inactive persons statistics of that survey.
In 2012 there were 9.2 million underemployed part-time workers, 2.3 million jobless persons seeking a job but not immediately available for work, and 8.9 million persons available for work but not seeking it, an increase of 0.6 million for underemployed and 0.3 million for the two groups making up discouraged workers.
If the discouraged workers and underemployed are added to official unemployed statistics Spain has the highest number real unemployed (8.4 Million), followed by Italy (6.4 Million), United Kingdom (5.5 Million), France (4.8 Million) and Germany (3.6 Million).
India
The discouraged worker effects in India are divided into two concepts, unexplained gender wage gap and degree of underemployment. The discouraged worker effects are related to the recession in the business cycle, mainly affecting women or the secondary income earners in the household. Gender discrimination in the labor market, the lack of job opportunities, and the wage gap discourage women from entering the labor force in India.
In Kerala, India, it worsened the female-to-male wage ratio between 2004 and 2012, which is one of the causes why it generated discouraged women workers. The discouraged worker effect of the wage gap was 2.6% in 2011/12 in India, which is the ratio of a 1% increase in the wage gap. This ratio of the wage gap for India exceeds the ratio for the Republic of Korea and Japan.
Gender imbalance for the participation rate is historically higher in the southern states than in the northern states. For example, the participation rate was 21% for all all-India of, whereas 25% was in Andhra Pradesh, which is in the south of India, and 14% in Uttar Pradesh, which is in the north of India. The participation rate for Kerala was 42%, which is much higher than the national average, while the rate for Uttarakhand was 21% in 2011/12. The participation rate of the labor force for women is higher in western and southern states than in central India. The participation rate is positively related to the education level. As the education level reached to graduate, the probability of labor force entry increased by 5.7% in 2011/12.
See also
Gig economy
Involuntary unemployment
NEET
Labor force
Precariat
Unemployment rate
Workforce
Types of unemployment
United States
Bureau of Labor Statistics
Current Population Survey
99ers
Canada
Labour and Household Surveys Analysis Division of Statistics Canada
References
Akyeampong, Ernest B. "Persons on the Margins of the Labour Force," The Labour Force (71-001). Statistics Canada, April 1987.
Akyeampong, Ernest B. "Women Wanting Work But Not Looking Due to Child Care Demands," The Labour Force. April 1988.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. Persons in the Labour Force, Australia (Including Persons who Wanted Work but who were not Defined as Unemployed) (6219.0). July 1985.
Jackson, George. "Alternative Concepts and Measures of Unemployment," The Labour Force. February 1987.
Macredie, Ian. "Persons Not in the Labour Force: Job Search Activities and the Desire for Employment, September 1984," The Labour Force. October 1984.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. OECD Employment Outlook. September 1987. Akyeampong, E.B. "Discouraged workers." Perspectives on labour and income, Quarterly, Catalogue 75-001E, Autumn 1989. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, pp. 64–69.
"Women wanting work, but not looking due to child care demands." The labour force, Monthly, Catalogue 71-001, April 1988. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, pp. 123–131.
"Persons on the margins of the labour force." The labour force, Monthly, Catalogue 71-001, April 1987. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, pp. 85–131.
Frenken, H. "The pension carrot: incentives to early retirement." Perspectives on labour and income, Quarterly, Catalogue 75-001E, Autumn 1991. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, pp. 18–27.
Jackson, G. "Alternative concepts and measures of unemployment." The labour force, Monthly, Catalogue 71-001, February 1987. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, pp. 85–120.
Macredie, I. "Persons not in the labour force - job search activities and the desire for employment, September 1984." The labour force, Monthly, Catalogue 71-001, October 1984. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, pp. 91–104.
Further reading
External links
Discouraged workers, OECD Stats extract
Incidence of discouraged workers, OECD
United States
Discouraged workers in glossary, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Division of Information Services
Employment Situation Summary, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Division of Information Services
Alternative measures of labor underutilization, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Division of Information Services
Discouraged Worker, Investopedia
Down And Out: "Discouraged" Workers, Time magazine
Actual U.S. Unemployment: 15.8%, The Washington Post
'Hidden Unemployment' Inflates State's Real Jobless Figures, The Hartford Courant
Tracking the Long-Term Unemployed and Discouraged Workers, The Heritage Foundation
Ranks of Discouraged Workers and Others Marginally Attached to the Labor Force Rise During Recession Issues in Labor Statistics, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Division of Information Services
Discouraged Workers, Drexel
Jobless statistics overlook many, San Francisco Chronicle
PROMOTING ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY AND OWNERSHIP
Labor force characteristics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey
Canada
Discouraged Workers
Unemployment
Employment classifications
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Labor force in the United States
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The labor force is the actual number of people available for work and is the sum of the employed and the unemployed. The U.S. labor force reached a high of 164.6 million persons in February 2020, just at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. Before the pandemic, the U.S. labor force had risen each year since 1960 with the exception of the period following the Great Recession, when it remained below 2008 levels from 2009 to 2011. In 2021, The Great Resignation resulted in record numbers in voluntary turn over for American workers.
The labor force participation rate, LFPR (or economic activity rate, EAR), is the ratio between the labor force and the overall size of their cohort (national population of the same age range). Much as in other countries in the West, the labor force participation rate in the U.S. increased significantly during the later half of the 20th century, largely because of women entering the workplace in increasing numbers. Labor force participation has declined steadily since 2000, primarily because of the aging and retirement of the Baby Boom generation. Analyzing labor force participation trends in the prime working age (25-54) cohort helps separate the impact of an aging population from other demographic factors (e.g., gender, race, and education) and government policies. The Congressional Budget Office explained in 2018 that higher educational attainment is correlated with higher labor force participation for workers aged 25–54. Prime-aged men tend to be out of the labor force because of disability, while a key reason for women is caring for family members.
Definition
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) defines the labor force as:
Included are persons 16 years of age and older residing in the 50 States and the District of Columbia who are not inmates of institutions (for example, penal and mental facilities, homes for the aged), and who are not on active duty in the Armed Forces.
Gender and the U.S. labor force
Women
In the United States, there were three significant stages of women's increased participation in the labor force. During the late 19th century through the 1920s, very few women were employed. Working women were often young single women who typically withdrew from labor force at marriage unless their family needed two incomes. These women worked primarily in the textile manufacturing industry or as domestic workers. This profession empowered women and allowed them to earn a living wage. At times, they were a financial help to their families.
Between 1930 and 1950, female labor force participation increased primarily due to the increased demand for office workers, women participating in the high school movement, and electrification which reduced the time spent on household chores. In the 1950s to the 1970s, most women were secondary earners working mainly as secretaries, teachers, nurses, and librarians (pink-collar jobs).
Starting from 1960, the world and the U.S. witnessed a significant increase in female LFP in the labor market, especially in developed countries such as Europe and the U.S. The main reasons leading to this increase could be:
Higher real wage
The decline in reservation wage
Changes in attitudes and policies
According to Congressional Research Service, the gap between women and men has been smaller since 1979. The cumulative % change in real wages for women was increased by 9.6% (10th percentile), while men decreased by -7.7%. However, with the incredible increase, women's real wage was still lower than men's. Different starting points could explain this. In 1979, women had more options and opportunities to earn a higher degree than a high school diploma. Also, according to the research, only men with bachelor's degrees or higher would have higher actual earnings than women.
Claudia Goldin and others, specifically point out that by the mid-1970s there was a period of revolution of women in the labor force brought on by different factors. Women more accurately planned for their future in the work force, choosing more applicable majors in college that prepared them to enter and compete in the labor market. In the United States, the labor force participation rate rose from approximately 59% in 1948 to 66% in 2005, with participation among women rising from 32% to 59% and participation among men declining from 87% to 73%.
A common theory in modern economics claims that the rise of women participating in the US labor force in the late 1960s was due to the introduction of a new contraceptive technology, birth control pills, and the adjustment of age of majority laws. The use of birth control gave women the flexibility of opting to invest and advance their career while maintaining a relationship. By having control over the timing of their fertility, they were not running a risk of thwarting their career choices. However, only 40% of the population actually used the birth control pill. This implies that other factors may have contributed to women choosing to invest in advancing their careers.
Another factor that may have contributed to the trend was the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex. Such legislation diminished sexual discrimination and encouraged more women to enter the labor market by receiving fair remuneration to help raise children.
In 1963, Equal Pay Act passed, the Civil Rights Act (1964), and Title IX (1972); these policies supported increasing women's LFP. The Equal Pay Act protects both men and women against discrimination on account of sex in the payments of wages. These policies also ensure that the labor market pays attention to and obey the regulation regard of sex term. Nevertheless, the big move was the pill's power (1960). Even though the FDA approved the medicine in 1960, the change happened later that year since every state needed to settle its regulations and restrictions. After the pill, women could extend their time for professional education and the age of first marriage. According to the University of Chicago Press Journal, there was a significant change in women's first marriage and education careers. More than a 20% increase for first-year law students, fewer than 30% of young women would like to marry before their 23rd birthday. Most women interviewees answered that the change was because of the pill. It was natural that men kept working regardless their pay was up or down and were not affected by their wives. However, women, especially young students, would be different. However, from 1980, married women were willing to work regardless of their husband's employment situation.
Since 2000, LFP was kept the same and slightly changed though other developed countries keep increasing. Many factors could lead to this result. The U.S. government was seen as having a weakness in "family-friendly policy." According to Claire Cain Miller, NYT, other wealthy countries such as Denmark, Germany, Norway, etc. spend an average of $14,000 annually for childcare while the U.S. government support only $500. In addition, a guaranteed spot in after-school care while U.S parents need to compete for a place.
Historical trends
According to the US Census in 1861, one third of women were in the labor force and of these one fourth were married women.
According to Ellen DuBoise and Lynn Dumenil, they estimate that the number of women in the labor force from 1800 - 1900 are:
According to the US Department of Labor and U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics:
According to the US Department of Labor, as of 2017 women make up 47% of the total labor force with 70% of them mothers with children under 18 years of age.
Men
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, men's LFP decreased since 1950 with 86.4%, 79.7% in 1970, 76.4% in 1990, and 73.3% in 2005. Experts predict this decrease could remain higher over the year because of different policies such as the Social Security Act (1960). In addition, a decline in male education participation, age of marriage, the rise of substance abuse, and addiction to video games could lead to a decrease in Men LFP.
According to the article "Why are prime-age men vanishing from the labor force?" (Economic review , Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, first quarter 2018), the author found that from 1996 to 2015, most men in the prime-age who only hold a high-school degree or associate's degree would have a nonparticipation rate much higher than who holds an advanced degree. The demand for middle-skilled laborers could explain this during that period. During the Great Recession, overall, the nonparticipation rate increased for everyone regardless of their education level. However, the author tried to dig deeper and categorized men into four different groups: those who do not have a high school diploma, who have a high school diploma, who have an associate's degree, and who have a bachelor's degree or higher. It was apparent that the tremendous increase was from the group with only a high school diploma.
The aging in the U.S. population also explained the decrease in Men LFP. The median age of males increased from 34 years old to 37.2 years old. In addition, the baby boomer was raised, which meant more people over 65 years old, and fewer people in labor age. According to the 2020 Current Population Survey, most men reported that they could not work due to higher education, illness, or disability. However, this is a self-report. Regarding the Social Security Disability Program, there was 35% of recipients responded that their disability due to mental health disorder. Another 30% responded their disability correlated to musculoskeletal disorders, many of which are due to obesity.
The men's LFPR tends to increase further after COVID-19. Experts said that many reasons could lead to these results. People the age about to retire would like to bed earlier; even though they are healthy, they would prefer to spend their time on family, hobbies, or voluntary. In addition, COVID-19 created a threat to most people, especially those who had a problem with their health before. Another reason is that many companies are trying to move their plant to different countries, which could cut companies' costs and benefits. According to ScienceAdvances, more than half of men in their 30s have a criminal arrest history. This is another reason why the men's nonparticipation rate increases.
Historical Trends
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics:
Race and the U.S. Labor Force
Occupation
According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of 2019 Asians are most likely to hold a management position, while Hispanics or Latinos are most likely to hold a job in the service sector.
According to the U.S Bureau of Labor Statistics, male LFP decreased and has continued decreasing since 1950 with 86.4%, 79.7% in 1970, 76.4% in 1990, and 73.3% in 2005. Experts predict that this decrease could remain and become higher over the years because of different policies such as the Social Security Act (1960). In addition, a decline in male education participation, age of marriage, the rise of substance abuse, and addiction to video gaming could lead to the decrease in male LFP. This decrease in male labor force participation rate was probably from the benefit of disability insurance, especially in the group of less-educated men.
According to the article "Why are prime-age men vanishing from the labor force?" (Economic review , Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, first quarter 2018), author found that from 1996 to 2015, most men in the prime-age who only hold a high-school degree or associate's degree would have a nonparticipation rate much higher than those who hold an advanced degree. There were studies that showed that the demand in low-skilled workers had been down during 1970 to 1980. Alternatively, the demand of middle-skilled labors during that period of time increased significantly, this could be explained since organizations tried to replace the low-skilled workers and used middle-skilled workers. During the Great Recession, overall, the nonparticipation rate increased for everyone regardless of their education level. However, the author tried to dig deeper and categorized men into four different groups: those, who do not have a high school diploma, who have a high school diploma, who have an associate's degree, and who have a bachelor's degree or higher. It was obvious that the greatest increase was from the group with only a high school diploma.
The aging in U.S population also explained the decrease in Men LFP. The median-age of male was increased from 34 years old to 37.2 years old. In addition, baby-boomer numbers increased which meant more people over 65 years old, and fewer people who were of labor age. With these numbers, even though the labor force participation rate remained same, the aging in population still could affect and drag the LFPR down. According to the 2020 Current Population Survey, most men reported that they were not able to work due to higher education, ill health, or disability, however, this is a self-report. Regarding the Social Security Disability Program, 35% of recipients responded that their disability was due to mental health disorder. According to National Library of Medicine, the percentage of men diagnosed with depression was lower than women, yet the effect on the male labor force participation rate was considerable. There were different reasons leading to this, it could be unrecognized, undiagnosed, and untreated. Another 30% responded that their disability correlated to musculoskeletal disorder, much due to obesity.
The men LFPR tend to increase further after COVID-19. Experts said that there are many reasons could lead to this results. People within the age that about to retire would like to retire earlier, even though they are healthy, they would prefer to spend their time for family, hobbies, or voluntary. In addition, COVID-19 created a threat to most people, especially who have problem with their health before. Another reason could be many companies are trying to move their plant to different countries where could cut companies' costs and benefits. According to ScienceAdvances, more than half of men in their 30s has a criminal history arrest. This could be another reason explains why men nonparticipation rate increases.
Health Inequalities in the Labor Force
A person's occupation is one of the main social determinants of health which greatly contributes to health inequalities and health disparities, racially and ethnically. Determinants under the occupation category include: income, housing, paid sick leave and health insurance; they are related to a person's socioeconomic status. The U.S. health care system is connected to employment and it is very likely that a worker is paying for health insurance through their employer; low-wage workers who opt for coverage through their employment pay a higher portion from their income than their middle- income and higher- income counterparts. There is a disproportionate number of employed workers, based on race across the labor sectors, especially those of high- risk.
*Numbers in the table are estimated.
Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance
The updated data from U.S Census Bureau in September 2022 does not change or is slightly different compared to last year's period. Three factors are being discussed:
The Supplemental Poverty Measure (SPM)
People with Health Insurance coverage
Household Income
The Supplemental Poverty Measure (SPM). According to Congressional Research Service, SPM is a measure of economic deprivation. This tool helps to collect, effort, and report the data of individuals, households, etc., living with a lack of financial resources to reach a certain standard of living. Poverty thresholds are family size and composition. People will be considered their poverty status based on their financial resources against the thresholds. Those whose financial resources are lower than thresholds will be regarded as poor. In 2021, the official poverty rate was 11.6%, equal to 37.9 million people in poverty, and SPM was 7.8%, slightly decreasing compared with 9.2% in 2020 and 11.7% in 2019. SPM in 2021 was also the lowest rate since 2009.
Health Insurance Coverage. There are two sector, public and private insurance. According to Center for Disease Control and Prevention statistics, in 2021, 13.5% of people aged 18-64 were insured, 39.5% used public insurance, and 60.4% used private insurance. Even though personal insurance coverage is more common than public insurance coverage, and people typically change insurance type during the calendar year, in 2021, the percentage of general insurance coverage will be higher than private compared to 2020. The data from the National Center for Health Statistics, the ratio of adult aged from 18 to 64 that are insured tend to increase and is related to households' income level. The percentage of insured people from 18 to 64 fell and significantly decreased as the following 24.5%, 23.7%, and 8.4%. The Federal Poverty Level (FPL) is divided into less than 100%, above 100%, less than 200%, and 200%.
Income. Similarly to SPM, there is no significant change in revenue in 2021 compared to 2020, $70,784 vs. $71,186. Although the total number of workers in both years is the same, the status of employees tends to move from part-time to full-time employees in 2021. Part-time employees have higher median earnings than full-time employees, about 4.1%.
During COVID-19
The Family First Coronavirus Act (FFCRA), provided mandated paid sick leave for workers that are impacted by COVID-19 and people of color are affected since because of the exemptions in that law; only certain public employers, private employers of less than 500 employees, and small business with less than 50 employees may qualify for the mandate. COVID-19 affected workers disproportionately, with Black and non-White races more likely to make up the baseline of the essential workforce this exposes to them to infections causing them to be unable to or to continue to work; FFCRA (2020) was passed in hopes of protecting workers but the ambiguity of the law puts minorities' paid sick leave at risk. Less than 30% of the workforce in the United States have paid sick leave that is protected by state law
Analyzing the labor force participation rate
Overall rate
From 1962 to 1999, women entering the U.S. workforce represented a nearly 8 percentage point increase in the overall LFPR. The U.S. overall LFPR (age 16+) has been falling since its all-time high point of 67.3% reached in January–April 2000, reaching 62.7% by January 2018. This decline since 2000 is primarily driven by the retirement of the Baby Boom generation. Since the overall labor force is defined as those age 16+, an aging society with more persons past the typical prime working age (25-54) exerts a steady downward influence on the LFPR. The decline was forecast by economists and demographers going back into the 1990s, if not earlier. For example, during 1999 the BLS forecast that the overall LFPR would be 66.9% in 2015 and 63.2% in 2025. A 2006 forecast by Federal Reserve economists (i.e., before the Great Recession that began in December 2007) estimated the LFPR would be below 64% by 2016, close to the 62.7% average that year.
The labor force participation rate decreases when the percentage increase in the defined population (denominator) is greater than the percentage increase in the labor force (i.e., the sum of employed and unemployed, the numerator). With respect to the unemployment rate, if the percentage increase in the number of unemployed (numerator) is greater than the percentage increase in the number in the labor force (denominator), the unemployment rate will rise.
Prime working age rate
Economists also analyze the LFPR for those prime-aged workers, aged 25–54. Mathematically, this ratio is computed with a numerator (labor force age 25–54) and denominator (civilian population age 25–54). This can help remove the impact of aging demographics, to better understand trends among working-aged persons. The prime-aged LFPR peaked at 84.5% at three times between October 1997 and April 2000. Prior to the Great Recession, the rate was 83.3% in November 2007, then fell to a trough of 80.5% in July 2015, before steadily climbing back to 81.7% in January 2018. It is one of the few key labor market variables that had yet to recover its pre-crisis level as of January 2018 and is an indicator of slack in the labor market.
Men's prime-aged labor force participation has been falling consistently since at least the 1960s. It ranged between 93 and 95% during the 1980s, fell to around 90% during the 2000s and was 88.5% in October 2017. Higher labor force participation is correlated with higher educational attainment.
Women's prime-aged labor force participation rose consistently from at least the early 1960s, reaching a peak of 77.2% in August 1997. It has fluctuated around 75% since then, resisting the decline in men's prime age participation. Women have increased their educational attainment relative to men.
The Congressional Budget Office explained in 2018 higher educational attainment is correlated with higher labor force participation. Prime-aged men tend to be out of the labor force due to disability, while a key reason for women is caring for family members. To the extent an aging population requires the assistance of prime-aged family members at home, this also presents a downward pressure on this cohort's participation.
Teen labor force participation
In 1979, there had been the highest teen labor force participation rate with 57.9 percent of teens participating. In the early 21st century, there had been a drastic decrease in the teen labor force participation rate with the decrease expected to only decline more from 2017 to 2024.
The reason for the decrease in teen labor force participation was the environment teens were in, including pressures by their family. The environment pressured many to go to college, summer school became more prevalent, and schoolwork became more exhausting. The cost of college has risen over the years, but it has not persuaded teens not to go to college. There is a higher number of teens requesting assistance to attend college. There is an increased number of teens attending school and a decreased number of teens participating in the labor force.
Teens who do not want to attend college have competition from individuals that are more experienced such as individuals who have graduated from college with a degree, individuals that are adults, and individuals from other countries that move to the United States and try to obtain jobs. This has also contributed to the decrease in teen labor force participation.
According to a Pew Research Center analysis on monthly 1944-2017 Current Population Survey, Millennials aged more than 16 represented the largest generation in the U.S. labour force and the highest quote since the postwar, with more than 35% of participants working or looking for a work.
Participation during COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic led to a massive drop in employees persons in the labor force. According to Pew Research Center, from February 2020 to February 2021 an estimated 4.2 million people left the labor force because of COVID-19, a loss of employment that far exceeds that seen during the Great Recession. Out of those that left the labor force, women accounted for 2.4 million, which is more than half of those that left despite the fact that they account for less than half of the labor force. Employers have cut 417,500 jobs so far in 2023, the most since 2020. Layoffs have been largely concentrated in the technology sector, which has seen 136,800 layoffs so far this year.
Before the COVID-19 pandemic transformed the American workplace, about 76.7 percent of employers reported little or no telecommuting among employees. The percentage of organizations reporting that some of their employees work from home was around 30% in 2021, but has dropped to 16% in 2022.
The Great Resignation
The pandemic created a shift in the labor market where workers began voluntarily leaving their jobs in large numbers. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics states by July 2021 4 million workers had voluntarily separated from their employer. A number of factors were impacting the trend which started in early 2021. With the large shift to working from home, and the risks associated with returning to unsafe working conditions, lack of childcare, coupled with a labor market where one can leave a job and higher pay elsewhere, and overall employee burnout, employers were experiencing higher turnover rates with little evidence of slowdown. According to the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, all industries in the U.S. labor market were impacted with highest numbers in hospitality and healthcare, while construction, mining, and oil/gas industries saw little to no impact.
A SHRM survey found that Millennials and Gen Z have a higher probably to look for new work than Baby Boomers and Gen X. The findings cite a desire to seek employment that will allow them to live a more balanced life, and having access to growth opportunities lacking in their current roles, for the workforce exodus of their respondents. These reasons are not isolated to the SHRM respondents, however. A shift in worker attitudes, overall priorities, and perception of their relationship with their jobs is a symptom of the pandemic, which forced many to drastically change the way they work and live. For example, some workers developed a quiet quitting mindset by deliberately limiting their work activities to formal job descriptions, meeting yet not exceeding the preestablished expectations, and never volunteering for additional tasks.
The shifting sentiment of workers during a time of instability, women's rate of exit were twice that of men, according to Texas A&M University Organizational Psychologist, Anthony Klotz, who also coined the term "The Great Resignation." As a result, their participation in the labor force is at a 30-year low.
Foreign-born workers
There were 27.8 million foreign-born workers in the labor force as of January 2018. This group had an overall LFPR of 65.1% in January 2018. As of 2013, the highest group of people participating in the Foreign-born immigrant labor force in the United States were individuals from Mexico and Central America. They made up of 40.3 percent of the immigrant labor force participation. Mexico heavily outweighed Central America in which they held the majority of workers with 32 percent of workers just from Mexico. In 2013, California held most of the foreign-born worker immigrants in the United States, with about half from Mexico and Central America.
Foreign-born women
People who stay in the United States but were not born in the U.S. is considered foreign-born. In most cases, they were born in different countries with parents who were not U.S. citizens. Hispanic makes up almost haft of foreign-born workers in the labor market. According to the News Release from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, foreign-born added more than 670,000 in 2021. This number was unchanged for the native-born. Regarding gender, foreign-born men contributed to the market more than men native-born in 2021, with 76.8%, and women's foreign-born rate is lower than women native-born at 56.6%. Regarding median earnings, foreign-born workers tend to be paid less than native-born workers, with weekly payments of $898 and $1,017, respectively.
Since 1960, foreign-born immigrant women have the lowest labor market participation rate between all of the groups in the United States. The groups include immigrant men and individuals born in the United States. Foreign-born immigrant women participate in the labor force between 75 and 78 percent lower than native born males. In terms of labor force participation, the foreign-born immigrant women from Mexico and Central America are the smallest number of participants in the labor force. As far as foreign-born immigrants that are trying to participate in the labor force but cannot find employment, the unemployment rates are as follows. The unemployment are foreign-born immigrant women workers (9.1 percent), native women workers (7.9 percent), Mexico and Central American foreign-born immigrant women workers (12.1 percent), and other foreign-born immigrant women workers (7.7 percent).
Foreign-born men
In terms of labor force participation, the foreign-born immigrant men from Mexico and Central America are the largest number of participants in the labor force. The number of potential labor force participants for foreign-born immigrant men are foreign-born immigrant men workers (9.9 percent), native men workers (10.4 percent), Mexico and Central American foreign-born immigrant men workers (11.4 percent), and other foreign-born immigrant men workers (8.6 percent). Foreign-born immigrant men have a similar unemployment rate to native workers, but the unemployment rate for foreign-born immigrant men that are from Mexico and Central America is considerably more than other groups of foreign-born immigrant men looking for work in the United States.
International comparison
For 2017, the Central Intelligence Agency ranked the U.S. as having the fourth largest labor force in the world at about 160 million, behind China (807 million), India (522 million), and the European Union (235 million).
By sector
Below is a chart taken from the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. It is a list of job classifications and the annual growth rate in each category.
See also
Unemployment in the United States
Workforce
Unemployment
Employment-to-population ratio
List of countries by labor force
Proletariat
Feminization of poverty
Further reading
Abraham, Katharine G., and Melissa S. Kearney. 2020. "Explaining the Decline in the US Employment-to-Population Ratio: A Review of the Evidence." Journal of Economic Literature, 58 (3): 585–643.
References
External links
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics page on the Labor Force Participation Rate
Labor in the United States
Workforce
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Fall%20of%20the%20Roman%20Empire%20%28film%29
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The Fall of the Roman Empire (film)
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The Fall of the Roman Empire is a 1964 American epic historical drama film directed by Anthony Mann and produced by Samuel Bronston, with a screenplay by Ben Barzman, Basilio Franchina and Philip Yordan. The film stars Sophia Loren, Stephen Boyd, Alec Guinness, James Mason, Christopher Plummer, Mel Ferrer, and Omar Sharif.
When the filming of El Cid (1961) had finished, Anthony Mann saw a copy of Edward Gibbon's 1776–1789 six-volume series The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire inside Hatchards bookshop. He pitched a film adaptation of the book to Samuel Bronston, who then agreed to produce the project. Philip Yordan was enlisted to write the script while Charlton Heston was initially set to star. However, Heston backed out of the film and agreed to star in 55 Days at Peking (1963). Prominent actors were cast to portray multiple roles in the film. The final screenplay was written by Ben Barzman and Basilio Franchina with a prologue written by historian Will Durant. Filming began in January 1963 and wrapped in July. The film featured the largest outdoor set in the history of film at that time, a replica of the Roman Forum.
The film's name refers not to the final fall of the Roman empire, which did in fact survive for centuries after the period depicted in the film, but rather to the onset of corruption and decadence which led to Rome's demise. It deals extensively with the problem of imperial succession, and examines both the relationship between father and son on the background of imperial politics as well as the nature and limits of loyalty and friendship.
On March 24, 1964, the film premiered at the London Astoria. Critics found the script lacking in emotion and humanity and the direction misguided, but accorded a degree of praise for the large spectacles. The film was a financial failure at the box-office.
Plot
In the winter of 180 AD, the ailing Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius fights to keep Germanic tribes from invading his northern territories on the Danube frontier. His deputies are the Greek ex-slave Timonides and the stern and honest general Gaius Livius. Privately Aurelius holds egalitarian ideals, and wants a successor who will reform the empire and grant equal rights to all its subjects; this disqualifies his son Commodus, who prefers to rule by force. Instead, Aurelius decides to nominate Livius, Commodus' closest friend and the lover of the emperor's daughter Lucilla.
Before Aurelius can announce his plan, he is poisoned by Commodus' cronies, who hope to secure their own political future by putting their friend on the throne. Feeling that a plebeian such as himself would never be accepted as emperor without Aurelius' explicit backing, Livius lets his old friend take the position instead. Commodus was not part of the murder plot, but nonetheless hated his father for trying to deny him the throne. He dedicates himself to undoing all of Aurelius' policies of equality, and to extracting heavy taxes from the provinces to enrich the city of Rome.
Meanwhile, Livius' army defeats the Germans on the frontier. Among the captives are the chieftain Ballomar and his court. Timonides and Lucilla convince Livius to advocate for mercy towards the conquered barbarians, thus perpetuating the legacy of Aurelius. Timonides wins the Germans' trust by successfully undergoing an ordeal, having his hand held in the flame of a torch without crying out, and they agree to submit to the judgement of the Roman Senate. Despite hostility from Commodus, speeches by Livius and Timonides persuade the senators to let the German captives become peaceful farmers on Italian land, thereby encouraging their fellow barbarians to cooperate with Rome instead of fighting it. Thwarted, Commodus sends Livius back to the northern frontier and Lucilla to Armenia, with whose king, Sohaemus, she shares a loveless political marriage.
Lucilla joins a revolt in Rome's eastern provinces, where a famine has been exacerbated by the new taxes. Commodus sends his northern army against the rebels, knowing that Livius will put aside personal feelings and fight to preserve the unity of the Empire. As the opposing Roman armies meet for battle, Sohaemus arrives and attacks Livius with both the Armenian army and troops borrowed from Rome's archenemy, the Persians. The rebels patriotically decide to fight Persia instead of Rome, joining with Livius and helping him to vanquish Sohaemus. As a reward Commodus declares Livius his co-emperor, but only on condition that the northern army inflicts harsh punishments on the rebellious provinces.
Rejecting this piece of brutality, Livius and Lucilla take their army to Rome, intending to make Commodus abdicate. The emperor responds by bribing away the soldiers' loyalty and massacring Timonides and the population of the German colony. Lucilla tries to hire Verulus, Commodus’ gladiator bodyguard, to assassinate her brother; Verulus declines, confessing that he slept with Aurelius’ wife and that Commodus is his illegitimate son.
The Senate declares Commodus a god, and Livius and Lucilla are sentenced to be burned alive as human sacrifices to the new deity as the Roman citizens drunkenly celebrate. In consideration of their former friendship, Commodus offers Livius a duel for the throne. The two fight with javelins in the Roman Forum, where Livius eventually runs Commodus through. At last Livius is free to become emperor, but he has lost faith in Rome's ability to reform. He departs the city with Lucilla, as Commodus' old advisers fight over the throne and offer competing bribes to the army in an attempt to gain military support.
A voice-over epilogue states that though the Roman Empire did not fall immediately, internal corruption led to its eventual collapse.
Cast
Sophia Loren as Lucilla
Stephen Boyd as Livius
Alec Guinness as Marcus Aurelius
James Mason as Timonides
Christopher Plummer as Commodus
Mel Ferrer as Cleander
Omar Sharif as Sohaemus, King of Armenia
Anthony Quayle as Verulus
John Ireland as Ballomar
Eric Porter as Julianus
Finlay Currie as Senator
Andrew Keir as Polybius
Douglas Wilmer as Pescennius Niger
George Murcell as Victorinus
Norman Wooland as Virgilianus
Production
Development
The idea for The Fall of the Roman Empire originated with Anthony Mann who had just finished directing El Cid (1961). In London, while waiting for a taxi cab, he spotted an Oxford concise edition of Edward Gibbon's six-volume series The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire near the front window at the Hatchards bookshop. Mann then considered a film adaptation of the book as his next project after having read the book on a flight trip to Madrid, in which he later presented the idea to Samuel Bronston to which the producer agreed. In July 1961, Bronston told The New York Times that The Fall of the Roman Empire would be his next project, but he had also ruled out filming on location in Rome. He stated that upon "checking I found the Eternal City was not the 'city' of the time of the fall of the empire, so we'll build our 'Rome' in Madrid." Additionally, Philip Yordan had been tasked to write the script while Charlton Heston was being offered the role of Marcus Aurelius.
In September 1961, Bronston formally announced he was planning a trilogy of historical spectacles in Spain, which included The Fall of the Roman Empire with Mann and Heston returning to direct and star in. Filming was initially set in February 1962, with the production design for the Roman Forum being placed under construction under Veniero Colasanti and John Moore's supervision. However, Heston had disliked Yordan's script for the film. In December, at the premiere of El Cid in Madrid, Heston told Bronston associate Michael Waszynski that he was uninterested in starring in The Fall of the Roman Empire. On the next day, during a jet flight back to Los Angeles, Yordan, who was seated next to Heston, and director Nicholas Ray pitched the idea for 55 Days at Peking (1963) to him. Subsequently, 55 Days at Peking went into production while Roman Empire was placed on hold. The elaborate sets for Roman Empire were later demolished and replaced with the Forbidden City sets for 55 Days at Peking.
Writing
In April 1963, Mann explained to the Los Angeles Times that while the film was not a direct adaptation of Gibbon's volume series, the focus on a fifteen-year period from Marcus Aurelius' reign to Commodus' death was backed by historians as "the turning point in the history of the empire and by concentrating our story on it we can keep the same group of characters within the range of our drama." Having selected a focal point for the film, screenwriter Basilio Franchina was hired for his broad knowledge of the period while Ben Barzman would handle the actual writing of the script. Together, they subsequently wrote a 350-page film treatment. After this, Mann consulted with the screenwriters on further developing the characters, in which they wrote six drafts in total. The sixth draft would be developed throughout the shooting of the film. Mann later explained, "The writing took us more than one year. We did not have artists in mind when we were writing; but we wanted characters with memorable scenes to attract artists of the calibre of Guinness to want to play them."
As the script was being written, the Roman Forum was being constructed at Bronston's studio backlot although their script had made no mention of it. Under Yordan's supervision, the action was re-written for scenes they had not written for the Forum to occur there, which brought much dismay from Barzman. In January 1963, it was reported that historian Will Durant had written a prologue for the film.
Casting
It was envisioned that Heston would be cast as Livius, but he turned it down. The part had also been offered to Kirk Douglas, who turned it down as well following an offer of $1.5 million. In 1971, he later said he regretted this "because with $1.5 million there are lots of things you can do that you want to." In May 1962, it was announced that Stephen Boyd, who played opposite to Heston in Ben-Hur (1959), would play the lead opposite Gina Lollobrigida as Lucilla. In September 1962, it was announced that Sophia Loren had been cast as Lucilla, in which she was paid $1 million.
In August 1962, it was reported that Alec Guinness had been cast as Marcus Aurelius, while Richard Harris, Albert Finney, John Gielgud, Terence Stamp were being considered for other roles. Later that same month, it was reported that Harris had been cast as Commodus. However, in January 1963, he was replaced by Christopher Plummer who had pulled out of The V.I.P.s (1963) to do so. Harris would later play the role of Marcus Aurelius in the similarly themed 2000 film Gladiator. By the time filming was set to begin, Anthony Quayle, Omar Sharif, John Ireland, and Mel Ferrer had been cast in supporting roles.
Filming
Principal photography began on January 14, 1963. Marcus Aurelius's winter camp on the Danube was shot on location in the snow along the Sierra de Guadarrama in northern Madrid. By the next month, filming in the area was suspended due to a severe blizzard. The "Battle of the Four Armies" involved 8,000 soldiers including 1,200 cavalry and was shot on an undulating plain at Manzanares el Real, which allowed large numbers of soldiers to be visible over a long distance.
Meanwhile, Yakima Canutt had been hired as the second unit director at the insistence of Mann. As he had done in El Cid (1961), Canutt performed his own stunts while his son Tap served as the stunt double for Stephen Boyd. Jack Williams served as the body double for Christopher Plummer. Among the first scenes shot was the chariot race sequence between Livius and Commodus. 1,500 horses were gathered from Spain and Portugal for which they were trained to fall safely during the battle sequences.
Interior scenes were shot in Madrid at the Samuel Bronston Studios (formerly known as the Chamartín Studios) and at the Cinecittà Studios in Rome where Commodus's baths and gymnasiums were constructed. Filming had been arranged to shoot at Cinecittà in order to make it eligible for government subsidies. In July 1963, filming was finished after 143 days. Second unit directors Canutt and Andrew Marton spent an additional 63 days shooting the action sequences.
Production design
Veniero Colasanti and John Moore served as the art directors overseeing the production design with the guidance of Will Durant. Actual construction began on October 1, 1962, using 1,100 men who labored for seven months. About 400 art students and craftsmen throughout Spain worked on the statuary, tiles, frescoes, and details of the set. The film's reconstruction of the Roman Forum was constructed in Las Matas near Madrid, approximately sixteen miles from Bronston's studio. The entire set was measured at 400 x 230 metres (1312 x 754 feet), which holds the record for the largest outdoor film set. Uniquely for the film, the set was not extended through the use of matte paintings.
The Temple of Jupiter was constructed on a high hill along the plains of Las Matas by which craftsmen built the temple on it. The bronze equestrian figures at the top of the temple were above the pavement of the forum set. For the statuary, 350 statues had to be constructed. There were 76 life-size statues, more than a thousand sculpted bases for the remaining figures and victory columns, and a series of the aforementioned equestrian statues that were high. Ultimately, more than 3,000 sketches were drawn to illustrate the 27 structures that would comprise the sets. The various ancient Rome settings covered . After much of the set was pulled down, the remaining sections were reused in A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1966).
Music
Dimitri Tiomkin's score, which is one of the notable features of the film, is more than 150 minutes in length. It is scored for a large orchestra, including an important part for cathedral organ. Several cues are extended compositions in their own right. These include Pax Romana in which Marcus Aurelius summons the governors of all the Roman provinces. Although Christopher Palmer stated in his book on film music, The Composer in Hollywood, that it was a march, the cue is actually in the style of a bolero.
Other notable cues include those for The Roman Forum, composed to accompany Commodus's triumphal return to Rome as the newly installed Emperor; a percussive scherzo for a barbarian attack by Ballomar's army; the Tarantella danced by the Roman mob on the evening presaging the gladiatorial combat between Livius and Commodus (which seems to be modelled on the Tarantella movement from the Piano Concerto of Tiomkin's teacher Ferruccio Busoni).
The music was recorded at the Royal Albert Hall. The music editor was George Korngold, son of Erich Wolfgang Korngold. A soundtrack album was released by Columbia Records to coincide with the release of the film.
Release
Prior to the film's release, columnist Hedda Hopper predicted in the Los Angeles Times that "this beautiful, honest, superbly done film will make millions." The film had its world premiere screening at the London Astoria on March 24, 1964, and ran there for 70 weeks. Two days later, the film premiered at the DeMille Theater in New York City. In April 1964, the film was screened out of competition at the 1964 Cannes Film Festival. Sophia Loren was a guest, appearing at the premiere on a chariot.
The film had been shot in Ultra Panavision 70 with a 2.76:1 aspect ratio, although it was never screened in that format. Instead, it was screened with a 2.20:1 aspect ratio for 70mm roadshow presentations, and subsequently in 35mm at 2.35:1 during the film's general release. The film's original running time had totaled 184 minutes including an overture, intermission, and exit music. However, for the film's general release, the film was reduced by half an hour.
Novelization
In conjunction with the film's release, a paperback novelization also titled The Fall of the Roman Empire was published by Fawcett Publications. The novelization was written by Harry Whittington and was based on the film's screenplay. The cover of the novel is a screenshot from the film. The text of the novel provides a more detailed exposition of the film's plot line. Other covers that were not screenshots of the film were used for this novel of the film.
Home media
The film was first released on LaserDisc in a letterboxed format during the 1990s. The most complete version of the film was released on Super 8mm in the early 1990s, extracted from a 16mm print.
On April 29, 2008, the film was released on a three-disc limited collector's edition DVD as part of the Miriam Collection by the Weinstein Company. This edition included bonus materials including an audio commentary by Bill Bronston (son of producer Samuel Bronston) and biographer Mel Martin; a reproduction of the original 1964 souvenir program; a behind-the-scenes look at the fall of the real Roman Empire; a "making of" documentary; five Encyclopædia Britannica featurettes on the Roman Empire; and a set of six color production stills. The Blu-ray disc was released in the United Kingdom on May 16, 2011.
Reception
Critical reaction
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times sharply criticized the film writing, "So massive and incoherent is it, so loaded with Technicolored spectacles, tableaus and military melees that have no real meaning or emotional pull, that you're likely to have the feeling after sitting through its more than three hours (not counting time out for intermission), that the Roman Empire has fallen on you. The reason it misses is obvious — misses as entertainment, that is, not as a mass of noisy footage that leaves the senses flattened and numbed. There isn't a character in it for whom you're made to care two hoots —or, indeed, made to feel is important, or, for that matter, made to understand. The fellows who wrote the screenplay — Ben Barzman, Basilio Franchina and Philip Yordan—have failed completely to shape a drama that has human interest or even sense." Time magazine criticized the production design as well noting "Bronston's Rome is patently too fabulous to have been built in a day, but it doesn't look lived-in either. Director Anthony Mann makes it a picture-book setting aswarm with extras behaving like extras and movie stars all dressed up to face posterity in spanking new tunics, togas, and armor."
Hollis Alpert of Saturday Review wrote: "Never before have script writers (there were three involved) written a screenplay like this one, in which the two main parts are complete voids. One must assume Mr. Bronston offered Mr. Boyd and Miss Loren huge sums to journey to Spain for the movie, they took time only to read the contract and not the script. Several others also appear to great disadvantage in the film, among them James Mason, Omar Sharif, Mel Ferrer, and Anthony Quayle." Philip K. Scheuer, reviewing for the Los Angeles Times, felt the film was "more like a recapitulation of all the great movie spectacles, historical and pseudo, than a monumental entity in itself." He further wrote "Yet the only emotion it engenders is excitement — intermittent excitement, and its art lies in its parts (the camera work, the color, a few of the performances, even the music) but not in their sum. Its triumph is the triumphs of its technicians, of matter over mind." In contrast, Variety praised the film, summarizing: "Large in theme and concept, colorful in treatment, The Fall of the Roman Empire is Sam Bronston's greatest coup de cinema."
Among later reviews, Mike Cummings from AllMovie gave the film a positive review, praising the film for its performances and musical score. Leonard Maltin awarded the film 3 out of 4 stars, writing "Intelligent scripting, good direction, and fine acting place this far above the usual empty-headed spectacle". Steven H. Scheuer disliked the film at first and asked his Movies on TV readers to "excuse the divine Sophia Loren for looking so uncomfortable," but later reconsidered his opinion and rated it 3 out of 4 stars.
The film has a 92% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 13 reviews, with an average of 7.20 out of 10.
Box office
The film grossed $4.8 million at the box office in the United States and Canada, from which it returned $1.9 million in North American distributor rentals.
Accolades
Aftermath
Following the release of The Fall of the Roman Empire, Bronston was slated to release Circus World in the following June. In March 1964, it was reported that Pierre S. du Pont III took over the company, in which he had signed guarantee bonds for the films to reach completion so it would enable Bronston to raise finance. However, two months later, in June 1964, Bronston Production filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy reporting over $5.6 million in debts to du Pont.
In May 1971, Bronston attempted a comeback with a planned epic about Isabella of Spain. Glenda Jackson had signed to portray the title role while John Philip Law was to play Ferdinand II, but the film was never made. In the following June, a court ordered Bronston to pay Du Pont $3 million.
During the bankruptcy proceedings, Bronston was asked, under oath, by a lawyer for one of the creditors if he had had an account in Zurich at any time while running the company. He answered that the company had had an account there for six months. While that answer was true, later research found that Bronston personally had had an account in Zurich at another time, and the lawyers referred the case to federal prosecutors who secured a perjury conviction against Bronston. He appealed, on the grounds that while he had not told the whole truth, he had not been lying about the company's Zurich account. The Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the conviction, but in 1973 the United States Supreme Court agreed with Bronston, holding unanimously that "literally truthful but technically misleading" answers to questions under oath did not constitute perjury and instead examiners should ask further questions clarifying the matter.
See also
Gladiator – a 2000 film that also tells a fictionalized version of Commodus' reign
Roman Empire: Reign of Blood – a 2016 docudrama series about the rise and fall of Commodus
Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire
List of American films of 1964
List of films set in ancient Rome
List of Roman Emperors
The Five Good Emperors, of which Marcus Aurelius was the last
References
Bibliography
External links
1964 films
1960s English-language films
1960s historical drama films
1960s war drama films
American epic films
American historical drama films
American war drama films
Historical epic films
Biographical films about Roman emperors
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Films scored by Dimitri Tiomkin
Films directed by Anthony Mann
Films set in ancient Rome
Films set in classical antiquity
Films set in 2nd-century Roman Empire
Films shot in Madrid
Films shot in Spain
Nerva–Antonine dynasty
Emesene dynasty
Samuel Bronston Productions films
Paramount Pictures films
Cultural depictions of Commodus
Cultural depictions of Marcus Aurelius
Cultural depictions of Lucilla
1960s American films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20development
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International development
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International development or global development is a broad concept denoting the idea that societies and countries have differing levels of economic or human development on an international scale. It is the basis for international classifications such as developed country, developing country and least developed country, and for a field of practice and research that in various ways engages with international development processes. There are, however, many schools of thought and conventions regarding which are the exact features constituting the "development" of a country.
Historically, development was largely synonymous with economic development, and especially its convenient but flawed quantification (see parable of the broken window) through readily gathered (for developed countries) or estimated monetary proxies (estimated for severely undeveloped or isolationist countries) such as gross domestic product (GDP), often viewed alongside actuarial measures such as life expectancy. More recently, writers and practitioners have begun to discuss development in the more holistic and multi-disciplinary sense of human development. Other related concepts are, for instance, competitiveness, quality of life or subjective well-being.
"International development" is different from the simple concept of "development". Whereas the latter, at its most basic, denotes simply the idea of change through time, international development has come to refer to a distinct field of practice, industry, and research; the subject of university courses and professional categorisations. It remains closely related to the set of institutions—especially the Bretton Woods Institutions—that arose after the Second World War with a focus on economic growth, alleviating poverty, and improving living conditions in previously colonised countries. The international community has codified development aims in, for instance, the Millennium Development Goals (2000 to 2015) and the Sustainable Development Goals (2015 to 2030).
Global Goals
Sustainable Development Goals (2015 to 2030)
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) served a successful framework to guide international development efforts, having achieved progress on some of the 8 goals. For example, by 2015 the extreme poverty rate had already been cut into half. Other targets achieved include access to safe drinking water, malaria, and gender equality in schooling. Yet, some scholars have argued that the MDGs lack the critical perspectives required to alleviate poverty and structures of inequality, reflected in the serious lags to achieving numerous other goals.
As the MDG era came to an end, 2015 marked the year that the United Nations General Assembly adopted a new agenda for development. Former UN Secretary General Ban Ki Moon referred to this as a "defining moment in history" calling on states to "act in solidarity". Succeeding the MDG agenda, 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were created, with 169 indicators. UN resolution 70/1 adopted on September 25, 2015, was titled "Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development", solidifying 17 new goals that had been in motion since 2014. The goals came into force in January 2016, focusing on areas of climate change, economic inequality, democracy, poverty, and peacebuilding.
Although the SDGs were built on the foundation of the MDGs, there are some key differences in both processes. Before adoption, unlike the MDGs, the SDGs had been in discussion for months, involving civil society actors, NGOs, as well as an opening summit involving intergovernmental negotiations. The new global development agenda places a greater emphasis on collective action, combining the efforts of multiple stakeholders to increase the sustainability of the goals. This emphasis on sustainability has also led to more cross-sector partnerships, and combined international efforts across areas of environmental, social, cultural, political, and economic development.
Millennium Development Goals (2000 to 2015)
In 2000, United Nations signed the United Nations Millennium Declaration, which includes eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to be achieved by 2015. This represented the first time that a holistic strategy to meet the development needs of the world has been established, with measurable targets and defined indicators.
Because the MDGs were agreed as global targets to be achieved by the global community, they are independent of, but by no means unrelated to, individual national interests. The goals imply that every state has a set of obligations to the world community to meet and that other states, who have achieved those goals, have an obligation to help those who have not. As such they may represent an extension of the concept of human rights.
The first seven Millennium Development Goals present measurable goals, while the eighth lists a number of 'stepping stone' goals – ways in which progress towards the first seven goals could be made. Each goal uses indicators based on statistical series collected and maintained by respected organisations in each relevant field (usually the UN agency responsible but also the OECD, IMF and World Bank)
The MDGs have catalysed a significant amount of action, including new initiatives such as Millennium Promise. Most of these initiatives however work in small scale interventions which do not reach the millions of people required by the MDGs.
Recent praise has been that it will be impossible to meet the first seven goals without meeting the eighth by forming a Global Partnership for Development. No current organisation has the capacity to dissolve the enormous problems of the developing world alone – especially in cities, where an increasing number of poor people live – as demonstrated by the almost nonexistent progress on the goal of improving the lives of at least 100 Million slum dwellers.
The Institution of Civil Engineers Engineering Without Frontiers panel and its recommendations, and the 2007 Brunel Lecture by the ICE's 2009–2010 president Paul Jowitt, are representative of a change of approach in the UK at least to start drawing together the huge capacity available to western governments, industry, academia and charity to develop such a partnership.
Other goals
International development also aims to improve general government policies of these developing countries. "State building" is the strengthening of regional institutions necessary to support long-term economic, social, and political development. Education is another important aspect of international development. It is a good example of how the focus today is on sustainable development in these countries; education gives people the skills required to keep themselves out of poverty.
Concepts
International development is related to the concept of international aid, but is distinct from, disaster relief and humanitarian aid. While these two forms of international support seek to alleviate some of the problems associated with a lack of development, they are most often short term fixes – they are not necessarily long-term solutions. International development, on the other hand, seeks to implement long-term solutions to problems by helping developing countries create the necessary capacity needed to provide such sustainable solutions to their problems. A truly sustainable development project is one which will be able to carry on indefinitely with no further international involvement or support, whether it be financial or otherwise.
International development projects may consist of a single, transformative project to address a specific problem or a series of projects targeted at several aspects of society. Promoted projects are ones which involve problem solving that reflects the unique culture, politics, geography, and economy of a region. More recently, the focus in this field has been projects that aim towards empowering women, building local economies, and caring for the environment.
In context of human development it usually encompasses foreign aid, governance, healthcare, education, poverty reduction, gender equality, disaster preparedness, infrastructure, economics, human rights, environment and issues associated with these.
During recent decades, development thinking has shifted from modernization and structural adjustment programs to poverty reduction. Under the former system, poor countries were encouraged to undergo social and economical structural transformations as part of their development, creating industrialization and intentional industrial policy. Poverty reduction rejects this notion, consisting instead of direct budget support for social welfare programs that create macroeconomic stability leading to an increase in economic growth.
The concept of poverty can apply to different circumstances depending on context. Poverty is the condition of lacking economic access to fundamental human needs such as food, shelter and safe drinking water. While some define poverty primarily in economic terms, others consider social and political arrangements also to be intrinsic – often manifested in a lack of dignity.
Theories
There are a number of theories about how desirable change in society is best achieved. Such theories draw on a variety of social scientific disciplines and approaches, and include historical theories such as:
Modernization Theory
Dependency Theory
World Systems Theory
Neoliberalism
Good governance
Capability approach
Postdevelopment theory
International economic inequality
International development institutions and international organisations such as the UN promote the realisation of the fact that economic practices such as rapid globalisation and certain aspects of international capitalism can lead to, and, allegedly, have led to an economic divide between countries, sometimes called the north–south divide. Such organisations often make it a goal and to help reduce these divides by encouraging co-operation amongst the Global South and other practices and policies that can accomplish this.
International development can also cause inequality between richer and poorer factions of one nation's society. For example, when economic growth boosts development and industrialisation, it can create a class divide by creating demand for more educated people in order to maintain corporate and industrial profitability. Thus the popular demand for education, which in turn drives the cost of education higher through the principle of supply and demand, as people would want to be part of the new economic elite. Higher costs for education lead to a situation where only the people with enough money to pay for education can receive sufficient education to qualify for the better-paying jobs that mass-development brings about. This restricts poorer people to lesser-paying jobs but technological development makes some of these jobs obsolete (for example, by introducing electronic machines to take over a job, such as creating a series of machines such as lawn mowers to make people such as gardeners obsolete). This leads to a situation where poorer people cannot improve their lives as easily as they could have in a less developed society. That is partially why institutions such as the Center for Global Development are searching for "pro-poor" economic policies.
Dignity
Modern poverty reduction and development programmes often have dignity as a central theme. Dignity is also a central theme of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the very first article of which starts with:
"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights."
The concept of dignity in development has been extensively explored by many, and related to all of the development sectors. For example, in Development with Dignity Amit Bhaduri argues that full employment with dignity for all is both important and possible in India, while the UN Millennium Project's task force on Water and Sanitation links the sector directly to dignity in the report Health, Dignity and Development: What will it take?. The Asian Human Rights Commission released a statement in 2006 claiming that:
Humanizing Development Global Photography Campaign
Participation
The concept of participation is concerned with ensuring that the intended beneficiaries of development projects and programmes are themselves involved in the planning and execution of those projects and programmes. This is considered important as it empowers the recipients of development projects to influence and manage their own development – thereby removing any culture of dependency. It is widely considered to be one of the most important concepts in modern development theory. The UN System Network on Rural Development and Food Security describes participation as:
Local participants in development projects are often products of oral communities. This has led to efforts to design project planning and organizational development methods, such as participatory rural appraisal, which are accessible to non-literate people.
Appropriateness
The concept of something being appropriate is concerned with ensuring that a development project or programme is of the correct scale and technical level, and is culturally and socially suitable for its beneficiaries. This should not be confused with ensuring something is low-technology, cheap or basic – a project is appropriate if it is acceptable to its recipients and owners, economically affordable and sustainable in the context in which it is executed.
For example, in a rural sub-Saharan community it may not be appropriate to provide a chlorinated and pumped water system because it cannot be maintained or controlled adequately – simple hand pumps may be better; while in a big city in the same country it would be inappropriate to provide water with hand pumps, and the chlorinated system would be the correct response.
The economist E. F. Schumacher championed the cause of appropriate technology and founded the organization ITDG (Intermediate Technology Design Group), which develops and provides appropriate technologies for development (ITDG has now been renamed Practical Action).
The concept of right-financing has been developed to reflect the need for public and private financial support systems that foster and enable development, rather than hinder it.
Sustainable development
Capacity building
Rights-based approach
Rights-based approach to development has been adopted by many nongovernmental organizations and the United Nations as the new approach to international development. Rights-based approach combines many different concepts of international development, such as capacity building, human rights, participation, and sustainability. The goal of the rights-based approach to development is to empower the rights-holders, or the group that does not exercise full rights, and strengthen the capacity of the duty-bearers, or the institution or government obligated to fill these rights.
Practice
Measurement
The judging of how developed a country or a community is highly subjective, often highly controversial, and very important in judging what further development is necessary or desirable.
There are many different measures of human development, many of them related to the different sectors above. Some of them are:
National GDP
Literacy rates
Life expectancy
Human Development Index
Gini coefficient
Human Security Index – see external link and mention on Human security
Per capita income
Maternal survival rate
HIV infection rates
Number of doctors per capita
An interesting way of seeing development is through modernization. This includes electronification of households and increases in phone plans. This does not accurately convey social development although it is hard to precisely measure, and institutions differ greatly in their methods. This goes into the debate on whether economic growth causes social growth or vice versa. Indicators of social change can be used to complement economic factors as indicators of development and in formulating development policies.
In a multi-country review of development progress, improved outcomes on these measures has generally been found to be driven by a combination of smart leadership, policies, institutions, and social networks, according to the Overseas Development Institute.
Migration and remittance
Migration has throughout history also led to significant international development. As people move, their culture, knowledge, skills and technologies move with them. Migrants' ties with their past homes and communities lead to international relationships and further flows of goods, capital and knowledge. The value of remittances sent home by migrants in modern times is much greater than the total in international aid given.
Sectors
International development and disaster relief are both often grouped into sectors, which correlate with the major themes of international development (and with the Millennium Development Goals – which are included in the descriptions below). There is no clearly defined list of sectors, but some of the more established and universally accepted sectors are further explored here. The sectors are highly interlinked, illustrating the complexity of the problems they seek to deal with.
Water and sanitation
In development, this is the provision of water and sanitation (toilets, bathing facilities, a healthy environment) of sufficient quantity and quality to supply an acceptable standard of living. This is different from a relief response, where it is the provision of water and sanitation in sufficient quantity and quality to maintain life.
The provision of water and sanitation is an engineering challenge, as well as a societal and political challenge as it includes education and behaviour change elements and is closely connected with shelter, politics and human rights.
The seventh Millennium Development Goal was to ensure environmental sustainability, including reducing by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and achieving significant improvement in lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers, by 2020. UN-Water, a body of 26 UN agencies that work on water issues, is responsible for the triennial UN World Water Development Report which monitors progress towards the Millennium Development Goals related to water. The World Water Assessment Programme, which produces the Report, has articulated how eight of the MDGs are linked to water resources.
Health
This is provision of access to quality healthcare to the population in an efficient and consistent manner and according to their needs. The standard and level of provision that is acceptable or appropriate depends on many factors and is highly specific to country and location. For example, in a large city (whether in a 'developing' country or not), it is appropriate and often practical to provide a high standard hospital which can offer a full range of treatments; in a remote rural community it may be more appropriate and practical to provide a visiting healthworker on a periodic basis, possibly with a rural clinic serving several different communities.
The provision of access to healthcare is both an engineering challenge as it requires infrastructure such as hospitals and transport systems and an education challenge as it requires qualified healthworkers and educated consumers.
The fourth Millennium Development Goal is to reduce by two thirds the mortality rate among children under five.
The fifth Millennium Development Goal is to reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio.
The sixth Millennium Development Goal is to halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS and to halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases.
Reaching these goals is also a management challenge. Health services need to make the best use of limited resources while providing the same quality of care to every man, woman and child everywhere. Achieving this level of services requires innovation, quality improvement and expansion of public health services and programs. The main goal is to make public health truly public.
Examples of organizations working in health are:
World Health Organization
Partners in Health
Results for Development Institute
Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization
Education
The provision of education often focuses on providing free primary level education, but also covers secondary and higher education. A lack of access to education is one of the primary limits on human development, and is related closely to every one of the other sectors. Almost every development project includes an aspect of education as development by its very nature requires a change in the way people live.
The second Millennium Development Goal is to Provide universal primary education.
The provision of education is itself an education challenge, as it requires qualified teachers who must be trained in higher education institutions. However, donors are unwilling to provide support to higher education because their policies now target the MDG. The result is that students are not educated by qualified professionals and worse, when they graduate from primary school they are inducted into a secondary school system that is not able to accommodate them.
Shelter
The provision of appropriate shelter is concerned with providing suitable housing for families and communities. It is highly specific to context of culture, location, climate and other factors. In development, it is concerned with providing housing of an appropriate quality and type to accommodate people in the long term. This is distinct from shelter in relief, which is concerned with providing sufficient shelter to maintain life.
Examples of organisations specialising in shelter are:
UN-HABITAT (development)
UNHCR (relief)
Shelter Centre (relief)
Architecture for Humanity (relief and development)
Article 25 (relief and development)
ARCHIVE Global (development)
Human rights
The provision of human rights is concerned with ensuring that all people everywhere receive the rights conferred on them by International human rights instruments. There are many of these, but the most important for international development are:
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and its associated treaties
The Convention on the Rights of the Child
The Geneva Conventions (this is of more relevance to relief and military practices than development)
Human rights covers a huge range of topics. Some of those more relevant to international development projects include rights associated with gender equality, justice, employment, social welfare and culture.
The third Millennium Development Goal was to "promote gender equality and empower women" by "eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015."
Accomplishing this goal could assist in the achievement of five of the other eight Millennium Development Goals. Goals 1–6 are in direct correlation with the status of women in the communities of problem countries such as The Democratic Republic of Congo, Sub-Saharan Africa and many of the developing nations. The low social stature of a woman inhibits her abilities to truly impact her community in astonishing ways. Noting the relationship between mother and offspring, Goals 1, 4 and 5 are ones to feel the wrath of poor social status. An unhealthy mother simply cannot bear a healthy child, let alone nurse a sickly one back to health, without access to adequate nutrition. A mother characteristically takes most of the care of a child, therefore must have the resources available to not only support herself but another human as well. Without these resources, if she has not already succumbed to birthing complications, a woman cannot survive the perils of poverty and hunger and support her child simultaneously.
In a different spectrum of societal norms the Goals 2 and 6 are being threatened by an age old privilege. Historically females have been refused education in pardon of males, resulting in lesser opportunity to thrive economically. Giving women equal access to an adequate education brings the global community steps closer to achieving universal primary education. Along with this education will come proper spread of knowledge regarding safe practices in disease avoidance. Women are increasingly falling victim to HIV/AIDS for reasons easily evaded. Increasing the availability of a proper education to women will be remarkably beneficial on a variety of fronts. To promote gender equality is to promote progress towards global development.
Livelihoods
This is concerned with ensuring that all people are able to make a living for themselves and provide themselves with an adequate standard of living, without compromising their human rights and while maintaining dignity.
The first Millennium Development Goal is to reduce by half the proportion of people living on less than a dollar a day and reduce by half the proportion of people who suffer from hunger.
The concept of livelihoods is directly drawn from the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) to international development. The approach and subsequent practical framework is credited to Robert Chambers, who, writing from the mid-1980s and onward, was interested in fostering efficiency in development cooperation. The approach was later developed and utilized by the United Kingdom's Department for International Development (DFID). The approach is considered to be more comprehensive than previous theories and methodology of "conventional" development initiatives. The core concepts include: taking a holistic view, building on community and individual strengths, focusing on linking both macro and micro-level thinking, sustainability, and maintaining a dynamic and ever-evolving framework.
Finance
Several organisations and initiatives exist which are concerned with providing financial systems and frameworks which allow people to organise or purchase services, items or projects for their own development.
The 2006 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded jointly to Muhammad Yunus and the Grameen Bank, which he founded, for their work in providing microcredit to the poor.
Concerns
The terms "developed" and "developing" (or "underdeveloped") have proven problematic in forming policy as they ignore issues of wealth distribution and the lingering effects of colonialism. Some theorists see development efforts as fundamentally neo-colonial, in which a wealthier nation forces its industrial and economic structure on a poorer nation, which will then become a consumer of the developed nation's goods and services. Post-developmentalists, for example, see development as a form of Western cultural imperialism that hurts the people of poor countries and endangers the environment to such an extent that they suggest rejection of development altogether.
Other scholars have sought to widen the notion of "developing" to encompass all countries, as even the wealthiest and most industrialised of countries face problems of social exclusion and inequality. This points to the widespread critiques of the language of development practice, from the Cold War-era terminology of "Third World" to the subsequent bifurcation of "developed" and "developing" countries. The phrases "Global North" and "Global South" are similarly imprecise (particularly from a geographical standpoint, as Australia, for instance, is considered part of the Global North). Other terms currently in use as synonyms for "Global South" include "majority world" and "low- and middle-income countries". The latter term allows for greater specificity, for instance in differentiating between lower-middle and upper-middle-income countries, but it has the downside of overemphasising the economic aspects of development at the expense of social, political and cultural rights and freedoms. These linguistic issues reflect conceptual tensions related to the framing of development.
History
Although international relations and international trade have existed for thousands of years, it is only in the past century that international development theory emerged as a separate body of ideas. More specifically, it has been suggested that 'the theory and practice of development is inherently technocratic, and remains rooted in the high modernist period of political thought that existed in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War'. Throughout the 20th century, before the concept of international development became a common word, four aspects were used to describe the idea:
political and economic liberalism, and the significance of "free markets"
social evolution in extremely hierarchical environment
Marxist critiques of class and imperialism
anti-colonial take on cultural differences and national self-determination
After World War 2
The second half of the 20th century has been called the 'era of development'. The origins of this era have been attributed to
the need for reconstruction in the immediate aftermath of World War II
the evolution of colonialism or "colonization" into globalization and the establishment of new free trade policies between so-called 'developed' and 'underdeveloped' nations
the start of the Cold War and the desire of the United States and its allies to prevent the Third World from drifting towards communism
International Development in its very meaning is geared towards colonies that gained independence. The governance of the newly independent states should be constructed so that the inhabitants enjoy freedom from poverty, hunger, and insecurity.
It has been argued that this era was launched on January 20, 1949, when Harry S. Truman made these remarks in his inaugural address
Before this date, however, the United States had already taken a leading role in the creation of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (now part of the World Bank Group) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), both established in 1944, and in the United Nations in 1945.
The launch of the Marshall Plan was another important step in setting the agenda for international development, combining humanitarian goals with the creation of a political and economic bloc in Europe that was allied to the U.S. This agenda was given conceptual support during the 1950s in the form of modernization theory espoused by Walt Rostow and other American economists. The changes in the 'developed' world's approach to international development were further necessitated by the gradual collapse of Western Europe's empires over the next decades; now independent ex-colonies no longer received support in return for their subordinate role.
By the late 1960s, dependency theory arose analysing the evolving relationship between the West and the Third World. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the modernists at the World Bank and IMF adopted the neoliberal ideas of economists such as Milton Friedman or Béla Balassa, which were implemented in the form of structural adjustment programs, while their opponents were promoting various 'bottom-up' approaches, ranging from civil disobedience and critical consciousness to appropriate technology and Rapid Rural Appraisal.
In response, various parts of the UN system led a counter movement, which in the long run has proved to be successful. They were led initially by the International Labour Organization (ILO), influenced by Paul Streeten, then by United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF). Then United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) put forward the concept of Human Development, thanks to Mahboub ul Haq and Amartya Sen, thus changing the nature of the development dialogue to focus on human needs and capabilities.
By the 1990s, there were some writers for whom development theory had reached an impasse and some academics were "imagining a postdevelopment era". The Cold War had ended, capitalism had become the dominant mode of social organization, and UN statistics showed that living standards around the world had improved over the past 40 years. Nevertheless, a large portion of the world's population were still living in poverty, their governments were crippled by debt and concerns about the environmental impact of globalization were rising.
In response to the impasse, the rhetoric of development is now focusing on the issue of poverty, with the metanarrative of modernization being replaced by shorter-term vision embodied by the Millennium Development Goals and the Human Development approach. At the same time, some development agencies are exploring opportunities for public-private partnerships and promoting the idea of Corporate social responsibility with the apparent aim of integrating international development with the process of economic globalization.
The critics have suggested that this integration has always been part of the underlying agenda of development. They argue that poverty can be equated with powerlessness and that the way to overcome poverty is through emancipatory social movements and civil society, not paternalistic aid programmes or corporate charity.
While some critics have been debating the end of development others have predicted a development revival as part of the War on Terrorism. To date, however, there is limited evidence to support the notion that aid budgets are being used to counter Islamic fundamentalism in the same way that they were used 40 years ago to counter communism.
See also
African Development Bank
Asian Development Bank
Human development
International Development Research Centre
International Monetary Fund
International studies
List of development aid agencies
Right to development
Indices
Broad measures of economic progress
Green national product
Green gross domestic product (Green GDP)
Gender-related Development Index
Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI)
Global Peace Index
Gross National Happiness
Gross National Well-being (GNW)
Human Development Index (HDI)
OECD Better Life Index BLI
Where-to-be-born Index
World Happiness Report (WHR)
World Values Survey (WVS)
References
Notes
Bibliography
Allen, T. and Thomas, A. (2000). Poverty and development into the 21st century. OUP.
Barlett, Andrew (2007). Plans or People: What are our Priorities for Rural Development?. Rural Development News. (No.1) Agridea.
Bhaduri, Amit (2005). Development With Dignity. National Book Trust.
Browne, S. (1990) Foreign aid in practice. New York University Press.
Develtere, P. (2012). How Do We Help? The Free Market In Development Aid Leuven University Press.
Escobar, A. (1995) Encountering development: the making and unmaking of the third world, Princeton.
Fukuyama, Francis (2006) The End of History and the Last Man. Free Press.
Korten, D. C. (1995). When corporations rule the world. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Moss, T., Roodman, D. and Standley, S. (2005). The Global War on Terror and U.S. Development Assistance: USAID allocation by country, 1998–2005 – Working Paper 62. Center for Global Development
David Mosse (ed.): Adventures in Aid Land – The Anthropology of Professionals in International Development, Berghahn Books, Oxford/New York 2010
Parfitt, T. (2002). The end of development? Modernity, Post-Modernity and Development. Pluto press.
Sachs, W (ed.) (1992). The Development Dictionary: a guide to knowledge as power, Zed Books.
Salehi Nejad, A. (2011). The Third World; Country or People?. London, United Kingdom: Titan Inc.
Schuurman, F.J. (1993) Beyond the impasse: new directions in development theory. Zed Books.
Skelton, T. and Allen, T. (1999). Culture and Global Change, Routledge.
Sphere Project (2003). Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response (Sphere Handbook 2004 Edition). London: Oxfam Publishing. .
Stockholm International Water Institute (2005). Health, Dignity and Development: What Will It Take?. UN Millennium Project.
Utting, P. (2003) Promoting Development through Corporate Social Responsibility – Does it Work?. Global Future, Third Quarter 2003, Profit and Loss? Corporations and Development. London: World Vision International.
Wroe, M and Doney, M. (2005). The rough guide to a better world. UK: Rough Guides Ltd.
Catholic Relief Services (2009). Water and Conflict: Incorporating Peacebuilding into Water Development. US: CRS.
External links
The Human Development Reports
Human Security Index Human Security Index Website with HSI data, and a Human Development Index covering 232 countries (archived 23 April 2017)
Economic globalization
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromyard
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Bromyard
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Bromyard is a town in the parish of Bromyard and Winslow, in Herefordshire, England, in the valley of the River Frome. It is near the county border with Worcestershire on the A44 between Leominster and Worcester. Bromyard has a number of traditional half-timbered buildings, including some of the pubs; the parish church is Norman. For centuries, there was a livestock market in the town.
History
Bromyard is mentioned in Bishop Cuthwulf's charter of c. 840. Cudwulf established a monasterium at Bromgeard behind a 'thorny enclosure' with the permission of King Behrtwulf, King of the Mercians. Ealdorman Aelfstan, the local magnate, was granted between 500 and 600 acres of land for a villa beside the River Frome. The settlement in the Plegelgate Hundred was allocated 30 hides for 'the gap [in the forest] where the deer play.' The county court assembly was on Flaggoner's Green, now a hill in the modern borough and where the cricket club is situated. 42 villani (villeins, villagers), 9 bordars (smallholders), and 8 slaves were recorded in the Domesday Book entry in 1086, one of the largest communities in Herefordshire.
The first mention of the spelling "Bromyard" was in Edward I's Taxatio Ecclesiasticus on the occasion of a perambulation of the forest boundaries to set up a model for Parlements in 1291. It began to appear regularly in the church and court records of the 14th century.
Like Leominster, Ledbury, and Ross-on-Wye, the town and fair at the manor of Bromyard was probably founded in c1125 during the episcopate of Richard de Capella (1121–1127). As with those other three towns, the bishops of Hereford had had a manor and minster there since Anglo-Saxon times. As at Ledbury the church was collegiate, with an establishment of clergy known as "portioners", but without a master and common seal. Surveys for the bishop made c. 1285 and 1575-80 give valuable information about the town's first few centuries. Bromyard contained 255 burgage and landowner tenancies in the 1280s which paid a total rent of £23 10s 7 1/2d to the bishop. A Toll Shop at Schallenge House ("Pie Powder" from pieds a poudre) was where market tolls were paid and summary jurisdiction dealt out.
After the Reformation (1545) there were 800 communicants making Bromyard then "a markett toune...greately Replenyshed with People", the third town in the county with a population of about 1200 souls. By 1664 Bromyard had fallen behind Leominster, Ledbury and Ross in population. Besides the central town area, the large parish used to consist of the three townships of Winslow, Linton, and Norton; these areas were civil parishes in the 20th century.
During the civil wars, Prince Rupert's troops in March 1645 "brought all their [power] on Bromyard and Ledbury side, fell on, plundered every parish and house, poor as well as others, leaving neither clothes nor provision, killed all the young lambs in the country, though not above a week old. Charles I stayed the night in Bromyard at Mrs Baynham's house (now Tower House) on 3 September 1645 on his way to Hereford In 1648, Parliament ordered the sale of the cathedral's property in Bromyard Forrens (i.e. outside the borough) for £594 9s 2d.
Bromyard Grammar School was re-founded in 1566 after the original chantry endowments had been nationalised. In 1656, the City of London Alderman John Perrin, from Bromyard, left the school £20 per annum, to be paid through the Goldsmiths Company. The company improved the school buildings in 1835. The building still stands in Church Street, but the school became part of the first comprehensive school in Herefordshire in 1969, now known as Queen Elizabeth High School. A Congregational Chapel was built in 1701.
Commercial centre
For centuries, market day was always held on a Monday at Bromyard. The market town was a centre for agriculture with a fair for selling produce grown locally; as well as beef, there were hops, apples and pears, and soft fruit remained vital late into the post-war era. Some farms remained in the church's hands until the late 20th century. The carrier system also operated in Bromyard, within a given radius of the Teme to the north, Frome Hill to the east, and Lugg to the south. The dealers brought supplies to the many outlets, pubs, inns, traders and by the 19th century the shops.
In 1751, Bromyard obtained a Turnpike Trust that established a toll road as far as Canon Frome, with some minor roads turnpiked to prevent tax evasion. By 1830 town's fortunes had flagged down to only fifth in the county from second 300 years before; its stage wagons visited only 15 times per week. This reflected its place in the Industrial Revolution which came very late to Bromyard, partly because it took so long to connect the town to the railway system. A sandstone quarry was opened at Linton, just east of the town, in the 1870s, but the hopes for extensive sales of good quality building stone were disappointed and by 1879 it was producing bricks and tiles from the Old Red Sandstone marls. This business continued until the 1970s.
The town's water supply and sanitation was very poor until late in the 19th century; Benjamin Herschel Babbage conducted an inspection in 1850 (as he had the same year for the West Yorkshire town of Haworth). Babbage was horrified by the unsanitary conditions in the town, and reported to the General Board of Health into the town's water supply and lack of a sewerage system. He said that he had "met with considerable opposition to the application of the Public Health Act to this town, from a large number of the inhabitants, upon the ground of the supposed expense of carrying out the sanitary reforms which I found to be so much needed." No action was taken by the town vestry for over twenty years. The town belatedly acquired a piped water supply in 1900.
During World War I, Bromyard was the site of an internment camp, where the Irish nationalist Terence MacSwiney (future Lord Mayor of Cork who would die on hunger strike), was both interned and married.
In World War II, between autumn 1940 and 1945, Westminster School was temporarily relocated to a variety of buildings on the outskirts of the town, principally Buckenhill, and including, for various purposes, Brockhampton, Clater Park, Whitbourne Rectory and Saltmarshe Castle.
From the 1950-60s, the town underwent substantial housing development, including both private and council housing, and shops along the high street flourished serving both Bromyard and surrounding rural communities. A bypass was built and completed in the 1970s to stop traffic along the A44 between Worcester and Leominster having to pass through the town. A community centre, including a public library and leisure centre was opened in the 1990s.
Governance
There are two electoral wards, Bromyard West and Bromyard Bringsty. The latter includes several villages to the north east.
Bromyard borough has a town council. Herefordshire Council is a unitary authority.
Bromyard is one of three market towns (Leominster, Bromyard and Ledbury) in the parliamentary constituency of North Herefordshire. The current member as of the snap general election of 2017 is Conservative Bill Wiggin MP.
Bromyard is served by the Bromyard and Winslow Town Council which has three clerks and a Mayor. It has 18 councillors who are predominately independent
Bromyard and Winslow is a civil parish in Herefordshire. According to the 2001 census it had a population of 4,144, increasing to 4,236 at the 2011 census. The parish contains the town of Bromyard, and Winslow which is a sparsely populated rural area to the west. In 2014 the population was estimated to have risen to 4,600, and increase of about 200 or 4.5%, and 2% higher than the county's average. In 2015 a national influenza and pneumonia epidemic meant that the birth and death rate almost reached parity causing a slow down in the town's population growth. The town centre is considered among the 25% most deprived in the country for older people, irrespective of its relatively low population density.
Bromyard is a former civil parish. In 1961 the parish of Bromyard had a population of 1680. On 1 April 1986 the parish was abolished and merged with Winslow to form "Bromyard & Winslow".
Culture
The Bromyard & District Local History Society was founded in 1966, with a centre open three days a week which contains an archive, library and an exhibition room.
The Conquest Theatre (run by volunteers) provides a programme of plays, films, variety, musicals, operettas, ballet, pantomime and concerts in a purpose-built centre constructed in 1991.
The Time Museum of Science Fiction is in the centre of Bromyard, housing exhibits from TV programmes including Dr Who, Red Dwarf and Thunderbirds, as well as props from the Star Wars films.
Bromyard Arts is a not-for-profit enterprise with facilities for artists, craft makers, writers, musicians and performers.
At Christmas time, volunteers known as the Bromyard Light Brigade organise a display of Christmas lights which are put up in October and switched on the last Saturday of November, running for the five weeks up to Christmas until after the New Year. The group established links with Blackpool Illuminations in 2010, and Blackpool's director Richard Ryan performed the switching-on ceremony in the same year; the volunteers were awarded The Queen's Award for Voluntary Services that same year.
Bromyard is the home of "Nozstock: The Hidden Valley Festival", which attracts around 5,000 visitors at the end of July every year. This three-day event showcases bands from around the country across nine stages, alongside dance arenas, a cinema, a theatre and comedy stage, circus, and a vintage tractor arena.
The Bromyard Gala, an annual weekend festival of country sports, vintage vehicles and displays of various kinds, is held in July.
Bromyard holds a three-day folk festival each year in September, which particularly concentrates on English traditional music.
Sports
Sports clubs in Bromyard include Bromyard Town F.C. who are currently members of the and play at Delahay Meadow; Bromyard Cricket Club that play at Flaggoners Green, whose three senior sides play in the Worcestershire County Cricket League (WCL). Their 1sts are in the Worcestershire Premier Division which acts as a feeder into the Birmingham League; and Bromyard Rugby Club based at the Clive Richards Sports Ground, with senior men's and ladies teams, and junior teams.
Transport
The Worcester, Bromyard and Leominster Railway, now dismantled, was first proposed in 1845, and an Act of Parliament to build it obtained in 1861. Estimated to cost £20,000, that number of £10 shares were issued. When sold to the Great Western Railway in 1887, the shares were only worth ten shillings. The line had only arrived from Worcester in 1877, but it was already 3.5 miles to the east at Yearsett. It was not until 1897 that an onward connection was made to Leominster. It was a common destination for 'hop-pickers' specials' from the Black Country. There were five trains a day in each direction. The line to Leominster was closed in 1952, the last train ran in 1958, and the line, closed due to financial instability, became a victim of the Beeching cuts in 1963–4. For a short time the section between Bromyard and Linton was run as a private light railway – the Bromyard and Linton Light Railway – which still exists, albeit now disused.
Bromyard is the starting place of the A465 road which terminates at junction 43 of the M4 motorway at Llandarcy in South Wales. The town centre is bypassed by the A44 road that connects Aberystwyth to Oxford. Bromyard is notable for its many old and historically interesting buildings that are designated blue plaque buildings, especially in High Street, Broad Street, Market Square, Sherford Street and Rowberry Street, including a number of half-timbered public-houses and dwelling houses.
Architecture
St Peter's, Bromyard
St Peter's Church is a large cruciform building described in 1574 "with many cathedral churches no fairer" with parts dating back to Norman times, including an effigy of St. Peter, with two keys, over the main (reset) Norman south doorway. Most of the exterior is early 14th century. An Anglo-Saxon minster church existed before the present St Peter's Church. No physical remains survive, but the minster and manor are mentioned in a document of 840 AD. Inside the largely 14th century church lies a Norman font. The common element to the design was Y-shaped tracery throughout, chamfered roof beams of timber. The Norman nave was marked by capitals in the Decorated Style with lozenges, rosette and chevron. There was a genuine Tympanum in the north transept. The chancel was restored in the 14th century with ubiquitous window tracery. The oldest part of the church, the south arcade may have been built in the reign of Richard the Lion Heart, when Norman knights began to build churches in the county. The columnaded north arcade was built under King John characterised by leaf crockets, quatrefoils, and double-chamfered beams.
Bromyard church was early favoured by generous benefactors, as the Hereford Red Book of the Exchequer testified in 1277. The Lancastrian knights Sir John Baskerville and Sir Hugh Watcham donated two chantry chapels; with an unusual lavacrum in the south transept. At about the same time a Ricardian founded a chantry school for the parish, which was saved at the reformation on appeal in 1547 after 150 years of existence. Of the 17 grammar schools in the county only four survived the suppression of the monasteries, reflecting directly future development of the towns. Bromyard borough was the second town in Herefordshire owing to the woollen trade, but was taxed and chantries confiscated by the Crown under Queen Elizabeth I.
After the English Civil Wars the church fell into near fatal dilapidation for about a century. Much of the church was substantially restored by the Victorian architect Nicholson and Sons to the transepts in 1887, and the stalls beneath the tower, revealing the roof clerestory. A war memorial was added in 1919. Thus was followed by extensive repairs to the stained glass in the 1930s by A J Davies and later by A K Nicholson. Inside the church monumental slabs litter the chancel walls with worthies of Bromyard: John Baynham (1636), Thomas Fox (1728), Laetitia Pauncefoot (1753), Roger Sale (1766), Joseph Sterling (1781), Bartholomew Barneby (1783), James Dansie (1784), Roger Sale (1786), Abigail Barneby (1805), Edward Moxam (1805). At the Millennium the churchyard was cleared of monumental inscriptions.
Winslow
The civil parish of Winslow was a total in the original township devolved from the Saxon parochia. To the west stands two outstanding Georgian properties. The Green was a large farm on which a big house was built in 1770 for Thomas Colley owned the smart three-storey house with a brick facade in 1771 two miles west of Winslow Township. A plan was drafted by 1780, owned of which nearly half was meadow. It consisted of 5 bays with pedimnented centre and doorways of tripartite Doric columns. Typical of the Decorated Style, the blank sections on the wall offset the elaborations. Colley also installed Venetian windows and a baluster staircase. Obvious bays contrasted with fronted ornate pedimented doric columns at the entrance. Venetian windows hint at the Georgian Grand Tour and the ornate style architecture typical of the county. It also contains a remarkable baluster staircase. In horse country it was usual to have outbuildings and stables made of stone. There was a blacksmith's smithy nearby next to of woodland.
A farm of 110 acres existed at Hardwick Manor. This was named for Anthony Hardwick in 1575 when he purchased the freehold. His descendant, John, fell into debt and in 1755 was forced to sell Hardwick Hall, which was demolished, and the rest of the estate was sold to Thomas Griffiths of Stoke Lacy. The manor house was rebuilt on the site.
Medieval Munderfield was settled by a lesser Norman gentry family named D'Abitot. Mundersfield Harold is an even earlier Augustan era mansion made of brick on an H-Plan with typical bays and hipped roofs. There is a Venetian staircase, plaster mouldings, and a glazed porch. In the Victorian period a south wing with a terracotta balustrade was added. The estate had extensive farm buildings to the north-west, these were laid out, which was then followed by a large landscaped park. The house acquired a lodge in the 1880s facing a main road. There were three well-appointed farmhouses in the Norton area by 2000. The Lower Norton property of Hill Farm was built in the late 18th century with a barn of timber-framing alongside.
In the 21st century Winslow parish was once again merged into Bromyard Town borough due to urban developments.
Bredenbury
Although Wacton Court no longer exists, Wacton Farm was part of the same estate. It was purchased by Richard Hardwick in 1720, and two houses in Bromyard, which were let. A hall was founded at Lower Hardwick in the Tudor period with bays, studding, and diagonal cross-bracing. A new wing was added on the north-western side in the Jacobean era. Gabled windows are distinguished by the lozenges with elaborate carved mouldings on diagonal wooden dragon-beams in the roof with supporting columns. There was a hop farm at Wicton with three large square kilns.
The main building was a stone house, Bredenbury Court built for William West in 1809 and then remodelled for the Barnebys by A.T.Wyatt in 1873–4. The red-rock faced Italianate Neo-Elizabethan mansion had a number of bays before additions in 1898 by a new owner Francis Greswolde-Williams. The architect Guy Dawber was instrumental in much of the current improvements: a west end extension, rusticated corner pilasters, and open pediments. The east wing dated after the 18th century architect James Gibbs with fine plaster work and a Wyatt staircase with twisted balusters. St Richards Prep School added a north-west brick classroom in 1924. The lodges belonged to Wyatt in picturesque gabled Gothic; but the stables were Dawber's work in 1902. William Harington Barneby laid out the grounds with formal gardens and shrubberies to a design by Edward Milner of Sydenham, Kent.
The medieval parish church was rebuilt by the High Victorian W.H. Knight in 1861–2, only to be demolished a decade later. A new church on a new site was built to T H Wyatt's design in 1876–7 to replace Wacton Church and Old Bredenbury. The font was imported from Wacton, as was some of the stained glass windows. Ashlar dressings and fish-scale tiles were decorated in the 14th century new-medieval style. The beautiful interior was sumptuously appointed with marble alabaster tombs, fittings and reredos. A chancel was added in 1880 and a pulpit two years later. Ornate carving from R.L. Boulton was matched by Lavers stained glass which took ten years (1877–87) to complete.
Rowden
The 465 acres of land area in Rowden (meaning a rough hill) was occupied by Sir John la Moigne in 1300 when he built the first chapel there. The house was named after the ancient Rowdon family of Burley Gate, who occupied it during the English Civil Wars. Edward Rowden built a new house in 1651 on the ruins of the medieval buildings; its dovecote was a local landmark of "circular stone". It was unoccupied by 1721.
Rowden House was formerly known as Rowden Barn in the 1830s. It was a large stone building erected by judicious marriage into the family of Warren Hastings, the Governor-General of India. Rowden House was rebuilt in 1883, for a son of Lord St John cut out of stone after the Queen Anne-style, with a hipped roof and noteworthy pedimented dormer window. The brick chimneys, medallion cornices, and keystoned arches are from an earlier era. Like other Grade 1 listed buildings in the district it is busied by ornate carving, lozenges, and carved roof-beams. The estate was owned by the industrialist John Arkwright who was responsible for the addition of unusually decorated farm cottages built in 1867. Rev W N Berkeley the local rector resided there in 1891, but it was sold to Rear-Admiral J Alleyne Baker in 1909. The owners sported a fine ballroom popular with local people.
The original medieval moated abbey beside the River Frome was demolished in about 1790. The present Rowden Abbey was rebuilt in 1881 as a half-timbered mansion for landowner Henry J Bailey. Similar to the above houses in style and decoration, it also exhibited fine gabled porch entrances. The interior had panelling and ribbed ceilings, with delightful bay windows in the reception rooms.
Rowden Mill was a late Elizabethan/early Jacobean converted stone and timber house along the banks of the River Frome. The mill was a three-storey working building with a timber-framed dwelling house attached. On one side of it stood the mill and on the other a bakery and house, which continued as a Master Bakery until 1945. It was for centuries a working corn mill grinding the grain on the Rowden estates. However, by the 20th century it faced economic decline; yet E Powell Tuck still made it a commercial operation during World War Two.
The Tack was probably a successful medieval sheep farm since the name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon tacca. A farmhouse stood on the Tenbury Road; built of stone in 1838 it contained a large hop kiln and granary in a complex of buildings, now part of the dwelling. Among its quirky features included two bays in a stable block once used as servants quarters that were built circa 1800.
Norton
The medieval manor of Norton in the Broxash Hundred, today in the adjacent parish of Norton at the north-east, was constrained by extensive parkland and hunting-grounds amounting a total of 3,183 acres.
Peter de Newebond took occupation of Newbarns in about 1285 on half virgate of land at the same time that the Welsh Wars began. By the 16th century a fish pool had been established to provide food. During 1720s William Tarbox sold the properties to Packington Tomkins, who let it to tenant farmers. By 1850 it was a large three-storey house, a two bay wing, contained a household of 20 family and servants. The house had been brick rebuilt in 1800 incorporating some timber-framing. Both Tomkins and Higginson extended the house in the Victorian era before it changed hands again to a farmer in 1922.
The apple tree enclosure was the cultivated nature of Mapleton Barn when first settled in the late 13th century. A yeoman farmer took on the orchards, livestock in Jacobean period, but was merged by tenant farmer John Smith with Newbarns in 1777.
Three large blocks comprised The Rhea in 1838, the forerunner of a much larger complex in the late 20th century. In 1851 Thomas Gardiner farmed the land of 220 acres with 7 labourers. A brick house was built in 1900, with several 19th century workers stone cottages. A timber-framed stone barn was erected in the 18th century for a cow byre and stone stables.
On 'beech hill' in Elizabethan times Buckenhill Manor was recorded as two virgates. But during the early modern period a succession of different owners added farms and acreage to the estate. A Jacobean farmhouse was remodelled: the fine Georgian mansion at Buckenhill was inherited by Mrs Elizabeth Barneby, which unusually she passed to her daughter, Mrs Phillips. The house itself possessed 15 fireplaces, for the duration that royalist Barnebys owned it, but was later altered by an influential Bromyard propertied man Packington Tomkins. Made of mellow brick and constructed in 1730, a 9 bay wing was added to face south; a string course on the first floor. The matching brick style encasing the older house of plasterwork and panelling meant the new and principal wing of the house would have pedimented gables, attics and cellars. The Victorian clock tower to the rear was erected in 1840 by Edmund Higginson. The landscape park was dug with a lake in place, damming the River Frome to create a garden oasis. Towards the Tenbury Road three attractive lodges were built in the late 19th century.
Corinthian capitals atop decorated columns were in the same school as Inkberrow and Bromsberrow Place in the neighbouring county. The older east and front wings were made of stone; bent or chamfered roof beams vacated space in loft for living. Amongst the extensive stabling and outbuildings were hop kilns, a brewhouse, bakehouse and cider house, and octagonal dove cote. But the house was dilapidated by 1939 when occupied by the evacuated Westminster School.
Buckenhill Grange was a L-shaped 1750 farmhouse built in the Dutch style with gables out of coarse-hewn stone. On the west gable of this home farm was added a modelled barn with strong diagonal bracings. It had a granary below which was a cobble-stone farm yard for free-range hens. The Buckenhill Mill was acquired by purchase by Thomas Tomkins, son of Packington in 1728.
Brockhampton-by-Bromyard
Richard, son of Robert de Brockhampton was the first holder of the advowson of the chapelry in 1283. The main effect of the Black Death and end of serfdom was for the church to abandon the bishop's palace in the town, reaffirming the independency of the town's trading burgesses. At the height of the town's influence, Dr Richard Pede DCL was a portionist at Bromyard. Becoming embroiled in national politics he joined the Yorkist rising at Hereford, being later appointed Vicar-general to the royal council at Ludlow Castle.
Ownership passed thence to Thomas Solers, to Sir Thomas le Moigne, to the Rowdons of Burley Gate, the Habingtons, and by the Mid-Tudor era the Barnebys of Acton, County Wigorn (now modern Birmingham). The Barnebys remained one of the most influential families for the next 400 years in the district's development as a wool market, and significant centre of the wool trade for the Midlands. Richard Habington had acquired the lease of the manor of Bromyard in 1444. Thomas Barneby was slain at Towton in 1461, and the family, firm Royalists were compounded by parliament after the Civil wars. One of the Barnebys, Edmund changed his name to Higginson to acquire Saltmarshe Castle, long associated with the Coningsbys of Hampton Court. The two families were closely inter-related by marriage. In 1872 the castle came down to Barneby-Lutley, another branch of the same medieval family.
Lower Brockhampton, a moated farmhouse on an extensive National Trust property, lies a short distance to the east, beyond Bromyard Downs. This is an area of common land lying to the northeast which offers many walks, with extensive views over the town, the Malvern Hills, the Clee Hills, and the Welsh borders, with the Black Mountains and other hills beyond. An attempt by local landowners in 1866 to enclose the Downs was strongly opposed by townsfolk and failed, not least because it was an area of recreation including rifle butts and an annual race meeting.
Twin towns
Athis-Val de Rouvre, France.
Notable people
Michael Cronin, cricketer
Zahid Saeed, cricketer
Garry Roberts, pop singer
Thomas Winwood, cricketer
Tommy Green, footballer
Richard Pearsall, a churchman
Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, royal favourite
George Henry Evans, a radical
Ronald Adam, actor
See also
Bromyard and Linton Light Railway
Bromyard Downs
Bromyard Town F.C.
Queen Elizabeth High School, Bromyard
Worcester, Bromyard and Leominster Railway
Notes
References
Primary Sources
HD and CM Hereford Dean and Chapter Muniments 4067
BL Harleian MSS
Collectanea Curiosa
Certain Observations
Secondary Sources
External links
– local history society
– local history
– town ancestors
tourism – Bromyard
Lower Brockhampton
Bromyard Workhouse
tourism – Bromyard
Explore – Bromyard
Towns in Herefordshire
Market towns in Herefordshire
Former civil parishes in Herefordshire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ettore%20Sottsass
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Ettore Sottsass
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Ettore Sottsass (Innsbruck, Austria 14 September 1917 – Milan, Italy 31 December 2007) was a 20th-century Italian architect, noted for also designing furniture, jewellery, glass, lighting, home and office wares, as well as numerous buildings and interiors — often defined by bold colours.
Early life
Sottsass was born in Innsbruck, Austria, and grew up in Turin, where his father, also named Ettore Sottsass, was an architect. The elder Sottsass belonged to the modernist architecture group Movimento Italiano per l'Architectura Razionale (MIAR), which was led by Giuseppe Pagano.
The younger Sottsass was educated at the Politecnico di Torino in Turin and graduated in 1939 with a degree in architecture.
After the invasion of Italy by the Anglo-Americans, Sottsass enlisted in the Monterosa Division, a division of the Repubblica Sociale Italiana led by Benito Mussolini and his Republican Fascist Party, to fight in the mountains alongside Hitler's army (Sottsass tells his adventures as a Lieutenant of the Monterosa Division in his autobiography "Scritto di Notte" published by Adelphi).
After his time in the military, Sottsass opened his own architecture and design firm in Milan, Italy. Here he started designing furniture and experimented with different color, patterns and shapes. His work was often associated with pop culture with his brightly colored whimsical objects. His pieces were often made out of glass and ceramic.
Early career
After returning home, Ettore Sottsass worked as an architect with his father, often on new modernist versions of buildings that were destroyed during the war. In 1947, living in Milan, he set up his own architectural and industrial design studio, where he began to create work in a variety of different media: ceramic, painting, sculpture, furniture, photography, jewelry, architecture and interior design.
In 1949 Sottsass married Fernanda Pivano, a writer, journalist, translator and critic. From 1954 to 1957 he was a member of the International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus, resigning due to the movement's perceived aggression and its lack of professionalism. In 1956, Sottsass traveled to New York City and began working in the office of George Nelson. He and Pivano traveled widely while working for Nelson, and returned to Italy after a few months.
Also in 1956, Sottsass was commissioned by the American entrepreneur Irving Richards on an exhibition of his ceramics.
Back in Italy in 1957, Sottsass joined Poltronova, a semi-industrial producer of contemporary furniture, as an artistic consultant. Much of the furniture he worked on there influenced the design he would create later with Memphis Milano.
In 1956, Sottsass was hired by Adriano Olivetti as a design consultant for Olivetti, to design electronic devices and develop the first Italian mainframe computer, the Elea 9003 for which he was awarded the Compasso d'Oro in 1959. He also designed office equipment, typewriters, and furniture. There Sottsass made his name as a designer who, through colour, form and styling, managed to bring office equipment into the realm of popular culture. His first typewriters, the Tekne 3 and the Praxis 48, were characterized by their sobriety and their angularity. With Perry A. King, Sottsass created the Valentine in 1969 which is considered today as a milestone in 20th century design and became a fashion accessory.
While continuing to design for Olivetti in the 1960s, Sottsass developed a range of objects which were expressions of his personal experiences traveling in the United States and India. These objects included large altar-like ceramic sculptures and his "Superboxes", radical sculptural gestures presented within a context of consumer product, as conceptual statements. Covered in bold and colorful, simulated custom laminates, they were precursors to Memphis, a movement which came more than a decade later. Around this time, Sottsass said: "I didn't want to do any more consumerist products, because it was clear that the consumerist attitude was quite dangerous." As a result, his work from the late 1960s to the 1970s was defined by experimental collaborations with younger designers such as Superstudio and Archizoom Associati, and association with the Radical movement, culminating in the foundation of Memphis at the turn of the decade.
In the early 1970s he designed the modular office equipment collection Synthesis 45.
Sottsass and Fernanda Pivano divorced in 1970, and in 1976 Sottsass married Barbara Radice, an art critic and journalist.
When Roberto Olivetti succeeded as head of the company, he named Sottsass artistic director and gave him a high salary, but Sottsass refused. Instead he created the Studio Olivetti independent of Olivetti and became instantly the most creative international centre of design associating research with creation and industrial strategy. His concern that his creativity would have been stifled by corporate work is documented in his 1973 essay "When I was a Very Small Boy".
In 1968, the Royal College of Art in London granted Sottsass an honorary doctorate.
Memphis Group
With the rise of new groups (Global tools, Archizoom, Superstudio, UFO, Zzigurat, 9999...) the handmade style appeared suddenly as the new game for experimentation, a lot of these new groups playing in this new/old path to renew creation. In October 1980, Sottsass was confronted with two proposals, one from Renzo Brugola, a dear old friend and carpenter, telling him his will "to make something together like in the good old times," and the other one from Mario and Brunella Godani, owners of the Design Gallery Milano, who asked him to create "new furniture" for their gallery.
Ettore Sottsass founded the Memphis Group in Milan on 11 December 1980, after the Bob Dylan song "Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again" played during the group's inaugural meeting. The group was active from 1981 to 1988. The Memphis group was created in a reaction against the status quo. Sottsass centered the group's thinking around "radical, funny, and outrageous"—essentially, disregarding what was considered in "good taste" at that time. Art deco, the color palette of Pop Art and Kitsch theme from the 1950's inspired their work. Colorful laminate and terrazzo were commonly found in their work and incorporated in floors, tables and lamps.
Sottsass also designed his own print. This was a squiggles print also known as Bacterio print. For the print, Sottsass used inspiration from the surface texture and form of a Buddhist temple in Madurai, India, he then abstracted this detail into the squiggles he named Bacterio. This pattern was then used on their furniture designs in as veneers and textiles.
The Memphis Group was a postmodern, collaborative, architecture and design group founded by Sottsass in Milan Italy. The group focused heavily on furniture design with an emphasis on unconventional types. The designers became well known for their bright and bold pieces with clashing colors. At the time, furniture was solely meant to be functional. However, the Memphis Group sought to prove otherwise with their highly decorative pieces. They poked fun at everyday pieces and turned them into works of art. Many criticized and said it was just a trend that wouldn't last. Their unconventional ideas were controversial but have now become widely recognized and appreciated. The work continues to be influential throughout the world and can be seen in the Art Institute of Chicago, the Design Museum in London, The Museum of Modern Art in New York and many others.
Sottsass Associati
As the Memphis movement in the 1980s attracted attention worldwide for its energy and flamboyance, Ettore Sottsass began assembling a major design consultancy, which he named Sottsass Associati. Sottsass Associati was established in 1980 and gave the possibility to build architecture on a substantial scale as well as to design for large international industries. Besides Ettore Sottsass, the other founding members were Aldo Cibic, Marco Marabelli, Matteo Thun and Marco Zanini. Later, Johanna Grawunder, Marco Susani, James Irvine, and Mike Ryan would also join the firm. In 1985, Sottsass left the Memphis Group to focus on the Associati.
Sottsass Associati, primarily an architectural practice, also designed elaborate stores and showrooms for Esprit, identities for Alessi, exhibitions, interiors, consumer electronics in Japan, and furniture of all kinds. The studio was based on the cultural guidance of Ettore Sottsass and the work conducted by its many young associates, who quite often left to open their own studios. Sottsass Associati is now based in London and Milan and continue to sustain the work, philosophy, and culture of the studio.
The studio works with former members of Memphis as well as with the architect Johanna Grawunder. It works for major companies like Apple, Philips, Siemens, Zanotta, Fiat, Alessi, and also realises the interior design of all the retail shops of Esprit (Esprit Holdings).
Notable achievements in design
Valentine typewriter, Olivetti, 1969
Superbox cabinet, Poltronova, 1966
Ultrafragola mirror, Poltronova, 1970
Tahiti lamp, Memphis, 1981
Murmansk fruit bowl, Memphis, 1982
Carlton bookcase, Memphis, 1981
Malabar bookcase, Memphis, 1981
Casablanca cabinet, Memphis, 1981
Enorme phone, 1986
Miss don't you like caviar chair, 1987
Apollodoro Gallery, clock on display, seventh event The Hour of Architects, with Michael Graves, Hans Hollei, Arata Isozaki, Paolo Portoghesi, paintings by Paolo Salvati, Rome, 1987
Memories of China collection, the Gallery Mourmans, 1996
Mandarin chair, Knoll, 1986
Glass works for Venini
Glass works for the CIRVA
Nuovo Milano – cutlery set designed with assistance of Alberto Gozzi in 1987 for Alessi. Won XVIth Compasso d'oro award in 1991.
Twergi collection, Alessi, 1989 and it sold for 60.000.000
Notable achievements in architecture
Fiorucci store, 1980
Esprit showroom, Düsseldorf, 1985
Esprit showroom, Zurich, 1985
Esprit showroom, Hamburg, 1985
Building, Marina di Massa, 1985
Alessi showroom, Milan, 1985
Wolf house, Ridgway (Colorado), 1985 with Johanna Grawunder
Zibibbo bar, Fukuoka, 1989
Olabuenaga house, Maui, 1989 with Johanna Grawunder
Cei house, Empoli, 1989
Bischofberger house, Zurich, 1989 with Johanna Grawunder
Museum of Contemporary Art, Ravenne, 1992
Ghella house, Roma, 1993
Green house, London, 1993
Motoryacht Amazon Express, 1994
Golf and club resort, Zhaoqing, 1994
Malpensa Airport, Milan, 1994
Nanon house, Lanaken, 1995
Van Impe house, Sint-Lievens-Houtem, 1996 with Johanna Grawunder
Alitalia waiting room, 1997
Bird House, Lanaken, 1998 with Johanna Grawunder
Kelley Residence, Woodside, 2000
Roppongi Island, Tokyo, 2004
Sport house, Nanjing, 2004
Entry Gates of the W. Keith and Janet Kellogg Gallery at the campus of Cal Poly Pomona, 1995
Other works
As an industrial designer, his clients included Fiorucci, Esprit, the Italian furniture company Poltronova, Knoll International, Serafino Zani, Alessi, Brondi, and Brionvega. As an architect, he designed the Mayer-Schwarz Gallery on Rodeo Drive in Beverly Hills, California, with its dramatic doorway made of irregular folds and jagged angles, and the home of David M. Kelley, designer of Apple's first computer mouse, in Woodside, California. The interiors of the Malpensa Airport, in Milan, were designed by Sottsass in the late 1990s, but he did not architect the building. In the mid-1990s, he designed the sculpture garden and entry gates of the W. Keith and Janet Kellogg Gallery at the campus of Cal Poly Pomona. He collaborated with well-known figures in the architecture and design field, including Aldo Cibic, James Irvine, Matteo Thun.
Sottsass created a vast body of work: furniture, jewelry, ceramics, glass, silver work, lighting, office machine design and buildings. He inspired generations of architects and designers. In 2006 the Los Angeles County Museum of Art held the first major museum survey exhibition of his work in the United States. A retrospective exhibition, Ettore Sottsass: Work in Progress, was held at the Design Museum in London in 2007. In 2009, the Marres Centre for Contemporary Culture in Maastricht presented a re-construction of a Sottsass' exhibition 'Miljö för en ny planet' (Landscape for a new planet), which took place in the Nationalmuseum in Stockholm in 1969. In 2017, on the occasion of Sottsass' 100th birthday, the Met Breuer museum in New York City presented the retrospective Ettore Sottsass: Design Radical.
One of his works—Telefono Enorme, designed with David M. Kelley for Brondi—is part of the MOMA Collection, as well as many drawings. Design objects and drawings by Sottsass are also in the permanent collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Design Museum in London, the Vitra Design Museum, the Brooklyn Museum, the Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum, the Stedelijk Museum, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Musée National d'Art Moderne in Paris, Philadelphia Museum of Art, and the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston.
In 1999, he was awarded the Sir Misha Black award and was added to the College of Medallists.
In 2023, his work was included in the exhibition Mirror Mirror: Reflections on Design at Chatsworth at Chatsworth House.
Publications
Guia Sambonet, Ettore Sottsass: Movili e Qualche Arredamento (Furniture and A Few Interiors), Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, 1985
Hans Höger, Ettore Sottsass Jun.: Designer, Artist, Architect, Wasmuth, Tübingen/Berlin, 1993
Barbara Radice, Ettore Sottsass: A Critical Biography, Thames & Hudson, 1993
Francois Barre, Andrea Branzi, etc., Ettore Sottsass, Centre G. Pompidou, Paris, 1994
Fulvio Ferrari, Ettore Sottsass: tutta la ceramica, Allemandi, Turin, 1996
Bruno Bischofberger, Ettore Sottsass: Ceramics, Chronicle Books, 1996
M. Carboni (edited by), Ettore Sottsass e Associati, Rizzoli, Milan, 1999
M. Carboni (edited by), Ettore Sottsass: Esercizi di Viaggio, Aragno, Turin, 2001
M. Carboni e B. Radice (edited by), Ettore Sottsass: Scritti, Neri Pozza Editore, Milan, 2002
M. Carboni e B. Radice (edited by), Metafore, Skirà Editore, Milan, 2002
M. Carboni (edited by), Sottsass: fotografie, Electa, Naples, 2004
M. Carboni (edited by), Sottsass 700 disegni, Skirà Editore, Milan, 2005
M. Carboni (edited by), Sottsass '60/'70, Editions HYX, Orléans, France, 2006
Ronald T. Labaco and Dennis P. Doordan, Ettore Sottsass: Architect and Designer, Los Angeles County Museum of Art/Merrell, London/New York, 2006
Sally Schöne, Ettore Sottsass: auch der Turm von Babel war aus gabrannter Erde (and tower of Babel was also made of terracotta), Wienand, 2011
Philippe Thomé, Ettore Sottsass, Phaidon, New York, 2014
Barbara Radice, Ettore Sottsass: There is a Planet, catalogue for exhibition at Triennale Design Museum, Electa, 2016
Francesca Zanella, Ettore Sottsass: Catalogo ragionato dell'archivio 1922–1978 CSAC/Università di Parma, Silvana, Milan, 2017
Fulvio Ferrari, Sottsass: 1000 Ceramics, AdArte s.r.l., 2017
Luca Massimo Barbero, Pasquale Gagliardi, Marino Barovier, etc., Ettore Sottsass: The Glass, Skira/Rizzoli, Milan, 2017
Gean Moreno, Ettore Sottsass and the Social Factory, Institute of Contemporary Art, Miami, 2020
References
External links
Sottsass Associati
Ettore Sottsass: Designer of the world, Château de Montsoreau-Museum of Contemporary Art, 2017
Sottsass design collection and other Memphis design
A conversation with designer Ettore Sottsass, television interview with Charlie Rose, 29 November 2004, video.
Ettore Sottsass. Existential Design, published by Hans Höger in domusWeb, Milan 2005.
Emeco Nine-0 by Ettore Sottsass
Design Biography Emeco
The Life and Times of Ettore Sottsass
Jennifer Kabat on Ettore Sottsass
STORIES OF HOUSES: Ernest Mourmans' House in Belgium, by Ettore Sottsass
Hans Höger on Ettore Sottsass: Existential Design, DomusWeb, April 2005.
Olivetti official site
Obituary in The Times, 2 January 2008
Design Museum Collection
Cooper Hewitt Collection
Information and pictures about the designer Ettore Sottsass Junior at the design agency TAGWERC
1917 births
2007 deaths
Architects from Turin
Italian industrial designers
Italian furniture designers
Italian people of Austrian descent
Olivetti people
Compasso d'Oro Award recipients
Royal Designers for Industry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuas
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Nahuas
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The Nahuas () are a group of the indigenous people of Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. They comprise the largest indigenous group in Mexico and second largest in El Salvador. The Mexica (Aztecs) were of Nahua ethnicity, and the Toltecs are often thought to have been as well, though in the pre-Columbian period Nahuas were subdivided into many groups that did not necessarily share a common identity.
Their Nahuan languages, or Nahuatl, consist of many variants, several of which are mutually unintelligible. About 1.5 million Nahuas speak Nahuatl and another million speak only Spanish. Fewer than 1,000 native speakers of Nahuatl remain in El Salvador.
It is suggested that the Nahua peoples originated near Aridoamerica, in regions of the present day Mexican states of Durango and Nayarit or the Bajío region. They split off from the other Uto-Aztecan speaking peoples and migrated into central Mexico around 500 CE. The Nahua then settled in and around the Basin of Mexico and spread out to become the dominant people in central Mexico. However, Nahuatl-speaking populations were present in smaller populations throughout Mesoamerica.
Nomenclature
The name is derived from the Nahuatl word-root , which generally means "audible, intelligible, clear" with different derivations including "language" (hence "to speak clearly" and both "something that makes an agreeble sound" and "someone who speaks well or speak one's own language"). It was used in contrast with , "to speak unintelligibly" or "speak a foreign language". Another, related term is (singular) or (plural) literally "Nahuatl-speaking people".
The Nahuas are also sometimes referred to as Aztecs. Using this term for the Nahuas has generally fallen out of favor in scholarship, though it is still used for the Aztec Empire. They have also been called (singular), (plural) or in Spanish "Mexicans", after the Mexica, the Nahua tribe which founded the Aztec Empire.
Geography
At the turn of the 16th century, Nahua populations occupied territories ranging across Mesoamerica as far south as Panama. However, their core area was Central Mexico, including the Valley of Mexico, the Toluca Valley, the eastern half of the Balsas River basin, and modern-day Tlaxcala and most of Puebla, although other linguistic and ethnic groups lived in these areas as well. They were also present in large numbers in El Salvador, southeastern Veracruz, and Colima and coastal Michoacan. Classical Nahuatl was a lingua franca in Central Mexico before the Spanish conquest due to Aztec hegemony, and its role was not only preserved but expanded in the initial stage of colonial rule, encouraged by the Spaniards as a literary language and tool to convert diverse Mesoamerican peoples. There are many Nahuatl place names in regions where Nahuas were not the most populous group (including the names of Guatemala and several Mexican states), due to Aztec expansion, Spanish invasions in which Tlaxcaltecs served as the main force, and the usage of Nahuatl as a lingua franca.
The last of the southern Nahua populations today are the Pipil of El Salvador. Nahua populations in Mexico are centered in the middle of the country, with most speakers in the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, Guerrero and San Luis Potosí. However, smaller populations are spread throughout the country due to recent population movements within Mexico. Within the last 50 years, Nahua populations have appeared in the United States, particularly in New York City, Los Angeles, and Houston.
History
Pre-conquest period
Archaeological, historical and linguistic evidence suggest that the Nahuas originally came from the deserts of northern Mexico (Aridoamerica) and migrated into central Mexico in several waves. The presence of the Mexicanero people (who speak a Nahuatl variant) in this area until the present day affirms this theory.
Before the Nahuas entered Mesoamerica, they were probably living for a while in northwestern Mexico alongside the Cora and Huichol peoples. The first group of Nahuas to split from the main group were the Pochutec who went on to settle on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca possibly as early as 400 CE. From c. 600 CE the Nahua quickly rose to power in central Mexico and expanded into areas earlier occupied by Oto-Manguean, Totonacan and Huastec peoples. Through their integration in the Mesoamerican cultural area the Nahuas adopted many cultural traits including maize agriculture and urbanism, religious practices including a ritual calendar of 260 days and the practice of human sacrifices and the construction of monumental architecture and the use of logographic writing.
Around 1000 CE the Toltec people, normally assumed to have been of Nahua ethnicity, established dominion over much of central Mexico which they ruled from Tollan Xicocotitlan.
From this period on the Nahua were the dominant ethnic group in the Valley of Mexico and far beyond, and migrations kept coming in from the north. After the fall of the Toltecs a period of large population movements followed and some Nahua groups such as the Pipil and Nicarao arrived as far south as Nicaragua. And in central Mexico different Nahua groups based in their different "Altepetl" city-states fought for political dominance. The Xochimilca, based in Xochimilco ruled an area south of Lake Texcoco; the Tepanecs ruled the area to the west and the Acolhua ruled an area to the east of the valley. One of the last of the Nahua migrations to arrive in the valley settled on an island in the Lake Texcoco and proceeded to subjugate the surrounding tribes. This group were the Mexica who during the next 300 years became the dominant ethnic group of Mesoamerica ruling from Tenochtitlan their island capital. They formed the Aztec Empire after allying with the Tepanecs and Acolhua people of Texcoco, spreading the political and linguistic influence of the Nahuas well into Central America.
Conquest period (1519–1523)
In 1519 an expedition of Spaniards sailing from Cuba under the leadership of Hernán Cortés arrived on the Mexican gulf coast near the Totonac city of Quiyahuiztlan. The Totonacs were one of the peoples that were politically subjugated by the Aztecs and word was immediately sent to the Aztec Emperor (in Nahuatl, Tlatoani) of Tenochtitlan Motecuhzoma II. Going inland the Spaniards encountered and fought with Totonac forces and Nahua forces from the independent Altepetl of Tlaxcallan. The Tlaxcaltecs were a Nahua group who had avoided being subjugated by the Aztecs. After being defeated in battle by the Spaniards, the Tlaxcalans entered into an alliance with Cortes that would be invaluable in the struggle against the Aztecs. The Spanish and Tlaxcaltec forces marched upon several cities that were under Aztec dominion and "liberated" them, before they arrived in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. There they were welcomed as guests by Motecuhzoma II, but after a while they took the ruler prisoner. When the Aztec nobility realized that their ruler had been turned into a Spanish puppet they attacked the Spaniards and chased them out of the city. The Spaniards sought refuge in Tlaxcala where they regrouped and awaited reinforcements. During the next year they cooperated with large Tlaxcaltec armies and undertook a siege campaign resulting in the final fall of Tenochtitlan. After the fall of Tenochtitlan Spanish forces now also allied with the Aztecs to incorporate all the previous Aztec provinces into the realm of New Spain. New Spain was founded as a state under Spanish rule but where Nahua people were recognized as allies of the rulers and as such were granted privileges and a degree of independence that other indigenous peoples of the area did not enjoy. Recently historians such as Stephanie Wood and Matthew Restall have argued that the Nahua did not experience the conquest as something substantially different from the sort of ethnic conflicts that they were used to, and that in fact they may have at first interpreted it as a defeat of one Nahua group by another.
Colonial period 1521–1821
With the arrival of the Spanish in Mesoamerica a new political situation ensued. The period has been extensively studied by historians, with Charles Gibson publishing a classic monograph entitled The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule. Historian James Lockhart built on that work, publishing The Nahuas After the Conquest in 1992. He divides the colonial history of the Nahua into three stages largely based on linguistic evidence in local-level Nahuatl sources, which he posits are an index of the degree of interaction between Spaniards and Nahuas and changes in Nahua culture. An overview of the Nahuas of colonial Central Mexico can be found in the Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas.
Stage one (1519–c. 1550) Conquest and early colonial period
The early period saw the first stages of the establishment of churches by mendicant friars in large and important Indian towns, the assertion of crown control over New Spain by the high court (Audiencia) and then the establishment of the viceroyalty, and the heyday of conqueror power over the indigenous via the encomienda. In the initial stage of the colonial period, contact between Spaniards and the indigenous populations was limited. It consisted mostly in the mendicants who sought to convert the population to Catholicism, and the reorganization of the indigenous tributary system to benefit individual Spaniards. The indigenous system of smaller settlements' paying tribute and rendering labor service to dominant political entities was transformed into the Encomienda system. Indigenous of particular towns paid tribute to a Spanish encomendero who was awarded the labor and tribute of that town. In this early period, the hereditary indigenous ruler or tlatoani and noblemen continued to hold power locally and were key to mobilizing tribute and labor for encomenderos. They also continued to hold titles from the pre-conquest period. Most willing accepted baptism so that records for this period show Nahua elites with Christian given names (indicating baptism) and many holding the Spanish noble title don. A set of censuses in alphabetic Nahuatl for the Cuernavaca region c. 1535 gives us a baseline for the impact of Spanish on Nahuatl, showing few Spanish loanwords taken into Nahuatl.
As the Spaniards sought to extend their political dominance into the most remote corners of Mesoamerica, the Nahua accompanied them as auxiliaries. In the early colonial period, new Nahua settlements were made in northern Mexico and far south into Central America. Nahua forces often formed the bulk of the Spanish military expeditions that conquered other Mesoamerican peoples, such as the Maya, Zapotecs, and Mixtecs.
With the arrival of Christian missionaries, the first priority of the colonial authorities was eradicating indigenous religious practices, something they achieved by a combination of violence and threats of violence, and patient education. Nahua were baptized with Spanish names. The Nahua who did not abandon their religious practices were severely punished or executed. The Nahua, however, often incorporated pre-Christian practices and beliefs into the Christian religion without the authorities' noticing it. Often they kept practicing their own religion in the privacy of their homes, especially in rural areas where Spanish presence was almost completely lacking and the conversion process was slow.
The Nahua quickly took the Latin alphabetic writing as their own. Within 20 years of the arrival of the Spanish, the Nahua were composing texts in their own language. In 1536 the first university of the Americas, the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco was inaugurated. It was established by the Franciscans whose aim was to educate young Nahua noblemen to be Catholic priests who were trilingual: literate in Spanish, Latin and Nahuatl.
Stage two (c. 1550 – c. 1650)
There are a large number of texts by and about Nahuas in this middle period and during this period Nahuatl absorbed a large number of loanwords from Spanish, particularly nouns for particular objects, indicating the closer contact between the European sphere and the indigenous. However, Nahuatl verbs and syntax show no evidence of the impact of Spanish contact. In the mid-sixteenth century, cultural change at the local level can be tracked through the production of Nahuatl alphabetic texts. The production of a wide range of written documents in Nahuatl dates from this period, including legal documents for transactions (bills of sale), minutes of indigenous town council (cabildo) records, petitions to the crown, and others.
Institutionally, indigenous town government shifted from the rule of the tlatoani and noblemen to the establishment of Spanish-style town councils (cabildos), with officers holding standard Spanish titles. A classic study of sixteenth-century Tlaxcala, the main ally of the Spaniards in the conquest of the Mexica, shows that much of the prehispanic structure continued into the colonial period. An important set of cabildo records in Nahuatl for Tlaxcala is extant and shows how local government functioned in for nearly a century.
Regarding religion, by the mid- to late 16th century, even the most zealous mendicants of the first generation doubted the capacity of Nahua men to become Christian priests so that the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco ceased to function to that end and in 1555 Indians were barred from ordination to the priesthood. However, in local communities, stone-built church complexes continued to be built and elaborated, with murals in mixed indigenous-Spanish forms. Confraternities (cofradías) were established to support the celebrations of a particular Christian saint and functioned as burial societies for members. During this period, an expression of personal piety, the Church promoted the making of last wills and testaments, with many testators donating money to their local Church to say Masses for their souls.
For individual Nahua men and women dictating a last will and testament to a local Nahua notary (escribano) became standard. These wills provide considerable information about individuals' residence, kin relations, and property ownership provides a window into social standing, differences between the sexes, and business practices at the local level. showing not only that literacy of some elite men in alphabetic writing in Nahuatl was a normal part of everyday life at the local level and that the notion of making a final will was expected, even for those who had little property. A number of studies in the tradition of what is now called the New Philology extensively use Nahuatl wills as a source.
Stage three (c. 1650 – 1821) Late colonial period to independence
From the mid-seventeenth century to the achievement of independence in 1821, Nahuatl shows considerable impact from the European sphere and a full range of bilingualism. Texts produced at the local level that in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were sometimes a mixture of pictorial and alphabetic forms of expression were now primarily alphabetic. In the late eighteenth century, there is evidence of text being written in "Nahuatlized Spanish", written by Nahuas who were now communicating in their own form of Spanish. Year-by-year accounts of major occurrences, a text known as an annal, no longer reference the prehispanic period. Local level documentation for individual Nahuas continued to be produced, in particular last wills and testaments, but they are much more simplified than those produced in the late sixteenth century.
Nahuas began to produce an entirely new type of text, known as "primordial titles" or simply "titles" (títulos), that assert indigenous communities' rights to particular territory, often by recording local lore in an atemporal fashion. There is no known prehispanic precedent for this textual form and none appears before 1650. Several factors might be at work for the appearance of titles. One might be a resurgence of indigenous population after decades recovering from devastating epidemics when communities might have been less concerned with Spanish encroachment. Another might be the crown's push to regularize defective land titles via a process known as composición. The crown had mandated minimum land holdings for indigenous communities at 600 varas, in property that was known as the fundo legal, and to separate indigenous communities from Spanish lands by more than 1,100 varas. Towns were to have access to water, uplands for gathering firewood, and agricultural land, as well as common lands for pasturage. Despite these mandated legal protections for Indian towns, courts continued to find in favor of Spaniards and the rules about minimum holdings for Indian towns were ignored in practice.
Labor arrangements between Nahuas and Spaniards were largely informal, rather than organized through the mainly defunct encomienda and the poorly functioning repartimiento. Spanish landed estates needed a secure labor force, often a mixture of a small group of permanent laborers and part-time or seasonal laborers drawn from nearby indigenous communities. Individual Indians made arrangements with estate owners rather than labor being mobilized via the community. The indigenous communities continued to function as political entities, but there was greater fragmentation of units as dependent villages (sujetos) of the main settlement (cabecera) sought full, independent status themselves. Indigenous officials were no longer necessarily noblemen.
National period (1821-present)
With the achievement of Mexican independence in 1821, the casta system, which divided the population into racial categories with differential rights, was eliminated and the term "Indian" (indio) was no longer used by government, although it continued to be used in daily speech. The creation of a republic in 1824 meant that Mexicans of all types were citizens rather than vassals of the crown. One important consequence for Nahua people and other Indigenous people was that documentation in the native languages generally ceased to be produced. Indigenous towns did not cease to exist nor did indigenous populations speaking their own language, but the Indigenous people were far more marginalized in the post-independence period than during the colonial era. In the colonial era the crown had a paternalistic stance toward the Indigenous people, in essence according them special rights, a fuero, and giving support to structures in Indigenous towns and giving Indigenous people a level of protection against those who were not Indigenous. This can be seen in the establishment of the General Indian Court where Indigenous towns and individual Indigenous people could sue those making incursions on their land and other abuses. These protections disappeared in the national period. One scholar has characterized the early national period of Nahua people and other Indigenous people "as the beginning of a systematic policy of cultural genocide and the increasing loss of native languages." Lack of official recognition and both economic and cultural pressures meant that most Indigenous peoples in Central Mexico became more Europeanized and many became Spanish speakers.
In 19th-century Mexico, the so-called "Indian Question" exercised politicians and intellectuals, who viewed Indigenous people as backward, unassimilated to the Mexican nation, whose custom of communal rather than individual ownership of land was impediment to economic progress. Non-Indigenous landowners of estates had already encroached on Indigenous ownership in the colonial era, but now liberal ideology sought to end communal protections on ownership with its emphasis on private property. Since land was the basis for Indigenous peoples'ability to maintain a separate identity,and a sense of sovereignty, land tenure became a central issue for liberal reformers. The liberal Reforma enshrined in the Constitution of 1857 mandated the breakup of corporate-owned property, therefore targeting Indigenous communities and the Roman Catholic Church, which also had significant holdings. This measure affected all Indigenous communities, including Nahua communities, holding land. Liberal Benito Juárez, a Zapotec who became president of Mexico, was fully in support of laws to end corporate landholding. The outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in Morelos, which still had a significant Nahua population, was sparked by peasant resistance to the expansion of sugar estates. This was preceded in the nineteenth century by smaller Indigenous revolts against encroachment, particularly during the civil war of the Reforma, foreign intervention, and a weak state following the exit of the French in 1867.
A number of Indigenous men had made a place for themselves in post-independence Mexico, the most prominent being Benito Juárez. But an important nineteenth-century figure of Nahua was Ignacio Manuel Altamirano (1834–93), born in Tixtla, Guerrero who became a well respected liberal intellectual, man of letters, politician, and diplomat. Altamirano was a fierce anticlerical politician, and was known for a period as "the Marat of the Radicals" and an admirer of the French Revolution. Altamirano, along with other liberals, saw universal primary public education as a key way to change Mexico, promoting for upward mobility. Altamirano's chief disciple in this view was Justo Sierra.
Demography
The Mexican government does not categorize its citizens by ethnicity, but only by language. Statistical information recorded about the Nahua deals only with speakers of the Nahuatl language, although unknown numbers of people of Nahua ethnicity have abandoned the language and now speak only Spanish. Other Nahuas, though bilingual in Nahuatl and Spanish, seek to avoid widespread anti-indigenous discrimination by declining to self-identify as Nahua in INEGI's decennial census. Nor does the census count as indigenous children under 5 (estimated to be 11-12% of the indigenous population). An INI-Conepo report indicates the Mexican indigenous population is nearly 250% greater than that reported by INEGI.
Across Mexico, Nahuatl is spoken by an estimated 1.4 million people, including some 190,000 who are monolingual. The state of Guerrero has the highest ratio of monolingual Nahuatl speakers, calculated at 24.8%, based on 2000 census figures. The proportion of monolinguals for most other states is less than 5%.
The largest concentrations of Nahuatl speakers are found in the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, and Guerrero. Significant populations are also found in México State, Morelos, and the Mexican Federal District, with smaller communities in Michoacán and Durango. Nahuatl was formerly spoken in the states of Jalisco and Colima, where it became extinct during the 20th century. As a result of internal migrations within the country, all Mexican states today have some isolated pockets and groups of Nahuatl speakers. The modern influx of Mexican workers and families into the United States has resulted in the establishment of a few small Nahuatl-speaking communities, particularly in Texas, New York and California.
64.3% of Nahuatl speakers are literate in Spanish compared with the national average of 97.5% for Spanish literacy. Male Nahuatl speakers have 9.8 years of education on average and women 10.1, compared with the 13.6 and 14.1 years that are the national averages for men and women, respectively.
Culture
Economy
Many Nahua are agriculturists. They practice various forms of cultivation including the use of horses or mules to plow or slash-and-burn. Common crops include corn, wheat, beans, barley, chilli peppers, onions, tomatoes, and squash. Some Nahuas also raise sheep and cattle.
Language
Nahuatl, Pipil
Religion
Dances
Netotiliztli
Notes
References
External links
Mesoamerican people
Indigenous peoples in Mexico
Mesoamerican cultures
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dershowitz%E2%80%93Finkelstein%20affair
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Dershowitz–Finkelstein affair
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The Dershowitz–Finkelstein affair was a public controversy involving academics Alan Dershowitz and Norman Finkelstein and their scholarship on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in 2005.
Shortly after the publication of the book The Case for Israel, by Harvard Law School professor Alan Dershowitz, Norman Finkelstein alleged that it was "a collection of fraud, falsification, plagiarism and nonsense." Finkelstein further derided the book, remarking, "If Dershowitz's book were made of cloth, I wouldn't even use it as a schmatta ... his book is such garbage." Finkelstein charged that Dershowitz had engaged in plagiarism in his use of Joan Peters' book From Time Immemorial. Dershowitz denied the charges. Former Harvard president Derek Bok, following a review requested by then-Harvard Law School Dean Elena Kagan, determined that no plagiarism had occurred.
In Beyond Chutzpah: On the Misuse of Anti-Semitism and the Abuse of History, published by University of California Press on August 28, 2005, Finkelstein aimed to debunk The Case for Israel. Dershowitz had written letters to both The New Press and to the University of California Press to prevent its publication, claiming it contained massive libel and stating that the book should not be published. Dershowitz responded in his book The Case for Peace and alleged a politically motivated campaign of vilification spearheaded by Finkelstein, Noam Chomsky, and Alexander Cockburn against several pro-Israel academics.
Finkelstein's criticisms of Dershowitz
The bulk of Beyond Chutzpah consisted of an essay critiquing the "new antisemitism" and longer chapters contrasting Dershowitz's arguments in The Case for Israel with the findings of mainstream human rights organisations, such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, asserting that Dershowitz had lied, misrepresented and fabricated many of his points in order to protect Israel and hide its record of alleged human rights violations. Finkelstein maintained that "the real issue is Israel's human rights record."
In addition, Finkelstein claimed to have uncovered plagiarism in instances where Dershowitz reproduced the exact errors found in Peters's citation of original sources, and thus saw it as evidence that Dershowitz did not check the original sources he cited, a claim that Dershowitz adamantly denied.
Finkelstein said he had located twenty instances that all occur within as many pages, Dershowitz used some of the same words from the same sources that Joan Peters used, largely in the same order. Several paragraph-long quotations that the two books share have ellipses in the same position. Finkelstein claimed that in one instance Dershowitz refers to the same page number as Peters, although he is citing a different (1996) edition of the same source, in which the words appear on a different page. Finkelstein stated: "It is left to readers to decide whether Dershowitz committed plagiarism as defined by Harvard University—'passing off a source's information, ideas, or words as your own by omitting to cite them.' According to a book review of Beyond Chutzpah, written by Professor Michael C. Desch in The American Conservative, "Finkelstein does not accuse Dershowitz of the wholesale lifting of someone else's words, but he does make a very strong case that Dershowitz has violated the spirit, if not the exact letter, of Harvard's prohibitions of the first three forms of plagiarism."
During an interview of the two men by Amy Goodman on Democracy Now!, Finkelstein also suggested that Dershowitz may not have written, or even read, the book. Later, he cited such allegedly "unserious" references as the Sony Pictures website for Kevin Macdonald's documentary film One Day in September and an online high-school syllabus from Teaching the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: A Unit for High School Students, by Professor Ronald Stockton, in his criticism of the book.
Dershowitz's response
Dershowitz threatened to bring a legal action against the University of California Press in response to the charges in Finkelstein's book. Dershowitz claimed to have written every word of The Case for Israel by hand and to have sent the University of California Press his handwritten manuscript. He says there is not a single phrase or sentence in it that was plagiarized, and accused Finkelstein of knowing this and making the charges in order to garner publicity. Dershowitz offered to produce his handwritten drafts (he does not type) to debunk the claim that The Case for Israel was ghostwritten and claimed Finkelstein has not asked to see them.
Dershowitz also asked California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger to intervene in order to prevent the University of California Press from publishing the book. Schwarzenegger's legal advisor responded, however, that the governor would not intervene in issues of academic freedom.
As a result, when Beyond Chutzpah was published, it no longer used the word "plagiarize" in its argument that Dershowitz inappropriately borrowed from another work, nor did it include the claim that Dershowitz did not write The Case for Israel, because, the publisher said, "[Finkelstein] couldn't document that." "Dershowitz has said he cited sources properly, attempting to check all primary sources and citing Peters when she was his only source."
Dershowitz said that Finkelstein has invented false charges in order to discredit supporters of Israel: "The mode of attack is consistent. Chomsky selects the target and directs Finkelstein to probe the writings in minute detail and conclude that the writer didn't actually write the work, that it is plagiarized, that it is a hoax and a fraud," alleging that Finkelstein has leveled the same kind of charges against many others, calling at least 10 "distinguished Jews 'hucksters,' 'hoaxters,' 'thieves,' 'extortionists,' and worse."
Dershowitz's subsequent book on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, The Case for Peace, contains a chapter rebutting Finkelstein's charges, which Dershowitz made available on his web site.
Additional responses by Finkelstein and Dershowitz
Finkelstein argued in a letter to The Harvard Crimson published on October 3, 2003, that Dershowitz reproduced exactly two of Peters' mistakes, and made one relevant mistake of his own. In quoting Mark Twain, Finkelstein argued, "Dershowitz cites two paragraphs from Twain as continuous text, just as Peters cites them as continuous text, but in Twain's book the two paragraphs are separated by 87 pages." While still quoting Twain, although Dershowitz cited a different edition of Twain's Innocents Abroad than Joan Peters cites, Finkelstein continues, "the relevant quotes do not appear on these pages in the edition of Twain's book that Dershowitz cites." Finkelstein points out that these quotations do, however, appear on the pages that Joan Peters cites as her edition of Innocents Abroad. Finkelstein asserted: "Quoting a statement depicting the miserable fate of Jews in mid-19th century Jerusalem, Peters cites a British consular letter from 'Wm. T. Young to Viscount Canning.' Dershowitz cites the same statement as Peters, reporting that Young 'attributed the plight of the Jew in Jerusalem' to pervasive anti-Semitism. Turning to the original, however, we find that the relevant statement did not come from Young but, as is unmistakably clear to anyone who actually consulted the original, from an enclosed memorandum written by an 'A. Benisch' that Young was forwarding to Canning." He concluded: "It would be impossible for anyone who checked the original source[s] to make the[se] error[s]."
In response to the general charge of plagiarism, Dershowitz had characterized the excerpts as quotations that historians and scholars of the region cite routinely, such as Mark Twain and the reports of government commissions.
In "Statement of Alan M. Dershowitz" featured on a faculty webpage at Harvard Law School,
Dershowitz writes:
I will no longer participate in this transparent ploy to gather media attention for Finkelstein and his publisher. I answer all of his charges fully in Chapter 16 of my forthcoming book The Case For Peace, to be published by Wiley in August. My book deals with important and current issues, such as the prospects for peace in the immediate future. Finkelstein's deals with the irrelevant past that both Israelis and Palestinians are trying to put behind them. Let the marketplace judge our books. As far as I'm concerned, the public controversy is over and I will comment no further on the false charges leveled by Finkelstein and the UCP. Let them henceforth pay for their own publicity, instead of trying to get it on the cheap by launching phony attacks against me.
I will not debate Finkelstein. I have a longstanding policy against debating Holocaust deniers, revisionists, trivializers or minimizers. Nor is a serious debate about Israel possible with someone who acknowledges that he knows "very little" about that country. I will be happy to debate any legitimate experts from Amnesty International or any other human rights organization. Indeed, I have a debate scheduled with Noam Chomsky about these issues in the fall [2005].
Dershowitz strenuously denied that he did not credit Peters' book adequately in his own book, and Harvard University supported him in that position in exonerating him against Finkelstein's charges that he committed "plagiarism".
$10,000 challenge
During the joint interview of Dershowitz and Finkelstein in a 2003 Democracy Now! broadcast, host Amy Goodman alluded to an appearance on MSNBC's Scarborough Country in which Dershowitz made a challenge to "give $10,000 to the PLO" (Palestine Liberation Organization), playing a clip from the other program. In the headnote to the transcript, Goodman wrote:
On MSNBC's Scarborough Country on September 8, 2003, renowned appellate lawyer, Harvard Law professor and author Alan Dershowitz says: "I will give $10,000 to the PLO... if you can find a historical fact in my book that you can prove to be false." The book Dershowitz refers to is his latest work The Case For Israel.
Today author and professor Norman Finkelstein takes him on and charges that Dershowitz makes numerous factual errors in his book. Dershowitz denies the charges. Finkelstein teaches at DePaul University and is the author of four books including The Holocaust Industry: Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering.
The segment of Democracy Now! appears in the included transcript of the program:
Amy Goodman: ...we were intrigued on watching Scarborough Country when you debated, the offer that you made [....] just play it for a moment.
Alan Dershowitz: Tell you what, I will give $10,000 to the P.L.O. in your name if you can find historical fact in my book that you can prove to be false. I issue that challenge, I issue it to you, I issue it to the Palestinian Authority, I issue it to Noam Chomsky to Edward Said, every word in my book is accurate and you can't just simply say it's false without documenting it. Tell me one thing in the book now that is false?
Amy Goodman: Okay. Let's go to the book. The Case for Israel $10,000.
On Democracy Now! Finkelstein replied to that specific challenge for material errors found in his book overall, and Dershowitz upped it to $25,000 for another particular "issue" that they disputed.
Finkelstein referred to "concrete facts which are not particularly controversial," stating that in The Case for Israel Dershowitz attributes to Israeli historian Benny Morris the figure of between 2,000 and 3,000 Palestinian Arabs who fled their homes from April to June 1948, when the range in the figures presented by Morris is actually 200,000 to 300,000.
Dershowitz responded to Finkelstein's reply by stating that such a mistake could not have been intentional, as it harmed his own side of the debate: "Obviously, the phrase '2,000 to 3,000 Arabs' refers either to a sub-phase [of the flight] or is a typographical error." In this particular context, Dershowitz's argument is that Palestinians left as a result of orders issued by Palestinian commanders: "If in fact, 200,000 were told to leave instead of 2,000, that strengthens my argument considerably."
Others on the plagiarism controversy
Support for Finkelstein
In his review of Beyond Chutzpah, echoing Finkelstein's criticisms, Michael Desch, political science professor at University of Notre Dame observed:
Not only did Dershowitz improperly present Peters's ideas, he may not even have bothered to read the original sources she used to come up with them. Finkelstein somehow managed to get uncorrected page proofs of The Case for Israel in which Dershowitz appears to direct his research assistant to go to certain pages and notes in Peters's book and place them in his footnotes directly (32, col. 3).
Oxford academic Avi Shlaim had also been critical of Dershowitz, saying he believed that the charge of plagiarism "is proved in a manner that would stand up in court."
In Desch's review of Beyond Chutzpah, summarizing Finkelstein's case against Dershowitz for "torturing the evidence," particularly Finkelstein's argument relating to Dershowitz's citations of Morris, Desch observed:
There are two problems with Dershowitz's heavy reliance on Morris. The first is that Morris is hardly the left-wing peacenik that Dershowitz makes him out to be, which means that calling him as a witness in Israel's defense is not very helpful to the case. The more important problem is that many of the points Dershowitz cites Morris as supporting—that the early Zionists wanted peaceful coexistence with the Arabs, that the Arabs began the 1948 War to destroy Israel, that the Arabs were guilty of many massacres while the Israelis were scrupulous about protecting human rights, and that the Arabs fled at the behest of their leaders rather than being ethnically cleansed by the Israel Defense Forces—turn out to be based on a partial reading or misreading of Morris's books. Finkelstein documents these charges in exhaustive detail in Appendix II of his book and the preponderance of evidence he provides is conclusive." (30–31)See Appendix II in Beyond Chutzpah, where Finkelstein says that Morris attributes nearly all of the flight of Palestinians which occurred during that phase of the 1948 war to fear of Jewish military actions, not to any orders from Arab leaders or expulsion.
Support for Dershowitz
As Desch acknowledges in his book review of Beyond Chutzpah, "In the wake of a number of similar complaints against Dershowitz and two of his Harvard Law School colleagues Laurence Tribe and Charles Ogletree, former Harvard President Derek Bok conducted an investigation—the details of which were not made public—that... vindicated Dershowitz" (32, col. 3).
Dershowitz's involvement in Finkelstein's denial of tenure
In September 2006, Alan Dershowitz sent members of DePaul University's law and political science faculties what he described as "a dossier of Norman Finkelstein's most egregious academic sins, and especially his outright lies, misquotations, and distortions that... are not incidental to Finkelstein's purported scholarship; they are Finkelstein's purported scholarship," and he lobbied professors, alumni and administrators to deny Finkelstein tenure. DePaul's political science committee investigated the accusations against Finkelstein and concluded that they were not based on legitimate criticism. The department subsequently invited John Mearsheimer and Ian Lustick, two uninvolved academics with expertise on the Israel/Palestine conflict, to evaluate the academic merit of Finkelstein's work. Mearsheimer and Lustick came to the same conclusion. In April 2007 the De Paul University Liberal Arts and Sciences' Faculty Governance Council had voted unanimously to send a letter to Harvard University expressing "the council's dismay at Professor Dershowitz's interference in Finkelstein's tenure and promotion case."
In early 2007, the DePaul University Political Science department voted 9 to 3, and the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Personnel Committee 5 to 0, in favor of giving Finkelstein tenure. The three opposing faculty members subsequently filed a minority report opposing tenure, supported by the Dean of the College, Chuck Suchar. Suchar stated he opposed tenure because Finkelstein's "personal and reputation demeaning attacks on Alan Dershowitz, Benny Morris, and the holocaust authors Eli Wiesel and Jerzy Kosinski" were inconsistent with DePaul's "Vincentian" values. In June 2007 a 4–3 vote by DePaul University's Board on Promotion and Tenure (a faculty board), affirmed by the university's president, the Rev. Dennis Holtschneider, denied Finkelstein tenure. Finkelstein was placed on administrative leave for the 2007–2008 academic year (the remainder of his contract with DePaul), his sole course having been cancelled. However, in announcing his decision, Holtschneider said the outside attention "was unwelcome and inappropriate and had no impact on either the process or the outcome of this case." On September 5, 2007, Finkelstein resigned after he and the university reached a settlement; they released a joint statement on the resolution of the conflict.
Additional points of dispute between Finkelstein and Dershowitz
In The Holocaust Industry, Finkelstein questioned Elie Wiesel's claim to have read Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason in Yiddish. According to Finkelstein, no translation of the work existed in Yiddish at the time. Dershowitz responded that this was not so: he alleged that one had been published in Warsaw in 1929, and said that he had seen a copy at the Harvard Library. Finkelstein described this latter claim as false and inept, writing that the only work by Kant in Yiddish owned by the library was a partial translation of the Critique of Practical Reason, a completely different work than the one referred to by Wiesel and Dershowitz.
During a clash with members of J Street at the 2010 American Israel Public Affairs Committee conference, Dershowitz chastised J Street for pandering to anti-Israel activists and asked, "Why are you so popular with Norman Finkelstein?" J Street rebuffed Dershowitz's claim.
Notes
References
Arkes, Hadley. "The Rights and Wrongs of Alan Dershowitz." Claremont Review of Books November 4, 2005. Accessed February 11, 2007.
Chrucky, Andrew "Norman Finkelstein, DePaul, and U.S. Academia: Reductio Ad Absurdum of Centralized Universities", July 23, 2007.
Dershowitz, Alan M. "The Lerner-Finkelstein Duet." The Jerusalem Post October 16, 2006. Accessed February 11, 2007.
–––. "Neve Gordon Can't Take Criticism." The Jerusalem Post November 8, 2006. Accessed February 11, 2007.
–––. "Plagiarism Accusations Political, Unfounded." The Harvard Crimson September 23, 2003. Accessed February 11, 2006.
–––. "Tsuris Over Chutzpah." The Nation August 29, 2005. Rpt. in normanfinkelstein.com n.d. Accessed February 11, 2007. (Comment on Wiener; see below.) [This article is followed by a letter from Dershowitz's research assistants: Holly Beth Billington (2002–2004), Alexander J. Blenkinsopp (2004–2005), Eric Citron (2003–2004), C. Wallace DeWitt (2004–2005), Aaron Voloj Dessauer (2004–2005), and Mitch Webber (2005); a reply by Jon Wiener; and a comment by Finkelstein.]
"Dershowitz v. Desch." The American Conservative January 16, 2006, Forum. Rpt. normanfinkelstein.com n.d. Accessed February 12, 2007. (Incl. detailed reply by Alan Dershowitz to book review of Beyond Chutzpah by Desch (see below) and reply by Desch (with pdf link), and a response added to his own site's presentation of this material by Finkelstein.)
Eichner, Itamar, and Tova Tzimuki: "Simpson's Attorney Advises: "Acquittal" of Israel." Yedioth Ahronoth November 18, 2003: 11. Rpt. in normanfinkelstein.com n.d. Accessed February 11, 2007. (Incl. English translation & scan of Hebrew original.)
Finkelstein, Norman. "Dershowitz Was To Meet With Israeli Officials." The Harvard Crimson November 8, 2005, Letter to the Editors (Opinion). Accessed February 11, 2007.
–––."Finkelstein at Yale: Beyond Chutzpah. Video prod. by Leitrim Productions of lecture and discussion. Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. October 20, 2005. Accessed February 11, 2007.
–––. "Little Prissy Al." normanfinkelstein.com October 17, 2006. Accessed February 11, 2007. (Response to Dershowitz, "The Lerner-Finkelstein Duet.")
–––. "Moment of Truth – Will Dershowitz Release the Letters?" normanfinkelstein.com November 9, 2006. Accessed February 11, 2007.
–––. "Never Before Aired: Watch Part II of the Debate between Finkelstein and Dershowitz." Online posting. normanfinkelstein.com n.d. Accessed February 11, 2007. (Incl. link to Part I of the debate.) (See Goodman.)
Francois, Wendy. "Politics Rip through Columbia." Columbia Daily Spectator March 28, 2006. Accessed February 11, 2007.
Human Rights Watch. "Human Rights Watch Responds to Dershowitz." The Jerusalem Post September 7, 2006. Accessed February 11, 2007.
Maizel, Lindsay A. "At Talk, Finkelstein Calls Dershowitz Book a Fraud." The Harvard Crimson November 4, 2005. Accessed February 11, 2007.
Segev, Tom. "Sharon Recommends a Book." Ha'aretz October 24, 2005. Accessed February 11, 2007.
Seiderman, Ian. "Right of Reply: Biased against Israel? Not at all Amnesty International responds to Dershowitz." The Jerusalem Post September 11, 2006. Accessed February 11, 2007.
Tetley, William. "Another Dershowitz Diatribe." National Post July 24, 2006, letter to the editor. Accessed February 11, 2007.
Troianovski, Anton S. Crimson Cuts Columnist for Lifting Material: Online Magazine Slate Says It Won't Pursue Action Against Paper." The Harvard Crimson October 27, 2006. Accessed February 11, 2007.
Wiener, Jon. "Giving Chutzpah New Meaning." The Nation July 11, 2005. Accessed February 11, 2007.
External links
Alan M. Dershowitz's Faculty Bibliography at Harvard Law School and Alan M. Dershowitz's own commercial website (alandershowitz.com) with links to publications by Alan M. Dershowitz and responses to some comments and publications by Norman Finkelstein.
"Statement of Alan M. Dershowitz".
Norman Finkelstein's website
"The Dershowitz Hoax" (2003–2006) at the "official website of Norman G. Finkelstein" (normanfinkelstein.com), an in depth collection of materials relating to the affair from Finkelstein's point of view.
Arab–Israeli conflict
Historiography
Academic scandals
DePaul University
Harvard University
Plagiarism controversies
Norman Finkelstein
Alan Dershowitz
Academic freedom controversies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trooping%20the%20Colour
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Trooping the Colour
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Trooping the Colour is a ceremonial event performed every year on Horse Guards Parade in London, United Kingdom, by regiments of Household Division, to celebrate the official birthday of the British sovereign. It is also known as the Sovereign's Birthday Parade. Similar events are held in other countries of the Commonwealth. In the UK, it is, with the State Opening of Parliament, one of the biggest events of the ceremonial calendar, and watched by millions on TV and on the streets of London.
Historically, colours were once used on the battlefield as a rallying point. They display the battle honours of a regiment and are a focal point of Trooping the Colour. The ancient ceremony has marked the sovereign's official birthday since 1748. Each year, one of the five Foot Guards regiments of the Household Division is selected to slowly troop (carry) its colour through the ranks of guards, who stand with arms presented. During the slow march-past, the colours are lowered before the monarch and during the quick march-past the colours fly. The monarch will salute the colours in return.
During the ceremony, the monarch processes down the Mall from Buckingham Palace to Horse Guards Parade in a royal procession with a Sovereign's Escort of Household Cavalry (mounted troops or horse guards). After receiving a royal salute, the monarch inspects his troops of the Household Division and the King's Troop. Music is provided by the massed bands of the Foot Guards and the mounted Band of the Household Cavalry, together with a Corps of Drums, and pipers, totalling approximately 400 musicians. Once obtained, the colour is displayed at the head of the march past the sovereign in slow and quick time, by the Foot Guards, the Household Cavalry, and the King's Troop. (The latter two elements, being mounted, conduct a walk-past and a trot-past.)
Returning to Buckingham Palace, the monarch surveys a further march-past from outside the gates. Following a 41-gun salute by the King's Troop in Green Park, the royal family make an appearance on the palace balcony for a Royal Air Force flypast.
Sovereign's official birthday
Sovereign's birthday parade
In the United Kingdom, Trooping the Colour is also known as the King's Birthday Parade. First performed during the reign of King Charles II (1660–1685), in 1748 it was decided that the parade of Trooping the Colour should mark the official birthday of the Sovereign. In 1760, after the accession of King George III, it became an annual event.
In 1892, the only member of the royal family to attend was Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, due to court mourning for the death of Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. Queen Victoria herself only attended Trooping the Colour once, in 1895, when it was held at Windsor Castle. Although some elements of the parade have remained fairly constant, the ceremonial seen today was not fixed until 1889.
Sovereign's "Official Birthday"
Edward VII kept Trooping the Colour in May or June, because of the vagaries of British weather (his actual birthday being in November). It coincides with publication of the Birthday Honours List, and usually takes place at Horse Guards Parade by St James's Park, London. It is followed by a 41-gun salute at noon in Green Park, and a flypast over Buckingham Palace, watched by the royal family from the Palace balcony.
Since 1959, it has typically been held on a Saturday in June. From 1979 to 2017 it was always held on the Saturday from 11 to 17 June; however, in 2018 it was held on 9 June and in 2019 on 8 June. During 2020 and 2021, a modified ceremony took place at Windsor Castle, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
In 2022, Trooping the Colour was held on a Thursday, the date of 2 June coinciding with the anniversary of Queen Elizabeth II's coronation on 2 June 1953.
In 2023, Charles III's first birthday parade as monarch took place on 17 June.
Broadcast
The 1938 birthday parade was the first to be broadcast by the BBC. The 1970 birthday parade was the first to be broadcast in colour by the BBC.
The parade is witnessed by a global TV audience of many millions. Over the years, commentary for the annual live broadcast in the UK by BBC1 has been provided by Huw Edwards and also by Clare Balding, together with expert guests and interviews with some of the personnel involved. The BBC's live broadcast has become accessible to an international audience via live streaming on BritBox in both the United States and Canada. The BBC also streams it live on YouTube beginning with the 2019 edition.
For the Platinum Jubilee in 2022, additional live videos commentary of the parade for international viewers were provided by Sky News UK and the Telegraph newspaper's YouTube channels.
Sovereign's participation
Queen Elizabeth II attended Trooping the Colour in every year of her reign, except in 1955 when the event was cancelled due to a national rail strike. Having ridden her mare Burmese between 1969 and 1986, the Queen rode in a carriage from 1987 onward. On 13 June 1981, she and her horse were startled by an unemployed youth, Marcus Sarjeant, who fired six blank rounds from a starting revolver.
In her years attending on horseback, the Queen, as Colonel-in-Chief, wore a biretta and a Guards Regiment uniform with the medals she was awarded before becoming Queen (Order of the Crown of India; Defence Medal; War Medal 1939–1945; King George V Silver Jubilee Medal; King George VI Coronation Medal; Canadian Forces Decoration) and the riband and star of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle or a combination of those orders, depending which regiment was trooping its colour. From 1987 onward she did not wear uniform, but wore the Brigade of Guards badge.
Her 80th birthday in 2006 was marked by a large flypast of 40 planes led by the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight and culminating with the Red Arrows. It was followed by the first feu de joie ("fire of joy") fired in her presence during her reign, a second being fired at her Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 2012. In 2008, a flypast of 55 aircraft commemorated the RAF's 90th anniversary.
In 2023, at the first Trooping the Colour of Charles III as King, he revived the tradition of the sovereign riding on horseback and in uniform. The flypast of some 70 aircraft was a reprise of the display originally intended for the coronation, which had been curtailed due to poor weather.
Participants and parade summary
On the day of Trooping the Colour, the Royal Standard is flown from Buckingham Palace and from Horse Guards Building.
A note on sources
The information for the ensuing section is drawn from the visuals and music, plus the annual commentary and analysis on the BBC's live broadcast, as well as the annual programme for the event.
Foot Guards, including Escort to the Colour (No. 1 Guard)
Nos. 1–6 Guards – six companies of Foot Guards, each comprising 3 officers and 71 other ranks – line two sides of the perimeter of Horse Guards Parade in an extended "L" shape. This recalls the defensive formation known as the "hollow square."
All six companies are collectively commanded as "Guards..." and individually by company number, e.g., "No. 3 Guard..." Up to eight Guards have taken part, the number varying over the years. The most Guards ever seen on parade was 11, as seen on the 1919 parade held in Hyde Park.
The battalion trooping its colour in any given year is No. 1 Guard. During the parade, they are referred to as 'Escort FOR the Colour' (and, once they have collected their colour during the ceremony, as 'Escort TO the Colour'). At the outset, the colour is held by the Colour Party – a colour sergeant and two other guardsmen of No. 1 Guard, standing well-spaced on the northern side of Horse Guards Parade. Once obtained by the Regimental Sergeant Major of No. 1 Guard, the colour is borne through the ranks of Nos. 2–6 Guards by an Ensign of No. 1 Guard.
Mounted troops and Sovereign's Escort
Lining the edge of St. James's Park are The King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery and the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment – The Life Guards and The Blues and Royals.
In the Royal Procession, the Household Cavalry are termed "Sovereign's Escort". Two divisions ride before the King mounted on horseback and two behind, and The Life Guards and The Blues and Royals alternate these positions each year.
Commanding officers and parade coordination
Three mounted officers drawn from No. 1 Guard give drill commands during the parade. The most senior is the Field Officer in Brigade Waiting (rank of Lieutenant Colonel), assisted by the Major of the Parade. The Field Officer occupies a central position on the parade ground. The third mounted officer is the Adjutant.
The Garrison Sergeant Major of London District, who is not mounted, coordinates the whole event on the parade ground and the approach road from The Mall.
Military bands
With almost 400 musicians on the field, led by the Massed Bands of the Household Division, the music forms an integral part of the day. The massed bands of the Foot Guards number over 200 musicians. Joining them, since 2014, is the Mounted Band of the Household Cavalry. The musicians of all these bands are all members of the Royal Corps of Army Music. There is also a Corps of Drums from several of the regiments and, on some occasions, pipe bands of the Scots Guards and Irish Guards. As per divisional tradition, the Corps of Drums and Pipe Bands form up behind the Massed Bands. As per Queen Elizabeth II's request, during a Scots or Irish Guards troop, the Pipers would march to the front of the Massed Bands to play the regimental quick marches of the Scots and Irish Guards as their Guards march past in quick time.
Summary of the parade design
The entire parade is best understood as an exercise of several elements carried out in slow and quick march time, with the Trooping the Colour phase forming the centrepiece.
The Sovereign inspects first the Foot Guards and then the Household Cavalry and King's Troop, to slow and quick march music respectively.
Then the massed bands "troop" before the Sovereign in slow and quick time. A lone drummer breaks away to no 1 Guard.
Drummer's Call signals No. 1 Guard – the Escort for the Colour – to march to the centre of the field and obtain their colour from the Colour Party. The massed bands execute the "Spin Wheel" manoeuvre.
As "Escort to the Colour", No. 1 Guard then slowly troops its regimental colour through the ranks of Guards Nos. 6–2.
After forming divisions, Nos. 1–6 Guards march past the Sovereign in slow and quick time.
To music from the mounted band, The King's Troop leads the Household Cavalry past the Sovereign, first in walk-march and then in sitting-trot (i.e., slow and quick time for the horses). The mounted band then salute the Sovereign as they walk off.
Finally, led by the Sovereign's Escort, the massed bands play the Sovereign back to Buckingham Palace, the foot guards following, as the King's Troop leaves Horse Guards first to Green Park.
Ceremonial commands and troop movements
The entire parade is supervised by the Field Officer in Brigade Waiting (sometimes shortened to "Field Officer"), with the assistance of the Brigade Major and the Adjutant, all on horseback, and joined by the London District Garrison Sergeant Major, who is unmounted and coordinates the proceedings of the ceremony.
March on
A detail of guardsmen bearing marker flags marches on, to mark the positions of Nos. 1-6 Guards. (These marker flags are the respective company colours from each regiment.)
Preceded by their regimental bands, Nos. 1-6 Guards march into position. No. 1 Guard is "Escort for the Colour."
Nos. 1-5 Guards align in two ranks on the west side of the parade ground facing Horse Guards Building.
No. 6 Guard lines up perpendicular to them on the north side, thus making an "L" shape. Up to eight Guards companies may take part. Nos. 7 and 8 Guards, if present, would line up next to No. 6 Guard. In 2009, to reflect the successful recruitment efforts of the Irish Guards, there were seven Guards on Horseguards.
The massed bands are on the south side, by the gardens of 10 Downing Street.
Adjacent to No. 6 Guard is the Colour Party made up of 3 soldiers. A snare drummer joins them in the march on. As the party takes its place the drummer marches off and the colour's casing is removed, revealing the colour to be trooped.
The King's Troop, the Household Cavalry, and their mounted band form up behind Nos. 1-5 Guards.
With the foot guards in their home service order and the mounted band in state dress uniform, the assembled ranks of Household Division make a colourful spectacle.
Guards half-companies line up on the road to Horse Guards Parade to provide security to the Royal Family that will arrive later and to the marching and mounted contingents.
Arrival of the sovereign
Preceding the sovereign, senior members of the royal family arrive in barouches to view the ceremony from a central first floor window in the Duke of Wellington's former office in Horse Guards Building. This procession turns at the Guards Memorial, and No. 3 Guard has opened ranks to allow their carriages to pass through.
Preceded by the Sovereign's Escort, the King (Colonel-in-Chief) will journey from Buckingham Palace down the Mall, on horseback. Directly behind the King in the Royal Procession ride the Royal Colonels—the Prince of Wales (Welsh Guards), the Duke of Edinburgh (London Guards), the Princess Royal (The Blues and Royals). In a carriage behind the procession ride The Queen (Grenadier Guards) and the Princess of Wales (Irish Guards)who are followed by the non-royal Colonels of Regiments (those of the Coldstream Guards and The Life Guards). Other officers of the Household Division and of the Royal Household follow, all mounted, including the Master of the Horse, the Major-General commanding the Household Division with his chief of staff and aide-de-camp, Silver Stick-in-Waiting, the regimental adjutants and a number of the King's equerries. As the King passes by the Colour of the unit being trooped, he salutes it.
As the King arrives, the Royal Standard is prepared to be released and flown from the roof of Horse Guards. The King then will alight at the Saluting Base to start the ceremonies.
The field officer commences the parade with the command: "Guards – Royal Salute – Present Arms!" and the national anthem (God Save The King) is played by the Household Division's Foot Guards Massed Bands, led by the senior director of music of the Household Division. Simultaneously, the Royal Standard is formally released and flies from the Horse Guards flagpole.
Inspection of the line
The King then rides off from the saluting base before and behind the long line of assembled guards, with the Royal Colonels following. BBC television commentaries every year emphasise the King's knowledge of the attributes of his guards, and single out "steadiness" as a highly prized quality for a guardsman.
The accompanying marches always carry a flavour of the regiment whose colour is being trooped on the day, lending the royal inspection a unique atmosphere. For example, if the Welsh Guards are trooping their colour, the music will include their traditional regimental march, Men of Harlech. While the King passes the six companies of foot guards on his left, a slow march or air is played. Once the phaeton turns around the rear of No. 6 Guard, the music changes to a quick march. The King travels back up the line, passing the Household Cavalry and King's Troop stationed on his right, with the head coachman saluting the Sovereign's Standard of the Household Cavalry and the lead gun of the King's Troop in quick succession with a whip. The inspection completed, the music ceases, and he is conveyed back to the saluting base.
Massed bands troop
With the monarch once more mounted at the saluting base, the command "Troop!" is given by the Field Officer. This is not to be confused with the trooping of the colour itself, which occurs later in the ceremony. Three strikes on a bass drum give the signal for the Massed Bands to start their march.
The Guards, after standing at attention, change arms. Under the command of the Senior Drum Major, the Massed Bands march and countermarch on Horse Guards Parade in slow and quick time. The slow march music is traditionally the Waltz from Les Huguenots. During the quick march, a lone drummer from the Corps of Drums breaks away from the massed bands, marching to two paces to the right of No. 1 Guard to take his post while the band marches on, stopping just near the colour party.
The Trooping of the Colour phase of the ceremony is initiated by the lone drummer's eight-bar "Drummer's Call", signalling the Captain of No. 1 Guard to cede his command to the Subaltern of No. 1 Guard and move to take his new position at the right of No. 2 Guard. It slopes arms, while the Field Officer directs the other companies present to change arms and stand at ease. The call having been sounded, the lone drummer returns to the Massed Bands.
Escort for the Colour obtains the colour
As Escort for the Colour, No. 1 Guard performs the centrepiece of the parade.
An orderly takes the pace stick from the Regimental Sergeant-Major (RSM), positioned behind the Escort for the Colour, thus freeing the RSM to draw his sword – the only time a British Army infantry warrant officer ever does so on parade. The Subaltern then commands No. 1 Guard to move into close order, and then dresses it. Then, led by the Subaltern with the Ensign following, and with the Regimental Sergeant-Major marching behind the company, the Escort for the Colour quick marches onto the field to "The British Grenadiers". (This tune is always used irrespective of which regiment's colour is being trooped, because the right flank of every battalion used to be a grenadier company.) A guardsman behind the colour party marches forward towards the Colour Sergeant of the colour party at the same time during the Escort approaching then hands over the rifle to the Colour Sergeant, salutes the colour and leaves the parade ground. The Escort marks time while the Massed Bands "clear the line of march" and move to the front of the Guards and mark time. Fifteen steps away from the Colour Party, the music halts and four paces later, the 'Escort for the Colour' halts in place, and is ordered to open ranks and dressed, followed by the Massed Bands making an about turn.
The guards are then called to attention and then change and slope arms under the direction of the Field Officer, while the Household Cavalry are also called to attention by the commander of the Sovereign's Escort.
The RSM marches around to the front of the Escort and, followed by the Ensign, approaches the Colour Party. Having saluted the colour with his sword, the Sergeant-Major takes it from the Colour Sergeant, freeing him to change and then slope arms. The RSM turns, marches to the Ensign, and presents the colour to him. The Ensign salutes the colour with his sword, sheathes the sword without taking his eyes off the colour, and takes possession of it.
Having obtained their colour, No. 1 Guard (formerly known as "Escort for the Colour") is now termed "Escort to the Colour." By then, the massed bands, now with the line cleared, face front, with the Corps of Drums, pipe bands and the senior director of music leading.
Positioning of the Escort to troop its colour
To the first six bars of "God Save the King", the Escort to the Colour presents arms. Simultaneously, turning outward at an angle of 45°, the NCOs (non-commissioned officers) at the four corners (or flanks) of the Escort port arms, described in annual television commentary and analysis as "protection" for the colour.
The Escort to the Colour and Colour Party slope arms. The Colour Sergeant marches to the right and to the rear of the Escort. Once the Colour Party, Ensign and Regimental Sergeant-Major have joined the Escort, the RSM repositions himself to the left of and behind the Escort. The Subaltern then orders the Escort to change arms and orders the slow march. The Massed Bands turn about.
Spinwheel of the massed bands
As the Escort to the Colour slow-marches down the field towards No. 6 Guard to begin their colour trooping, the massed bands perform their unique anti-clockwise "spinwheel" manoeuvre. This, a 90° turn in restricted space, is performed while playing the slow march "Escort to the Colour."
The celebrated spinwheel is largely individual and instinctive: A 'wheel' is not an easy manoeuvre with even a small body of troops, and with a block of 400 men the normal wheel is impossible. The massed band therefore pivots on its own centre, so that certain outer ranks and files march long distances in a hurry while the centre and inner ranks loiter with extreme intent, or merely mark time. Yet others not only step sideways but backwards as well. This highly complex movement is called a 'spin-wheel', the details of which can be found in no drill book or manual of ceremonial. Its complexity defies description, and if the truth were known, many of the participants know not whither they go or, on arrival, how they got there. The spin-wheel is almost an art form and each performance of it, although similar in essentials, is different in detail. Most of the performers are adjusting their actions to suit the needs of the spin-wheel of the moment, having adjusted their movements quite otherwise on other occasions.
Once the Escort reaches the edge of No. 6 Guard, the music stops, and the Field Officer in Brigade Waiting orders the entire parade (except the Escort) to present arms as the trooping proper starts. The music changes to "The Grenadiers' Slow March."
Trooping the colour through the ranks
To the strains of the Grenadiers Slow March, the Escort to the Colour then troops the colour down the long line of Nos. 6-2 Guards. The colour itself is borne by the Ensign in front of the line of guards, but the ranks of the Escort interweave with their ranks. For Nos. 6-2 Guards, who maintain the 'present arms' position, the long trooping, especially on a hot day, requires stamina. As this is done the Massed Bands move back in slow time to their original places.
Eventually the Escort arrives back at its original position as No. 1 Guard – from where it first marched off in quick time. Their Captain, who had temporarily ceded his command to the Subaltern, resumes his command over No. 1 Guard by ordering them to present arms, thus bringing the Escort back in line with Nos. 2-6 Guards. The entire parade is now ordered by the Field Officer to slope arms, thus concluding the trooping phase.
The trooping phase is followed by the march-past in slow and quick time of the foot guards and then the Household Cavalry and King's Troop, also in slow and quick time.
Preparing for the march-past
The Field Officer gives the command, "Officers, take post." Nos. 1 to 5 Guard then "retire", about-turning and right-forming into review formation, following which the Adjutant commands "Guides, steady", giving signal to the company guides to resume their positions. Nos. 1 to 5 Guard then about-turn again as the Corps of Drums play. Since No. 6 Guard is already standing at right angles to the other five companies it does not need to execute this movement, but instead it moves close-order position then to the right in threes after Nos. 1 to 5 Guards turn back to advance position.
Once intervals are established, the Field Officer salutes the King and informs him that the foot guards are ready to march past, then after turning about, commands, "Guards will march past in slow and quick time... Slow march!" No. 6 Guard will then left turn to be advance and then form two ranks on marching after the parade has started to execute the slow march.
Foot guards march past in slow and quick time
No. 1 Guard – the Escort – leads the six companies for two circuits of Horse Guards Parade, saluting the King as they pass. The corners of the field are negotiated with the complex Left Form manoeuvre. Commands of "Change direction – left!" are then followed by the Left Guide (or Right Guide) of each Guard signalling "Right Sir!" to the Captain that the company has reached the position, the Captain will immediately orders "Left...Form!"
At the end of both the slow and quick march-past, the Field Officer rides out to salute the King with his sword, telling him that His Majesty's Guards have ended their march-past.
Slow march-past
Neutral slow marches start and conclude this section as the Massed Bands march into the centre of the field to take their places. The guards are preceded past the saluting base by the Field Officer and the Major of the Parade, who salute the King with their swords and eyes right.
To the strains of their regimental slow marches, each of Nos. 1-6 Guards passes before the King with their eyes right, their regimental officers saluting with swords. The leading company, No. 1 Guard – the Escort to the Colour – has a particular honour. The Ensign lowers the colour – the 'flourish'. The King acknowledges it with a bow of the head, and the Royal Colonels salute the colour. Once past the saluting base, the colour is raised again – the 'recover' – and "eyes front" is ordered.
Each company's salute is acknowledged by the King and the Royal Colonels.
Quick march-past
For this circuit, the colour is at the rear of the Escort (No. 1 Guard), protected by the Colour Party. Their regimental quick marches are played as each guard passes before the King with eyes right. However, this being a quick march, the officers do not salute with swords, but only with the eyes right instead. As with the slow march-past, neutral marches start and conclude this section, and the Colour is marched on past the saluting base as the King and Queen and Royal Colonels salute it.
The massed bands, led by the Corps of Drums and the pipes and drums, march away to allow the mounted bands on to the ground. By then, the foot guards have ended their march, and are now back in place and dressed.
Mounted troops ride past
The now sole Mounted Band of the Household Cavalry in state dress, led by the two drum horses representing the two constituent regiments of the Household Cavalry, and the Director of Music of the Household Cavalry, ride slowly on to the field, traditionally to the tune "Preobrajensky."
It is the turn of Household Cavalry and King's Troop to complete two circuits of Horse Guards Parade. For the horses, slow and quick time correspond to a walk-march and a sitting-trot, respectively. Since 1997, the mounted contingent is led by the commander of the King's Troop and then by the Sovereign's Escort commander.
In both turns of the ride past the Foot Guards present arms as per the Field Officer's orders. The order of march past follows the arrangement of the Sovereign's Escort for the year.
Walk-march
Salutes are again given to the King, and returned by him, the Queen, and the Royal Colonels to the colours as they pass by.
The Royal Horse Artillery, marching to the "Royal Artillery Slow March" and then the "March from Aida", is first, taking precedence over all other units when on parade with its guns. When the King's Troop passes the saluting base, the King acknowledges the leading gun as the colour.
The Life Guards, in red jackets and white plumes, are next, followed by The Blues and Royals, in blue jackets and red plumes. The sequence of regimental marches is: "Life Guards' Slow March", followed by "Blues and Royals' Slow March", and then "The Royals."
Riding at the rear of the Household Cavalry are the farriers, one for each regiment, carrying their glinting axes and flanked by a soldier of each regiment. (The Life Guards farrier wears a black plume rather than the usual regimental white.)
The two Household Cavalry regiments take turns to parade and the job of parading the King's Cavalry Standard of either of the two regiments alternates yearly between The Life Guards and The Blues and Royals. As the standard passes by, it is flourished (dipped), in the presence of the King and Queen and the Royal Colonels and after walking past them is recovered.
Trot-past
A state trumpeter of either of the two Household Cavalry regiments plays "The Trot" to signal the beginning of the sitting trot-past. "The Keel Row" is traditionally played, and much dust is raised by the horses. Both the King's Troop's lead gun and the King's Cavalry Standard (not dipped) are trotted past the king and the royal colonels, who are saluted with eyes right.
As the trot-past ends the mounted band salutes the King, the drumhorse riders crossing their drumsticks above their heads. They then proceed back to the east side of Horse Guards Parade and halt in place.
Preparing for march-off
Their director of music turns inwards on his horse as a signal to the Field Officer that the Household Cavalry and the King's Troop are now in position to formally end the proceedings under the command of the Field Officer.
During the final Royal Salute, as the parade renders their birthday wishes from all 7 regiments of the Household Division to their colonel-in-chief, the colour of No. 1 Guard is lowered to the ground by the Ensign while "God Save the King" is played by the Massed Bands. Forming divisions once more, accompanied by the Corps of Drums, the guards prepare to march off, and the Household Cavalry and the King's Troop leave the field. The Field Officer, after forming the parade for the march-off, then rides towards the saluting base, informing the King that the guards are ready to march off the field while the RSM of the Escort returns his sword into his scabbard as an orderly returns to him his pace stick.
The King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery, leaves Horse Guards Parade and proceeds to Green Park (adjacent to Buckingham Palace) to formally commence the royal 41-gun salute. At the same time in the Tower of London, the Honourable Artillery Company takes its positions in the tower grounds for the special 62-gun salute that will be happen when the King arrives. This gun salute is only done by the HAC during royal anniversaries.
Marching off
Led by the massed bands, the King places himself at the head of his foot guards. The entire parade of 1,000 soldiers and 400 musicians marches up the Mall towards Buckingham Palace. The Markers then march off the grounds carrying the regimental company colours on the marker flags. The King's Troop and the HAC, now in place, get ready to commence firing their respective gun salutes during the Royal Family's arrival at the palace. At the same time, the old and new King's Guards, now performing the Changing of the Guard in the palace forecourt at the same time as the ceremony being done, also prepare for the royal carriages' arrival and to salute the King on horseback when he arrives.
After the ceremony
When the King returns to Buckingham Palace, the first division of the Escort to the Colour forms into two detachments of the new guard and enters the forecourt, opposite the old guard; but unlike the usual Changing of the Guard, the Regimental Sergeant Major participates in the ceremony. The remainder of the guards perform a march-past outside the gateway, in quick time instead of the usual slow time, with the King, positioned before the central gateway, receiving their salute. As the guards march past, their regimental marches are played by the massed and mounted bands respectively. The rest of the royal family observes the march-past from the balcony.
The King passes into the palace between the Old and New Guards, with both guards saluting him and the Royal Colonels. The usual semi-daily Changing of the Guard continues on the forecourt of the palace.
The gun salutes begin on the arrival of the King at Buckingham Palace, with the King's Troop firing a 41-gun royal salute in Green Park and the Honourable Artillery Company firing a 62-gun royal salute from the Tower of London grounds.
Finally, the King and the royal family on the palace balcony witness a flypast by the Royal Air Force, often featuring the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight and the Red Arrows. This is once again followed by the National Anthem and in special years, a feu de joie followed by the shouting of the three cheers to the King on behalf of the entire Household Division.
Regimental marches of the foot guards
Below are links to words and music of the regimental marches of the five foot guards regiments.
Slow marches
Grenadier Guards: "The March from Scipio", composed for the First Guards (Grenadier Guards) by Handel. It was presented by Handel to the Regiment before its inclusion in his opera Scipione which was first performed in 1726. (The title and composer's name are anglicised by the Regiment.)
Coldstream Guards: "Figaro" (the tune is "Non piu andrai" from Mozart's Le nozze di Figaro)
Scots Guards: "The Garb of Old Gaul" Lyrics and Music
Irish Guards: "Let Erin Remember" Lyrics and Music
Welsh Guards: "Men of Harlech" Lyrics and Music.
Quick marches
Music for all five regiments' quick marches
Grenadier Guards: "The British Grenadiers" Lyrics and melody-notation and Music
Coldstream Guards: "Milanollo." This march was composed by J V Hamm in honour of a pair of violin-playing child prodigy sisters, Teresa and Maria Milanollo, who performed in England in the mid-19th century during their extensive European tours.
Scots Guards: "Hielan' Laddie" (Listen)
Irish Guards: "Saint Patrick's Day" (Listen) whose lyrics were the poem "Pulse of an Irishman" (Beethoven composed an arrangement of the march as part of a song cycle of Scots and Irish tunes).
Welsh Guards: "The Rising of the Lark" (Listen) Lyrics and Music
List of regiments trooping the colour
Since only one colour can be trooped down the ranks at a time, each year a single battalion of the five Foot Guards regiments is selected to troop its colours.
Since 1993, the 2nd Battalions of the Grenadier Guards, Coldstream Guards and Scots Guards have been in "suspended animation" - they are represented in the parade by the three incremental companies. Incremental companies, however, serve for their respective 3rd Battalions, as well as for the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the Irish and Welsh Guards, respectively.
The number of soldiers participating in Trooping the Colour in London has declined over the years due to defence budget cuts in Household Division battalions as well as the battalions' commitments to military and peacekeeping operations overseas. This gives some of the units little time to practise ceremonial functions. However, the format of the ceremony has remained the same over the centuries following routines of old battle formations used in the era of musket warfare. The 1988 parade was the last to have all five regiments in participation, and in 1993 the parade was reduced from eight guards to six.
Trooping the Colour in other Commonwealth countries and territories
Australia
In Australia the Trooping the King's Colour takes place annually on the King's Birthday Holiday by the staff cadets of Royal Military College, Duntroon, in Canberra, formerly at the RMC parade grounds and now at Rod Point at the shores of Lake Burley Griffin. The Queen's colour was trooped there for the first time on the Queen's Birthday Parade in 1956, a practice which has continued since then. Colours were first presented to the Corps of Staff Cadets by King George VI when, as Duke of York, he visited Australia in 1927. These colours are now lodged in the college's Patterson Hall. Colours were again presented by Queen Elizabeth II on 10 May 1988 and most recently on 22 October 2011 during a brief visit to Australia, coinciding with RMC Duntroon's centenary year.
The Champion Company of the Corps of Staff Cadets is named after the Sovereign's Company and it carries the Queen Elizabeth II's banner, which was first presented to the Corps of Staff Cadets by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother on 26 February 1958. The Sovereign's Company is entitled to carry the banner on all ceremonial parades as well as escorting the Queen's colour during the Trooping the Colour. The Governor-General of Australia, being the King's representative in the Commonwealth, is the reviewing officer of the parade, and since the move to Rod Field has been attended by the public as well.
Bermuda
The Trooping of the Colour in Hamilton is held on Front Street by troops of the Royal Bermuda Regiment (who make up No. 1 Guard), as well as supporting units of the Bermuda Police Service and the Bermuda Junior Leaders (RBR). The presiding officer of the ceremony is the Governor of Bermuda, who inspects the units at the start. At the conclusion of the ceremony, the guards conduct a Feu de joie, followed by a 21-gun salute and three cheers to the Sovereign.
Canada
In Canada the Trooping the Colour ceremony on Parliament Hill takes place, with a trooping of the King's Colour, only for the King, members of the royal family, the governor general, or a lieutenant-governor, on Remembrance Day, or in honour of the King's Birthday, on Victoria Day. Trooping the Colour ceremonies have also taken place at Rideau Hall. New colours may also be trooped when they are presented. Colours are also trooped during unit anniversaries. In Ottawa, should any of the above be absent for the ceremony, the salute is taken by the Minister of National Defence and the Chief of the Defence Staff, and the Regimental Colour is trooped instead. The ceremony was first performed on a national scale in Canada in 1939, during the royal tour that year. Earlier versions of the event were held in relation to the regiment, with one of the first to occur since the Confederation of Canada taking place over two weeks later on 18 July 1867, with The Royal Canadian Regiment trooping on the Champ de Mars in Montreal. The first major ceremony since 1939 took place in 1953 during the coronation day ceremonies in front of Centre Block that included the Trooping of the Colour in front of Governor General Vincent Massey. In 1958, it became a regular event on the 1 July holiday.
List of regiments trooping the colour in Canada
The Royal Canadian Regiment, 2002
The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada, Hamilton, Ontario, 2002
Governor General's Foot Guards
The Canadian Grenadier Guards
The Governor General's Horse Guards
The Canadian Guards – disbanded (reduced to nil strength) 1970
The Princess Louise Fusiliers
The Calgary Highlanders trooped their new Queen's Colour when it was presented by their Colonel-in-Chief, Queen Elizabeth II, in June 1990.
The Grey and Simcoe Foresters, Owen Sound, Ontario, 1983
The Toronto Scottish Regiment (Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother's Own)
The Lorne Scots (Peel, Dufferin and Halton Regiment), 2001, 2006, 2016
The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada, 1987, 2012
Ghana
In Ghana, the traditional Trooping the Colour ceremony is held annually during the Independence Day celebrations on 6 March. The escort for the colour is mounted by the Ghana Army and has the task of retrieving the ceremonial colours of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, alongside the Flag of Ghana. After the escort presents arms to God Bless Our Homeland Ghana, the escort for the colour then marches off to the tune of the British grenadier guards in slow time. The ceremony takes place on Black Star Square, where the national salute is taken by the President of Ghana in his, or her, position as commander in chief of the GAF. Musical accompaniment is provided by the combined massed bands of the Ghana Armed Forces Central Band and school marching bands.
Jordan
Jordan hosted its first Trooping the Colour – the first in the Middle East – in June 2016 celebrating the centenary of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire. The Parade was the official celebrations of the centennial of the Great Arab Revolt () or Arab Revolt Parade on coverage online. In 2017, the Trooping of the Colour (officially known as the Flag Parade) was moved to September and is held annually. Around 1,000 troops take part in the parade, which is held in Amman, the national capital. Al Rayah Square (Square of the Emblem) was specially built for this occasion near the royal court. It stands on an area of 6,300 square metres and can host up to 5,000 people. In the parade, the King awards the Colours of the Arab Revolt to one of the army's battalions which holds it until the next Trooping the Colour.
In 2016, the colours went to the 28th prince Hussein bin Abdullah II Rangers Brigade. In 2017, the colours were awarded to the 39th Ja'far bin Abi Talib Infantry Battalion. In 2018, the colours were in the possession of the 9th Prince Mohammed Mechanised Battalion.
Regiments that take possession of the Colour of the Arab Revolt
Kenya
Kenya is one of three African countries that still practises the traditional British ceremony of Trooping the Colour.
This takes place every 12 December on Jamhuri Day (the day when Kenya became an independent nation and later a republic), but unlike the British one all the three services of the Kenya Defence Forces takes part in the Trooping the colour. The service branch whose battalion is trooping the colour provides number one and number two guards.
The ceremony normally begins at 11:30 after the arrival of the President of Kenya, who takes the national salute as the national anthem and the anthem of the East African Community are played by the massed bands. After finishing his inspection of the parade, the bands play a slow march followed with a quick march, during which the lone drummer then breaks away to take his position beside number one guard to play the drummers call, signalling the officers of No.1 Guard to take positions to receive the colour and the Guard's RSM removing his pace stick and then unsheathing his sword. The escort for the colour then marches off to collect the colour as the massed KDF band play either The British Grenadiers or a locally composed march, after which the escort halts in position. After the hand over and as the Escort presents arms the first verse of the Kenya national anthem is played, then the escort to the colour marches off in a slow march to the tune of The Grenadiers' Slow March. The first tune normally played during the march in slow time is always 'By land and sea'.
Malaysia
Also part of the Commonwealth, Malaysia performs Trooping the Colours every first Saturday in June, days after the official birthday of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, the elected Malaysian King, on the first Monday, in front of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, the Raja Permaisuri Agong, the Prime Minister of Malaysia, the Deputy Prime Minister, and other officials of the Government, and officers of the Malaysian Armed Forces, of which the King is the Commander-in-Chief as prescribed by the Malaysian Constitution of 1957 as amended.
The Malaysian trooping follows the publication of an Honours List for the King's Birthday on the same week. It also incorporates many elements of the British Trooping ceremony, including a Royal Procession before and after the parade, The Sovereign's Escort provided by the Royal Armored Corps, Saluting Base at Merdeka Square, National Heroes' Square or at the Merdeka Stadium, Royal Inspection, the duties of Field Officer, Major of the Parade and Adjutant officers and the NCO duties of Regt. Sergeant Majors and Colour Sergeants, the Royal Salute, 21-gun salutes by the Royal Regiment of Artillery, and flypasts (flying the Malaysian flag and the flags of the Armed forces). It is conducted in Malay and includes prayers, in the Islamic traditions of the Malaysian Armed Forces. Motorized vehicles are used in the Royal Procession from the Royal Malaysian Police. The main differences are that five colours are trooped, covering all three branches of the Armed Forces, and some of marches played are locally composed. This threefold representation is reflected in the composition of the Colours Party, the Escort for/to the Colours and the Massed Military Bands in attendance.
The 2014 event was held on Friday, 13 June, at Kem Perdana, Sungai Besi, which was a departure from normal tradition of the Saturday troopings. This was the very first time in Malaysian history that Trooping the Colour was held on the Friday in June closest to the King's Birthday, rather than the traditional first Saturday of the month. In an old tradition which resumed in 2016 at the National Heroes' Square, Putrajaya, if the celebrations fall on Ramadan, then the birthday parade is held on the Friday before 31 July, Heroes' Day.
For the first time in history, the traditional Trooping the Colours was held on 19 September 2017, the Tuesday after Malaysia Day, in National Heroes' Square, Putrajaya, given the decision to move the King's Birthday to the Monday following Hari Merdeka. With the move to September the Trooping the Colours in Putrajaya ends more than a month of national celebrations in honour of the anniversary of Malaysian independence in 1957 and the formation of the armed forces in 1932.
The old June date was restored in 2019.
Malta
Given Malta's history as a former British dominion, the Armed Forces of Malta performs Trooping the Colour every 13 December in celebration of Republic Day at St. George's Square in Valletta, the national capital. The salute is taken by the President of Malta, who is the commander in chief of the AFM.
The units that provide the colour and official band are from the 1st Regiment, Armed Forces of Malta, and the Armed Forces of Malta Band.
Singapore
The Singapore Armed Forces performs Trooping the Colours annually in the SAF Day Parade on 1 July. It is toned down as compared to the British version and is done after the awarding of the State Colours to the Best units of the Army, Navy and Air Force. If new Colours have been consecrated on SAF day, they are usually included in the Trooping, but if otherwise, are Trooped on a separate day. The Escorts to the Colour (No.1 Guard) are usually formed by the Singapore Armed Forces Military Police Command, while Nos. 2-4 Guards are composed of personnel from the SAF National Day Parade Guard of Honour Companies. Unlike the British parade, it has supporting contingents that march past as well.
The salute is taken by the President of Singapore, the Prime Minister of Singapore, and the Chief of Defence Force, while the band in attendance is either the SAF Central Band or the SAF Ceremonial Band A (both from the Singapore Armed Forces Bands).
The No.2 Guard is usually made up of personnel from the Singapore Army's Best Army Unit Competition winner for the current year, typically the 1st Commando Battalion, Singapore Armed Forces Commando Formation. Of Nos. 3 and 4 Guards, these are, as of recent NDPs, formed up of the Naval Diving Unit and the Air Power Generation Command.
Alongside the SAF Day Trooping, it has also been performed on unit or command anniversaries.
Uganda
The Ugandan Armed Forces performs a Trooping the Colour on Independence Day on Kololo Ceremonial Grounds in the national capital, with salute being taken by the President of Uganda.
Former Countries
Rhodesia
On 25 April 1954, a date which was later designated as Tanlwe Chaung Day, the Rhodesian African Rifles
performed the first ever Trooping of the Colour in Southern Rhodesia in the presence of Governor General
Lord Llewellin.
The Rhodesian Light Infantry trooped their Colour for the only time on 27 July 1970 at Cranborne Barracks, with the Mayor of Salisbury (now Harare), the Minister of Defence Jack Howman, Prime Minister Ian Smith and the commanding officer of the Rhodesian African Rifles in attendance. Regimental Sergeant Major Robin Tarr began the proceedings at 10:35, after which the Rhodesian African Rifles Band and Drums began playing the RLI's slow march, The Incredibles, as the RLI troopers marched onto the parade square. The regimental colour was then trooped before finally the RLI men performed a march-past in slow and quick time.
Ireland
Before the First World War and the partition of Ireland, Trooping the Colour was performed annually on 17 March, Saint Patrick's Day, by the garrison battalions in the Upper Castle Yard at Dublin Castle, in the presence of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
See also
List of marches of the British Armed Forces
Winston (horse)
Beating Retreat
Presentation of Colours
Thai Royal Guards parade
Hanover Schützenfest, including the largest marksmen parade in Germany
Bayerischer Defiliermarsch, Bavarian march used in similar circumstances
Notes
References
Bibliography
Her Majesty The Queen's Birthday Parade. Saturday 17 June 2006 and 16 June 2007. Official programme.
n.a. The Guards : Changing of the Guard, Trooping the Colour, The Regiments. Norwich: Jarrold Publishing, 2005. A Pitkin Guide. (This revised edition published 1990. Originally published by Macmillan Press Ltd., 1972) .
Trooping the Colour. BBC 1 and 2 television coverage, 11 June 2005, 17 June 2006 and 16 June 2007.
External links
Household Division Ceremonial Events
Details of the sovereign's birthday parade from 1895 to date
Photos from Trooping the Colour 2006 from the official 80th birthday site of the Queen
Order of Trooping the Colour
Information about the Trooping the Colour from the UK Army homepage
Prince William in first Trooping the Colour parade
2013 Trooping the Colour parade
Behind The Scenes At Trooping The Colour With The King's Troop
The Sovereign's Parade, April 1985
British Army traditions
British monarchy
Household Division (United Kingdom)
Annual events in London
State ritual and ceremonies
Military traditions
Ceremonies in the United Kingdom
Saturday observances
June observances
Military parades in the United Kingdom
Military ceremonies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Louisville
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University of Louisville
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The University of Louisville (UofL) is a public research university in Louisville, Kentucky. It is part of the Kentucky state university system. When founded in 1798, it was one of the first city-owned public colleges in the United States and one of the first universities chartered west of the Allegheny Mountains. The university is mandated by the Kentucky General Assembly to be a "Preeminent Metropolitan Research University". It enrolls students from 118 of 120 Kentucky counties, all 50 U.S. states, and 116 countries around the world.
Louisville is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". The University of Louisville School of Medicine is touted for the first fully self-contained artificial heart transplant surgery, as well as the first successful hand transplantation in the United States. The University Hospital is also credited with the first civilian ambulance, the nation's first accident services, now known as an emergency department (ED), and one of the first blood banks in the US.
University of Louisville is known for the Louisville Cardinals athletics programs. Since 2005, the Cardinals have made appearances in the NCAA Division I men's basketball Final Four in 2005, 2012, and 2013 (vacated), football Bowl Championship Series Orange Bowl in 2007 (champions) and Sugar Bowl in 2013 (champions), the College Baseball World Series 2007, 2013, 2014, 2017 and 2019, the women's basketball Final Four in 2009 (runner-up), 2013 (runner-up), and 2018, and the men's soccer national championship game in 2010. The Louisville Cardinals Women's Volleyball program has three-peated as champions of the Big East Tournament (2008, 2009, 2010), and were Atlantic Coast Conference Champions in 2015 and 2017. Women's track and field program has won Outdoor Big East titles in 2008, 2009 and 2010 and an Indoor Big East title in 2011.
History
Founding and early years: 1798–1845
The University of Louisville traces its roots to a charter granted in 1798 by the Kentucky General Assembly to establish a school of higher learning in the newly founded town of Louisville. It ordered the sale of 6,000 acres (24 km2) of South Central Kentucky land to underwrite construction, joined on April 3, 1798, by eight community leaders who began local fund raising for what was then known as the Jefferson Seminary. It opened 15 years later and offered college and high school level courses in a variety of subjects. It was headed by Edward Mann Butler from 1813 to 1816, who later ran the first public school in Kentucky in 1829 and is considered Kentucky's first historian.
Despite the Jefferson Seminary's early success, pressure from newly established public schools and media critiques of it as "elitist" would force its closure in 1829.
Eight years later, in 1837, the Louisville City council established the Louisville Medical Institute at the urging of renowned physician and medical author Charles Caldwell. As he had earlier at Lexington's Transylvania University, Caldwell rapidly led LMI into becoming one of the leading medical schools west of the Allegheny Mountains. In 1840, the Louisville Collegiate institute, a rival medical school, was established after an LMI faculty dispute. It opened in 1844 on land near the present day Health sciences campus.
As a public municipal university: 1846–1969
In 1846, the Kentucky legislature combined the Louisville Medical Institute, the Louisville Collegiate Institution, and a newly created law school into the University of Louisville, on a campus just east of Downtown Louisville. The LCI folded soon afterwards. The university experienced rapid growth in the 20th century, adding new schools in the liberal arts (1907), graduate studies (1915), dentistry (1918), engineering (1925), music (1932) and social work (1936).
In 1923, the school purchased what is today the Belknap Campus, where it moved its liberal arts programs and law school, with the medical school remaining downtown. The school had attempted to purchase a campus donated by the Belknap family in The Highlands area in 1917 (where Bellarmine University is currently located), but a citywide tax increase to pay for it was voted down. The Belknap Campus was named after the family for their efforts. In 1926, the building that would later be dedicated as Grawemeyer Hall, was built.
In 1931, the university established the Louisville Municipal College for Negroes on the former campus of Simmons University (now Simmons College of Kentucky), as a compromise plan to desegregation. As a part of the university, the school had an equal standing with the school's other colleges. It was dissolved in 1951 when the university desegregated.
During World War II, Louisville was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.
In the second half of the 20th century, schools were opened for business (1953), education (1968), and justice administration (1969).
As a public state university: 1970–present
Talk of Louisville joining the public university system of Kentucky began in the 1960s. As a municipally-funded school (meaning funding only came from the city of Louisville), the movement of people to the suburbs of Louisville created budget shortfalls for the school and forced tuition prices to levels unaffordable for most students. At the same time, the school's well-established medicine and law schools were seen as potential assets for the state system. Still, there was opposition to the university becoming a state institution, both from faculty and alumni who feared losing the small, close-knit feel of the campus, and from universities already in the state system who feared funding cuts that would be necessitated to accommodate UofL. After several years of heated debate, the university joined the state system in 1970, a move largely orchestrated by then Kentucky governor and UofL alumnus Louie Nunn.
The first years in the state system were difficult, as enrollment skyrocketed while funding was often insufficient. Several programs were threatened with losing accreditation due to a lack of funding, although schools of nursing (1979) and urban & public affairs (1983) were added.
John W. Shumaker was named the university's president in 1995. Shumaker was a very successful fund raiser, and quickly increased the school's endowment from $183 to $550 million. He developed the REACH program to encourage retention. In 1997, he hired athletics director Tom Jurich, who restored the athletics program and raised over $100 million to raze abandoned factories and old parking lots next to campus and replace them with on-campus athletic facilities, which vastly improved the aesthetics of the Belknap Campus. Academically, Louisville moved closer to parity with the state's flagship University of Kentucky as retention rates and research funding increased, and average GPAs and ACT scores were much higher for incoming freshmen.
James R. Ramsey, the university's 17th president, continued the endowment and fundraising growth started by Shumaker. However, Ramsey added more emphasis on improving the physical aspects of the Belknap Campus. To this end, he started a million-dollar "campus beautification project" which painted six overpasses on the Belknap Campus with a University of Louisville theme and planted over 500 trees along campus streets, and doubled the number of on-campus housing units. The university's federal research funding doubled under Ramsey, and three buildings were built for nanotechnology and medical research. The university's graduation rate increased from 30 percent in 1999 to 52 percent in 2012.
On June 17, 2016, Kentucky Governor Matt Bevin announced that the entire board of trustees of the university would be immediately disbanded and replaced, and that Ramsey would be stepping down. This was confirmed in a statement issued by Ramsey on the same day. Ramsey offered his resignation at a board of trustees meeting on July 27, 2016, which was accepted by the board. In December 2016, the university was placed on academic probation by its accrediting agency, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, over concerns that Governor Bevin's actions had "violated rules that require that universities be independent". The probation was lifted a year later. The governor's actions were initially blocked by a judge but supported by new legislation passed by the Kentucky legislature in early 2017. In a lawsuit, the university sought $80 million in damages from president Ramsey, but settled only for $800,000 in 2021.
In the summer of 2017, the university again came into the national spotlight as a series of scandals became public. The university's foundation, the organization that manages its endowment and investments, reported "millions of dollars in unbudgeted spending, unapproved activities and endowment losses" in an audit. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) suspended the head coach of the men's basketball team, Rick Pitino, for five games after an investigation revealed that a university employee paid escorts to strip and have sex with players and recruits. Shortly after the NCAA announced its findings and penalties, the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the office of the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York announced the arrest of 10 individuals connected with a "pay for play" scheme connected to sportswear manufacturer Adidas and many institutions, including Louisville. Pitino was subsequently fired.
From 1895 to 2016, the university's Belknap Campus featured a Confederate monument, built before the campus grew to surround the land on which it stood. Commemorating the sacrifices of Confederate veterans who died in the American Civil War, it was erected by the Muldoon Monument Company in 1895 with funds raised by the Kentucky Woman's Confederate Monument Association. Due to controversy in 2016, the statue was moved from its original location to Brandenburg, Kentucky. Relocation started in November and was completed in mid-December.
Neeli Bendapudi became the University of Louisville's 18th president on May 15, 2018.
Campuses
The university has three campuses in the Louisville area, the Belknap, the Health Science, and the Shelby. It also has an International Campus in Panama City, Panama, as well as various satellite facilities in the state of Kentucky and abroad:
Belknap Campus
Acquired in 1923, the Belknap Campus is the school's main campus. It is located three miles (5 km) south of downtown Louisville in the Old Louisville neighborhood. It houses seven of the 12 academic colleges and features one of the casts of Auguste Rodin's The Thinker in front of the main administrative building, Grawemeyer Hall. The grounds of the campus were originally used as an orphanage, with several of the original buildings used.
The Belknap Campus has expanded greatly in recent years, with land housing abandoned factories in the area being purchased and redeveloped. Projects built since 1998 include L&N Federal Credit Union Stadium and adjacent Trager Center fieldhouse, Owsley B. Frazier Cardinal Park (which includes Ulmer Stadium for softball, Trager Stadium for field hockey, Cardinal Track and Soccer Stadium, Bass-Rudd Tennis Center, locker rooms, a playground and a cushioned walking path), Jim Patterson Stadium for baseball, Ralph R. Wright Natatorium, Owsley Brown Frazier Sports medicine Center, and a lacrosse stadium. With new parking at Cardinal Stadium, non-resident parking was moved there and the parking lots near campus were redeveloped with new dormitory buildings, including the Bettie Johnson Apartments, Kurz Hall, Minardi Hall, and Community Park.
Other points of interest on the Belknap Campus include the Rauch Planetarium; the Covi Gallery of the Hite Art Institute, named for the painter Marcia Hite and her husband Allen; and the final resting place for former U.S. Supreme Court Justice Louis D. Brandeis and his wife Alice, under the portico in the Brandeis Law School. Surrounded by, but not part of the campus, is the Speed Art Museum, a private institution that is affiliated with the University of Louisville. The Kentucky State Data center, the state's official clearing house for census data and estimates, is located next to Bettie Johnson Hall.
Since 2008 the school has purchased three large tracts of land adjacent to the Belknap Campus, to the school's northwest campus, to the school's east campus – south of Hahn and south of the Speed School of Engineering. New student housing has been completed on one of the northwest segments with student parking slated for the other. A new engineering and applied sciences research park is planned for the land south of the Speed School of Engineering. It serves as the centerpiece of a Signature Tax Increment Financing (TIF) district, designed to stimulate economic growth in an area around the university's Belknap campus. The TIF district covers more than 900 acres stretching from Belknap Campus south to the Watterson Expressway. The Kentucky Economic Development Finance Authority recently approved the TIF, paving the way for what could be an estimated $2.6 billion over 30 years.
Belknap Campus development projects
In 2009, the university unveiled its new master plan for the next 20 years with efforts from the University of Louisville Foundation and other affiliate partners. Several important projects under construction or planned at that time included a new student recreation center, soccer stadium, new residence halls and academic buildings. Furthermore, the reconstruction of the I-65 ramps to the Belknap Campus, converting the four lanes of Eastern Parkway into a two-lane road with bike lanes and a landscaped median to improve pedestrian access to the Speed School, the moving of several university offices to allow the existing facilities at Arthur Street and Brandeis Avenue to be converted to commercial property and restaurants. The Yum! Center (a men's basketball and volleyball practice facility) was completed in the fall of 2007. A Olympic sports training/rehab center adjacent to Trager Stadium is under construction. Trager Plaza, a small plaza with a fountain, statue, and garden has been built with donations by the Trager Family on the south part of campus. The $37.5 million Student Recreation Center, located on the Fourth Street corridor along the western border of campus, opened in October 2013. The Province, The Bellamy and Cardinal Towne are three new student housing developments built to the southwest of campus, near the recreation center. All three were built by private developers, and The Province was built in tandem with Louisville's properties. In the short term, university provost Shirley Willihnganz expects the university to continue partnerships with private entities to build student housing.
Several athletic facilities are being renovated, and the new $8 million academic center will be located beneath the Norton Terrace at the south end of Cardinal Stadium. It will be centrally located between two of the university's cornerstone buildings, the Swain Student Activities Center and Cardinal Stadium. It will have seating capacity for over 5,300 fans and will feature a 15,500 square foot training center that will include identical locker rooms for each team, coaches' offices and a sports medicine training room. This stadium will be the second largest project the athletic department has undertaken behind Cardinal Stadium. Furthermore, a $4 million expansion of Jim Patterson Stadium includes the addition of 1,500 chair back seats, two-tiered ground level terraces, a visiting team locker room, and a 6,400 square foot terrace atop the chair back seats connecting the first and third base sides. The new Jim Patterson Stadium will have a total capacity of 5,000. Along with the $2.75 million expansion of the university's softball stadium will feature a team clubhouse with a locker room, a video room, and a players' lounge. The Dan Ulmer Stadium will see the addition of 200 chair back seats, bringing the seating capacity to 1,000. The project will add a 2,380 square foot fan terrace wrapping around the back of the stadium, as well as a new press box that will more than double its current size.
Health Sciences Campus
The University Health Sciences Center, also called the med campus, is located just east of Downtown Louisville in the Louisville medical park which contains two other major hospitals and several specialty hospitals, and it houses the remaining five colleges. This is the school's original campus, being continuously used since 1846, although none of the original buildings remain. Buildings of note on the HSC include the fourteen story Medical Research Tower and the ten-story University Hospital. Construction is finished for a recently opened, downtown Louisville Cardiovascular Research Innovation Institute building to be directed by a researcher, Stuart Williams from the University of Arizona; and an eight-story, $70 million biomedical research building. Faculty and students also work with neighboring hospitals including Norton Children's Hospital, as well as outreach programs throughout Kentucky, including in Paducah, Campbellsville, and Glasgow.
Health Sciences Campus development projects
The University of Louisville Health Sciences Campus has seen a large amount of new development in the past decade, include the completion of three new buildings: Baxter Research Complex, Cardiovascular Research Tower, and Jackson Street Medical Plaza.
In 2007 Louisville announced plans to create a nine-acre medical research park on the so-called Haymarket property roughly bounded by Market, Preston, Brook, and Jefferson Streets, along I-65 in Downtown Louisville, now called the Nucleus Research Park, with of research space. Nucleus, Kentucky's Life Science and Innovation Center, was established in 2008 by the University of Louisville Foundation. Nucleus is assisting in the development of Louisville's Health Science Campus downtown.
Nucleus' work is integral to the development of the research park currently underway at Louisville's Haymarket 30-block property in downtown Louisville. Nucleus Innovation Park will house multiple facilities. The project is expected to cost $300 million and was planned to be constructed from 2009 to 2017. A 200,000-square-foot, eight-story, $18 million building, is the first in a series of structures, broke ground in July 2011, and was expected to open in June 2013.
An important project adjacent to the Downtown Health Sciences Campus was the conversion of the Clarksdale Housing Complex into a new mixed income development called Liberty Green.
Shelby Campus
The Shelby Campus is located on Shelbyville Road near Hurstbourne Parkway in Eastern Louisville. This campus was originally the home of Kentucky Southern College, a Kentucky Baptist liberal arts college that operated from 1961 to 1969. After the college folded, it transferred all its assets and liabilities to the university. It currently only has three buildings which are used for night classes and seminars, although construction of a $34.6-million Center for Predictive Medicine, a Level 3 biosafety facility, is in the works.
The Shelby Campus is also home to the building which houses the Information Technology Resource Center (ITRC) for homeland security. The ITRC conducts communications and IT research for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security as well as seminars and training in emergency preparedness and response. When completed, the impressive ShelbyHurst Office Campus will have over 1.5 million square feet of modern office space managed, developed and leased by NTS Development Co., in partnership with the University of Louisville Foundation. The first three projects are in full swing.
The Shelby Campus is undergoing a major renovation, with two new entrances to the campus off Hurstbourne Parkway. The overall goal is to develop of the campus for business, office, technology and research use, now known as the ShelbyHurst Research and Office Park. The university will spend $7.9 million on the road improvements on the campus. The roadway improvements began in August 2008, with work on a new four-lane boulevard through the campus, bordered by bike lanes and sidewalks, and heavily landscaped. The 600 North Hursbourne – Transformation is evident at the busy northeast corner of ShelbyHurst with the completion of 600 North. The LEED-certified, 125,000-square-foot office building is 80 percent leased and serves as corporate headquarters to Churchill Downs, NTS, Semonin Realtors and Stifel Nicolaus.
International Campus
The University of Louisville runs a sister campus in Panama City, Panama, which has an MBA program. The full-time program takes around 16 months to complete and enrolls about 200 students. It is currently ranked the 4th best MBA program in Latin America.
The university also offers professional MBA programs in Athens, Hong Kong, Singapore and other parts of Asia. Their collaboration partner in Singapore is Aventis School of Management.
Other facilities
Louisville operates the Moore Observatory in Oldham County, an astronomical observatory. There are plans to purchase several hundred acres in Oldham County for the school's equine program.
The president's mansion, Amelia Place, is located at 2515 Longest Avenue. It is the former residence of railroad executive Whitefoord Russell Cole.
Academics
The University of Louisville offers bachelor's degrees in 70 fields of study, master's degrees in 78, and doctorate degrees in 22. According to the National Science Foundation, Louisville spent $176 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 125th in the nation.
Through its School of Medicine and University Hospital Louisville is known for its innovations in the field of medicine, including world's first self-contained artificial heart transplant (2001), world's first successful hand transplant (1999), development of autotransfusion (1935), and first emergency department (1911).
Rankings
U.S. News & World Report 2023 edition ranked University of Louisville's undergraduate program tied for 195 among all national universities and tied for 106th among public ones. Forbes Magazine ranks the University 423rd among 650 universities, colleges, and service academies; 195th for public colleges, 92nd for colleges in the American South and 227th best U.S. research university in 2023.
Admissions
Admission to Louisville is considered "selective" by U.S. News & World Report. A total of 9,430 applications were received for the freshmen class entering Fall 2015; 6,758 applicants were accepted (71.7%), and 2,797 enrolled. Men constituted 50.9% of the incoming class; women 49.1%.
Among freshman students who enrolled in Fall 2015, SAT scores for the middle 50% ranged from 490 to 620 for critical reading, and from 510 to 620 for math. ACT composite scores for the middle 50% ranged from 22 to 29. The average high school GPA for incoming freshmen was 3.60.
Schools and colleges
The university consists of 12 schools and colleges:
College of Arts and Sciences (1907)
College of Business (1953)
College of Education and Human Development (1968)
Graduate School (1918)
J. B. Speed School of Engineering (1925)
Kent School of Social Work (1936)
Louis D. Brandeis School of Law (1846)
School of Dentistry (1887)
University of Louisville School of Medicine (1837)
School of Music (1932)
School of Nursing (1979)
School of Public Health and Information Sciences (1919–1924; re-established in 2002)
UPS tuition reimbursement and Metropolitan College
In addition to their nationwide partial tuition reimbursement programs, UPS (United Parcel Service) offers Louisville (along with Jefferson Community and Technical College) students who work overnight at Worldport, the company's worldwide air hub at Louisville International Airport, full tuition reimbursement through a program called Metropolitan College. This program offers reimbursement for $65 of book costs for each class, and awards bonus checks to students in good standing at the end of each semester and upon reaching certain credit hour milestones. Employees are eligible for full health insurance coverage. Currently over 75 percent of the workers at the air hub are students.
Honors program
The university's honors program is under the direction of Joy Hart. Incoming freshmen can apply to be in the program if they meet the following requirements: a 3.5 cumulative high school GPA and a 29 on their ACT. Current students can apply for the honors program if they are able to maintain a cumulative GPA of 3.35 or higher. Courses through the program focus on reading, writing and discussion. Students in the honors program benefit from priority registration for classes, smaller class sizes, and unique study abroad opportunities.
Libraries
The University of Louisville library system is a member of the Association of Research Libraries. Louisville's main library branch is the William F. Ekstrom Library, which opened in 1981. The four-story building finished an expansion in March 2006, which increased its total size to and shelving capacity to over 1.3 million books. It is one of only five universities in the U.S. to have a robotic retrieval system, which robotically places books in humidity-free bins. The University of Louisville libraries were the seventh academic institution in North America to have such a facility.
There are five other libraries at the university, with a combined total of more than 400,000 volumes of work:
Archives and Special Collections
The Margaret M. Bridwell Art Library
Dwight Anderson Memorial Music Library
Kornhauser Health Sciences Library
Brandeis Law School Library
In 2009, the Kersey Library at the J. B. Speed School of Engineering was converted to an academic building named the Duthie Center for Engineering. The library's collection was fully integrated into Ekstrom Library on January 15, 2007.
Enrollment statistics
Undergraduate student body
Total enrollment is 22,293 as of Fall 2012.
76.2% of students are Kentucky residents.
44.0% of students are from Jefferson County (down from 64% in 1995)
Average ACT score: 25.2 as of Fall 2013 (up from 20.7 in 1995)
6-year graduation rate: 53.5% (2012) (up from 33% in 2004)
Student life
Residence halls
The university has 12 housing options on its campuses:
Belknap Village North
Belknap Village South
Bettie Johnson Hall
Billy Minardi Hall
Cardinal Towne – It has an assortment of restaurants on the 1st floor.
Community Park
Denny Crum Hall – Named after Denny Crum former basketball coach from 1971 to 2001.
Herman & Heddy Kurz Hall
Louisville Hall
Unitas Tower – Named after footballer Johnny Unitas who attended the school from 1950 to 1954, the tower is easily visible from many parts of campus and is located by the School of Music.
University Pointe
University Tower Apartments
Media
The university's student maintained online radio station, WLCV, was shut down at the beginning of the fall 2012 semester due to lack of funding. Louisville holds a prominent role in the city of Louisville's "Public Radio Partnership" which features three NPR stations under one roof, including the school's namesake WUOL-FM which broadcasts classical music. The school also holds one-third of the seats on the Partnership's board of directors.
There is also an independent student-run weekly newspaper, The Louisville Cardinal. The newspaper was founded in 1926, and has maintained financial and editorial independence since 1980. The newspaper is overseen by a board of local media professionals and run by a student editor-in-chief.
Inside the university's Student Activities Center is the Floyd Theatre, a 228-seat movie theater operated by the Student Activities Board. It is capable of running both 35 mm prints and DVD projection.
Greek life
There are over 20 Greek letter organizations on campus. , approximately 14% of undergraduate men and 11% of undergraduate women are active in UofL's Greek system.
Notable people
Alumni
The university has more than 144,000 alumni residing in the United States and around the world.
The university claims as alumni a winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Theatre (Marsha Norman, BFA 1969), a 10-time NFL pro-bowler (Johnny Unitas), the 2016 Heisman Trophy winner (Lamar Jackson), the Minority Leader of the United States Senate (Mitch McConnell, BA 1964), the first female director of the CIA (Gina Haspel, BA 1978), the former Chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley (Chang-Lin Tien, MEng 1983) and many others including governors, senators, mayors, US Attorneys and CEOs.
Athletics
The Louisville (UofL) athletic teams are called the Cardinals. The university is a member of the NCAA Division I ranks, primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) since the 2014–15 academic year. The Cardinals previously competed in the American Athletic Conference (The American; formerly known as the original Big East Conference until after the 2012–13 school year) from 2005–06 to 2013–14, and in Conference USA (C-USA) from 1995–96 to 2004–05.
UofL competes in 21 intercollegiate varsity sports. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis and track & field; women's sports include basketball, cross country, field hockey, golf, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball.
Overview
The Cardinals (commonly referred to as "the Cards") are the student athletes representing the university. There are 12 women's and 9 men's teams, all of which participate in the Atlantic Coast Conference. Louisville was invited to the ACC on November 28, 2012, and began play in 2014. The Cardinals are well known nationally in men's basketball with two national championships (2013 vacated) and 9 Final Four appearances (2013 vacated), ranking 5th in NCAA Tournament wins, 9th in winning percentage, and from 2nd to 5th in annual attendance every year since 1984. For the 2015–16 season, the men's basketball team held a self-imposed postseason ban due to a sex scandal involving recruits and former players. The NCAA put the Louisville men's basketball program on four years probation in June 2017 and imposed a number of penalties including a suspension of head coach Rick Pitino, a reduction of scholarships and 123 vacated games as a result of its investigation into the program's stripper scandal.
In recent years other Cardinal teams have gained national prominence. The women's basketball team, coached by Jeff Walz and led by first team All-American Shoni Schimmel, has been to two straight Sweet 16s and have been ranked in the top 10. In December 2008 the Cardinals broke the Big East paid attendance record when 17,000 fans filled Freedom Hall to watch the Cards defeat rival Kentucky, and later that season advanced to the NCAA championship game, losing to Connecticut. The Cardinals returned to the NCAA final behind Native American star Shoni Schimmel in 2013, losing again to Connecticut, The following season, the Cardinals filled the KFC Yum! Center with over 22,000 fans, including an estimated 1,500 Native Americans from 40 states, for the final scheduled home game of the graduating Schimmel. Other Louisville teams with recent post season success includes track and field (two individual national championships), volleyball (consecutive Sweet 16 appearances and a three-peat as Big East Tournament Champions from 2008 to 2010, and Atlantic Coast Conference Champions in 2015) and baseball (two College World Series appearances and consecutive Big East conference titles). The volleyball team has also accomplished achievements such as Head Coach Anne Kordes being named Coach of the Year in 2015, Senior Setter for Louisville, Katie George being named Atlantic Coast Conference Player of the Year, and Freshman Libero, Molly Sauer being named Freshman of the Year and Defensive Player of the Year.
All Louisville locally broadcast games airing on the school's flagship affiliate WHAS-TV Louisville are televised on every cable provider in Kentucky.
See also
McConnell Center
Metro-College
Notes
References
External links
Official athletics website
Universities and colleges in Louisville, Kentucky
Louisville University
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
African-American history in Louisville, Kentucky
Louisville University
1798 establishments in Kentucky
Public universities and colleges in Kentucky
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheoljong%20of%20Joseon
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Cheoljong of Joseon
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Cheoljong (; 25 July 1831 – 16 January 1864) was the 25th king of the Joseon, reigning from 1849 to 1864. After Heonjong of Joseon died without a male heir in 1849, Queen Sunwon chose Cheoljong, aged 19, to be the next king, as the heir to late Sunjo of Joseon.
Cheoljong was a great-great-grandson of Yeongjo of Joseon. Before ascending the throne, he lived in poverty; even after becoming the king, he had little political influence, and political power was held mainly by the Andong Kim clan, the family of Queen Sunwon. The monopoly of the Andong Kim clan's power caused nationwide corruption, resulting in a mass series of peasant revolts in southern Joseon in 1862. He died in 1864 without an heir, and was succeeded by a distant relative, Gojong.
Biography
Early life
Cheoljong was born Yi Won-beom (이원범), the 3rd and youngest son of Yi Gwang (Jeongye Daewongun), a great-grandson of King Yeongjo of Joseon. His mother was a concubine, and she was a daughter of Yeom Seong-hwa (염성화), a commoner, descended from the Yongdam Yeom clan (용담 염씨).
Prince Euneon was Cheoljong's grandfather and a younger half-brother of Jeongjo of Joseon; in 1786, accused of treason, he and his family was exiled to Ganghwa Island. Prince Euneon was killed during the Catholic Persecution of 1801, as his wife and daughter-in-law became Catholic, which was illegal in Joseon by the time; his children remained in confinement on the island until King Sunjo decided to pardon them in 1822. One of Prince Euneon's sons, Yi Gwang, was in his thirties, thus married a daughter of Choi Su-chang and had a son, Yi Won-gyeong (이원경); he had another two sons, respectively born to different concubines. The family eventually returned to the capital, Hanseong. When Cheoljong was young, he had little education. At the age of four, he studied the Thousand Character Classic; later, he also read some beginning volumes of the Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance and Elementary Learning, but he couldn't remember much content from them, and he stopped studying in following years.
In 1836, Nam Eung-jung (남응중) attempted to enthrone one of the grandsons of Prince Euneon; the plot was exposed and he was executed. During the death of Queen Hyohyeon (consort of King Heonjong) in 1844, a conspiracy by Min Jin-yong (민진용) to enthrone Yi Won-gyeong, Cheoljong's oldest half-brother, was exposed and led to Yi Won-gyeong's execution. Yi Won-gyeong's family, guilty by association, was again exiled to Ganghwa Island.
Accession
King Heonjong died in 1849, and he had no issue; thus, the lineage of Jeongjo died out. Some officials suggested that a distant royalty, Yi Ha-jeon (이하전), could succeed the throne. But he was eight years old, as well as a descendant of Deokheung Daewongun and merely an 11th cousin once removed to Heonjong. The grandmother of the late king, Queen Sunwon (King Sunjo's widow), preferred to choose the next king herself, from closer relatives. She selected Yi Won-Beom, one of few living descendants of King Yeongjo and a second cousin once removed to Heonjong. She decided to adopt him as the heir and she sent officials to ask his family to return from Ganghwa Island. Yi Won-Beom lived in the countryside as a poor peasant. When he and his family saw the royal messenger coming, they were horrified. The Queen sent the yeonguijeong (Prime Minister) Jeong Won-yong (정원용) to present the order of the Queen Dowager and persuaded them to move to the Capital. According to the legend, as they were about to across Han River, there were flocks of sheep kneeling down as if they were waiting for a monarch, which was regarded as a good omen. When they were about to enter the capital, they were warmly welcomed by the citizens with deafening cheer.
When Yi Won-beom arrived in the palace, he was first made "Prince Deokwan" (덕완군), and descendants of Prince Euneon were again regarded as royalty. During their lifetime, Cheoljong's parents had no royal titles, so they were respectively honored as Jeongye Daewongun and Yongseong Budaebuin. Some other relatives of Cheoljong also received titles, including Prince Hoepyeong (his eldest half-brother), Prince Yeongpyeong (his second half-brother), Prince Punggye (his 4th uncle and half-brother of Jeongye Daewongun) as well as Prince Ikpyeong, the son of Prince Punggye; Han Gak-sin (한각신), an uncle of Cheoljong and the son-in-law of Prince Euneon, was appointed to be the officer-in-charge of Ikreung, the royal tomb of Queen Ingyeong in Gyeonggi Province.
On July 28, 1849, Cheoljong ascended the throne in Changdeok Palace, and Queen Sunwon served as regent for two years. In following years, Cheoljong resumed his studies. As a monarch, he at first changed his name from "Won-Beom" to "Yeop" (엽). But officials found out the name was too close in pronunciation to that of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty in China. To respect the naming taboo tradition, he was renamed again to Byeon (변). Cheoljong married the daughter of Kim Mun-geun (a third cousin of Queen Sunwon) in 1851, and she was later known as Queen Cheorin. Queen Cheorin had their only son in 1858, named Yung-jun, but the infant died less than a year later in 1859.
Reign
Following the wedding of Cheoljong in 1851, Queen Sunwon ended her regency. However, politics were still controlled by Queen Sunwon's family, the Andong Kim clan. Throughout the 14-year reign, Cheoljong became a puppet monarch vulnerable to their control; Queen Cheorin was also from the Andong Kim clan, allowing them to tighten the manipulation, with many Kim family members becoming prominent officials in the government. He officially start his reign in 1852. Having an experience of the agony of peasant, Cheoljong sympathized the commoners, that he donated 110,000 to the commoners during a serious drought in 1853. In 1856, as the national examination was full of bribery and fraud, Cheoljong criticized the situation and ordered to rectify the chaos, but it was in vain. Meanwhile, the nationwide corruption deteriorated in the field of military and agricultural taxes. A rebellion started in Jinju of the Gyeongsang Province in 1862, and it was repressed, with 13 people executed and 19 exiled. However, the rebellion continued to spread across three southern provinces, as well as Jeju Island. It was discovered the rebellion was a result of the corruption mentioned above, so Cheoljong set an office to carry out a financial reorganization, but the reformation turned out to be ineffective.
Joseon implemented an isolation with interation to few foreign countries for centuries, and Cheoljong maintained that policy. However, during his reign, vessels from Europe, the United States and Russian Empire, often appeared in Joseon's territorial waters (at least 20 recorded). In 1850, a foreign boat (nationality unknown) appeared in Uljin County of Gangwon Province, and some Joseon officials were killed by its bombardment before it left. In 1851, a French merchant ship with people from the Qing dynasty visited Jeju Island. In 1852, an American whaler stopped by Dongnae District in Gyeongsang Province; at first, the locals couldn't communicate with Americans, and then they found out there were also some Japanese aboard, who were rescued after a shipwreck. In 1854, Russian frigate Pallada entered Tumen River for prospecting, naming Wonsan as "Port Lazarev"; during the process, it was reported that some local residents were shot as the crowd watched the foreign vessel. In 1855, the French sailed a frigate named Virginie along the east Joseon coast from Busan to Tumen River and named some of the islands; another English boat named Sylvia also arrived in Busan in the same year. In 1856, there were hundreds of soldiers from French army not returning to France after the Crimean War; instead, they sacked some coastal cities in Chungcheong Province and Hwanghae Province. In the Second Opium War of 1860, Beijing, the capital of the Qing dynasty was invaded by an Anglo-French force, and the Old Summer Palace was sacked and burnt down. Beijing was close to Joseon, and as the news spread, it caused disturbance in Joseon. Some nobles and officials fled from Hanseong, and people often wore Christian crosses to protect themselves from foreigners. To get further news from China, Cheoljong sent several envoys to visit Xianfeng Emperor, who fled to Chengde Mountain Resort by the time. After the battle, European countries gained several privileges in China; as Joseon was in the tributary system of China, these countries demanded that they should have a same rights in Joseon, only to be rejected. Then Britain, France, the United States and Russian Empire started to pressure Joseon through terrestrial and naval forces.
From the beginning of the 19th century, Catholicism was illegal in Joseon, but during Cheoljong's reign, the persecution was relatively light and the ban was loose. Around 1857, there were about 16.5 thousands of Christians in Joseon. As of 1863, there were twelve Catholic missionaries from France living in Joseon, and within few years, there were over a hundred thousand of Christians around the capital, and some of the court officials became followers. The mother of future Gojong of Korea became a Christian as well. As a reaction to the rapid propagation of Catholicism and the chaotic society, Choe Je-u founded a new religion Donghak to counter foreign influence and gained many followers. Despite the fact that Choe was eventually captured and executed, Donghak continued to spread within Joseon in the remaining century.
As Cheoljong failed to have a male heir for years, other than repressing the revolts, the Andong Kim clan started to persecute royalties. In 1851, Chae Hui-jae (채희재) was executed for attempting to enthrone Yi Myeong-seop (이명섭), a descendant of Crown Prince Sohyeon who was exiled to Chodo (an island now locates near Nampo in North Korea). In 1860, Prince Gyeongpyeong (the heir of Prince Punggye) offended some members of the Andong Kim clan, lost his royal titles and was exiled to Sinjido, almost causing his death many times. In 1862, Kim Sun-seong (김순성) was executed for enthroning Yi Ha-jeon, a distant royalty; Yi Hae-jeon was also implicated, and was exiled to Jeju Island and eventually executed. Yi Ha-jeon was a potential successor to King Heonjong back in 1849, and he showed dissatisfaction toward the imperiousness of the Andong Kim clan, causing the them to decide to eliminate him. On the other hand, Prince Heungseon (later Heungseon Daewongun, father of Gojong of Korea) was in poverty like many other royalties, and he was one of the close relatives to Yi Ha-jeon (first cousin-in-law through his wife). Afraid of being persecuted, Prince Heungseon befriended with people from lower classes and often visited kisaengs, acting frivolously and fawning over the authority; this caused the Kim clan to despise him and to be less cautious about him.
Cheoljong's mother was from the Yongdam Yeom clan, a cadet branch of Paju Yeom clan. A man named Yeom Jong-su (염종수) was from the Paju branch, and he forged his genealogy as well as tampered with the tombstone of Cheoljong's maternal grandfather, Yeom Seong-hwa. As there were no other known descendants of Yeom Seong-hwa, based on the counterfeit, Yeom Jong-su became the heir of Yeom Seong-hwa in 1851, becoming an uncle of Cheoljong and an official in the government. In 1861, a member of Yongdam Yeom clan, named Yeom Bo-gil (염보길), who was Cheoljong's fourth cousin and living in Ganghwa Island, appealed the scam in grievance. As a result, Cheoljong interrogated Yeom Jong-su and had him executed.
Death and succession
According to Ilseongnok ("Diary of Self-examination"), since Cheoljong ascended to the throne, he had a weak digestive system, causing a series of chronic disease throughout his life; Cheoljong also had symptoms of asthma and caught cold quite easily. In order to tone up the body, he took a large amount of herbal medicine for years; on the other hand, some other common treatments by the time, such as acupuncture and moxibustion, rarely appear in the documents. Cheoljong died at the age of 32 on January 16, 1864, without any surviving male heirs; he became the last king descended from King Hyojong. The cause of his death is ambiguous, as there was no clear official record about it. Some suggested that the cause of death of Cheoljong could be liver disease or tuberculosis; according to existing documents, however, it's still hard to give a certain conclusion to date.
It once again became necessary to search far back in the Jeonju Yi clan to find a candidate for accession, which became a dispute within the court. Cheoljong himself favored Yi Jae-hwang, the second son of Prince Heungseon (his seventh cousin) and his wife, Lady Min, to succeed the throne. Claiming that Prince Heungseon was still alive, making Yi Jae-Hwang an inappropriate candidate, most members of the Andong Kim clan disapproved of this succession. However, Kim Byeong-hak (김병학), a cousin of Queen Cheorin, strongly agreed because he financially supported Prince Heungseon. Queen Sinjeong, wife of late Ikjong (Crown Prince Hyomyeong) and the mother of King Heonjong, was the most supreme royal family member by the time, and she took way the national seal of Joseon; she decided to adopt Yi Jae-hwang herself and was supported by her family, the Pungyang Jo clan. On the other hand, Queen Cheorin, the widow of Cheoljong, believed that she could adopt the royal heir because of her family's power, so she delivered a royal order, asking Yi Jae-hwang to succeed the throne. Once Yi Jae-hwang arrived at the palace, Queen Sinjeong was overjoyed and she came out to welcome him in person, despite being inappropriate in court manners; she immediately announced that the new king was the heir of Ikjong, instead of Cheoljong. Yi Jae-hwang thus became the new king of Joseon, known as Gojong of Korea. Upon the accession of Gojong, the father of Gojong was honored as Heungseon Daewongun, who repressed the power of the Andong Kim clan and becoming a dictator himself in the next decade.
Legacy
Cheoljong was buried in the Yereung Royal Tomb in 1864, part of the royal tomb Seosamneung Cluster located in Goyang, Gyeonggi Province. Queen Cheorin was also buried in Yereung after her death in 1878. According to the epitaph, there were once that some silverware used in the palace and the shrine of Jeongye Daewongun were stolen; both Cheoljong and Queen Cheorin decided not to pursue who did this, fearing that people may confess under false charges. Cheoljong had 11 children - five sons and six daughters - from his various consorts, but all of them died young. Among them, only the fourth daughter outlived him. She received the title Princess Yeonghye in 1866; as the only living child of Cheoljong, she received much affection from Queen Cheorin. Princess Yeonghye married Park Yung-hyo in 1872 but died in the same year, aged 13 and had no issue.
Upon the death of Cheoljong, there were only two living royalties that were descendants of King Hyojong. One of them was Cheoljong's half-brother, Prince Yeongpyeong (b. 1828); the other one was Yi Jae-seong (이재성, b. 1860), son of Cheoljong's first cousin, Prince Ikpyeong, with his concubine. Because of Queen Sinjeong's decision, both of them couldn't succeed the throne after Cheoljong. Prince Yeongpyeong was also chronically ill like his sibling, so Gojong chose a distant relative (10th cousin to Gojong) to be his heir in 1864. Prince Yeongpyeong had a daughter in 1866, who married Hwang Yeon-su (황연수) and had issue; the prince himself lived for several more decades and died in 1902. Yi Jae-seong, on the other hand, became Prince Gyeongeun (경은군) in 1900, but he lost the royal title in 1907, accused of working together with the anti-Japanese righteous army; he later went missing in 1910. Prince Gyeongeun was the last recorded royalty to be a descendant of Hyojong; while he married twice, he had no known descendants in official records.
Family
Titles
Royal titles
27 – 28 July 1849: Prince Deokwan (덕완군; 德完君)
28 July 1849 – 16 January 1864: The King of Joseon (조선 국왕; 朝鮮國王)
Posthumous title
Joseon Dynasty
Full title: King Cheoljong Huiryunjeonggeuk Sudeoksunseong Munhyeonmuseong Heon'in'yeonghyo of Joseon (철종 희륜정극 수덕순성 문현무성 헌인영효 대왕; 哲宗熙倫正極粹德純聖文顯武成獻仁英孝大王)
Qing Dynasty-conferred: King Zhōngjìng (忠敬王; 충경왕; King Chunggyeong)
Korean Empire
Full title: Cheoljong Huiryunjeonggeuk Sudeoksunseong Heummyeonggwangdo Don'wonchanghwa Munhyeonmuseong Heon'in'yeonghyo Emperor Jang of the Korean Empire (철종 희륜정극 수덕순성 흠명광도 돈원창화 문현무성 헌인영효 장황제; 哲宗熙倫正極粹德純聖欽明光道敦元彰化文顯武成獻仁英孝章皇帝)
Gallery
Calligraphy by Cheoljong
Popular culture
Portrayed by Kim Jung-hyun in the 2020 television series Mr. Queen.
Portrayed by Jung Wook in the 2020 television series Kingmaker: The Change of Destiny.
See also
List of Rulers of Korea
Joseon Dynasty
History of Korea
Jeongye Daewongun
Notes
References
Further reading
Cummings, Bruce. (1997). Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History. New York.
House of Yi
1831 births
1864 deaths
19th-century Korean monarchs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrije%20Universiteit%20Brussel
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Vrije Universiteit Brussel
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The Vrije Universiteit Brussel (; ; abbreviated VUB) is a Dutch and English-speaking research university located in Brussels, Belgium. It has four campuses: Brussels Humanities, Science and Engineering Campus (in Elsene), Brussels Health Campus (in Jette), Brussels Technology Campus (in Anderlecht) and Brussels Photonics Campus (in Gooik).
The Vrije Universiteit Brussel was formed in 1970 by the splitting of the Free University of Brussels, which was founded in 1834 by the lawyer and liberal politician Pierre-Théodore Verhaegen. The founder aimed to establish a university independent from state and church, where academic freedom would be prevalent. This is today still reflected in the university's motto , or "Conquering darkness by science", and in its more recent slogan , or "A reasonable mind of its own". Accordingly, the university is pluralistic – it is open to all students on the basis of equality regardless of their ideological, political, cultural or social background – and it is managed using democratic structures, which means that all members – from students to faculty – participate in the decision-making processes.
VUB is a strongly research-oriented institute, which is positioned among the world's Top 200 universities according to the 2021 QS World University Ranking. Its research articles are on average more cited than articles by any other Flemish university.
The university is organised into 8 faculties that accomplish the three central missions of the university: education, research, and service to the community. The faculties cover a broad range of fields of knowledge including the natural sciences, classics, life sciences, social sciences, humanities, and engineering. The university provides bachelor, master, and doctoral education to about 8,000 undergraduate and 1,000 graduate students.
History
Establishment of a university in Brussels
The history of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel is closely linked with that of Belgium itself. When the Belgian State was formed in 1830 by nine breakaway provinces from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, three state universities existed in the cities of Ghent, Leuven and Liège, but none in the new capital, Brussels. Since the government was reluctant to fund another state university, a group of leading intellectuals in the fields of arts, science, and education — amongst whom the study prefect of the Royal Athenaeum of Brussels, Auguste Baron, as well as the astronomer and mathematician Adolphe Quetelet — planned to create a private university, which was permitted under the Belgian Constitution.
In 1834, the Belgian episcopate decided to establish a Catholic university in Mechelen with the aim of regaining the influence of the Catholic Church on the academic scene in Belgium, and the government had the intent to close the university at Leuven and donate the buildings to the Catholic institution. The country's liberals strongly opposed to this decision, and furthered their ideas for a university in Brussels as a counterbalance to the Catholic institution. At the same time, Auguste Baron had just become a member of the freemasonic lodge Les Amis Philantropes. Baron was able to convince Pierre-Théodore Verhaegen, the president of the lodge, to support the idea for a new university. On 24 June 1834, Verhaegen presented his plan to establish a free university.
After sufficient funding was collected among advocates, the Université libre de Belgique ("Free University of Belgium") was inaugurated on 20 November 1834, in the Gothic Room of Brussels Town Hall. The date of its establishment is still commemorated annually, by students of its successor institutions, as a holiday called Saint-Verhaegen/Sint-Verhaegen (often shortened to St V) for Pierre-Théodore Verhaegen. In 1836, the university was renamed the Université libre de Bruxelles ("Free University of Brussels").
After its establishment, the Free University faced difficult times, since it did receive no subsidies or grants from the government; yearly fundraising events and tuition fees provided the only financial means. Verhaegen, who became a professor and later head of the new university, gave it a mission statement which he summarised in a speech to King Leopold I: "the principle of free inquiry and academic freedom uninfluenced by any political or religious authority." In 1858, the Catholic Church established the Saint-Louis Institute in the city, which subsequently expanded into a university in its own right.
Growth, internal tensions and move
The Free University grew significantly over the following decades. In 1842, it moved to the Granvelle Palace, which it occupied until 1928. It expanded the number of subjects taught and, in 1880, became one of the first institutions in Belgium to allow female students to study in some faculties. In 1893, it received large grants from Ernest and Alfred Solvay and Raoul Warocqué to open new faculties in the city. A disagreement over an invite to the anarchist geographer Élisée Reclus to speak at the university in 1893 led to some of the liberal and socialist faculty splitting away from the Free University to form the New University of Brussels (Université nouvelle de Bruxelles) in 1894. The institution failed to displace the Free University, however, and closed definitively in 1919.
In 1900, the Free University's football team won the bronze medal at the Summer Olympics. After Racing Club de Bruxelles declined to participate, a student selection with players from the university was sent by the Federation. The team was enforced with a few non-students. The Institute of Sociology was founded in 1902, then in 1904 the Solvay School of Commerce, which would later become the Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management. In 1911, the university obtained its legal personality under the name Université libre de Bruxelles - Vrije Hogeschool te Brussel.
The German occupation during World War I led to the suspension of classes for four years in 1914–1918. In the aftermath of the war, the Free University moved its principle activities to the Solbosch in the southern suburb of Ixelles and a purpose-built university campus was created, funded by the Belgian American Educational Foundation. The university was again closed by the German occupiers during World War II on 25 November 1941. Students from the university were involved in the Belgian Resistance, establishing Groupe G which focused on sabotage.
Splitting of the university
Until the early 20th century, courses at the Free University were taught exclusively in French, the language of the upper class in Belgium at that time, as well as of law and academia. However, with the Dutch-speaking population asking for more rights in Belgium (see Flemish Movement), some courses began being taught in both French and Dutch at the Faculty of Law as early as 1935. Nevertheless, it was not until 1963 that all faculties offered their courses in both languages. Tensions between French- and Dutch-speaking students in the country came to a head in 1968 when the Catholic University of Leuven split along linguistic lines, becoming the first of several national institutions to do so.
On 1 October 1969, the French and Dutch entities of the Free University separated into two distinct sister universities. This splitting became official with the act of 28 May 1970, of the Belgian Parliament, by which the Dutch-speaking Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) and the French-speaking Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB) officially became two separate legal, administrative and scientific entities.
Organisation
The Vrije Universiteit Brussel is an independent institution. The members of all its governing entities are elected by the entire academic community – including faculty staff, researchers, personnel, and students. This system guarantees the democratic process of decision-making and the independence from state and outside organisations. Nevertheless, the university receives significant funding from the Flemish government, although less than other Flemish universities. Other important funding sources are grants for research projects (mostly from Belgian and European funding agencies), scholarships of academic members, revenues from cooperation with industry, and tuition fees to a lesser extent.
The main organisational structure of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel is its division into faculties:
Faculty of Law and Criminology
Faculty of Social Sciences & Solvay Business School
Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences
Faculty of Sciences and Bio-engineering Sciences
Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy
Faculty of Arts and Philosophy
Faculty of Engineering
Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy
These faculties benefit a wide autonomy over how they structure their educational programmes and research efforts, although their decisions need to comply with the university's statutes and must be approved by the central administration.
The central administration is formed by the Governing Board, which is currently presided by Eddy Van Gelder. It decides the university's long-term vision and must approve all decisions made by the faculties. The Governing Board is supported by three advising bodies: the Research Council, the Education Council, and the Senate. These bodies provide advice to the Governing Board on all issues regarding research, education, and the academic excellence of faculty staff, and may also propose changes to the university's strategy. The daily management of the university is the responsibility of the Rector and three Vice-Rectors.
As of 2022 the rector of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel is Prof. Dr. Jan Danckaert, who succeeded Caroline Pauwels (1964-2022), who resigned in 2022 due to health reasons.
Education
The Vrije Universiteit Brussel offers courses in a large variety of modern disciplines: law, economics, social sciences, management, psychology, physical sciences, life sciences, medical sciences, pharmaceutical sciences, humanities, engineering, physical education. About 12,000 students follow one of its 128 educational programmes. All programmes are taught in Dutch, but 59 are also taught in English. In agreement with the Bologna process, the university has implemented the so-called bachelor-master system. It therefore issues four types of degrees: bachelor's, master's, master after master's, and doctoral degrees.
Admission to the programmes is generally not restricted; anyone can subscribe to the programme of his/her choice. However, prerequisite degrees may be mandatory for advanced programmes, e.g., a bachelor's degree is required to subscribe to a master's programme, and a master's degree is required to subscribe to a master after master's or doctoral programme. An exception to this is the admission exam to the bachelor in medicine, which is required following ruling of the Flemish government. Tuition fees are low, and even decreased or eliminated for some students with less financial means.
The academic year is divided into two semesters, each spanning thirteen course weeks: the first semester lasts from October to January, the second semester from February to June. Students take exams in January and June. Apart from the Christmas and Easter holidays (both lasting two weeks) that are normally used to prepare for the exams, students are free the week between both semesters and during the summer vacations from July to September.
The university has implemented several quality control schemes in order to preserve the high quality of its educational programmes. Each semester, all students evaluate the courses they have followed. All programmes are also regularly assessed by internal panels and by external international visitation committees. Furthermore, all programmes are accredited by the Nederlands-Vlaamse Accreditatie Organisatie, an independent accreditation organisation charged with the accreditation of higher education programmes in both Flanders and the Netherlands.
Research
Notable faculty:
Diederik Aerts
Kris Deschouwer
Paul Devroey
Mark Elchardus
Francis Heylighen
Jonathan Holslag
Dave Sinardet
Hugo Soly
Luc Steels
Jean-Paul Van Bendegem
Willy van Ryckeghem
Andre Van Steirteghem
Irina Veretennicoff
Els Witte
Lode Wyns
Basic principles
The Vrije Universiteit Brussel considers itself an open-minded and tolerant university. Its central principles are the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in particular the principle of free inquiry for the progress of humanity. The latter includes the dismissal of any argument of authority and the right of free opinion. The Vrije Universiteit Brussel is the only Flemish university that has incorporated such principle in its statutes. The principle of free inquiry is often described by a quotation of the French mathematician and philosopher Henri Poincaré:
This principle is also reflected in the university's motto Scientia vincere tenebras, or Conquering darkness by science, and in its seal. The seal of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel displays a beggar's wallet and joined hands on the orange-white-blue (the colours of the Prince of Orange) escutcheon in the emblem, referring to the struggle of the Protestant Geuzen and the Prince of Orange against the oppressive Spanish rule and the Inquisition in the sixteenth century.
Another basic principle of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel – also incorporated in the university's statutes – is that the institution must be managed according to the model of democracy. Practically, this means that all members of the academic community — faculty staff, researchers, personnel, and students – are represented in all governing bodies. In this way, the university ensures that everyone has a voice in its decision-making processes and participates in its management. This principle must also guarantee the independence of the university and the academic freedom.
Campus and facilities
Brussels Humanities, Sciences & Engineering Campus
Most of the faculties are located on the Etterbeek campus (which is actually located on the territory of the neighbouring borough of Elsene). It is the livelier of the two campuses and consists almost entirely of concrete structures, most built in the 1970s. Some are decaying rapidly but at least one, the Rectoraat designed by Renaat Braem, is heritage-listed. Activities take place in numerous auditoriums and labs. In addition, there is a modern sports centre, a football pitch encircled by a running track, and a swimming pool. For eating out, there is a restaurant with subsidies for students and staff, and the bars/cafes 't Complex, Opinio, and KultuurKaffee. The was a full-fledged concert venue during the evening/night, offering the university a cultural scene and organising free concerts and events. It was demolished to make space for the new XY construction project in 2015.
Brussels Health Campus
The campus in Jette is also a fully-fledged campus. The University Hospital () is in the vicinity. All courses and research in the life sciences (medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, the biomedical and paramedical sciences) are located here.
Brussels Technology Campus
The campus Kaai in Anderlecht was established in 2013 and shared with the Erasmushogeschool Brussel. It houses the Industrial Engineering section of the Faculty of Engineering. Among extensive industrial laboratory facilities, the Brussels fablab has grown to the centre of activity on the campus in recent years.
Brussels Photonics Campus in Gooik.
Faculties
Languages and Humanities
Social Sciences and Solvay Business School
Engineering
Medicine and Pharmacy
Psychology and Educational Sciences
Sciences and Biomedical Sciences
Law and Criminology
Physical Education and Physiotherapy
Institutional cooperation
The Vrije Universiteit Brussel cooperates with several institutions of higher education. They are:
Brussels Chamber of Commerce
Erasmushogeschool Brussel (together with the Vrije Universiteit Brussel they make up the Brussels University Association)
UCLouvain Higher Institute for Re-adaptation Sciences
Top Industrial Managers for Europe
UCOS, the University Development Cooperation Centre
UNICA, the Institutional Network of the UNIversities from the CApitals of Europe
Université libre de Bruxelles
University of Kent (Brussels School of International Studies)
Vesalius College, an anglophone institution sharing the VUB campus
XIOS Hogeschool Limburg and Provinciale Hogeschool Limburg
Royal Military Academy
Worldwide, on the international level the Vrije Universiteit Brussel has concluded institutional collaboration agreements with 38 universities all over the world, and student exchange agreements with 160 universities.
Academic Profiles
The university is included in major world university rankings such as Times Higher Education World University Rankings, QS World University Rankings and Academic Ranking of World Universities.
Clinical Cardiac Electrophysiology
The Heart Rhythm Management Centre started its activities at the University Hospital UZ Brussel during spring 2007. The clinical activities soon rocketed to the #1 position in Belgium, and has been paralleled by important scientific production. Emerging fields of activity are multidisciplinary (clinical) and translational (research) programs in collaboration with the departments of Genetics, Pediatrics, Neonatology, Geriatrics, Neurology, as well as a fundamental research program in Physiology.
This Postgraduate course in Cardiac Electrophysiology and Pacing – is offered within the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy – after a specialization in Cardiology, and is supported by the Institute for Postgraduate Training of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (iPAVUB). The core faculty for the Postgraduate program includes Prof. Dr. Pedro Brugada, who directs the EP fellowship training and the Cardiovascular Department, Prof. Dr. Carlo de Asmundis, Director of the Heart rhythm Management Centre, Prof. Dr. Gian Battista Chierchia, Director of Atrial Fibrillation Program, Prof. Dr. Marc La Meir and Prof. Dr. Francis Wellens, Director of Cardiac Surgery Service. Additional faculty who participate in the program includes: Prof. Dr. Bonduelle Mary-Louise and Prof. Dr. Ramon Brugada, who trains fellows in cardiac genetics, Prof. Dr. Joel Smets, University of Nijmegen, Nederland, who trains fellows in electrocardiography and basic electrophysiology.
Student life
The BSG is the umbrella organisation for all other student organizations and acts as the defender of the moral interests of the students. Together with their French-speaking counterparts ACE at the ULB, they organise the annual St V memorial.
These are some of the student organizations at the VUB:
Studiekring vrij onderzoek: a collective of students from various faculties, promoting free inquiry through the organisation of debates, lectures and more
Letteren-en Wijsbegeertekring (LWK): for students studying at the Arts and Philosophy faculty
Perskring (PERS): for students studying Communication Sciences and Social Sciences
Geneeskundige Kring (GK) and Farmaceutische Kring (FK): for students studying at the Medicine and Pharmacy faculty
Polytechnische Kring (PK) for students studying at the Engineering faculty
Psycho-Ped'Agogische Kring (PPK): for students studying at the Psychology and Educational Sciences faculty
Kring der Politieke Economische en Sociale Wetenschappen (KEPS) and Solvay ($); for students studying at the Economics and Political faculty
: for students studying at the faculty of Sciences and Bio-engineering Sciences
Mens Sana in Corpore Sano (Mesacosa or MC): for students studying at the Physical Education and Physiotherapy faculty
Vlaams Rechtsgenootschap (VRG): for students studying at the Law and Criminology faculty
Vrije Universiteit Brussel Model United Nations (VUBMUN): for all students of the VUB.
Members of these organizations (except VUBMUN) wear a klak (Dutch) or penne (French).
Furthermore, the VUB has student organizations for students with a specific regional background. They are: Antverpia (Antwerp), Westland (Westhoek), WUK (West Flanders), KBS (Brussels and Flemish Brabant), Campina (Campine), Kinneke Baba (East Flanders), Limburgia (Limburg), VSKM (Mechelen) and Hesbania (Haspengouw). VUB students also make up for the largest part of the secretive student club Boves Luci based in Jette. There are also several organizations for specific majors within a faculty, such as Infogroep (computer science), Biotecho (bio-engineering), bru:tecture (previously Pantheon) (architecture) and Promeco, Inisol and Business Club (economics). Last but not least there are organizations centered around a common interest, such as the Society of Weird And Mad People (SWAMP, for all kinds of games), BierKultuur (based on the rich beer culture in Belgium) and ZWK (on emancipation of women), Liberaal Vlaams Studentenverbond (LVSV, students interested in classic liberalism).
Notable alumni
Scientists and academics
Antoon Van den Braembussche (1946-).
Patrick Baert (1961–)
Willy Gepts (1922–1991)
Leo Apostel (1925–1995)
Clement Hiel (1952–)
Christine Van Den Wyngaert (1952–), former Judge of the International Criminal Court.
Jean Bourgain (1954–2018)
Ingrid Daubechies (1954–), Belgian physicist and mathematician and Professor at Duke University.
Peter Rousseeuw (1956-), Belgian statistician and professor at KU Leuven.
Sophie de Schaepdrijver (1961–)
Pattie Maes (1961-), Professor of Media Technology at Media Lab MIT
Sathyabhama Das Biju (1963-), Indian amphibian biologist and wildlife conservationist.
Frank Pattyn (1966-), Belgian glaciologist and professor at the Université libre de Bruxelles.
Bob Coecke (1968-), Belgian theoretical physicist and logician and professor of Quantum Foundations, Logics and Structures at Oxford University.
Kris Deschouwer
Raymond Hamers, Discoverer of 'single-chain antibodies' or nanobodies.
Steven Laureys
Wim Leemans
Helena Van Swygenhoven
Els Witte
Guido Geerts
Johan Schoukens
Ram Lakhan Ray (1968-)
Kieran Moore, Chief Medical Officer of Health of Ontario Canada.
Artists
André Delvaux (1926–2002), Belgian film director.
Jef Geeraerts (1930–), Belgian writer.
Claude Coppens (1936-), Belgian pianist and composer.
Erik Pevernagie (1939), Belgian painter and writer.
Marcel Vanthilt (1957-), Belgian singer and television presenter.
Fabienne Demal (Axelle Red) (1968–), Belgian singer and songwriter.
Stéphane Ginsburgh (1969-), Belgian pianist.
Businesspeople
Pieter De Leenheer
Tony Mary (1950–)
Felix Van de Maele
Politicians
Marco Formentini (1930-2021), Italian Politician & former mayor of Milan.
Willy Claes (1938–), former Minister of Foreign Affair and former Secretary General of NATO.
Louis Tobback (1938–), former mayor of Leuven and former Minister of the Interior - Belgium.
Annemie Neyts-Uyttebroeck (1944-)
Norbert De Batselier (1947–),
Marc Verwilghen (1952-), former Minister of Justice - Belgium.
Karel De Gucht (1954–), former Minister of Foreign Affair - Belgium.
Christian Leysen (1954–)
Patrick Dewael (1955–), former Minister of the interior - Belgium.
Frank Vanhecke (1959–)
Bert Anciaux (1959–)
Gunther Sleeuwagen (1958–)
Jan Jambon (1960–)
Maggie De Block (1962–), former Minister of Health - Belgium.
Hans Bonte (1962-)
Florika Fink-Hooijer (1962-)
Zoran Milanović (1966–), President of Croatia.
Bruno Tobback (1969-)
Wouter Beke (1974-)
Alexander De Croo (1975–), Prime Minister of Belgium
Tinne Van der Straeten (1978-), Minister of Energy - Belgium.
Zuhal Demir (1980-)
Nadia Sminate (1981-)
Sammy Mahdi (1988-)
Athletes
Sébastien Godefroid (1971–), Olympic sailor.
Emma Meesseman, Belgian professional basketball player.
Dirk Van Tichelt, Olympic judoka.
Jürgen Roelandts, Belgian professional road bicycle racer.
Kathleen Smet, Olympic triathlon.
Journalists
Yves Desmet
Jean Mentens
Danira Boukhriss, Flemish television presenter and newscaster.
Tim Trachet, Belgian writer, publicist and journalist.
Honorary doctorates
Notable recipients of honorary doctorates (doctor honoris causa) at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel include:
Nelson Mandela
Václav Havel
Jacques Cousteau
Hans Blix
Julia Gillard
Noam Chomsky
Dario Fo, Sonia Gandhi
Natan Ramet
Richard Stallman
Johann Olav Koss
Herman van Veen
Richard Dawkins
Kim Clijsters
Rom Harré
Daniel Barenboim
See also
Flanders Interuniversity Institute of Biotechnology (VIB)
Interuniversity Microelectronics Centre (IMEC)
Science and technology in Brussels
Science and technology in Flanders
Top Industrial Managers for Europe
Université libre de Bruxelles
University Foundation
List of split up universities
Notes and references
External links
Official website of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Official website of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel
More complete list of famous alumni (in Dutch)
Find an officially recognised programme of this institution in the Higher Education Register
V.Ir.Br. – VUB Engineering Alumni Association
Research institutes in Belgium
Education in Brussels
Universities and colleges established in 1970
Business schools in Belgium
Engineering universities and colleges in Belgium
English as a global language
Information schools
1970 establishments in Belgium
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luc%20Steels
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Luc Steels
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Luc Steels (born in 1952) is a Belgian scientist and artist. Steels is considered a pioneer of Artificial Intelligence in Europe who has made contributions to expert systems, behavior-based robotics, artificial life and evolutionary computational linguistics. He was a fellow of the Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies ICREA associated as a research professor with the Institute for Evolutionary Biology (UPF/CSIC) in Barcelona. He was formerly founding Director of the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel and founding director of the Sony Computer Science Laboratory in Paris. Steels has also been active in the arts collaborating with visual artists and theater makers and composing music for opera.
Biography
Steels obtained a master's degree in Computer Science at MIT, specializing in AI under the supervision of Marvin Minsky and Carl Hewitt. He obtained a Ph.D. at the University of Antwerp with a thesis in computational linguistics on a parallel model of parsing. In 1980, he joined the Schlumberger-Doll Research Laboratory in Ridgefield (US) to work on knowledge-based approaches to the interpretation of oil well logging data and became leader of the group who developed the Dipmeter Advisor which he transferred into industrial use while at Schlumberger Engineering, Clamart (Paris). In 1983, he was appointed tenured professor in Computer Science with a chair in AI at the Free University of Brussels (VUB). The same year he founded the VUB Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and became the first chairman of the VUB Computer Science Department from 1990 to 1995. The VUB AI Lab focused initially on knowledge-based systems for various industrial applications (equipment diagnosis, transport scheduling, design) but gradually focused more on basic research in AI, moving at the cutting edge of the field.
In 1996 Steels founded the Sony Computer Science Laboratory (CSL) in Paris and became its acting director. This laboratory was a spin-off from the Sony Computer Science Laboratory in Tokyo directed by Mario Tokoro and Toshi Doi. The laboratory targeted cutting-edge research in AI, particularly on the emergence and evolution of grounded language and ontologies on robots, the use of AI in music, and contributions to sustainability. The CSL music group was directed by Francois Pachet and the sustainability group by Peter Hanappe.
In 2011 Steels became fellow at the Institute for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA) and research professor at the Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF) in Barcelona, embedded in the Evolutionary Biology Laboratory (IBE). There he pursued further his fundamental research in the origins and evolution of language through experiments with robotic agents.
Throughout his career Steels spent many research and educational visits to other institutions. He was a regular lecturer at the Theseus International Management Institute in Sophia Antipolis, developed courses for the Open University in the Netherlands, was Fellow at the Wissenschaftskolleg in Berlin during the years 2015-16 and 2009–10, Fellow at Goldsmiths College London (computer science department) from 2010, visiting scholar or lecturer at La Sapienza University Rome, Politecnico di Milano, the universities of Ghana and Beijing (Jiaotong University) among others.
Steels was member of the New York Academy of Sciences, and is elected member of the Academia Europaea, and the Royal Belgian Academy of Arts and Sciences (Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie voor Wetenschappen en Kunsten), where he serves as chairman of the Natural Science section.
He received several awards including the best paper award at the European Conference in AI (in 1982), the prestigious Franqui chair lectures at the University of Leuven (Belgium) (2018) and the EurAI Distinguished Service Award, presented every two years to an individual who has made exceptional contributions to the AI community in Europe.
Contributions to science
The scientific work of Steels has always been highly trans-disciplinary, focusing on (i) forging conceptual breakthroughs in AI, (ii) building the technical tools to work out and develop these breakthroughs, and (iii) developing concrete experiments to turn the breakthroughs into viable new AI paradigms. Since the early 1980s and using this approach, Steels has played a significant role in four profound conceptual shifts: (1) from heuristic rule-based systems to model-based knowledge systems, (2) from model-based to behaviour-based, Artificial Life inspired robots, (3) from static, engineered language systems to dynamic, evolving emergent communication systems with key features of human languages, and (4) most recently from data-driven AI to meaningful AI capable of understanding and forms of awareness.
The knowledge-level in expert systems
The early 1980s saw a period of high interest in the application of the rule-based paradigm for building expert systems. Expert systems are intended to assist human experts in tackling challenging problems, such as medical diagnosis (e.g. MYCIN) or the configuration of complex technical equipment (e.g. R1) . By the mid-1980s these techniques became widely used in industry and integrated in software engineering practice, but it also became clear that the exclusive focus on heuristic rules was limiting, primarily because of the efforts involved in finding an adequate set of rules (the so-called knowledge acquisition bottleneck) and because of brittleness seen when cases appeared that fell outside the scope of predefined rules.
From 1985 a trend among AI researchers, including Balakrishnan Chandrasekaran, William Clancey, Doug Lenat, John McDermott, Tom Mitchell, Bob Wielinga, a.o., arose to capture human expertise in more depth. Triggered by Allen Newell's paper on the need to adopt a `knowledge-level' analysis and design strategy, the new generation of knowledge systems used models of the problem domain based on an explicitly represented ontology and employing problem solving strategies to compose tasks into subtasks and solving them. Heuristic rules were still relevant but they would now be learned by first solving a problem using models and inference strategies and by then storing the solution, after some degree of abstraction. The key advantages of this knowledge level approach are more robustness, because the system can fall back on deeper reasoning when heuristic rules are missing, a richer explanation facility because of the use of deeper models, and a more methodical design process including techniques for verification and validation.
Steels played a significant role in establishing this new paradigm in the 1980s, organising a number of key workshops and tutorials, helping to develop knowledge level design methodologies, particularly in collaboration with Bob Wielinga and the CommonKADS approach developed at the University of Amsterdam, and publishing influential papers outlining the knowledge level approach.
With his team at the AI Lab of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, he developed various tools, most importantly the knowledge representation system KRS, which was a frame-based object-oriented extension of LISP with facilities for truth maintenance, meta-level inference and computational reflection. The team applied the approach for building challenging operational expert systems in various technical domains (electronic circuit design for digital telephone, scheduling of Belgian railway traffic, monitoring of subway and diagnosis of nuclear power stations). These systems became used in real operation and ran on the innovative Symbolics LISP machines. It all lead to the creation of a spin-off company Knowledge Technologies (with Kris Van Marcke as CEO) to further channel these developments into practical industrial use. The company was active from 1986 to 1995.
Artificial Life and Behavior-based Robotics.
Around 1986, after an encounter with Ilya Prigogine from the Free University of Brussels (ULB), Steels opened in his VUB laboratory a second research line to develop a new paradigm for AI inspired by living systems. Because this paradigm rose as a part of the movement towards `Artificial Life', it became known as the Artificial Life approach to AI or also, because of the emphasis on behavior, as the behavior-based approach to AI and robotics, as well as the animat approach. The behavior-based paradigm was intended to be complementary to the knowledge-based paradigm, which targets deliberative intelligence, in that it tackles reactive intelligence for real time adaptive behavior of autonomous robotic agents embodied in real world environments. This new research line was at the confluence of several emerging trends happening in the late nineteen-eighties and nineteen-nineties: A revival of cybernetic reactive robots spearheaded by Rodney Brooks, the establishment of Artificial Life shaped as a new discipline by Chris Langton, a renewed focus on emergent computation through self-organisation using cellular automata, models from chaos theory, and genetic algorithms, and the rise of multi-layered neural networks initiated by David Rumelhart and James McClelland.
As in the case of knowledge based systems,Steels was very active in establishing the new paradigm by organising a series of key workshops, conferences and summer and spring schools and by writing some influential papers to define the new paradigm. With his team in Brussels, he worked out hardware platforms (using self-designed processing boards, Lego and simple electronics parts, with Tim Smithers taking the lead) and software platforms including PDL (Process Description Language). He also set up various robotic experiments, the most important one being the self-sufficiency experiment, initiated with ethologist David McFarland.
The self-sufficiency experiment was based on Walter Grey's electric tortoise experiment from the 1950s. This experiment featured simple automatons (animats) capable of wall following, phototaxis and finding and using a charging station. The McFarland-Steels experiment added the additional challenge of having multiple competing robots and competition for the energy in the charging station so that the robots had to do work. The experimental setup functioned for a decade as a framework for experiments in adaptive behavior, genetic algorithms and reinforcement learning by several generations of students at the VUB AI Lab with Andreas Birk taking the lead.
Fluid Construction Grammar and the evolution of language in artificial systems
In 1995, after a visit to the Sony Computer Science Laboratory in Tokyo at the invitation of Mario Tokoro, Steels opened a new chapter in his research endeavours, bringing the evolutionary thinking from Artificial Life and the advances in behavior-based robotics to bear on the question how it could be possible for a population of agents to autonomously self-organise an evolving adaptive language to communicate about the world as perceived through their sensory-motor apparatus. A new team of collaborators was set up at the VUB AI lab and at the newly founded Sony Computer Science Laboratory in Paris and worked for two decades (from 1995 to 2015) on this topic.
The first breakthroughs were reached around 1996 in the domain of phonetics and phonology. Steels proposed a self-organisation approach to the origins of speech sounds and phonetic structures. Experiments were set up in which a population of agents, equipped with a basic vocal apparatus and auditory system, developed a shared inventory of speech sounds by playing imitation games, introducing variations generating new sounds and adapting to the sounds of others. These experiments were worked out in the ph.D dissertations of Bart de Boer, and Pierre-Yves Oudeyer.
In parallel, Steels proposed in 1995 the Naming Game to study the origins of linguistic conventions in general and the formation of lexicons in particular. The Naming Game is a language game played by a population of agents. In each interaction the speaker chooses a topic and uses one or more words to draw attention of the listener to the topic. The game is a success if the reader pays attention to the topic chosen by the listener and both agents reinforce their existing inventory. Otherwise, speakers may invent new words, listeners adopt new words, and both change the associative scores between words and meanings in their respective inventories. In a concrete experiment, agents start without an initial vocabulary and gradually invent new words and coordinate their usage of words in local interactions. Nevertheless, a coherent vocabulary gradually emerges and gets maintained when the population changes or new topics come up.
In 1996 Steels introduced the Discrimination Game as a way to study the origins of meanings and later on (in 2014) the Syntax Game for studying the emergence of syntax. The Language Game paradigm has been productive to study a wide range of issues in the emergence and evolution of language, first in theoretical work, with mathematical proofs that populations can indeed reach coherence (achieved in 2005 by Bart de Vylder and Karl Tuyls) and with the discovery of scaling laws in relation to the growth of populations and the growth of possible topics (achieved in 2007 by Andrea Baronchelli and Vittorio Loreto).
Progressively the complexity of the emergent languages increased to include the emergence of morphology and syntax and more and more conceptual domains were tackled. Thus Steels has done in-depth research on color languages (with Tony Belpaeme and Joris Bleys), case systems (with Remi van Trijp and Pieter Wellens), spatial language (with Martin Loetzsch and Michael Spranger), agreement systems (with Katrien Beuls ), determiners (with Simon Pauw) and action languages (with Martin Loetzsch, Michael Spranger and Sebastian Höfer. Many of these achievements were shown to work in robotic experiments, first on simple lego-vehicles, then with vision-based agents in the 'Talking Heads Experiment' and later on with the 4-legged Sony AIBO robot and the Sony humanoid robot QRIO.
In addition to the scientific research, Steels pushed the language game paradigm by the organisation of various summer schools (Erice 2004 & 2006, Cortona 2009 & 2013 and Como 2016), the founding of the Evolution of communication journal, the publication of key papers and collections of research works on language evolution. Steels also pushed forward the development and spreading of tools, in particular a software platform for doing experiments in language emergence called BABEL and a formalism for representing emergent grammars called Fluid Construction Grammar (FCG). Starting from 2000, Fluid Construction Grammar has gone through many design iterations to become the main operational paradigm for implementing computational construction grammar today.
Understanding and Awareness
From around 2018 at the peak of advancements and applications in data-driven neural network style AI, Steels began to participate in efforts to create a more balanced human-centric (also called human-centered) form of AI. Together with Ramon Lopez de Mantaras he launched in 2018 the 'Barcelona declaration for the proper development and usage of artificial intelligence in Europe.' that influenced the European Ethical Guidelines for Trustworthy AI published in 2019. He also initiated the ethical AI workpackage in the large-scale AI4EU coordination project of the EU commission.
Arguing that we need more than regulations to make AI more human-centered Steels launched a number of projects to combine reactive intelligence (captured through neural network style systems) with the deliberative intelligence that was the focal point of earlier symbolic AI research. Concretely, the EU project MUHAI focuses on how the level of understanding in AI systems could be increased by building rich models of problem domains and problem situations and integrating a variety of knowledge sources (ontologies, language, vision and action, mental simulation, episodic memory and context models), and the EU project VALAWAI focuses on how AI systems can be made 'value-aware' by introducing attention mechanisms to deal with highly complex, uncertain fragmented inputs, and a component implementing `moral intelligence'.
Contributions to the arts
The artistic work of Luc Steels has been trans-disciplinary as well, with interests, realisations and writings about the arts, music and theatre.
Avant-garde performance and electro-acoustic music
In the early 1970s Luc Steels became active in Performance art, and in avant-garde electro-acoustic music. In 1972 he founded the collective 'Dr. Buttock's players pool', participated in the Welfare State theatre in 1977 and with performance artist Hugo Roelandt. In the music domain, he was part of the 1970s Antwerp Free Music scene, playing guitar in a style pioneered by Derek Bailey. In 1971 he co-founded the ensemble Mishalle-Geladi-Steels (MGS) with saxophonist Luc Mishalle and electronic musician Paul Mishalle. The ensemble frequently performed with the Studio for New Music set up by Joris De Laet, particularly at the ICC in Antwerp. Lifelong interactions originated from this period with artist Anne-Mie Van Kerckhoven, who Steels had invited as artist in residence at the University of Antwerp and later at the VUB AI laboratory in Brussels, and Peter Beyls, who was also artist in residence at the VUB AI Lab.
Art installations and cooperations
After a period of total focus on scientific work while in the United States, Luc Steels returned to artistic activities from the 1980s onwards. Thanks to an encounter with H-U Obrist at the Burda Akademie symposium in Munich in 1995, he came into contact with a new generation of artists, resulting in public presentations in art contexts such as at the Bridge the Gap encounters (2001 Kitakyushu), the Memory Marathon (Serpentine Gallery, London, 2007 & 2012), and the Experiment Marathon (Reykjavik 2008). Within this artistic network Steels collaborated with several artists for the co-creation of new works, including with Carsten Holler (for the CapC Musee in Bordeaux and the Koelnerische Kunstverein); with Olafur Eliasson for a piece 'Look into the box' for the Musee d'art moderne in Paris in 2002 and later shown at the Festival dei 2 Mondi (Spoleto, 2003), the ExploraScience Museum (Tokyo, 2006), ), and other locations; with Sissel Tolaas for work shown at the Berlin Biennale; with Anne-Mie van Kerckhoven at the NeuerAachenerKunstverein; and with Armin Linke and Giuliana Bruno for the New Alphabeth (Stop Making Sense) exhibition at the Haus der Kulturen der Welt (Berlin); Steels participated with his own installations in various art-science exhibitions,the most important ones being Laboratorium curated by H-U Obrist and B. Vanderlinden in Antwerp in 1999, and N01SE in Cambridge (Kettle's Yard) and London (Wellcome Gallery) in 2000, curated by Adam Lowe and Simon Schaffer.
Theatre and opera
The life-long interest of Luc Steels in performance and theatre was rekindled in 2004 by a collaboration with theatre director Jean-Francois Peyret on a commissioned play about the Russian mathematician Sofya Kovalevskaya for the Avignon Theatre Festival 2005 and performed in 2006 at the French National Theatre (Chaillot) in Paris. From 2010, music and theatre came together in two opera projects with neuroscientist Oscar Vilarroya as libretist and Luc Steels as composer. The first opera entitled Casparo premiered at the Palau de la Musica in Barcelona in 2011 and was later performed in Brussels (Theatre Moliere) 2013, Tokyo (Sony Concert Hall) in 2013, Leuven BE (Iers College) in 2014 and Paris (Jussieu Theatre) in 2014. The second opera, entitled Fausto had avant-premiere performances in La Gaite Lyrique (Paris) in 2016 and the Monnaie Opera House (Brussels in 2017) with full performances at the And&MindGate Festival (Leuven BE, 2018) and at the Homo Roboticus event at the Brussels Monnaie Opera House in 2019. Most of these performances were conducted by Kris Stroobants with the Frascati Symphonic Orchestra, the choir La Folia, and various solists, including Reinoud van Mechelen and Pablo Lopez Martin (Mallorca opera). The operas are written in a neo-classical, post modern musical style and elaborate societal and trans-humanistic issues raised by the use of Artificial Intelligence, including the occurrence of a singularity and the possibility of immortality through virtual agents.
Essays and art curation
Luc Steels curated a number of international exhibitions, including Intensive Science at La Maison Rouge in Paris (in 2006 and 2008), artes@ijcai at the Centro Borges in Buenos Aires (Argentinia) in 2015 and the 'Aqua Granda. Una Memoria Digitale' exhibition at the Science Gallery Venice in 2021.
He contributed with essays on art and music for journals such as KunstForum and Janus Magazine (Issue 20), and for exhibition catalogs, He also wrote academic papers on computer music and art interpretation.
In 2020, Steels was S+T+ARTS 'scientist in residence' at the Luc Tuymans art studio, 'Studio Tuymans' in Antwerp, which resulted in an exhibition at the BOZAR museum in Brussels based on the use of AI methods to interpret a single art work by painter Luc Tuymans called 'Secrets'.
See also
Behavior based robotics
Evolutionary linguistics
Fluid construction grammar
Notes and references
Bibliography
Steels, Luc (1990) "Components of Expertise" AI Magazine 11(2) pp. 28–49.
Steels, Luc (2001) Grounding Symbols through Evolutionary Language Games. In: Cangelosi A. and Parisi D. (Eds.) Simulating the Evolution of Language Springer.
Steels, Luc (2011) "Design Patterns in Fluid Construction Grammar" John Benjamins Pub.
Amsterdam.
References
External links
Luc Steels (ICREA)
Luc Steels (Institut de Biologia Evolutiva)
Luc Steels (Sony CSL Paris)
Luc Steels (Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, VUB, Brussels)
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1952 births
Living people
Flemish scientists
Artificial intelligence researchers
Members of the Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Science and the Arts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss%20Earth
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Miss Earth
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Miss Earth is an annual international major beauty pageant based in the Philippines that advocates for environmental awareness, conservation and social responsibility. Along with Miss World, Miss Universe, and Miss International, it is one of the Big Four international beauty pageants.
Miss Earth is a co-host of the United Nations Environment Programme's Champions of the Earth, an annual international environment awards established in 2005 by the United Nations to recognize outstanding environmental achievers and leaders at a policy level. Miss Earth and Greenpeace have also joined in the call for a ban on genetically-engineered food crops, promotion of organic farming and advancement of sustainable agriculture. The Miss Earth Foundation has also teamed up with The Climate Reality Project for the "Climate Reality Leadership Corps Training", conducted by its founder and chairman, environmentalist and former US Vice President Al Gore.
The Miss Earth Foundation works with the environmental departments and ministries of the participating countries, various private sector and corporations, as well as the World Wildlife Foundation.
Since 2002, the pageant has been mainly held in the Philippines, with live broadcasts in more than 80 countries via Fox Life, The Filipino Channel, and Metro Channel.
Titleholders spend their year promoting their specific projects and environmental causes through speaking engagements, roundtable discussions, school tours, tree planting activities, street campaigns, cleanups, shopping mall tours, media guesting, environmental fairs, storytelling programs to children, eco-fashion shows, and other environmentally oriented activities.
The current Miss Earth is Mina Sue Choi of South Korea who was crowned on November 29, 2022.
Her Elemental Queens are:
Sheridan Mortlock of Australia—Miss Earth Air
Nadeen Ayoub of Palestine—Miss Earth Water
Andrea Aguilera of Colombia—Miss Earth Fire
Inception and early history
Carousel Productions launched the first Miss Earth in 2001 as an international environmental event with the mission of using the beauty pageant entertainment industry as a tool to promote environmental preservation. The pageant was first formally introduced in a press conference on April 3, 2001.
In October 2001, Miss Earth adopted the slogan "Beauties For a Cause", with the first "Beauty for a Cause" prize awarded in 2003.
In 2003, Miss Earth surpassed Miss International to become the third largest international beauty pageant by number of participating countries. In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, by 2020 and 2022, Miss Earth surpassed Miss Universe, the world's second oldest international beauty pageant, to become the second largest international beauty pageant by number of participating countries.
Programs and advocacy
The pageant has tie-ins with Philippine government agencies, such as the Philippine Department of Tourism, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority, most of the tourism and environment agencies, bureaus, and departments of participating countries, as well as international environmental groups such as the United Nations Environment Programme, Greenpeace, and ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity to further its environmental advocacy. The pageant winner and her elemental court travel to various countries, and are involved in projects with the environmental departments and ministries of participating countries. The delegates also take part in environmental presenvation activities such as, but are not limited to, tree planting ceremonies, environmental and cultural immersion programs, sponsor visits and tours.
In 2004, the Miss Earth Foundation was created to further the pageant's causes and to work with local and international groups and non-governmental organizations that are actively involved in conservation and the improvement of the environment. The Miss Earth Foundation campaign focuses on educating young people in environmental awareness. Its major project, "I Love Planet Earth School Tour", teaches and distributes educational aids for school children. Miss Earth also partnered with the Philippine Daily Inquirer's "Read-Along Storytelling Program" to educate children on taking care of the environment, awareness on renewable energy, and biodiversity. The Miss Earth Foundation also educates people to act against environmental degradation and environmental protection by following the "5Rs": rethink, reduce, reuse, recycle, and respect.
In 2006, the Miss Earth pageant started to co-host the United Nations Environment Programme's Champions of the Earth, annual international environment awards established in 2005 by the United Nations to recognize outstanding environmental achievers and leaders at a policy level. Miss Earth also joined with Greenpeace to call for a ban on genetically-engineered food crops, promotion of organic farming and advancement of sustainable agriculture.
The Miss Earth Foundation teamed up with The Climate Reality Project in 2016 for the "Climate Reality Leadership Corps Training" conducted by its founder and chairman, former US Vice President Al Gore to create an effective platform awareness on climate change.
In 2022, the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) and the Miss Earth Foundation formally established their partnership by signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) during the "Beauties for Biodiversity" event held at ACB Headquarters in Laguna, Philippines. The MoU was signed by Miss Earth 2021, Destiny Wagner, and Atty. Genalyn Bagon-Soriano on behalf of their respective organizations. Following the signing, there was an interactive learning session in which Miss Earth 2022 candidates discussed various global issues related to fauna and flora. At the end of the event, the candidates expressed their commitment to biodiversity advocacy by issuing a manifesto. The event marked the beginning of activities leading up to the Miss Earth 2022 finale.
Eco-fashion design competition
On November 4, 2008, the first Miss Earth Eco-Fashion Design Competition was launched by the Miss Earth Foundation as an annual event for professional and non-professional fashion designers to come up with designs that are eco-friendly. The outfit designs are made from recyclable, natural materials, organic materials, and eco-chic designs or patterns that can be worn in everyday life or are runway worthy.
Participating countries
The pageant has attracted delegates from countries and territories that typically frown upon beauty pageants.
In 2003, Vida Samadzai, an Afghan, now residing in the United States, received press attention after she competed in a red bikini. Samadzai was the first Afghan to compete in an international beauty pageant in almost three decades, but the fact that she wore a bikini caused an uproar in her native country. Her involvement in the pageant was condemned by the Afghan Supreme Court, saying such a display of the female body goes against Islamic law and Afghan culture.
In 2005, a Pakistani beauty queen, Naomi Zaman, was the first Miss Pakistan World winner to participate in Miss Earth, and is the first delegate from Pakistan to compete in any major international pageant; beauty pageants are frowned upon in Pakistan.
Miss Tibet Earth 2006, Tsering Chungtak, the first Tibetan to represent Tibet in any major international beauty pageant, made headlines when she drew international attention towards the Tibetan struggle for freedom. She also advocated for the boundaries of acceptable social etiquette towards the 21st century, in a traditionally conservative Tibetan culture, where most grown women wear ankle-length dresses. Nevertheless, her participation in the pageant received approval from the Dalai Lama.
Carousel Productions licensed the Miss Cuba organization in 2007 to select the first Cuban representative at Miss Earth. Ariana Barouk won; she became the first Miss Cuba in several decades, and competed at the Miss Earth pageant. Also in 2007 pageant, Miss Earth made history when delegates from China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and Tibet all competed together for the first time in an international pageant in spite of political sensitivities.
In 2008, the Buddhist Kingdom of Bhutan, one of the world's most isolated nations, sent its first Miss Bhutan, Tsokye Tsomo Karchun. Rwanda also sent its first ever Miss Rwanda national winner, Cynthia Akazuba; both of them competed at the Miss Earth 2008 pageant.
In 2009, Beauties of Africa, Inc., the franchise holder of Miss Earth South Sudan sent Aheu Kidum Deng, Miss South Sudan 2009, who stands 196 cm (6 feet and 5 inches), and is the tallest documented beauty queen ever to take part in any international beauty pageants.
Palestine debuted in one of the Big Four pageants in 2016 via Miss Earth when Natali Rantissi represented Palestine with the approval of Mahmoud Abbas, the President of the State of Palestine and Palestinian National Authority, where she made a courtesy call at the Moukata Palace prior to her departure to participate in the pageant. Miss Palestine refused to wear a bikini but was allowed to partake in the events including in the Miss Earth 2016 finale.
Also in the 2016 pageant, the Miss Iraq Organization sent Susan Amer Sulaimani as Iraq's first representative since 1972 in Big Four pageants to participate in Miss Earth 2016. She was the only one who wore a dress instead of a bikini during the pageant's press-conference.
In the 2017 pageant, Miss Rwanda Honorine Hirwa Uwase appeared in the swimsuit competition wearing a gown, maintaining a long-held Rwanda tradition of not wearing bikinis in public.
Miss Lebanon 2018 Salwa Akar received international press attention when she was stripped of her title in Lebanon, while participating in Miss Earth 2018 pageant after she posted a photo in Facebook with her arm around Miss Israel's Dana Zerik and gestured the peace sign. Lebanon and Israel are in a long standing state of war. As a result, she was unable to continue her participation in the Miss Earth pageant. In a press release, Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's spokesman Ofir Gendelman, reacted on Akar's dethronement and condemned the "Lebanese apartheid".
Papua New Guinea sent its first representative in the Miss Earth 2019 pageant with Pauline Tibola, becoming the first representative in the Big Four international beauty pageants since Miss World 1990.
In 2020, the 20th edition of Miss Earth marked the entrant of countries such as Bangladesh (Meghna Alam), Burkina Faso (Amira Naïmah Bassané) and Syria (Tiya Alkerdi). It was the second time Burkina Faso participated in the Big Four pageants after Miss International 2019 and first for Syria to participate in major international pageant in several decades after Miss World 1966.
The Miss Iran Organization crowned Hami Zaker in 2021 as its first Miss Earth Iran in which she competed in the Miss Earth 2021 and became the first Iranian woman to participate in the Big Four international pageant. She participated in the swimsuit competition, albeit in a conservative outfit that recognized her nation's cultural background.
At Miss Earth 2022, Burundi participated in their first Big Four pageant with Lauria Nishimwe. Cabo Verde (Tayrine da Veiga) and Senegal (Camilla Diagné) also debuted at this event.
Host countries
The pageant was held in the Philippines every year from 2001 to 2009. Miss Earth 2006 was scheduled to be held in Santiago, Chile on November 15, 2006, but the host country failed to meet the requirements of the host committee; the pageant was moved back to the Philippines.
In 2008, the pageant was held for the first time outside Metropolitan Manila. It was held at the Clark Expo Amphitheater in Angeles City, Pampanga on November 9, 2008.
In 2009, the pageant took place for the first time outside Luzon Island. The coronation night venue for Miss Earth 2009 was held at the Boracay Ecovillage Resort and Convention Center in the Island of Boracay, Philippines.
In 2010, the pageant finally took place for the first time outside the Philippines. The coronation night venue for Miss Earth 2010 was held at the Vinpearl Land Amphitheater at Nha Trang, Vietnam.
In 2011, the pageant was scheduled to be held on December 3, 2011, at the Impact, Muang Thong Thani, Bangkok, Thailand but due to flood situation in Thailand, Carousel Productions decided to move the Miss Earth 2011 pageant venue back to Manila, Philippines.
In 2012, the pageant was supposed to be held in Bali, Indonesia but the organizers did not meet the minimum requirements on time, so it was moved back to the Philippines. Miss Earth 2012 was held on November 24, 2012, at the Palace in Muntinlupa, Philippines.
Miss Earth 2015 was held for the first time in Europe at Marx Halle in Vienna, Austria.
On July 18, 2022, vice-president of Miss Earth organization Lorraine Schuck announced that Miss Earth 2023 will be held in Vietnam for the second time.
Venues
Virtual editions
The COVID-19 pandemic caused travel restrictions that would have the contestants travel to the Philippines and then be subject to a 14-day quarantine period upon arrival. It was announced on 14 August 2020, that the Miss Earth Organization would have to crown their new titleholders at a Virtual event on 29 November 2020 for the first time in the organization's history.
The pageant started on 21 September 2020 and ran for a couple of months. On 12 October 2020, the organization held a "Getting to Know You" virtual meet and greet with each delegate hosted by former Miss Earth 2008 Karla Henry. The pageant preliminary was streamed on KTX on 24 November 2020.
The candidates were split into four continental groups: Asia & Oceania, Africa, Americas, and Europe and then competed in the following categories: Earth Talk, Talent, Evening Gown, Swimsuit, Sports Wear, National Costume, and Interview with Netizens. The preliminary judging categories are: Beauty of Face, Fitness, and Environmental Awareness.
The pre-pageant activities and coronation night were conducted virtually due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic for the second consecutive year in 2021.
Eligibility and judging criteria
Competing delegates must have never been married or given birth and be between 18 and 28 years of age. In the pre-judging stage, Miss Earth delegates are judged on their intelligence and their knowledge of environmental issues and policies, comprising 30% of the total score, while the remaining criteria are as follows: 35% for beauty and knowledge, 20% form and figure, 10% poise, and 5% attitude. The delegates then participate in three rounds of competition: swimsuit, evening gown and question-and-answer. The last round focuses on topics of environmental concern.
Titles and semi-finalists
In the early years of the pageant, from 2001 to 2003, ten semi-finalists were chosen at Miss Earth. From 2004 to 2017, sixteen semi-finalists are chosen with the exception of the 2010 (10th) edition where only 14 semi-finalists were selected. The number has since then increased to 18 in 2018 and 20 in 2019. Since 2004, Semi-finalists are cut to eight finalists, then to the final four from which the runners-up and winner are announced. By 2019, the number of finalists were increased to ten.
The pageant's winner is crowned Miss Earth; the Runners-up are named after the classical elements: Miss Fire (third runner-up), Miss Water (second runner-up), and Miss Air (first runner-up); from 2010, the "elemental titles" (Air, Water and Fire bestowed on the next three delegates with highest scores after the Miss Earth winner) were proclaimed of equal importance and thus have the same ranking and no longer classified as "runner-up".
Recent titleholders
Gallery of titleholders
Crown and jewelry
The Miss Earth crown used in 2001, and the Swarovski crown in 2002–2008, were designed and created by Filipino designer Arnel Papa.
On November 16, 2009, Miss Earth unveiled a new crown designed by jewelry designer Ramona Haar with the frame made of 100% recycled 14-karat gold and argentums sterling silver, with precious stones composed of black diamonds, sardonyx, calcite, ruby, jade quartz crystal, garnet, peridot, and pearls gathered from over 80 of the participating countries in 2009.
In the 13th edition of the Miss Earth, new tiaras were introduced for the elemental titleholders called "elemental crowns", representing Air, Water and Fire with multicolored precious stones in different hues of gold and yellow, sapphire and blue, and scarlet and red.
See also
Beauty for a Cause
Big Four international beauty pageants
List of beauty pageants
References
Further reading
Feminism, Beauty Pageants and the Environment:
An old chestnut recycled: Miss Earth:
External links
International beauty pageants
Recurring events established in 2001
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin%20MacDonald%20%28evolutionary%20psychologist%29
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Kevin MacDonald (evolutionary psychologist)
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Kevin B. MacDonald (born January 24, 1944) is an American antisemitic conspiracy theorist, white supremacist, and retired professor of evolutionary psychology at California State University, Long Beach (CSULB). In 2008, the CSULB academic senate voted to disassociate itself from MacDonald's work.
MacDonald is known for his promotion of an antisemitic theory, most prominently within The Culture of Critique series, according to which Western Jews have tended to be politically liberal and involved in politically or sexually transgressive social, philosophical, and artistic movements, because Jews have biologically evolved to undermine the societies in which they live. In short, MacDonald argues that Jews have evolved to be highly ethnocentric, and hostile to the interests of white people. In an interview with Tablet magazine in 2020, MacDonald said: "Jews are just gonna destroy white power completely, and destroy America as a white country."
Scholars characterize MacDonald's theory as a tendentious form of circular reasoning, which assumes its conclusion to be true regardless of empirical evidence. The theory fails the basic test of any scientific theory, the criterion of falsifiability, because MacDonald refuses to provide or acknowledge any factual pattern of Jewish behavior that would tend to disprove his idea that Jews have evolved to be ethnocentric and anti-white. Other scholars in his field dismiss the theory as pseudoscience analogous to older conspiracy theories about a Jewish plot to undermine European civilization.
MacDonald's theories have received support from antisemitic conspiracy theorists and neo-Nazi groups. He serves as editor of The Occidental Observer, which he says covers "white identity, white interests, and the culture of the West". He is described by the Anti-Defamation League as having "become a primary voice for anti-Semitism from far-right intellectuals" and by the Southern Poverty Law Center as "the neo-Nazi movement's favorite academic". He has been described as part of the alt-right movement. By 2010, MacDonald was one of the eight members of the board of directors of the newly founded American Third Position (known from 2013 as the American Freedom Party), an organization stating that it "exists to represent the political interests of White Americans".
MacDonald claims a suite of traits he attributes to Jews, including higher-than-average verbal intelligence and ethnocentricism, have culturally evolved to enhance their ability to outcompete non-Jews for resources. MacDonald believes Jews have used this purported advantage to scheme to advance Jewish group interests and end potential antisemitism by either deliberately or inadvertently undermining the power of the European-derived Christian majorities in the Western world.
Early years
MacDonald was born in Oshkosh, Wisconsin to a Roman Catholic family. His father was a policeman and his mother was a secretary. He attended Catholic parochial schools and played basketball in high school. He entered the University of Wisconsin–Madison as a philosophy major and became involved in the anti-war movement, which brought him into contact with Jewish student activists.
Between 1970 and 1974, he worked towards becoming a jazz pianist, spending two years in Jamaica, where he taught high school. By the late 1970s, he had left that career.
Professional background
MacDonald is the author of seven books on evolutionary theory and child development and is the author or editor of over 30 academic articles in refereed journals. He received his B.A. from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1966, and M.S. in biology from the University of Connecticut in 1976. In 1981, he earned a PhD in biobehavioral sciences from the University of Connecticut, where his adviser was Benson Ginsburg, a founder of modern behavioral genetics. His thesis was on the behavioral development of wolves and resulted in two publications.
MacDonald completed a post-doctoral fellowship with Ross Parke in the psychology department of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1983. MacDonald and Parke's work there resulted in three publications.
MacDonald joined the Department of Psychology at California State University, Long Beach (CSU-LB) in 1985, and became a full professor in 1995. He announced his retirement at the end of 2014.
MacDonald served as Secretary-Archivist of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society and was elected as a member of the executive board from 1995 to 2001. He was editor of Population and Environment from 1999 to 2004, working with Virginia Abernethy, the previous editor, who he persuaded to join the editorial board, along with J. Philippe Rushton, both "intellectual allies" according to the SPLC. He is an associate editor of the journal Sexuality & Culture and makes occasional contributions to VDARE, a website focused on opposition to immigration to the United States and classified as a hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center.
Work on ethnicity
Judaism and Jewish culture
MacDonald wrote a trilogy of books analyzing Judaism and secular Jewish culture from the perspective of evolutionary psychology: A People That Shall Dwell Alone (1994), Separation and Its Discontents (1998), and The Culture of Critique (1998). He proposes that Judaism is a group evolutionary strategy to enhance the ability of Jews to outcompete non-Jews for resources. Using the term "Jewish ethnocentrism", he argues that Judaism fosters in Jews a series of marked genetic traits, including above-average verbal intelligence and a strong tendency toward collectivist behavior, as manifested in a series of influential intellectual movements. MacDonald says that not all Jews in all circumstances display the traits he identifies. Separation and Its Discontents contains a chapter entitled "National Socialism as an Anti-Jewish Group Evolutionary Strategy". Heidi Beirich of the SPLC in 2007 wrote that MacDonald argues that Nazism emerged as a means of opposing, to use his term, "Judaism as a group evolutionary strategy". He contends Jewish "group behavior" created understandable hatred for Jews. Thus in MacDonald's opinion, writes Beirich:
MacDonald published a series of three articles in The Occidental Quarterly on the alleged similarities between neoconservatism and other movements that he claims are Jewish-dominated. He argues that "Taken as a whole, neoconservatism is an excellent illustration of the key traits behind the success of Jewish activism: ethnocentrism, intelligence and wealth, psychological intensity, and aggressiveness."
Reception
Irving v Lipstadt libel trial (2000)
MacDonald testified in the unsuccessful libel suit brought by the Holocaust denier David Irving against the American historian Deborah Lipstadt, the only witness for Irving who spoke on his behalf willingly. Irving said MacDonald would need to be on the witness stand for three days, but his testimony only lasted a few hours. Irving, who served as his own defence counsel, asked MacDonald if he (Irving) was an anti-Semite, an idea MacDonald rejected: "I have had quite a few discussions with you and you almost never mentioned Jews - never in the general negative way." Irving asked if MacDonald "perceived the Jewish community as working in a certain way in order to suppress a certain book" and responded in the affirmative, asserting there were "several tactics the Jewish organizations have used." MacDonald was quoted as saying he was an "agnostic" in regards to the Holocaust, though he denied the accuracy of the quote.
Deborah Lipstadt's lawyer Richard Rampton thought MacDonald's testimony on behalf of Irving was so unsatisfactory that he did not cross examine him. MacDonald later commented in an article for the Journal of Historical Review, published by the Institute for Historical Review, a Holocaust-denying organisation, that Lipstadt and Jewish groups were attempting to restrict access to Irving's work because it was against Jewish interests and agenda. On the Holocaust itself, MacDonald later said that "he ha[d] never doubted the Holocaust took place, but because he ha[d] not studied its history he describe[d] himself as an 'agnostic' on the subject."
Academic reception
At the time of its release, A People That Shall Dwell Alone received mixed reviews from scholars, although his subsequent books were less well received.
John Tooby, the founder of MacDonald's field of evolutionary psychology, criticized MacDonald in an article for Salon in 2000. He wrote, "MacDonald's ideas—not just on Jews—violate fundamental principles of the field." Tooby posits that MacDonald is not an evolutionary psychologist.
MacDonald has been accused by some academics in Policing the National Body: Sex, Race, and Criminalization of employing racial "techniques of scapegoating [that] may have evolved in complexity from classical Nazi fascism, but the similarities are far from remote."
Steven Pinker, the Johnstone Family Professor of Psychology at Harvard University, wrote that MacDonald's work fails "basic tests of scientific credibility." Pinker, while acknowledging that he had "not plowed through MacDonald's trilogy and therefore run the complementary risks of being unfair to his arguments, and of not refuting them resoundingly enough to distance them from my own views on evolutionary psychology", states that MacDonald's theses are unable to pass the threshold of attention-worthiness or peer-approval, and contain a "consistently invidious portrayal of Jews, couched in value-laden, disparaging language".
Reviewing MacDonald's Separation and Its Discontents in 2000, Chair of Jewish Studies Zev Garber writes that MacDonald works from the assumption that the dual Torah is the blueprint of the eventual Jewish dominion over the world, and that he sees contemporary anti-Semitism, the Holocaust, and attacks against Israel as "provoked by Jews themselves." Garber concludes that MacDonald's "rambling who-is-who-isn't roundup of Jews responsible for the 'Jewish Problem' borders on the irrational and is conducive to misrepresentation."
In 2001, David Lieberman, a Holocaust researcher at Brandeis University, wrote "Scholarship as an Exercise in Rhetorical Strategy: A Case Study of Kevin MacDonald's Research Techniques", a paper in which he notes that one of MacDonald's sources, Jaff Schatz, objected to how MacDonald used his writings to further his premise that Jewish self-identity validates anti-Semitic sentiments and actions. "At issue, however, is not the quality of Schatz's research, but MacDonald's use of it, a discussion that relies less on topical expertise than on a willingness to conduct close comparative readings", Lieberman wrote. Lieberman accused MacDonald of dishonestly using lines from the work of Holocaust denier David Irving. Citing Irving's Uprising, published in 1981 for the 25th anniversary of Hungary's failed anti-Communist revolution in 1956, MacDonald asserted in the Culture of Critique:
Lieberman, who said that MacDonald is not a historian, debunked those assertions, concluding, "(T)he passage offers not a shred of evidence that, as MacDonald would have it, 'Jewish males enjoyed disproportionate sexual access to gentile females.'"
While most academics have not engaged MacDonald on his views about Judaism, Nathan Cofnas of the University of Oxford published a negative critique of MacDonald in the journal Human Nature in 2018. Cofnas argued contra Pinker that scholars needed to critically engage with MacDonald's work, in part because it had proved "enormously" influential among anti-Semites. Cofnas's own conclusion was that MacDonald's work relied upon "misrepresented sources and cherry-picked facts" and that the "evidence actually favors a simpler explanation of Jewish overrepresentation in intellectual movements involving Jewish high intelligence and geographic distribution."
In an April 2018 commentary in The Wall Street Journal, political scientist Abraham Miller wrote that MacDonald's theories about Jews were "the philosophical and theoretical inspiration" behind the slogan "Jews will not replace us" used at the 2017 white supremacist Unite the Right rally.
Criticism by the ADL and the SPLC
Mark Potok of the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) claims of MacDonald that "he put the anti-Semitism under the guise of scholarly work... Kevin MacDonald's work is nothing but gussied-up anti-Semitism. At base it says that Jews are out to get us through their agenda... His work is bandied about by just about every neo-Nazi group in America."
The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) includes MacDonald in its list of American extremists, "Extremism in America", and wrote a report on MacDonald's views and ties. According to the ADL, his views on Jews mimic those of anti-Semites from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Heidi Beirich wrote in an SPLC Intelligence Report in April 2007:
MacDonald claims the SPLC has misrepresented and distorted his work.
CSULB comments
A California State University (CSULB) spokeswoman stated, "The university will support MacDonald's academic freedom and freedom of speech." MacDonald was initially pressured to post a disclaimer on his website: "nothing on this website should be interpreted to suggest that I condone white racial superiority, genocide, Nazism, or Holocaust denial. I advocate none of these and strongly dissociate myself and my work from groups that do. Nor should my opinions be used to support discrimination against Jews or any other group." He has since removed that disclaimer. In addition, the Psychology Department in 2006 issued three statements: a "Statement on Academic Freedom and Responsibility in Research," a "Statement on Diversity," and a "Statement on Misuse of Psychologists' Work."
A spokeswoman for CSULB, said that at least two classes a year taught by all professors—including MacDonald—have student evaluations, and that some of the questions on those evaluations are open-ended, allowing students to raise any issue. "Nothing has come through" to suggest bias in class, she said. "We don't see it." Jonathan Knight, who handles academic freedom issues for the American Association of University Professors said if there are no indications that MacDonald shares his views in class, "I don't see a basis for an investigation" into what goes on in his courses.
CSULB disassociates from MacDonald's views
Late in 2006, a report issued by the Southern Poverty Law Center after an on-campus investigation labelled his work anti-Semitic and neo-Nazi propaganda, and described increasing concern about Macdonald's views by CSULB faculty members. In late 2007, California State University–Long Beach's Department of Psychology began the process of formally disassociating itself from MacDonald's views on Judaism, which in some cases are "used by publications considered to publicize neo-Nazi and white supremacist ideology." The department's move followed a discussion of MacDonald's December forum presentation at a meeting of the department's advisory committee that concerned his ethics and methodologies.
In April 2007, a colleague of MacDonald's, Martin Fiebert, criticized MacDonald for "bigotry and cultural insensitivity", and called it "troubling" that MacDonald's work was being cited by white supremacist and neo-Nazi organizations.
In an e-mail sent to the college's Daily Forty-Niner newspaper, MacDonald said that he had already pledged not to teach about race differences in intelligence as a requirement for teaching his psychology class, and expressed that he was "not happy" about the disassociation. The newspaper reported that in the email, MacDonald confirmed that his books contained what the paper described as "his claims that the Jewish race was having a negative effect on Western civilization." He said in an interview posted on his website by February 2008 that he had been the victim of "faculty e-mail wars" and "tried to defend myself showing that what I was doing was scientific and rational and reasonable — and people have not responded."
The Department of Psychology voted to release an April 23, 2008 statement saying, "We respect and defend his right to express his views, but we affirm that they are his alone and are in no way endorsed by the Department." The department expressed particular concern that "Dr. MacDonald's research on Jewish culture does not adhere to the Department's explicitly stated values."
On May 5, the school's academic senate issued a joint statement disassociating the school from MacDonald's anti-Semitic views, including specific statements from the Psychology department, the History department, the Anthropology department, the Jewish Studies program, and the Linguistics department. The statement concludes: "While the Academic Senate defends Dr. Kevin MacDonald's academic freedom and freedom of speech, as it does for all faculty, it firmly and unequivocally disassociates itself from the anti-Semitic and white ethnocentric views he has expressed."
The senate considered but rejected the use of the word "condemns" in the statement.
Non-academic affiliations
The Occidental Quarterly and the NPI
MacDonald has contributed to The Occidental Quarterly on many occasions, a publication of the National Policy Institute, a white supremacist think tank. The Occidental Quarterly was described by the Anti-Defamation League in 2012 as "a racist print publication that mimics the look and style of academic journals." The Occidental Quarterly published MacDonald's monograph, Understanding Jewish Influence: A Study in Ethnic Activism, in 2004. Journalist Max Blumenthal reported in a 2006 article for The Nation that the work "has turned MacDonald into a celebrity within white nationalist and neo-Nazi circles."
In October 2004, MacDonald accepted the Jack London Literary Prize of $10,000 from The Occidental Quarterly; the SPLC states it is a white supremacist organization. In his acceptance speech, he opined: "The best way to preserve ethnic interests is to defend an ethnostate—a nation that is explicitly intended to preserve the ethnic interests of its citizens." According to MacDonald, one of the functions of such a state would be to exclude non-European immigrants who are attracted to the state by its wealth and prosperity. At the conclusion of his speech, he remarked:
In November 2016, MacDonald was a keynote speaker at an event hosted in Washington, D.C. by the National Policy Institute, which NPR described as a "white nationalist think tank" led by Richard B. Spencer. The event concluded with Spencer leading the chant, "Hail Trump, hail our people, hail victory."
David Duke
Former Ku Klux Klan leader David Duke praised MacDonald's work on his website. MacDonald has appeared on Duke's radio program on multiple occasions, saying he agrees with the "vast majority" of Duke's statements.
When MacDonald won his award from The Occidental Quarterly, the ceremony was attended by David Duke; Don Black, the founder of white supremacist site Stormfront; Jamie Kelso, a senior moderator at Stormfront; and the head of the neo-Nazi National Vanguard, Kevin Alfred Strom. In 2005, Kelso told The Occidental Report that he was meeting up with MacDonald to conduct business. MacDonald is featured in the Stormfront member Brian Jost's anti-immigration film, The Line in the Sand, where he "blam[ed] Jews for destroying America by supporting immigration from developing countries."
American Freedom Party
In January 2010, it became known that MacDonald had accepted a position as one of the eight members of the board of directors of the newly founded American Third Position (known from 2013 as the American Freedom Party), which states that it "exists to represent the political interests of White Americans". A statement on their website reads, "If current demographic trends persist, European-Americans will become a minority in America in only a few decades time. The American Third Position will not allow this to happen. To safeguard our identity and culture, and to secure an American future for our people, we will immediately put an indefinite moratorium on all immigration."
Bibliography
MacDonald, K.B. Individualism and the Western Liberal Tradition: Evolutionary Origins, History, and Prospects for the Future (self-published)
MacDonald, K.B. Understanding Jewish Influence: A Study in Ethnic Activism, with an Introduction by Samuel T. Francis, (Occidental Quarterly, November 2004); Introduction online
Burgess, Robert L. and MacDonald, K.B. (eds.) Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Development, 2nd ed., (Sage 2004);
MacDonald, K.B. The Culture of Critique: An Evolutionary Analysis of Jewish Involvement in Twentieth-Century Intellectual and Political Movements (Praeger 1998); (Preface online)
MacDonald, K.B. Separation and Its Discontents Toward an Evolutionary Theory of Anti-Semitism (Praeger 1998);
MacDonald, K.B. A People That Shall Dwell Alone: Judaism As a Group Evolutionary Strategy, With Diaspora Peoples (Praeger 1994);
MacDonald, K.B. (Ed.), Parent-Child Play: Descriptions and Implications (State University of New York Press, 1993)
MacDonald, K.B. (Ed.) Sociobiological Perspectives on Human Development, (Springer-Verlag, 1988)
MacDonald, K.B. Social and Personality Development: An Evolutionary Synthesis (Plenum, 1988)
References
External links
MacDonald's article archive at the Occidental Observer blog
Kevin MacDonald's papers
1944 births
Living people
Academic journal editors
Alt-right writers
American anti-war activists
Anti-Zionism in the United States
American atheists
American conspiracy theorists
American Freedom Party
American people of German descent
American people of Scottish descent
21st-century American psychologists
American white supremacists
California State University, Long Beach faculty
Ethnocentrism
Evolutionary psychologists
Former Roman Catholics
People from Oshkosh, Wisconsin
Race and intelligence controversy
University of Connecticut alumni
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
20th-century American psychologists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulaski%20Skyway
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Pulaski Skyway
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The Pulaski Skyway is a four-lane bridge-causeway in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey, carrying an expressway designated U.S. Route 1/9 (US 1/9) for most of its length. The structure has a total length of . Its longest bridge spans . Traveling between Newark and Jersey City, the roadway crosses the Passaic and Hackensack rivers, Kearny Point, the peninsula between them, and the New Jersey Meadowlands.
Designed by Sigvald Johannesson, the General Casimir Pulaski Skyway opened in 1932 as the last part of the Route 1 Extension, one of the first controlled-access highways or "super-highways" in the United States, to provide a connection to the Holland Tunnel. One of several major projects built during the reign of Hudson County political boss Frank Hague, its construction was a source of political and labor disputes. The viaduct is listed in the state and federal registers of historic places.
Unpredictable traffic congestion and its functionally obsolete design make the Skyway one of the most unreliable roads in the United States. , the bridges handle about 74,000 crossings per day, none of which were by trucks since they had been barred from the road in 1934. The bridges have been altered little since opening. In 2007, the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) began a rehabilitation program, which it estimated would cost more than $1 billion and required intermittent closures. The Skyway was closed to eastbound traffic from 2014 to 2018.
Description
Sources differ on the length and terminal points of the skyway, which was built as part of the long Route 1 Extension. The National Bridge Inventory identifies the Hudson County section as long and the Essex County section as . In a historic roadway and bridge study for NJDOT, it was described as long. NJDOT has indicated the overall length of the bridge structures to be and identified the Hudson County section as long. Other sources, along with the National Register of Historic Places, The New York Times, and The Star-Ledger, describe it as being long.
The four-lane skyway carries the US 1/9 concurrency for most its length, and a short section of Route 139 for the rest. While the skyway generally runs east–west between Newark and Jersey City, US 1 and US 9 are generally north–south routes. The west end of the skyway begins as US 1/9 roadway ascends and passes over Raymond Boulevard in Newark's Ironbound neighborhood. At Tonnele Circle, US 1/9 exits to grade and follows Tonnele Avenue north towards the Lincoln Tunnel and George Washington Bridge as Route 139 begins on the skyway, over the traffic circle. While the road continues to the Holland Tunnel, the skyway soon comes to its eastern end at a cut in Bergen Hill, just west of John F. Kennedy Boulevard, where Route 139 runs under the viaduct of Route 139U (the upper level). In addition to crossing the Hackensack and the Passaic, the skyway also passes over, not under, the Chaplain Washington-Harry Laderman Bridges and the New Jersey Turnpike (I-95), with which it has no interchange. Under most of the skyway in Newark is other vehicular, rail, maritime, and industrial infrastructure built on landfilled wetlands of the New Jersey Meadowlands.
Some maps, including one of Newark (1938) and one of Elizabeth (1967), labeled the US 1/9 southern approach starting north of Newark Airport as the Pulaski Skyway. An NJDOT single line diagram (2010) shows the General Pulaski Skyway starting at mile post 49.00 of U.S. 1/9, which is just north of the renamed Newark Liberty International Airport. Google Maps includes the Route 139 eastern approach.
There is limited intermediate access to the skyway: two single-lane ramps rise to the inner lanes of the elevated structure, requiring traffic to enter or exit from the left providing access at the Marion Section (southbound entrance and northbound exit only) of Jersey City and South Kearny (northbound entrance and southbound exit only).
Trucks have been prohibited for the "safety and welfare of the public" since 1934 because of the state's approval of a local ordinance that was championed by Frank Hague, mayor of Jersey City. They are detoured to use U.S. Route 1/9 Truck, along the route of the Lincoln Highway that carried traffic before the skyway's construction. Pedestrians and cyclists cannot use the road as there are no dedicated bicycle lanes or sidewalks. The speed limit on the skyway is , but is generally not enforceable as there is nowhere for police to pull over speeders because of the absence of shoulders.
In 2011, the Texas Transportation Institute determined that the Skyway was the sixth-most unreliable road in the United States because of the unpredictability of traffic congestion and therefore travel times.
Design and construction
Except for crossings over Jersey City rail lines and the Hackensack and the Passaic, the main part of the skyway is a steel deck truss cantilever bridge, supported by concrete piers. Each of the two river crossings is a combination of a subdivided (K-shaped) through Pratt truss between the supports and a basic Pratt truss structure connecting each end to the deck truss part of the skyway. Spanning the rivers, they reach a clearance height of . In Jersey City, three short Pratt through truss spans take the roadway over rail lines, the westernmost passing over the Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH) rapid transit line and the Conrail Passaic and Harsimus Line. The two easternmost Pratt through truss spans are in the vicinity of Marion Junction, one of which passes over the Marion Running Track, to the east of which the skyway is low enough to use simple vertical supports.
Design began in 1919 for the Holland Tunnel, the first fixed roadway connection between New Jersey and New York City; construction began in 1922, and the tunnel opened in late 1927. To provide for a continuous highway connection on the New Jersey side, the New Jersey Legislature passed a bill in 1922 authorizing the extension of Route 1 from its end at Elizabeth through Newark and Jersey City to the proposed tunnel. It was conceived as the nation's first "super-highway". State highway engineer Hugh L. Sloan appointed old acquaintance Fred Lavis, a consulting engineer who had worked on foreign rail lines and the Panama Canal and written four books on locating and designing rail lines, to design this Route 1 Extension. Sigvald Johannesson designed the Skyway portion.
Frank Hague, mayor of Jersey City and boss of the state's political machine, directed the state to avoid the open cuts that were already common where the railroads crossed Bergen Hill, and to include an access ramp in Kearny to spur industrial development. Construction of the highway, which was mostly raised on embankments and passed through Bergen Hill in a cut, began in mid-1925. The two major eastern and western sections in Jersey City and Newark—including the viaduct leading to the "covered roadway" (Route 139) and the embankments in eastern Newark—were opened on December 16, 1928, about a year after the tunnel opened. Traffic was still required to use the Lincoln Highway to cross the Hackensack and the Passaic on the since-replaced drawbridges that frequently stopped traffic to allow ships to pass.
Lavis's design for the final viaduct passageway, which would be raised on concrete piers across the Meadowlands, included two vertical-lift bridges above the Passaic and Hackensack rivers, sufficient for the majority of ships to pass underneath. He resigned in 1928, believing his task was complete, but in January 1929 the War Department objected to the continued existence of the Lincoln Highway bridges once the skyway was complete. Since the Route 1 Extension was not intended for local traffic, and replacing the vertical-lift bridges with tunnels would have been expensive, a compromise was worked out by late 1929 to raise the river bridges to while allowing the Lincoln Highway drawbridges to remain in place. The concrete jacketing of the steel was removed from the plans since it would make the taller fixed bridges heavier. This resulted in more maintenance.
Four companies—the American Bridge Company, McClintic-Marshall Company, Phoenix Bridge Company, and Taylor-Fichter Steel Construction Company—were awarded contracts for the so-called "Diagonal Highway", with construction to start in April 1930. The two river bridges, McClintic-Marshall's portion, were completed first, and the $21 million road was opened at 8:00 a.m. on November 24, 1932, after an official ceremony the previous day on the Kearny ramp. Owing to the Great Depression and problems with funding, Governor A. Harry Moore directed the Highway Commission on October 25, 1932 to make a formal request to the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads to charge tolls on the Diagonal Highway. It was thought that tolls would be illegal because of the use of $600,000 of federal aid to build the road, but that it might be possible to transfer this funding to other projects. A bill was introduced into the state legislature on May 1, 1933, to add tolls to the road (then known as the "sky way"), at a rate of 10 cents for cars and 20 cents for trucks. The legal obstacle to federal aid was resolved by gaining approval to transfer the funds.
During planning and construction, and for about half a year after opening, the road had no official name and was known as the Diagonal Highway, Newark–Jersey City Viaduct, or High-Level Viaduct. On May 3, 1933, the New Jersey Legislature passed a bill sponsored by Assemblyman Eugene W. Hejke of Jersey City naming the road the General Casimir Pulaski Memorial Skyway after Casimir Pulaski, the Polish military leader who helped train and lead Continental Army troops in the American Revolutionary War. An official ceremony was held on October 11, 1933, including the unveiling of signs with an abbreviated designation, Gen. Pulaski Skyway.
Surveys taken during 1932 and 1933 proved that the skyway saved time on the new and old routes. Not only was the distance shortened by , but it took at least six minutes less to travel the new route during regular traffic. Trucks gained even more time, saving anywhere from five to eleven minutes. During times of previous traffic congestion on weekends on the old route, the viaduct saved around 25 minutes or more from the elimination of traffic congestion. In addition, the new route did not have the much longer delays and traffic back-ups that were caused whenever the bridges on the old highway were opened. It was found that the skyway also diverted a good deal of traffic from other routes.
Labor issues
Pulaski Skyway construction ended up causing a dispute between Mayor of Jersey City Frank Hague, who ran a statewide political machine, and Theodore M. Brandle, a "labor czar" allied with Hague. Brandle and Hague had become friends through Hague's efforts to get approval of unions. Brandle helped organize Branleygran Company, a construction bond underwriter, which Hague channeled construction projects towards. During the mid-1920s redevelopment of Journal Square, Brandle's Labor National Bank, founded in June 1926, acquired a new 15-story headquarters, the Labor Bank Building. Essentially Brandle controlled any construction projects in northern New Jersey, and any strikes he might call would be backed by Hague's police.
The relationship between Hague and Brandle started to go bad in late 1931, during construction of Jersey City Medical Center, an important project to Hague. Leo Brennan, a contractor approved by Hague without consulting Brandle, who was building a backup power station for the hospital, refused to work with Brandle's card-file system, by which he kept track of union members and blacklisted those whom he disliked. The annoyed Brandle called a strike, but Brennan's workers refused; the police shut down the site after a brawl, but Brennan got court approval to continue. To placate Brandle, who threatened a strike that would stop all construction work on the center, Hague paid off Brennan and hired another contractor that Brandle had approved.
For the construction of the Pulaski Skyway, which began in April 1930, Hague chose four members of the National Erectors' Association, an organization of "open shop" (non-union) steel contractors. Performance bonds were paid in cash, bypassing Branleygran, and the companies hired Foster's Industrial and Detective Bureau to guard the site against Brandle's threat to "unionize this job or else". Brandle organized picket lines of loyal union men, and the two sides frequently fought in the streets or in the work area. Brandle's sole victory was a five-day stoppage in July 1931 by 165 non-union workers, who were interested in higher pay and afraid of the ongoing fights, but decided against joining the union. During the La Follette Civil Liberties Committee hearings, it was discovered that, in order to save about $50,000 in salary, the American Bridge Company, one of the four contractors, spent almost $300,000 on keeping its "open shop".
The first casualty of the labor battle was a picketer, shot and temporarily paralyzed by a perimeter guard on November 14, 1931, for throwing stones at workers. Several months later, on February 27, 1932, a car carrying six workers to the construction site was surrounded by union men, who began to beat them with iron bars. One of the workers, William T. Harrison, was dead by the next morning; Hague broke all ties with Brandle and ordered the police to "wage relentless war against the Brandle gang-rioters". In April 1932, 21 ironworkers were indicted as suspects in the Harrison murder. The trial was held on December 6, 1932, two weeks after the completion of the skyway. Every defendant was found not guilty, since county prosecutor John Drewen was unable to place any of them at the scene of the crime, and witnesses and defendants testified that they had been forced under torture or the threat of prosecution to sign affidavits and confessions. In addition to William T. Harrison's death, 14 lives were claimed by work-related accidents during construction.
Hague refused to allow Brandle and the unions to win, and began to force unions to foreclose through his control of the courts. On the public side, Hague attacked the "labor racketeers" with words, and the local newspapers gladly went along. In 1937 and 1938, Hague turned Jersey City into a police state to fight the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which was trying to inform workers of their rights under the 1935 National Labor Relations Act. Socialist Norman Thomas was prevented from speaking in Jersey City and Newark by Hague and his friends. This and other similar cases turned the national spotlight on Hague, and he was attacked by the New Yorker and Life in early 1938. Finally, in 1947, Governor Alfred E. Driscoll cut off Hague's judicial power, and the mayor retired.
Truck and other safety issues
The slippery concrete surfacing, steep left-side ramps, center breakdown lane, and wide-open alignment built for high speeds all contributed to a high number of crashes. Jersey City Mayor Frank Hague passed an ordinance in November 1933 banning trucks from its section of the skyway, which effectively banned them from the whole road. Enforcement began on January 15, 1934, when Jersey City police began arresting truck drivers using the skyway. The New Jersey State Highway Commission approved the ban on January 23.
As a result of controversy caused by the ban, 300,000 ballots were distributed on February 6 to motorists on the skyway, asking whether trucks should be banned. Mayor Hague promised to go with the majority, which agreed with the ban. The matter was also taken to court, with one of the convicted truck drivers arguing that the ban was an unreasonable restraint of interstate commerce, and that since the federal government contributed money towards the road, Jersey City lacked the power to ban trucks. On August 14, Justice Thomas W. Trenchard of the New Jersey Supreme Court upheld the ban, stating that "the court is not at liberty to substitute its judgment for that of the municipality's as to the best and most feasible manner of curing traffic evils and traffic congestion where such regulation bears a direct relationship to public safety and is reasonable and not arbitrary." The Tonnele Circle Viaduct, a new offramp allowing westbound trucks from the Holland Tunnel to bypass Tonnele Circle to southbound US 1/9 Truck, which now also leads to Interstate 280 (I-280), opened on September 14, 1938. The Newark Bay Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike (I-78) opened in September 1956, allowing trucks to bypass the old surface road, US 1/9 Truck.
On May 21, 1952, large numbers of trucks were spotted by Jersey City police entering the city on the skyway. Upon pulling over the drivers, they were told that the exit in Newark for the truck route was closed for construction. A call to Newark police confirmed the situation. Hudson County police refused to force trucks to exit before Jersey City, since there was no state law banning trucks from the skyway. Jersey City Police Chief James McNamara gave in, and trucks were temporarily allowed to use the skyway, though only in one direction.
When the skyway first opened, it carried five lanes; the center one was intended as a breakdown lane, but was used as a "suicide lane" for passing slower traffic. By the 1950s, the skyway was seeing over 400 crashes per year; an aluminum median barrier was added in mid-1956, in addition to a new pavement coating designed to make the road less slippery.
The skyway was a constraint in the building of the New Jersey Turnpike in 1951. The turnpike had to be built low enough to provide enough clearance underneath the skyway, but high enough to then provide sufficient clearance over the nearby Passaic River. Turnpike engineers could have built over the skyway (at a much higher cost) or under the skyway's trusses; the latter option was chosen. As part of a 2005 seismic retrofit project, the New Jersey Turnpike Authority lowered the Passaic River Viaduct Bridge on its easterly alignment to increase vertical clearance and allow for full-width shoulders underneath the Pulaski Skyway. Engineers replaced the bearings and lowered the turnpike bridge by , without shutting it to traffic.
Rehabilitation
By the 2000s, the Pulaski Skyway was considered functionally obsolete since its design did not meet highway bridge standards. In 2007, it was rated structurally deficient. The 2007 collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge in Minneapolis raised concerns about the stability of the skyway, which was one of eight New Jersey bridges with similar design features. Within days of the collapse, NJDOT announced that it would start a previously planned one-year, $10-million project to make critical repairs. The work was the first phase of a planned 10-year, $200-million interim renovation project, and marked the skyway's first significant repairs since 1984.
After work began, it was determined that the repairs needed were more extensive, costly, and time-consuming than expected, and NJDOT estimated that rehabilitation could cost more than $1.2 billion. In 2009, NJDOT estimated that it would take a decade before the state could afford to rehabilitate or replace the structure. In a controversial move in 2011, Governor Chris Christie directed the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) to divert money originally earmarked for the Access to the Region's Core rail project to highway projects. The agency agreed to pay $1.8 billion to partially fund efforts to rehabilitate the skyway and Route 139, replace Wittpenn Bridge, and extend US 1/9 Truck, all part of the larger distribution network in the Port of New York and New Jersey.
In January 2013, NJDOT announced that work on the $335 million projects for repaving and restoration of the roadway would begin at the end of 2013 by the state owned China Construction America Company. To facilitate the work, the eastbound lanes (northbound US 1/9) would close for two years after the Super Bowl XLVIII in February 2014 at the nearby Meadowlands Sports Complex. The proposal was opposed by local politicians, who contended that it did not satisfactorily address the effect on local traffic and called for more thorough investigation into alternatives. The closure date was postponed by NJDOT to more completely work out comprehensive traffic and travel options.
The roadway remained open through the use of alternate lane closures during the work until April 12, 2014, affecting the 74,000 daily crossings. The rehabilitation project, with an estimated cost of $1.2–1.5 billion, is being done in phases and spread out over ten contracts, the first of which began in 2012, and the last, for final painting of the steel structure, planned for completion in 2020. The improvements are expected to extend the life of the bridge until at least 2095.
The skyway was closed for eastbound (northbound US 1/9) traffic on April 12, 2014, for two years in order to replace the entire bridge deck. The midway access ramps in South Kearny and Jersey City were closed to regular traffic, but would be available to emergency responders. In April 2015, NJDOT said that unforeseen additional repairs would be made, extending the scheduled April 2016 completion date to sometime later that year and adding $14 million in costs. In March 2018, after several construction delays, it was announced that the Pulaski Skyway was set to be reopened to all traffic that spring. The skyway reopened to all traffic on June 30, 2018, two days earlier than NJDOT had originally announced. Auxiliary projects, such as rehabilitation of ramps onto the skyway and reconstruction of Route 139, are expected to continue at least through 2026.
Travel alternatives
NJDOT worked with New Jersey Transit (NJT) to bolster public transportation, encouraged car and van pooling, worked with local community officials, employers, truckers, local port employees, and the public to alleviate problems and address flexible working hours, and publicized alternate transportation options through television, radio, social media, news media, and its skyway website.
To ease congestion, the Turnpike Authority converted a shoulder of the Newark Bay-Hudson County Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike to a traveling lane. Temporary lane control lights on of the extension would indicate that extra lane is open during peak hours, at which time the speed limit would be reduced. This set-up would be able to handle 1,900 vehicles an hour in addition to the slightly more than 4,000 vehicles per hour on the existing lanes during peak periods. To reduce delays, variable message signs would provide motorists with daily traffic alerts and an adaptive traffic signal system would be installed and monitored by the Meadowlands Commission to synchronize traffic lights at 15 intersections along US 1/9 Truck and Route 440 in Kearny Point and Jersey City. They are part of a larger "intelligent transportation system", the Meadowlands Adaptive Signal System, a network of traffic-controlled intersections with vehicle detectors in the Meadowlands. In anticipation of traffic overflow onto local Jersey City streets, off-duty police officers would be hired to direct traffic heading to the Holland Tunnel during rush hours.
To promote public transportation, NJT and PATH offered more frequent peak hour train services to Newark, Hoboken and Jersey City on the Hudson Waterfront, and Manhattan. NJT added a new bus route for peak hour service between Watchung and Newark Penn Station, along the US 22 corridor, and their bus schedules accommodated additional passengers on existing routes.
Funding controversy
On June 12, 2014, the PANYNJ acknowledged that the Securities and Exchange Commission, New York County District Attorney, and United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey were investigating its diversion of $1.8 billion to fund the Pulaski Skyway and other New Jersey roadway rehabilitation projects. These inquiries were related to how this funding, which was made at the urging of the Christie administration, was potentially misrepresented in documents related to bond sales. State laws require the PANYNJ to spend money only related to its own facilities, unless it gets approval from lawmakers in New Jersey and New York. The PANYNJ documents state that the Pulaski Skyway was designated as also providing access to the Lincoln Tunnel, even though it is miles from the tunnel and does not connect to it directly. In December 2014, United Airlines filed a complaint with the Federal Aviation Administration that claims that since 2004 the PANYNJ has diverted more than $2 billion from the metro area airports to non-airport uses and that in 2014 alone it spent $181 million to repair the Pulaski Skyway and $60 million on the Wittpenn Bridge, NJDOT-owned and -operated structures.
In popular culture
The Pulaski Skyway is the subject of The Last Three Miles, a book written by Steven Hart published in 2007. The Skyway has been used in radio, film, television, and at least one video game. In the 1938 radio drama The War of the Worlds, one of the Martian machines straddles the skyway (a scene replicated in the 2005 film wherein the first machine appears in the shadow of the bridge). It was featured in the 1979 film Hair. Alfred Hitchcock's 1943 film Shadow of a Doubt and the 1999–2007 television drama The Sopranos include shots of the bridge in the opening montages. Clutch included the track "Pulaski Skyway" on its 2005 release Robot Hive/Exodus.
See also
List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in New Jersey
List of bridges, tunnels, and cuts in Hudson County, New Jersey
List of crossings of the Hackensack River
List of crossings of the Lower Passaic River
References
Footnotes
Works cited
External links
Pulaski Skyway at Bridges & Tunnels
Pulaski Skyway, at New Jersey Department of Transportation
Pulaski Skyway at NYCRoads
Bridges completed in 1932
Bridges over the Hackensack River
Bridges over the Passaic River
U.S. Route 1
U.S. Route 9
Bridges of the United States Numbered Highway System
Bridges in Hudson County, New Jersey
Bridges in Newark, New Jersey
Transportation in Newark, New Jersey
Transportation in Jersey City, New Jersey
Jersey City
Road bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in New Jersey
Historic districts in Hudson County, New Jersey
Historic American Engineering Record in New Jersey
New Jersey Register of Historic Places
Historic district contributing properties in New Jersey
Historic district contributing properties in Newark, New Jersey
National Register of Historic Places in Essex County, New Jersey
National Register of Historic Places in Hudson County, New Jersey
National Register of Historic Places in Newark, New Jersey
Causeways in the United States
Kearny, New Jersey
Steel bridges in the United States
Cantilever bridges in the United States
Pratt truss bridges in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy%20of%20genres
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Hierarchy of genres
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A hierarchy of genres is any formalization which ranks different genres in an art form in terms of their prestige and cultural value.
In literature, the epic was considered the highest form, for the reason expressed by Samuel Johnson in his Life of John Milton: "By the general consent of criticks, the first praise of genius is due to the writer of an epick poem, as it requires an assemblage of all the powers which are singly sufficient for other compositions." Below that came lyric poetry, and comic poetry, with a similar ranking for drama. The novel took a long time to establish a firm place in the hierarchy, doing so only as belief in any systematic hierarchy of forms expired in the 19th century.
In music, settings of words were accorded a higher status than merely instrumental works, at least until the Baroque period, and opera retained a superior status for much longer. The status of works also varies with the number of players and singers involved, with those written for large forces, which are certainly more difficult to write and more expensive to perform, given higher status. Any element of comedy reduced the status of a work, though, as in other art forms, often increased its popularity.
The hierarchies in figurative art are those initially formulated for painting in 16th-century Italy, which held sway with little alteration until the early 19th century. These were formalized and promoted by the academies in Europe between the 17th century and the modern era, of which the most influential became the French Académie de peinture et de sculpture, which held a central role in Academic art. The fully developed hierarchy distinguished between:
History painting, including historically important, religious, mythological, or allegorical subjects
Portrait painting
Genre painting or scenes of everyday life
Landscape and cityscape art (landscapists were called "common footmen in the Army of Art" by the Dutch theorist Samuel van Hoogstraten)
Animal painting
Still life
The hierarchy was based on a distinction between art that made an intellectual effort to "render visible the universal essence of things" (imitare in Italian) and that which merely consisted of "mechanical copying of particular appearances" (ritrarre). Idealism was privileged over realism in line with Renaissance Neo-Platonist philosophy.
The term is mostly used within the field of painting, and from the High Renaissance onwards, by which time painting had asserted itself as the highest form of art. This had not been the case in Medieval art and the art-commissioning sectors of society took a considerable period to fully accept this view. The Raphael Cartoons are a clear example of the continuing status of tapestry, the most expensive form of art in the 16th century. In the Early Medieval period lavish pieces of metalwork had typically been the most highly regarded, and valuable materials remained an important ingredient in the appreciation of art until at least the 17th century. Until the 19th century the most extravagant objets d'art remained more expensive, both new and on the art market, than all but a few paintings. Classical writings which valued the supreme skills of individual artists were influential, as well as developments in art which allowed the Renaissance artist to demonstrate their skill and invention to a greater degree than was usually possible in the Middle Ages.
Renaissance art
The hierarchy grew out of the struggle to gain acceptance of painting as one of the liberal arts, and then controversies to establish an equal or superior status within them with architecture and sculpture. These matters were considered of great importance by artist-theorists such as Leon Battista Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci, and Giorgio Vasari. Against the sculptors, Leonardo argued that the intellectual effort necessary to create an illusion of three-dimensionality made the painters' art superior to that of the sculptor, who could do so merely by recording appearances. In his De Pictura ("About Painting") of 1441, Alberti argued that multi-figure history painting was the noblest form of art, as being the most difficult, which required mastery of all the others, because it was a visual form of history, and because it had the greatest potential to move the viewer. He placed emphasis on the ability to depict the interactions between the figures by gesture and expression.
Theorists of the Early and High Renaissance accepted the importance of representing nature closely, at least until the later writings of Michelangelo, who was strongly influenced by neoplatonism. By the time of Mannerist theorists such as Gian Paolo Lomazzo and Federico Zuccari (both also painters) this was far less of a priority. Both emphasized beauty as "something which was directly infused into the mind of man from the mind of God, and existed there independent of any sense-impressions", a view bound to further reduce the status of works depending on realism. In practice the hierarchy represented little break with either medieval and classical thought, except to place secular history painting in the same class as religious art, and to distinguish (not always clearly) between static iconic religious subjects and narrative figure scenes, giving the latter a higher status. Ideas of decorum also fed into the hierarchy; comic, sordid or merely frivolous subjects or treatment ranked lower than elevated and moral ones.
During the Renaissance landscape, genre scenes and still lifes hardly existed as established genres, so discussion of the status or importance of different types of painting was mainly concerned with history subjects as against portraits, initially small and unpretentious, and iconic portrait-type religious and mythological subjects. For most artists some commitment to realism was necessary in a portrait; few could take the high-handed approach of Michelangelo, who largely ignored the actual appearance of the Medici in his Medici Chapel sculptures, supposedly saying that in a thousand years no one would know the difference (a retort Gainsborough is also said to have used, with a shorter timeframe).
Many portraits were extremely flattering, which could be justified by an appeal to idealism as well as the sitter's vanity; the theorist Armenini claimed in 1587 that "portraits by excellent artists are considered to be painted with better style [maniera] and greater perfection than others, but more often than not they are less good likenesses". On the other hand, numbers of courtly sitters and their parents, suitors or courtiers complained that painters entirely failed to do justice to the reality of the sitter.
The question of decorum in religious art became the focus of intense effort by the Catholic Church after the decrees on art of the Council of Trent of 1563. Paintings depicting biblical events as if they were occurring in the households of wealthy contemporary Italians were attacked, and soon ceased. Until the challenge of Caravaggio at the end of the century, religious art became thoroughly ideal.
17th and 18th century art
The new genres of landscape, genre painting, animal painting and still life came into their own in the 17th century, with the virtual cessation of religious painting in Protestant countries, and the expansion of picture buying to the prosperous middle class. Although similar developments occurred in all advanced European countries, they were most evident in the enormously productive schools of Dutch Golden Age painting and Flemish Baroque painting. However no theorists emerged to champion the new genres, and the relatively small amount of Dutch theoretical writing, by Karel van Mander, Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten, Gerard de Lairesse and others, was mostly content to rehash Italian views, so that their writings can seem oddly at variance with the Dutch art actually being produced in their day.
The hierarchy was mostly accepted by artists, and even genre specialists such as Jan Steen, Karel Dujardin and Vermeer produced a few history paintings, which were better paid when commissions could be obtained, but in general far harder to sell. The unhappy history of Rembrandt's last history commission, The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (1661) illustrates both his commitment to the form and the difficulties he had in finding an audience. In Flanders, as well as great quantities of pure genre works, there was a trend towards history paintings with a major genre element, whether animals, landscape or still life. Often the different elements were painted by different artists; Rubens and Frans Snyders often co-operated in this way.
The size of paintings, and very often the prices they realized, increasingly tended to reflect their position in the hierarchy in this period. Until the Romantic period the price and saleability of what were essentially landscapes could be increased by adding small mythological or religious figures, creating a landscape with..., a practice that went back to the beginnings of landscape painting in the Flemish world landscapes of Joachim Patinir in the early 16th century. Flemish Baroque painting was the last school to often paint the lowest genres at a large size, but usually combined with figure subjects.
An influential formulation of 1667 by André Félibien, a historiographer, architect and theoretician of French classicism became the classic statement of the theory for the 18th century:Celui qui fait parfaitement des païsages est au-dessus d'un autre qui ne fait que des fruits, des fleurs ou des coquilles. Celui qui peint des animaux vivants est plus estimable que ceux qui ne représentent que des choses mortes & sans mouvement ; & comme la figure de l'homme est le plus parfait ouvrage de Dieu sur la Terre, il est certain aussi que celui qui se rend l'imitateur de Dieu en peignant des figures humaines, est beaucoup plus excellent que tous les autres ... un Peintre qui ne fait que des portraits, n'a pas encore cette haute perfection de l'Art, & ne peut prétendre à l'honneur que reçoivent les plus sçavans. Il faut pour cela passer d'une seule figure à la représentation de plusieurs ensemble ; il faut traiter l'histoire & la fable ; il faut représenter de grandes actions comme les historiens, ou des sujets agréables comme les Poëtes ; & montant encore plus haut, il faut par des compositions allégoriques, sçavoir couvrir sous le voile de la fable les vertus des grands hommes, & les mystères les plus relevez.
He who produces perfect landscapes is above another who only produces fruit, flowers or seashells. He who paints living animals is more estimable than those who only represent dead things without movement, and as man is the most perfect work of God on the earth, it is also certain that he who becomes an imitator of God in representing human figures, is much more excellent than all the others ... a painter who only does portraits still does not have the highest perfection of his art, and cannot expect the honour due to the most skilled. For that he must pass from representing a single figure to several together; history and myth must be depicted; great events must be represented as by historians, or like the poets, subjects that will please, and climbing still higher, he must have the skill to cover under the veil of myth the virtues of great men in allegories, and the mysteries they reveal".
Allegorical painting was raised above other types of history painting; together they were the grand genre, including paintings with religious, mythological, historical, literary, or allegorical subjects—they embodied some interpretation of life or conveyed a moral or intellectual message. The gods and goddesses from the ancient mythologies represented different aspects of the human psyche, figures from religions represented different ideas, and history, like the other sources, represented a dialectic or play of ideas. Subjects with several figures ranked higher than single figures. For a long time, especially during the French Revolution, history painting often focused on depiction of the heroic male nude; though this waned in the 19th century.
After history painting came, in order of decreasing worth: portraits, scenes of everyday life (called scènes de genre, or "genre painting", and also petit genre to contrast it with the grande genre), landscapes, animal painting, and finally still lifes. In his formulation, such paintings were inferior because they were merely reportorial pictures without moral force or artistic imagination. Genre paintings—neither ideal in style, nor elevated in subject—were admired for their skill, ingenuity, and even humour, but never confused with high art.
The hierarchy of genres also had a corresponding hierarchy of formats: large format for history paintings, small format for still lifes. This had occasionally been breached in the past, especially in large Flemish works, and the monumental The Young Bull of the Dutch artist Paulus Potter, as well as the larger of the two Butchers' Shop canvases of Annibale Carracci. But for the most part the relative prices obtainable for the different genres ensured the hierarchy of size also; it would not have been economic to paint a very large subject from the lower genres, except for commissioned group portraits. Rubens' largest landscapes were painted for his own houses.
The use of the pictorial elements of painting such as line and color to convey an ultimate unifying theme or idea was regarded as the highest expression of art, and an idealism was adopted in art, whereby forms seen in nature would be generalized, and in turn subordinated to the unity of the artwork. It aimed at universal truth through the imitation of nature. Later dissenting theorists, such as Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, held that this focus on allegory was faulty and based on a wrong analogy between the plastic arts and poetry rooted in the Horatian dictum ut pictura poesis ("as is painting so is poetry").
The British painter Sir Joshua Reynolds in his Discourses of the 1770s and 1780s, reiterated the argument for still life to the lowest position in the hierarchy of genres on the grounds that it interfered with the painter's access to central forms, those products of the mind's generalising powers. At the summit reigned history painting, centred on the human body: familiarity with the forms of the body permitted the mind of the painter, by comparing innumerable instances of the human form, to abstract from it those typical or central features that represented the body's essence or ideal.
Though Reynolds agreed with Félibien about the natural order of the genres, he held that an important work from any genre of painting could be produced under the hand of genius: "Whether it is the human figure, an animal, or even inanimate objects, there is nothing, however unpromising in appearance, but may be raised into dignity, convey sentiment, and produce emotion, in the hands of a painter of genius. What was said of Virgil, that he threw even the dung about the ground with an air of dignity, may be applied to Titian; whatever he touched, however naturally mean, and habitually familiar, by a kind of magic he invested with grandeur and importance."
Though European academies usually strictly insisted on this hierarchy, over their reign, many artists were able to invent new genres which raised the lower subjects to the importance of history painting. Reynolds himself achieved this by inventing the portraiture style that was called the Grand Manner, where he flattered his sitters by likening them to mythological characters. Jean-Antoine Watteau invented a genre that was called fêtes galantes, where he would show scenes of courtly amusements taking place in Arcadian settings; these often had a poetic and allegorical quality which were considered to ennoble them.
Claude Lorrain practised a genre called the ideal landscape, where a composition would be loosely based on nature and dotted with classical ruins as a setting for a biblical or historical theme. It artfully combined landscape and history painting, thereby legitimising the former. It is synonymous with the term historical landscape which received official recognition in the Académie française when a Prix de Rome for the genre was established in 1817. Finally, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin was able to create still life paintings that were considered to have the charm and beauty as to be placed alongside the best allegorical subjects. However, aware of this hierarchy, Chardin began including figures in his work in about 1730, mainly women and children.
19th century
Romanticism greatly increased the status of landscape painting, beginning in British art and more gradually that of genre painting, which began to influence history painting in the anecdotal treatments of the Style Troubadour in France and equivalent trends elsewhere. Landscapes grew in size to reflect their new importance, often matching history paintings, especially in the American Hudson River School and Russian painting. Animal paintings also increased in size and dignity, but the full-length portrait, even of royalty, became mostly reserved for large public buildings.
Until the middle of the 19th century, women were largely unable to paint history paintings as they were not allowed to participate in the final process of artistic training—that of life drawing, in order to protect their modesty. They could work from reliefs, prints, casts and from the Old Masters, but not from the nude model. Instead they were encouraged to participate in the lower painting forms such as portraiture, landscape and genre. These were considered more feminine in that they appealed to the eye rather than the mind.
Toward the end of the 19th century, painters and critics began to rebel against the many rules of the Académie française, including the status accorded to history painting, which was beginning to be bought mainly by public bodies of one sort or another, as private buyers preferred subjects from lower down the hierarchy. In Britain the Pre-Raphaelite movement tried to revitalize the history painting, with mixed success; other movements made similar efforts. Many Pre-Raphaelites ended their careers mainly painting other subjects. New artistic movements included the Realists and Impressionists, which each sought to depict the present moment and daily life as observed by the eye, and unattached from historical significance; the Realists often choosing genre painting and still life, while the Impressionists would most often focus on landscapes.
See also
Rockism and poptimism
Notes
References
Bass, Laura L.,The Drama of the Portrait: Theater and Visual Culture in Early Modern Spain, Penn State Press, 2008, ,
Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450-1660, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP,
Campbell, Lorne, Renaissance Portraits, European Portrait-Painting in the 14th, 15th and 16th Centuries, Yale,
Fuchs, RH; Dutch painting; 1978, Thames and Hudson, London,
Lee, Rensselaer W., Ut Pictura Poesis, The Humanistic Theory of Painting, Norton Simon, New York, 1967. Rensselaer W. Lee, Ut Pictura Poesis Online text of book
Reitlinger, Gerald; ''The Economics of Taste, Vol I: The Rise and Fall of Picture Prices 1760–1960, Barrie and Rockliffe, London, 1961
Visual arts genres
Art history
Painting
Visual arts theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January%20Uprising
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January Uprising
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The January Uprising (; ; ; ; ) was an insurrection principally in Russia's Kingdom of Poland that was aimed at putting an end to Russian occupation of part of Poland and regaining independence. It began on 22 January 1863 and continued until the last insurgents were captured by the Russian forces in 1864.
It was the longest-lasting insurgency in partitioned Poland. The conflict engaged all levels of society and arguably had profound repercussions on contemporary international relations and ultimately provoked a social and ideological paradigm shift in national events that went on to have a decisive influence on the subsequent development of Polish society.
A confluence of factors rendered the uprising inevitable in early 1863. The Polish nobility and urban bourgeois circles longed for the semi-autonomous status they had enjoyed in Congress Poland before the previous insurgency, a generation earlier in 1830, and youth encouraged by the success of the Italian independence movement urgently desired the same outcome. Russia had been weakened by its Crimean adventure and had introduced a more liberal attitude in its internal politics which encouraged Poland's underground National Government to plan an organised strike against their Russian occupiers no earlier than the spring of 1863. They had not reckoned with Aleksander Wielopolski, the pro-Russian archconservative head of the civil administration in the Russian partition. In an attempt to derail the Polish national movement, he brought forward to January the conscription of young Polish activists into the Imperial Russian Army for 20-year service. That decision is what triggered the January Uprising of 1863, the very outcome that Wielopolski had wanted to avoid.
The rebellion by young Polish conscripts was soon joined by high-ranking Polish-Lithuanian officers and members of the political class. The insurrectionists, as yet ill-organised, were severely outnumbered and lacking sufficient foreign support and forced into hazardous guerrilla tactics. Reprisals were swift and ruthless. Public executions and deportations to Siberia eventually persuaded many Poles to abandon armed struggle. In addition, Tsar Alexander II hit the landed gentry hard and, as a result, the whole economy, with a sudden decision in 1864 for finally abolishing serfdom in Poland. The ensuing breakup of estates and destitution of many peasants convinced educated Poles to turn instead to the idea of "organic work", economic and cultural self-improvement.
Background
Despite the Russian Empire's loss of the Crimean War and weakened economic and political state, Alexander II warned in 1856 against further concessions with the words "forget any dreams". There were two prevailing streams of thought among the population of the Kingdom of Poland. One had patriotic stirrings within liberal-conservative usually landed and intellectual circles, centered around Andrzej Zamoyski and hoped for an orderly return to the constitutional status before 1830; they became characterized as the Whites. The alternative tendency, characterized as the Reds, represented a democratic movement uniting peasants, workers and some clergy. For both streams central to their dilemma was the peasant question. However, estate owners tended to favour the abolition of serfdom in exchange for compensation, but the democratic movement saw the overthrow of the Russian yoke as entirely dependent on an unconditional liberation of the peasantry.
Just as the democrats organized the first religious and patriotic demonstrations in 1860, covert resistance groups began to form among educated youth. Blood was first to shed in Warsaw in February 1861, when the Russian Army attacked a demonstration in Castle Square on the anniversary of the Battle of Grochów. There were five fatalities. Fearing the spread of spontaneous unrest, Alexander II reluctantly agreed to accept a petition for a change in the system of governance. Ultimately, he agreed to the appointment of Aleksander Wielopolski to head a commission to look into Religious Observance and Public Education and announced the formation of a State Council and self-governance for towns and powiats. The concessions did not prevent further demonstrations. On 8 April, there were 200 killed and 500 wounded by Russian fire. Martial law was imposed in Warsaw, and brutally-repressive measures were taken against the organisers in Warsaw and Vilna by deporting them deep into Russia.
In Vilna alone, 116 demonstrations were held in 1861. That autumn, Russians had introduced a state of emergency in Vilna Governorate, Kovno Governorate and Grodno Governorate.
The events led to a speedier consolidation of the resistance. Future leaders of the uprising gathered secretly in St. Petersburg, Warsaw, Vilna, Paris and London. Two bodies emerged from those consultations. By October 1861, the urban "Movement Committee" (Komitet Ruchu Miejski) had been formed, followed in June 1862, by the Central National Committee (CNC). Its leadership included Stefan Bobrowski, Jarosław Dąbrowski, Zygmunt Padlewski, Agaton Giller and Bronisław Szwarce. The body directed the creation of national structures that were intended to become a new secret Polish state. The CNC had not planned an uprising before the spring of 1863 at the earliest. However, Wielopolski's move to start conscription to the Russian Army in mid-January forced its hand to call the uprising prematurely on the night of 22–23 January 1863.
Call to arms in the Kingdom of Poland
The uprising broke out at a moment when general peace prevailed in Europe, and although there was vociferous support for the Poles, powers such as France, Britain and Austria were unwilling to disturb the international calm. The revolutionary leaders did not have sufficient means to arm and equip the groups of young men hiding in forests to escape Alexander Wielopolski's order of conscription into the Russian Army. Initially, about 10,000 men rallied around the revolutionary banner. The volunteers came chiefly from city working classes and minor clerks, but there was also a significant number of the younger sons of the poorer szlachta (nobility) and a number of priests of lower rank. Initially, the Russian government had at its disposal an army of 90,000 men, under Russian General Anders Edvard Ramsay, in Poland.
It looked as if the rebellion might be crushed quickly. Undeterred, the CNC's provisional government issued a manifesto in which it declared "all sons of Poland are free and equal citizens without distinction of creed, condition or rank". It decreed that land cultivated by the peasants, whether on the basis of rent or service, should become their unconditional property, and compensation for it would be given to the landlords out of State general funds. The provisional government did its best to send supplies to the unarmed and scattered volunteers, who, in February, had fought in eighty bloody skirmishes with the Russians. Meanwhile, the CNC issued an appeal for assistance to the nations of Western Europe that was received everywhere with supportive sentiments from Norway to Portugal. The Confederate States of America sympathized with the Polish-Lithuanian rebels and viewed their struggles analogous. Italian, French and Hungarian officers answered the call. Pope Pius IX was against the 1863 uprising of which he informed Wsyslaw Czartoryski. The historian Jerzy Zdrada records that by the late spring and the early summer of 1863, there were 35,000 Poles under arms facing a Russian Army of 145,000 in the Polish Kingdom.
Uprising spreads to Lithuania
On 1 February 1863, the uprising erupted in the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In April and May, it had spread to Dinaburg, Latvia and Witebsk, Belarus, to the Kiev Governorate, northern Ukraine, and to the Wolynian Voivodship. Volunteers, weapons and supplies began to flow in over the borders from Galicia, in the Austrian Partition, and from the Prussian Partition. Volunteers also arrived from Italy, Hungary, France and Russia itself. The greatest setback was that in spite of the liberation manifesto from the KCN, without prior ideological agitation, the peasantry could not be mobilized to participate in the struggle except in those regions that were dominated by Polish units, which saw a gradual enrollment into the uprising of agricultural workers.
Secret State
The secret Polish state was directed by the Rada Narodowa (RN, National Council) to which the civil and military structures on the ground were accountable. It was a "virtual coalition government" formed of the Reds and the Whites and was led by Zygmunt Sierakowski, Antanas Mackevičius and Konstanty Kalinowski. The latter two supported their counterparts in Poland and adhered to common policies.
Its diplomatic corps was centered on Paris under the direction of Wladyslaw Czartoryski. The eruption of armed conflict in the former Commonwealth of Two Nations had surprised western European capitals, even if public opinion responded with sympathy for the rebel cause. It had dawned on Paris, London, Vienna and Saint Petersburg that the crisis could plausibly turn into an international war. For their part, Russian diplomats considered the uprising an internal matter, and European stability was generally predicated on the fate of Poland's aspiration.
International repercussions
The uncovering of the existence of the Alvensleben Convention, signed on 8 February 1863 by Prussia and Russia in St. Petersburg, to suppress the Poles jointly, internationalized the uprising. It enabled Western powers to take the diplomatic initiative for their own ends. Napoleon III of France, already a sympathizer with Poland, was concerned to protect his border on the Rhine and turned his political guns on Prussia with a view to provoking a war with it. He was simultaneously seeking an alliance with Austria. The United Kingdom, on the other hand, sought to prevent a Franco-Prussian war and to block an Austrian alliance with France and so looked to scupper any rapprochement between France and Russia. Austria was competing with Prussia for the leadership of the German territories but rejected French approaches for an alliance and spurned any support of Napoleon III as acting against German interests. There was no discussion of military intervention on behalf of the Poles, despite Napoleon's support for the continuation of the insurgency.France, the United Kingdom and Austria agreed to a diplomatic intervention in defense of Polish rights and in April issued diplomatic notes that were intended to be no more than persuasive in tone. The Polish RN hoped that the evolution of the insurgency would ultimately push western powers to adopt an armed intervention, which was the flavour of Polish diplomatic talks with those powers. The Polish line was that the establishment of continued peace in Europe was conditional on the return of an independent Polish state.
With the threat of war averted, St. Petersburg left the door open for negotiations but was adamant in its rejection of any western rights to armed conflict. In June 1863, western powers iterated the conditions: an amnesty for the insurgents, the creation of a national representative structure, the development of autonomous concessions across the Kingdom, a recall of a conference of Congress of Vienna (1815) signatories and a ceasefire for its duration. That fell well below the expectations of the leadership of the uprising. While concerned by the threat of war, Alexander II felt secure enough with the support of his people to reject the proposals. Although France and Britain were insulted, they did not proceed with further interventions, which enabled Russia to extend and finally to break off negotiations in September 1863.
Outcome on the ground
Apart from the efforts of Sweden, diplomatic intervention by foreign powers on behalf of Poland was on the balance unhelpful in drawing attention away from the aim of Polish national unity towards its social divisions. It alienated Austria, which had maintained friendly neutrality towards Poland and not interfered with Polish activities in Galicia. It prejudiced public opinion among radical groups in Russia that until then had been friendly because they regarded the uprising as a social, rather than a national, insurgency. It also stirred the Russian government to ever more brutal suppression of hostilities and repression against its Polish participants, who had grown in strength.
In addition to the thousands who fell in battle, 128 men were hanged under the personal supervision of Mikhail Muravyov 'Muravyov the Hangman', and 9,423 men and women were exiled to Siberia, 2,500 men according to Russia's own estimates. The historian Norman Davies gives the number as 80,000 and noted it was the single largest deportation in Russian history. Whole villages and towns were burned down. All economic and social activities were suspended, and the szlachta was ruined through the confiscation of property and exorbitant taxes. Such was the brutality of Russian troops that their actions were condemned throughout Europe. Count Fyodor Berg, the newly appointed governor, Namiestnik of Poland, and the successor to Muravyov, employed harsh measures against the population and intensified systematic Russification in an effort to eradicate Polish traditions and culture.
Social and ethnic divisions laid bare
Insurgents of landed background constituted 60% of the uprising's participants (in Lithuania and Belarus around 50%, in Ukraine some 75%). Records indicate that 95% of those punished for participation in the uprising were Catholic, which corresponded to the general proportion of participants.
Despite outreach to Rus (Ruthenian) peasants by the Polish gentry (szlachta), comparatively few partook in the January Uprising. In some cases they assisted the Russian forces in catching rebels. This has been cited as one of the primary reasons for the failure of the uprising.
During the first 24 hours of the uprising, armouries across the country were looted, and many Russian officials were executed on sight. On 2 February 1863, was the start of the first major military engagement of the uprising between Lithuanian peasants armed mostly with scythes and a squadron of Russian hussars outside Čysta Būda, near Marijampolė. It ended with the massacre of the unprepared peasants. While there was still hope of a short war, insurgent groups merged into larger formations and recruited new volunteers.
Evolution of events
The provisional government had counted on an insurgency erupting in Russia, where wide discontent with the autocratic regime then seemed to be brewing. It also counted on the active support of Napoleon III, particularly after Prussia, expecting the inevitable armed conflict with France, had made overtures to Russia sealed in the Alvensleben Convention and offered assistance in suppressing the Polish uprising. Arrangements had already been completed on 14 February and the British Ambassador to Berlin, Sir Alexander Malet, informed his government that a Prussian military envoy
has concluded a military convention with the Russian Government, according to which the two governments will reciprocally afford facilities to each other for the suppression of the insurrectionary movements which have lately taken place in Poland and Lithuania. The Prussian railways are also to be placed at the disposal of the Russian military authorities for the transportation of troops through Prussian territory from one part of the former Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth to another.
That step by Otto von Bismarck led to protests from several governments and incensed the several constituent nations of the former Commonwealth. The result was the transformation of a relatively insignificant uprising into another "national war" against Russia. Encouraged by promises made by Napoleon III, all provinces of the erstwhile Commonwealth, acting on the advice of Władysław Czartoryski, had taken to arms. Moreover, to Indicate their solidarity, all Commonwealth citizens holding office under the Russian government, including the Archbishop of Warsaw, Zymunt Feliński, resigned their positions and signed their allegiance to the newly constituted Government, which was composed of the five most prominent representatives of the Whites. The Reds, meanwhile, criticised the Polish National Government for being reactionary with its policy to incentivise Polish peasants to fight in the uprising. The government justified its inaction on the back of hopes of foreign military intervention promised by Napoleon III that never materialised.
Romuald Traugutt
It was only after Polish General Romuald Traugutt had taken matters into his own hands on 17 October 1863 to unite all classes under a single national banner that the struggle could be upheld. His restructuring in preparation for an offensive in spring 1864 was banking on a European-wide war. On 27 December 1863, he enacted a decree of the former provisional government by granting peasants the land they worked. The land was to be provided by compensating the owners through state funds after the successful conclusion of the uprising. Traugutt called upon all Polish classes to rise against Russian oppression for the creation of a new Polish state. The response was moderate since the policy came too late. The Russian government had already begun working among peasants to grant them generous parcels of land for the asking. The peasants who had been bought off did not engage with Polish revolutionaries to any extent or provide them with support.
Fighting continued intermittently during the winter of 1863–1864 on the southern edge of the Kingdom, near the Galician border, from where assistance was still forthcoming. In late December in the Lublin Voivodeship, General Michał Heydenreich's unit was overwhelmed. The most determined resistance continued in the Świętokrzyskie Mountains, where General Józef Hauke-Bosak distinguished himself by taking several cities from the vastly superior Russian forces. However, he too succumbed to a crushing defeat on 21 February 1864 which presaged the end of the armed struggle. On 29 February, Austria imposed martial law, and on 2 March, the tsarist authorities brought in the abolition of serfdom in the Polish Kingdom. Both events neutralised Traugutt's concept of developing the uprising with a general mobilisation of the population in the Russian partition and reliance on assistance from Galicia. In April 1864, Napoleon III abandoned the Polish cause. Władysław Czartoryski wrote to Traugutt: "We are alone, and alone we shall remain".
Arrests eliminated key positions in the secret Polish state, and those who felt threatened sought refuge abroad. Traugutt was taken on the night of 10 April. After he and the last four members of the National Council, Antoni Jezioranski, Rafał Krajewski, Józef Toczyski and Roman Żuliński, had been apprehended by Russian troops, they were imprisoned and executed by hanging on 5 August at the Warsaw Citadel. That marked the symbolic closure of the Uprising. Only Aleksander Waszkowski, the head of the Warsaw insurgency eluded the police till December 1864, but he too joined the list of "the lost" in February 1865. The war consisting of 650 battles and skirmishes with 25,000 Polish and other insurgents killed, had lasted 18 months. The insurgency persisted in Samogitia and Podlasie, where the Greek Catholic population, outraged and persecuted for their religious observance, "Kryaki (those baptised into the Greek Orthodox Church), and others like the commander and priest Stanisław Brzóska, clung the longest to the revolutionary banner until the spring of 1865.
Decades of reprisals
After the collapse of the uprising, harsh reprisals followed. According to official Russian information, 396 persons were executed and 18,672 were exiled to Siberia. Large numbers of men and women were sent to the interior of Russia and to the Caucasus, Urals and other remote areas. Altogether over 60,000 persons were imprisoned and subsequently exiled from Poland and consigned to distant regions of Russia.
The abolition of serfdom in early 1864 was deliberately enacted in a move designed specifically to ruin the szlachta. The Russian government confiscated 1,660 estates in Poland and 1,794 in Lithuania. A 10% income tax was imposed on all estates as a war indemnity. Only in 1869 was the tax reduced to 5% on all incomes. It was the only time that peasants paid the market price for the redemption of the land (the average for the Russian Empire was 34% above the market price). All land taken from Polish peasants since 1864 was to be returned without rights of compensation. Former serfs could sell land only to other peasants, not to szlachta. Ninety percent of the ex-serfs in the empire who actually gained land after 1861 were confined to the eight western provinces. Along with Romania, Polish landless or domestic serfs were the only people who were eligible for land grants after serfdom had been abolished.
All of that was to punish the szlachta for its role in the uprisings of 1830 and 1863. In addition to the land granted to the peasants, the Russian government gave them a forest, pasture and other privileges, known under the name of servitutes, which proved to be a source of incessant irritation between the landowners and peasants over the ensuing decades and impeded economic development. The government took over all church estates and funds and abolished monasteries and convents. With the exception of religious instruction, all teaching in schools was ordered to be in Russian. That also became the official language of the country, to be used exclusively in all offices of central and local government. All traces of former Polish autonomy were removed, and the Kingdom was divided into ten provinces, each with an appointed Russian military governor under the control of the Governor-General in Warsaw. All former Polish government functionaries were deprived of their positions and replaced by Russian officials. According to George Kennan, "thousands of Polish insurgents" were transported to the "Nerchinsk silver-mining district... after the unsuccessful insurrection of 1863".
Legacy
These measures of cultural eradication proved to be only partially effective. In 1905, 41 years after Russia crushed the uprising, the next generation of Poles rose once again in the Łódź insurrection, which too failed.
The January Uprising was one in a centuries-long series of Polish uprisings. In its aftermath, two new movements began to evolve that set the political agenda for the next century. One, led by the descendant of Lithuanians, Józef Piłsudski emerged as the Polish Socialist Party. The other, led by Roman Dmowski, became the National Democracy movement; sometimes referred to as Endecja, its roots lay in Catholic conservatism that sought national sovereignty, along with the reversal of forced Russification and Germanisation by the Polonisation of the partitioned territories in the former Commonwealth.
Notable insurgents
Francišak Bahuševič (1840–1900), Belarusian poet and writer, one of the founders of modern Belarusian literature
Stanisław Brzóska (1832–1865), Polish priest and commander at the end of the insurrection.
Saint Albert Chmielowski (1845–1916), founder of the Albertine Brothers and Sisters.
Jarosław Dąbrowski (1836–1871), officer in the Russian Army, left-wing member of the "secret committee" of officers in St. Petersburg. He took over its leadership from Sierakowski. He died in Paris fighting for the Paris Commune.
Wincenty Kalinowski (also known as Kastus) (1838–1864), was one of the leaders of Lithuanian national revival, a founder of Belarusian nationalism, and the leader of the January Uprising in the lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Saint Raphael Kalinowski (1835–1907), born Joseph Kalinowski in Lithuania, resigned as a Captain from the Russian Army to become Minister of War for the Polish insurgents. He was arrested and sentenced to death by firing squad, but the sentence was then changed to 10 years in Siberia, including a grueling nine-month overland trek to get there.
Apollo Korzeniowski (1820–1869), Polish playwright and father of Joseph Conrad.
Marian Langiewicz (1827–1887), Military Commander of the uprising. He had an English wife, Suzanne, next to whom he was buried in Istanbul.
Antanas Mackevičius (1828–1863), Lithuanian priest who organized some two hundred and fifty men, armed with hunting rifles and straightened scythes. After a defeat near Vilkija, he was captured and taken to the prison in Kaunas. After Mackevičius refused to betray other leaders of the uprising, he was hanged on 28 December 1863.
Ludwik Mierosławski (1814–1878), veteran of the November Uprising and of the Greater Poland uprising (1846), general, strategist, writer and emigrant with wide foreign contacts.
Władysław Niegolewski (1819–1885), was a liberal Polish politician and member of parliament, an insurgent in the Greater Poland Uprising of 1846 and 1848 and of the January 1863 Uprising, and a co-founder (1861) of the Central Economic Society and (1880) the People's Libraries Society.
Francesco Nullo (1826–1863), Italian general who headed the Garibaldi Legion, and that carried huge symbolic value. Nullo died at the Battle of Krzykawka.
Bolesław Prus (1847–1912), leading Polish writer of historical novels.
Anna Henryka Pustowójtówna (1838–1881), alias "Michał Smok", adjutant to Marian Langiewicz. She was of Russian-Polish descent and an activist from 1861. She later took part in the Paris Commune and the Franco-Prussian War. Having had four children, she later died in Paris.
François Rochebrune, (1830–1870), one of several French officers in the Uprising, he formed and led a Polish rebel unit called the Zouaves of Death and was promoted to General.
Aleksander Sochaczewski (1843–1923), Polish painter.
Romuald Traugutt (1826–1864), a Lieutenant colonel of German descent in the Russian Army, he was promoted general in the insurrection, was its leader for a spell and held the Foreign Affairs portfolio in the underground government. He was tortured and hanged by the Russians with several of his colleagues.
Influence on art and literature
Falling into the late romantic period, the events and figures of the uprising inspired many Polish painters, including Artur Grottger, Juliusz Kossak and Michał Elwiro Andriolli, and marked the delineation with the positivism that followed.
The Polish poet Cyprian Norwid wrote a famous poem, "Chopin's Piano," describing the defenestration of the composer's piano during the January 1863 Uprising, when Russian soldiers maliciously threw the instrument out of a second-floor Warsaw apartment. Chopin had left Warsaw and Poland forever shortly before the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising.
Eliza Orzeszkowa, a leading Polish positivist writer and nominee for the Nobel Prize in Literature wrote Nad Niemnem a novel set in and around the city of Grodno after the 1863 January Uprising.
Józef Jarzębowski has put together material from unknown people who lived through the uprising in his Mówią Ludzie Roku 1863: Antologia nieznanych i małoznanych Głosów Ludzi współczesnych. London: Veritas, 1963. ("Voices from 1863: An Anthology of unknown and little known contemporary Perspectives").
In the initial draft of Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea by Jules Verne but not in the published version, Captain Nemo was a Polish nobleman whose family had been brutally murdered by the Russians during the January 1863 Uprising. Since France had only recently signed an alliance with the Russian Empire, for the novel's final version, Verne's editor, Pierre-Jules Hetzel, made him obscure Nemo's motives.
In Guy de Maupassant's novel Pierre et Jean, the protagonist Pierre has a friend, an old Polish chemist who is said to have come to France after the bloody events in his motherland. The story is believed to refer to the January Uprising.
Gallery
See also
Stefan Brykczyński
Menotti Garibaldi
Zouaves of Death
Insurgence
Polish uprisings
Sybirak
The Prisoners
International Workingmen's Association
References
Further reading
External links
Database of January insurgents
Augustin O'Brien Petersburg and Warsaw: scenes witnessed during a residence in Poland and Russia in 1863–1864 (1864)
William Ansell Day. The Russian government in Poland: with a narrative of the Polish Insurrection of 1863 (1867)
Pictures and paintings dedicated January Uprising on YouTube
—Polish movie about the uprising (1992)
19th-century rebellions
Resistance to the Russian Empire
Conflicts in 1863
Conflicts in 1864
Rebellions in Poland
19th century in Belarus
History of Ukraine (1795–1918)
Wars of independence
Political history of Latvia
Nationalist movements in Europe
Nationalism in Latvia
1863 in Poland
1864 in Poland
Polish nationalism
Romantic nationalism
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Alphabetical order
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Alphabetical order is a system whereby character strings are placed in order based on the position of the characters in the conventional ordering of an alphabet. It is one of the methods of collation. In mathematics, a lexicographical order is the generalization of the alphabetical order to other data types, such as sequences of numbers or other ordered mathematical objects.
When applied to strings or sequences that may contain digits, numbers or more elaborate types of elements, in addition to alphabetical characters, the alphabetical order is generally called a lexicographical order.
To determine which of two strings of characters comes first when arranging in alphabetical order, their first letters are compared. If they differ, then the string whose first letter comes earlier in the alphabet comes before the other string. If the first letters are the same, then the second letters are compared, and so on. If a position is reached where one string has no more letters to compare while the other does, then the first (shorter) string is deemed to come first in alphabetical order.
Capital or upper case letters are generally considered to be identical to their corresponding lower case letters for the purposes of alphabetical ordering, although conventions may be adopted to handle situations where two strings differ only in capitalization. Various conventions also exist for the handling of strings containing spaces, modified letters, such as those with diacritics, and non-letter characters such as marks of punctuation.
The result of placing a set of words or strings in alphabetical order is that all of the strings beginning with the same letter are grouped together; within that grouping all words beginning with the same two-letter sequence are grouped together; and so on. The system thus tends to maximize the number of common initial letters between adjacent words.
History
Alphabetical order was first used in the 1st millennium BCE by Northwest Semitic scribes using the abjad system. However, a range of other methods of classifying and ordering material, including geographical, chronological, hierarchical and by category, were preferred over alphabetical order for centuries.
Parts of the Bible are dated to the 7th–6th centuries BCE. In the Book of Jeremiah, the prophet utilizes the Atbash substitution cipher, based on alphabetical order. Similarly, biblical authors used acrostics based on the (ordered) Hebrew alphabet.
The first effective use of alphabetical order as a cataloging device among scholars may have been in ancient Alexandria, in the Great Library of Alexandria, which was founded around 300 BCE. The poet and scholar Callimachus, who worked there, is thought to have created the world's first library catalog, known as the Pinakes, with scrolls shelved in alphabetical order of the first letter of authors' names.
In the 1st century BC, Roman writer Varro compiled alphabetic lists of authors and titles. In the 2nd century CE, Sextus Pompeius Festus wrote an encyclopedic epitome of the works of Verrius Flaccus, De verborum significatu, with entries in alphabetic order. In the 3rd century CE, Harpocration wrote a Homeric lexicon alphabetized by all letters. In the 10th century, the author of the Suda used alphabetic order with phonetic variations.
Alphabetical order as an aid to consultation started to enter the mainstream of Western European intellectual life in the second half of the 12th century, when alphabetical tools were developed to help preachers analyse biblical vocabulary. This led to the compilation of alphabetical concordances of the Bible by the Dominican friars in Paris in the 13th century, under Hugh of Saint Cher. Older reference works such as St. Jerome's Interpretations of Hebrew Names were alphabetized for ease of consultation. The use of alphabetical order was initially resisted by scholars, who expected their students to master their area of study according to its own rational structures; its success was driven by such tools as Robert Kilwardby's index to the works of St. Augustine, which helped readers access the full original text instead of depending on the compilations of excerpts which had become prominent in 12th century scholasticism. The adoption of alphabetical order was part of the transition from the primacy of memory to that of written works. The idea of ordering information by the order of the alphabet also met resistance from the compilers of encyclopaedias in the 12th and 13th centuries, who were all devout churchmen. They preferred to organise their material theologically – in the order of God's creation, starting with Deus (meaning God).
In 1604 Robert Cawdrey had to explain in Table Alphabeticall, the first monolingual English dictionary, "Nowe if the word, which thou art desirous to finde, begin with (a) then looke in the beginning of this Table, but if with (v) looke towards the end". Although as late as 1803 Samuel Taylor Coleridge condemned encyclopedias with "an arrangement determined by the accident of initial letters", many lists are today based on this principle.
Arrangement in alphabetical order can be seen as a force for democratising access to information, as it does not require extensive prior knowledge to find what was needed.
Ordering in the Latin script
Basic order and examples
The standard order of the modern ISO basic Latin alphabet is:
A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H-I-J-K-L-M-N-O-P-Q-R-S-T-U-V-W-X-Y-Z
An example of straightforward alphabetical ordering follows:
As; Aster; Astrolabe; Astronomy; Astrophysics; At; Ataman; Attack; Baa
Another example:
Barnacle; Be; Been; Benefit; Bent
The above words are ordered alphabetically. As comes before Aster because they begin with the same two letters and As has no more letters after that whereas Aster does. The next three words come after Aster because their fourth letter (the first one that differs) is r, which comes after e (the fourth letter of Aster) in the alphabet. Those words themselves are ordered based on their sixth letters (l, n and p respectively). Then comes At, which differs from the preceding words in the second letter (t comes after s). Ataman comes after At for the same reason that Aster came after As. Attack follows Ataman based on comparison of their third letters, and Baa comes after all of the others because it has a different first letter.
Treatment of multiword strings
When some of the strings being ordered consist of more than one word, i.e., they contain spaces or other separators such as hyphens, then two basic approaches may be taken. In the first approach, all strings are ordered initially according to their first word, as in the sequence:
Oak; Oak Hill; Oak Ridge; Oakley Park; Oakley River
where all strings beginning with the separate word Oak precede all those beginning with Oakley, because Oak precedes Oakley in alphabetical order.
In the second approach, strings are alphabetized as if they had no spaces, giving the sequence:
Oak; Oak Hill; Oakley Park; Oakley River; Oak Ridge
where Oak Ridge now comes after the Oakley strings, as it would if it were written "Oakridge".
The second approach is the one usually taken in dictionaries, and it is thus often called dictionary order by publishers. The first approach has often been used in book indexes, although each publisher traditionally set its own standards for which approach to use therein; there was no ISO standard for book indexes (ISO 999) before 1975.
Special cases
Modified letters
In French, modified letters (such as those with diacritics) are treated the same as the base letter for alphabetical ordering purposes. For example, rôle comes between rock and rose, as if it were written role. However, languages that use such letters systematically generally have their own ordering rules. See below.
Ordering by surname
In most cultures where family names are written after given names, it is still desired to sort lists of names (as in telephone directories) by family name first. In this case, names need to be reordered to be sorted correctly. For example, Juan Hernandes and Brian O'Leary should be sorted as "Hernandes, Juan" and "O'Leary, Brian" even if they are not written this way. Capturing this rule in a computer collation algorithm is complex, and simple attempts will fail. For example, unless the algorithm has at its disposal an extensive list of family names, there is no way to decide if "Gillian Lucille van der Waal" is "van der Waal, Gillian Lucille", "Waal, Gillian Lucille van der", or even "Lucille van der Waal, Gillian".
Ordering by surname is frequently encountered in academic contexts. Within a single multi-author paper, ordering the authors alphabetically by surname, rather than by other methods such as reverse seniority or subjective degree of contribution to the paper, is seen as a way of "acknowledg[ing] similar contributions" or "avoid[ing] disharmony in collaborating groups". The practice in certain fields of ordering citations in bibliographies by the surnames of their authors has been found to create bias in favour of authors with surnames which appear earlier in the alphabet, while this effect does not appear in fields in which bibliographies are ordered chronologically.
The and other common words
If a phrase begins with a very common word (such as "the", "a" or "an", called articles in grammar), that word is sometimes ignored or moved to the end of the phrase, but this is not always the case. For example, the book "The Shining" might be treated as "Shining", or "Shining, The" and therefore before the book title "Summer of Sam". However, it may also be treated as simply "The Shining" and after "Summer of Sam". Similarly, "A Wrinkle in Time" might be treated as "Wrinkle in Time", "Wrinkle in Time, A", or "A Wrinkle in Time". All three alphabetization methods are fairly easy to create by algorithm, but many programs rely on simple lexicographic ordering instead.
Mac prefixes
The prefixes M and Mc in Irish and Scottish surnames are abbreviations for Mac and are sometimes alphabetized as if the spelling is Mac in full. Thus McKinley might be listed before Mackintosh (as it would be if it had been spelled out as "MacKinley"). Since the advent of computer-sorted lists, this type of alphabetization is less frequently encountered, though it is still used in British telephone directories.
St prefix
The prefix St or St. is an abbreviation of "Saint", and is traditionally alphabetized as if the spelling is Saint in full. Thus in a gazetteer St John's might be listed before Salem (as if it would be if it had been spelled out as "Saint John's"). Since the advent of computer-sorted lists, this type of alphabetization is less frequently encountered, though it is still sometimes used.
Ligatures
Ligatures (two or more letters merged into one symbol) which are not considered distinct letters, such as Æ and Œ in English, are typically collated as if the letters were separate—"æther" and "aether" would be ordered the same relative to all other words. This is true even when the ligature is not purely stylistic, such as in loanwords and brand names.
Special rules may need to be adopted to sort strings which vary only by whether two letters are joined by a ligature.
Treatment of numerals
When some of the strings contain numerals (or other non-letter characters), various approaches are possible. Sometimes such characters are treated as if they came before or after all the letters of the alphabet. Another method is for numbers to be sorted alphabetically as they would be spelled: for example 1776 would be sorted as if spelled out "seventeen seventy-six", and as if spelled "vingt-quatre..." (French for "twenty-four"). When numerals or other symbols are used as special graphical forms of letters, as 1337 for leet or the movie Seven (which was stylised as Se7en), they may be sorted as if they were those letters. Natural sort order orders strings alphabetically, except that multi-digit numbers are treated as a single character and ordered by the value of the number encoded by the digits.
In the case of monarchs and popes, although their numbers are in Roman numerals and resemble letters, they are normally arranged in numerical order: so, for example, even though V comes after I, the Danish king Christian IX comes after his predecessor Christian VIII.
Language-specific conventions
Languages which use an extended Latin alphabet generally have their own conventions for treatment of the extra letters. Also in some languages certain digraphs are treated as single letters for collation purposes. For example, the Spanish alphabet treats ñ as a basic letter following n, and formerly treated the digraphs ch and ll as basic letters following c and l, respectively. Now сh and ll are alphabetized as two-letter combinations. The new alphabetization rule was issued by the Royal Spanish Academy in 1994. These digraphs were still formally designated as letters but they are no longer so since 2010. On the other hand, the digraph rr follows rqu as expected (and did so even before the 1994 alphabetization rule), while vowels with acute accents (á, é, í, ó, ú) have always been ordered in parallel with their base letters, as has the letter ü.
In a few cases, such as Arabic and Kiowa, the alphabet has been completely reordered.
Alphabetization rules applied in various languages are listed below.
In Arabic, there are two main orders of the 28 letter alphabet used today. The standard and most commonly used is the , which was coined by the early Arab linguist Nasr ibn 'Asim al-Laythi and features a visual ordering method where for example the letters baa, taa, Θaa ب ت ث are ordered base on shape of baa. The original abjad order, which phonetically resembles that of other Semitic languages as well as Latin, is still in use today, usually limited for ordering lists in a document, analogous to Roman Numerals. When the abjadiyya is used in numbering, a unique abstracted way of writing the letters must be used in order to distinguish those letters from three first letter of the sentence as well as from numbers. For example, the Alef "ا" which looks identical to the Hindi numeral one "١", a small oval loop extends clockwise of the letter's bottom, followed by a short tail. Although these characters are rarely used digitally, they have been recognized under ASCII as Arabic Mathematical Alphabet, with ranges from 1EE00 TO 1EEFF. There is a less common order, which is ordered phonetically , starting from the deep throat sound haa to the lip most meem. This order was created by Al-faraheedi.
In Azerbaijani, there are eight additional letters to the standard Latin alphabet. Five of them are vowels: i, ı, ö, ü, ə and three are consonants: ç, ş, ğ. The alphabet is the same as the Turkish, with the same sounds written with the same letters, except for three additional letters: q, x and ə for sounds that do not exist in Turkish. Although all the "Turkish letters" are collated in their "normal" alphabetical order like in Turkish, the three extra letters are collated arbitrarily after letters whose sounds approach theirs. So, q is collated just after k, x (pronounced like a German ch) is collated just after h and ə (pronounced roughly like an English short a) is collated just after e.
In Breton, there is no "c", "q", "x" but there are the digraphs "ch" and "c'h", which are collated between "b" and "d". For example: « buzhugenn, chug, c'hoar, daeraouenn » (earthworm, juice, sister, teardrop).
In Czech and Slovak, accented vowels have secondary collating weight – compared to other letters, they are treated as their unaccented forms (in Czech, A-Á, E-É-Ě, I-Í, O-Ó, U-Ú-Ů, Y-Ý, and in Slovak, A-Á-Ä, E-É, I-Í, O-Ó-Ô, U-Ú, Y-Ý), but then they are sorted after the unaccented letters (for example, the correct lexicographic order is baa, baá, báa, báá, bab, báb, bac, bác, bač, báč [in Czech] and baa, baá, baä, báa, báá, báä, bäa, bäá, bää, bab, báb, bäb, bac, bác, bäc, bač, báč, bäč [in Slovak]). Accented consonants have primary collating weight and are collated immediately after their unaccented counterparts, with exception of Ď, Ň and Ť (in Czech) and Ď, Ĺ, Ľ, Ň, Ŕ and Ť (in Slovak), which have again secondary weight. CH is considered to be a separate letter and goes between H and I. In Slovak, DZ and DŽ are also considered separate letters and are positioned between Ď and E.
In the Danish and Norwegian alphabets, the same extra vowels as in Swedish (see below) are also present but in a different order and with different glyphs (..., X, Y, Z, Æ, Ø, Å). Also, "Aa" collates as an equivalent to "Å". The Danish alphabet has traditionally seen "W" as a variant of "V", but today "W" is considered a separate letter.
In Dutch the combination IJ (representing IJ) was formerly to be collated as Y (or sometimes as a separate letter: Y < IJ < Z), but is currently mostly collated as 2 letters (II < IJ < IK). Exceptions are phone directories; IJ is always collated as Y here because in many Dutch family names Y is used where modern spelling would require IJ. Note that a word starting with ij that is written with a capital I is also written with a capital J, for example, the town IJmuiden, the river IJssel and the country IJsland (Iceland).
In Esperanto, consonants with circumflex accents (ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ), as well as ŭ (u with breve), are counted as separate letters and collated separately (c, ĉ, d, e, f, g, ĝ, h, ĥ, i, j, ĵ ... s, ŝ, t, u, ŭ, v, z).
In Estonian õ, ä, ö and ü are considered separate letters and collate after w. Letters š, z and ž appear in loanwords and foreign proper names only and follow the letter s in the Estonian alphabet, which otherwise does not differ from the basic Latin alphabet.
The Faroese alphabet also has some of the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish extra letters, namely Æ and Ø. Furthermore, the Faroese alphabet uses the Icelandic eth, which follows the D. Five of the six vowels A, I, O, U and Y can get accents and are after that considered separate letters. The consonants C, Q, X, W and Z are not found. Therefore, the first five letters are A, Á, B, D and Ð, and the last five are V, Y, Ý, Æ, Ø
In Filipino (Tagalog) and other Philippine languages, the letter Ng is treated as a separate letter. It is pronounced as in sing, ping-pong, etc. By itself, it is pronounced nang, but in general Filipino orthography, it is spelled as if it were two separate letters (n and g). Also, letter derivatives (such as Ñ) immediately follow the base letter. Filipino also is written with diacritics, but their use is very rare (except the tilde).
The Finnish alphabet and collating rules are the same as those of Swedish.
For French, the last accent in a given word determines the order. For example, in French, the following four words would be sorted this way: cote < côte < coté < côté.
In German letters with umlaut (Ä, Ö, Ü) are treated generally just like their non-umlauted versions; ß is always sorted as ss. This makes the alphabetic order Arbeit, Arg, Ärgerlich, Argument, Arm, Assistant, Aßlar, Assoziation. For phone directories and similar lists of names, the umlauts are to be collated like the letter combinations "ae", "oe", "ue" because a number of German surnames appear both with umlaut and in the non-umlauted form with "e" (Müller/Mueller). This makes the alphabetic order Udet, Übelacker, Uell, Ülle, Ueve, Üxküll, Uffenbach.
The Hungarian vowels have accents, umlauts, and double accents, while consonants are written with single, double (digraphs) or triple (trigraph) characters. In collating, accented vowels are equivalent with their non-accented counterparts and double and triple characters follow their single originals. Hungarian alphabetic order is: A=Á, B, C, Cs, D, Dz, Dzs, E=É, F, G, Gy, H, I=Í, J, K, L, Ly, M, N, Ny, O=Ó, Ö=Ő, P, Q, R, S, Sz, T, Ty, U=Ú, Ü=Ű, V, W, X, Y, Z, Zs. (Before 1984, dz and dzs were not considered single letters for collation, but two letters each, d+z and d+zs instead.) It means that e.g. nádcukor should precede nádcsomó (even though s normally precedes u), since c precedes cs in the collation. Difference in vowel length should only be taken into consideration if the two words are otherwise identical (e.g. egér, éger). Spaces and hyphens within phrases are ignored in collation. Ch also occurs as a digraph in certain words but it is not considered as a grapheme on its own right in terms of collation.
A particular feature of Hungarian collation is that contracted forms of double di- and trigraphs (such as from gy + gy or from dzs + dzs) should be collated as if they were written in full (independently of the fact of the contraction and the elements of the di- or trigraphs). For example, kaszinó should precede kassza (even though the fourth character z would normally come after s in the alphabet), because the fourth "character" (grapheme) of the word kassza is considered a second sz (decomposing ssz into sz + sz), which does follow i (in kaszinó).
In Icelandic, Þ is added, and D is followed by Ð. Each vowel (A, E, I, O, U, Y) is followed by its correspondent with acute: Á, É, Í, Ó, Ú, Ý. There is no Z, so the alphabet ends: ... X, Y, Ý, Þ, Æ, Ö.
Both letters were also used by Anglo-Saxon scribes who also used the Runic letter Wynn to represent /w/.
Þ (called thorn; lowercase þ) is also a Runic letter.
Ð (called eth; lowercase ð) is the letter D with an added stroke.
Kiowa is ordered on phonetic principles, like the Brahmic scripts, rather than on the historical Latin order. Vowels come first, then stop consonants ordered from the front to the back of the mouth, and from negative to positive voice-onset time, then the affricates, fricatives, liquids, and nasals:
A, AU, E, I, O, U, B, F, P, V, D, J, T, TH, G, C, K, Q, CH, X, S, Z, L, Y, W, H, M, N
In Lithuanian, specifically Lithuanian letters go after their Latin originals. Another change is that Y comes just before J: ... G, H, I, Į, Y, J, K...
In Polish, specifically Polish letters derived from the Latin alphabet are collated after their originals: A, Ą, B, C, Ć, D, E, Ę, ..., L, Ł, M, N, Ń, O, Ó, P, ..., S, Ś, T, ..., Z, Ź, Ż. The digraphs for collation purposes are treated as if they were two separate letters.
In Portuguese, the collating order is just like in English: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z. Digraphs and letters with diacritics are not included in the alphabet.
In Romanian, special characters derived from the Latin alphabet are collated after their originals: A, Ă, Â, ..., I, Î, ..., S, Ș, T, Ț, ..., Z.
In Serbo-Croatian and other related South Slavic languages, the five accented characters and three conjoined characters are sorted after the originals: ..., C, Č, Ć, D, DŽ, Đ, E, ..., L, LJ, M, N, NJ, O, ..., S, Š, T, ..., Z, Ž.
Spanish treated (until 1994) "CH" and "LL" as single letters, giving an ordering of , , and , , . This is not true any more since in 1994 the RAE adopted the more conventional usage, and now LL is collated between LK and LM, and CH between CG and CI. The six characters with diacritics Á, É, Í, Ó, Ú, Ü are treated as the original letters A, E, I, O, U, for example: , , , , . The only Spanish-specific collating question is Ñ () as a different letter collated after N.
In the Swedish alphabet, there are three extra vowels placed at its end (..., X, Y, Z, Å, Ä, Ö), similar to the Danish and Norwegian alphabet, but with different glyphs and a different collating order. The letter "W" has been treated as a variant of "V", but in the 13th edition of Svenska Akademiens ordlista (2006) "W" was considered a separate letter.
In the Turkish alphabet there are six additional letters: ç, ğ, ı, ö, ş, and ü (but no q, w, and x). They are collated with ç after c, ğ after g, ı before i, ö after o, ş after s, and ü after u. Originally, when the alphabet was introduced in 1928, ı was collated after i, but the order was changed later so that letters having shapes containing dots, cedilles or other adorning marks always follow the letters with corresponding bare shapes. Note that in Turkish orthography the letter I is the majuscule of dotless ı, whereas İ is the majuscule of dotted i.
In many Turkic languages (such as Azeri or the Jaꞑalif orthography for Tatar), there used to be the letter Gha (Ƣƣ), which came between G and H. It is now in disuse.
In Vietnamese, there are seven additional letters: ă, â, đ, ê, ô, ơ, ư while f, j, w, z are absent, even though they are still in some use (like Internet address, foreign loan language). "f" is replaced by the combination "ph". The same as for "w" is "qu".
In Volapük ä, ö and ü are counted as separate letters and collated separately (a, ä, b ... o, ö, p ... u, ü, v) while q and w are absent.
In Welsh the digraphs CH, DD, FF, NG, LL, PH, RH, and TH are treated as single letters, and each is listed after the first character of the pair (except for NG which is listed after G), producing the order A, B, C, CH, D, DD, E, F, FF, G, NG, H, and so on. It can sometimes happen, however, that word compounding results in the juxtaposition of two letters which do not form a digraph. An example is the word LLONGYFARCH (composed from LLON + GYFARCH). This results in such an ordering as, for example, LAWR, LWCUS, LLONG, LLOM, LLONGYFARCH (NG is a digraph in LLONG, but not in LLONGYFARCH). The letter combination R+H (as distinct from the digraph RH) may similarly arise by juxtaposition in compounds, although this tends not to produce any pairs in which misidentification could affect the ordering. For the other potentially confusing letter combinations that may occur – namely, D+D and L+L – a hyphen is used in the spelling (e.g. AD-DAL, CHWIL-LYS).
In Pinyin alphabetical order, for two Chinese characters with the same pinyin basic letters, if there is a difference of basic letter "e" and modified letter "ê", or of basic letter "u" and modified letter "ü", then the pinyin with a modified letter comes after the pinyin without a modified letter. For example, "額 (è)欸(ê̄)","路(lù)驢(lǘ)","努(nǔ)女(nǚ)". Characters of the same pinyin letters (including modified letters ê and ü.) are arranged according to their tones in the order of "first tone (i.e., "flat tone"), second tone (rising tone), third tone (falling-rising tone), fourth tone (falling tone), fifth tone (neutral tone)", such as "媽(mā)麻(má)馬(mǎ)罵(mà)嗎(ma)".
Automation
Collation algorithms (in combination with sorting algorithms) are used in computer programming to place strings in alphabetical order. A standard example is the Unicode Collation Algorithm, which can be used to put strings containing any Unicode symbols into (an extension of) alphabetical order. It can be made to conform to most of the language-specific conventions described above by tailoring its default collation table. Several such tailorings are collected in Common Locale Data Repository.
Similar orderings
The principle behind alphabetical ordering can still be applied in languages that do not strictly speaking use an alphabet – for example, they may be written using a syllabary or abugida – provided the symbols used have an established ordering.
For logographic writing systems, such as Chinese hanzi or Japanese kanji, the method of radical-and-stroke sorting is frequently used as a way of defining an ordering on the symbols. Japanese sometimes uses pronunciation order, most commonly with the Gojūon order but sometimes with the older Iroha ordering.
In mathematics, lexicographical order is a means of ordering sequences in a manner analogous to that used to produce alphabetical order.
Some computer applications use a version of alphabetical order that can be achieved using a very simple algorithm, based purely on the ASCII or Unicode codes for characters. This may have non-standard effects such as placing all capital letters before lower-case ones. See ASCIIbetical order.
A rhyming dictionary is based on sorting words in alphabetical order starting from the last to the first letter of the word.
See also
Collation
Sorting
Notes
References
Further reading
Chauvin, Yvonne. Pratique du classement alphabétique. 4th ed. Paris: Bordas, 1977.
Flanders, Judith. A Place for Everything: The Curious History of Alphabetical Order. New York: Basic Books / Hatchette Books, 2020.
Alphabets
Collation
ta:அகரவரிசை
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20Security%20Service
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Federal Security Service
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The Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation (FSB; ; ФСБ России) is the principal security agency of Russia and the main successor agency to the Soviet Union's KGB; its immediate predecessor was the Federal Counterintelligence Service (FSK) which was reorganized into the FSB in 1995. The three major structural successor components of the former KGB that remain administratively independent of the FSB are the Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR), the Federal Protective Service (FSO), and the Main Directorate of Special Programs of the President of the Russian Federation (GUSP).
The primary responsibilities are within the country and include counter-intelligence, internal and border security, counter-terrorism, surveillance and investigating some other types of serious crimes and federal law violations. It is headquartered in Lubyanka Square, Moscow's center, in the main building of the former KGB. The director of the FSB is appointed by and directly answerable to the president of Russia.
In 2003, the FSB's responsibilities were expanded by incorporating the Border Guard Service and a major part of the Federal Agency of Government Communication and Information (FAPSI); this would include intelligence activities in countries that were once members of the Soviet Union, work formerly done by the KGB's Fifth Service. The SVR had in 1992 signed an agreement not to spy on those countries; the FSB had made no such commitment.
History
Initial recognition of the KGB
The Federal Security Service is one of the successor organizations of the Soviet Committee of State Security (KGB). Following the attempted coup of 1991—in which some KGB units as well as the KGB head Vladimir Kryuchkov played a major part—the KGB was dismantled and ceased to exist from November 1991. In December 1991, two government agencies answerable to the Russian president were created by President Yeltsin's decrees on the basis of the relevant main directorates of the defunct KGB: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia) (SVR, the former First Main Directorate) and the Federal Agency of Government Communications and Information (FAPSI, merging the functions of the former 8th Main Directorate and 16th Main Directorate of the KGB). In January 1992, another new institution, the Ministry of Security, took over domestic and border security responsibilities. Following the 1993 constitutional crisis, the Ministry of Security was reorganized on 21 December 1993 into the Federal Counter-Intelligence Service (FSK). The FSK was headed by Sergei Stepashin. Before the start of the First Chechen War's main military activities, the FSK was responsible for the covert operations against the separatists led by Dzhokhar Dudayev.
Creation of the FSB
In 1995, the FSK was renamed and reorganized into the Federal Security Service (FSB) by the Federal Law "On the Federal Security Service" (the title of the law as amended in June 2003) signed by the president on 3 April 1995. The FSB reforms were rounded out by decree No. 633, signed by Boris Yeltsin on 23 June 1995. The decree made the tasks of the FSB more specific, giving the FSB substantial rights to conduct cryptographic work, and described the powers of the FSB director. The number of deputy directors was increased to eight: two first deputies, five deputies responsible for departments and directorates and one deputy director heading the Moscow City and Moscow regional directorate. Yeltsin appointed Colonel-General Mikhail Ivanovich Barsukov as the new director of the FSB. In 1998, Yeltsin appointed Vladimir Putin, a KGB veteran who would later succeed Yeltsin as federal president, as director of the FSB. Putin was reluctant to take over the directorship, but once appointed conducted a thorough reorganization, which included the dismissal of most of the FSB's top personnel. Putin appointed Nikolai Patrushev as the head of FSB in 1999.
Role in the Second Chechen War
After the main military offensive of the Second Chechen War ended and the separatists changed tactics to guerilla warfare, overall command of the federal forces in Chechnya was transferred from the military to the FSB in January 2001. While the army lacked technical means of tracking the guerrilla groups, the FSB suffered from insufficient human intelligence due to its inability to build networks of agents and informants. In the autumn of 2002, the separatists launched a massive campaign of terrorism against the Russian civilians, including the Dubrovka theatre attack. The inability of the federal forces to conduct efficient counter-terrorist operations led to the government to transfer the responsibility of "maintaining order" in Chechnya from the FSB to the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) in July 2003.
Putin reforms
After becoming president, Vladimir Putin launched a major reorganization of the FSB. First, the FSB was placed under direct control of the President by a decree issued on 17 May 2000. The internal structure of the agency was reformed by a decree signed on 17 June 2000. In the resulting structure, the FSB was to have a director, a first deputy director and nine other deputy directors, including one possible state secretary and the chiefs of six departments: Economic Security Department, Counterintelligence Department, Organizational and Personnel Service, Department of activity provision, Department for Analysis, Forecasting and Strategic Planning, Department for Protection of the Constitutional System and the Fight against Terrorism.
In 2003, the agency's responsibilities were considerably widened. The Border Guard Service of Russia, with its staff of 210,000, was integrated to the FSB via a decree was signed on 11 March 2003. The merger was completed by 1 July 2003. In addition, The Federal Agency of Government Communication and Information (FAPSI) was abolished, and the FSB was granted a major part of its functions, while other parts went to the Ministry of Defense. Among the reasons for this strengthening of the FSB were the enhanced need for security after increased terror attacks against Russian civilians starting with the Moscow theater hostage crisis; the need to end the permanent infighting between the FSB, FAPSI and the Border Guards due to their overlapping functions; and the need for more efficient response to migration, drug trafficking and illegal arms trading. In addition, the FSB was the sole power base of the new president, so the restructuring strengthened his position (see Political groups under Vladimir Putin's presidency).
On 28 June 2004, in a speech to high-ranking FSB officers, Putin emphasized three major tasks of the agency: neutralizing foreign espionage, safeguarding the economic and financial security of the country, and combating organized crime. In September 2006, the FSB was shaken up by a major reshuffle. Combined with some earlier reassignments – most notably those of FSB Deputy Directors Yury Zaostrovtsev and Vladimir Anisimov in 2004 and 2005 – the changes were widely believed to be linked to the Three Whales Corruption Scandal that had slowly unfolded since 2000. Some analysts considered the changes to be an attempt to undermine FSB Director Nikolay Patrushev's influence, as his team from the Karelian KGB Directorate of the late 1980s to early 1990s suffered most, and he had been on vacations during the events.
By 2008, the agency had one Director, two First Deputy Directors and 5 Deputy Directors. It had the following 9 divisions:
Counter-Espionage
Service for Defense of Constitutional Order and Fight against Terrorism
Border Service
Economic Security Service
Current Information and International Links
Organizational and Personnel Service
Monitoring Department
Scientific and Technical Service
Organizational Security Service
Anti-terrorist operations
Beginning with the Moscow theater hostage crisis in 2002, Russia was faced with increased levels of terrorism. FSB Spetsnaz units Alpha Group and Vympel played a key role in hostage rescue operations during the Moscow theater siege and the Beslan school siege. Their performance was criticised, however, due to the high number of hostage casualties. In 2006, the FSB successfully killed Shamil Basayev, who was behind the Beslan tragedy and several other high-profile terrorist acts. According to the FSB, the operation was planned over six months and made possible due to the FSB's increased activities in foreign countries that were supplying arms to the terrorists. Basayev was tracked via surveillance of this arms trafficking. He and other militants were preparing to carry out a terrorist attack in Ingushetia when FSB agents destroyed their convoy; 12 militants were killed.
During the last years of the Vladimir Putin's second presidency (2006–2008), terrorist attacks in Russia dwindled, falling from 257 in 2005 to 48 in 2007. Military analyst Vitaly Shlykov praised the effectiveness of Russia's security agencies, saying that the experience learned in Chechnya and Dagestan had been key to the success. In 2008, the American Carnegie Endowment's Foreign Policy magazine named Russia as "the worst place to be a terrorist" and highlighted especially Russia's willingness to prioritize national security over civil rights. By 2010, Russian forces led by the FSB had managed to eliminate the top level leadership of the Chechen insurgency, except for Dokka Umarov.
Increased terrorism and expansion of the FSB's powers
Starting from 2009, the level of terrorism in Russia increased again, particularly suicide attacks. Between February 2005 and August 2008, no civilians were killed in such attacks. However, in 2008, at least 17 were killed, and in 2009 the number rose to 45.
In March 2010, Islamist militants organised the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings, which killed 40 people. One of the two blasts took place at Lubyanka station, near the FSB headquarters. Militant leader Doku Umarov—dubbed "Russia's Osama Bin Laden"—took responsibility for the attacks.
In July 2010, President Dmitry Medvedev expanded the FSB's powers in its fight against terrorism. FSB officers received the power to issue warnings to citizens on actions that could lead to committing crimes and arrest people for 15 days if they fail to comply with legitimate orders given by the officers. The bill was harshly criticized by human rights organizations.
Role in Ukraine
Since 2014, the FSB devoted substantial resources to preparing for a Russian takeover of Ukraine. Although Russia's SVR and GRU (foreign and military intelligence services) were also involved, FSB had a lead role on "intelligence and influence operations".
The FSB's Fifth Service, also referred to as the "Department for Operational Information" and "Operational Information and International Relations Service" is stated by the BBC and Radio Free Europe as counterintelligence in former territories of the Soviet Union, work formerly done by the KGB's Fifth Service. Its Ninth Directorate of the Fifth Service targets Ukraine. Putin was persuaded to invade Ukraine by a small group of his closest associates, especially Nikolai Patrushev, Yury Kovalchuk and Alexander Bortnikov. According to some experts, Bortnikov played a key role in Putin's decision to invade Ukraine.
According to a report of the Royal United Services Institute citing interviews officers and analysts of Security Service of Ukraine, the FSB Ukraine team greatly expanded July 2021, and by February 2022 it had "around 200 officers" although most teams consist of only 10–20. Before the 2022 invasion, intelligence agencies in Ukraine, Germany, the UK, and the US reported that the FSB planned to replace elected leaders of Ukraine with Ukrainians now living in Russia.
In 2014, according to a Russian military analyst, the FSB badly misled Putin with claims that Ukrainians would welcome a Russian invasion of Crimea to free them from "fascists". According to Radio Free Europe, in 2022, the FSB again promised easy victory if Russia invaded Ukraine.
With the start of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Ukrainian counterintelligence has repeatedly asserted that the FSB suffered failures of operations security, including acts of insubordination and possible sabotage. In March 2022, Russia's encrypted communication system in Ukraine became useless after the Russian military destroyed cellphone towers; unencrypted phone calls from the FSB in Ukraine to superiors in Moscow discussing the death of Vitaly Gerasimov were tapped and released publicly. Ukrainian intelligence reported that FSB members were leaking intelligence to them, including the location of the Chechen commandos sent to assassinate Zelensky. In late March, Ukrainian intelligence posted online the names, addresses, phone numbers, and more of 620 people they identified as FSB agents. None of these reports have been confirmed by the FSB.
Media outlets of Ukraine, its allies in the West, and Russian dissidents report that Vladimir Putin has blamed setbacks in the military operations on the FSB and the Fifth Service. On 11 March 2022, investigative journalist Andrei Soldatov reported that Fifth Service head Sergey Beseda and his deputy, Anatoly Bolyukh were under house arrest due to Putin's discontent with intelligence failures regarding the invasion of Ukraine. A U.S. official interviewed by The Wall Street Journal described the arrest report as "credible".
On 11 April 2022, the Times of London, citing unnamed sources who had spoken to Bellingcat executive director Christo Grozev, reported that Beseda was transferred to Lefortovo Prison, the scene of mass executions during Stalin's purges. The same report claims that up over 100 FSB agents from the Fifth Service had been sacked. The Times of London also reports that "it is thought that" the Fifth Service is now headed by Beseda's former subordinate, Grigory Grishaev.
According to an article in the 11 April 2022 issue of The Washington Post:Several current and former officials described the Russian security service as rife with corruption, beset by bureaucratic bloat and ultimately out of touch. A Ukrainian intelligence official said the FSB had spent millions recruiting a network of pro-Russian collaborators who ultimately told Putin and his top advisers, among them the current FSB director, what they wanted to hear.
There have been a series of alleged leaked letters from FSB analysts, made public after the invasion began, which report the same kind of problem, for example, "You have to write the analysis in a way that makes Russia the victor ... otherwise you get questioned for not doing good work."
Function
Counterintelligence
In 2011, the FSB said it had exposed 199 foreign spies, including 41 professional spies and 158 agents employed by foreign intelligence services. The number has risen in recent years: in 2006 the FSB reportedly caught about 27 foreign intelligence officers and 89 foreign agents. Comparing the number of exposed spies historically, the then-FSB Director Nikolay Kovalyov said in 1996: "There has never been such a number of spies arrested by us since the time when German agents were sent in during the years of World War II." The 2011 figure is similar to what was reported in 1995–1996, when around 400 foreign intelligence agents were uncovered during the two-year period.
In a high-profile case of foreign espionage, the FSB said in February 2012 that an engineer working at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia's main space center for military launches, had been sentenced to 13 years in prison on charges of state treason. A court judged that the engineer had sold information about the testing of new Russian strategic missile systems to the American CIA.
A number of scientists have been accused of espionage and illegal technology exports by the FSB since it was established; instances include researcher Igor Sutyagin, physicist Valentin Danilov, physical chemist Oleg Korobeinichev, academician Oskar Kaibyshev, and physicist Yury Ryzhov. Ecologist and journalist Alexander Nikitin, who worked with the Bellona Foundation, was accused of espionage. He published material exposing hazards posed by the Russian Navy's nuclear fleet. He was acquitted in 1999 after spending several years in prison (his case was sent for re-investigation 13 times while he remained in prison). In August 2021, the FSB arrested plasma physics-expert Alexander Kuranov, chief designer of the Hypersonic Systems Research Center (NIPGS in Russian) in St. Petersburg. Kuranov is suspected of passing secret information to a foreigner about hypersonic technology; he oversaw concept design on the Ayaks/Ajax hypersonic aircraft and has run a Russia-US scientific symposium for several years.
Other instances of prosecution are the cases of investigative journalist and ecologist Grigory Pasko, Vladimir Petrenko, who described danger posed by military chemical warfare stockpiles, and Nikolay Shchur, chairman of the Snezhinskiy Ecological Fund.
Other arrested people include Viktor Orekhov, a former KGB officer who assisted Soviet dissidents, Vladimir Kazantsev, who disclosed illegal purchases of eavesdropping devices from foreign firms, and Vil Mirzayanov, who had written that Russia was working on a nerve-gas weapon.
Counter-terrorism
In 2011, the FSB prevented 94 "crimes of a terrorist nature", including eight terrorist attacks. In particular, the agency foiled a planned suicide bombing in Moscow on New Year's Eve. However, the agency failed to prevent terrorists perpetrating the Domodedovo International Airport bombing. Over the years, FSB and affiliated state security organizations have killed all presidents of the separatist Chechen Republic of Ichkeria including Dzhokhar Dudaev, Zelimkhan Yandarbiev, Aslan Maskhadov, and Abdul-Khalim Saidullaev. During the Moscow theater hostage crisis and Beslan school hostage crisis, all hostage-takers were killed on the spot by FSB spetsnaz forces. Only one of the suspects, Nur-Pashi Kulayev, survived and was convicted later by the court. It is reported that more than 100 leaders of terrorist groups have been killed during 119 operations on North Caucasus during 2006. On 28 July 2006, the FSB presented a list of 17 terrorist organizations recognized by the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, to newspaper, which published the list that day. The list had been available previously, but only through individual request. Commenting on the list, Yuri Sapunov, head of anti-terrorism at the FSB, named three main criteria necessary for organizations to be listed.
Foreign intelligence
According to some unofficial sources, since 1999, the FSB has also been tasked with the intelligence-gathering on the territory of the CIS countries, wherein the SVR is legally forbidden from conducting espionage under the inter-government agreements. Such activity is in line with Article 8 of the Federal Law on the FSB.
According to the Royal United Services Institute, FSB's Department for Operational Information "is responsible for compiling data on Russia's 'near abroad, having taken over the work of KGB's Fifth Service, which ran counterintelligence inside territories of the Soviet Union.
Targeted killing
In the summer of 2006, the FSB was given the legal power to engage in targeted killing of terrorism suspects overseas if ordered by the president.
Border protection
The Federal Border Guard Service (FPS) has been part of the FSB since 2003. Russia has of sea and land borders, of which is with Kazakhstan, and with China. One kilometer (.62 miles) of border protection costs around 1 million rubles per year.
Export control
The FSB is engaged in the development of Russia's export control strategy and examines drafts of international agreements related to the transfer of dual-use and military commodities and technologies. Its primary role in the nonproliferation sphere is to collect information to prevent the illegal export of controlled nuclear technology and materials.
Surveillance
In September 2017, WikiLeaks released "Spy Files Russia", revealing how a company called Peter-Service helped state entities gather data on Russian mobile phone users as part of an online surveillance system called the System for Operative Investigative Activities (SORM) with close collaboration with the FSB. SORM-1 is for wiretapping phones. SORM-2 intercepts electronic correspondence and Internet traffic. Beginning in the summer of 2014, SORM-3 has been "on guard" and integrates all telecommunication services in real time.
Cyber Units
In recent years, the FSB has expanded its mission to include foreign intelligence collection and offensive cyber operations. Cyber analysts have referred to FSB hackers as Berserk Bear, Energetic Bear, Gamaredon, TeamSpy, Dragonfly, Havex, Crouching Yeti, and Koala.
The FSB reportedly has two primary centers overseeing its information security and cyber operations. The first is the 16th Center, which houses most of the FSB's signals intelligence capabilities. The FSB also includes the 18th Center for Information Security, which oversees domestic operations and security but conducts foreign operations as well. The U.S. government indicted 18th Center FSB officers in 2017 for breaching Yahoo and millions of email accounts. In 2021, Ukrainian intelligence released information and recordings of 18th Center FSB officers based in Crimea as part of the "Gamaredon" hacking group.
Media reporting indicates FSB units are capable of manufacturing their own advanced malware tools and have been documented manipulating exposed malware to mimic other hacking teams and conceal their activities. Reporting indicates the FSB oversees training and research institutes, which directly support the FSB's cyber mission.
One FSB team reportedly focuses on penetrating infrastructure and energy sector targets. Most operations linked to this team appear to be reconnaissance or clandestine surveillance. The targeting of the energy sector has raised concern within the U.S. government. The Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Bureau of Investigation have documented the unit's reconnaissance and noted the possibility of inserting malware to cause future damage in an attack. The U.S. government also has linked the unit to attempts to penetrate state and local government networks in 2020.
Media reporting has documented close connections between the FSB and criminal and civilian hackers, which the FSB reportedly uses to augment and staff its cyber units. DOJ has indicted multiple Russian hackers for a variety of criminal and state-sponsored cyber activities. Many of these indictments describe the close relationship between criminal hackers and the FSB.
Organization
Director
Since 2008, the director of the FSB has been General Alexander Bortnikov.
First Deputy Director
The current First Deputy Director of the FSB is Sergei Korolev. He was appointed by Russian President Vladimir Putin on 24 February 2021.
Head of scientific and technical service
As of 2022 Eduard Chernovoltsev was listed the Head of scientific and technical service of the FSB.
Regional structure
Below the nationwide level, the FSB has regional offices in all the federal subjects of Russia. It also has administrations in the armed forces and other military institutions. Sub-departments exist for areas such as aviation, special training centers, forensic expertise, military medicine, etc.
Structure of the Federal Office (incomplete):
Counterintelligence Service (Department) – chiefs: Oleg Syromolotov (since Aug 2000), Valery Pechyonkin (September 1997 – August 2000)
Directorate for the Counterintelligence Support of Strategic Facilities
Military Counterintelligence Directorate – chiefs: Alexander Bezverkhny (at least since 2002), Vladimir Petrishchev (since January 1996)
Service (Department) for Protection of the Constitutional System and the Fight against Terrorism – chiefs: Alexey Sedov (since March 2006), Alexander Bragin (2004 – March 2006), Alexander Zhdankov (2001–2004), German Ugryumov (2000–2001)
Directorate for Terrorism and Political Extremism Control – chiefs: Mikhail Belousov, before him Grafov, before the latter Boris Mylnikov (since 2000)
Economic Security Service (Department) – chiefs: Sergei Korolev (June 2016 to February 24, 2021), (2008 to June 2016), Alexander Bortnikov (2 March 2004 to 2008), Yury Zaostrovtsev (January 2000 – March 2004), Viktor Ivanov (April 1999 – January 2000), Nikolay Patrushev (1998 – April 1999), Alexander Grigoryev (28 August – 1 October 1998).
Operational Information and International Relations Service (Analysis, Forecasting, and Strategic Planning Department) – chiefs: Sergey Beseda (since 2009), Viktor Komogorov (1999–2009), Sergei Ivanov (1998–1999); The successor of the KGB's Fifth Service, this department is in charge of counterintelligence operations against territories of the former Soviet Union.
Organizational and Personnel Service (Department) – chiefs: Yevgeny Lovyrev (since 2001), Yevgeny Solovyov (before Lovyrev)
Department for Activity Provision – chiefs: Mikhail Shekin (since September 2006), Sergey Shishin (before Shekin), Pyotr Pereverzev (as of 2004), Alexander Strelkov (before Pereverzev)
Border Guard Service – chiefs: Vladimir Pronichev (since 2003)
Control Service – chiefs: Alexander Zhdankov (since 2004)
Inspection Directorate – chiefs: Vladimir Anisimov (2004 – May 2005), Rashid Nurgaliyev (12 July 2000 – 2002),
Internal Security Directorate – chiefs: Alexander Kupryazhkin (until September 2006), Sergei Shishin (before Kupryazhkin since December 2002), Sergei Smirnov (April 1999 – December 2002), Viktor Ivanov (1998 – April 1999), Nikolay Patrushev (1994–1998)
Science and Engineering Service (Department) – chiefs: Nikolai Klimashin
Center of Information Security
Investigation Directorate – chiefs: Nikolay Oleshko (since December 2004), Yury Anisimov (as of 2004), Viktor Milchenko (since 2002), Sergey Balashov (until 2002 since at least 2001), Vladimir Galkin (as of 1997 and 1998)
Besides the services (departments) and directorates of the federal office, the territorial directorates of FSB in the federal subjects are also subordinate to it. Of these, St. Petersburg and Leningrad Oblast Directorate of FSB and its predecessors (historically covering both Leningrad/Saint Petersburg and Leningrad Oblast) have played especially important roles in the history of this organization, as many of the officers of the Directorate, including Vladimir Putin and Nikolay Patrushev, later assumed important positions within the federal FSB office or other government bodies. After the last Chief of the Soviet time, Anatoly Kurkov, the St. Petersburg and Leningrad Oblast Directorate were led by Sergei Stepashin (29 November 1991 – 1992), Viktor Cherkesov (1992 –1998), Alexander Grigoryev (1 October 1998 – 5 January 2001), Sergei Smirnov (5 January 2001 – June 2003), Alexander Bortnikov (June 2003 – March 2004) and Yury Ignashchenkov (since March 2004).
Directors of the FSB
On 20 June 1996, Boris Yeltsin fired Director of FSB Mikhail Barsukov and appointed Nikolay Kovalyov as acting Director and later Director of the FSB. Aleksander Bortnikov took over on 12 May 2008.
Nikolai Golushko, December 1993 – February 1994
Sergei Stepashin, February 1994 – June 1995
Mikhail Barsukov, July 1995 – June 1996
Nikolai Kovalyov, July 1996 – July 1998
Vladimir Putin, July 1998 – August 1999
Nikolai Patrushev, August 1999 – 12 May 2008
Alexander Bortnikov, 12 May 2008 – present
Criticism
The FSB has been criticised for corruption, human rights violations and secret police activities. Some Kremlin critics such as Alexander Litvinenko have claimed that the FSB is engaged in suppression of internal dissent; Litvinenko died in 2006 as a result of polonium poisoning. Litvinenko, along with a series of other authors such as Yury Felshtinsky, David Satter, Boris Kagarlitsky, Vladimir Pribylovsky, Mikhail Trepashkin, have claimed that the 1999 apartment bombings in Moscow and other Russian cities were a false flag attack coordinated by the FSB in order to win public support for a new full-scale war in Chechnya and boost former FSB director and then prime minister Vladimir Putin's popularity in the lead-up to parliamentary elections and presidential transfer of power. The FSB has been further criticized by some for failure to bring Islamist terrorism in Russia under control. In the mid-2000s, the pro-Kremlin Russian sociologist Olga Kryshtanovskaya claimed that the FSB played a dominant role in the country's political, economic and even cultural life.
After the annexation of Crimea, the FSB may also have been responsible for the forced disappearances and torture of Crimean Tatar activists and public figures. According to the United Nations, in occupied Crimea, the FSB used torture with elements of sexual violence against pro-Ukrainian activists, forcing them to confess to crimes related to terrorism. The detainees were, allegedly, beaten, tortured with electric shocks in the genitals and threatened with rape. Some, such as Oleh Sentsov, have been detained and accused in politically motivated kangaroo courts. The FSB spied on and filmed a gathering of members of the Jehovah's Witnesses while they were about to undergo baptism rites, with the videos used as evidence in a trial against the defendants in 2021; Jehovah's Witnesses have been banned as a group in Russia since 2017 for "extremism".
In spite of various anti-corruption actions of the Russian government, FSB operatives and officials are routinely found in the center of various fraud, racket and corruption scandals. FSB officers have been frequently accused of torture, extortion, bribery and illegal takeovers of private companies, often working together with tax inspection officers. Active and former FSB officers are also present as "curators" in "almost every single large enterprise", both in public and private sectors. Several unnamed current and former officials described the FSB as less effective than the KGB, describing it as "rife with corruption, beset by bureaucratic bloat and ultimately out of touch", in a report by The Washington Post in 2022.On 29 December 2016, the White House accused and sanctioned the FSB and several other Russian companies for what the US intelligence agencies said was their role in helping the Russian military intelligence service, the Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU) disrupt and spread disinformation during the 2016 US presidential election. In addition, the State Department also declared 35 Russian diplomats and officials persona non-grata and denied Russian government officials access to two Russian-owned installations in Maryland and New York.
An investigation by Bellingcat and The Insider'' implicated FSB agents in the poisoning of opposition leader Alexei Navalny in August 2020, where he became ill during a flight.
It was reported that during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, FSB officers carried out filtration activities in Mariupol, which were accompanied by searches, interrogations, forced deportations to Russia, beatings and tortur.
According to an investigative report by , some of the suspicious deaths of Russian businesspeople in 2022–2023 may possibly be connected to large scale accounting fraud by Gazprom executives, who may have funneled money to a network of businesses owned by friends and family members with ties to the FSB and Russian military.
Role in the Russian doping scandal
Following the broadcast of a documentary film alleging systematic doping in Russia, World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) president Craig Reedie authorized an Independent Commission (IC) to investigate the issues brought up by the documentary in 2015. The IC authorized a review of practices on whether there were any breaches by the Russian Anti-Doping Agency. The report found direct interference into the laboratory's operations by the Russian State undermined the laboratory's independence and that tests conducted by the laboratory were highly suspect. The report elaborates on the role of the FSB:
In January 2016, the head of Russia's anti-doping laboratory Grigory Rodchenkov fled Russia and exposed the doping program, which included members of the FSB replacing tainted urine samples with older, clean ones. As a result of the scandals the International Association of Athletics Federations suspended Russia from all international athletic competitions including the 2016 Summer Olympics.
In July 2016, the first McLaren Report found that "beyond a reasonable doubt" the Russian Ministry of Sport, the Centre of Sports Preparation of the National Teams of Russia, the FSB, and the WADA-accredited laboratory in Moscow "operated for the protection of doped Russian athletes" within a "state-directed failsafe system" using "the disappearing positive [test] methodology." In a second McLaren Report released December 2016, it was found that In the period before the Sochi Games, a "clean urine bank" was established at the FSB Command Centre, which was situated immediately adjacent to the Sochi Laboratory. Inside that building a dedicated room containing several large freezers was set up for the purpose of storing the clean urine samples.
See also
Awards of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation
Federal Protective Service, government protection agency
SORM, law that allows the FSB to monitor communications
Third Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery
Vulkan files leak
References
External links
1995 establishments in Russia
Government agencies established in 1995
Government of Russia
Doping in Russia
Russian entities subject to the U.S. Department of the Treasury sanctions
Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A9%20libre%20de%20Bruxelles
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Université libre de Bruxelles
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The (; ; abbreviated ULB) is a French-speaking research university in Brussels, Belgium. ULB is one of the two institutions tracing their origins to the Free University of Brussels, founded in 1834 by the lawyer and liberal politician Pierre-Théodore Verhaegen.
The split occurred along linguistic lines, forming the French-speaking ULB in 1969, and Dutch-speaking (VUB) in 1970. A major research center open to Europe and the world, the ULB now has about 24,200 students, 33% of whom come from abroad, and an equally cosmopolitan staff.
Name
Brussels has two universities whose names mean Free University of Brussels in English: the French-speaking (ULB) and the Dutch-speaking (VUB). Neither uses the English translation, since it is ambiguous.
History
Establishment of a university in Brussels
The history of the is closely linked with that of Belgium itself. When the Belgian State was formed in 1830 by nine breakaway provinces from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, three state universities existed in the cities of Ghent, Leuven and Liège, but none in the new capital, Brussels. Since the government was reluctant to fund another state university, a group of leading intellectuals in the fields of arts, science, and education — amongst whom the study prefect of the Royal Athenaeum of Brussels, Auguste Baron, as well as the astronomer and mathematician Adolphe Quetelet — planned to create a private university, which was permitted under the Belgian Constitution.
In 1834, the Belgian episcopate decided to establish a Catholic university in Mechelen with the aim of regaining the influence of the Catholic Church on the academic scene in Belgium, and the government had the intent to close the university at Leuven and donate the buildings to the Catholic institution. The country's liberals strongly opposed to this decision, and furthered their ideas for a university in Brussels as a counterbalance to the Catholic institution. At the same time, Auguste Baron had just become a member of the freemasonic lodge Les Amis Philantropes. Baron was able to convince Pierre-Théodore Verhaegen, the president of the lodge, to support the idea for a new university. On 24 June 1834, Verhaegen presented his plan to establish a free university.
After sufficient funding was collected among advocates, the Université libre de Belgique ("Free University of Belgium") was inaugurated on 20 November 1834, in the Gothic Room of Brussels Town Hall. The date of its establishment is still commemorated annually, by students of its successor institutions, as a holiday called Saint-Verhaegen/Sint-Verhaegen (often shortened to St V) for Pierre-Théodore Verhaegen. In 1836, the university was renamed the Université libre de Bruxelles ("Free University of Brussels").
After its establishment, the Free University faced difficult times, since it did receive no subsidies or grants from the government; yearly fundraising events and tuition fees provided the only financial means. Verhaegen, who became a professor and later head of the new university, gave it a mission statement which he summarised in a speech to King Leopold I: "the principle of free inquiry and academic freedom uninfluenced by any political or religious authority." In 1858, the Catholic Church established the Saint-Louis Institute in the city, which subsequently expanded into a university in its own right.
Growth, internal tensions and move
The Free University grew significantly over the following decades. In 1842, it moved to the Granvelle Palace, which it occupied until 1928. It expanded the number of subjects taught and, in 1880, became one of the first institutions in Belgium to allow female students to study in some faculties. In 1893, it received large grants from Ernest and Alfred Solvay and Raoul Warocqué to open new faculties in the city. A disagreement over an invite to the anarchist geographer Élisée Reclus to speak at the university in 1893 led to some of the liberal and socialist faculty splitting away from the Free University to form the New University of Brussels (Université nouvelle de Bruxelles) in 1894. The institution failed to displace the Free University, however, and closed definitively in 1919.
In 1900, the Free University's football team won the bronze medal at the Summer Olympics. After Racing Club de Bruxelles declined to participate, a student selection with players from the university was sent by the Federation. The team was enforced with a few non-students. The Institute of Sociology was founded in 1902, then in 1904 the Solvay School of Commerce, which would later become the Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management. In 1911, the university obtained its legal personality under the name Université libre de Bruxelles - Vrije Hogeschool te Brussel.
The German occupation during World War I led to the suspension of classes for four years in 1914–1918. In the aftermath of the war, the Free University moved its principle activities to the Solbosch in the southern suburb of Ixelles and a purpose-built university campus was created, funded by the Belgian American Educational Foundation. The university was again closed by the German occupiers during World War II on 25 November 1941. Students from the university were involved in the Belgian Resistance, establishing Groupe G which focused on sabotage.
Splitting of the university
Until the early 20th century, courses at the Free University were taught exclusively in French, the language of the upper class in Belgium at that time, as well as of law and academia. However, with the Dutch-speaking population asking for more rights in Belgium (see Flemish Movement), some courses began being taught in both French and Dutch at the Faculty of Law as early as 1935. Nevertheless, it was not until 1963 that all faculties offered their courses in both languages. Tensions between French- and Dutch-speaking students in the country came to a head in 1968 when the Catholic University of Leuven split along linguistic lines, becoming the first of several national institutions to do so.
On 1 October 1969, the French and Dutch entities of the Free University separated into two distinct sister universities. This splitting became official with the act of 28 May 1970, of the Belgian Parliament, by which the French-speaking (ULB) and the Dutch-speaking (VUB) officially became two separate legal, administrative and scientific entities.
Campuses
The ULB comprises three main campuses: the Solbosch campus, on the territories of the City of Brussels and Ixelles municipalities in the Brussels-Capital Region, the Plaine campus in Ixelles, and the Erasmus campus in Anderlecht, beside the Erasmus Hospital.
The main and largest campus of the university is the Solbosch, which hosts the administration and general services of the university. It also includes most of the faculties of the humanities, the École polytechnique, the large library of social sciences, and among the museums of the ULB, the Museum of Zoology and Anthropology, the Allende exhibition room and the Michel de Ghelderode Museum-Library.
The Plaine campus hosts the Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Pharmacy. There are also the Experimentariums of physics and chemistry, the Museum of Medicinal Plants and Pharmacy and student housing. This site is served by Delta station.
The Erasmus campus houses the Erasmus Hospital and the Pôle Santé, the Faculty of Medicine, the School of Public Health and the Faculty of Motor Sciences. There is also the School of Nursing (with the Haute école libre de Bruxelles – Ilya Prigogine), the Museum of Medicine and the Museum of Human Anatomy and Embryology. This site is served by Erasme/Erasmus metro station.
The university also has buildings and activities in the Brussels municipality of Auderghem, and outside of Brussels, in Charleroi on the Aéropole Science Park and Nivelles.
Faculties and institutes
Institute for European Studies
Interfacultary School of Bio-Engineering
School of Public Health
High Institute of Physical Education and Kinesiotherapy
Institute of Work Sciences
Institute of Statistics and Operational Research
Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics
Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management
Faculty of Sciences
International Partnerships
University of California, Berkeley, University of Oxford, University of Cambridge, Université de Montréal, Waseda University, Université Pierre et Marie Curie - Paris VI, BeiHang University, Universidade de São Paulo, Université de Lausanne, Université de Genève, University Ouaga I Pr. Joseph Ki-Zerbo, University of Lubumbashi
Research
At the heart of the Free University of Brussels there are at least 2000 PhD students and around 3600 researchers and lecturers who work around different scientific fields and produce cutting-edge research.
The projects of these scientists span thematics that concern exact, applied and human sciences and researchers at the heart of the ULB have been awarded numerous international awards and recognitions.
The research carried out at the ULB is financed by different bodies such as the European Research Council, the Walloon Region, the Brussels Capital Region, the National Fund for Scientific Research, or one of the foundations that are dedicated to research at the ULB; the ULB Foundation or the Erasme Funds.
Since the early 2000s, the MAPP project has started studying political party membership evolution through the time.
Rankings
Notable people
Count Richard Goblet d'Alviella (b. 1948), businessman
Jules Anspach (1829–1879), politician and mayor of Brussels
Philippe Autier (b. 1956), epidemiologist and clinical oncologist
Zénon-M. Bacq (1903–1983), radiobiologist, laureate of the 1948 Francqui Prize
Radu Bălescu (1932–2006), Romanian and Belgian physicist, laureate of the 1970 Francqui Prize
Saeed Bashirtash (b. 1965), Iranian dentist, writer and political activist
Didier Bellens (1955–2016), businessman, CEO of Belgacom
Vincent Biruta (b. 1958), Rwandan physician and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs
Jules Bordet (1870–1961), physician, laureate of the 1919 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Karel Bossart (1904–1975), aeronautical engineer, designer of the SM-65 Atlas
Jean Brachet (1909–1998), biochemist
Robert Brout (1928–2011), American physicist, laureate of the 2004 Wolf Prize
Jean Bourgain (1954–2018), mathematician, laureate of the 1994 Fields Medal
Albert Claude (1899–1983), biologist, laureate of the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Heidi Cruz (b. 1972), American businesswoman, wife of U.S. Senator Ted Cruz
Herman De Croo (b. 1937), liberal politician
Théophile de Donder (1872–1957), physicist, mathematician, and father of irreversible thermodynamics
Vũ Đức Đam (b. 1963), Vietnamese politician, Deputy Prime Minister
Pierre Deligne (b. 1944), mathematician, laureate of the 1978 Fields Medal
Antoine Depage (1862–1925), surgeon, founder and president of the Belgian Red Cross, and one of the founders of Scouting in Belgium
Mathias Dewatripont (b. 1959), economist, laureate of the 1998 Francqui Prize
François Englert (b. 1932), physicist, laureate of the 2004 Wolf Prize, laureate of the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics
Jacques Errera (1896–1977), physicochemist, laureate of the 1938 Francqui Prize
Aleth Félix-Tchicaya (b. 1955), Congolese writer
Louis Franck (1868–1937), lawyer, liberal politician and statesman
Matyla Ghyka (1881–1965), Romanian poet, novelist, mathematician, historian, and diplomat
Michel Goldman (b. 1955), immunologist
Nico Gunzburg (1882–1984), lawyer and criminologist
Camille Gutt (1884–1971), economist, politician, and industrialist, first Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund
Marc Henneaux (b. 1955), physicist, laureate of the 2000 Francqui Prize
Amir Abbas Hoveida (1919–1979), Iranian economist and politician, Prime Minister
Enver Hoxha (1908–1985), Albanian politician, leader of Communist Albania
Julius Hoste Jr. (1884–1954), businessman and liberal politician
Léon Van Hove (1924–1990), physicist, laureate of the 1958 Francqui Prize, Director General of the CERN
Paul Hymans (1865–1941), politician and first President of the League of Nations
Paul Janson (1840–1913), liberal politician
Bahadir Kaleagasi (b. 1966), Turkish writer, International co-ordinator of TUSIAD
Jeton Kelmendi (b. 1978), Albanian writer, laureate of the 2010 International Solenzara Prize
Henri La Fontaine (1854–1943), lawyer, laureate of the 1913 Nobel Prize for Peace
Roberto Lavagna (b. 1942), Argentine economist and politician, Minister of Economy and Production
Maurice Lippens (b. 1943), businessman and banker
Lucien Lison (1908–1984), Belgian-Brazilian physician and biochemist, considered the "father of histochemistry"
Amer Husni Lutfi (b. 1956), Syrian politician, Minister of Economy and Trade
Paul Magnette (b. 1971), socialist politician and political scientist, mayor of Charleroi, laureate of the 2000 Francqui Prize
Marguerite Massart (1900–1979), first Belgian female engineer
Adolphe Max (1869–1939), politician, mayor of Brussels
Adrien-Jean Le Mayeur (1880–1958), painter
Fradique de Menezes (b. 1942), São Toméan politician, President
Françoise Meunier, doctor, Director General of the EORTC
Charles Michel (b. 1975), politician, Prime Minister and President of the European Council
Constantin Mille (1861–1927), Romanian socialist militant and journalist
Axel Miller (b. 1965), businessman, CEO of Dexia
Roland Mortier (1920–2015), philologist, laureate of the 1965 Francqui Prize
François Narmon (1934–2013), economist and businessman, President of Dexia and the Belgian Olympic Committee
Amélie Nothomb (b. 1967), writer, laureate of the 1999 Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française
Paul Otlet (1868–1944), author, entrepreneur, lawyer and peace activist, founding father of documentation
Henri De Page (1894–1969), jurist, Professor in Law, generally seen as the most important Belgian lawyer ever
Marc Parmentier (b. 1956), scientist, laureate of the 1999 Francqui Prize
Etienne Pays (b. 1948), molecular biologist, laureate of the 1996 Francqui Prize and of the Carlos J. Finlay Prize for Microbiology
Robert Peston (b. 1960), British journalist, presenter, and author, ITV News Political Editor
Martine Piccart (b. 1953), medical oncologist, President of the EORTC
Marie Popelin (1846–1913), jurist and feminist
Ilya Prigogine (1917–2003), physicist and chemist, laureate of the 1955 Francqui Prize and of the 1977 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Lodewijk De Raet (1870–1914), economist and politician
Eric Remacle (1960–2013), economist, laureate of the 2000 Francqui Prize
Jan Van Rijswijck (1853–1906), lawyer, liberal politician and journalist, mayor of Antwerp
David Ruelle (b. 1935), Belgian-French mathematical physicist
Pedro Sánchez (b. 1972), Spanish politician, Prime Minister
Jean Auguste Ulric Scheler (1819–1890), philologist
Paul-Henri Spaak (1899–1972), politician, statesman, Prime Minister, Secretary General of NATO, and one of the Founding fathers of the European Union
Isabelle Stengers (b. 1949), philosopher
Jean Stengers (1922–2002), historian
Jacques Tits (1930–2021), Belgian-French mathematician, laureate of the 1993 Wolf Prize and of the 2008 Abel Prize
Michel Vanden Abeele, diplomat, Director-General of the European Commission
Raoul Vaneigem (b. 1934), writer and Situationist theorist
Emile Vandervelde (1866–1938), statesman, socialist leader, Minister of Justice, and Minister of Foreign Affairs
Adamantios Vassilakis (1942–2021), Greek ambassador to the United Nations
August Vermeylen (1872–1945), writer and literature critic
Éliane Vogel-Polsky (1926–2015), lawyer and feminist
Raoul Warocqué (1870–1917), industrialist
Charles Woeste (1837–1922), lawyer and politician
Odette De Wynter (1927–1998), first woman to be a notary in Belgium
Nobel Prize Winners
For pre-1970 notable faculty and alumni, see Free University of Brussels:
Ilya Prigogine (1917–2003): Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977
François Englert (b. 1932): Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013
Denis Mukwege (b. 1955): Nobel Prize for Peace in 2018
See also
List of split up universities
Science and technology in Brussels
Top Industrial Managers for Europe
Atomium Culture
Institut Jules Bordet
Royal Statistical Society of Belgium
University Foundation
Notes
References
Despy, A., 150 ans de L‘ULB. Université libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, 1984
Noel, F., 1894. Université libre de Bruxelles en crise, Brussels, 1994
The ULB, a university born of an idea
ULB, at a glance
External links
Engineering universities and colleges in Belgium
Educational institutions established in 1969
1969 establishments in Belgium
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern%20University
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Northeastern University
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Northeastern University (NU or NEU) is a private research university with its main campus in Boston, Massachusetts. Established in 1898, it was founded by the Boston Young Men's Christian Association as an all-male institute before being incorporated as Northeastern College in 1916, gaining university status in 1922. With more than 36,000 students, Northeastern is one of the largest universities in Massachusetts by enrollment.
Northeastern is a large, highly residential university which comprises nine schools, including the Northeastern University School of Law. The university's main campus in Boston is located within the center of the city along Huntington Avenue and Columbus Avenue near the Fenway–Kenmore neighborhood. It offers undergraduate and graduate programs, and most undergraduates participate in a cooperative education program. Northeastern is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education and is a member of the Boston Consortium for Higher Education. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".
Northeastern maintains satellite campuses in Charlotte, North Carolina; Seattle, Washington; San Jose, California; Oakland, California; Portland, Maine; and Toronto and Vancouver in Canada. In 2019, it purchased the New College of the Humanities, establishing an additional campus in London, England. The university's sports teams, the Northeastern Huskies, compete in NCAA Division I as members of the Colonial Athletic Association (CAA) in 18 varsity sports. The men's and women's hockey teams compete in Hockey East, while the men's and women's rowing teams compete in the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges (EARC) and Eastern Association of Women's Rowing Colleges (EAWRC), respectively.
History
Early development
In May 1896, directors of the Boston Young Men's Christian Association, the first in the U.S., established an Evening Institute for Younger Men, to merge, coordinate and improve its classes that had evolved over the past 40 years. Included among roughly 30 courses offered were algebra, bookkeeping, literature, French, German, Latin, geography, electricity, music, penmanship and physiology. In addition, a banjo club, camera club, orchestra, and weekly parliamentary debates and discussions were promoted. A good education for "any young man of moral character" with a YMCA membership was promised. Located in a new headquarters building at the corner of Boylston and Berkeley streets in Boston, the institute held its first classes in 1898. After a fire, a new YMCA building was constructed on Huntington Avenue in 1913.
The School of Law was also formally established in 1898 with the assistance of an advisory committee, consisting of James Barr Ames, dean of the Harvard Law School; Samuel Bennett, dean of the Boston University School of Law; and Judge James R. Dunbar. In 1903, the first Automobile Engineering School in the country was established, followed by a Polytechnic School in 1904 and a School of Commerce and Finance in 1907. Day classes began in 1909. In 1916, a bill was introduced into the Massachusetts Legislature to incorporate the institute as Northeastern College. After considerable debate and investigation, it was passed in March 1916.
In 1909, the Polytechnic School began offering co-operative engineering courses to eight students. A four-year daytime program had been established consisting of alternating single weeks of classroom instruction and practical work experience with mostly railroad companies that agreed to accept student workers. In 1920, the Co-operative School of Engineering, which later became the College of Engineering, was first authorized to grant degrees in civil, chemical, electrical and mechanical engineering. The cooperative program, the second of its kind in the U.S. after one in Cincinnati, Ohio, was eventually adopted by all departments.
On March 30, 1917, veteran educator Frank Palmer Speare, who had served as director of the institute, was inaugurated as the first president of the newly incorporated Northeastern College. Five years later the college changed its name to Northeastern University to better reflect the increasing depth of its instruction. In March 1923, the university secured general (A.B. and B.S.) degree-granting power from the Legislature, with the exception of the medical and dental degrees.
The College of Liberal Arts was added in 1935. Two years later the Northeastern University Corporation was established, with a board of trustees composed of 31 university members and 8 from the YMCA. Following World War II, Northeastern began admitting women. In 1948, Northeastern separated itself completely from the YMCA. By 1959, when Carl Ell who had expanded the university stepped down as president, Northeastern had a local identity as an independent technical university serving a commuter and adult population.
That reputation began changing during the presidency of Asa S. Knowles, from 1959 to 1975. Facing a postwar educational boom, the university broadened undergraduate offerings, increased graduate offerings, modernized administrative and faculty structures, created a Faculty Senate, launched its first-ever capital campaign, reorganized and expanded adult and continuing education, and increased the number of colleges. The university created the College of Education (1953), University College (1960), now called the College of Professional Studies, and the colleges of Pharmacy and Nursing (1964), which both later merged into the Bouvé College of Health Sciences. The creation of the College of Criminal Justice (1967) followed, and then the Khoury College of Computer Sciences (1982), the first college in the United States dedicated to the field of computer science.
The period between 1959 and 1975, is also often described generally as "The Age of Student Unrest" or "The Student Revolution," when campuses across the United States were rocked with dissension against institutional discrimination and the Vietnam War. Northeastern's student population not only grew considerably larger, but also more diverse during this time. At the beginning of this period, most of the student body was composed of white males from New England, the majority of whom came from the Boston-area public schools and primarily studied business or engineering. By 1974–75, women accounted for 33 percent of the nearly 14,000 undergraduates students, while 5 percent were black. Moreover, over 900 students came from different foreign countries. Of the graduating class of 2,238, 513 were in Liberal Arts, 462 in Engineering, 389 in Business, 227 in Pharmacy and Allied Health, and the remainder were roughly divided among Education, Boston-Bouvé, Nursing and Criminal Justice.
To attract more women, the university refurbished existing facilities, constructed new women's dormitories and encouraged their participation in all programs. The merger with Boston-Bouvé, a women's college dedicated to physical health, and the creation of the College of Nursing, traditionally a female profession, also contributed to the increase. Though there was an explicit nondiscrimination policy on the books, throughout its history Northeastern had only a handful of black students. In the early 1960s, with financial assistance from the Ford Foundation in New York in the form of scholarships and co-ops to black high school students, Northeastern began actively recruiting black students. By 1975, black student-led organizations included the Afro-photo Society, Student Grill, Health Careers Club, The Onyx (a black student newspaper), Muhindi Literary Guild, the Outing Club, Black Engineering Society, and the first recognized black fraternity at the university, the Omicron Chapter of Iota Phi Theta. In addition, the number of foreign students increased from 170 in the 1950s and 1960s to 960 by 1974–75.
Recent history
By the early 1980s, under President Kenneth G. Ryder, the one-time night commuter school had grown into one of the largest private universities in the nation at around 50,000 students. In 1990, the first class with more live-on campus rather than commuter students was graduated. After Ryder's retirement in 1989, the university adopted a slow and more thoughtful approach to change. Following an economic downturn, a 1991 trustee committee report described the situation as "life threatening to Northeastern," warning of a $17 million budget gap with no funding mechanisms to cover it. That year President John A. Curry formulated a new strategy of transforming Northeastern into a "smaller, leaner, better place to work and study," describing unacceptable compromises in the quality and reputation of the university that had been made in the quest for more students. Staff were terminated and admissions targets were reduced, with applicant numbers beginning to rise and attrition rates fall by the end of Curry's tenure.
When Curry left office in 1996, the university population had been systematically reduced to about 25,000. Incoming President Richard M. Freeland decided to focus on recruiting the type of students who were already graduating as the school's prime demographic. Freeland focused on improving academics and restructuring the administration with a goal of "creating the country's premier program of practice oriented education". In the early 1990s, the university began a $485 million construction program that included residence halls, academic and research facilities, and athletic centers. During the university's transition, Freeland reorganized the co-operative education system, decentralizing it into a department based system to allow better integration of classroom learning with workplace experience. Full-time degree programs shifted from a four-quarter system to two traditional semesters and two summer "minimesters," allowing students to both delve more deeply into their academic courses and have longer and more substantive co-op placements, forcing departments to redesign aging programs to fit the longer format. Freeland also created a marketing department, uncommon for universities at the time, and expanded the university advancement office, while setting an ambitious $200 million fundraising target with the goal of reducing dependency on tuition.
Between 1995 and 2007, average SAT exam scores increased more than 200 points, retention rates rose dramatically, and applications doubled. In 1998, Freeland set an admissions target of 2,800 freshman per year, allowing for adequate tuition income without compromising on education. Throughout the transformation, his oft-repeated goal was to crack the top 100 of the U.S. News & World Report's rankings of America's best universities. With this accomplished by 2005, the transformation goal from commuting school to nationally recognized research university was complete. Freeland stepped down on August 15, 2006, and was followed by President Joseph E. Aoun, a former dean at the University of Southern California.
As part of a five-year, $75 million Academic Investment Plan that ran from 2004 to 2009, the university concentrated on undergraduate education, core graduate professional programs, and centers of research excellence. Faculty was originally to be bolstered by 100 new tenured and tenure-track professors, later expanded to include 300 additional tenure and tenure-track faculty in interdisciplinary fields. Aoun also placed more emphasis on improving community relations by reaching out to leaders of the neighborhoods surrounding the university. In addition, Aoun created more academic partnerships with other institutions in the Boston area, including Tufts University, Hebrew College and the School of the Museum of Fine Arts.
During this period, Northeastern rapidly advanced in national rankings. It placed 42nd in the 2014–15 edition of U.S. News & World Report'''s best colleges and universities rankings, a 7 position jump from 2013–14 and a 27 place gain since 2010–11. Critics have argued that Northeastern's rise in the rankings shows that the university has "cracked the code" to academic rankings, while others suggested it figured out how to "game the system." The positive feedback effect of its placement, in turn, allowed the institution to significantly increase its endowment, admit a more-competitive student body, hire new faculty, add to its campuses and expand its flagship co-op program.
The Empower Campaign was launched in May 2013 for student support, faculty advancement/expansion, innovation in education and research. Its goal was to raise $1 billion by 2017, with half of that being from philanthropic support and the other half from industry and government partnerships. The goal was raised to $1.25 billion in 2015. The campaign was inspired by Richard D'Amore and Alan McKim's $60 million donation to the university's business school in 2012. In October 2017, Northeastern revealed that the final total of the Empower campaign was $1.4 billion. More than 100,000 individuals and over 3,800 organizations donated to Empower, from 110 countries.
Presidents
Presidents of Northeastern University:
Frank Palmer Speare (1898–1940)
Carl Stephens Ell (1940–1959)
Asa S. Knowles (1959–1975)
Kenneth G. Ryder (1975–1989)
John A. Curry (1989–1996)
Richard M. Freeland (1996–2006)
Joseph E. Aoun (2006–present)
Academics
Northeastern offers 291 undergraduate majors; 187 of these are combined majors, such as Business Administration/Communication Studies. At the graduate level, there are 36 PhD programs and 264 other graduate programs. Northeastern had 3,028 faculty in Fall 2021. Academics at Northeastern is grounded in a liberal arts education and the integration of classroom studies with experiential learning opportunities, including cooperative education, student research, service learning, and global experience, including study abroad and international co-op. The university's cooperative education program places nearly 10,000 students annually in full-time, paid professional positions with almost 3,000 co-op employers in Boston and around the world.
Northeastern University is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education. A Northeastern education is interdisciplinary and entrepreneurial. Founded in 2009, IDEA is Northeastern University's student-led Venture Accelerator, which provides entrepreneurs, including students, faculty, and alumni in the Northeastern community with the necessary support and educational experience towards developing a business from core concept to launch.
Colleges and schools
Northeastern University in Boston has seven colleges. These colleges are as follows:
College of Arts, Media and Design
Khoury College of Computer Sciences
College of Engineering
Bouvé College of Health Sciences
College of Professional Studies
College of Science
College of Social Sciences and Humanities
These colleges house schools and departments. In the College of Arts, Media and Design, for example, one will find the Schools of Architecture and Journalism. There are also two separate schools, not housed within the other colleges: the D’Amore-McKim School of Business and the Northeastern University School of Law. As of 2023, Mills College was also acquired by Northeastern.
Honors Program
The University Honors Program selects students from the regular applicant pool with no separate application and represent the applicants with the highest GPA and SAT/ACT scores that year. The program includes specialty work in a major field through college-specific choices including specialized advanced honors seminars and an independent research project. Students in the Honors Program exclusively can live in a Living-Learning Community housed in West Villages C and F. 2017 also marked the beginning of the Honors Discovery course and the introduction of the Student Assessed Integrated Learning (SAIL) app.
Co-op/internship program
Launched in 1909, Northeastern has one of the largest and oldest cooperative education (co-op) programs in the world. In the co-op program, students alternate periods of academic study with periods of professional employment (usually paid) related to their major. Students can choose to complete one or two co-op experiences to graduate in four years, or they can choose to complete three co-ops to graduate in five years. Students on co-op do not pay tuition and students not living on campus do not pay room and board. The co-op program typically begins the spring of the second year or fall of the third year (after a more traditional program for the first semesters on campus). Students usually take anywhere between one and three with 96% participating in one and 78% participating in two or more.
50% of Northeastern students receive a job offer from a previous co-op employer .
Study abroad
Northeastern has semester-long study abroad programs with placements in Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, and South America. Some participating schools include: University of Cambridge and London School of Economics, England; University of Edinburgh, Scotland; Reims Management School, France; European School of Business, Germany; University of Cape Town, South Africa; University of Auckland, New Zealand; Swinburne University of Technology, Australia; Obirin University, Japan; American College of Thessaloniki, Greece and Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile and also Antarctica.
Northeastern's International Business program is a member of the International Partnership of Business Schools. Through this program International Business students have the opportunity to be awarded a dual-degree from Northeastern as well as from a sister school abroad.
Research
The university provides undergraduate students with an opportunity to engage in research through the Center for Experiential Education, CenSSIS Research Experience for Undergraduates, Honors Research, Louis Stokes Alliance for Minority Participation program, and Provost's Office research grants. In FY 2007, annual external research funding exceeded $78 million. In FY 2009–10, the research funding is close to $82 million. In 2002, Northeastern's Center for Subsurface Sensing and Imaging Systems was designated an NSF Engineering Research Center. In 2004, Northeastern was one of six institutions selected by the National Science Foundation as a center for research in nanotechnology. In 2010, Northeastern was granted $12 million by an alum for a Homeland security research facility, to be named the George J. Kostas Research Institute for Homeland Security, after its chief benefactor.
Undergraduate admissions
For undergraduate students, Northeastern's 2023 acceptance rate was 5.6%. Of the record-large pool of 96,327 applicants, only ~5,389 were admitted. The sharp rise in applications and drop in admission is attributed to an over enrollment issue that the admission office is attempting to fix. 2020 acceptance rate was 18.1%. For the Class of 2024, Northeastern received 64,459 applications, with 13,199 students accepted. In 2018, the record number of applications led to a drop in acceptance rate, eight percentage points lower than the previous year. Additionally, Northeastern was one of the top ten most applied to colleges in 2018.
For the Class of 2022 (enrolling fall 2018), Northeastern received 62,272 applications, accepted 12,042 (19%), and enrolled 2,746. For the freshmen who enrolled, the middle 50% range of SAT scores was 670–750 for reading and writing, 690–790 for math, while the middle 50% range ACT composite range was 32–34.
Of those who applied in 2016, 9,500 were international students, up from 1,128 international applicants in 2006. Of those who enrolled, 20% were international students. In the Power of International Education's 2017 Open Doors report, Northeastern was ranked as the fourth-highest institution in the United States to host international students.
The number of international students totals over 12,000 representing 138 different nations and over half of the student body. The number of international students at Northeastern has steadily increased by about 1,000 students every year since 2008.
Rankings
In the 2024 edition of U.S. News & World Report rankings, Northeastern was tied for 53rd in the National Universities category. The 2021 edition of U.S. News & World Report ranked Northeastern 49th in its annual ranking of national universities. In 2014, College Prowler gave Northeastern an "A+" rating for the quality of classes, professors, and overall academic environment. A 2008 Reader's Digest survey ranked NU as the second safest school in the United States after Johns Hopkins University in Maryland.
Specialty rankings
1st in "Best Co-ops/Internships" (U.S. News & World Report) (2020, 2021, 2022, 2023)
1st in "Best Schools for Internships" (Princeton Review) (2017, 2018)
2nd in "Best Graduate Psychology Programs" (2018)<ref name=USNWR_Grad>{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/best-graduate-schools/northeastern-university-167358/overall-rankings |title=U.S. News Best Grad School Rankings |website=U.S. News & World Report |access-date=October 26, 2016 |archive-date=December 23, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223160825/https://www.usnews.com/best-graduate-schools/northeastern-university-167358/overall-rankings |url-status=live}}</ref>
2nd in "Best Physician Assistant Programs" (2018)
3rd in "Best Nursing-Anesthesia Programs" (2018)
3rd in "Best Career Services" (Princeton Review) (2016, 2017, 2018)
4th in "Top 25 Entrepreneurship: Ugrad" (Princeton Review) (2017, 2018)
4th in "Best Health Care Law Programs" (2018)
6th in "Most Innovative Schools" (U.S. News & World Report) (2018) (up from 7th in 2017)
7th in "The Top 25 B.A. Theatre Programs for 2018–19" (OnStage Blog)
9th in "Best Undergraduate International Business Programs" (U.S. News & World Report) (2018)
Campus
Northeastern University's main campus is located on mostly along Huntington Avenue and Columbus Avenue in an area known as the Fenway Cultural District, part of Boston's Fenway and Roxbury neighborhood, near the Museum of Fine Arts, Symphony Hall, New England Conservatory, and Christian Science Center.
In 2019, the campus was officially designated as an arboretum by ArbNet, making it the only campus in Boston to receive the designation.
The first baseball World Series took place on the Huntington Avenue Grounds, now part of the campus. The site is commemorated in front of Churchill Hall by a statue of Cy Young.
In 2014, Northeastern officially launched a Public Art Initiative to place a series of murals and other art around the Boston campus. Among those whose work has been commissioned are French artist Jef Aérosol, Houston-born artist Daniel Anguilu, Los Angeles-based El Mac and Charleston, South Carolina-born artist Shepard Fairey, known for his 2008 Barack Obama "Hope" poster.
Campus development
During the Great Depression in the 1930s, as enrollment grew to over 4,600 students, President Frank Palmer Speare announced that Northeastern would build a new campus. Coolidge Shepley Bulfinch and Abbott, a Boston-based architectural firm, was selected to design the campus near the Huntington Avenue YMCA building that continued to house library and classroom spaces. Richards Hall, which housed classrooms, laboratories and administrative offices, was the first building completed in October 1938. Its light gray, glazed brick exterior with vertical strips of windows was replicated in other buildings of what later became known as the 1944 master plan. A mix of Beaux-Arts and Bauhaus architectural styles defined by stripped-down classicism and open courtyards that resembled that of Massachusetts Institute of Technology across the Charles River. In a June 14, 1934 article, the Boston Evening Transcript described the campus design as "modernistic classical."
In 1961, under President Asa Knowles, the university purchased a 7-acre red brick industrial complex once owned by the United Drug Company to build athletic facilities. Three of the buildings facing Forsyth Street were demolished, but due to a need for more office and lab space, the remaining buildings were divided into four sections now called Lake Hall, Holmes Hall, Nightingale Hall and Meserve Hall.
During the last few years, major developments include Northeastern becoming recognized as an arboretum, opening a $225 million research and laboratory complex known as the Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Complex (ISEC), launching the Institute for Experiential Artificial Intelligence with a $50 million donation, as well as renaming the College of Computer and Information Science to the Khoury College of Computer Sciences with another $50 million donation from Amin Khoury.
EXP, another large research facility created to support Northeastern's work in autonomous vehicles, drones, and humanoid robots recently opened for the 2023-2024 school year. This building is approximately , including a 15,000 square foot makers space for students of all colleges and degree levels.
Sustainability
The 2011 Sustainable Endowments Institute's College Sustainability Report Card issued Northeastern a grade of "A−" for its environmental sustainability efforts and programs. Additionally, the Princeton Review rated Northeastern as one of the top 15 "Green Colleges" in the nation in 2010. In 2011, the GreenMetric World University ranking evaluated Northeastern as the second greenest university in the world, and first in the US. Northeastern placed first in the rankings again in 2014.
In accordance with a Boston zoning code amendment in 2007, International Village residence hall was certified as a LEED Gold building in 2010. Dockser Hall was the first building on campus to achieve LEED certification, also Gold, with the completion of its renovation in 2010. East Village was rated LEED Silver in 2016 and the Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Complex was rated LEED Gold in 2018. The university affiliated LightView apartment building is targeting a LEED Platinum certification, the first in student housing in the City of Boston.
In 2004, Northeastern was awarded the gold medal by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for its Dedham Campus.
Public transportation
The MBTA subway Orange Line and Green Line E branch pass through the Northeastern campus. Five stations serve the campus: and on the Orange Line; and , , and on the Green Line. The Green Line is paralleled by MBTA bus route . Ruggles station is also served by the Needham, Providence/Stoughton, and Franklin/Foxboro Lines of the MBTA Commuter Rail system and is a major transfer point for MBTA bus routes.
Landmarks
Centers and commons
Facing Huntington Avenue, Krentzman Quadrangle is the main quadrangle on the campus of Northeastern. It is recognizable by the "Northeastern University" brick sign in front. The quad lies at the heart of the original campus between Ell, Dodge and Richards halls, and serves as a gathering space for community members and outdoor activities. It was named after Harvey Krentzman, a businessman and 1949 alumnus.
Centennial Common is a lawn created to mark the 100th anniversary of Northeastern University in 1998. The grassy area borders Shillman Hall, Ryder Hall, Meserve Hall, Leon Street, Forsyth Street and Ruggles Station, and serves as a gateway to the West Campus. The area is a popular gathering spot frequently used by students for recreational purposes and outdoor activities by student organizations.
The Marino Recreation Center, named after 1961 alumnus Roger Marino, co-founder of EMC Corporation, is an indoor fitness center that opened in the Fall of 1996.
Halls and auditoriums
Ell Hall, completed in 1947, is one of the oldest buildings on campus and is centered on Krentzman Quadrangle. It contains administrative offices, classrooms, art display space, a 992-seat auditorium and the Northeastern Bookstore. Like Dodge Hall, Ell Hall has five floors and also connects to the tunnel network. The tunnels interconnect the major administrative and traditional academic buildings for use in inclement weather. Ell Hall was named for Carl Ell, president of Northeastern from 1940 to 1959, who is credited with expanding the campus and making cooperative education an integral part of the university-wide curriculum.
Blackman Auditorium, Northeastern's largest event space, hosts many different types of events for classes, theater groups, dance teams, musical groups, choral groups, fraternities, sororities, and orchestral ensembles. Blackman has hosted many talented individuals from Maya Angelou to Seth Meyers.
Gallery 360 is Northeastern University's art gallery, which is free and open to the public throughout the year. The space houses temporary exhibits of artworks by visiting artists, students, faculty, and the surrounding community. Some larger exhibits also include the adjacent hallways for additional space. Curation and administration is under the supervision of the College of Arts Media and Design (CAMD).Dodge Hall sits on Krentzman Quadrangle and primarily serves as the home of Northeastern's D'Amore-McKim School of Business. The building was completed in 1952 and named for Robert Gray Dodge, a former chairman of Northeastern's board of trustees. It has five floors. From 1953 until Snell Library opened in 1990, Dodge Hall's basement served as the university's main library.
Originally known as West Building, Richards Hall borders Krentzman Quadrangle and was the first building constructed on campus in October 1938. Its light gray brick and vertical window strips design was the work of alumnus Herman Voss and was replicated in other surrounding buildings. Richards Hall was named for Boston industrialist James Lorin Richards, a former board trustee.
Interdisciplinary Science & Engineering Complex
On February 21, 2014, Northeastern had its groundbreaking ceremony for the new Interdisciplinary Science & Engineering Complex (ISEC) on Columbus Avenue. Completed in 2017, the building provides research and educational space for students and faculty from the College of Science, Bouvé College of Health Sciences, College of Engineering, and Khoury College of Computer Sciences. The centerpiece of the complex includes a large atrium, a spiral staircase, and a 280-seat auditorium.
Matthews Arena
Opened in 1910 and originally known as the Boston Arena, Matthews Arena is the world's oldest surviving indoor ice hockey arena. Located on the eastern edge of Northeastern University's campus, it is home to the Northeastern Huskies men's and women's hockey teams, and men's basketball team as well as the Wentworth Institute of Technology's men's hockey team. The arena is named after former university Board of Trustees Chairman George J. Matthews, a 1956 graduate, and his wife, the late Hope M. Matthews, who helped fund a major renovation in 1982. The arena is the original home of the NHL Boston Bruins and the WHA New England Whalers (now the NHL Carolina Hurricanes). It was also the secondary home to the NBA Boston Celtics in the 1940s. It has hosted all or part of the America East Conference men's basketball tournament a total of seven times and hosted the 1960 Frozen Four. The arena also served as the original home to the annual Beanpot tournament between Boston's four major college hockey programs.
Dorms and housing
East Village is Northeastern's newest dorm building and only houses freshmen and upperclassmen who are in the University Honors Program. The building is located at 291 St. Botolph Street and opened in January 2015. Honors freshman live in its suite-style rooms whereas upperclassmen can choose full apartments with kitchen facilities. The building also contains 5 classrooms in the basement and an event space on the 17th Floor.In 2008, West Village Building F was recognized in American Institute of Architects New England 2008 Merit Awards for Design Excellence.
South Campus (Columbus Avenue)
Northeastern's southernmost section of campus is located along Columbus Avenue in Roxbury, parallel to the Orange line. The university expanded south into Roxbury at the same time as they were building West Village. In 2001, Davenport Commons was opened, providing 585 students housing in two residence halls while 75 families representing a range of incomes have been able to purchase a condo or townhouse at or below Boston's market value. Davenport Commons also created commercial space on Tremont Street.
During the summer of 2006, Northeastern proposed a new residence hall further away from the main campus, at the corner of Tremont Street and Ruggles Street. Construction began in late February 2007. In the spring of 2009, the complex was named International Village and opened later that summer. It consists of three interconnected residential towers, an office tower, administration building, and a gym. A 400-seat dining hall is available to all members of the Northeastern community as well as the public.
Lightview was launched in 2019, which was Boston's first developer-led, equity-financed student housing project built and financed by American Campus Communities exclusively for Northeastern students. The building is 20 stories tall and includes a fitness area as well as social and recreational spaces.
Library facilities
Northeastern University Libraries include the Snell Library and the John D. O'Bryant African-American Institute Library. The NU School of Law Library is separately administered by the NU School of Law. The NU Libraries received federal depository designation in 1963.
The Snell Library opened in 1990 at a cost of $35 million, and contains 1.3 million volumes. It is also home to the Northeastern University Archives and Special Collections department, which includes the Benjamin LaGuer papers collection. The Special Collections focus on records of Boston-area community-based organizations that are concerned with social justice issues. In June 2016, the library staff adopted an open-access policy to make its members' professional research publicly accessible online.
Network campuses
In addition to Northeastern's main Boston campus, the university operates a number of satellite locations in Massachusetts, including the George J. Kostas Research Institute in Burlington, a Financial District campus in the Hilton Hotel near Faneuil Hall in downtown Boston, a Dedham Campus in Dedham, and a Marine Science Center in Nahant. The Kostas Research Institute for Homeland Security, which opened in 2011, contains the Laboratory for Structural Testing of Resilient and Sustainable Systems (STReSS Laboratory). The laboratory is "equipped to test full-scale and large-scale structural systems and materials to failure so as to explore the development of new strategies for designing, simulating, and sensing structural and infrastructure systems".The university has also launched a number of full-service remote network campuses in North America, including in Charlotte, North Carolina, in October 2011, Seattle, in January 2013, San Jose, California, in March 2015, Toronto, in 2016 and Vancouver, British Columbia in 2019. In January 2020, Northeastern announced that it was opening the Roux Institute in Portland, Maine, a new research institute focused on artificial intelligence and machine learning in digital and life sciences. The decision came after Northeastern was selected for a $100 million donation by David Roux, in hopes of turning the city into a new tech hub and in an attempt to spark economic growth in the region.
More recently, the university has continued to focus on global expansion. In late 2018, Northeastern announced the acquisition of the New College of the Humanities, a small private London-based college founded by the philosopher A. C. Grayling. The move was seen as unorthodox as most U.S. colleges have typically chosen to build new campus branches abroad, rather than purchasing existing ones.
In June 2021, Northeastern and Mills College in Oakland, California, announced plans for a merger. Under the plans, the liberal arts college, which had financial troubles, was renamed Mills College at Northeastern University when the merger became effective on July 1, 2022.
Student organizations
Northeastern has more than 16 varsity teams competing in the NCAA, over 30 club sports teams and over 400 student clubs and organizations. Among the student-run organizations are: Resident Student Association (RSA), Student Government Association (SGA), The Huntington News, Northeastern University Television (NUTV), Fraternity and Sorority Life (FSL), Social Justice Resource Center (SJRC), and the Council for University Programs (CUP) organize activities for Northeastern students as well as the surrounding community.
Northeastern hosts six student-run a cappella groups on campus: three mixed ensembles (Distilled Harmony, The Downbeats, and The Nor'easters), two treble ensembles (Pitch, Please! and Treble on Huntington), and one TTBB ensemble (UniSons). All groups regularly compete in the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella (ICCA). The Nor'easters have performed at ICCA finals in New York City three times and won the ICCA title in 2013 and 2017. Pitch, Please! competed at ICCA finals in 2019.
Athletics
Since 1927, Northeastern University's intercollegiate athletic teams have been known as the Huskies. Prior to 1927, Northeastern had no official mascot. A committee was formed to choose a mascot and members eventually settled on the Siberian Husky. In February 1927, a pup was selected from legendary Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race competitor Leonhard Seppala's kennel in Poland Springs, Maine. On March 4, 1927, King Husky I arrived at Northeastern in a campus celebration for which classes were canceled. Since then, live mascots have been a Siberian Husky breed, but after losing two mascots in three months in the early 1970s and after upheaval due to having live canine mascots, the university's administration was reluctant to continue the live mascot tradition. In 2005, the university resumed the live mascot tradition; the current live mascot is named Moses. The university's official costumed mascot is Paws.
The university's official colors are Northeastern red and black, with white often used as an alternate color. The university fight song, "All Hail, Northeastern," was composed by Charles A. Pethybridge, class of 1932. Since 2005, 14 of 18 Northeastern varsity sports teams primarily compete in NCAA Division I's Colonial Athletic Association (CAA).
During its first decades, Northeastern initially had seven athletics teams: basketball, cross country, indoor track, outdoor track, crew and football.
Northeastern sponsors the following sports teams:
(M) Baseball
(M), (W) Basketball
(M), (W) Cross country
(W) Field hockey
(M), (W) Ice hockey (in Hockey East)
(M), (W) Rowing (in Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges and Eastern Association of Women's Rowing Colleges)
(M), (W) Soccer
(W) Swimming and diving
(M), (W) Track and field
(W) Volleyball
The baseball, soccer, lacrosse and rugby teams compete at Parsons Field, a multipurpose facility located in Brookline, a mile and a half from the campus. The field's baseball diamond was named Friedman Diamond in 1988. The field hockey team, along with the Huskies' track and field teams, compete at a sports complex about away from campus in Dedham. Matthews Arena, which opened 1910, is home to the hockey and basketball programs. The 4,666-seat arena is located close to campus, just off Massachusetts Avenue. It is considered the world's oldest multi-purpose athletic building. Henderson Boathouse is home to the Huskies' men's & women's rowing squads. The Henderson Boathouse is located on the Charles River near Soldiers Field Road in Allston. The university also maintains the Cabot Physical Education Center, which opened in 1954 and includes a basketball court; an indoor track and natatorium; the Gries Center for Sports Medicine and Performance Center; a squash facility; and the William E. Carter Playground, a renovated community park on Columbus Avenue.
The baseball team was founded in 1921 and has since competed in one College World Series and played in the NCAA regionals seven times. In the 2008 National Championship, the team made the Grand Finals and placed fourth behind University of Wisconsin–Madison, University of Washington, and University of California, Berkeley, while defeating Brown University, Princeton University, University of Pennsylvania and Harvard University.
In 2009, Northeastern eliminated its 74-year-old football program. From 1933 to 2009, the Northeastern Huskies football program's all-time record was 290-365-17 (.444), it produced 20 All-Americans and won the 2002 Atlantic 10 Conference championship. Citing sparse attendance, numerous losing seasons and the expense to renovate Parsons Field to an acceptable standard, the university's Board of Trustees voted on November 20, 2009, to end the football program. According to President Joseph Aoun, "Leadership requires that we make these choices. This decision allows us to focus on our existing athletic programs."
In addition to intercollegiate athletics, Northeastern offers 40 club sports, including sailing, judo, rugby, lacrosse, Olympic-Style taekwondo, alpine skiing, squash, cycling, and ultimate Frisbee. In 2005 the women's rugby team finished third in the nation in Division II, while in the same year the men's rugby team won the largest annual tournament in the United States. Recently, the women's rugby team competed and placed 11th at the Collegiate Rugby Championship. In the 2008–09 academic year the Northeastern Club Field Hockey and Women's Basketball teams won their respective National Championships. From 2007 to 2009, the Northeastern Club Baseball team won three straight New England Club Baseball Association championships. The Club Taekwondo team placed 1st overall in Division II for the 2018–19 Season in the Eastern Collegiate Taekwondo Conference.
On May 25, 2010, the club baseball team defeated Penn State to win the National Club Baseball Association Division II World Series and the national championship.
Ice hockey
The men's and women's hockey teams compete in the Hockey East conference. Northeastern defeated Boston College, 4–2, to win the 2019 Beanpot and defeated Boston University, 5–4, to win the 2020 Beanpot. In 2020, Northeastern beat Boston University, 5–4, in overtime to win the Beanpot for the third year in a row. In addition to winning the Beanpot title, Northeastern took home both awards with the award for most valuable player being presented to Adam Gaudette and the Eberly Award being presented to Cayden Primeau who had a save percentage of .974 (making him the goalie with second highest save percentage to win the award in the 44 years the award has been given).
Traditions
Underwear ("Undie") Run
Started in 2005, the Underwear Run is a Northeastern-sponsored event around fall midterm season in which students strip down to their underwear and run a track around campus and near parts of the city. The Northeastern University Police Department (NUPD) supervises the event to maintain the flow of traffic through the city. Students have described it as a "liberating experience" that "brings a sense of community and builds school spirit." Though the event was officially cancelled in 2020 and 2021 due to COVID-19 concerns, it was unofficially organized by students in fall of 2021.
Husky Hunt
Organized by the Resident Student Association, Husky Hunt is a 24-hour city-wide scavenger hunt that has 50 teams of students roaming around the Greater Boston area in search of locations that correspond to clues, games, puzzles, and riddles. The scavenger hunt starts with a preliminary qualifying quiz of which only 1/3 of the total group of participating teams progress to the hunt.
Notable alumni and faculty
Northeastern University has more than 275,000 living alumni based in over 180 countries around the world. Many alumni have distinguished themselves in a wide range of endeavors. They include Nikesh Arora, former senior VP & Chief Business Officer of Google and CEO of Palo Alto Networks; activist short seller Andrew Left; professional basketball player José Juan Barea; former Kodak CEO Jeff Clarke; investigative journalist and Elmer Ferguson Memorial Award recipient Russ Conway; former Massachusetts U.S. Senator Mo Cowan; Saturday Night Live original cast member and actress Jane Curtin; marathon runner Beatie Deutsch; former United States Ambassador to Ireland Richard Egan; filmmaker, musician, and writer Michael J. Epstein; Napster co-founder Shawn Fanning; 10th Archivist of the United States David Ferriero; musician and video game developer Toby Fox; musician John Geils; Webby Award-honored media producer Alan Catello Grazioso; electronic dance music producer RL Grime; New Hampshire governor and U.S. Senator Maggie Hassan; Massachusetts Governor Maura Healey; Academy Award-nominated director and screenwriter Courtney Hunt; Space Shuttle Challenger astronaut Gregory Jarvis; fashion model and actress Beverly Johnson; Amin Khoury, founder of B/E Aerospace and CEO of KLX Energy Services Holdings; U.S. Olympian (bobsled) and silver medalist Steven Langton; University at Buffalo neurosurgery professor Elad Levy; professional basketball player Reggie Lewis; college president Thomas Michael McGovern; former NPR co-host of Car Talk Tom Magliozzi; actor David Marciano; EMC Corporation co-founder Roger Marino; CEO and Souq.com co-founder Ronaldo Mouchawar; comedian Patrice O'Neal; Washington, D.C. politician Oye Owolewa; billionaire businessman James Pallotta; computer scientist, and researcher Andrea Grimes Parker; former Rhode Island U.S. Senator and governor John O. Pastore; professional baseball player Carlos Peña; Boston Dynamics CEO and founder Marc Raibert; National Football League All-Pro Dan Ross; filmmaker Bettina Santo Domingo; Twitter co-founder Biz Stone; actor Vaughn Taylor; world champion surfer Shaun Tomson; television & radio talk show host Wendy Williams; famous former Northeastern Huskies men's ice hockey players Devon Levi, Jamie Oleksiak, Josh Manson, Adam Gaudette, Anthony Bitetto, Zach Aston-Reese, Don McKenney among others; and professional racing driver Reema Juffali.
Notable faculty
Michael Dukakis, Former Governor of Massachusetts, Democratic Presidential Nominee in 1988, Professor of Political Science
Matthias Felleisen, Author of How to Design Programs, Professor of Computer Science
Mary Florentine, psychoacoustician, Matthews Distinguished Professor
Pran Nath, co-developer of the theory of supergravity
Nada Sanders, Distinguished Professor of Supply Chain Management at the D'Amore-McKim School of Business
Susan Whitfield-Gabrieli, professor of psychology, Founding Director of the Biomedical Imaging Center
See also
Boston Guild for the Hard of Hearing
D'Amore-McKim School of Business
Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Complex
Khoury College of Computer Sciences
Northeastern University (MBTA station)
Ruggles (MBTA station)
South End Grounds
Timeline of Boston
References
External links
Northeastern University Athletics website
Universities and colleges established in 1898
Universities and colleges in Boston
Private universities and colleges in Massachusetts
1898 establishments in Massachusetts
Universities and colleges founded by the YMCA
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20F.%20Kennan
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George F. Kennan
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George Frost Kennan (February 16, 1904 – March 17, 2005) was an American diplomat and historian. He was best known as an advocate of a policy of containment of Soviet expansion during the Cold War. He lectured widely and wrote scholarly histories of the relations between the USSR and the United States. He was also one of the group of foreign policy elders known as "The Wise Men."
During the late 1940s, his writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and the U.S. foreign policy of containing the USSR. His "Long Telegram" from Moscow in 1946 and the subsequent 1947 article "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" argued that the Soviet regime was inherently expansionist and that its influence had to be "contained" in areas of vital strategic importance to the United States. These texts provided justification for the Truman administration's new anti-Soviet policy. Kennan played a major role in the development of definitive Cold War programs and institutions, notably the Marshall Plan.
Soon after his concepts had become U.S. policy, Kennan began to criticize the foreign policies that he had helped articulate. By late 1948, Kennan became confident that the US could commence positive dialogue with the Soviet government. His proposals were dismissed by the Truman administration, and Kennan's influence waned, particularly after Dean Acheson was appointed Secretary of State in 1949. Soon thereafter, U.S. Cold War strategy assumed a more assertive and militaristic quality, causing Kennan to lament what he believed was an abrogation of his previous assessments.
In 1950, Kennan left the State Department—except for a brief ambassadorial stint in Moscow and a longer one in Yugoslavia—and became a realist critic of U.S. foreign policy. He continued to analyze international affairs as a faculty member of the Institute for Advanced Study from 1956 until his death in 2005 at age 101.
Early life
Kennan was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Kossuth Kent Kennan, a lawyer specializing in tax law, and Florence James Kennan. His father was a descendant of impoverished Scots-Irish settlers from 18th-century Connecticut and Massachusetts, and had been named after the Hungarian patriot Lajos Kossuth (1802–94). His mother died two months later due to peritonitis from a ruptured appendix, though Kennan long believed that she died after giving birth to him. The boy always lamented not having a mother. He was never close to his father or stepmother; however, he was close to his older sisters.
At the age of eight, he went to Germany to stay with his stepmother in order to learn German. He attended St. John's Military Academy in Delafield, Wisconsin, and arrived at Princeton University in the second half of 1921. Unaccustomed to the elite atmosphere of the Ivy League, the shy and introverted Kennan found his undergraduate years difficult and lonely.
Diplomatic career
First steps
After receiving his bachelor's degree in history in 1925, Kennan considered applying to law school, but decided it was too expensive and instead opted to apply to the newly formed United States Foreign Service. He passed the qualifying examination and after seven months of study at the Foreign Service School in Washington, he obtained his first job as a vice consul in Geneva, Switzerland. Within a year, he was transferred to a post in Hamburg, Germany. In 1928, Kennan considered quitting the Foreign Service to return to a university for graduate studies. Instead, he was selected for a linguist training program that would give him three years of graduate-level study without having to quit the service.
In 1929, Kennan began his program in history, politics, culture, and the Russian language at the Oriental Institute of the University of Berlin. In doing so, he followed in the footsteps of his grandfather's younger cousin, George Kennan (1845–1924), a major 19th century expert on Imperial Russia and author of Siberia and the Exile System, a well-received 1891 account of the Czarist prison system. During the course of his diplomatic career, Kennan would master a number of other languages, including German, French, Polish, Czech, Portuguese, and Norwegian.
In 1931 Kennan was stationed at the legation in Riga, Latvia, where, as third secretary, he worked on Soviet economic affairs. From his job, Kennan "grew to mature interest in Russian affairs". When the U.S. began formal diplomacy with the Soviet government during 1933 after the election of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Kennan accompanied Ambassador William C. Bullitt to Moscow. By the mid-1930s, Kennan was among the professionally trained Russian experts of the staff of the United States Embassy in Moscow, along with Charles E. Bohlen and Loy W. Henderson. These officials had been influenced by the long-time director of the State Department's division of East European Affairs, Robert F. Kelley. They believed that there was little basis for cooperation with the Soviet Union, even against potential adversaries. Meanwhile, Kennan studied Stalin's Great Purge, which would affect his opinion of the internal dynamics of the Soviet regime for the rest of his life.
At the Soviet Embassy
Kennan found himself in strong disagreement with Joseph E. Davies, Bullitt's successor as ambassador to the Soviet Union, who defended the Great Purge and other aspects of Stalin's rule. Kennan did not have any influence on Davies' decisions, and Davies himself even suggested that Kennan be transferred out of Moscow for "his health". Kennan again contemplated resigning from the service, but instead decided to accept the Russian desk at the State Department in Washington. A man with a high opinion of himself, Kennan began writing the first draft of his memoirs at the age of 34 when he was still a relatively junior diplomat. In a letter to his sister Jeannette in 1935, Kennan expressed his disenchantment with American life, writing: “I hate the rough and tumble of our political life. I hate democracy; I hate the press... I hate the ‘peepul’; I have become clearly un-American”
Prague and Berlin
By September 1938, Kennan had been reassigned to a job at the legation in Prague. After the occupation of the Czechoslovak Republic by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II, Kennan was assigned to Berlin. There, he endorsed the United States' Lend-Lease policy but warned against any notion of American endorsement of the Soviets, whom he considered unfit allies. He was interned in Germany for six months after Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States in December 1941.
Lisbon calls
In September 1942 Kennan was assigned to the legation in Lisbon, Portugal, where he begrudgingly performed a job administering intelligence and base operations. In July 1943 Bert Fish, the American Ambassador in Lisbon, suddenly died, and Kennan became chargé d'affaires and the head of the American Embassy in Portugal. While in Lisbon Kennan played a decisive role in getting Portugal's approval for the use of the Azores Islands by American naval and air forces during World War II. Initially confronted with clumsy instructions and lack of coordination from Washington, Kennan took the initiative by personally talking to President Roosevelt and obtained from the President a letter to the Portuguese premier, Salazar, that unlocked the concession of facilities in the Azores.
Second Soviet posting
In January 1944, he was sent to London, where he served as counselor of the American delegation to the European Advisory Commission, which worked to prepare Allied policy in Europe. There, Kennan became even more disenchanted with the State Department, which he believed was ignoring his qualifications as a trained specialist. However, within months of beginning the job, he was appointed deputy chief of the mission in Moscow upon request of W. Averell Harriman, the ambassador to the USSR.
The "Long Telegram"
In Moscow, Kennan again felt that his opinions were being ignored by President Truman and policymakers in Washington. Kennan tried repeatedly to persuade policymakers to abandon plans for cooperation with the Soviet government in favor of a sphere of influence policy in Europe to reduce the Soviets' power there. Kennan believed that a federation needed to be established in western Europe to counter Soviet influence in the region and to compete against the Soviet stronghold in eastern Europe.
Kennan served as deputy head of the mission in Moscow until April 1946. Near the end of that term, the Treasury Department requested that the State Department explain recent Soviet behavior, such as its disinclination to endorse the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Kennan responded on February 22, 1946, by sending a lengthy 5,363-word telegram (sometimes cited as being more than 8,000 words), commonly called "The Long Telegram", from Moscow to Secretary of State James Byrnes outlining a new strategy for diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. The ideas Kennan expressed in the Long Telegram were not new but the argument he made and the vivid language he used in making it came at an opportune moment. At the "bottom of the Kremlin's neurotic view of world affairs is the traditional and instinctive Russian sense of insecurity". After the Russian Revolution, this sense of insecurity became mixed with communist ideology and "Oriental secretiveness and conspiracy".
Soviet international behavior depended mainly on the internal necessities of Joseph Stalin's regime; according to Kennan, Stalin needed a hostile world in order to legitimize his autocratic rule. Stalin thus used Marxism-Leninism as a "justification for the Soviet Union's instinctive fear of the outside world, for the dictatorship without which they did not know how to rule, for cruelties they did not dare not to inflict, for sacrifice they felt bound to demand ... Today they cannot dispense with it. It is the fig leaf of their moral and intellectual respectability".
The solution was to strengthen Western institutions in order to render them invulnerable to the Soviet challenge while awaiting the mellowing of the Soviet regime.
Kennan's new policy of containment, in the words of his later 'X' article, was that Soviet pressure had to "be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counterforce at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points".
At the National War College
The long telegram dispatch brought Kennan to the attention of Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal, a major advocate of a confrontational policy with regard to the Soviets, the United States' former wartime ally. Forrestal helped bring Kennan back to Washington, where he served as the first deputy for foreign affairs at the National War College and then strongly influenced his decision to publish the "X" article.
Meanwhile, in March 1947, Truman appeared before Congress to request funding for the Truman Doctrine to fight Communism in Greece. "I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."
"X"
Unlike the "long telegram," Kennan's well-timed article appearing in the July 1947 issue of Foreign Affairs under the pseudonym "X", titled "The Sources of Soviet Conduct", did not begin by emphasizing "traditional and instinctive Russian sense of insecurity"; instead, it asserted that Stalin's policy was shaped by a combination of Marxist–Leninist ideology, which advocated revolution to defeat the capitalist forces in the outside world and Stalin's determination to use the notion of "capitalist encirclement" in order to legitimize his regimentation of Soviet society so that he could consolidate his political power. Kennan argued that Stalin would not (and moreover could not) moderate the supposed Soviet determination to overthrow Western governments. Thus:
... the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies.... Soviet pressure against the free institutions of the Western world is something that can be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counterforce at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points, corresponding to the shifts and manœuvres of Soviet policy, but which cannot be charmed or talked out of existence.
The goal of his policy was to withdraw all U.S. forces from Europe. "The settlement reached would give the Kremlin sufficient reassurance against the establishment of regimes in Eastern Europe hostile to the Soviet Union, tempering the degree of control over that area that the Soviet leaders felt it necessary to exercise".
Kennan further argued that the United States would have to perform this containment alone, but if it could do so without undermining its own economic health and political stability, the Soviet party structure would undergo a period of immense strain eventually resulting in "either the break-up or the gradual mellowing of Soviet power."
The publication of the "X" article soon began one of the more intense debates of the Cold War. Walter Lippmann, a leading American commentator on international affairs, strongly criticized the "X" article. Lippmann argued that Kennan's strategy of containment was "a strategic monstrosity" that could "be implemented only by recruiting, subsidizing, and supporting a heterogeneous array of satellites, clients, dependents, and puppets". Lippmann argued that diplomacy should be the basis of relations with the Soviets; he suggested that the U.S. withdraw its forces from Europe and reunify and demilitarize Germany. Meanwhile, it was soon revealed informally that "X" was indeed Kennan. This information seemed to give the "X" article the status of an official document expressing the Truman administration's new policy toward Moscow.
Kennan had not intended the "X" article as a prescription for policy. For the rest of his life, Kennan continued to reiterate that the article did not imply an automatic commitment to resist Soviet "expansionism" wherever it occurred, with little distinction of primary and secondary interests. The article did not make it obvious that Kennan favored employing political and economic rather than military methods as the chief agent of containment. "My thoughts about containment," said Kennan in a 1996 interview to CNN, "were of course distorted by the people who understood it and pursued it exclusively as a military concept; and I think that that, as much as any other cause, led to [the] 40 years of unnecessary, fearfully expensive and disoriented process of the Cold War".
Additionally, the administration made few attempts to explain the distinction between Soviet influence and international Communism to the U.S. public. "In part, this failure reflected the belief of many in Washington," writes historian John Lewis Gaddis, "that only the prospect of an undifferentiated global threat could shake Americans out of their isolationist tendencies that remained latent among them."
In a PBS television interview with David Gergen in 1996, Kennan again reiterated that he did not regard the Soviets as primarily a military threat, noting that "they were not like Hitler." Kennan's opinion was that this misunderstanding
all came down to one sentence in the "X" article where I said that wherever these people, meaning the Soviet leadership, confronted us with dangerous hostility anywhere in the world, we should do everything possible to contain it and not let them expand any further. I should have explained that I didn't suspect them of any desire to launch an attack on us. This was right after the war, and it was absurd to suppose that they were going to turn around and attack the United States. I didn't think I needed to explain that, but I obviously should have done it.
The "X" article meant sudden fame for Kennan. After the long telegram, he recalled later, "My official loneliness came in fact to an end ... My reputation was made. My voice now carried."
Influence under Marshall
Between April 1947 and December 1948, when George C. Marshall was Secretary of State, Kennan was more influential than he was at any other period in his career. Marshall valued his strategic sense and had him create and direct what is now named the Policy Planning Staff, the State Department's internal think tank. Kennan became the first Director of Policy Planning. Marshall relied heavily on him to prepare policy recommendations. Kennan played a central role in the drafting of the Marshall Plan.
Although Kennan regarded the Soviet Union as too weak to risk war, he nonetheless considered it an enemy capable of expanding into Western Europe through subversion, given the popular support for Communist parties in Western Europe, which remained demoralized by the devastation of the Second World War. To counter this potential source of Soviet influence, Kennan's solution was to direct economic aid and covert political help to Japan and Western Europe to revive Western governments and assist international capitalism; by doing so, the United States would help to rebuild the balance of power. In June 1948, Kennan proposed covert assistance to left-wing parties not oriented toward Moscow and to labor unions in Western Europe in order to engineer a rift between Moscow and working-class movements in Western Europe. In 1947, Kennan supported Truman's decision to extend economic aid to the Greek government fighting a civil war against Communist guerrillas, though he argued against military aid. The historian John Iatrides argued that Kennan's claim that the Soviet Union would go to war if the United States gave military aid to Greece is hard to square with his claim that the Soviet Union was too weak to risk war, and the real reason for his opposition to military aid was that he did not regard Greece as very important.
As the United States was initiating the Marshall Plan, Kennan and the Truman administration hoped that the Soviet Union's rejection of Marshall aid would strain its relations with its Communist allies in Eastern Europe. Kennan initiated a series of efforts to exploit the schism between the Soviets and Josip Broz Tito's Yugoslavia. Kennan proposed conducting covert action in the Balkans to further decrease Moscow's influence.
The administration's new vigorously anti-Soviet policy also became evident when, at Kennan's suggestion, the U.S. changed its hostility to Francisco Franco's anti-communist regime in Spain in order to secure U.S. influence in the Mediterranean. Kennan had observed during 1947 that the Truman Doctrine implied a new consideration of Franco. His suggestion soon helped begin a new phase of U.S.–Spanish relations, which ended with military cooperation after 1950. Kennan played an important role in devising the plans for American economic aid to Greece, insisting upon a capitalist mode of development and upon economic integration with the rest of Europe. In the case of Greece, most of the Marshall Plan aid went towards rebuilding a war-devastated country that was already very poor even before World War II. Though Marshall Plan aid to Greece was successful in building or rebuilding ports, railroads, paved roads, a hydro-electricity transmission system, and a nationwide telephone system, the attempt to impose "good government" on Greece was less successful. The Greek economy was historically dominated by a rentier system in which a few wealthy families, a highly politicized officer corps and the royal family controlled the economy for their own benefit. Kennan's advice to open up the Greek economy was completely ignored by the Greek elite. Kennan supported France's war to regain control of Vietnam as he argued that control of Southeast Asia with its raw materials was critical to the economic recovery of Western Europe and Japan, but by 1949, he changed his views, becoming convinced that the French would never defeat the Communist Viet Minh guerrillas.
In 1949, Kennan suggested what became known as "Program A" or "Plan A" for the reunification of Germany, stating the partition of Germany was unsustainable in the long run. Kennan argued that the American people would sooner or later grow tired of occupying their zone in Germany and would inevitably demand the pull-out of U.S troops. Or alternatively Kennan predicted the Soviets would pull their forces out of East Germany, knowing full well that they could easily return from their bases in Poland, forcing the United States to do likewise, but as the Americans lacked bases in other Western European nations, this would hand the advantage to the Soviets. Finally, Kennan argued that the German people were very proud and would not stand having their nation occupied by foreigners forever, making a solution to the "German question" imperative. Kennan's solution was for the reunification and neutralization of Germany; the withdrawal of most of the British, American, French and Soviet forces from Germany with the exception of small enclaves near the border that would be supplied by sea; and a four-power commission from the four occupying powers that would have the ultimate say while allowing the Germans to mostly govern themselves.
Differences with Acheson
Kennan's influence rapidly decreased when Dean Acheson became Secretary of State, succeeding the ailing George Marshall during 1949 and 1950. Acheson did not regard the Soviet "threat" as chiefly political, and he saw the Berlin blockade starting in June 1948, the first Soviet test of a nuclear weapon in August 1949, the Communist revolution in China a month later, and the beginning of the Korean War in June 1950, as evidence. Truman and Acheson decided to delineate the Western sphere of influence and to create a system of alliances. Kennan argued in a paper that the mainland of Asia be excluded from the "containment" policies, writing that the United States was "greatly overextended in its whole thinking about what we can accomplish and should try to accomplish" in Asia. Instead, he argued that Japan and the Philippines should serve as the "cornerstone of a Pacific security system".
Acheson approved Program A shortly after he took up office as Secretary of State, writing in the margin of Kennan's paper that the "division of Germany was not an end onto itself". However, Plan A encountered massive objections from the Pentagon, who saw it as abandoning West Germany to the Soviet Union, and from within the State Department, with the diplomat Robert Murphy arguing that the mere existence of a prosperous and democratic West Germany would be destabilizing to East Germany, and hence the Soviet Union. More important, Plan A required the approval of the British and French governments, but neither was in favor of Program A, complaining it was far too early to end the occupation of Germany. Both public opinion in Britain and even more so in France were afraid of what might happen if the Allies loosened their control over Germany just four years after the end of World War II, and for reasons of geography and history, did not share Kennan's assurance that a reunified Germany would cause difficulties only for the Soviets. In May 1949, a distorted version of Plan A was leaked to the French press with the principal distortion being that the United States was willing to pull out of all of Europe in exchange for a reunified and neutral Germany. In the ensuing uproar, Acheson disallowed Plan A.
Kennan lost influence with Acheson, who in any case relied much less on his staff than Marshall had. Kennan resigned as director of policy planning in December 1949 but stayed in the department as counselor until June 1950. In January 1950, Acheson replaced Kennan with Nitze, who was much more comfortable with the calculus of military power. Afterwards, Kennan accepted an appointment as Visitor to the Institute for Advanced Study from fellow moderate Robert Oppenheimer, Director of the Institute. In October 1949, the Chinese Communists under Mao Zedong won the Chinese Civil War and proclaimed the People's Republic of China. The "Loss of China", as it has become known in the United States, prompted a fierce right-wing backlash led by Republican politicians such as Richard Nixon and Joseph McCarthy, who used the "loss of China" as a convenient club with which to beat the Democratic Truman administration. Truman, Acheson, and other high officials such as Kennan were all accused of being criminally negligent at best in permitting the supposed loss. One of Kennan's closest friends, the diplomat John Paton Davies Jr. found himself under investigation in November 1949 as a Soviet spy for his role in the process, an allegation that would destroy his career and which horrified Kennan. What especially disturbed Kennan was that Paton Davies was accused of treason for predicting in a report that Mao would win the Chinese Civil War, which in the climate of hysteria caused by the "loss of China" was enough to lead the FBI to begin investigating him as a Soviet spy. Speaking of the Paton Davies case, Kennan warned that "We have no protection against this happening again", leading him to wonder what diplomat would be investigated next for treason.
Kennan found the atmosphere of hysteria, which was labeled as "McCarthyism" in March 1950 by cartoonist Herbert Block, to be deeply uncomfortable.
Acheson's policy was realized as NSC 68, a classified report issued by the United States National Security Council in April 1950 and written by Paul Nitze, Kennan's successor as Director of Policy Planning. Kennan and Charles Bohlen, another State Department expert on Russia, argued about the wording of NSC68, which became the basis of Cold War policy. Kennan rejected the idea that Stalin had a grand design for world conquest implicit in Nitze's report and argued that he actually feared overextending Russian power. Kennan even argued that NSC68 should not have been drafted at all, as it would make U.S. policies too rigid, simplistic, and militaristic. Acheson overruled Kennan and Bohlen, endorsing the assumption of Soviet menace implied by NSC68.
Kennan opposed the building of the hydrogen bomb and the rearmament of Germany, which were policies encouraged by the assumptions of NSC68. During the Korean War (which began when North Korea invaded South Korea in June 1950), when rumors started circulating in the State Department that plans were being made to advance beyond the 38th parallel into North Korea, an act that Kennan considered dangerous, he engaged in intense arguments with Assistant Secretary of State for the Far East Dean Rusk, who apparently endorsed Acheson's goal to forcibly unite the Koreas.
Memo to Dulles
On 21 August 1950, Kennan submitted a long memo to John Foster Dulles who at the time was engaged in working on the U.S-Japanese peace treaty in which he went beyond American-Japanese relations to offer an outline of his thinking about Asia in general. He called U.S policy thinking about Asia as "little promising" and "fraught with danger". About the Korean War, Kennan wrote that American policies were based upon what he called "emotional, moralistic attitudes" which "unless corrected, can easily carry us toward real conflict with the Russians and inhibit us from making a realistic agreement about that area". He supported the decision to intervene in Korea, but wrote that "it is not essential to us to see an anti-Soviet Korean regime extended to all of Korea." Kennan expressed much fear about what General Douglas MacArthur might do, saying he had "wide and relatively uncontrolled latitude...in determining our policy in the north Asian and western Pacific areas", which Kennan viewed as a problem as he felt MacArthur's judgement was poor.
Criticism of American diplomacy
Kennan's 1951 book American Diplomacy, 1900–1950, strongly criticized American foreign policy of the last 50 years. He warned against U.S. participation and reliance on multilateral, legalistic and moralistic organizations such as the United Nations.
Despite his influence, Kennan was never really comfortable in government. He always regarded himself as an outsider and had little patience with critics. W. Averell Harriman, the U.S. ambassador in Moscow when Kennan was deputy between 1944 and 1946, remarked that Kennan was "a man who understood Russia but not the United States".
Ambassador to the Soviet Union
In December 1951, President Truman nominated Kennan to be the next United States ambassador to the USSR. His appointment was endorsed strongly by the Senate.
In many respects (to Kennan's consternation) the priorities of the administration emphasized creating alliances against the Soviets more than negotiating differences with them. In his memoirs, Kennan recalled, "So far as I could see, we were expecting to be able to gain our objectives ... without making any concessions though, only 'if we were really all-powerful, and could hope to get away with it.' I very much doubted that this was the case."
At Moscow, Kennan found the atmosphere even more regimented than on his previous trips, with police guards following him everywhere, discouraging contact with Soviet citizens. At the time, Soviet propaganda charged the U.S. with preparing for war, which Kennan did not wholly dismiss. "I began to ask myself whether ... we had not contributed ... by the overmilitarization of our policies and statements ... to a belief in Moscow that it was war we were after, that we had settled for its inevitability, that it was only a matter of time before we would unleash it."
In September 1952, Kennan made a statement that cost him his ambassadorship. In an answer to a question at a press conference, Kennan compared his conditions at the ambassador's residence in Moscow to those he had encountered while interned in Berlin during the first few months of hostilities between the United States and Germany. While his statement was not unfounded, the Soviets interpreted it as an implied analogy with Nazi Germany. The Soviets then declared Kennan persona non grata and refused to allow him to re-enter the USSR. Kennan acknowledged retrospectively that it was a "foolish thing for me to have said".
Criticism of diplomacy under Truman
Kennan was very critical of the Truman administration's policy of supporting France in Vietnam, writing that the French were fighting a "hopeless" war, "which neither they nor we, nor both of us together, can win.” About what he called the "rival Chinese regimes" (i.e. the People's Republic of China on the mainland and the Republic of China on Taiwan), Kennan predicated that the U.S. policy of supporting the Kuomintang government in Taiwan would "strengthen Peiping [Beijing]–Moscow solidarity rather than weaken it". Anticipating playing the "China card" strategy, Kennan argued that the United States should work to divide the Sino-Soviet bloc which had the potential to dominate Eurasia, and to this end should give China's seat on the UN Security Council to the People's Republic of China. In the atmosphere of rage and fury caused by the "loss of China" in 1950, it was politically impossible for the Truman administration to recognize the government in Beijing, and giving China's United Nations seat to the People's Republic was the closest the United States could go in building a relationship with the new government. About the ostensible subject of his paper, Kennan called Japan the "most important single factor in Asia". Kennan advocated a deal with the Soviet Union where in exchange for ending the Korean War the United States would ensure that Japan would remain a demilitarized and neutral state in the Cold War.
Kennan's basic concept governing his thinking on foreign policy was that of the "five industrialized zones", the control of majority of which would make for the dominant world power. The "five industrialized zones" were the United States; Great Britain; the area around the Rhine river valley, namely the Rhineland and the Ruhr regions of Germany, eastern France, and the Low Countries; the Soviet Union and Japan. Kennan argued that if the "industrialized zones" except for the Soviet Union were aligned with the United States, then his country would be the world's dominant power. As such, "containment" applied only to the control of the "industrialized zones" of the world. Kennan had considerable disdain for the peoples of the Third World, and he viewed European rule over much of Asia and Africa as natural and normal. These views were typical of American officials in the late 1940s, but Kennan was unusual in retaining these views for the rest of his life; by the 1950s, many officials such as the Dulleses had come to feel that the perception that the average white American disliked non-white peoples was hurting America's image in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America, and this in turn was giving the advantage to the Soviet Union. Kennan felt that the United States should in general not be involved in the Third World as he felt there was nothing worth having there. There were some exceptions as Kennan regarded Latin America as being in the American sphere of influence as he felt that Washington should inform the leaders of the Latin American republics that they should "be careful not to wander too far from our side". Acheson was so offended by a report Kennan wrote in March 1950 in which he suggested that miscegenation between Europeans, Indians and African slaves was the root cause of Latin America's economic backwardness that he refused to have it distributed to the rest of the State Department. Kennan felt that both the oil of Iran and the Suez Canal were important to the West, and he recommended the United States should support Britain against the demands of Mohammad Mosaddegh and Mostafa El-Nahas to respectively take control of the Iranian oil industry and the Suez Canal. Kennan wrote that Abadan (the center of the Iranian oil industry) and the Suez Canal were crucial for the West for economic reasons, which justified the use of "military strength" by the Western powers to keep control of these places.
Kennan and the Eisenhower administration
Kennan returned to Washington, where he became embroiled in disagreements with Dwight D. Eisenhower's hawkish Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles. Even so, he was able to work constructively with the new administration. During the summer of 1953 President Eisenhower asked Kennan to manage the first of a series of top-secret teams, dubbed Operation Solarium, examining the advantages and disadvantages of continuing the Truman administration's policy of containment and of seeking to "roll back" existing areas of Soviet influence. Upon completion of the project, the president seemed to endorse the group's recommendations.
By lending his prestige to Kennan's position, the president tacitly signaled his intention to formulate the strategy of his administration within the framework of its predecessor's, despite the misgivings of some within the Republican Party. The critical difference between the Truman and Eisenhower policies of containment had to do with Eisenhower's concerns that the United States could not indefinitely afford great military spending. The new president thus sought to minimize costs not by acting whenever and wherever the Soviets acted (a strategy designed to avoid risk) but rather whenever and wherever the United States could afford to act.
In 1954, Kennan appeared as a character witness for J. Robert Oppenheimer during the government's efforts to revoke his security clearance. Despite his departure from government service, Kennan was frequently still consulted by the officials of the Eisenhower administration. When the CIA obtained the transcript of Khrushchev's "Secret Speech" attacking Stalin in May 1956, Kennan was one of the first people to whom the text of the "Secret Speech" was shown.
On 11 October 1956, Kennan testified to the House Committee of Foreign Affairs about the massive protests going on in Poland that Soviet rule in Eastern Europe was "eroding more rapidly than I ever anticipated". The fact that a nationalist faction of the Polish Communist Party led by Władysław Gomułka overthrew the Stalinist leadership in Warsaw over the objections of Khrushchev, who was forced to reluctantly accept the change in leadership, led Kennan to predicate that Poland was moving in a "Titoist" direction as Gomułka for his all commitment to Communism also made it clear that he wanted Poland to be more independent of Moscow. In 1957, Kennan departed the United States to work as the George Eastman Professor at Balliol College at Oxford. Sir Isaiah Berlin wrote that Kennan expected the Fellows of Balliol College to be engaged in conversation "polished by deep tradition, refinement, moral quality" and was instead disgusted to find that Fellows were engrossed in "a lot of idle gossip about local affairs, academic titles. He was horrified about that. Profound disappointment. England was not as he thought. An idealised image has been shattered". Kennan wrote about the Fellows of Balliol College in a letter to Oppenheimer: "I've never seen such back-biting, such fury, such fractions in all my life". In the same letter, Kennan wrote that the only Fellow with whom he could have a "serious conversation" was Berlin, and the rest were all obsessed with spreading malicious gossip about each other. However, Kennan was popular with the students at Balliol College as his twice weekly lectures on international relations were as he put it "tremendously successful", indeed to such an extent that he had to be assigned a larger lecture hall as hundreds of students lined up to hear him speak.
In October 1957, Kennan delivered the Reith lectures on the BBC under the title Russia, the Atom and the West, stating that if the partition of Germany continued, then "the chances for peace are very slender indeed". Kennan defended the partition of Germany in 1945 as necessary, but went on to say:But there is a danger in permitting it to harden into a permanent attitude. It expects too much and for too long of a time of the United States, which is not a European power. It does less than justice to the strength and abilities of the European themselves. It leaves unsolved the extremely precarious and unsound arrangements which now govern the status of Berlin—the least disturbance of which could easily produce a new world crisis. It takes no account of the present dangerous situation in the satellite area. It renders permanent what was meant to be temporary. It assigns half of Europe by implication to the Russians. . . . The future of Berlin is vital to the future of Germany as a whole: the needs of its people and the extreme insecurity of the Western position there alone would constitute reasons why no one in the West should view the present division of Germany as a satisfactory permanent solution even if no other factors are involved. To resolve the "German question", Kennan advocated a version of his "program A" of 1949 calling for the complete withdraw of most of the British, French, American and Soviet forces from Germany as a prelude to German reunification and for the neutralization of Germany. Besides his call to a solution to the "German question", Kennan also predicated that Soviet rule in Eastern Europe was "shaky", and the best thing the Western powers could do was to pursue a firm, but essentially non-confrontational policy towards the Soviet Union to persuade Khrushchev it would not be dangerous for him to let Eastern Europe go. The Reith lectures caused much controversy, and involved Kennan in a very public war of words with Acheson and the vice president Richard Nixon about the correct solution to the "German question". The West German foreign minister, Heinrich von Brentano, stated about Kennan's Reith lectures: "Whoever says these things is no friend of the German people".
Ambassador to Yugoslavia
During John F. Kennedy's 1960 presidential election campaign Kennan wrote to the future president to offer some suggestions on how his administration should improve the country's foreign affairs. Kennan wrote, "What is needed is a succession of ... calculated steps, timed in such a way as not only to throw the adversary off balance but to keep him off it, and prepared with sufficient privacy so that the advantage of surprise can be retained." He also urged the administration to "assure a divergence of outlook and policy between the Russians and Chinese," which could be accomplished by improving relations with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev who had wanted to distance himself from the Communist Chinese. He wrote: "We should ... without deceiving ourselves about Khrushchev's political personality and without nurturing any unreal hopes, be concerned to keep him politically in the running and to encourage the survival in Moscow of the tendencies he personifies". Additionally, he recommended that the United States work toward creating divisions within the Soviet bloc by undermining its power in Eastern Europe and encouraging the independent propensities of satellite governments.
Although Kennan had not been considered for a job by Kennedy's advisers, the president himself offered Kennan the choice of ambassadorship in either Poland or Yugoslavia. Kennan was more interested in Yugoslavia, so he accepted Kennedy's offer and began his job in Yugoslavia during May 1961.
Kennan was tasked with trying to strengthen Yugoslavia's policy against the Soviets and to encourage other states in the Eastern bloc to pursue autonomy from the Soviets. Kennan found his ambassadorship in Belgrade to be much improved from his experiences in Moscow a decade earlier. He commented, "I was favored in being surrounded with a group of exceptionally able and loyal assistants, whose abilities I myself admired, whose judgment I valued, and whose attitude toward myself was at all times ... enthusiastically cooperative ... Who was I to complain?" Kennan found the Yugoslav government treated the American diplomats politely, in contrast from the way in which the Russians treated him in Moscow. He wrote that the Yugoslavs "considered me, rightly or wrongly, a distinguished person in the U.S., and they were pleased that someone whose name they had heard before was being sent to Belgrade".
Kennan found it difficult to perform his job in Belgrade. President Josip Broz Tito and his foreign minister, Koča Popović, began to suspect that Kennedy would adopt an anti-Yugoslav policy during his term. Tito and Popović considered Kennedy's decision to observe Captive Nations Week as an indication that the United States would assist anticommunist liberation efforts in Yugoslavia. Tito also believed that the CIA and the Pentagon were the true directors of American foreign policy. Kennan attempted to restore Tito's confidence in the American foreign policy establishment, but his efforts were compromised by a pair of diplomatic blunders, the Bay of Pigs Invasion, and the U-2 spy incident.
Relations between Yugoslavia and the United States quickly began to worsen. In September 1961, Tito held a conference of nonaligned nations, where he delivered speeches that the U.S. government interpreted as being pro-Soviet. According to historian David Mayers, Kennan argued that Tito's perceived pro-Soviet policy was in fact a ploy to "buttress Khrushchev's position within the Politburo against hardliners opposed to improving relations with the West and against China, which was pushing for a major Soviet–U.S. showdown". This policy also earned Tito "credit in the Kremlin to be drawn upon against future Chinese attacks on his communist credentials". While politicians and government officials expressed growing concern about Yugoslavia's relationship with the Soviets, Kennan believed that the country had an "anomalous position in the Cold War that objectively suited U.S. purposes". Kennan also believed that within a few years, Yugoslavia's example would cause states in the Eastern bloc to demand more social and economic autonomy from the Soviets.
By 1962, Congress had passed legislation to deny financial aid grants to Yugoslavia, to withdraw the sale of spare parts for Yugoslav warplanes, and to revoke the country's most favored nation status. Kennan strongly protested the legislation, arguing that it would only result in a straining of relations between Yugoslavia and the U.S. Kennan came to Washington during the summer of 1962 to lobby against the legislation but was unable to elicit a change from Congress. President Kennedy endorsed Kennan privately but remained noncommittal publicly, as he did not want to jeopardize his slim majority support in Congress on a potentially contentious issue.
In a lecture to the staff of the U.S embassy in Belgrade on 27 October 1962, Kennan came out very strongly in support of Kennedy's policies in the Cuban Missile Crisis, saying that Cuba was still in the American sphere of influence and as such the Soviets had no right to place missiles in Cuba. In his speech, Kennan called Fidel Castro's regime "one of the bloodiest dictatorships the world has seen in the entire postwar period", which justified Kennedy's efforts to overthrow the Communist Cuban government. Against Khrushchev's demand that American missiles be pulled out of Turkey as the price for pulling Soviet missiles out of Cuba, Kennan stated Turkey was never in the Soviet sphere of influence whereas Cuba was in the American sphere of influence, which for him made it legitimate for the United States to place missiles in Turkey and illegitimate for the Soviet Union to place missiles in Cuba.
In December 1962 when Tito visited Moscow to meet with Khrushchev, Kennan reported to Washington that Tito was a Russophile as he lived in Russia between 1915–20, and still had sentimental memories of the Russian Revolution of 1917, which had converted him to Communism. However, Kennan observed from his dealings with Tito that he was very firmly committed to keeping Yugoslavia neutral in the Cold War, and his expressions of affection for Russian culture during his visit to Moscow did not mean that he wanted Yugoslavia back into the Soviet bloc. Accordingly, to Kennan, the Sino-Soviet split had caused Khrushchev to want a reconciliation with Tito to counter the Chinese charge that the Soviet Union was a bullying imperialist power, and Tito was willing to accept better relations with the Soviet Union to improve his bargaining power with the West. Kennan also described Tito's championing of the non-aligned movement as a way of improving Yugoslavia's bargaining power with both West and East, as it allowed him to cast himself as a world leader who spoke for an important bloc of nations instead of being based on the "intrinsic value" of the non-aligned movement (which was actually little as most of the non-aligned nations were poor Third World nations). In this regard, Kennan reported to Washington that senior Yugoslav officials had told him that Tito's speeches praising the non-aligned movement were just diplomatic posturing that should not be taken too seriously.
However, many in Congress did take Tito's speeches seriously, and reached the conclusion that Yugoslavia was an anti-Western nation, much to Kennan's chagrin. Kennan argued that since Tito wanted Yugoslavia to be neutral in the Cold War, that there was no point in expecting Yugoslavia to align itself with the West, but Yugoslav neutrality did serve American interests as it ensured that Yugoslavia's powerful army was not at the disposal of the Soviets and the Soviet Union had no air or naval bases in Yugoslavia that could be used to threaten Italy and Greece, both members of NATO. More importantly, Kennan noted that Yugoslavia's policy of "market socialism" gave it a higher standard of living than elsewhere in Eastern Europe, that there was greater freedom of expression there than in other Communist nations, and the very existence of a Communist nation in Eastern Europe that was not under the control of the Kremlin was very destabilizing to the Soviet bloc as it inspired other communist leaders with the desire for greater independence. With U.S.–Yugoslav relations getting progressively worse, Kennan tendered his resignation as ambassador during late July 1963.
Academic career and later life
In 1957 Kennan was invited by the BBC to give the annual Reith Lectures, a series of six radio lectures which were titled Russia, the Atom and the West. These covered the history, effect, and possible consequences of relations between Russia and the West.
After the end of his brief ambassadorial post in Yugoslavia during 1963, Kennan spent the rest of his life in academe, becoming a major realist critic of U.S. foreign policy. Having spent 18 months as a scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) between 1950 and 1952, Kennan joined the faculty of the Institute's School of Historical Studies in 1956, and spent the rest of his life there.
Opposition to the Vietnam War
During the 1960s, Kennan criticized U.S. involvement in Vietnam, arguing that the United States had little vital interest in the region.
In February 1966, Kennan testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee at the request of the committee's chairman, Senator J. William Fulbright, where he stated that the "preoccupation" with Vietnam was undermining U.S. global leadership. He accused the administration of Lyndon Johnson of distorting his policies into a purely military approach. President Johnson was so annoyed by the hearings called by his friend-turned-foe Fulbright that he tried to upstage them by holding a sudden and unannounced summit in Honolulu starting on 5 February 1966 with Chief of State Nguyễn Văn Thiệu and Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ of South Vietnam, where he declared that the United States was making excellent progress in Vietnam and was committed to social and economic reforms.
Kennan testified that were the United States not already fighting in Vietnam that: "I would know of no reason why we should wish to become so involved, and I could think of several reasons why we should wish not to". He was opposed to an immediate pull-out from Vietnam, saying "A precipitate and disorderly withdrawal could represent in present circumstances a disservice to our own interests, and even to world peace", but added that he felt "there is more respect to be won in the opinion of this world by a resolute and courageous liquidation of unsound positions than by the most stubborn pursuit of extravagant and unpromising objectives." In his testimony, Kennan argued that Ho Chi Minh was "not Hitler" and everything he had read about him suggested that Ho was a Communist, but also a Vietnamese nationalist who did not want his country to be subservient to either the Soviet Union or China. He further testified that to defeat North Vietnam would mean a cost in human life "for which I would not like to see this country be responsible for". Kennan compared the Johnson administration's policy towards Vietnam as being like that of "an elephant frightened by a mouse".
Kennan ended his testimony by quoting a remark made by John Quincy Adams: "America goes not abroad in search of monsters to destroy. She is the well-wisher to the freedom and independence of all. She is the champion and vindicator only of her own." Kennan then stated: "Now, gentlemen, I don't know exactly what John Quincy Adams had in mind when he spoke those words. But I think that, without knowing it, he spoke very directly and very pertinently to us here today." The hearings were aired live on television (at the time a rare occurrence), and Kennan's reputation as the "Father of Containment" ensured that his testimony attracted much media attention, all the more so as the Johnson administration professed to be carrying out in Vietnam "containment" policies. Thus Johnson pressured the main television networks not to air Kennan's testimony, and as a result, the CBS network aired reruns of I Love Lucy while Kennan was before the Senate, provoking the CBS director of television programming, Fred Friendly, to resign in protest . By contrast, the NBC network resisted the presidential pressure and did air the proceedings of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. To counter Kennan's testimony, Johnson sent Secretary of State Dean Rusk before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee where he testified that the war in Vietnam was a morally just struggle to stop "...the steady extension of Communist power through force and threat."
Despite expectations, Kennan's testimony before the Senate attracted high ratings on television. Kennan himself recalled that in the month afterward he received a flood of letters, which led him to write about the public response: "It was perfectly tremendous. I haven't expected anything remotely like this." The columnist Art Buchwald described being stunned to see that his wife and her friends had spent the day watching Kennan testify instead of the standard soap operas, saying that he did not realize that American housewives were interested in such matters. Fulbright's biographer wrote that testimony of Kennan together with General James Gavin was important because they were not "irresponsible students or a wild-eyed radicals," which made it possible for "respectable people" to oppose the Vietnam War. Kennan's testimony in February 1966 was the most successful of his various bids to influence public opinion after leaving the State Department. Before he appeared before the Senate, 63% of the American public approved of Johnson's handling of the Vietnam War; after his testimony, 49% did.
Critic of the counterculture
Kennan's opposition to the Vietnam War did not mean any sympathy for the student protests against the Vietnam War. In his 1968 book Democracy and the Student Left, Kennan attacked the left-wing university students demonstrating against the Vietnam War as violent and intolerant. Kennan compared the "New Left" students of the 1960s with the Narodnik student radicals of 19th century Russia, accusing both of being an arrogant group of elitists whose ideas were fundamentally undemocratic and dangerous. Kennan wrote that most of the demands of the student radicals were "gobbledygook" and he charged that their political style was marked by a complete lack of humor, extremist tendencies and mindless destructive urges. Kennan conceded that the student radicals were right to oppose the Vietnam War, but he complained that they were confusing policy with institutions as he argued that just because an institution executed a misguided policy did not make it evil and worthy of destruction.
Kennan blamed the student radicalism of the late 1960s on what he called the "sickly secularism" of American life, which he charged was too materialistic and shallow to allow understanding of the "slow powerful process of organic growth" which had made America great. Kennan wrote that what he regarded as the spiritual malaise of America had created a generation of young Americans with an "extreme disbalance in emotional and intellectual growth." Kennan ended his book with a lament that the America of his youth no longer existed as he complained that most Americans were seduced by advertising into a consumerist lifestyle that left them indifferent to the environmental degradation all around them and to the gross corruption of their politicians. Kennan argued that he was the real radical as: "They haven't seen anything yet. Not only do my apprehensions outclass theirs, but my ideas of what would have to be done to put things right are far more radical than theirs."
In a speech delivered in Williamsburg on 1 June 1968, Kennan criticized the authorities for an "excess of tolerance" in dealing with student protests and rioting by Afro-Americans. Kennan called for the suppression of the New Left and Black Power movements in a way that would be "answerable to the voters only at the next election, but not to the press or even the courts". Kennan argued for "special political courts" be created to try New Left and Black Power activists as he stated that this was the only way to save the United States from chaos. At the same time, Kennan stated that based upon his visits to South Africa: "I have a soft spot in my mind for apartheid, not as practiced in South Africa, but as a concept." Through Kennan disliked the petty, humiliating aspects of apartheid, he had much praise for the "deep religious sincerity" of the Afrikaners whose Calvinist faith he shared while he dismissed the capacity of South African blacks to run their country. Kennan argued in 1968 that a system similar to apartheid was needed for the United States as he doubted the ability of average black American male to operate "in a system he neither understands nor respects," leading him to advocate the Bantustans of South Africa to be used as a model with areas of the United States to be set aside for Afro-Americans. Kennan did not approve of the social changes of the 1960s. During a visit to Denmark in 1970, he came across a youth festival, which he described with disgust as "swarming with hippies—motorbikes, girl-friends, drugs, pornography, drunkenness, noise. I looked at this mob and thought how one company of robust Russian infantry would drive it out of town.”
Establishment of Kennan Institute
Always a student of Russian affairs Kennan, together with Wilson Center Director James Billington and historian S. Frederick Starr, initiated the establishment of the Kennan Institute at the academic institution named for Woodrow Wilson. The Institute is named to honour the American George Kennan, a scholar of the Russian Empire, and a relation of the subject of this article. Scholars at the Institute are meant to study Russia, Ukraine and the Eurasian region.
Critic of the arms race
Containment, when he published the first volume of his memoirs in 1967, involved something other than the use of military "counterforce". He was never pleased that the policy he influenced was associated with the arms build-up of the Cold War. In his memoirs, Kennan argued that containment did not demand a militarized U.S. foreign policy. "Counterforce" implied the political and economic defense of Western Europe against the disruptive effect of the war on European society. According to him, the Soviet Union exhausted by war posed no serious military threat to the US or its allies at the beginning of the Cold War but was rather an ideological and political rival.
Kennan believed that the USSR, Britain, Germany, Japan, and North America remained the areas of vital U.S. interests. During the 1970s and 1980s as détente was ended particularly under President Reagan, he was a major critic of the renewed arms race.
Politics of silence
In 1989 President George H. W. Bush awarded Kennan the Medal of Freedom, the nation's greatest civilian honor. Yet he remained a realist critic of recent U.S. presidents, urging in a 1999 interview with the New York Review of Books the U.S. government to "withdraw from its public advocacy of democracy and human rights," saying that the "tendency to see ourselves as the center of political enlightenment and as teachers to a great part of the rest of the world strikes me as unthought-through, vainglorious and undesirable".
Opposition to NATO enlargement
A key inspiration for American containment policies during the Cold War, Kennan would later describe NATO's enlargement as a "strategic blunder of potentially epic proportions".
Kennan opposed the Clinton administration's war in Kosovo and its expansion of NATO (the establishment of which he had also opposed half a century earlier), expressing fears that both policies would worsen relations with Russia.
During a 1998 interview with The New York Times after the U.S. Senate had just ratified NATO's first round of expansion, he said "there was no reason for this whatsoever". He was concerned that it would “inflame the nationalistic, anti-Western and militaristic" opinions in Russia. "The Russians will gradually react quite adversely and it will affect their policies," he said. Kennan was also bothered by talks that Russia was "dying to attack Western Europe", explaining that, on the contrary, the Russian people had revolted to "remove that Soviet regime" and that their "democracy was as far advanced" as the other countries that had just signed up for NATO then.
Last years
Kennan remained vigorous and alert during the last years of his life, although arthritis had him using a wheelchair. During his later years, Kennan concluded that "the general effect of Cold War extremism was to delay rather than hasten the great change that overtook the Soviet Union". At age 98 he warned of the unforeseen consequences of waging war against Iraq. He warned that attacking Iraq would amount to waging a second war that "bears no relation to the first war against terrorism" and declared efforts by the Bush administration to associate Al-Qaeda with Saddam Hussein "pathetically unsupportive and unreliable". Kennan went on to warn:
Anyone who has ever studied the history of American diplomacy, especially military diplomacy, knows that you might start in a war with certain things on your mind as a purpose of what you are doing, but in the end, you found yourself fighting for entirely different things that you had never thought of before ... In other words, war has a momentum of its own and it carries you away from all thoughtful intentions when you get into it. Today, if we went into Iraq, like the president would like us to do, you know where you begin. You never know where you are going to end.
In his final years, Kennan embraced the ideals of the Second Vermont Republic, a secessionist movement incorporated in 2003. Noting the large-scale Mexican immigration to the Southwestern United States, Kennan said in 2002 there were "unmistakable evidences of a growing differentiation between the cultures, respectively, of large southern and southwestern regions of this country, on the one hand", and those of "some northern regions". In the former, "the very culture of the bulk of the population of these regions will tend to be primarily Latin American in nature rather than what is inherited from earlier American traditions ... Could it really be that there was so little of merit [in America] that it deserves to be recklessly trashed in favor of a polyglot mix-mash?" It's argued that Kennan represented throughout his career the "tradition of militant nativism" that resembled or even exceeded the Know Nothings of the 1850s. Kennan also believed American women had too much power.
In February 2004 scholars, diplomats, and Princeton alumni gathered at the university's campus to celebrate Kennan's 100th birthday. Among those in attendance were Secretary of State Colin Powell, international relations theorist John Mearsheimer, journalist Chris Hedges, former ambassador and career Foreign Service officer Jack F. Matlock, Jr., and Kennan's biographer, John Lewis Gaddis.
Kennan died on March 17, 2005, at his home in Princeton, New Jersey, aged 101. He was survived by his Norwegian wife Annelise, whom he married in 1931, and his four children, eight grandchildren, and six great-grandchildren. Annelise died in 2008 at the age of 98.
In an obituary in The New York Times, Kennan was described as "the American diplomat who did more than any other envoy of his generation to shape United States policy during the cold war" to whom "the White House and the Pentagon turned when they sought to understand the Soviet Union after World War II". Of Kennan, historian Wilson D. Miscamble remarked "[o]ne can only hope that present and future makers of foreign policy might share something of his integrity and intelligence". Foreign Policy described Kennan as "the most influential diplomat of the 20th century". Henry Kissinger said that Kennan "came as close to authoring the diplomatic doctrine of his era as any diplomat in our history", while Colin Powell called Kennan "our best tutor" in dealing with the foreign policy issues of the 21st century.
Published works
During his career at the IAS, Kennan wrote seventeen books and scores of articles on international relations. He won the Pulitzer Prize for History, the National Book Award for Nonfiction, the Bancroft Prize, and the Francis Parkman Prize for Russia Leaves the War, published in 1956. He again won a Pulitzer and a National Book Award in 1968 for Memoirs, 1925–1950. A second volume, taking his reminiscences up to 1963 was published in 1972. Among his other works were American Diplomacy 1900–1950, Sketches from a Life, published in 1989, and Around the Cragged Hill in 1993.
His properly historical works amount to a six-volume account of the relations between Russia and the West from 1875 to his own time; the period from 1894 to 1914 was planned but not completed. He was chiefly concerned with:
The folly of the First World War as a choice of policy; he argues that the costs of modern war, direct and indirect, predictably exceeded the benefits of eliminating the Hohenzollerns.
The ineffectiveness of summit diplomacy, with the Conference of Versailles as a type-case. National leaders have too much to do to give any single matter the constant and flexible attention which diplomatic problems require.
The Allied intervention in Russia in 1918–19. He was indignant with Soviet accounts of a vast capitalist conspiracy against the world's first worker's state, some of which do not even mention the First World War; he was equally indignant with the decision to intervene as costly and harmful. He argues that the interventions, by arousing Russian nationalism, may have ensured the survival of the Bolshevik state.
Kennan had a low opinion of President Roosevelt, arguing in 1975: "For all his charm, political skill, and able wartime leadership, when it came to foreign policy Roosevelt was a superficial, ignorant dilettante, a man with a severely limited intellectual horizon."
Kennan, George F. (1956), "The Sisson Documents," Journal of Modern History v. 28 (June, 1956), 130–154
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Kennan, George F. (1964).On Dealing with the Communist World, New York and Evanston: Harper & Row for The Council on Foreign Relations, Inc.
Correspondence
John Lukacs (ed.), George F. Kennan and the Origins of Containment, 1944–1946: The Kennan-Lukacs Correspondence (University of Missouri Press, 1997).
Awards, honors and legacy
During his career, Kennan received a number of awards and honors. As a scholar and writer, Kennan was a two-time recipient of both the Pulitzer Prizes and the National Book Award, and had also received the Francis Parkman Prize, the Ambassador Book Award and the Bancroft Prize.
Among Kennan's numerous other awards and distinctions were his election to both the American Philosophical Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1952), the Testimonial of Loyal and Meritorious Service from the Department of State (1953), Princeton's Woodrow Wilson Award for Distinguished Achievement in the Nation's Service (1976), the Order of the Pour le Mérite (1976), the Albert Einstein Peace Prize (1981), the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade (1982), the American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal (1984), the American Whig-Cliosophic Society's James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service(1985), the Franklin D. Roosevelt Foundation Freedom from Fear Medal (1987), the Presidential Medal of Freedom (1989), the Distinguished Service Award from the Department of State (1994), and the Library of Congress Living Legend (2000).
Kennan had also received 29 honorary degrees and was honored in his name with the George F. Kennan Chair in National Security Strategy at the National War College and the George F. Kennan Professorship at the Institute for Advanced Study.
In June 2022, a memorial plaque honoring Kennan was unveiled in Belgrade, Serbia at the site of the former U.S. embassy. Kennan had served in the country when it was part of Yugoslavia, from 1961 to 1963.
Academic criticism
Russell argues that a school of thought known as political realism formed the basis of Kennan's work as a diplomat and historian and remains relevant to the debate over American foreign policy, which since the 19th century has been characterized by a shift from the Founding Fathers' realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations. According to the realist tradition, security is based on the principle of a balance of power, whereas Wilsonianism (considered impractical by realists) relies on morality as the sole determining factor in statecraft. According to the Wilsonians the spread of democracy abroad as a foreign policy is important and morals are valid universally. During the Presidency of Bill Clinton, American diplomacy represented the Wilsonian school to such a degree that those instead in favor of realism likened President Clinton's policies to social work. According to Kennan, whose concept of American diplomacy was based on the realist approach, such moralism without regard to the realities of power and the national interest is self-defeating and will result in the decrease of American power.
In his historical writings and memoirs, Kennan laments in great detail the failings of democratic foreign policy makers and those of the United States in particular. According to Kennan, when American policymakers suddenly confronted the Cold War, they had inherited little more than rationale and rhetoric "utopian in expectations, legalistic in concept, moralistic in [the] demand it seemed to place on others, and self-righteous in the degree of high-mindedness and rectitude ... to ourselves". The source of the problem is the force of public opinion, a force that is inevitably unstable, unserious, subjective, emotional, and simplistic. Kennan has insisted that the U.S. public can only be united behind a foreign policy goal on the "primitive level of slogans and jingoistic ideological inspiration".
Miscamble argues that Kennan played a critical role in developing the foreign policies of the Truman administration. He also states that Kennan did not hold a vision for either global or strongpoint containment; he simply wanted to restore the balance of power between the United States and the Soviets. Like historian John Lewis Gaddis, Miscamble concedes that although Kennan personally preferred political containment, his recommendations ultimately resulted in a policy directed more toward strongpoint than to global containment.
See also
Cold War (1947–1953)
George F. Kennan: An American Life (2011 biography)
The Hawk and the Dove: Paul Nitze, George Kennan, and the History of the Cold War (2009 dual-biography)
Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies
Origins of the Cold War
References
Bibliography
Congdon, Lee. George Kennan: A Writing Life (2008)
Costigliola, Frank. Kennan: A Life Between Worlds (2023), scholarly biography excerpt
Logevall, Fredrik, "The Ghosts of Kennan" (review of Frank Costigliola Kennan: A Life between Worlds, Princeton University Press, 2023, 591 pp.) online
William I. Hitchcock: Frank Costigliola, Kennan: A Life Between Worlds. BOOK REVIEW Published in Society, 03 March 2023
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Felix, David (2015) Kennan and the Cold War: An Unauthorized Biography. Piscataway, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
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Further reading
Foreign Affairs, vol. 102, no. 1 (January/February 2023), pp. 170–178.
External links
George F. Kennan Papers at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
Obituary from The New York Times
Obituary from The Washington Post
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2005 deaths
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wishful%20thinking
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Wishful thinking
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Wishful thinking is the formation of beliefs based on what might be pleasing to imagine, rather than on evidence, rationality, or reality. It is a product of resolving conflicts between belief and desire. Methodologies to examine wishful thinking are diverse. Various disciplines and schools of thought examine related mechanisms such as neural circuitry, human cognition and emotion, types of bias, procrastination, motivation, optimism, attention and environment. This concept has been examined as a fallacy. It is related to the concept of wishful seeing.
Some psychologists believe that positive thinking is able to positively influence behavior and so bring about better results. This is called the "Pygmalion effect". Christopher Booker discussed wishful thinking in terms of "the fantasy cycle", which he described as "a pattern that recurs in personal lives, in politics, in history – and in storytelling." He added: "When we embark on a course of action which is unconsciously driven by wishful thinking, all may seem to go well for a time, in what may be called the 'dream stage'. But because this make-believe can never be reconciled with reality, it leads to a 'frustration stage' as things start to go wrong, prompting a more determined effort to keep the fantasy in being. As reality presses in, it leads to a 'nightmare stage' as everything goes wrong, culminating in an 'explosion into reality', when the fantasy finally falls apart."
Studies have consistently shown that holding all else equal, subjects will have unrealistic optimism and predict positive outcomes to be more likely than negative outcomes. Research also suggests that under certain circumstances, such as when threat increases, a reverse phenomenon occurs.
As a fallacy
In addition to being a cognitive bias and a poor way of making decisions, wishful thinking is commonly held to be a specific informal fallacy in an argument when it is assumed that because we wish something to be true or false, it is actually true or false. This fallacy has the form "I wish that P were true/false; therefore, P is true/false." Wishful thinking, if this were true, would rely upon appeals to emotion, and would also be a red herring.
Wishful thinking may cause blindness to unintended consequences.
Wishful seeing
Wishful seeing is the phenomenon in which a person's internal state influences their visual perception. People have the tendency to believe that they perceive the world for what it is, but research suggests otherwise. Currently, there are two main types of wishful seeing based on where wishful seeing occurs—in categorization of objects or in representations of an environment.
The concept of wishful seeing was first introduced by the New Look approach to psychology. The New Look approach was popularized in the 1950s through the work of Jerome Bruner and Cecile Goodman. In their classic 1947 study, they asked children to demonstrate their perception of the size of coins by manipulating the diameter of a circular aperture on a wooden box. Each child held the coin in their left hand at the same height and distance from the aperture and operated the knob to change the size of the aperture with their right hand. The children were divided into three groups, two experimental and one control, with ten children in each group. The control group was asked to estimate the size of coin-sized cardboard discs instead of actual coins. On average, the children of the experimental groups overestimated the size of the coins by thirty percent. In a second iteration of the experiment, Bruner and Goodman divided the children into groups based on economic status. Again, both the "poor" and "rich" groups were asked to estimate the size of real coins by manipulating the diameter of the aperture. As was expected, both groups overestimated the size of the coins, but the "poor" group overestimated the size by as much as fifty percent, which was up to thirty percent more than the "rich" group. From these results Bruner and Goodman concluded that poorer children felt a greater desire for money and thus perceived the coins as larger. This hypothesis formed the basis of the New Look psychological approach which suggests that the subjective experience of an object influences the visual perception of that object. Some psychodynamic psychologists adopted the views of the New Look approach in order to explain how individuals might protect themselves from disturbing visual stimuli. The psychodynamic perspective lost support because it lacked a sufficient model to account for how the unconscious could influence perception.
Although some further research was able to replicate the results found by Bruner and Goodman, the New Look approach was mostly abandoned by the 1970s because the experiments were riddled with methodological errors that did not account for confounding factors such as reporter bias and context. Recent research has brought about a revival of New Look perspectives, but with methodological improvements to resolve the outstanding issues that plagued the original studies.
Reverse wishful thinking and seeing
This process occurs when threat increases. The Ebbinghaus illusion has been used to measure reverse wishful seeing, with participants observing negative flanker targets underestimated less than positive or neutral targets. Feelings of fear also lead to perception of the feared object as closer just as prior research suggests that desired objects are perceived as closer.
Furthermore, some people are less inclined to wishful thinking/seeing based on their emotional states or personality.
Underlying mechanisms
Cognition
Concrete cognitive mechanisms underlying wishful thinking and wishful seeing are unknown. Since these concepts are still developing, research on the mechanisms contributing to this phenomenon is still in progress. However, some mechanisms have been proposed.
Wishful thinking could be attributed to three mechanisms: attentional bias, interpretation bias or response bias. Therefore, there are three different stages in cognitive processing in which wishful thinking could arise. First, at the lowest stage of cognitive processing, individuals selectively attend to cues. Individuals can attend to evidence that supports their desires and neglect contradictory evidence. Second, wishful thinking could be generated by selective interpretation of cues. In this case, an individual is not changing their attention to the cue but the attribution of importance to the cue. Finally, wishful thinking can arise at a higher stage of cognitive processing, such as when forming a response to the cue and inserting bias.
Wishful seeing can be attributed to the same mechanisms as wishful thinking because it involves the processing of situational cues, including visual cues. However, with preconscious processing of visual cues and their associations with desirable outcomes, interpretation bias and response bias are not plausible since they occur in conscious cognitive processing stages. Therefore, a fourth mechanism called perceptual set can also explain this phenomenon. This mechanism proposes that mental states or associations activated before an object comes into view subtly guide the visual system during processing. Therefore, cues are readily recognized when they are related to such a mental state or association.
Some speculate that wishful seeing results from cognitive penetrability in that higher cognitive functions are able to directly influence perceptual experience instead of only influencing perception at higher levels of processing. Those that argue against cognitive penetrability feel that sensory systems operate in a modular fashion with cognitive states exerting their influence only after the stimuli has been perceived. The phenomenon of wishful seeing implicates cognitive penetrability in the perceptual experience.
Wishful seeing has been observed to occur in early stages of categorization. Research using ambiguous figures and binocular rivalry exhibit this tendency. Perception is influenced by both top-down and bottom-up processing. In visual processing, bottom-up processing is a rigid route compared to flexible top-down processing. Within bottom-up processing, the stimuli are recognized by fixation points, proximity and focal areas to build objects, while top-down processing is more context sensitive. This effect can be observed via priming as well as with emotional states. The traditional hierarchical models of information processing describe early visual processing as a one-way street: early visual processing goes into conceptual systems, but conceptual systems do not affect visual processes. Currently, research rejects this model and suggests conceptual information can penetrate early visual processing rather than just biasing the perceptual systems. This occurrence is called conceptual or cognitive penetrability. Research on conceptual penetrability utilize stimuli of conceptual-category pairs and measure the reaction time to determine if the category effect influenced visual processing, The category effect is the difference in reaction times within the pairs such as Bb to Bp. To test conceptual penetrability, there were simultaneous and sequential judgments of pairs. The reaction times decreased as the stimulus onset asynchrony increased, supporting categories affect visual representations and conceptual penetrability. Research with richer stimuli such as figures of cats and dogs allow for greater perceptual variability and analysis of stimulus typicality (cats and dogs were arranged in various positions, some more or less typical for recognition). Differentiating the pictures took longer when they were within the same category (doga-dogb) compared between categories (dog-cat) supporting category knowledge influences categorization. Therefore, visual processing measured by physical differential judgments is affected by non-visual processing supporting conceptual penetrability.
Neural circuitry
The areas of the brain that motivate wishful seeing and thinking are associated with the same regions that underlie social identification and reward. A study looked at these structures using MRI while participants estimated the winning probabilities for a series of football teams. Prior to this estimation, the individuals specified their favorite, neutral and least favorite NFL teams. Wishful thinking has been associated with social identity theory where individual seem to prefer in-group members over out-group members. In this case, these individuals preferred the football team they most identified.
During wishful thinking tasks, differential activity was found in three areas of the brain: dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, the parietal lobe, and the fusiform gyrus in the occipital lobe. Differential activity in the occipital and parietal areas suggests a mode of selective attention to the cues presented; therefore, supporting a lower-level cognitive processing or attention bias. However, differential activity in the prefrontal cortex also suggests higher-cognitive processing. The prefrontal cortex activity is related to preferences involved in social identification. As a result, when cues are relevant to an individual, such as a favorite football team, the prefrontal cortex is activated. This identification of self carries hedonic value which in turn stimulates the reward system. Differential activation of the reward system areas was only seen in conjunction with the activation of occipital lobe. Thus, the activation of the reward system with an identification of self could lead to guidance of visual attention.
Magnocellular (M) and parvocellular (P) pathways, which feed into the orbitofrontal cortex, play important roles in top-down processes that are susceptible to cognitive penetrability. Magnocellular processing biased stimuli deferentially activates the orbitofrontal cortex; fast magnocellular projections link early visual and inferotemporal object recognition and work with the orbitofrontal cortex by helping generate early object predictions based on perceptual sets. Stimuli were M-biased with low-luminance, achromatic line drawings or P-biased with isoluminate, chromatic line drawings and participants were asked if the drawing was larger or smaller than a shoebox. Functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to monitor brain activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and ventrotemporal regions to determine which pathway aided faster object recognition. The results supported that magnocellular neurons play a vital role in low-resolution object recognition as the neurons aid in quickly triggering top-down processes that provide initial guesses that lead to faster object recognition.
Attention
Humans have a physiologically limited visual field that must be selectively directed to certain stimuli. Attention is the cognitive process that allows this task to be accomplished and it might be responsible for the phenomenon of wishful seeing. Expectations, desires and fears are among the various factors that help direct attention. Consequently, these cognitive experiences have the opportunity to influence the perceptual experience. In turn, attention can organize planned movement, providing a mechanism through which visual stimuli can influence behavior.
Attentional deficits can also lead to altered perceptual experiences. Inattentional blindness, where unexpected events go by undetected, is one such deficit. Using an inattentional blindness paradigm, researchers, White and Davies, had participants fixate on a cross in the center of the screen. First, a number cue denoting the number of letters that would appear on the arms of the cross appeared in the center of the cross. Following the cue, the actual letters would appear on the arms of the cross. Over four trials, the number of letters matched the number that was cued. On the fifth trial, half of the participants were cued to expect a smaller number of letters and half were cued to expect the correct number of letters. The letters then appeared on the screen accompanied by an unexpected stimulus. Participants were asked which letters appeared and whether they had seen any additional object. Participants cued to expect fewer letters were more susceptible to inattentional blindness as they failed to detect the unexpected stimulus more often than participants who had been cued to expect the correct number of stimuli. These results indicate that attentional capacity is affected by expectations. This provides further evidence that cognitive processes converge in order to help construct the perceptual experience.
Although attention can lead to enhanced perceptual processing, the lack of attention to stimuli can also lead to a perceived enhanced perception of the stimuli. Participants were pre-cued that indicated the diagonal to which they should be attending. They were then presented with stimuli (gratings with different textures) and then a response cue that indicated the diagonal for which the participants had to judge their perception. 70% of the time the response cue matched the pre-cue and 30% of the time did not match the pre-cue. The participants were asked to report texture of the gratings that appeared in the response-cue and discriminate its visibility. This set-up allowed them to compare the perception of attended (cued) and non-attended stimuli (uncued). Higher visibility was reported for stimuli that was unattended. Therefore, inattention lead to an overestimation of perception sensitivity. This study suggests attention bias, a mechanism of wishful thinking, does not only rely on what individuals fixate upon, but the unattended stimuli as well.
Interpretation of emotion
Emotion is often interpreted through visual cues on the face, body language and context. However, context and cultural backgrounds have been shown to influence the visual perception and interpretation of emotion. Cross-cultural differences in change blindness have been associated with perceptual set, or a tendency to attend to visual scenes in a particular way. For example, eastern cultures tend to emphasize background of an object, while western cultures focus on central objects in a scene. Perceptual sets are also the result of cultural aesthetic preferences. Therefore, cultural context can influence how people sample information from a face, just like they would do in a situational context. For example, Caucasians generally fixate around eyes, nose and mouth, while Asians fixate on eyes. Individuals from different cultural backgrounds who were shown a series of faces and asked to sort them into piles in which every face showed the same emotion. Fixation on different features of the face leads to disparate reading of emotions. Asians' focus on the eyes lead to the perception of startled faces as surprise rather than fear. As a result, previous associations or customs of an individual can lead to different categorization or recognition of emotion. This particular difference in visual perception of emotion seems to suggest an attention bias mechanism for wishful seeing, since certain visual cues were attended to (e.g. nose, eyes) and the others were ignored (e.g. mouth).
Optimism
Wishful seeing is also linked to optimism bias through which individuals tend to expect positive outcomes from events despite such expectations having little basis in reality. In order to determine the neural correlates underlying optimism bias, one functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study imaged the brains of individuals as they recalled autobiographical moments related to life events and then rated their memories on several scales. These ratings revealed that participants viewed future positive events as more positive than past positive events and negative events as more temporally distant. The active brain regions, compared to a fixation point, were the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) and the right amygdala. Both of these areas became less active when imagining negative future events. The rACC is implicated in assessing emotional content and has strong connections to the amygdala. It is suggested that the rACC regulates activation in brain regions associated with emotion and autobiographical memory, thus allowing for the projection of positivity onto images of future events.
It is important to consider physical aspects such as eye movement and brain activity and their relationship to wishful thinking, wishful seeing, and optimism. Isaacowitz (2006) investigated the motivational role of gaze, which he claims is highly correlated to an individual's interests and personality. In his study, participants who embodied varying levels of self-reported optimism were directed to look at images of skin cancer, line drawings that were similar to the cancer pictures, and neutral faces. Using a remote eye tracking system that measured the movement of the participants gaze, Isaacowitz found that more optimistically minded young adults gazed less on the skin cancer images when compared to the less optimistically minded participants. This data was replicated in a follow-up study in which participants were screened for their genetically based risk for contracting skin cancer (even though some participants were more at risk than others, higher levels of optimism were correlated with a less fixated gaze on the skin cancer images despite the fact that the images were relevant to some participants).
Methodology
Wishful thinking is often studied in the context of psychology through the application of ambiguous figure studies, the hypothesis being that when presented with an ambiguous stimuli, the participant will interpret the stimuli in a certain way depending on the conditions or priming the participant experiences.
Balcetis and Dunning (2013) investigated wishful seeing by conducting two experiments, one involving two ambiguous stimuli that could be perceived as "B" or "13", and the other either a horse or a seal. The second experiment was a binocular rivalry test in which the participants were presented simultaneously with the letter "H" or number "4" (one stimuli in each eye). In each experiment, the experimenters associated one of the stimuli with desirable outcomes, and the other with a negative outcome (i.e. the "B" was associated with freshly squeezed orange juice while the "13" was associated with an undesirable health food smoothie, and in the binocular rivalry experiment, letters were associated with economic gain while numbers were associated with economic loss). The results of the experiment demonstrated that participants were more likely to perceive the stimulus that was associated with a positive situation or outcome than the stimulus associated with negative situations. This strong correlation between perception and positive versus negative stimuli demonstrates that we tend to see the world based on our own desires. The concept of wishful seeing hints towards a motivation-based perception process.
Balcetis and Dale (2007) further considered that we view the world in biased ways in their four-prong study, one part of which addressed motivated object interpretation using a situation involving the interpretation of an ambiguous object (i.e. a Necker cube) that lacks the language based labels that the priming information may suggest to the participants. Many studies claim that what humans perceive or see is based on our internal motivation and goals, but it is important to consider that some priming situations in certain studies, or even the internal views of the participant, can affect the interpretation of a stimulus. With these considerations in mind, Balcetis and Dale (2007), divided 124 Cornell University undergraduates into three groups which were each asked to imagine one of three detailed conditions: an upward-looking condition (participants were asked to imagine looking up at a large building), a downward-looking position (looking into a deep canyon), and a neutral/flat condition (standing in a flat field). The participants were then shown an ambiguous Necker cube on a computer screen and were told to click one of the two blue lines that seemed the closest to them. The line the participants chose depended on whether they determined the cube to be facing upwards or downwards. The results of the study demonstrated that the majority of participants in the upward-looking condition saw the cube as facing upwards, the majority of downwards-looking conditioned patients saw the cube as facing downwards, and the participants in the neutral condition were evenly divided. These results show that the priming stimulus language influenced object identification. Motivation-affected object identification was observed in each condition.
Similar results were seen in a study conducted by Changizi and Hall (2001), which addressed wishful thinking and goal-oriented object identification by investigating levels of thirst among participants in relation to their tendency to identify an ambiguously transparent stimulus as transparent (the study states that transparency is a natural yet unobvious quality directly related to water, a typically clear substance). The results of the study showed a clear tendency for the thirsty participants (who were directed to eat a bag of potato chips immediately preceding the study) to interpret the ambiguous stimuli as transparent. Furthermore, the participants who were not thirsty (they were directed to drink water before the study until they reported themselves as not thirsty) were less likely to interpret the ambiguous stimuli as transparent. The study concludes that an alteration of a biological state, in this case the participants' level of thirstiness, that inspires wishful thinking, can directly affect the perception of visual stimuli.
Bastardi, Uhlmann, and Ross (2011), showed the effects of wishful thinking when they presented parents with two fictional studies involving day care versus home care for their children. The parents who were conflicted (planned to use day care despite believing home care to be superior) more positively rated the "study" that claimed day care as superior and more negatively rated the study that claimed home care was better. The unconflicted parents (those that thought home care was superior to day care and planned to use only home care) rated the study that claimed home care was better more positively. The parents rated the studies that claimed what they actually planned for their children was the superior action, even though (in the case of the conflicted parents) the study may have been in opposition to their original beliefs. In a post-experiment evaluation, the conflicted parents changed their initial beliefs and claimed to believe that home care was no better than day care, and the unconflicted parents continued to claim home care to be superior, though to a lesser degree.
Balcetis and Dunning (2012) used the natural ambiguity found in judging distances to measure the effects of wishful seeing. During the study participants judged the distance to various stimuli while the experimenters manipulated the desirability of the stimuli. In one study, participants had their thirst intensified by consuming a large portion of their daily sodium intake or quenched by drinking to satiety. They were then asked to estimate the distance to a bottle of water. Those participants who were thirstier ranked the bottle of water as more desirable and viewed it as closer than less thirsty participants. Another study performed by Balcetis and Dunning had participants estimate the distance to test results that contained either positive or negative feedback and to $100 gift cards that they had the possibility of either winning or not. Participants viewed the forms as closer when they contained positive feedback and the $100 gift cards as closer when there was a possibility that they might win them. Balcetis and Dunning took into account the possible influence of positive mood by measuring creativity through a word creation task, and arousal by physiological markers. The experimenters also eliminated reporter bias in one of their studies by having participants throw a beanbag toward a gift card adhered to the floor. Underthrowing the beanbag indicated that the participant perceived the gift card as closer, while overthrowing the beanbag indicated that the participant perceived the gift card as further away. Their results suggest that there is a positivity bias in the perception of distance.
The relationship between distance perception and positivity may be more complicated than originally thought because context can also influence the distortion of perception. In fact, in threatening situations, positivity bias may be put aside to enable an appropriate response. In turn, the perceptual exaggerations brought on by threatening stimuli can be negated by psychosocial resources. Psychosocial resources are defined by the Resources and Perception Model (RPM) as social support, self-worth, self- esteem, self-efficacy, hope, optimism, perceived control and self-disclosure. The participants reported distance measures while the experimenters manipulated the self-worth of the participants through mental imagery exercises, as well as their exposure to threatening (a tarantula) or non-threatening (a cat toy) stimuli. An effect of self-worth was only observed upon exposure to the threatening stimuli, when increased self-worth was correlated with a more realistic estimate of the distance to the threatening stimuli.
Representations of environment
Another common area in which wishful seeing can be observed is through environmental representations. Many studies have supported that desire or motivations effect estimates of size, distance, speed, length and slope of environment or target. For example, people will perceive desired objects as closer. Wishful seeing also effects athlete's perception of balls and other equipment. For example, softball players who see the ball as bigger hit better and tennis players who return better see the net as lower and the ball as moving slower. Distance and slope perception is effected by energy levels; subjects with a heavier load see hills as steeper and distances as farther, targets that are placed uphill compared to flat ground seem farther away, people who are in shape perceive hills as shallower and fatigued runners see hills as steeper. This perception is modulated by what has been coined as "efficient energy expenditure." In other words, perceived increase in effort (a steeper slope) when physically exhausted, might prompt individuals to rest rather than expend more energy.
Distance perception is also effected by cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance was manipulated by high choice groups which were led to believe they selected wearing a Carmen Miranda outfit to walk across campus versus a low choice group which was told they had to wear the outfit. To reduce cognitive dissonance in high choice groups the subjects changed their attitude to match the situation. Thus, they perceived their environment in a less extreme way (shorter distance) than low choice groups. Similar results followed with a perception of slope test, in which participants were in high and low choice groups to push themselves up a slope on skateboard with only their arms. Again, the high choice group perceived the slope as shallower than the low choice in order to reduce cognitive dissonance. Both of these studies suggest that intrapsychic motives play a role in perception of environments in order to encourage the perceiver to engage in behaviors that lead them either to acquire a desired object or be able to complete a desired task.
Procrastination and motivation
Sigall, Kruglanski, and Fyock (2000) found that people who were assessed to be high wishful thinkers were more likely to procrastinate when motivated to do so (by being told that the task they were about to do was unpleasant). When told the task was going to be pleasant, there was little difference in the amount of procrastination, showing that when motivated, wishful thinkers may consider themselves more capable of doing the task in a lesser amount of time, therefore exhibiting wishful thinking and considering themselves more capable than they are, and as a result, put off working on the unpleasant task.
See also
References
Further reading
Appeals to emotion
Cognitive biases
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386065
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20College%20of%20Physicians
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Royal College of Physicians
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The Royal College of Physicians of London, commonly referred to simply as the Royal College of Physicians (RCP) is a British professional membership body dedicated to improving the practice of medicine, chiefly through the accreditation of physicians by examination, and now also Physicians Assistants without examination. Founded by royal charter from King Henry VIII in 1518, as the College of Physicians, the RCP is the oldest medical college in England.
The RCP's home in Regent's Park is one of the few post-war buildings to be listed at Grade I. In 2016 it was announced that the RCP was to open new premises in Liverpool at The Spine, a new building in the Liverpool Knowledge Quarter. The Spine opened in May 2021.
History
The college was incorporated as "the President and College or Commonalty of the Faculty of Physic in London" when it received a royal charter in 1518, affirmed by Act of Parliament in 1523. It is not known when the name "Royal College of Physicians of London" was first assumed or granted. It came into use after the charter of 1663, and was used to make reference to the college in the Medical Act 1858. It was legally authorised as the college's corporate name by the Royal College of Physicians of London Act 1960, the function of which was primarily to move the premises of the college outside the cities of London or Westminster to Regent's Park).
The college was based at three sites in the City of London near St Paul's Cathedral, before moving to Pall Mall East (overlooking Trafalgar Square), and then to its current location in Regent's Park.
The first Harveian Librarian was Christopher Merret, a fellow of the college and a friend of Harvey. He was set up with a lifetime appointment that compensated him with room and board and a small stipend. In 1666, the Great Fire of London destroyed many of the rooms and most of the books, so they tried to break the contract with Merret, but he fought them at the King's Court, claiming it was a lifetime appointment. He eventually lost the case, was expelled from the Fellowship, had to seek private lodgings and return the books he had rescued from the fire.
The college became the licensing body for medical books in the late seventeenth century, and sought to set new standards in learning through its own system of examinations. The college's tradition of examining continues to this day and it is still perhaps how the college is best known to the general public.
The Royal College of Physicians celebrated its 500-year anniversary in 2018.
Membership and fellowship
Membership
The MRCP(UK) postnominal is used by doctors who have passed the examinations for the Diploma of Membership of the Royal Colleges of Physicians of the United Kingdom, which are held jointly by all of the UK Royal Colleges of Physicians. Holders of the MRCP(UK) may also become "Collegiate Members" of the London College (using the additional post-nominal MRCP(Lond)) and/or of the other two UK colleges. Affiliate membership of the Royal College of Physicians is a similar level of membership as collegiate membership, but is awarded to senior doctors without MRCP(UK). Both Collegiate Members and Affiliate Members may be considered for advancement to fellowship of the college.
The college also has associate, medical student, and foundation doctor levels of membership.
Fellowship
Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians (who use the post-nominal FRCP) are elected mostly from the general membership (collegiate or affiliate), but also occasionally from among the members of the more specialised faculties within the Royal Colleges of Physicians, e.g. Occupational Medicine (MFOM), Pharmaceutical Medicine (MFPM), and Forensic and Legal Medicine (MFLM), etc.
There are also fellows who are elected de jure (usually medical experts from other countries) and honoris causa (dignitaries, members of the Royal Family, etc.).
Library
The library aims to support the learning and information needs of the members, students, and staff of the college. The unique collections may also used for research by members of the public. An enquiry service provides information on the current role and functions of the RCP as well as its history. The library holds books on a range of subjects including:
history of medicine
genealogy
health and social policy
medical education
Rare book collections
The Royal College of Physicians has had a library collection since its foundation in 1518, although most of the original books were destroyed during the Great Fire of London in 1666. The rare books and special collections are diverse in coverage, reflecting the collecting habits of earlier fellows and the need to provide the broad educational base considered suitable for physicians. The rare books are normally available to the general public, by appointment, Monday to Friday 10 am - 5 pm.
Books and journals—new and old—display a continuum of change and development in the RCP's specialties, as well as in the medical profession. Highlights include:
approximately 130 books printed before 1502, including some of the earliest printings of the classical medical texts by Greek, Roman and Arabic doctors
books belonging to and annotated by the Elizabethan astrologer and occultist John Dee
approximately 3,000 books, dated up to 1688, in the Dorchester collection, on a variety of subjects including architecture, science and travel
over 4,500 tracts from the 17th to the 19th century covering a wide range of subjects, both medical and scientific
the Evan Bedford collection, which includes almost every significant text in the history of cardiology up to 1970
Highlights of the 20th-century collection include:
books relating to the history of the RCP's specialties
biographies of fellows and prominent figures in medicine
books relating to the formation of the National Health Service (NHS) and its continuing history
books relating to the history of hospitals in the UK
books relating to medical ethics and the status and role of the physician
every item published by the RCP, including reports and pamphlets.
The book collections are displayed in regularly changing exhibitions.
In December 2020 the college's Board of Trustees (BoT) discussed in detail the RCP's financial position, which, like so many charities, had been impacted significantly by the COVID-19 pandemic. All aspects of RCP activity had come under review and a range of cost reduction and income generation options considered, including the possible sale of non-medical books from its collection. The BoT recognised that this had caused concern for some quarters of the membership and agreed to delay such a sale for the immediate future.
Museum collections
The museum collections at the Royal College of Physicians relate to the history of the college, and the history of the Physician's profession. They help to place the history and development of medicine and health care in its widest context. The collections include: portraits, silver, medical instruments, the Symons Collection, commemorative medals and anatomical tables.
The collection of c. 250 portraits provides a pictorial and sculptural record of presidents, Fellows and other physicians associated with it from its foundation in 1518 to the present day. It includes pieces by well-known artists, such as a bust of Baldwin Hamey Junior (1600–1676) by Edward Pierce and one of Richard Mead (1673–1754) by Louis François Roubiliac. There are portraits, such as that of Richard Hale (1670–1728) by Jonathan Richardson. In 1964 a volume on the Portraits of the college was published by Gordon Wolstenholme in which they were described by David Piper.
The silver collection has few pieces pre-dating the Great Fire of London (1666) because of a robbery during the previous year. Baldwin Hamey's inkstand bell and William Harvey's whalebone demonstration rod, tipped with silver, are two that survive. Many pieces of silver are used to this day for formal occasions in the college. Special objects include the President's staff of office, the caduceus and the silver-gilt College mace.
The college also owns six 17th-century anatomical tables, probably made by drying and mounting the actual blood vessels and nerves of the human body onto blocks of wood and then varnishing them. They would have been used as a teaching aid for teaching anatomy, because it was difficult to obtain cadavers for dissection.
The Symons Collection of medical instruments is displayed within the college building. It began as a collection of objects relating to self-care in Georgian times and expanded to include items that would have been used by physicians when treating patients, mostly in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
The collections can be searched via an online catalogue and items on display are open to the general public Monday to Friday 9 am – 5 pm. The Royal College of Physicians is a member of the London Museums of Health & Medicine.
Archives
The archive collections date back to the foundation of the Royal College of Physicians in 1518 and include the original Royal charter granted by King Henry VIII. The activities of the college are preserved in official minutes and other institutional records dating from the 16th century to the present.
Over 200 collections of personal papers reflect the experiences of practitioners and patients over the last 500 years. These collections include items dating back to the 13th century which relate to the history of medicine and science in Europe.
In the 19th century, William Munk, a fellow with a keen interest in medical biography started collection information about all the physicians who had either been licensed by the College or became a member. After years of research the resulting biographies were compiled into 3 volumes which included everyone who was a member of, or licensed by the college up to 1825. These volumes, published between 1861 and 1878 were the start of a series, known as Munk's Roll after the original compiler. Later volumes focussed on fellows and the series is now online with regular updates ensuring there is a biography for every past fellow from 1518 to the present.
The archive continues to collect records that demonstrate the developing roles of physicians, including oral recordings of practitioners reflecting on their lives and careers. The collections can be searched via an online catalogue, and are available to the general public by appointment. The ‘Voices of medicine’ oral histories are available to listen to via the library catalogue.
Facility
The college is located in St. Andrews Place, which is at the north end of the road running up the east side of Regent's Park, Park Square East. The college's previous headquarters, on Pall Mall East/Trafalgar Square, is now Canada House, part of the Canadian high commission in London. The college had a number of other locations prior to Pall Mall East, in the City of London.
The current College building was designed by architect Sir Denys Lasdun, opening in 1964 and has since been recognised as a building of national importance: it is a Grade I listed building, one of a very select band of post-war buildings sharing this distinction. Lasdun's use of mosaic clad concrete was extremely influential on many later public buildings. An interesting feature of the building was a 'Moving Wall', weighing five tons (5080 kg) and capable of being hydraulically lifted ten feet (3050 mm) to unite or sub-divide a hall of sixty-two feet (18.9 m) width, which was the interior width of the building. The hydraulic equipment and the steel framework for the Moving Wall were produced by Merryweather & Sons Ltd of Greenwich, hydraulic engineers. Although better known for fire fighting equipment it was not the company's first installation of this kind.
Publications
The college publishes two peer-reviewed medical journals. Clinical Medicine and Future Healthcare Journal. In addition, it publishes regular reports, clinical guidelines, policy papers and online resources. Occupational and Environmental Medicine is the official journal of the Faculty of Occupational Medicine.
Faculties
The Royal College of Physicians hosts six training faculties: the Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine, the Faculty for Pharmaceutical Medicine, the Faculty of Occupational Medicine the Faculty of Public Health, the Faculty of Sport and Exercise Medicine and the Faculty of Physician Associates.
Forensic and Legal Medicine
The Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine (FFLM) was established as a faculty of the RCP in 2006 to develop and maintain the highest possible standards of competence and professional integrity in forensic and legal medicine. The specialty covers professionals working in three related disciplines: forensic medical practitioners (forensic physicians, forensic nurses and paramedics, forensic pathologists, sexual assault examiners, and child physical and sexual assault examiners); medico-legal advisers; and medically qualified coroners. The FFLM holds a number of exams for professionals working in Forensic and Legal Medicine. It is recognised as the authoritative body for the purpose of consultation in matters of educational or public interest concerning forensic and legal medicine.
Pharmaceutical Medicine
The Faculty of Pharmaceutical Medicine (FPM) of the royal colleges of physicians of the UK (Edinburgh, Glasgow and London) aims to advance the science and practice of pharmaceutical medicine by working to develop and maintain competence, ethics and integrity and the highest professional standards in the specialty for the benefit of the public.
Occupational Medicine
The Faculty of Occupational Medicine was inaugurated as a specialist faculty of the RCP in 1978. The FOM is the professional and educational body for occupational medicine in the UK and seeks to ensure the highest standards in the practice of occupational medicine.
Public Health
The Faculty of Public Health (FPH) is a joint faculty of the three royal colleges of physicians of the United Kingdom (London, Edinburgh and Glasgow). It is a membership organisation for nearly 4,000 public health professionals across the UK and around the world. Its role is to improve the health and wellbeing of local communities and national populations.
Sport and Exercise Medicine
The Faculty of Sport and Exercise Medicine (FSEM) UK is the governing body for the specialty of sport and exercise medicine (SEM) in the UK. It is an intercollegiate faculty of the RCP and the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh.
Physician Associates
The Faculty of Physician Associates was founded in 2015 with the collaboration of the RCP and the UK Association of Physician Associates (UKAPA). The Faculty is the professional membership body for physician associates in the UK, and sets standards for the education and training of physician associates, publishes the PA national curriculum and oversees the running of the PA national certification examinations. It oversees the PA managed voluntary register.
Lecture series
The college holds an annual lecture, commonly referred to as the Lumleian Lectures, which were named in honour of Lord Lumley and established as part of the Lumleian Trust. The trust and lectures were established in 1582 by Richard Caldwell, a former president of the college. The subject matter of the lectures was initially in surgery, which was later changed to in medicine. The first lecture was given by Richard Forster, and the lectures continue to today.
Once a year, traditionally on St Luke's Day (18th October), a Fellow is appointed to deliver the Harveian Oration to the assembled college in memory of William Harvey. The oration seeks to honour the founders and benefactors of the college and encourage a spirit of experimentation amongst the members.
Other annual lectures are the Bradshaw Lecture, the Croonian Lecture, the Goulstonian Lecture, the Fitzpatrick Lecture, and the Milroy Lectures.
Awards
The Bisset Hawkins Medal is a triennial award founded in 1899 in honour of Francis Bisset Hawkins, a fellow of the college, to recognise work done in the preceding ten years in advancing sanitary science or promoting public health. The Baly Medal is a biennial award, founded by a gift from Frederick Daniel Dyster (1809?–93) received in 1866, confirmed by deed 1930 – in memory of William Baly: £400 to provide a gold medal for the person deemed to have most distinguished himself in the science of physiology, especially during the previous two years.
See also
Alcohol Health Alliance UK
List of presidents of the Royal College of Physicians
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh
Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow
References
Further reading
External links
Royal College of Physicians history of medicine website
Notes on the Royal College of Physicians from the Scholarly Societies project (includes information on the journals of the society)
Grade I listed buildings in the London Borough of Camden
Medical associations based in the United Kingdom
Physicians
Physicians
1518 establishments in England
Denys Lasdun buildings
Grade I listed institutional headquarters
College of Physicians
Medical museums in London
Museums in the London Borough of Camden
Brutalist architecture in London
Learned societies of the United Kingdom
Health in the London Borough of Camden
Organisations based in the London Borough of Camden
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C3%A1n%20O%27Casey
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Seán O'Casey
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Seán O'Casey ( ; born John Casey; 30 March 1880 – 18 September 1964) was an Irish dramatist and memoirist. A committed socialist, he was the first Irish playwright of note to write about the Dublin working classes.
Early life
O'Casey was born at 85 Upper Dorset Street, Dublin, as John Casey, the son of Michael Casey, a mercantile clerk (who worked for the Irish Church Missions), and Susan Archer. His parents were Protestants and he was a member of the Church of Ireland, baptised on 28 July 1880 in St. Mary's parish, confirmed at St John the Baptist Church in Clontarf, and an active member of St. Barnabas' Church on Sheriff Street until his mid-20s, when he drifted away from the church. There is a church called 'Saint Burnupus' in his play Red Roses For Me.
O'Casey's father died when Seán was just six years of age, leaving a family of thirteen. The family lived a peripatetic life thereafter, moving from house to house around north Dublin. As a child, he suffered from poor eyesight, which interfered somewhat with his early education, but O'Casey taught himself to read and write by the age of thirteen.
He left school at fourteen and worked at a variety of jobs, including a nine-year period as a railwayman on the GNR. O'Casey worked in Eason's for a short while, in the newspaper distribution business, but was sacked for not taking off his cap when collecting his wage packet.
From the early 1890s, O'Casey and his elder brother, Archie, put on performances of plays by Dion Boucicault and William Shakespeare in the family home. He also got a small part in Boucicault's The Shaughraun in the Mechanics' Theatre, which stood on the site of what was to be the Abbey Theatre.
Politics
As his interest in the Irish nationalist cause grew, O'Casey joined the Gaelic League in 1906 and learned the Irish language. At this time, he Gaelicised his name from John Casey to Seán Ó Cathasaigh. He also learned to play the Uilleann pipes and was a founder and secretary of the St. Laurence O'Toole Pipe Band. He joined the Irish Republican Brotherhood, and became involved in the Irish Transport and General Workers Union, which had been established by Jim Larkin to represent the interests of the unskilled labourers who inhabited the Dublin tenements. He participated in the Dublin lock-out but was blacklisted and could not find steady work for some time.
In March 1914, he became General Secretary of Larkin's Irish Citizen Army, which would soon be run by James Connolly. On 24 July 1914 he resigned from the ICA, after his proposal to ban dual membership in both the ICA and the Irish Volunteers was rejected.
One of his first satirical ballads, "The Grand Oul' Dame Britannia", was published in The Workers' Republic on 15 January 1916 under his penname An Gall Fada.
After the Easter Rising
In 1917, his friend Thomas Ashe died in a hunger strike and it inspired him to write. He wrote two laments: one in verse and a longer one in prose. Ballads authored around this time by O'Casey featured in the two editions of Songs of the Wren, published by Fergus O'Connor in 1918; these included "The Man from the Daily Mail", which, along with "The Grand Oul' Dame Britannia", became Irish rebel music staples. A common theme was opposition to the possible introduction of conscription in Ireland by the British government during World War I.
He spent the next five years writing plays. In 1918, when both his sister and mother died (in January and September, respectively), the St Laurence O'Toole National Club commissioned him to write the play The Frost in the Flower. He had been in the St Laurence O'Toole Pipe Band and played on the hurling team. The club declined to put the play on out of fear that its satirical treatment of several parishioners would cause resentment. O'Casey then submitted the play to the Abbey Theatre, which also rejected it but encouraged him to continue writing. Eventually, O'Casey expanded the play to three acts and retitled it The Harvest Festival.
Abbey Theatre
O'Casey's first accepted play, The Shadow of a Gunman, was performed at the Abbey Theatre in 1923. This was the beginning of a relationship that was to be fruitful for both theatre and dramatist but which ended in some bitterness.
The play deals with the impact of revolutionary politics on Dublin's slums and their inhabitants, and is understood to be set in Mountjoy Square, where he lived during the 1916 Easter Rising. It was followed by Juno and the Paycock (1924) and The Plough and the Stars (1926). The former deals with the effect of the Irish Civil War on the working class poor of the city, while the latter is set in Dublin in 1916 around the Easter Rising. Both plays deal realistically with the rhetoric and dangers of Irish patriotism, with tenement life, self-deception, and survival; they are tragi-comedies in which violent death throws into relief the blustering masculine bravado of characters such as Jack Boyle and Joxer Daly in Juno and the Paycock and the heroic resilience of Juno herself or of Bessie Burgess in The Plough and the Stars. Juno and the Paycock became a film directed by Alfred Hitchcock.
The Plough and the Stars was not well received by the Abbey audience and resulted in scenes reminiscent of the riots that greeted J. M. Synge's The Playboy of the Western World in 1907. There was a riot reported on the fourth night of the show. His depiction of sex and religion offended even some of the actors, who refused to speak their lines. The full-scale riot occurred partly because the play was thought to be an attack on the men in the rising and partly in protest in opposition to the animated appearance of a prostitute in Act 2. W. B. Yeats got onto the stage and roared at the audience: "You have disgraced yourselves again." The takings of the play were substantial compared with the previous week. O'Casey gave up his job and became a full-time writer.
After the incident, even though the play was well liked by most of the Abbey goers, Liam O'Flaherty, Austin Clarke and F. R. Higgins launched an attack against it in the press. O'Casey believed it was an attack on Yeats, that they were using O'Casey's play to berate Yeats.
In 1952 he appeared in a play by Irish playwright Teresa Deevy, The Wild Goose, in which he played the part of Father Ryan. O'Casey was involved in numerous productions with the Abbey; these can be found in the Abbey Archives.
England
While in London to receive the Hawthornden Prize and supervise the West End production of Juno and the Paycock, O'Casey fell in love with Eileen Carey. The couple were married in 1927 and remained in London until 1938, when they moved to Totnes.
In 1928, W. B. Yeats rejected O'Casey's fourth play, The Silver Tassie for the Abbey. It was an attack on imperialist wars and the suffering they cause. The Abbey refused to perform it. The premier production was funded by Charles B. Cochran, who took only eighteen months to put it on stage. It was put on at the Apollo Theatre but lasted for only twenty-six performances. It was directed by Raymond Massey, starred Charles Laughton and with an Act II set design by Augustus John. George Bernard Shaw and Lady Gregory had a favourable opinion of the show.
Denis Johnston, who knew O'Casey and spent time with him in London in the 1920s, is certain that the Abbey was right not to stage The Silver Tassie: "Its expressionist second act was at that time far beyond the scope of the Abbey Theatre." A year later Johnston's own The Old Lady Says "No!" was similarly rejected, for the same reason. Nevertheless O'Casey's resentment over this persisted for many years.
The plays O'Casey wrote after this included the darkly allegorical Within the Gates (1934), which is set within the gates of a busy city park based on London's Hyde Park. Although it was highly controversial, Eugene O'Neill responded positively to it. The play was originally going to be a film script for Alfred Hitchcock. O'Casey's widow described it in her memoir, Sean (1971):Originally he had imagined it as a film in which everything, from flower-beds to uniforms, would be stylised. Beginning at dawn and ending at midnight, to the soft chime of Big Ben in the distance, it would be "geometrical and emotional, the emotions of the living characters to be shown against their own patterns and the patterns of the Park." Having got so far, he wrote to Alfred Hitchcock, and when Hitchcock and his wife dined with us Sean explained his ideas to an apparently responsive hearer. Hitchcock and he talked excitedly. They parted on the same terms, with the prospect of another immediate meeting, and Sean never heard again.
The play was unsuccessful in Northern Ireland and was not produced in the south until 2010. In the autumn of 1934, O'Casey went to the United States to visit the New York City production of Within the Gates, which he admired greatly. It was directed by actor Melvyn Douglas and starred Lillian Gish. This is when he befriended Eugene O'Neill, Sherwood Anderson and George Jean Nathan.
The Star Turns Red (1940) is a four-act political allegory in which the Star of Bethlehem turns red. The story follows Big Red (who was based on O'Casey's friend, James Larkin) who is a trade-union leader. The union takes over the unnamed country despite the ruthless efforts of the Saffron Shirts, a fascist organisation openly supported by the Roman Catholic hierarchy of the country. It was staged by the Unity Theatre in London during 1940 (later, in 1978 by the Abbey in Dublin).
Purple Dust (1943) follows two wealthy, materialistic English stockbrokers who buy an ancient Irish mansion and attempt to restore it with their wrong notions of Tudor customs and taste. They try to impose upon a community with vastly different customs and lifestyles that are much closer to ancient Gaelic ways and are against such false values.
The Englishmen set their opposing standards against those represented by the men employed to renovate the house. In the resulting confrontation the English are satirised and in the end disappointed when a symbolic storm destroys their dream of resettling the old into the present. The hint that is enforced by the conclusion is that the little heap of purple dust that remains will be swept away by the rising winds of change, like the residue of pompous imperialism that abides in Ireland. The show has been compared to Shaw's John Bull's Other Island, which was one of O'Casey's favourites, but aside from a few similarities, there are no real grounds for comparison.
He also wrote Red Roses for Me (1943), which saw him move away from his early style in favour of more expressionistic means and overtly socialist content to his writing. It went up at Dublin's Olympia Theatre (which was the first one produced in Ireland in seventeen years). It would move on to London in 1946, where O'Casey himself was able to see it. This was the first show of his own he saw since Within The Gates in 1934.
Oak Leaves and Lavender (1945) is a propaganda play commemorating the Battle of Britain and Britain's heroism in the anti-Nazi crusade. It takes place in a manor with shadowy 18th-century figures commenting on the present.
These plays have never had the same critical or popular success as the early trilogy. After the Second World War he wrote Cock-a-Doodle Dandy (1949), which is perhaps his most beautiful and exciting work. From The Bishop's Bonfire (1955) O'Casey's late plays are studies on the common life in Ireland, "Irish microcosmos", like The Drums of Father Ned (1958).
His play The Drums of Father Ned was supposed to go up at the 1958 Dublin Theatre Festival, but the Catholic Archbishop of Dublin, John Charles McQuaid, refused to give his blessing (it has been assumed because works of both James Joyce and O'Casey were in the festival). After Joyce's play was quietly dropped, massive changes were required for The Drums of Father Ned, a devious way to get O'Casey to drop. After this, Samuel Beckett withdrew his mime piece in protest.
Later life
In 1959, O'Casey gave his blessing to a musical adaptation of Juno and the Paycock by American composer Marc Blitzstein. The musical, retitled Juno, was a commercial failure, closing after only 16 Broadway performances. It was also panned by some critics as being too "dark" to be an appropriate musical, a genre then almost invariably associated with light comedy. However, the music, which survives in a cast album made before the show opened, has since been regarded as some of Blitzstein's best work. Although endorsed by the then 79-year-old O'Casey, he did not contribute to the production or even see it during its brief run. Despite general agreement on the brilliance of the underlying material, the musical has defied all efforts to mount any successful revival.
Also in 1959, George Devine produced Cock-a-Doodle Dandy at the Royal Court Theatre and it was also successful at the Edinburgh International Festival and had a West End run.
His eightieth birthday occurred in 1960, and to celebrate, David Krause and Robert Hogan wrote full-length studies. The Mermaid Theatre in London launched the "O'Casey Festival" in 1962, which in turn made more theatre establishments put on his works, mostly in Britain and Germany. It is in the late years that O'Casey put his creative energy into his six-volume Autobiography.
On 18 September 1964 at the age of 84, O'Casey died of a heart attack, in Torquay, Devon. He was cremated at the Golders Green Crematorium.
In 1965, his autobiography Mirror in My House (the umbrella title under which the six autobiographies he published from 1939 to 1956 were republished, in two large volumes, in 1956) was turned into a film based on his life called Young Cassidy. The film was directed by Jack Cardiff (and John Ford) featuring Rod Taylor (as O'Casey), Flora Robson, Maggie Smith, Julie Christie, Edith Evans and Michael Redgrave.
Personal life
O'Casey was married to Irish actress Eileen Carey Reynolds (1903–1995) from 1927 to his death. The couple had three children: two sons, Breon and Níall (who died in 1957 of leukaemia), and a daughter, Shivaun.
Archival collection
In 2005, David H. Greene donated a collection of letters he received from O'Casey from 1944 to 1962 to the Fales Library at New York University. Also in the collection are two letters written by Eileen O'Casey and one letter addressed to Catherine Greene, David Greene's spouse.
O'Casey's papers are held in the New York Public Library, the Cornell University Library, the University of California, Los Angeles Library System, the University of London Library, the National Library of Ireland, Colby College, Boston College and the Fales Library.
Works
Lament for Thomas Ashe (1917), as Seán Ó Cathasaigh
The Story of Thomas Ashe (1917), as Seán Ó Cathasaigh
Songs of the Wren (1918), as Seán Ó Cathasaigh
More Wren Songs (1918), as Seán Ó Cathasaigh
The Harvest Festival (1918)
The Story of the Irish Citizen Army (1919), as Seán Ó Cathasaigh
The Shadow of a Gunman (1923)
Kathleen Listens In (1923)
Juno and the Paycock (1924)
Nannie's Night Out (1924)
The Plough and the Stars (1926)
The Silver Tassie (1927)
Within the Gates (1934)
The End of the Beginning (1937)
A Pound on Demand (1939)
The Star Turns Red (1940)
Red Roses for Me (1942)
Purple Dust (1940/1945)
Oak Leaves and Lavender (1946)
Cock-a-Doodle Dandy (1949)
Hall of Healing (1951)
Bedtime Story (1951)
Time to Go (1951)
The Wild Goose (1952)
The Bishop's Bonfire: A Sad Play within the Tune of a Polka (1955)
Mirror in My House (two volumes, 1956, reissued as Autobiographies, 1963 and since; combining the six books of memoirs listed next)
I Knock at the Door (1939)
Pictures in the Hallway (1942)
Drums Under the Window (1945)
Inishfallen, Fare Thee Well (1949)
Rose and Crown (1952)
Sunset and Evening Star (1954)
The Drums of Father Ned (written 1957, staged 1959)
Behind the Green Curtains (1961)
Figuro in the Night (1961)
The Moon Shines on Kylenamoe (1961)
Niall: A Lament (1991)
Awards and recognition
(1926) – Hawthornden Prize for Juno and the Paycock
(1949) – Newspaper Guild of New York's "Page One Award" for I Knock at the Door, Pictures in the Hallway, Drums under the Windows, and Inishfallen, Fare Thee Well
Order of the British Empire (declined)
(1960) – Durham University Honorary Degree (declined)
(1960) – University of Exeter Honorary Degree (declined)
(1961) – Trinity College, Dublin Honorary Degree (declined)
Legacy
In Dublin, a foot bridge on the Liffey is named after him.
References
Further reading
Irish Writers on Writing featuring Seán O'Casey. Edited by Eavan Boland (Trinity University Press, 2007).
Igoe, Vivien. A Literary Guide to Dublin. Methuen, 1994;
Denis Johnston. "Sean O'Casey in the Twenties". In O hAodha, Micheal (ed). The O'Casey Enigma. Dublin: Mercier Press, 1980
Krause, David. Seán O'Casey and his World. New York: C. Scribner's, 1976;
Murray, Christopher. Seán O'Casey, Writer at Work. Gill and MacMillan, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2004;
Ryan, Philip B. The Lost Theatres of Dublin. The Badger Press, 1998;
Schrank, Bernice. Sean O'Casey: A Research and Production Sourcebook. Greenwood Press, 1996;
External links
Website devoted to Seán O'Casey with an extensive iconography of programmes
Link to the Fales library guide to the David H. Greene Collection of Sean O'Casey Letters
Sean O'Casey Collection at the Harry Ransom Center
Seán O'Casey and the 1916 Easter Rising
O'Casey at Today in Literature
Robert G. Lowery – Sean O'Casey Collection – at Boston College John J. Burns Library
Sean O'Casey letters, 1946–1969 – at Boston College John J. Burns Library
Bibliography,
Seán O'Casey profile, threemonkeysonline.com
David J. Marcou's sequel to 'Juno and Paycock' ('Song of Joy—Or the Old Reliables'), first performed in 2008 in La Crosse, Wisconsin. Marcou's sequel was revised for publication on the La Crosse History Unbound website in 2009, then further revised in 2010, based on a critique by the National Theatre of Ireland, the Abbey.
'Ireland's Shakespeare': three actors on Seán O'Casey
Seán O'Casey at The Teresa Deevy Archive
Seán O'Casey at The Abbey Theatre Archive
1880 births
1964 deaths
20th-century Irish dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Irish male writers
20th-century Irish memoirists
Abbey Theatre
Anglican socialists
Christian communists
European democratic socialists
Golders Green Crematorium
Irish Anglicans
Irish Christian socialists
Irish Citizen Army members
Irish communists
Irish expatriates in the United Kingdom
Irish male dramatists and playwrights
Members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood
Politics of Dublin (city)
Writers from Dublin (city)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Lewis%20Partnership
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John Lewis Partnership
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The John Lewis Partnership plc (JLP) is a British company that operates John Lewis & Partners department stores, Waitrose & Partners supermarkets, its banking and financial services, and other retail-related activities. The public limited company is owned by a trust on behalf of all its employees – known as partners – and a bonus, akin to a share of the profit, is paid to employees. John Lewis has around 80,800 partners/employees as of 2020. JLP Group was the third-largest UK non-traded company by sales in The Sunday Times Top Track 100 for 2016. The chain's image is upmarket, and its customers are likely to be more affluent consumers. It was a member of the International Association of Department Stores from 2004 to 2010.
The Partnership also supplied the Ocado web supermarket with Waitrose own-brand foods and John Lewis own-brand non-food items such as furniture. This arrangement expired in September 2020, when Marks & Spencer began a new £750 million contract with Ocado.
History
1860s origins
John Lewis opened a drapery shop at 132 Oxford Street, London, in 1864. Born in Shepton Mallet in Somerset in 1836, he had been apprenticed at 14 to a linen draper in Wells. He came to London in 1856 and worked as a salesman for Peter Robinson, an Oxford Street draper, rising to be his silk buyer. In 1864, he declined Robinson's offer of a partnership, and rented his own premises on the north side of Oxford Street, on part of the site now occupied by the department store which bears his name. There he sold silk and woollen cloth and haberdashery. His retailing philosophy was to buy good quality merchandise and sell it at a modest 'mark up'. Although he carried a wide range of merchandise, he was less concerned about displaying it and never advertised it. His skill lay in sourcing the goods he sold, and most mornings he would go to the City of London, accompanied by a man with a hand barrow. Later he would make trips to Paris to buy silks.
Lewis spurned holidays and games and devoted himself entirely to the business, which was successful. He invested the money he made from it in residential and small retail properties, many of which he never visited. He expanded the Oxford Street business by renting neighbouring properties on Oxford Street and then along Holles Street, and gradually moved into other classes of merchandise: first the new area of ready-made women's apparel, and later children's wear and furniture. He never held 'sales', saying that he was intent on building a sound, permanent business.
In 1884, aged 48, Lewis married Eliza Baker, a schoolmistress with a university education, who was 18 years his junior. They set up home in a mansion on the edge of Hampstead Heath, for which Lewis made up the name Spedan Tower after his aunt, Ann Speed, and when Eliza bore a son in 1885, he was called John Spedan Lewis. A second son, Oswald Lewis, was born in 1887. After Westminster School, both sons joined Lewis in the business, and he gave each of them a quarter share of it on their twenty-first birthdays.
1900s family disagreements
There was constant quarrelling between Lewis and his sons. By 1909, Oswald wanted out, and Lewis senior reluctantly agreed to buy back Oswald's quarter share of the business for £50,000 (equivalent to about £4.5 million in 2010). Oswald went to read Law at Oxford, qualified as a barrister, and became a cavalry officer in 1914. He was injured and discharged in 1916, whereupon he accepted an invitation from his father to rejoin the business.
Lewis had several run-ins with Lord Howard de Walden, his Oxford Street landlord, and in 1903 he spent three weeks in Brixton Prison for defying a court order obtained by de Walden. In 1911, de Walden sued him for libel. Lewis was found guilty, but the jury awarded damages of just a farthing.
In 1906, Lewis bought a controlling interest in the Sloane Square-based business Peter Jones Limited, the eponymous founder of which had died the previous year. Lewis walked from Oxford Street with the £20,000 purchase price in banknotes.
1910s
In the next 13 years, the Peter Jones business was unprofitable – no dividends were paid to Lewis and the external shareholders and in desperation, in 1914 Lewis appointed his son Spedan as chairman of Peter Jones. This gave Spedan Lewis complete control, and he decided that the underlying problem was that the staff had no incentive to do a good day's work because their own interests were not in line with those of the business. He shortened their working day and instituted a system of commission for each department, paying selling staff amounts based on turnover. He held regular meetings at which staff could air any grievances directly with him. In 1916, after a disagreement with his father, Spedan Lewis exchanged his 25% interest in the Oxford Street business for Lewis's shares in Peter Jones Limited. He made improvements in staff conditions, including granting a third week's paid holiday each year. He had hot and cold running water installed in the staff bedrooms over the shop. In 1918, he started publishing a fortnightly newspaper telling staff how the business was faring. In 1919, he instituted a staff council meeting, the first decision of which was that staff should be paid weekly instead of four-weekly. The business prospered: there was a profit of £20,000 in 1920. Spedan Lewis's radical idea was that the profits generated by the business should not be paid solely to shareholders as a reward for their capital. Shareholders should receive a reasonable but limited return, and labour should be the recipient of the excess. His concept of 'fairer shares' involved sharing gain, knowledge, and power. In 1920, Spedan started distributing Peter Jones preference shares to staff, who were referred to as Partners.
1920s
The early 1920s were not successful for Peter Jones. Dividends on preference shares, many of which were held by employees, were not paid. In 1924, there was a reconciliation between John Lewis and Spedan Lewis. Trade at Oxford Street had fared better, and John Lewis made a cash injection into the Sloane Square business.
In 1925, Spedan Lewis devised the slogan 'never knowingly undersold' at Peter Jones. Intended mainly as a control on sourcing merchandise, it also meant that customers could shop knowing that they were not paying more at Peter Jones than they could buy identical goods for at other stores. This principle, which was refined several times, most notably to exclude retailers who trade only online and to include extended insurance and delivery charges when comparing prices, was honoured up until the August 2022, when it was replaced with a general commitment to providing competitive value on their own label merchandise.
By 1926, Lewis senior was 90, Spedan was impatient to gain control of John Lewis, Oxford Street so that he could implement his radical ideas there, and Oswald again wanted out. Without telling their father, Spedan took out a bank loan and bought out Oswald's inheritance. After going around the world, Oswald embarked on a political career, becoming Conservative Party MP for Colchester in 1929, and holding the seat until 1945. Spedan Lewis became the sole owner in the Oxford Street business after John Lewis died aged 92 in 1928.
In 1929, Spedan Lewis signed a deed of settlement, which transferred shares in John Lewis & Co. Limited and Peter Jones Limited to trustees. The profits of the combined business would be distributed to its employees, either as cash or as fixed-interest stock in the new company: John Lewis Partnership Limited.
1930s expansion
In 1933, JLP started acquiring other retail businesses, buying Jessop & Son of Nottingham, and Lance & Lance of Weston-super-Mare. In 1934, it acquired Knight & Lee in Southsea, and Tyrrell & Green in Southampton. It also started rebuilding Peter Jones to a modern design. In 1937, it bought Waitrose Limited, which operated ten counter-service grocery shops in London and the home counties.
1940s and World War II
The biggest acquisition came in 1940 when JLP paid £30,000 for Selfridge Provincial Stores Limited, which owned 16 shops: John Barnes in Hampstead, Blinkhorn & Son in Gloucester and Stroud, Bon Marché in Brixton, Buckleys in Harrogate, A H Bull in Reading, Caleys in Windsor, Cole Brothers in Sheffield, Holdrons in Peckham, Jones Brothers in Holloway, George Henry Lee in Liverpool, Pratts in Streatham, Quin & Axten in Brixton, Robert Sayle in Cambridge, Thomsons in Peterborough and Trewin Brothers in Watford, substantially increasing the size of the business.
The Second World War took its toll, and several stores were damaged by bombing, notably the 'west house' of John Lewis, Oxford Street (on the west side of Holles Street), which was lost completely in September 1940.
1950s
In 1950, Spedan Lewis executed a second deed of settlement, which passed ownership of JLP to trustees to hold for the benefit of those who worked in the business. He continued to manage it as if he were still the owner, saying in 1957 that it was necessary to concentrate management in one pair of hands.
Spedan Lewis also retained for himself the right to choose his successor when he retired on his 70th birthday in 1955. He had originally intended that Michael Watkins, his right-hand man for many years, would succeed him as chairman, but Watkins died in 1950. Spedan asked his son, Edward Lewis, if he would fill the role, but he declined. Spedan appointed a loyal, long-serving lieutenant, Bernard Miller, but expressed the hope that in due course Edward would succeed Miller as chairman. In the event, Miller was succeeded by Peter Lewis, the son of Oswald Lewis.
In 1953 JLP sold several small stores but acquired two large ones: Heelas in Reading and Bainbridge in Newcastle upon Tyne. The rebuilt store on Oxford Street was reopened in 1960, and the sculpture Winged Figure by Barbara Hepworth was added in 1963.
2000s
The group saw considerable expansion from 2000 and 2015, with John Lewis stores increasing from 25 to 43 and Waitrose branches increasing from 126 to 336. To fund this expansion, net debt increased from under £1 billion to £3.6 billion over that period. The group made its first-ever half-year operating loss of £26 million in the first half of 2019. During the COVID-19 pandemic 16 loss-making John Lewis stores were closed.
To accommodate national advertising, in 2002, the company began the process of renaming department stores not branded as John Lewis (Tyrrell & Green, Heelas, etc.) with the nationally recognisable name. Peter Jones in London remains the sole exception to this policy. The company experimented with smaller format stores, adding 12 At Home shops and 2 Convenience-driven stores, alongside 3 more full-line department stores (Leeds, Stratford, Birmingham).
John Lewis faced a series of strikes in 2012 and 2013 by cleaners, who had been outsourced, regarding pay.
Senior leadership
The company has traditionally been led by a Chairman; in March 2023, a Chief Executive was hired for the first time:
Chairmen
John Spedan Lewis (1929–1955)
Sir Bernard Miller (1955–1972)
Peter Lewis (1972–1993)
Sir Stuart Hampson (1993–2007)
Sir Charlie Mayfield (2007–2020)
Dame Sharon White (since February 2020)
In October 2023, it was reported that Dame Sharon White will not seek an extension to her existing five-year term, which ends in February 2025.
Chief Executives
Nish Kankiwala (since March 2023)
Employee representation within JLP
The highest level of the JLP's democratic structure is the Partnership Council, a directly elected body of 58 Partners who both represent opinions from across the Partnership and hold the Chairman to account for their running of the business. Partnership Councillors are company insiders with voting rights, and the only body within the company's governance structures with the power to remove the Chairman from office. Biannually the Council conducts a "Holding to Account" session where the Chairman fields questions from representatives in an open meeting, following which a vote is held which indicates whether or not Councillors support the Chairman's leadership and the progress of the business.
Further to this structure, the Partnership Council elects three directors to the "Partnership Board". The three Elected Directors join the Chairman, Deputy Chairman, Executive Director Finance, and two further Non-Executive Directors to form the Partnership Board. The Council also elects three individuals to act as Trustees of the John Lewis Partnership.
Employees of JLP usually receive an annual bonus, akin to a share of the profit. It is calculated as a percentage of salary, with the same percentage awarded to all employees. The bonus is dependent on the profitability of JLP each year, varying historically between 5% and 20% of Partners' annual salaries, but falling to 3% in 2019 in light of tough trading conditions. The annual bonus dropped to 2% in 2020 and it was confirmed that no bonus would be paid in 2021 in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. The bonus returned in 2022 paid at a rate of 3%.
In 1999, in response to a fall in profits, there were calls from some employees for the business to undertake an initial public offering and float on the stock market. If this had gone through, each employee stood to receive a windfall averaging £100,000. A company-wide ballot was held regarding the matter which did not approve the proposals.
Retail operations
John Lewis & Partners
In 2012, the John Lewis division operated 30 full-line department stores, one John Lewis click and commute at St Pancras railway station, one John Lewis convenience store at Heathrow Airport and 10 John Lewis at Home Stores and a web store. The stores are in a mixture of city centre and out-of-town shopping centre locations. The flagship Oxford Street store in London remains the largest John Lewis outlet in the UK.
Newer John Lewis at home stores are opening to cater for areas which have no large John Lewis department store near them. They are around a third the size of a normal department store. The first store opened in Poole in October 2009. Croydon followed in August 2010 with Tunbridge Wells and Swindon opening later that year. In Autumn 2011, Tamworth and Chester were opened, followed by Chichester, Newbury and Ipswich in 2012. This type of store contains both Home and Electrical departments with services such as a cafe and 'Click and Collect' also available. A new 'flexible format' store was trialled in Exeter 2012, with a full line of stock in a smaller physical store, relying heavily on 'click and collect'/next day delivery both in-store and out.
Peter Jones
Peter Jones is a large department store in central London. It is a store of JLP and located on Sloane Square, at the junction of King's Road and Sloane Street, in the Chelsea district, close to the Belgravia and Knightsbridge districts. Peter Jones was founded as an independent store but was bought by John Lewis, owner of the eponymous store in Oxford Street, in 1905. In 1929 Lewis's son, John Spedan Lewis, who then owned both businesses, combined them into a single business.
Waitrose & Partners
JLP also owns Waitrose & Partners, an upmarket supermarket chain which has 332 branches and 78,000 employees as of early 2021. Waitrose trades mainly in London and the South of England and was originally formed by Wallace Waite, Arthur Rose, and David Taylor. The company was taken over by JLP in 1937.
Other services and operations
John Lewis Finance
In June 2004, JLP launched their own credit card, branded Partnership Card, provided by HSBC UK. The card was launched to complement the existing John Lewis and Waitrose account cards. It was announced in May 2022 that the white-label agreement with HSBC would end later that year, with new and existing Partnership Card accounts migrated to a reshaped service run by British financial services company NewDay.
The company has provided insurance products since it launched Greenbee in October 2006. Later, the Greenbee brand was retired and the services rebranded John Lewis Finance. Initially, it offered home, travel, wedding and events insurance as well as a travel and tickets service. It subsequently expanded to offer other services including car insurance and policies for second homes. John Lewis Finance later branched out into providing pet insurance, as well as creating John Lewis Investments, in partnership with Nutmeg.
In October 2021, John Lewis Finance released a home insurance advertisement showing a boy in make-up and a dress vandalising his house. The advertisement was banned by the Financial Conduct Authority as misleading, because the insurance plan did not include deliberate damage, as portrayed.
Telecoms
John Lewis offered broadband and home telephone services via a white-label agreement with Plusnet. The service closed to new customers in October 2022 and then to existing customers when they reached the end of their contract.
Manufacturing
JLP currently operates one manufacturing business, Herbert Parkinson, in Darwen, Lancashire. This company, established as a weaver of jacquard fabrics in 1934, was acquired by the Partnership in 1953. Herbert Parkinson currently produces John Lewis own-brand fabrics and curtains as well as filled furnishing products such as cushions and pillows. The company operates a wholesale business to outside customers in addition to supplying John Lewis branches.
Until September 2007, the Partnership also owned two further textile production businesses: Carlisle-based printer Stead McAlpin (founded c. 1875, 200 workers) and Haslingden, Lancashire-based weaver J. H. Birtwistle.
The manufacture and sale of furnishing textiles was organised by the business Cavendish Textiles, produced under the trade name of 'Jonelle' from 1937, dropped in 2000 in favour of 'John Lewis'. Designers included many associated with Heal's, such as Lucienne Day and Pat Albeck, as well as Jacqueline Groag.
Ocado
John Lewis Partnership helped finance the creation of Ocado, an independent online supermarket, and later transferred its interest to its pension fund, which owned 29% of Ocado. The pension fund fully divested itself of its final 10.4% share ownership in February 2011 for £152 million, which represented a total profit from the company's investment in Ocado of about £220 million. In September 2020, the Partnership's relationship with Ocado came to an end.
See also
Source, lifestyle magazine
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
John Spedan Lewis 1885–1963: Remembered by Some of his Contemporaries in the Centenary Year of His Birth, ed. Hugh Macpherson, published by the John Lewis Partnership 1985
Julia Finch, Andy Street: Humble MD who is never knowingly underpaid The Guardian 9 March 2008
External links
1929 establishments in England
Privately held companies of the United Kingdom
Retail companies established in 1929
Retail companies of the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20Motors%20streetcar%20conspiracy
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General Motors streetcar conspiracy
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The General Motors streetcar conspiracy refers to the convictions of General Motors (GM) and related companies that were involved in the monopolizing of the sale of buses and supplies to National City Lines (NCL) and subsidiaries, as well as to the allegations that the defendants conspired to own or control transit systems, in violation of Section 1 of the Sherman Antitrust Act. This suit created lingering suspicions that the defendants had in fact plotted to dismantle streetcar systems in many cities in the United States as an attempt to monopolize surface transportation.
Between 1938 and 1950, National City Lines and its subsidiaries, American City Lines and Pacific City Lines—with investment from GM, Firestone Tire, Standard Oil of California (through a subsidiary), Federal Engineering, Phillips Petroleum, and Mack Trucks—gained control of additional transit systems in about 25 cities. Systems included St. Louis, Baltimore, Los Angeles, and Oakland. NCL often converted streetcars to bus operations in that period, although electric traction was preserved or expanded in some locations. Other systems, such as San Diego's, were converted by outgrowths of the City Lines. Most of the companies involved were convicted in 1949 of conspiracy to monopolize interstate commerce in the sale of buses, fuel, and supplies to NCL subsidiaries, but were acquitted of conspiring to monopolize the transit industry.
The story as an urban legend has been written about by Martha Bianco, Scott Bottles, Sy Adler, Jonathan Richmond, Cliff Slater and Robert Post. It has been depicted several times in print, film, and other media, notably in the fictional film Who Framed Roger Rabbit, documentary films such as Taken for a Ride and The End of Suburbia and the book Internal Combustion.
Only a handful of U.S. cities, including San Francisco, New Orleans, Newark, Cleveland, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Boston, have surviving legacy rail urban transport systems based on streetcars, although their systems are significantly smaller than they once were. Other cities are re-introducing streetcars. In some cases, the streetcars do not actually ride on the street. Boston had all of its downtown lines elevated or buried by the mid-1920s, and most of the surviving lines at grade operate on their own right of way. However, San Francisco's and Philadelphia's lines do have large portions of the route that ride on the street as well as using tunnels.
History
Background
In the latter half of the 19th century, transit systems were generally rail, first horse-drawn streetcars, and later electric powered streetcars and cable cars. Rail was more comfortable and had less rolling resistance than street traffic on granite block or macadam and horse-drawn streetcars were generally a step up from the horsebus. Electric traction was faster, more sanitary, and cheaper to run; with the cost, excreta, epizootic risk, and carcass disposal of horses eliminated entirely. Streetcars were later seen as obstructions to traffic, but for nearly 20 years they had the highest power-to-weight ratio of anything commonly found on the road, and the lowest rolling resistance.
Streetcars paid ordinary business and property taxes, but also generally paid franchise fees, maintained at least the shared right-of-way, and provided street sweeping and snow clearance. They were also required to maintain minimal service levels. Many franchise fees were fixed or based on gross (v. net); such arrangements, when combined with fixed fares, created gradual impossible financial pressures. Early electric cars generally had a two-man crew, a holdover from horsecar days, which created financial problems in later years as salaries outpaced revenues.
Many electric lines—especially in the West—were tied into other real estate or transportation enterprises. The Pacific Electric and the Los Angeles Railway were especially so, in essence loss leaders for property development and long haul shipping.
By 1918, half of US streetcar mileage was in bankruptcy.
Early years
John D. Hertz, better remembered for his car rental business, was also an early motorbus manufacturer and operator. In 1917 he founded the Chicago Motor Coach Company, which operated buses in Chicago, and in 1923, he founded the Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company, a manufacturer of buses. He then formed The Omnibus Corporation in 1926 with "plans embracing the extension of motor coach operation to urban and rural communities in every part of the United States" that then purchased the Fifth Avenue Coach Company in New York. The same year, the Fifth Avenue Coach Company acquired a majority of the stock in the struggling New York Railways Corporation (which had been bankrupted and reorganized at least twice). In 1927, General Motors acquired a controlling share of the Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company and appointed Hertz as a main board director. Hertz's bus lines, however, were not in direct competition with any streetcars, and his core business was the higher-priced "motor coach".
By 1930, most streetcar systems were aging and losing money. Service to the public was suffering; the Great Depression compounded this. Yellow Coach tried to persuade transit companies to replace streetcars with buses, but could not persuade the power companies that owned the streetcar operations to motorize. GM decided to form a new subsidiary—United Cities Motor Transport (UCMT)—to finance the conversion of streetcar systems to buses in small cities. The new subsidiary made investments in small transit systems in Kalamazoo and Saginaw, Michigan, and in Springfield, Ohio, where they were successful in conversion to buses. UCMT then approached the Portland, Oregon, system with a similar proposal. It was censured by the American Transit Association and dissolved in 1935.
The New York Railways Corporation began conversion to buses in 1935, with the new bus services being operated by the New York City Omnibus Corporation, which shared management with The Omnibus Corporation. During this period GM worked with Public Service Transportation in New Jersey to develop the "All-Service Vehicle", a bus also capable of working as a trackless trolley, allowing off-wire passenger collection in areas too lightly populated to pay for wire infrastructure.
Opposition to traction interests and their influence on politicians was growing. For example, in 1922, New York Supreme Court Justice John Ford came out in favor of William Randolph Hearst, a newspaper magnate, for mayor of New York, complaining that Al Smith was too close to the 'traction interests'. In 1925, Hearst complained about Smith in a similar way. In the 1941 film Citizen Kane, the lead character, who was loosely based on Hearst and Samuel Insull, complains about the influence of the 'traction interests'.
The Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935, which made it illegal for a single private business to both provide public transport and supply electricity to other parties, forced electricity generator companies to divest from trolley, streetcar, electric suburban and interurban transit operators which they used to cross-subsidize in order to increase the basis of their limited return on investment.
National City Lines, Pacific City Lines, American City Lines
In 1936 National City Lines, which had been started in 1920 as a minor bus operation by E. Roy Fitzgerald and his brother, was reorganized "for the purpose of taking over the controlling interest in certain operating companies engaged in city bus transportation and overland bus transportation" with loans from the suppliers and manufacturers. In 1939, Roy Fitzgerald, president of NCL, approached Yellow Coach Manufacturing, requesting additional financing for expansion. In the 1940s, NCL raised funds for expansion from Firestone Tire, Federal Engineering, a subsidiary of Standard Oil of California (now Chevron Corporation), Phillips Petroleum (now part of ConocoPhillips), GM, and Mack Trucks (now a subsidiary of Volvo). Pacific City Lines (PCL), formed as a subsidiary of NCL in 1938, was to purchase streetcar systems in the western United States. PCL merged with NCL in 1948. American City Lines (ACL), which had been organized to acquire local transportation systems in the larger metropolitan areas in various parts of the country in 1943, was merged with NCL in 1946. The federal government investigated some aspects of NCL's financial arrangements in 1941 (which calls into question the conspiracy myths' centrality of Quinby's 1946 letter. By 1947, NCL owned or controlled 46 systems in 45 cities in 16 states.
From 1939 through 1940, NCL or PCL attempted a hostile takeover of the Key System, which operated electric trains and streetcars in Oakland, California. The attempt was temporarily blocked by a syndicate of Key System insiders, with controlling interest secured on January 8, 1941. By 1946, PCL had acquired 64% of the stock in the Key System.
Beginning in the 1940s, NCL and PCL slowly took control of Los Angeles' two streetcar systems: Pacific Electric Railway (known as the "Red Cars") and Los Angeles Railway (known as the "Yellow Cars"). In 1940, PCL acquired Pacific Electric's operations in Glendale, Burbank, and Pasadena. Lines to San Bernardino were phased out in 1941 and the Hollywood Subway, which ran lines from Burbank, Glendale, and the San Fernando Valley, closed in 1955. In 1945, ACL acquired Los Angeles Railway at a price of about $13,000,000. Soon after, the company announced it would scrap all but three of the existing Yellow Car lines.
In 1953, the remainder of Pacific Electric's network was sold to Metropolitan City Lines, a subsidiary of PCL. Subsequently, the remaining assets of the original Pacific Electric system and the original Los Angeles Railway system were sold by Metropolitan City Lines and Los Angeles Transit Lines, respectively, to the newly formed Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority. Under the new public authority, the final remaining streetcars in Los Angeles were phased out, with the final Red Car (Los Angeles to Long Beach Line) making its last service on April 9, 1961 and the last Yellow Car (V Line) on March 31, 1963.
Edwin J. Quinby
In 1946, Edwin Jenyss Quinby, an activated reserve commander, founder of the Electric Railroaders' Association in 1934 (which lobbied on behalf of rail users and services), and former employee of North Jersey Rapid Transit (which operated into New York State), published a 24-page "expose" on the ownership of National City Lines addressed to "The Mayors; The City Manager; The City Transit Engineer; The members of The Committee on Mass-Transportation and The Tax-Payers and The Riding Citizens of Your Community". It began, "This is an urgent warning to each and every one of you that there is a careful, deliberately planned campaign to swindle you out of your most important and valuable public utilities–your Electric Railway System". His activism may have led Federal authorities to prosecute GM and the other companies.
He also questioned who was behind the creation of the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935, which had caused such difficulty for streetcar operations, He was later to write a history of North Jersey Rapid Transit.
Court cases, conviction, and fines
On April 9, 1947, nine corporations and seven individuals (officers and directors of certain of the corporate defendants) were indicted in the Federal District Court of Southern California on counts of "conspiring to acquire control of a number of transit companies, forming a transportation monopoly" and "conspiring to monopolize sales of buses and supplies to companies owned by National City Lines" In 1948, the venue was changed from the Federal District Court of Southern California to the Federal District Court in Northern Illinois following an appeal to the United States Supreme Court (in United States v. National City Lines Inc.) which felt that there was evidence of conspiracy to monopolize the supply of buses and supplies.
In 1949, Firestone Tire, Standard Oil of California, Phillips Petroleum, GM, and Mack Trucks were convicted of conspiring to monopolize the sale of buses and related products to local transit companies controlled by NCL; they were acquitted of conspiring to monopolize the ownership of these companies. The verdicts were upheld on appeal in 1951. GM was fined and GM treasurer H.C. Grossman was fined $1. The trial judge said "I am very frank to admit to counsel that after a very exhaustive review of the entire transcript in this case, and of the exhibits that were offered and received in evidence, that I might not have come to the same conclusion as the jury came to were I trying this case without a jury," explicitly noting that he might not himself have convicted in a bench trial.
The San Diego Electric Railway was sold to Western Transit Company, which was in turn owned by J. L. Haugh in 1948 for $5.5 million. Haugh was also president of the Key System, and later was involved in Metropolitan Coach Line's purchase of the passenger operations of the Pacific Electric Railway. The last San Diego streetcars were converted to buses by 1949. Haugh sold the bus-based San Diego system to the city in 1966.
The Baltimore Streetcar system operated by the Baltimore Transit Company was purchased by NCL in 1948 and started converting the system to buses. Overall Baltimore Transit ridership then plummeted by double digits in each of the following three years. The Pacific Electric Railway's struggling passenger operations were purchased by Metropolitan Coach Lines in 1953 and were taken into public ownership in 1958 after which the last routes were converted to bus operation.
Urban Mass Transportation Act and 1974 Antitrust hearings
The Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964 (UMTA) created the Urban Mass Transit Administration with a remit to "conserve and enhance values in existing urban areas" noting that "our national welfare therefore requires the provision of good urban transportation, with the properly balanced use of private vehicles and modern mass transport to help shape as well as serve urban growth". Funding for transit was increased with the Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1970 and further extended by the National Mass Transportation Assistance Act (1974) which allowed funds to support transit operating costs as well as capital construction costs.
In 1970, Harvard Law student Robert Eldridge Hicks began working on the Ralph Nader Study Group Report on Land Use in California, alleging a wider conspiracy to dismantle U.S. streetcar systems, first published in Politics of Land: Ralph Nader's Study Group Report on Land Use in California.
In 1972, Senator Philip Hart introduced into congress the 'Industrial Reorganization Act', with an intention to restructure the U.S. economy to restore competition and address antitrust concern.
During 1973, Bradford Snell, an attorney with Pillsbury, Madison and Sutro and formerly, for a brief time, a scholar with the Brookings Institution, prepared a controversial and disputed paper titled "American ground transport: a proposal for restructuring the automobile, truck, bus, and rail industries." The paper, which was funded by the Stern Fund, was later described as the centerpiece of the hearings. In it, Snell said that General Motors was "a sovereign economic state" and said that the company played a major role in the displacement of rail and bus transportation by buses and trucks.
This paper was distributed in Senate binding together with an accompanying statement in February 1974, implying that the contents were the considered views of the Senate. The chair of the committee later apologized for this error. Adding to the confusion, Snell had already joined the Senate Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly as a staff member.
At the hearings in April 1974, San Francisco mayor and antitrust attorney Joseph Alioto testified that "General Motors and the automobile industry generally exhibit a kind of monopoly evil", adding that GM "has carried on a deliberate concerted action with the oil companies and tire companies...for the purpose of destroying a vital form of competition; namely, electric rapid transit". Los Angeles mayor Tom Bradley also testified, saying that GM, through its subsidiaries (namely PCL), "scrapped the Pacific Electric and Los Angeles streetcar systems leaving the electric train system totally destroyed". Neither mayor, nor Snell himself, pointed out that the two cities were major parties to a lawsuit against GM which Snell himself had been "instrumental in bringing"; all had a direct or indirect financial interest. (The lawsuit was eventually dropped, the plaintiffs conceding they had no chance of winning.)
However, George Hilton, a professor of economics at UCLA and noted transit scholar rejected Snell's view, stating, "I would argue that these [Snell's] interpretations are not correct, and, further, that they couldn't possibly be correct, because major conversions in society of this character—from rail to free wheel urban transportation, and from steam to diesel railroad propulsion—are the sort of conversions which could come about only as a result of public preferences, technological change, the relative abundance of natural resources, and other impersonal phenomena or influence, rather than the machinations of a monopolist."
GM published a rebuttal the same year titled "The Truth About American Ground Transport". The Senate subcommittee printed GM's work in tandem with Snell's as an appendix to the hearings transcript. GM explicitly did not address the specific allegations that were sub judice.
Role in decline of the streetcars
Quinby and Snell held that the destruction of streetcar systems was integral to a larger strategy to push the United States into automobile dependency. Most transit scholars disagree, suggesting that transit system changes were brought about by other factors; economic, social, and political factors such as unrealistic capitalization, fixed fares during inflation, changes in paving and automotive technology, the Great Depression, antitrust action, the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935, labor unrest, market forces including declining industries' difficulty in attracting capital, rapidly increasing traffic congestion, the Good Roads Movement, urban sprawl, tax policies favoring private vehicle ownership, taxation of fixed infrastructure, franchise repair costs for co-located property, wide diffusion of driving skills, automatic transmission buses, and general enthusiasm for the automobile.
The accuracy of significant elements of Snell's 1974 testimony was challenged in an article published in Transportation Quarterly in 1997 by Cliff Slater.
Recent journalistic revisitings question the idea that GM had a significant impact on the decline of streetcars, suggesting rather that they were setting themselves up to take advantage of the decline as it occurred. Guy Span suggested that Snell and others fell into simplistic conspiracy theory thinking, bordering on paranoid delusions stating,
In 2010, CBS's Mark Henricks reported:
Other factors
Other factors have been cited as reasons for the decline of streetcars and public transport generally in the United States. Robert Post notes that the ultimate reach of GM's alleged conspiracy extended to only about 10% of American transit systems. Guy Span says that actions and inaction by government was one of many contributing factors in the elimination of electric traction. Cliff Slater suggested that the regulatory framework in the US actually protected the electric streetcars for longer than would have been the case if there was less regulation.
Some regulations and regulatory changes have been linked directly to the decline of the streetcars:
Difficult labor relations, and tight regulation of fares, routes, and schedules took their toll on city streetcar systems.
The streetcars' contracts in many cities required them to keep the pavement on the roads surrounding the tracks in good shape. Such conditions, previously agreed to in exchange for the explicit right to operate as a monopoly in that city, became an expensive burden.
The Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 prohibited regulated electric utilities from operating unregulated businesses, which included most streetcar lines. The act also placed restrictions on services operating across state lines. Many holding companies operated both streetcars and electric utilities across several states; those that owned both types of businesses were forced to sell off one. Declining streetcar business was often somewhat less valuable than the growing consumer electric business, resulting in many streetcar systems being put up for sale. The independent lines, no longer associated with an electric utility holding company, had to purchase electricity at full price from their former parents, further shaving their already thin margins. The Great Depression then left many streetcar operators short of funds for maintenance and capital improvements.
In New York City, and other North American cities, the presence of restrictive legal agreements such as the Dual Contracts, signed by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company and Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation of the New York City Subway, restricted the ability of private mass transit operators to increase fares at a time of high inflation, allowed the city to take over them, or to operate competing subsidized transit.
Different funding models have also been highlighted:
Streetcar lines were built using funds from private investors and were required to pay numerous taxes and dividends. By contrast, new roads were constructed and maintained by the government from tax income.
By 1916, street railroads nationwide were wearing out their equipment faster than they were replacing it. While operating expenses were generally recovered, money for long-term investment was generally diverted elsewhere.
The U.S. government responded to the Great Depression with massive subsidies for road construction.
Later construction of the Interstate Highway System was authorized by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 which approved the expenditure of $25 billion of public money for the creation of a new 41,000 miles (66,000 km) interstate road network. Streetcar operators were occasionally required to pay for the reinstatement of their lines following the construction of the freeways.
Federal fuel taxes, introduced in 1956, were paid into a new Highway Trust Fund which could only fund highway construction (until 1983 when some 10% was diverted into a new Mass Transit Account).
Other issues which made it harder to operate viable streetcar services include:
Suburbanization and urban sprawl, exacerbated in the US by white flight, created low-density land use patterns which are not easily served by streetcars, or indeed by any public transport, to this day.
Increased traffic congestion often reduced service speeds and thereby increased their operational costs and made the services less attractive to the remaining users.
More recently it has been suggested that the provision of free parking facilities at destinations and in the center of cities loads all users with the cost of facilities enjoyed only by motorists, creating additional traffic congestion and significantly affects the viability of other transport modes.
Counterarguments
Some of the specific allegations which have been argued over the years include:
According to Snell's testimony, the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad (NH) in New York and Connecticut was profitable until it was acquired and converted to diesel trains. The New Haven's main line between New York City and New Haven, Connecticut, remained electrified, and continues as such under Metro-North Railroad and Amtrak. In reality, the line was in financial difficulty for years and filed for bankruptcy in 1935.
"GM killed the New York street cars". In reality, the New York Railways Company entered receivership in 1919, six years before it was bought by the New York Railways Corporation.
"GM Killed the Red cars in Los Angeles". Pacific Electric Railway (which operated the 'red cars') was hemorrhaging routes as traffic congestion worsened with growing car ownership levels after the end of World War II.
The Salt Lake City system is mentioned in the 1949 court papers. However, the city's system was purchased by National City Lines in 1944 when all but one route had already been withdrawn, and the withdrawal of this last line had been approved three years earlier.
See also
Federal Aid Road Act of 1916
Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 (Phipps Act)
Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956
Nader v. General Motors Corp. A court case in which consumer protection activist Ralph Nader claimed that GM had "conduct[ed] a campaign of intimidation against him in order to 'suppress plaintiff's criticism of and prevent his disclosure of information' about its products"
Highway Trust Fund
Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (A corporation that was "recaptured" by the city using the Dual Contracts provisions)
Chicago Motor Coach Company A bus transit company established by John Hertz in Chicago in 1917
Dual Contracts Contracts between New York City and subway operators which restricted fares, enforced share profits and allowed the city to 'recapture' and operate lines
Transportation in metropolitan Detroit (Details of a system that was already in public ownership)
Toronto streetcar system, which received much of the rolling stock from affected systems
List of streetcar systems in the United States
List of trolleybus systems in the United States
Notes
References
Bibliography
A report presented to the Committee of the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, United States Senate, February 26, 1974
Further reading
External links
"The Great GM Conspiracy Legend: GM and the Red Cars", Stan Schwarz
"Did General Motors destroy the LA mass transit system?", The Straight Dope, 10-Jan-1986
"Taken for a Ride", Jim Klein and Martha Olson – a 55-minute film first shown on PBS in August 1996
United States v. National City Lines, Inc.'', 186 F.2d 562 (1951)
Yellow Coach – 1923-1943- GMC Truck & Coach Division, General Motors Corp. – 1943–present – Detroit, Michigan
Streetcars in the United States
Corporate crime
Streetcar
Former monopolies
1930s in the United States
1940s in the United States
1950s in the United States
Automotive industry in the United States
Anti-competitive practices
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbershop%20music
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Barbershop music
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Barbershop vocal harmony, as codified during the barbershop revival era (1930s–present), is a style of a cappella close harmony, or unaccompanied vocal music, characterized by consonant four-part chords for every melody note in a primarily homorhythmic texture. Each of the four parts has its own role: generally, the lead sings the melody, the tenor harmonizes above the melody, the bass sings the lowest harmonizing notes, and the baritone completes the chord, usually below the lead. The melody is not usually sung by the tenor or baritone, except for an infrequent note or two to avoid awkward voice leading, in tags or codas, or when some appropriate embellishment can be created. One characteristic feature of barbershop harmony is the use of what is known as "snakes" and "swipes". This is when a chord is altered by a change in one or more non-melodic voices. Occasional passages may be sung by fewer than four voice parts.
Barbershop music is generally performed by either a barbershop quartet, a group of four singers with one on each vocal part, or a barbershop chorus, which closely resembles a choir with the notable exception of the genre of music.
According to the Barbershop Harmony Society (BHS), "Barbershop music features songs with understandable lyrics and easily singable melodies, whose tones clearly define a tonal center and imply major and minor chords and barbershop (dominant and secondary dominant) seventh chords that resolve primarily around the circle of fifths, while making frequent use of other resolutions." Slower barbershop songs, especially ballads, often eschew a continuous beat, and notes are often held (or sped up) ad libitum.
Except for the bass, the voice parts in barbershop singing do not correspond closely to their classical music counterparts; the tenor range and tessitura are similar to those of the classical countertenor, the baritone resembles the Heldentenor or lyric baritone in range and a tenor in tessitura, and the lead generally corresponds to the tenor of classical repertoire, with some singers possessing a tessitura more similar to that of a high baritone. Barbershop singing is performed both by men's and women's groups; the elements of the barbershop style and the names of the voice parts are the same for both.
Characteristics
Ringing chords
The defining characteristic of the barbershop style is the ringing chord, one in which certain overtones of the four voices reinforce each other, sometimes so strongly that the overtone is perceived by the listener as a distinct tone, even though none of the voices are perceived as singing that tone. This effect occurs when the chord, as voiced, contains intervals which have strongly reinforcing overtones (fifths and octaves, for example) that fall in the audible range; and when the chord is sung in perfect just tuning without excessive vibrato. Both of these characteristics are important in many styles of singing, but in Barbershop there is an extreme emphasis on them that tends to override other musical values. For example, favored chords in the jazz style are characterized by intervals which do not audibly ring, such as diminished or augmented fifths. For another example, Barbershop music is always a cappella, because the presence of fixed-pitch instruments (tuned to equal-temperament rather than just temperament), which is so highly prized in other choral styles, makes perfect just tuning of chords impossible.
The physics and psychophysics of the effect are fairly well understood; it occurs when the upper harmonics in the individual voice notes, and the sum and difference frequencies resulting from nonlinear combinations within the ear, reinforce each other at a particular frequency, strengthening it so that it stands out separately above the blended sound. The effect is audible only on certain kinds of chords, and only when all voices are equally rich in harmonics and justly tuned and balanced. It is not heard in chords sounded on modern keyboard instruments, due to the slight tuning imperfection of the equal-tempered scale.
Gage Averill writes that "Barbershoppers have become partisans of this acoustic phenomenon" and that "the more experienced singers of the barbershop revival (at least after 1938) have self-consciously tuned their dominant seventh and tonic chords in just intonation to maximize the overlap of common overtones." However, "In practice, it seems that most leads rely on an approximation of an equal-tempered scale for the melody, to which the other voices adjust vertically in just intonation."
What is prized is not so much the "overtone" itself, but a unique sound whose achievement is most easily recognized by the presence of the "overtone". The precise synchrony of the waveforms of the four voices simultaneously creates the perception of a "fifth voice" while at the same time melding the four voices into a unified sound. The ringing chord is qualitatively different in sound from an ordinary musical chord e.g. as sounded on a tempered-scale keyboard instrument.
Most elements of the "revivalist" style are related to the desire to produce these ringing chords. Performance is a cappella to prevent the distracting introduction of equal-tempered intonation, and because listening to anything but the other three voices interferes with a performer's ability to tune with the precision required. Barbershop arrangements stress chords and chord progressions that favor "ringing", at the expense of suspended and diminished chords and other harmonic vocabulary of the ragtime and jazz forms.
The dominant seventh-type chord is so important to barbershop harmony that it is called the "barbershop seventh". BHS arrangers believe that a song should contain dominant seventh chords anywhere from 35 to 60 percent of the time (measured as a percentage of the duration of the song rather than a percentage of the chords present) to sound "barbershop".
Historically barbershoppers may have used the word "minor chord" in a way that is confusing to those with musical training. Averill suggests that it was "a shorthand for chord types other than major triads", and says that the use of the word for "dominant seventh-type chords and diminished chords" was common in the late nineteenth century. A 1910 song called "Play That Barber Shop Chord" (often cited as an early example of "barbershop" in reference to music) contains the lines:
'Cause Mister when you start that minor partI feel your fingers slipping and a grasping at my heart,Oh Lord play that Barber shop chord!
Averill notes the hints of rapture, "quasi-religion" and erotic passion in the language used by barbershoppers to describe the emotional effect. He quotes Jim Ewin as reporting "a tingling of the spine, the raising of the hairs on the back of the neck, the spontaneous arrival of goose flesh on the forearm ... the fifth note has almost mysterious propensities. It's the consummation devoutly wished by those of us who love Barbershop harmony. If you ask us to explain why we love it so, we are hard put to answer; that's where our faith takes over." Averill notes too the use of the language of addiction, "there's this great big chord that gets people hooked." An early manual was entitled "A Handbook for Adeline Addicts".
He notes too that "barbershoppers almost never speak of 'singing' a chord, but almost always draw on a discourse of physical work and exertion; thus, they 'hit', 'chop', 'ring', 'crack', 'swipe', and 'bust.' Vocal harmony is interpreted as an embodied musicking. Barbershoppers never lose sight (or sound) of its physicality."
Historical origins
While the modern era of barbershop music is accepted to have begun with a 1940s revival, opinions as to the genre's origins vary with respect to race, gender, region, and context.
Historical memoirs and journalism indicate a strong tradition of quartet singing among young African American men, gathering informally to "crack up a chord". This was acknowledged as early as 1882, when a New York Age writer traced the development of this singing as a home-grown amusement, arising from the exclusion of Black people from theaters and concert halls. Jazz musician Louis Armstrong told of having harmonized on New Orleans street corners as a boy, and NAACP executive secretary James Weldon Johnson "grew up singing barbershop harmony".
English "barber's music" was described in the 17th century by Samuel Pepys as amateur instrumental music. The Encyclopædia Britannica considers the 19-century origins of the quartet style as "obscure", possibly referring back to barber's music, or dating to when barbershops served as community centers, where men would gather for social and musical activities with barbers traditionally being musicians. Later, white minstrel singers adopted the style, and in the early days of the recording industry their performances were recorded and sold. Early standards included songs such as "Shine On, Harvest Moon", "Hello, Ma Baby", and "Sweet Adeline". Johnson noted in the 1920s how the genre had already crossed racial barriers.
Barbershop music was very popular between 1900 and 1919, and some of the most popular quartets were the Haydn Quartet, the American Quartet, and the Peerless Quartet. Modern barbershop quartets often costume themselves in gaudy versions of the vaudeville dress of this time, with boaters and vertically striped vests. Composer and pianist Scott Joplin incorporated a barbershop quartet into his 1911 opera Treemonisha. The genre gradually faded into obscurity in the 1920s, although barbershop-style harmonies remained in evidence in a cappella forms of traditional black gospel and white gospel.
Other researchers argue that today's barbershop music is an invented tradition related to several musical features popular around 1900, including quartet singing and the use of the barbershop chord, but effectively created during the 1940s in the ranks of the Barbershop Harmony Society whilst creating a system of singing contests and its contest rules.
Organizations
Barbershop music is promoted through the use of competition for quartets and choruses run by not-for-profit organizations. Barbershop organizations often provide judging, education, coaching and promotion services for local choruses and quartets.
United States
In the United States, there are three major organizations which are intended to preserve the style of Barbershop music: The Barbershop Harmony Society, a historically men's organization until 2018, Sweet Adelines International, a women's organization and Harmony, Incorporated which splintered off from Sweet Adelines in 1959. A minor organization began in 2014 called the Mixed Harmony Barbershop Association to promote mixed harmony barbershop quartets and choruses within the three major organizations and internationally. The Society for the Preservation and Propagation of BarberShop Quartet Singing in the U.S. (SPPBSQSUS) formed in 2018 as a fraternal organization to preserve and perpetuate the all-male barbershop quartet.
Barbershop Harmony Society (BHS)
The revival of a cappella singing took place circa 1938 when tax lawyer Owen C. Cash sought to save the art form from the threat of radio. He garnered support from investment banker Rupert I. Hall. Both came from Tulsa, Oklahoma. Cash was a partisan of quartet singing who advertised the fact that he did not want a cappella to fall by the wayside. Thousands of men responded. Later the "Society for the Preservation and Encouragement of Barber Shop Quartet Singing in America" was established, known by the abbreviation S.P.E.B.S.Q.S.A. at a time when many institutions in the US used multiple initials to denote their function. The group adopted the alternate name "Barbershop Harmony Society" early in its history. While its legal name has never changed, it changed its official brand name to "Barbershop Harmony Society" in 2004.
For the majority of its history, the society had all-male membership. It was all-white until 1963 when it allowed black members, and since 2018, it allows women to join as members.
Sweet Adelines International (SAI)
Sweet Adelines International was established in 1945 by Edna Mae Anderson of Tulsa, Oklahoma. The aim was to teach and train its members in music and to create and promote barbershop quartets and other musical groups. By year's end, the first chapter incorporated in Oklahoma with Anderson as its president. Sweet Adelines went international on March 23, 1953, when the first chapter outside the U.S. was chartered in Brandon, Manitoba, Canada. Even though there were international chapters, it was not until May 1991 that the name officially changed to Sweet Adelines International. It has a current membership of 23,000 and holds an annual international singing competition.
Harmony, Incorporated (HI)
In 1957, several members of Sweet Adelines International (SAI) broke from the organization in protest of the policy limiting membership to Caucasian women. In 1958, chapters from Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Orillia, Ontario, also left SAI to form Harmony, Incorporated. (Sweet Adelines changed their policy in 1966).
Harmony, Inc. was incorporated in the State of Rhode Island on February 26, 1959. The founding member chapters of Harmony, Inc. were the Melody Belles of Providence, Rhode Island; Sea Gals of New Bedford, Massachusetts; The Harmonettes from North Attleboro, Massachusetts; Harmony Belles of Barrie-Orillia, Ontario; and the Harborettes from Scituate, Massachusetts.
In 1963, a Sweet Adeline chapter in Ottawa, Ontario was threatened with expulsion after accepting a black woman, Lana Clowes, as a member. As a result, Ottawa's Capital Chordettes left SAI to become the seventh chapter to join Harmony, Incorporated.
In 2013, Harmony, Inc. announced the creation of the Affiliate membership category, extending membership to men involved with the organization.
International organizations
After the establishment of the above organizations, other countries have begun their organizations to promote Barbershop music. These international organizations are often affiliated with one of the United States organizations listed above or by the World Harmony Council. Some are gender exclusive organizations while some are mixed. They include; British Association of Barbershop Singers, Barbershop Harmony Australia (BHA), Barbershop Harmony New Zealand (BHNZ), Barbershop in Germany (BinG), Finnish Association of Barbershop Singers (FABS), Holland Harmony (HH), Irish Association of Barbershop Singers (IABS), Ladies Association of Barbershop Singers (LABBS) in the United Kingdom, Spanish Association of Barbershop Singers (SABS) and Society of Nordic Barbershop Singers (SNOBS).
Performance groups
Quartets
A barbershop quartet is an ensemble of four people who sing a cappella in the exacting barbershop music genre.
In North America, the Barbershop Harmony Society hosts contests for all singers. Female barbershop quartet singers can also compete in Sweet Adelines International or Harmony, Inc., and the Society for the Preservation and Propagation of BarberShop Quartet Singing in the U.S. is available to male singers. Similar organizations exist in other continents and countries.
Choruses
A barbershop chorus sings a cappella music in the barbershop style. Most barbershop choruses belong to a larger association of practitioners such as the Barbershop Harmony Society, Sweet Adelines International, LABBS (Ladies Association of British Barbershop Singers), BABS (British Association of Barbershop Singers) or Harmony, Inc.
In the Barbershop Harmony Society, a chorus is the main performing aspect of each chapter. In competition, choruses may have as few as 12 members singing, with no upper limit. Choruses normally sing with a director, as distinct from quartets. It is not uncommon for a new quartet to form within a chorus, or for an established quartet affiliated with a given chorus to lose a member (to death, retirement, or relocation) and recruit a replacement from the ranks of the chorus. Choruses can also provide "spare parts" to temporarily replace a quartet member who is ill or temporarily out of town.
Unlike a quartet, a chorus need not have equal numbers singing each voice part. According to BHS, the ideal balance in a chorus is about 40% bass, 30% lead, 20% baritone and 10% tenor singers.
Filling the gap between the chorus and the quartet is what is known as a VLQ or Very Large Quartet, in which more than four singers perform together, with two or more voices on some or all of the four parts. A VLQ possesses greater flexibility than a standard quartet, since they can perform even with one or more singers missing, as long as all four parts are covered. Like a normal quartet, a VLQ usually performs without a director.
Typical barbershop songs
Barbershop Harmony Society's Barberpole Cat Songs "Polecats"—12 songs which all Barbershop Harmony Society members are encouraged to learn as a shared canonic repertoire—all famous, traditional examples of the barbershop genre:
The Barbershop Harmony Society announced on May 28, 2015, that the "Polecat" program would be expanded to include the following songs:
Examples of other songs popular in the barbershop genre are:
While these traditional songs still play a part in barbershop today, barbershop music also includes more current titles. Most music can be arranged in the barbershop style, and there are many arrangers within the aforementioned societies with the skills to include the barbershop chord structure in their arrangements. Today's barbershop quartets and choruses sing a variety of music from all eras—show tunes, pop, and even rock music has been arranged for choruses and quartets, making them more attractive to younger singers.
See also
List of Barbershop Harmony Society quartet champions & List of Barbershop Harmony Society chorus champions
List of BABS quartet champions by year
Sweet Adelines International competition
American Harmony Documentary Film (2009) about Barbershop music
References
Further reading
Hicks, Val (1988): Heritage of Harmony: Society for the Preservation and Encouragement of Barber Shop Quartet Singing in America. Friendship/WI: New Past Press.
Abbott, Lynn (1992): Play That Barber Shop Chord: A Case for the African-American Origin of Barbershop Harmony. American Music 10, no. 3, 289–325.
Stebbins, Robert A. (1996): The Barbershop Singer: Inside the Social World of a Musical Hobby. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Averill, Gage (1999): Bell Tones and Ringing Chords. Sense and Sensation in Barbershop Harmony. The World of Music 41, no. 1, 37–51.
Henry, James Earl (2000): The Origins of Barbershop Harmony: A Study of Barbershop's Musical Link to Other African-American Musics as Evidenced Through Recordings and Arrangements of Early Black and White Quartets (PhD diss., UMI Microform 9972671, Washington University in St. Louis). Ann Arbor: ProQuest.
Ayling, Benjamin C. (2000): An Historical Perspective of International Champion Quartets of the Society for the Preservation and Encouragement of Barber Shop Quartet Singing in America, 1939–1963 (PhD diss., UMI Microform 9962373, The Ohio State University). Ann Arbor: ProQuest.
Henry, James Earl (2001): The Historical Roots of Barbershop Harmony. The Harmonizer (July/August), 13–17.
Averill, Gage (2003): Four Parts, No Waiting. A Social History of American Barbershop Harmony. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ayling, Benjamin C. (2004): An Historical View of Barbershop Music and the Sight-Reading Methodology and Learning Practices of Early Championship Barbershop Quartet Singers, 1939–1963. International Journal of Research in Choral Singing 4, 53–59.
Mook, Richard (2004): The Sounds of Liberty: Nostalgia, Masculinity, and Whiteness in Philadelphia Barbershop, 1900–2003 (PhD diss., UMI Microform 3152085, University of Pennsylvania). Ann Arbor: ProQuest.
Brooks, Tim (2005): Lost Sounds. Blacks and the Birth of the Recording Industry, 1890–1919. Urbana-Champaign/IL: University of Illinois Press.
Garnett, Liz (2005): The British Barbershopper: A Study in Socio-musical Values. London: Ashgate.
Mook, Richard (2007): White Masculinity in Barbershop Quartet Singing. Journal for the Society of American Music 1, no. 3 (2007), 453–483.
Döhl, Frédéric (2009): That Old Barbershop Sound: Die Entstehung einer Tradition amerikanischer A-cappella-Musik. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
Döhl, Frédéric (2012): Creating Popular Music History: The Barbershop Harmony Revival in the United States around 1940. Popular History Now and Then, ed. Barbara Korte and Sylvia Paletschek. Bielefeld: transcript, 169–183.
Mook, Richard (2012): The Sounds of Gender: Textualizing Barbershop Performance. Perspectives on Males and Singing (= Landscapes: the Arts, Aesthetics, and Education, vol. 10), ed. Scott D. Harrison/Graham F. Welch/Adam Adler. Dordrecht: Springer, 201–214.
Nash, Jeffrey Eugene (2012): Ringing the Chord. Sentimentality and Nostalgia among Male Singers. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 51, no. 5, 581–606.
Hobson, Vic (2013): Plantation Song: Delius, Barbershop, and the Blues. American Music 31, no. 3, 314–339.
Nash, Jeffrey Eugene (2013): Puttin' on Your Face: Staged Emotions among Barbershop Singer. The Drama of Social Life: A Dramaturgical Handbook, ed. Charles Edgley. Farnham: Ashgate, 229–244.
Döhl, Frédéric (2014): From Harmonic Style to Genre. The Early History (1890s–1940s) of the Uniquely American Musical Term Barbershop. American Music 32, no. 2, 123–171.
Hobson, Vic (2014): Creating Jazz Counterpoint: New Orleans, Barbershop Harmony, and the Blues. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi.
Hobson, Vic (2018): Creating the Jazz Solo: Louis Armstrong and Barbershop Harmony. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi.
Hobson, Vic (2020): Historically Informed Jazz Pedagogy: New Orleans Counterpoint and Barbershop Harmony. Jazz Education in Research and Practice 1, no. 1, 155–166.
Hopkins, Robert G. (2020): From „the Chord Was King“ to „a Dynamic Journey“. Changes in the Barbershop Quartet Style in Contetsts since the 1950s. American Music 38, no. 1, 78–101.
Boyd, Clifton (2021): Music Theory, Race, and the Barbershop Harmony Society. The Oxford Handbook of Public Music Theory, ed. J. Daniel Jenkins, Oxford University Press, New York/Oxford 2021, online.
External links
Present at the Creation: Barbershop Quartets from NPR
Barbershop Quartets on 78rpms: How Quartet Harmonizing Became Known as Barbershop
Listen to Barbershop music at the Internet Archive
The Origins of Barbershop Harmony
Barbershop Wiki Project
African-American music
American styles of music
A cappella
Four-part harmony
Retro-style music
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Dingell
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John Dingell
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John David Dingell Jr. (July 8, 1926 – February 7, 2019) was an American politician from the state of Michigan who served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1955 until 2015. A member of the Democratic Party, Dingell holds the record as the longest-serving member of Congress in American history.
Born in Colorado Springs, Colorado, Dingell attended Georgetown University, where he earned a Bachelor of Science in chemistry in 1949 and a Juris Doctor in 1952. Dingell began his congressional career by succeeding his father, John Dingell Sr., as representative for on December 13, 1955. A longtime member of the House Energy and Commerce Committee, Dingell chaired the committee from 1981 to 1995 and from 2007 to 2009. He was Dean of the House of Representatives from 1995 to 2015. Dingell was instrumental in the passage of the Medicare Act, the Water Quality Act of 1965, the Clean Water Act of 1972, the Endangered Species Act of 1973, the Clean Air Act of 1990, and the Affordable Care Act, among other laws. He also helped to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Dingell was one of the final two World War II veterans to have served in Congress; the other was Texas Representative Ralph Hall.
Dingell announced on February 24, 2014 that he would not seek reelection to a 31st term in Congress. His wife, Debbie Dingell, successfully ran to succeed him in the 2014 election. President Barack Obama awarded Dingell the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2014. Dingell left office on January 3, 2015. John Dingell Jr. was the last United States Representative to have served in the 1950s.
Early life, education, and early career
Dingell was born on July 8, 1926, in Colorado Springs, Colorado, the son of Grace (née Bigler) and John Dingell Sr. (1894–1955). His father was the son of Polish immigrants, and his mother had Swiss and Scots-Irish ancestry. The Dingells were in Colorado in search of a cure for Dingell Sr.'s tuberculosis. The Dingell surname had been Dzięglewicz, and was Americanized by John Dingell Sr.'s father.
The family moved back to Michigan, and in 1932, Dingell Sr. was elected the first representative of Michigan's newly created 15th District. In Washington, D.C., John Jr. attended Georgetown Preparatory School and then the House Page School when he served as a page for the U.S. House of Representatives from 1938 to 1943. He was on the floor of the House when President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave his famous speech after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. In 1944, at the age of 18, Dingell joined the United States Army. He rose to the rank of second lieutenant and received orders to take part in the first wave of a planned invasion of Japan in November 1945; the Congressman said that President Harry S. Truman's decision to use the atomic bomb to end the war saved his life.
Dingell attended Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., receiving a Bachelor of Science in chemistry in 1949 and a Juris Doctor in 1952. He was a lawyer in private practice, a research assistant to U.S. District Court judge Theodore Levin, a congressional employee, a forest ranger, and assistant prosecuting attorney for Wayne County until 1955.
U.S. House of Representatives
Elections
In 1955, Dingell's father, John Dingell Sr., died. Dingell, a Democrat, won a special election to succeed him. He won a full term in 1956 and was re-elected 29 times, including runs in 1988 and 2006 with no Republican opponent. Dingell received less than 62% of the vote on only two occasions. In 1994 when the Republican Revolution swept the Republicans into the majority in the House of Representatives for the first time since 1954, Dingell received 59% of the vote. In 2010 when the Republicans re-took control of the House of Representatives, Dingell received 57% of the vote. Between them, he and his father represented the southeastern Michigan area for 80 years. His district was numbered as the 15th District from 1955 to 1965, when redistricting merged it into the Dearborn-based 16th District; in the primary that year, he defeated 16th District incumbent John Lesinski Jr.
In 2002, redistricting merged Dingell's 16th District with the Washtenaw County and western Wayne County-based 13th District, represented by fellow Democratic Representative Lynn Rivers, whom Dingell also bested in the Democratic primary. The 15th District for the 109th Congress included Wayne County suburbs generally southwest of Detroit, the Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti areas in Washtenaw County, and all of Monroe County. For many years, Dingell represented much of western Detroit itself, though Detroit's declining population and the growth of its suburbs pushed all of Detroit into the districts of fellow Democratic representatives, including John Conyers. Dingell always won re-election by double-digit margins, although the increasing conservatism of the mostly white suburbs of Detroit since the 1970s led to several serious Republican challenges in the 1990s.
Dingell announced on February 24, 2014, that he would not seek re-election to a 31st term in Congress.
Tenure
Dingell was sworn in as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives on December 13, 1955.
Dingell was instrumental in the passage of the Medicare Act, the Water Quality Act of 1965, the Clean Water Act of 1972, the Endangered Species Act of 1973, the Clean Air Act of 1990, and the Affordable Care Act, among others. He also helped to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Dingell was generally classified as a moderately liberal member of the Democratic Party. Throughout his career he was a leading congressional supporter of organized labor, social welfare measures and traditional progressive policies. At the beginning of every Congress, Dingell introduced a bill providing for a national health insurance system, the same bill that his father proposed while he was in Congress. Dingell also strongly supported Bill Clinton's managed-care proposal early in his administration. In October 1998, President Clinton began a Roosevelt Room appearance "by thanking Senator Jay Rockefeller of West Virginia and Congressman Dingell for their steadfast support of Medicare and their participation in our Medicare Commission."
On some issues, though, Dingell reflected the values of his largely Catholic and working-class district. He supported the Vietnam War until 1971. While he supported all of the civil rights bills, he opposed expanding school desegregation to Detroit suburbs via mandatory busing. He took a fairly moderate position on abortion. He worked to balance clean air legislation with the need to protect manufacturing jobs.
An avid sportsman and hunter, he strongly opposed gun control, and was a former board member of the National Rifle Association of America. For many years, Dingell received an A+ rating from the NRA. Dingell helped make firearms exempt from the 1972 Consumer Product Safety Act so that the Consumer Product Safety Commission had no authority to recall defective guns. Dingell's wife, Representative Debbie Dingell, introduced legislation in 2018 to remove this exemption from the law.
Michael Barone wrote of Dingell in 2002:
Dingell was Dean of the House of Representatives from 1995 to 2015.
On December 15, 2005, on the floor of the House, Dingell read a poem sharply critical of, among other things, Fox News, Bill O'Reilly, and the so-called "War on Christmas". Along with John Conyers, in April 2006, Dingell brought an action against George W. Bush and others alleging violations of the Constitution in the passing of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005. The case (Conyers v. Bush) was ultimately dismissed for lack of standing.
After winning re-election in 2008 for his 28th consecutive term, Dingell surpassed the record for having the longest tenure in the history of the House of Representatives on February 11, 2009. In honor of the record, Michigan Governor Jennifer Granholm declared February 11, 2009, to be John Dingell Day.
Dingell was one of the final two World War II veterans to have served in Congress; the other was Texas Representative Ralph Hall.
Dingell left office on January 3, 2015. As of that date, Dingell had served with 2,453 different U.S. Representatives in his career. Dingell served in Congress for more than 59 years, retiring as the longest-tenured member of Congress in the history of the United States. His wife, Debbie Dingell, successfully ran to succeed him in the 2014 election.
Energy and Commerce chairman
A longtime member of the House Energy and Commerce Committee, Dingell chaired the committee from 1981 to 1995 and from 2007 to 2009.
Dingell was well known for his approach to congressional oversight of the executive branch. He subpoenaed numerous government officials to testify before the committee and grilled them for hours. He insisted that all who testified before his committee do so under oath, thus exposing them to perjury charges if they did not tell the truth. He and his committee uncovered numerous instances of corruption and waste, such as the use of $600 toilet seats at the Pentagon. He also claimed that the committee's work led to resignations of many Environmental Protection Agency officials, and uncovered information that led to legal proceedings that sent many Food and Drug Administration officials to jail.
After serving as the committee's ranking Democratic member for 12 years, Dingell regained the chairmanship in 2007. According to Newsweek, he had wanted to investigate the George W. Bush Administration's handling of port security, the Medicare prescription drug program and Dick Cheney's energy task force. Time magazine has stated that he had intended to oversee legislation that addresses global warming and climate change caused by carbon emissions from automobiles, energy companies and industry.
Dingell lost the chairmanship for the 111th Congress to Congressman Henry Waxman of California in a Democratic caucus meeting on November 20, 2008. Waxman mounted a challenge against Dingell on grounds that Dingell was stalling certain environmental legislation, which would have tightened vehicle emissions standards—something that could be detrimental to the Big Three automobile manufacturers that constitute a major source of employment in Dingell's district. Dingell was given the title of Chairman Emeritus in a token of appreciation of his years of service on the committee, and a portrait of him is in the House collection.
Baltimore case
In the 1980s, Dingell led a series of congressional hearings to pursue alleged scientific fraud by Thereza Imanishi-Kari and Nobel Prize-winner David Baltimore. The National Institutes of Health's fraud unit, then called the Office of Scientific Integrity, charged Imanishi-Kari in 1991 of falsifying data and recommended that she be barred from receiving research grants for 10 years. She appealed the decision and the Department of Health and Human Services appeals panel dismissed the charges against Imanishi-Kari and cleared her to receive grants. The findings and negative publicity surrounding them made David Baltimore decide to resign as president of Rockefeller University (after Imanishi-Kari was cleared he became president of the California Institute of Technology). The story of the case is described in Daniel Kevles' 1998 book The Baltimore Case, in a chapter of Horace Freeland Judson's 2004 book The Great Betrayal: Fraud In Science, and in a 1993 study by Serge Lang, updated and reprinted in his book Challenges.
Robert Gallo claims
From 1991 to 1995 Dingell's staff investigated claims that Robert Gallo had used samples supplied to him by Luc Montagnier to fraudulently claim to have discovered the AIDS virus. The report concluded that Gallo had engaged in fraud and that the NIH covered up his misappropriation of work by the French team at the Institut Pasteur. The report contended that:
The report was never formally published as a subcommittee report because of the 1995 change in control of the House from Democratic to Republican. Other accusations against Gallo were dropped, and while Montagnier's group is considered to be the first to isolate the virus, Gallo's has been recognized as first to prove that this virus was the cause of AIDS.
Environment
Dingell was a member of the Congressional Wildlife Refuge Caucus.
Dingell opposed raising mandatory automobile fuel efficiency standards, which he helped to write in the 1970s. Instead, he indicated that he intended to pursue a regulatory structure that takes greenhouse gas emissions and oil consumption into account. In a July 2007 interview with The Hill, he said "I have made it very plain that I intend to see to it that CAFE is increased" and pointed out that his plan would have Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards increased tantamount to those in the Senate bill recently passed. In November 2007, working with House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, Dingell helped draft an energy bill that would mandate 40% increase in fuel efficiency standards.
In June 1999, Dingell released a report in which the General Accounting Office cited concurrent design and construction was the reason for production of high levels of explosive benzene gas. In a statement, Dingell asserted that "mismanagement by the United States Department of Energy and Westinghouse led to an extraordinary, and pathetic, waste of taxpayer money. All we have to show for $500 million is a 20-year delay and the opportunity to risk another $1 billion to make a problematic process work."
In July 2007, Dingell indicated he planned to introduce a new tax on carbon usage in order to curtail greenhouse gas emissions. The policy has been criticized by some, as polling numbers show voters may be unwilling to pay for the changes. A Wall Street Journal editorial claimed that vehicle emissions standards that he supported will not yield any substantial greenhouse gas emissions savings.
As one of his final votes, Dingell voted against the Keystone XL pipeline on November 13, 2014.
Private sector ties
Dingell was closely tied to the automotive industry, as he represented Metro Detroit, where the Big Three automakers of General Motors, Chrysler, and the Ford Motor Company, are headquartered. Dingell encouraged the companies to improve fuel efficiency. During the automotive industry crisis of 2008–10, Dingell advocated for the bailout the companies received.
During the electoral span of 1989 through 2006, intermediaries for the aforementioned corporations contributed more than $600,000 to Dingell's campaigns. Dingell also held an unknown quantity, more than $1 million in 2005, in assets through General Motors stock options and savings-stock purchase programs; his wife, Debbie Dingell, is a descendant of one of the Fisher brothers, founders of Fisher Body, a constituent part of General Motors. She worked as a lobbyist for the corporation until they married. She then moved to an administrative position there.
Committee assignments
Committee on Energy and Commerce
Subcommittee on Commerce, Manufacturing and Trade
Subcommittee on Communications and Technology
Subcommittee on Energy and Power (ex officio)
Subcommittee on Environment and Economy
Subcommittee on Health
Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations (ex officio)
Personal life
Dingell had four children from his first marriage to Helen Henebry, an airline stewardess. They married in 1952 and divorced in 1972. Dingell's son, Christopher D. Dingell, served in the Michigan State Senate and has served as a judge on the Michigan Third Circuit Court.
In 1981, Dingell married Deborah "Debbie" Insley, his second wife, who was 27 years his junior.
In November 2014, Debbie Dingell won the election to succeed her husband as U.S. Representative for Michigan's 12th congressional district. She took office in January 2015. She is the first non-widowed woman to immediately succeed her husband in Congress.
Dingell had surgery in 2014 to correct an abnormal heart rhythm, and the next year had surgery to install a pacemaker. He was hospitalized after a fall in 2017. On September 17, 2018, Dingell suffered an apparent heart attack and was hospitalized at Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit.
In his later years, Dingell became an active Twitter user, and earned over 250,000 followers for his witty and sarcastic posts attacking Republicans, particularly Donald Trump. He earned the nickname "the Dean of Twitter".
In 2018, Dingell was diagnosed with prostate cancer, which had metastasized. He chose to forgo treatment, and entered hospice care. Dingell died on February 7, 2019 at his home in Dearborn, Michigan. On the day of his death, Dingell authored a column discussing his "last words" for the country; the column was published in The Washington Post.
Legacy
Dingell received the Walter P. Reuther Humanitarian Award from Wayne State University in 2006.
President Barack Obama awarded Dingell the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2014.
The John D. Dingell Jr. Conservation, Management, and Recreation Act, named in his honor and signed into law on March 12, 2019, permanently reauthorized the Land and Water Conservation Fund and established multiple areas of land protection.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Arlington National Cemetery
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Deaths from prostate cancer
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Lauder
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Harry Lauder
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Sir Henry Lauder (; 4 August 1870 – 26 February 1950) was a Scottish singer and comedian popular in both music hall and vaudeville theatre traditions; he achieved international success.
He was described by Sir Winston Churchill as "Scotland's greatest ever ambassador", who "... by his inspiring songs and valiant life, rendered measureless service to the Scottish race and to the British Empire." He became a familiar worldwide figure promoting images like the kilt and the cromach (walking stick) to huge acclaim, especially in America. Among his most popular songs were "Roamin' in the Gloamin'", "A Wee Deoch-an-Doris", "The End of the Road" and, a particularly big hit for him, "I Love a Lassie".
Lauder's understanding of life, its pathos and joys, earned him his popularity. Beniamino Gigli commended his singing voice and clarity. Lauder usually performed in full Highland regalia—kilt, sporran, tam o' shanter, and twisted walking stick, and sang Scottish-themed songs.
By 1911 Lauder had become the highest-paid performer in the world, and was the first British artist to sell a million records; by 1928 he had sold double that. He raised vast amounts of money for the war effort during the First World War, for which he was knighted in 1919. He went into semi-retirement in the mid-1930s, but briefly emerged to entertain troops in the Second World War. By the late 1940s he was suffering from long periods of ill-health. He died in Scotland in 1950.
Early life
Lauder was born on 4 August 1870 in his maternal grandfather's house in Portobello, Edinburgh, Scotland, the eldest of seven children. By the time of the 1871 census he and his parents were living at 1 Newbigging Veitchs Cottages, Inveresk. His father, John Lauder, was the grandson of George Lauder of Inverleith Mains & the St Bernard's Well estate, Edinburgh. He claimed in his autobiography that his family were descendants of the feudal barons the Lauders of the Bass; and his mother, Isabella Urquhart MacLeod McLennan, was born in Arbroath to a family from the Black Isle. John and Isabella married on 26 August 1870. Lauder's father moved to Newbold, Derbyshire, in early 1882 to take up a job designing porcelain, but died on 20 April from pneumonia. Isabella, left with little more than John's life insurance proceeds of £15, moved with the children to be with her family in Arbroath. To finance his education beyond age 11, Harry worked part-time at a flax mill. He made his first public appearance, singing, at a variety concert at Oddfellows' Hall in Arbroath when he was 13 years old, winning first prize for the night (a watch!).
In 1884 the family went to Hamilton, South Lanarkshire, to live with Isabella's brother, Alexander, who found Harry employment at Eddlewood Colliery at ten shillings per week; he kept this job for a decade.
Career
Miner
On 8 January 1910, the Glasgow Evening Times reported that Lauder had told the New York World that, during his mining career:
I was entombed once for 6 long hours. It seemed like 6 years. There were no visible means of getting out either – we had just to wait. I was once right next to a cave-in when my fire boss was buried alive. As we were working and chatting a big stone twice as big as a trunk came tumbling down on my mate from overhead, doubling him like a jack-knife. It squeezed his face right down on the floor. God knows I wasn't strong enough to lift that rock alone, but by superhuman efforts I did. This gave him a chance to breathe and then I shouted. Some men 70 yards away heard me and came and got him out alive. A chap who worked beside me was killed along with 71 others at Udston, and all they could identify him with was his pin leg. I wasn't there that day.
— Harry Lauder
Lauder said he was "proud to be old coal-miner" and in 1911, became an outspoken advocate, "pleading the cause of the poor pit ponies" to Winston Churchill, when introduced to him at the House of Commons and later reported to the Tamworth Herald that he "could talk for hours about my wee four-footed friends of the mine. But I think I convinced that the time has now arrived when something should be done by the law of the land to improve the lot and working conditions of the patient, equine slaves who assist so materially in carrying on the great mining industry of this country."
Performer
Lauder often sang to the miners in Hamilton, who encouraged him to perform in local music halls. While singing in nearby Larkhall, he received 5 shillings—the first time he was paid for singing. He received further engagements including a weekly "go-as-you please" night held by Mrs. Christina Baylis at her Scotia Music Hall/Metropole Theatre in Glasgow. She advised him to gain experience by touring music halls around the country with a concert party, which he did. The tour allowed him to quit the coal mines and become a professional singer. Lauder concentrated his repertoire on comedic routines and songs of Scotland and Ireland.
By 1894, Lauder had turned professional and performed local characterisations at small, Scottish and northern English music halls but had ceased the repertoire by 1900. In March of that year, Lauder travelled to London and reduced the heavy dialect of his act which according to a biographer, Dave Russell, "handicapped Scottish performers in the metropolis". He was an immediate success at the Charing Cross Music Hall and the London Pavilion, venues at which the theatrical paper The Era reported that he had generated "great furore" among his audiences with three of his self-composed songs.
1900–1914
In 1905 Lauder's success in leading the Howard & Wyndham pantomime at the Theatre Royal, Glasgow, for which he wrote I Love a Lassie, made him a national star, and he obtained contracts with Sir Edward Moss and others. Lauder then made a switch from music hall to variety theatre and undertook a tour of America in 1907. The following year, he performed a private show before Edward VII at Sandringham, and in 1911, he again toured the United States where he commanded $1,000 a night.
In 1912, he was top of the bill at Britain's first ever Royal Command Performance, in front of King George V, organised by Alfred Butt. Lauder undertook world tours extensively during his forty-year career, including 22 trips to the United States—for which he had his own railway train, the Harry Lauder Special, and made several trips to Australia, where his brother John had emigrated.
Lauder was, at one time, the highest-paid performer in the world, making the equivalent of £12,700 a night plus expenses. He was paid £1125 for an engagement at the Glasgow Pavilion Theatre in 1913 and was later considered by the press to earn one of the highest weekly salaries by a theatrical performer during the prewar period. In January 1914 he embarked on a tour that included the United States, Australia, New Zealand and Canada.
First World War
The First World War broke out while Lauder was visiting Australia. During the war Lauder promoted recruitment into the services and starred in many concerts for troops at home and abroad. Campaigning for the war effort in 1915, he then wrote "I know that I am voicing the sentiment of thousands and thousands of people when I say that we must retaliate in every possible way regardless of cost. If these German savages want savagery, let them have it".
Following the December 1916 death of his son on the Western Front; Lauder led successful charity fundraising efforts, organised a recruitment tour of music halls and entertained troops in France with a piano. He travelled to Canada in 1917 on a fundraising exercise for the war, where, on 17 November he was guest-of-honour and speaker at the Rotary Club of Toronto Luncheon, when he raised nearly three-quarters of a million dollars worth of bonds for Canada's Victory Loan. Through his efforts in organising concerts and fundraising appeals he established the charity, the Harry Lauder Million Pound Fund, for maimed Scottish soldiers and sailors, to help servicemen return to health and civilian life; and he was knighted in May 1919 for Empire service during the War.
Postwar years
After the First World War, Lauder continued to tour variety theatre circuits. In January 1918, he famously visited Charlie Chaplin, and the two leading comedy icons of their time acted in a short film together.
His final tour was in North America in 1932. He made plans for a new house at Strathaven, to be built over the site and ruin of an old manor, called Lauder Ha'. He was semi-retired in the mid-1930s, until his final retirement was announced in 1935. He briefly emerged from retirement to entertain troops during the Second World War and make wireless broadcasts with the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra.
Australia
Possibly Lauder's strongest connections were with Australia. Both Lauder, his wife and son, brother Matt and his wife, were all in Australia when World War I broke out. Their brother John had already emigrated, about 1906, to Kurri Kurri (and, later, Newcastle), New South Wales, and Matt's eldest son John would also emigrate there in 1920. Lauder wrote that "every time I return to Australia I am filled with genuine enthusiasm.....it is one of the very greatest countries in the world."
Lauder was next in Australia (with his wife and her mother) in 1919, arriving at Sydney on 1 March on board the Oceanic Steamship Company's liner S.S. Ventura, from San Francisco, and he was in situ at the Hotel Australia when he was formally notified that he was to be knighted upon his return to Britain. His next visit was in 1923 when his brother John was on hand in Sydney, with their nephew John (Matt's son), to welcome Lauder, his wife and her brother Tom Vallance, after a four-year absence from Australia. He visited and stayed with his brother John in Newcastle on several occasions, two well-known visits being in 1925, when he gave several performances at Newcastle's Victoria Theatre for three weeks commencing on 8 August, and again in 1929 arriving in Newcastle for a brief visit on 25 July. Lauder departed Sydney for the USA on board the liner SS Ventura on Saturday 27 July 1929, a ship he was familiar with. In 1934–5, his brother John spent 10 months with him in Scotland.
South Africa
Sir Harry Lauder's 1925 reception in South Africa has never been equalled in that country. En route to Australia, he and his wife arrived in Cape Town at Easter. Over twenty thousand people had lined the streets for hours beforehand and it was reported that every policeman in the city plus mounted police were required to keep order. All traffic came to a standstill. He played for two weeks at the Opera House to packed audiences every night, figures "which staggered the management". He moved on to Johannesburg where his reception was equally amazing, described by a reporter who said "never, as long as I live, shall I forget it!"
Works
Lauder wrote most of his own songs, favourites of which were Roamin' In The Gloamin', I Love a Lassie, A Wee Deoch-an-Doris, and The End of the Road, which is used by Birmingham City Football Club as their club anthem. He starred in three British films: Huntingtower (1927), Auld Lang Syne (1929) and The End of the Road (1936). He also appeared in a test film for the Photokinema sound-on-disc process in 1921. This film is part of the UCLA Film and Television Archive collection; however, the disc is missing. In 1914, Lauder appeared in 14 Selig Polyscope experimental short sound films. In 1907, he appeared in a short film singing "I Love a Lassie" for British Gaumont. The British Film Institute has several reels of what appears to be an unreleased film All for the Sake of Mary (c. 1920) co-starring Effie Vallance and Harry Vallance.
He wrote a number of books, which ran into several editions, including Harry Lauder at Home and on Tour (1912), A Minstrel in France (1918), Between You and Me (1919), Roamin' in the Gloamin''' (1928 autobiography), My Best Scotch Stories (1929), Wee Drappies (1931) and Ticklin' Talks (circa 1932).
Recordings
Lauder made his first recordings, resulting in nine selections, for the Gramophone & Typewriter company early in 1902. He continued to record for Gramophone until the middle of 1905, most recordings appearing on the Gramophone label, but others on Zonophone. He then recorded fourteen selections for Pathé Records June 1906. Two months later he was back at Gramophone, and performed for them in several sessions through 1908. That year he made several two and four-minute cylinders for Edison Records. Next year he recorded for Victor in New York. He continued to make some cylinders for Edison, but was primarily associated with His Master's Voice and Victor.
In 1910 Victor introduced a mid-priced purple-label series, the first twelve issues of which were by Lauder. In 1927 Victor promoted Lauder recordings to their Red Seal imprint, making him the only comedic performer to appear on the label primarily associated with operatic celebrities. Lauder is one of three artists shown on Victor's black, purple, blue and red Seal records (the others being Lucy Isabelle Marsh and Reinald Werrenrath). His final recordings were made in 1940, but Lauder records were issued in the new format as current material when RCA Victor introduced the 45rpm record.
Portraits
Lauder is credited with giving the then 21-year-old portrait artist Cowan Dobson his opening into society by commissioning him, in 1915, to paint his portrait. This was considered to be so outstanding that another commission came the following year, to paint his son Captain John Lauder, and again another commission in 1921 to paint Lauder's wife, the latter portrait being after the style of John Singer Sargent. These three portraits remain with the family. The same year, Scottish artist James McBey painted another portrait of Lauder, today in the Glasgow Museums.
In the tradition of the magazine Vanity Fair, there appeared numerous caricatures of Lauder. One is by Al Frueh (1880–1968) in 1911 and published in 1913 in the New York World magazine, another by Henry Mayo Bateman, now in London's National Gallery, and one of 1926 by Alick P.F.Ritchie, for Players Cigarettes, today in the London National Portrait Gallery (ref:NPG D2675).
Personal life
On 19 June 1891 Lauder married Ann, daughter of James Vallance, a colliery manager in Hamilton; their only son, Captain John Currie Lauder, was educated at the City of London School followed by a degree from Jesus College, Cambridge University. John became a captain in the 8th Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, and was killed in action on 28 December 1916 at Pozières. Encouraged by Ann, Lauder returned to the stage three days after learning of John's death. He wrote the song "The End of the Road" (published as a collaboration with the American William Dillon, 1924) in the wake of John's death, and built a monument for him in the private Lauder cemetery in Glenbranter. (John Lauder was buried in the war cemetery at Ovillers, France).
Lauder was a devout Christian and with the exception of engagements in the United States never performed on Sundays.
Lady Lauder died on 31 July 1927, at 54, a week after surgery. She was buried next to her son's memorial in the private Lauder cemetery on his 14,000 acre Glenbranter estate in Argyll, where her parents would later join her. Lauder's niece, Margaret (1900–1966), subsequently became his secretary and companion until his death.
Freemasonry
He was initiated a Freemason on 28 January 1897 in Lodge Dramatic, No. 571, (Glasgow, Scotland) and remained an active Freemason for the rest of his life.
Death
Lauder leased the Glenbranter estate in Argyll to the Forestry Commission and spent his last years at Lauder Ha (or Hall), his Strathaven home, where he died on 26 February 1950, aged 79. His funeral was held at Cadzow Church in Hamilton on 2 March. It was widely reported, notably by Pathé newsreels. One of the chief mourners was the Duke of Hamilton, a close family friend, who led the funeral procession through Hamilton, and read The Lesson. Wreaths were sent from Queen Elizabeth and Sir Winston Churchill. Lauder was interred with his brother George and their mother in the family plot at Bent Cemetery in Hamilton.
In 1932 he had placed the land at Strathaven where Lauder Hall would stand, and its park, in the name of his niece and secretary, Margaret Lauder to avoid high death duties should he die, as he wanted it preserved as the family seat and a museum to himself. This proved to be a wise move as although he left moveable estate of £358,971, the death duties on this amounted to £207,581. After personal bequests to family totalling £27,000 the residue went to Margaret Lauder.
Posthumous
In the 1942 film Random Harvest, Greer Garson plays a member of a travelling troupe. She sings "She's Ma Daisy" and tells jokes doing an impression of Lauder.
Websites carry much of his material and the Harry Lauder Collection, amassed by entertainer Jimmy Logan, was bought for the nation and donated to the University of Glasgow. When the A199 Portobello bypass opened, it was named the Sir Harry Lauder Road.
On 28 July 1987, the Lord Provost of Edinburgh hosted a luncheon at the Edinburgh City Chambers to commemorate the 60th Anniversary of Lauder receiving the Freedom of the City. On 4 August 2001 Gregory Lauder-Frost opened the Sir Harry Lauder Memorial Garden at Portobello Town Hall. BBC2 Scotland broadcast a documentary, Something About Harry, on 30 November 2005. On 29 September 2007, Lauder-Frost rededicated the Burslem Golf Course & Club at Stoke-on-Trent, which had been formally opened exactly a century before by Harry Lauder.
In the 1990s, samples of recordings of Lauder were used on two tracks recorded by the Scottish folk/dance music artist Martyn Bennett.
The Corkscrew hazel ornamental cultivar of common hazel (Corylus avellana 'Contorta') is sometimes known as Harry Lauder's Walking Stick, in reference to the crooked walking stick Lauder often carried.
Selected filmography
Huntingtower (1927)
Auld Lang Syne (1929)
The End of the Road (1936)
References
Further reading
Great Scot!: the life story of Sir Harry Lauder, legendary laird of the music hall. by Gordon Irving, London, 1968 ().
Harry Lauder in the Limelight by William Wallace, Lewes, Sussex, 1988, (), which has a foreword and extensive notes by Sir Harry's great-nephew, Gregory Lauder-Frost.
The Sunday Times (Scottish edition), 24 July 2005, article: "Harry Lauder, coming to a ringtone near you", by David Stenhouse.
The Ancestry of Sir Harry Lauder, in The Scottish Genealogist, Edinburgh, June 2006, Vol. 53, No. 2,
A Minstrel in France, Hearst's International Book Company, London, 1918, by Harry Lauder about the death of his son.
Roamin' in the Gloamin'' (Autobiography) by Sir Harry Lauder, (London, 1928), reprinted without the photos, London, 1976, ()
"The Theatre Royal: Entertaining A Nation" by Graeme Smith, Glasgow, 2008
External links
Harry Lauder at BFI Database
A Celebration of Sir Harry Lauder An Archive Of All Things Sir Harry Lauder
Harry Lauder cylinder recordings, from the UCSB Cylinder Audio Archive at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library.
Harry Lauder recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
Scottish Theatre Archive, Glasgow
THE MYSTERIOUS DEATH OF CAPTAIN JOHN LAUDER (Ed Dixon)
Cairntable Recollections, James Taylor, Ayeshire History, Scotland, 2011, pages 14 and 89.
1870 births
1950 deaths
Entertainments National Service Association personnel
Knights Bachelor
Singers awarded knighthoods
Music hall performers
People from Portobello, Edinburgh
Scottish male film actors
20th-century Scottish male singers
Scottish male comedians
Scottish male songwriters
Scottish writers
Vaudeville performers
Pioneer recording artists
Scottish Freemasons
20th-century Scottish male actors
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Victor Records artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallpaper%20group
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Wallpaper group
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A wallpaper is a mathematical object covering a whole Euclidean plane by repeating a motif indefinitely, in manner that certain isometries keep the drawing unchanged. For each wallpaper there corresponds a group of congruent transformations, with function composition as the group operation. Thus, a wallpaper group (or plane symmetry group or plane crystallographic group) is a mathematical classification of a two‑dimensional repetitive pattern, based on the symmetries in the pattern. Such patterns occur frequently in architecture and decorative art, especially in textiles, tessellations, tiles and physical wallpaper.
What this page calls pattern
Any periodic tiling can be seen as a wallpaper. More particularly, we can consider as a wallpaper a tiling by identical tiles edge‑to‑edge, necessarily periodic, and conceive from it a wallpaper by decorating in the same manner every tiling element, and eventually erase partly or entirely the boundaries between these tiles. Conversely, from every wallpaper we can construct such a tiling by identical tiles edge‑to‑edge, which bear each identical ornaments, the identical outlines of these tiles being not necessarily visible on the original wallpaper. Such repeated boundaries delineate a repetitive surface added here in dashed lines.
Such pseudo‑tilings connected to a given wallpaper are in infinite number. For example image 1 shows two models of repetitive squares in two different positions, which have Another repetitive square has an We could indefinitely conceive such repetitive squares larger and larger. An infinity of shapes of repetitive zones are possible for this Pythagorean tiling, in an infinity of positions on this wallpaper. For example in red on the bottom right‑hand corner of image 1, we could glide its repetitive parallelogram in one or another position. In common on the first two images: a repetitive square concentric with each small square tile, their common center being a point symmetry of the wallpaper.
Between identical tiles edge‑to‑edge, an edge is not necessarily a segment of a straight line. On the top left‑hand corner of image 3, point C is a vertex of a repetitive pseudo‑rhombus with thick stripes on its whole surface, called pseudo‑rhombus because of a concentric repetitive rhombus constructed from it by taking out a bit of surface somewhere to append it elsewhere, and keep the area unchanged. By the same process on image 4, a repetitive regular hexagon filled with vertical stripes is constructed from a rhombic repetitive zone Conversely, from elementary geometric tiles edge‑to‑edge, an artist like M. C. Escher created attractive surfaces many times repeated. On image 2, the minimum area of a repetitive surface by disregarding colors, each repetitive zone in dashed lines consisting of five pieces in a certain arrangement, to be either a square or a hexagon, like in a proof of the Pythagorean theorem.
In the present article, a pattern is a repetitive parallelogram of minimal area in a determined position on the wallpaper. Image 1 shows two parallelogram‑shaped patterns — a square is a particular parallelogram —. Image 3 shows rhombic patterns — a rhombus is a particular parallelogram —.
On this page, all repetitive patterns (of minimal area) are constructed from two translations that generate the group of all translations under which the wallpaper is invariant. With the circle shaped symbol ⵔ of function composition, a pair like or generates the group of all translations that transform the Pythagorean tiling into itself.
Possible groups linked to a pattern
A wallpaper remains on the whole unchanged under certain isometries, starting with certain translations that confer on the wallpaper a repetitive nature. One of the reasons to be unchanged under certain translations is that it covers the whole plane. No mathematical object in our minds is stuck onto a motionless wall! On the contrary an observer or his eye is motionless in front of a transformation, which glides or rotates or flips a wallpaper, eventually could distort it, but that would be out of our subject.
If an isometry leaves unchanged a given wallpaper, then the inverse isometry keeps it also unchanged, like translation on image 1, 3 or 4, or a ± 120° rotation around a point like S on image 3 or 4. If they have both this property to leave unchanged a wallpaper, two isometries composed in one or the other order have then this same property to leave unchanged the wallpaper. To be exhaustive about the concepts of group and subgroups under the function composition, represented by the circle shaped symbol ⵔ, here is a traditional truism in mathematics: everything remains itself under the identity transformation. This identity function can be called translation of zero vector or rotation of 360°.
A glide can be represented by one or several arrows if parallel and of same length and same sense, in same way a wallpaper can be represented either by a few patterns or by only one pattern, considered as a pseudo‑tile imagined repeated edge‑to‑edge with an infinite number of replicas. Image 3 shows two patterns with two different contents, and the one in dark dashed lines or one of its images under represents the same wallpaper on the following image 4, by disregarding the colors. Certainly a color is perceived subjectively whereas a wallpaper is an ideal object, however any color can be seen as a label that characterizes certain surfaces, we might think of a hexadecimal code of color as a label specific to certain zones. It may be added that a well‑known theorem deals with colors.
Groups are registered in the catalog by examining properties of a parallelogram, edge‑to‑edge with its replicas. For example its diagonals intersect at their common midpoints, center and symmetry point of any parallelogram, not necessarily symmetry point of its content. Other example, the midpoint of a full side shared by two patterns is the center of a new repetitive parallelogram formed by the two together, center which is not necessarily symmetry point of the content of this double parallelogram. Other possible symmetry point, two patterns symmetric one to the other with respect to their common vertex form together a new repetitive surface, the center of which is not necessarily symmetry point of its content.
Certain rotational symmetries are possible only for certain shapes of pattern. For example on image 2, a Pythagorean tiling is sometimes called pinwheel tilings because of its rotational symmetry of 90 degrees about the center of a tile, either small or large, or about the center of any replica of tile, of course. Also when two equilateral triangles form edge‑to‑edge a rhombic pattern, like on image 4 or 5 (future image 5), a rotational symmetry of 120 degrees about a vertex of a 120° angle, formed by two sides of pattern, is not always a symmetry point of the content of the regular hexagon formed by three patterns together sharing a vertex, because it does not always contain the same motif.
First examples of groups
The simplest wallpaper group, Group p1, applies when there is no symmetry other than the fact that a pattern repeats over regular intervals in two dimensions, as shown in the section on p1 below.
The following examples are patterns with more forms of symmetry:
Examples A and B have the same wallpaper group; it is called p4m in the IUCr notation and *442 in the orbifold notation. Example C has a different wallpaper group, called p4g or 4*2 . The fact that A and B have the same wallpaper group means that they have the same symmetries, regardless of details of the designs, whereas C has a different set of symmetries despite any superficial similarities.
The number of symmetry groups depends on the number of dimensions in the patterns. Wallpaper groups apply to the two-dimensional case, intermediate in complexity between the simpler frieze groups and the three-dimensional space groups. Subtle differences may place similar patterns in different groups, while patterns that are very different in style, color, scale or orientation may belong to the same group.
A proof that there are only 17 distinct groups of such planar symmetries was first carried out by Evgraf Fedorov in 1891 and then derived independently by George Pólya in 1924. The proof that the list of wallpaper groups is complete only came after the much harder case of space groups had been done. The seventeen possible wallpaper groups are listed below in .
Symmetries of patterns
A symmetry of a pattern is, loosely speaking, a way of transforming the pattern so that it looks exactly the same after the transformation. For example, translational symmetry is present when the pattern can be translated (in other words, shifted) some finite distance and appear unchanged. Think of shifting a set of vertical stripes horizontally by one stripe. The pattern is unchanged. Strictly speaking, a true symmetry only exists in patterns that repeat exactly and continue indefinitely. A set of only, say, five stripes does not have translational symmetry—when shifted, the stripe on one end "disappears" and a new stripe is "added" at the other end. In practice, however, classification is applied to finite patterns, and small imperfections may be ignored.
The types of transformations that are relevant here are called Euclidean plane isometries. For example:
If one shifts example B one unit to the right, so that each square covers the square that was originally adjacent to it, then the resulting pattern is exactly the same as the starting pattern. This type of symmetry is called a translation. Examples A and C are similar, except that the smallest possible shifts are in diagonal directions.
If one turns example B clockwise by 90°, around the centre of one of the squares, again one obtains exactly the same pattern. This is called a rotation. Examples A and C also have 90° rotations, although it requires a little more ingenuity to find the correct centre of rotation for C.
One can also flip example B across a horizontal axis that runs across the middle of the image. This is called a reflection. Example C also has reflections across a vertical axis, and across two diagonal axes. The same can be said for A.
However, example C is different. It only has reflections in horizontal and vertical directions, not across diagonal axes. If one flips across a diagonal line, one does not get the same pattern back, but the original pattern shifted across by a certain distance. This is part of the reason that the wallpaper group of A and B is different from the wallpaper group of C.
Another transformation is "Glide", a combination of reflection and translation parallel to the line of reflection.
Formal definition and discussion
Mathematically, a wallpaper group or plane crystallographic group is a type of topologically discrete group of isometries of the Euclidean plane that contains two linearly independent translations.
Two such isometry groups are of the same type (of the same wallpaper group) if they are the same up to an affine transformation of the plane. Thus e.g. a translation of the plane (hence a translation of the mirrors and centres of rotation) does not affect the wallpaper group. The same applies for a change of angle between translation vectors, provided that it does not add or remove any symmetry (this is only the case if there are no mirrors and no glide reflections, and rotational symmetry is at most of order 2).
Unlike in the three-dimensional case, one can equivalently restrict the affine transformations to those that preserve orientation.
It follows from the Bieberbach theorem that all wallpaper groups are different even as abstract groups (as opposed to e.g. frieze groups, of which two are isomorphic with Z).
2D patterns with double translational symmetry can be categorized according to their symmetry group type.
Isometries of the Euclidean plane
Isometries of the Euclidean plane fall into four categories (see the article Euclidean plane isometry for more information).
Translations, denoted by Tv, where v is a vector in R2. This has the effect of shifting the plane applying displacement vector v.
Rotations, denoted by Rc,θ, where c is a point in the plane (the centre of rotation), and θ is the angle of rotation.
Reflections, or mirror isometries, denoted by FL, where L is a line in R2. (F is for "flip"). This has the effect of reflecting the plane in the line L, called the reflection axis or the associated mirror.
Glide reflections, denoted by GL,d, where L is a line in R2 and d is a distance. This is a combination of a reflection in the line L and a translation along L by a distance d.
The independent translations condition
The condition on linearly independent translations means that there exist linearly independent vectors v and w (in R2) such that the group contains both Tv and Tw.
The purpose of this condition is to distinguish wallpaper groups from frieze groups, which possess a translation but not two linearly independent ones, and from two-dimensional discrete point groups, which have no translations at all. In other words, wallpaper groups represent patterns that repeat themselves in two distinct directions, in contrast to frieze groups, which only repeat along a single axis.
(It is possible to generalise this situation. One could for example study discrete groups of isometries of Rn with m linearly independent translations, where m is any integer in the range 0 ≤ m ≤ n.)
The discreteness condition
The discreteness condition means that there is some positive real number ε, such that for every translation Tv in the group, the vector v has length at least ε (except of course in the case that v is the zero vector, but the independent translations condition prevents this, since any set that contains the zero vector is linearly dependent by definition and thus disallowed).
The purpose of this condition is to ensure that the group has a compact fundamental domain, or in other words, a "cell" of nonzero, finite area, which is repeated through the plane. Without this condition, one might have for example a group containing the translation Tx for every rational number x, which would not correspond to any reasonable wallpaper pattern.
One important and nontrivial consequence of the discreteness condition in combination with the independent translations condition is that the group can only contain rotations of order 2, 3, 4, or 6; that is, every rotation in the group must be a rotation by 180°, 120°, 90°, or 60°. This fact is known as the crystallographic restriction theorem, and can be generalised to higher-dimensional cases.
Notations for wallpaper groups
Crystallographic notation
Crystallography has 230 space groups to distinguish, far more than the 17 wallpaper groups, but many of the symmetries in the groups are the same. Thus one can use a similar notation for both kinds of groups, that of Carl Hermann and Charles-Victor Mauguin. An example of a full wallpaper name in Hermann-Mauguin style (also called IUCr notation) is p31m, with four letters or digits; more usual is a shortened name like cmm or pg.
For wallpaper groups the full notation begins with either p or c, for a primitive cell or a face-centred cell; these are explained below. This is followed by a digit, n, indicating the highest order of rotational symmetry: 1-fold (none), 2-fold, 3-fold, 4-fold, or 6-fold. The next two symbols indicate symmetries relative to one translation axis of the pattern, referred to as the "main" one; if there is a mirror perpendicular to a translation axis that is the main one (or if there are two, one of them). The symbols are either m, g, or 1, for mirror, glide reflection, or none. The axis of the mirror or glide reflection is perpendicular to the main axis for the first letter, and either parallel or tilted 180°/n (when n > 2) for the second letter. Many groups include other symmetries implied by the given ones. The short notation drops digits or an m that can be deduced, so long as that leaves no confusion with another group.
A primitive cell is a minimal region repeated by lattice translations. All but two wallpaper symmetry groups are described with respect to primitive cell axes, a coordinate basis using the translation vectors of the lattice. In the remaining two cases symmetry description is with respect to centred cells that are larger than the primitive cell, and hence have internal repetition; the directions of their sides is different from those of the translation vectors spanning a primitive cell. Hermann-Mauguin notation for crystal space groups uses additional cell types.
Examples
p2 (p2): Primitive cell, 2-fold rotation symmetry, no mirrors or glide reflections.
p4gm (p4mm): Primitive cell, 4-fold rotation, glide reflection perpendicular to main axis, mirror axis at 45°.
c2mm (c2mm): Centred cell, 2-fold rotation, mirror axes both perpendicular and parallel to main axis.
p31m (p31m): Primitive cell, 3-fold rotation, mirror axis at 60°.
Here are all the names that differ in short and full notation.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Crystallographic short and full names
! Short
! pm
! pg
! cm
! pmm
! pmg
! pgg
! cmm
! p4m
! p4g
! p6m
|- style="background:white"
! Full || p1m1 || p1g1 || c1m1 || p2mm || p2mg || p2gg || c2mm || p4mm || p4gm || p6mm
|}
The remaining names are p1, p2, p3, p3m1, p31m, p4, and p6.
Orbifold notation
Orbifold notation for wallpaper groups, advocated by John Horton Conway (Conway, 1992) (Conway 2008), is based not on crystallography, but on topology. One can fold the infinite periodic tiling of the plane into its essence, an orbifold, then describe that with a few symbols.
A digit, n, indicates a centre of n-fold rotation corresponding to a cone point on the orbifold. By the crystallographic restriction theorem, n must be 2, 3, 4, or 6.
An asterisk, *, indicates a mirror symmetry corresponding to a boundary of the orbifold. It interacts with the digits as follows:
Digits before * denote centres of pure rotation (cyclic).
Digits after * denote centres of rotation with mirrors through them, corresponding to "corners" on the boundary of the orbifold (dihedral).
A cross, ×, occurs when a glide reflection is present and indicates a crosscap on the orbifold. Pure mirrors combine with lattice translation to produce glides, but those are already accounted for so need no notation.
The "no symmetry" symbol, o, stands alone, and indicates there are only lattice translations with no other symmetry. The orbifold with this symbol is a torus; in general the symbol o denotes a handle on the orbifold.
The group denoted in crystallographic notation by cmm will, in Conway's notation, be 2*22. The 2 before the * says there is a 2-fold rotation centre with no mirror through it. The * itself says there is a mirror. The first 2 after the * says there is a 2-fold rotation centre on a mirror. The final 2 says there is an independent second 2-fold rotation centre on a mirror, one that is not a duplicate of the first one under symmetries.
The group denoted by pgg will be 22×. There are two pure 2-fold rotation centres, and a glide reflection axis. Contrast this with pmg, Conway 22*, where crystallographic notation mentions a glide, but one that is implicit in the other symmetries of the orbifold.
Coxeter's bracket notation is also included, based on reflectional Coxeter groups, and modified with plus superscripts accounting for rotations, improper rotations and translations.
Why there are exactly seventeen groups
An orbifold can be viewed as a polygon with face, edges, and vertices which can be unfolded to form a possibly infinite set of polygons which tile either the sphere, the plane or the hyperbolic plane. When it tiles the plane it will give a wallpaper group and when it tiles the sphere or hyperbolic plane it gives either a spherical symmetry group or Hyperbolic symmetry group. The type of space the polygons tile can be found by calculating the Euler characteristic, χ = V − E + F, where V is the number of corners (vertices), E is the number of edges and F is the number of faces. If the Euler characteristic is positive then the orbifold has an elliptic (spherical) structure; if it is zero then it has a parabolic structure, i.e. a wallpaper group; and if it is negative it will have a hyperbolic structure. When the full set of possible orbifolds is enumerated it is found that only 17 have Euler characteristic 0.
When an orbifold replicates by symmetry to fill the plane, its features create a structure of vertices, edges, and polygon faces, which must be consistent with the Euler characteristic. Reversing the process, one can assign numbers to the features of the orbifold, but fractions, rather than whole numbers. Because the orbifold itself is a quotient of the full surface by the symmetry group, the orbifold Euler characteristic is a quotient of the surface Euler characteristic by the order of the symmetry group.
The orbifold Euler characteristic is 2 minus the sum of the feature values, assigned as follows:
A digit n without or before a * counts as .
A digit n after a * counts as .
Both * and × count as 1.
The "no symmetry" o counts as 2.
For a wallpaper group, the sum for the characteristic must be zero; thus the feature sum must be 2.
Examples
632: + + = 2
3*3: + 1 + = 2
4*2: + 1 + = 2
22×: + + 1 = 2
Now enumeration of all wallpaper groups becomes a matter of arithmetic, of listing all feature strings with values summing to 2.
Feature strings with other sums are not nonsense; they imply non-planar tilings, not discussed here. (When the orbifold Euler characteristic is negative, the tiling is hyperbolic; when positive, spherical or bad).
Guide to recognizing wallpaper groups
To work out which wallpaper group corresponds to a given design, one may use the following table.
See also this overview with diagrams.
The seventeen groups
Each of the groups in this section has two cell structure diagrams, which are to be interpreted as follows (it is the shape that is significant, not the colour):
On the right-hand side diagrams, different equivalence classes of symmetry elements are colored (and rotated) differently.
The brown or yellow area indicates a fundamental domain, i.e. the smallest part of the pattern that is repeated.
The diagrams on the right show the cell of the lattice corresponding to the smallest translations; those on the left sometimes show a larger area.
Group p1 (o)
[[File:SymBlend p1.svg|thumb|Example and diagram for p1]]
Orbifold signature: o
Coxeter notation (rectangular): [∞+,2,∞+] or [∞]+×[∞]+
Lattice: oblique
Point group: C1
The group p1 contains only translations; there are no rotations, reflections, or glide reflections.
Examples of group p1
The two translations (cell sides) can each have different lengths, and can form any angle.
Group p2 (2222)
[[File:SymBlend p2.svg|right|thumb|Example and diagram for p2]]
Orbifold signature: 2222
Coxeter notation (rectangular): [∞,2,∞]+
Lattice: oblique
Point group: C2
The group p2 contains four rotation centres of order two (180°), but no reflections or glide reflections.
Examples of group p2
Group pm (**)
Orbifold signature: **
Coxeter notation: [∞,2,∞+] or [∞+,2,∞]
Lattice: rectangular
Point group: D1
The group pm has no rotations. It has reflection axes, they are all parallel.
Examples of group pm
(The first three have a vertical symmetry axis, and the last two each have a different diagonal one.)
Group pg (××)
Orbifold signature: ××
Coxeter notation: [(∞,2)+,∞+] or [∞+,(2,∞)+]
Lattice: rectangular
Point group: D1
The group pg contains glide reflections only, and their axes are all parallel. There are no rotations or reflections.
Examples of group pg
Without the details inside the zigzag bands the mat is pmg; with the details but without the distinction between brown and black it is pgg.
Ignoring the wavy borders of the tiles, the pavement is pgg.
Group cm (*×)
Orbifold signature: *×
Coxeter notation: [∞+,2+,∞] or [∞,2+,∞+]
Lattice: rhombic
Point group: D1
The group cm contains no rotations. It has reflection axes, all parallel. There is at least one glide reflection whose axis is not a reflection axis; it is halfway between two adjacent parallel reflection axes.
This group applies for symmetrically staggered rows (i.e. there is a shift per row of half the translation distance inside the rows) of identical objects, which have a symmetry axis perpendicular to the rows.
Examples of group cm
Group pmm (*2222)
Orbifold signature: *2222
Coxeter notation (rectangular): [∞,2,∞] or [∞]×[∞]
Coxeter notation (square): [4,1+,4] or [1+,4,4,1+]
Lattice: rectangular
Point group: D2
The group pmm has reflections in two perpendicular directions, and four rotation centres of order two (180°) located at the intersections of the reflection axes.
Examples of group pmm
Group pmg (22*)
Orbifold signature: 22*
Coxeter notation: [(∞,2)+,∞] or [∞,(2,∞)+]
Lattice: rectangular
Point group: D2
The group pmg has two rotation centres of order two (180°), and reflections in only one direction. It has glide reflections whose axes are perpendicular to the reflection axes. The centres of rotation all lie on glide reflection axes.
Examples of group pmg
Group pgg (22×)
Orbifold signature: 22×
Coxeter notation (rectangular): [((∞,2)+,(∞,2)+)]
Coxeter notation (square): [4+,4+]
Lattice: rectangular
Point group: D2
The group pgg contains two rotation centres of order two (180°), and glide reflections in two perpendicular directions. The centres of rotation are not located on the glide reflection axes. There are no reflections.
Examples of group pgg
Group cmm (2*22)
Orbifold signature: 2*22
Coxeter notation (rhombic): [∞,2+,∞]
Coxeter notation (square): [(4,4,2+)]
Lattice: rhombic
Point group: D2
The group cmm has reflections in two perpendicular directions, and a rotation of order two (180°) whose centre is not on a reflection axis. It also has two rotations whose centres are on a reflection axis.
This group is frequently seen in everyday life, since the most common arrangement of bricks in a brick building (running bond) utilises this group (see example below).
The rotational symmetry of order 2 with centres of rotation at the centres of the sides of the rhombus is a consequence of the other properties.
The pattern corresponds to each of the following:
symmetrically staggered rows of identical doubly symmetric objects
a checkerboard pattern of two alternating rectangular tiles, of which each, by itself, is doubly symmetric
a checkerboard pattern of alternatingly a 2-fold rotationally symmetric rectangular tile and its mirror image
Examples of group cmm
Group p4 (442)
[[File:SymBlend p4.svg|right|thumb|Example and diagram for p4]]
[[File:Wallpaper group diagram p4 square.svg|left|thumb|Cell structure for p4]]
Orbifold signature: 442
Coxeter notation: [4,4]+
Lattice: square
Point group: C4
The group p4 has two rotation centres of order four (90°), and one rotation centre of order two (180°). It has no reflections or glide reflections.
Examples of group p4
A p4 pattern can be looked upon as a repetition in rows and columns of equal square tiles with 4-fold rotational symmetry. Also it can be looked upon as a checkerboard pattern of two such tiles, a factor smaller and rotated 45°.
Group p4m (*442)
Orbifold signature: *442
Coxeter notation: [4,4]
Lattice: square
Point group: D4
The group p4m has two rotation centres of order four (90°), and reflections in four distinct directions (horizontal, vertical, and diagonals). It has additional glide reflections whose axes are not reflection axes; rotations of order two (180°) are centred at the intersection of the glide reflection axes. All rotation centres lie on reflection axes.
This corresponds to a straightforward grid of rows and columns of equal squares with the four reflection axes. Also it corresponds to a checkerboard pattern of two of such squares.
Examples of group p4m
Examples displayed with the smallest translations horizontal and vertical (like in the diagram):
Examples displayed with the smallest translations diagonal:
Group p4g (4*2)
Orbifold signature: 4*2
Coxeter notation: [4+,4]
Lattice: square
Point group: D4
The group p4g has two centres of rotation of order four (90°), which are each other's mirror image, but it has reflections in only two directions, which are perpendicular. There are rotations of order two (180°) whose centres are located at the intersections of reflection axes. It has glide reflections axes parallel to the reflection axes, in between them, and also at an angle of 45° with these.
A p4g pattern can be looked upon as a checkerboard pattern of copies of a square tile with 4-fold rotational symmetry, and its mirror image. Alternatively it can be looked upon (by shifting half a tile) as a checkerboard pattern of copies of a horizontally and vertically symmetric tile and its 90° rotated version. Note that neither applies for a plain checkerboard pattern of black and white tiles, this is group p4m (with diagonal translation cells).
Examples of group p4g
Group p3 (333)
[[File:SymBlend p3.svg|right|thumb|Example and diagram for p3]]
[[File:Wallpaper group diagram p3.svg|left|thumb|Cell structure for p3]]
Orbifold signature: 333
Coxeter notation: [(3,3,3)]+ or [3[3]]+
Lattice: hexagonal
Point group: C3
The group p3 has three different rotation centres of order three (120°), but no reflections or glide reflections.
Imagine a tessellation of the plane with equilateral triangles of equal size, with the sides corresponding to the smallest translations. Then half of the triangles are in one orientation, and the other half upside down. This wallpaper group corresponds to the case that all triangles of the same orientation are equal, while both types have rotational symmetry of order three, but the two are not equal, not each other's mirror image, and not both symmetric (if the two are equal it is p6, if they are each other's mirror image it is p31m, if they are both symmetric it is p3m1; if two of the three apply then the third also, and it is p6m). For a given image, three of these tessellations are possible, each with rotation centres as vertices, i.e. for any tessellation two shifts are possible. In terms of the image: the vertices can be the red, the blue or the green triangles.
Equivalently, imagine a tessellation of the plane with regular hexagons, with sides equal to the smallest translation distance divided by . Then this wallpaper group corresponds to the case that all hexagons are equal (and in the same orientation) and have rotational symmetry of order three, while they have no mirror image symmetry (if they have rotational symmetry of order six it is p6, if they are symmetric with respect to the main diagonals it is p31m, if they are symmetric with respect to lines perpendicular to the sides it is p3m1; if two of the three apply then the third also, it is p6m). For a given image, three of these tessellations are possible, each with one third of the rotation centres as centres of the hexagons. In terms of the image: the centres of the hexagons can be the red, the blue or the green triangles.
Examples of group p3
Group p3m1 (*333)
[[File:SymBlend p3m1.svg|right|thumb|Example and diagram for p3m1]]
[[File:Wallpaper group diagram p3m1.svg|left|thumb|Cell structure for p3m1]]
Orbifold signature: *333
Coxeter notation: [(3,3,3)] or [3[3]]
Lattice: hexagonal
Point group: D3
The group p3m1 has three different rotation centres of order three (120°). It has reflections in the three sides of an equilateral triangle. The centre of every rotation lies on a reflection axis. There are additional glide reflections in three distinct directions, whose axes are located halfway between adjacent parallel reflection axes.
Like for p3, imagine a tessellation of the plane with equilateral triangles of equal size, with the sides corresponding to the smallest translations. Then half of the triangles are in one orientation, and the other half upside down. This wallpaper group corresponds to the case that all triangles of the same orientation are equal, while both types have rotational symmetry of order three, and both are symmetric, but the two are not equal, and not each other's mirror image. For a given image, three of these tessellations are possible, each with rotation centres as vertices. In terms of the image: the vertices can be the red, the blue or the green triangles.
Examples of group p3m1
Group p31m (3*3)
Orbifold signature: 3*3
Coxeter notation: [6,3+]
Lattice: hexagonal
Point group: D3
The group p31m has three different rotation centres of order three (120°), of which two are each other's mirror image. It has reflections in three distinct directions. It has at least one rotation whose centre does not lie on a reflection axis. There are additional glide reflections in three distinct directions, whose axes are located halfway between adjacent parallel reflection axes.
Like for p3 and p3m1, imagine a tessellation of the plane with equilateral triangles of equal size, with the sides corresponding to the smallest translations. Then half of the triangles are in one orientation, and the other half upside down. This wallpaper group corresponds to the case that all triangles of the same orientation are equal, while both types have rotational symmetry of order three and are each other's mirror image, but not symmetric themselves, and not equal. For a given image, only one such tessellation is possible. In terms of the image: the vertices must be the red triangles, not the blue triangles.
Examples of group p31m
Group p6 (632)
[[File:SymBlend p6.svg|right|thumb|Example and diagram for p6]]
[[File:Wallpaper group diagram p6.svg|left|thumb|Cell structure for p6]]
Orbifold signature: 632
Coxeter notation: [6,3]+
Lattice: hexagonal
Point group: C6
The group p6 has one rotation centre of order six (60°); two rotation centres of order three (120°), which are each other's images under a rotation of 60°; and three rotation centres of order two (180°) which are also each other's images under a rotation of 60°. It has no reflections or glide reflections.
A pattern with this symmetry can be looked upon as a tessellation of the plane with equal triangular tiles with C3 symmetry, or equivalently, a tessellation of the plane with equal hexagonal tiles with C6 symmetry (with the edges of the tiles not necessarily part of the pattern).
Examples of group p6
Group p6m (*632)
Orbifold signature: *632
Coxeter notation: [6,3]
Lattice: hexagonal
Point group: D6
The group p6m has one rotation centre of order six (60°); it has two rotation centres of order three, which only differ by a rotation of 60° (or, equivalently, 180°), and three of order two, which only differ by a rotation of 60°. It has also reflections in six distinct directions. There are additional glide reflections in six distinct directions, whose axes are located halfway between adjacent parallel reflection axes.
A pattern with this symmetry can be looked upon as a tessellation of the plane with equal triangular tiles with D3 symmetry, or equivalently, a tessellation of the plane with equal hexagonal tiles with D6 symmetry (with the edges of the tiles not necessarily part of the pattern). Thus the simplest examples are a triangular lattice with or without connecting lines, and a hexagonal tiling with one color for outlining the hexagons and one for the background.
Examples of group p6m
Lattice types
There are five lattice types or Bravais lattices, corresponding to the five possible wallpaper groups of the lattice itself. The wallpaper group of a pattern with this lattice of translational symmetry cannot have more, but may have less symmetry than the lattice itself.
In the 5 cases of rotational symmetry of order 3 or 6, the unit cell consists of two equilateral triangles (hexagonal lattice, itself p6m). They form a rhombus with angles 60° and 120°.
In the 3 cases of rotational symmetry of order 4, the cell is a square (square lattice, itself p4m).
In the 5 cases of reflection or glide reflection, but not both, the cell is a rectangle (rectangular lattice, itself pmm). It may also be interpreted as a centered rhombic lattice. Special cases: square.
In the 2 cases of reflection combined with glide reflection, the cell is a rhombus (rhombic lattice, itself cmm). It may also be interpreted as a centered rectangular lattice. Special cases: square, hexagonal unit cell.
In the case of only rotational symmetry of order 2, and the case of no other symmetry than translational, the cell is in general a parallelogram (parallelogrammatic or oblique lattice, itself p2). Special cases: rectangle, square, rhombus, hexagonal unit cell.
Symmetry groups
The actual symmetry group should be distinguished from the wallpaper group. Wallpaper groups are collections of symmetry groups. There are 17 of these collections, but for each collection there are infinitely many symmetry groups, in the sense of actual groups of isometries. These depend, apart from the wallpaper group, on a number of parameters for the translation vectors, the orientation and position of the reflection axes and rotation centers.
The numbers of degrees of freedom are:
6 for p25 for pmm, pmg, pgg, and cmm
4 for the rest.
However, within each wallpaper group, all symmetry groups are algebraically isomorphic.
Some symmetry group isomorphisms:
p1: Z2pm: Z × D∞
pmm: D∞ × D∞.
Dependence of wallpaper groups on transformations
The wallpaper group of a pattern is invariant under isometries and uniform scaling (similarity transformations).
Translational symmetry is preserved under arbitrary bijective affine transformations.
Rotational symmetry of order two ditto; this means also that 4- and 6-fold rotation centres at least keep 2-fold rotational symmetry.
Reflection in a line and glide reflection are preserved on expansion/contraction along, or perpendicular to, the axis of reflection and glide reflection. It changes p6m, p4g, and p3m1 into cmm, p3m1 into cm, and p4m, depending on direction of expansion/contraction, into pmm or cmm. A pattern of symmetrically staggered rows of points is special in that it can convert by expansion/contraction from p6m to p4m.
Note that when a transformation decreases symmetry, a transformation of the same kind (the inverse) obviously for some patterns increases the symmetry. Such a special property of a pattern (e.g. expansion in one direction produces a pattern with 4-fold symmetry) is not counted as a form of extra symmetry.
Change of colors does not affect the wallpaper group if any two points that have the same color before the change, also have the same color after the change, and any two points that have different colors before the change, also have different colors after the change.
If the former applies, but not the latter, such as when converting a color image to one in black and white, then symmetries are preserved, but they may increase, so that the wallpaper group can change.
Web demo and software
Several software graphic tools will let you create 2D patterns using wallpaper symmetry groups. Usually you can edit the original tile and its copies in the entire pattern are updated automatically.
MadPattern, a free set of Adobe Illustrator templates that support the 17 wallpaper groups
Tess, a shareware tessellation program for multiple platforms, supports all wallpaper, frieze, and rosette groups, as well as Heesch tilings.
Wallpaper Symmetry is a free online JavaScript drawing tool supporting the 17 groups. The main page has an explanation of the wallpaper groups, as well as drawing tools and explanations for the other planar symmetry groups as well.
TALES GAME, a free software designed for educational purposes which includes the tessellation function.
Kali , online graphical symmetry editor Java applet (not supported by default in browsers).
Kali , free downloadable Kali for Windows and Mac Classic.
Inkscape, a free vector graphics editor, supports all 17 groups plus arbitrary scales, shifts, rotates, and color changes per row or per column, optionally randomized to a given degree. (See )
SymmetryWorks is a commercial plugin for Adobe Illustrator, supports all 17 groups.
EscherSketch is a free online JavaScript drawing tool supporting the 17 groups.
Repper is a commercial online drawing tool supporting the 17 groups plus a number of non-periodic tilings
See also
List of planar symmetry groups (summary of this page)
Aperiodic tiling
Crystallography
Layer group
Mathematics and art
M. C. Escher
Point group
Symmetry groups in one dimension
Tessellation
Notes
References
The Grammar of Ornament (1856), by Owen Jones. Many of the images in this article are from this book; it contains many more.
John H. Conway (1992). "The Orbifold Notation for Surface Groups". In: M. W. Liebeck and J. Saxl (eds.), Groups, Combinatorics and Geometry, Proceedings of the L.M.S. Durham Symposium, July 5–15, Durham, UK, 1990; London Math. Soc. Lecture Notes Series 165. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 438–447
John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel and Chaim Goodman-Strauss (2008): The Symmetries of Things. Worcester MA: A.K. Peters. .
Branko Grünbaum and G. C. Shephard (1987): Tilings and Patterns. New York: Freeman. .
Pattern Design, Lewis F. Day
External links
International Tables for Crystallography Volume A: Space-group symmetry by the International Union of Crystallography
The 17 plane symmetry groups by David E. Joyce
Introduction to wallpaper patterns by Chaim Goodman-Strauss and Heidi Burgiel
Description by Silvio Levy
Example tiling for each group, with dynamic demos of properties
Overview with example tiling for each group, by Brian Sanderson
Escher Web Sketch, a java applet with interactive tools for drawing in all 17 plane symmetry groups
Burak, a Java applet for drawing symmetry groups.
A JavaScript app for drawing wallpaper patterns
Circle-Pattern on Roman Mosaics in Greece
Seventeen Kinds of Wallpaper Patterns the 17 symmetries found in traditional Japanese patterns.
Crystallography
Discrete groups
Euclidean symmetries
Ornaments
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac%20Firebird
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Pontiac Firebird
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The Pontiac Firebird is an American automobile that was built and produced by Pontiac from the 1967 to 2002 model years. Designed as a pony car to compete with the Ford Mustang, it was introduced on February 23, 1967, five months after GM's Chevrolet division's platform-sharing Camaro. This also coincided with the release of the 1967 Mercury Cougar, Ford's upscale, platform-sharing version of the Mustang.
The name "Firebird" was also previously used by GM for the General Motors Firebird in the 1950s and early 1960s concept cars.
First generation (1967–1969)
The first generation Firebird had characteristic Coke bottle styling shared with its cousin, the Chevrolet Camaro. Announcing a Pontiac styling trend, the Firebird's bumpers were integrated into the design of the front end, giving it a more streamlined look than the Camaro. The Firebird's rear "slit" taillights were inspired by the 1966–1967 Pontiac GTO and Pontiac Grand Prix. Both a two-door hardtop and a convertible were offered through the 1969 model year. Originally, the car was a "consolation prize" for Pontiac, which had desired to produce a two-seat sports car based on its original Banshee concept car. However, GM feared this would cut into Chevrolet Corvette sales, and gave Pontiac a piece of the "pony car" market by sharing the F-body platform with Chevrolet. The listed retail price before options for the coupe was $2,666 ($ in dollars) and the convertible was $2,903 ($ in dollars).
The 1967 base model Firebird came equipped with the Pontiac SOHC inline-six. Based on the architecture of the standard
Chevrolet inline-six, it was fitted with a one-barrel Rochester carburetor and rated at . The "Sprint" model six came with a four-barrel carburetor, developing . Most buyers opted for one of three V8s: the with a two-barrel carburetor producing ; the four-barrel "HO" (high output) 326, producing ; or the from the GTO. All 1967–1968 400 CI engines had throttle restrictors that blocked the carburetors' secondaries from fully opening. A "Ram Air" option was also available, providing functional hood scoops, higher flow heads with stronger valve springs, and a hotter camshaft. Power for the Ram Air package was the same as the conventional 400 HO, but peaked at 5,200 rpm.
The engines were subsequently enlarged for 1968 to 250 cubic inches(4.1 liters), the base version developing an increased using a one-barrel carburetor, and the high-output Sprint version the same 215 hp with a four-barrel carburetor. Also for the 1968 model, the engine was replaced by the Pontiac V8, which actually displaced , and produced with a two-barrel carburetor. An HO version of the with a revised cam was also offered to start in that year, which developed . The power output of the other engines was increased marginally.
There was an additional Ram Air IV option for the V8 engines during 1969, complementing the Ram Air 400(now often colloquially but incorrectly called the "Ram Air III," a name never used by Pontiac). The Ram Air IV was rated at at 5000 rpm and of torque at 3400 rpm; and respectively. The HO engine was revised again with a different cam and cylinder heads resulting in . During 1969 a special engine was designed for Sports Car Club of America (SCCA) road racing applications that were not available in production cars.
Modifications for 1968 included the addition of federally-mandated side marker lights: for the front of the car, the turn signals were made larger and extended to wrap around the front edges of the car, and on the rear, the Pontiac (V-shaped) Arrowhead logo was added to each side. The front door vent-windows was replaced with a single pane of glass and Astro Ventilation, a fresh-air-inlet system. The 1969 model received a major facelift with a new front-end design but unlike the GTO, it did not have the Endura bumper. The instrument panel and steering wheel were revised. The ignition switch was moved from the dashboard to the steering column with the introduction of GM's new locking ignition switch/steering wheel.
In March 1969, a US$1,083 ($ in ) optional handling package called the "Trans Am performance and appearance package", UPC "WS4", named after the Trans Am Series, was introduced. A total of 689 hardtops and eight convertibles were made.
Due to engineering problems that delayed the introduction of the new 1970 Firebird beyond the usual fall debut, Pontiac continued production of 1969 model Firebirds into the early months of the 1970 model year (the other 1970 Pontiac models had been introduced on September 18, 1969). By late spring of 1969, Pontiac had deleted all model-year references on Firebird literature and promotional materials, anticipating the extended production run of the then-current 1969 models.
Engines
Second generation (1970–1981)
The second-generation debut for the 1970 model year was delayed until February 26, 1970, because of tooling and engineering problems; thus, its popular designation as a 1970½ model, while leftover 1969s were listed in early Pontiac literature without a model-year identification. This generation of Firebirds were available in coupe form only; after the 1969 model year, convertibles were not available until 1989.
Replacing the "Coke bottle" styling was a more "swoopy" body style, while still retaining some traditional elements. The top of the rear window line went almost straight down to the lip of the trunk lid. The new design was initially characterized by a large C-pillar, until 1975 when the rear window was enlarged. Originally, the "wraparound" style window that occupied more of the c-pillar was initially supposed to be the design, but problems with the glue and sealing of the rear window led to the flat style window being used until the re-designed body in 1975. This style became the look that was to epitomize the F-body styling for the longest period during the Firebird's lifetime.
Models
Firebird
Firebird Esprit
Firebird Formula
Firebird Trans Am
Special/Limited Editions and appearance packages
Formula Appearance Package (RPO W50, 1976–1981)
50th Anniversary Special Appearance Package (2,590 units, RPO Y82, 1976)
Special Edition Special Appearance Package, black with gold pinstriping (RPO Y82 1977–1978, RPO Y84 1978–1981)
Sky Bird Esprit Appearance Package (RPO W60, 1977–1978)
Red Bird Esprit Appearance Package (RPO W68, 1978–1979)
Yellow Bird Esprit Appearance Package (RPO W73, 1980)
Special Edition Appearance Package, gold with brown pinstriping (8,666 units, RPO Y88, 1978)
10th Anniversary Trans Am (TATA) Limited Edition (7,500 units, RPO Y89, 1979)
Turbo Trans Am Indianapolis Pace Car Limited Edition (5,700 units, RPO Y85, 1980)
Turbo Trans Am "Daytona 500" Pace Car Limited Edition (2,000 units, RPO Y85, 1981)
Macho Trans Am (offered by the Mecham Pontiac dealership in Glendale, AZ) (~400 units, 1977-1980).
Fire Am (Firebird American) offered by Herb Adams/VSE (~200 units, 1976-1981)
1970
The first year of the second generation Firebird began offering a wider array of model subtypes and marked the appearance of the Firebird Esprit and the Firebird Formula. The Firebird Esprit was offered as a luxury model that came with appearance options, the deluxe interior package, and a Pontiac 350 as standard equipment. The Formula was advertised as an alternative to the Trans Am and could be ordered with all the options available to the Trans Am with the exception of the fender flares, shaker scoop, and fender heat extractors.
The base model Firebird came equipped with a inline-six. The Firebird Esprit and the Firebird Formula came standard with the . The Esprit could be upgraded to a two barrel carbureted , while the Formula could be optioned to receive the L78 4 barrel 400 that produced or the L74 Ram Air III 400 .
There were two Ram Air engines available for the 1970 Trans Am: the L74 Ram Air III 400 ( in the GTO) and the L67 Ram Air IV ( in the GTO) that were carried over from 1969. The Ram Air IV was exclusive to the Trans Am, and could not be ordered on any of the lower Firebird models. The Ram Air IV engine was available for the 1970 model Firebird Formula, but not one order was received by Pontiac, ergo, none were built. Pontiac did not provide marketing material for the Ram Air IV engines, and the option was absent from ordering information for Firebirds, leading very few (or in the case of the Firebird Formula, none) to be built. The difference between the GTO and Firebird engines was that the secondary carburetor's throttle linkage had a restrictor which prevented the rear barrels from opening completely, adjusting the linkage could allow full carburetor operation resulting in identical engine performance.
For the 1970 and 1971 model years, all Firebirds equipped with radios had the antennae mounted "in-glass" in the windshield.
1971
The 1971 model year had a few minor changes to the Firebird. Fenders across all models now featured a one-year-only exhaust vent seen on the lower half of the fenders. The interior options also changed to the newer style collared bucket seats in the deluxe interior, and the previous year's seats with the headrest were no longer available. The rear seat console was introduced as an option, and Honeycomb wheels became available for all Firebirds.
1971 saw changes to the way the engines were rated from the factory. GM mandated that engines no longer use SAE Gross horsepower ratings and use the SAE Net power ratings to help alleviate the rising cost of insurance for performance vehicles. The compression ratio was also lowered for some of the models, de-tuning the power rating for some of the engines as part of new requirements for low-leaded fuels, however, the engine options remained mostly unchanged from 1970. As the limit for the compression ratio was lowered, this allowed for larger displacement engines to become available. The 455 was now available for the Firebird in two configurations. The 455 engine was available in the L75 version and the LS5 HO version. Both the 455 and 455 HO were available as engine options for the Firebird Formula, but the Trans Am received the 455 HO as standard equipment.
1972
During a 1972 strike, the Firebird (and the similar F-body Camaro) were nearly dropped.
The 1972 model year saw minor changes. A difference that differentiates a 1972 Firebird from the other 1970-73 Firebirds is the hexagonal honeycomb grille insert on the nose of the vehicle.
Engine options remained mostly unchanged, however, the L75 455 engine was dropped, but the LS5 455 HO remained as an option for the Formula and standard for the Trans Am. Pontiac advertised the 1972 455 HO as de-tuned to 300 hp, but the engine was unchanged from 1971.
Starting in 1972, and continuing until 1977, the Firebird was only produced at the Norwood, Ohio, facility.
1973
In 1973, the Trans Am added two new colors, Buccaneer Red and Brewster Green. Other exterior upgrades included the updated more modern nose bird. The new hood bird was option "RPO WW7 Hood Decal", a $55 option exclusive to Trans Am. The "Trans Am" decals were larger than previous versions and shared the same accent color schemes as the hood bird.
Inside the 1973 Firebird, the standard interior equipment was almost the same as in prior years. A new "Horse Collar" optional custom interior featured new seat coverings and door panels. The 1973 Firebird also had to meet the new safety and emissions requirements for 1973. There were extra steel reinforcements in the bumper and core support to the fender.
The 1973 Trans Am engine displaced 455 cubic inches in the base L75 and the Super Duty LS2 option. The base 455 produced 40 fewer horsepower than the round port Super Duty 455. Horsepower for the base L75 455 was rated at 250@4000 rpm and 370 lb/ft @2800 rpm. Pontiac removed the H.O. designation from the base engine, and simply decaled the now non-functioning shaker with "455".
The "all hand-assembled" LS2 SD455 engine was rated at 290@4000 rpm and 395 lb/ft @3600 rpm. All Pontiac engines included a new EGR system, which delayed the SD-455 program until late into the production year. The shaker decal on the scoop read "SD-455".
The 1973 Trans Am introduced "Radial Tuned Suspension". When ordered, it included 15-inch radial tires. This delivered a more comfortable ride while also providing better cornering.
The 1973 Trans Am production was up over previous years, the L75 455 production was 3,130 with automatic and 1,420 with manual transmission. The special ordered $550 Option LS2 SD-455 production saw 180 automatics and 72 manuals.
1974
Curb weights rose dramatically in the 1974 model year because of the implementation of telescoping bumpers and various other crash- and safety-related structural enhancements; SD455 Trans Ams weighed in at in their first year of production (1974 model year; actually 1973).
The 1974 models featured a redesigned "shovel-nose" front end and new wide "slotted" taillights. The 400, 455, and SD-455 engines were offered in the Trans Am and Formula models during 1974. A June 1974 test of a newly delivered, privately owned SD-455 Trans Am appeared in Super Stock and Drag Illustrated. With an unmodified car and a test weight of 4,010 lbs the testers clocked 14.25 seconds at 101 mph. The car had a Turbo-Hydramatic 400 3-speed automatic transmission and came equipped with air conditioning, an option that added considerable weight to the car and engine. Also, the factory rating of 290 hp was listed at 4,400 rpm while the factory tachometer has a 5,750 rpm redline. A production line stock 1974 SD455 produced 253 rear wheels HP on a chassis dyno, as reported by High-Performance Pontiac magazine (January 2007). This is also consistent with the 290 SAE net horsepower factory rating (as measured at the crankshaft).
A 1974 Firebird was driven by Jim Rockford in the pilot movie and the first season (1974–1975) of The Rockford Files; every following season, Rockford would change to the next model year. However, in the sixth season (1979–1980), Rockford continued to drive the 1978 Firebird from season five, as the star, James Garner, disliked the 1979 model's restyled front end. The cars in the show were badged as a lower-tier bronze-coloured Firebird Esprit, however, these cars were in actuality, de-badged Firebird Formula 400's with the twin-scoop hood replaced with a standard flat base model Firebird hood. At many points throughout the show, the twin exhausts and rear anti-roll bars that were visible, which were not available on the Esprit.
1975
The 1975 models featured new wraparound rear windows that curved out to occupy more of the B-Pillars, but the rear body shape and bumper remained unchanged. The turn signals were moved up from the valance panel to the grills which helped distinguish the 1975 from the 1974 front end as they are otherwise similar. This was also the last year of the larger profile larger snout Formula hood for the Firebird Formula.
The LS2 Super Duty engine and Turbo-Hydramatic 400 three-speed automatic were no longer available in 1975. Due to the use of catalytic converters starting in 1975, the TH400 would not fit alongside the catalytic converter underneath the vehicle. The smaller Turbo-Hydramatic 350 3-speed automatic was deemed suitable as the power output for the engine had significantly decreased from the earlier years. The TH350 drew less power and also did not require an electronic kick down system. The Pontiac L78 400 was standard in the Trans Am and the 455 was optional for both 1975 and 1976 models.
1975 also saw the start of the "500557"(or similar codes starting with 5) cast 400 engine blocks entering production. The 500557 blocks were considered a weaker cast, as they had a lower nickel content, and had metal shaved off in the lower journals of the block to decrease the overall weight and cost. These blocks were used until the W72 engine reverted to the original specifications from the start of the decade with the 481988 cast in late 1977.
Originally, the L75 455 7.5L V8 was dropped entirely, but it returned mid-year, available only with a four-speed Borg Warner Super T-10, and it was no longer available for the Formula. Although it was brought back as the "455 HO", it was not the same engine as the 1971-1972 LS2 455 HO seen in the earlier Firebirds. It was a standard D-port engine with a low profile camshaft and restrictive exhaust system that was also seen in the larger body Pontiac platforms. Power output was restricted to 200 HP with a torque rating of 330 lb⋅ft at 2,000 rpm. It was the largest displacement "performance" engine still available. Track testing in 1975 showed the 455 capable of 16.12-second quarter-mile time, which was similar to the L82 Corvette.
1976
The 1976 model year saw a revision to the design and had done away with the rubber bumperettes on the front and back bumpers. Instead, the body featured a sleeker design with polyurethane front and rear bumpers that adhered to the safety standards at the time. The interior design was unchanged from the standard interior, however, the deluxe interior seats had changed to feature larger and deeper buckets. The engine options across the Firebird remained the same as the previous year. This was the last year for the optional 15x7 honeycomb wheels. 1976 marked the end of the Pontiac L75 455 7.5L V8, as it could no longer meet the tightening emissions restrictions, and the "HO" moniker used the year prior was dropped. The L75 was only available with a four-speed manual Borg Warner Super T-10 and was exclusive to the Trans Am.
1976 also introduced the "W50 appearance package" for the Formula model line, consisting of a two-tone appearance package with lower accents across the bottom of the body, a large "Formula" decal across the bottom of each door, and a Firebird decal on the rear spoiler. The Formula had a one-year exclusive steel hood design with smaller recessed, less pronounced hood snorkels for this model year.
Pontiac celebrated its 50th anniversary year in 1976. To commemorate this event, Pontiac unveiled a special Trans Am option at the 1976 Chicago Auto Show. Designated the RPO code Y82, it was painted in black with gold accents, this was the first "anniversary" Trans Am package and the first production black and gold special edition. A removable T-top developed by Hurst was set to be included on all Y82 50th Anniversary T/As, but proved problematic in installation and quality control, leading most Y82s to not be delivered with the Hurst T-top roof. All Hurst T-top equipped cars were built at the Norwood, Ohio, factory. 110 of the Y82s equipped with the L75 455 engine received the Hurst T-tops.
T-Tops became an regular production option for other Firebirds in 1977. The Y82 option included exclusive black and gold decals, gold pinstriping along the body of the car, a Formula steering wheel with gold spokes and horn button, gold honeycomb 15x7 wheels, gold window crank covers (if ordered with power windows), a gold shifter button for automatic cars, and a gold aluminum machined dash bezel with a black outline.
1977
The 1977 Firebird received a facelift that featured four rectangular headlamps. The shaker scoop was also revised for this year, with the early 1977-built T/As coming with off-center, lower-profile shaker scoops. The Formula hood was changed for the last time for the second generation with a much lower profile. The snowflake wheel became an option for all Firebirds and was standard with the Y82 appearance package, although it could be replaced with Rally II wheels as a credit option.
For the Esprit, an optional appearance package RPO W60 called the "Skybird appearance package" became available, featuring an all-blue exterior and interior. This package was originally slated to be called the "Bluebird" similar to the "Yellowbird" and "Redbird" packages to follow in the upcoming model years, but the name was already in use for a company that produced school buses.
In 1977, General Motors began to source a larger selection of V8 engines to supply in the lower model Firebirds, and the Oldsmobile 350 (5.7L) & 403 (6.6L) V8, as well as the Chevrolet 305 (5.0L) & 350 (5.7L) V8, became options for the Firebird, Esprit, and Formula after June 1977. Previously, the Chevrolet inline-six was the only outsourced engine in a Firebird. Pontiac made the 301 (4.9 L) V8 available for order in the lower Firebird models, but due to such high demand and popularity, they removed its availability from the Firebird model to allow enough 301 engines for the other Pontiac lines. It was re-introduced as an option in 1979 as production for the 400 ceased and tooling was converted over to the 301.
The Trans Am now had three different engine options, the standard Pontiac L78 400, the optional extra-cost Pontiac W72 400, and the Oldsmobile-sourced L80 403. The 1977 models also saw the cubic inch numbers on the shaker switched in favor of the metric displacement. The shakers had a "6.6 Litre" decal for all L78 Pontiac 400 and L80 Oldsmobile 403 engines. Only the optional W72 Pontiac 400 received the "T/A 6.6" decal.
As Pontiac had discontinued the 455 in the previous model year, a modified 400 Pontiac V8 dubbed the "T/A 6.6" with the RPO W72 became available as a pay-extra upgrade to the standard L78 400. It came featured with a tuned four-barrel 800CFM Rochester Quadrajet carburetor and was rated at at 3,600 rpm and a maximum torque of at 2,400 rpm, as opposed to the regular "6.6 Litre" 400 (RPO L78) rated at . The T/A 6.6 engine also came equipped with chrome valve covers, while the base 400 engines had blue painted valve covers. For 1977, the W72 shared the same air cleaner and shared the same 500577 cast block as the L78, but received the 6x4 heads, whereas the L78 only received the lower compression 6x8 heads. The 6x4 heads were used on early Pontiac 350 blocks that helped increase the compression and also had hardened valve seats for a higher RPM operating range.
The Oldsmobile 403 was implemented as the 400 Pontiac could not satisfy emissions requirements for high-altitude states and California. Wanting to still offer a 6.6 L option for the Trans Am, the 403 Olds was seen as a suitable replacement as when equipped with an A.I.R emissions system, it could satisfy the emissions criteria for these states and still offer the power ratings expected of the Trans Am. The L80 Oldsmobile 403 V8 had slightly more power than the standard L78 Pontiac 400 at 185 hp (138 kW) and offered the same low-end torque of 320 lb⋅ft (430 N⋅m) at a more useable operating range of 2,200rpm.
From 1977 until 1981, the Firebird used four square headlamps, while the Camaro continued to retain the two round headlights that had been shared by both second-generation designs. The 1977 Trans Am Y82 Special Edition gained significant fame after it's film debut in Smokey and the Bandit, leading to a drastic increase in sales of the Pontiac Firebird in the following years, and it's current day collectability.
1978
Changes for 1978 were slight, with a switch from a honeycomb to a crosshatch pattern grille being the most notable change to the body style. The decals for the standard Trans Ams changed from the "looping style" lettering to the "block-style" font that would remain on the Firebird until the end of the second generation. The optional T-Tops transitioned from Hurst installed units to Fisher units designed and created "in-house" by GM in mid-year 1978. Pontiac also introduced the Red Bird package on the Firebird Esprit model. Painted in Code 72 Roman Red with a matching deluxe Carmine Red interior, it demonstrated gold accents with a unique Red Bird graphic on the exterior b-pillars. It also included a Formula steering wheel with gold spokes and gold dash bezel, similar to the ones included in the Special Edition package, however, the red and gold steering wheel was exclusive to the Red Bird Esprit.
A new appearance package on offer for the Trans Am was the gold Y88 Special Appearance package, available for order in late 1977. It was a new variation of the black Y82 Special Appearance Package and featured an all-gold color pallet, exclusive gold mirrored T-Tops, snowflake aluminium wheels, and a new 5-color gold hood decal. All Y88s were painted in paint code 51 Solar Gold and always featured code 62 Camel Tan interior, however, the deluxe interior and tan-colored seatbelts were still extra options. The Y88 featured brown pinstriping, as opposed to the gold pinstriping on the Y82/Y84 package, and included the new design 5-color hood decal and block-style gold font callouts. The Y88 SE debuted the Fisher-style T-Top roof and featured special gold tinted Fisher glass tops exclusive to the Y88. There are no confirmed documented examples of hard-top Y88s made. The Y88 was discontinued due to problems Pontiac experienced with the Solar Gold paint such as streaking in the paint, or a green discoloration with the water-based paint used at the Van Nuys assembly plant. It was then changed back to the black Y84 (replaced RPO Y82) Special Appearance package for the remainder of the 1978 Special Edition Trans Ams built.
The W72 engine option also saw a revision to the camshaft duration and the tuning of the Rochester Quadrajet which led to a 10% increase in horsepower from the prior year, bringing the total to 220 hp. Additionally, the earlier stronger and more durable 481988 cast block returned on the W72, denoted with a large "XX" cast protruding on the side of the block near the cast code. The WS6 Trans Am Special Performance package developed by Herb Adams was introduced as a handling option for the Trans Am, including a larger diameter rear sway bar, tighter ratio steering box, 15x8-inch snowflake wheels, additional frame bracing, as well as other suspension changes. Initially, the W72 engine was bundled in with the WS6 package, but mid-year, the options separated and became two pay-extra items on the dealer invoice. Delays in manufacturing prevented the rear disc brake (RPO J65) from being available in the 1978 model year. Approximately 23.1% (28,239) of Trans Ams in 1978 had the WS6 option according to Pontiac sales information at the start of 1979.
1979
The body was completely restyled for 1979, featuring a new aerodynamic front end, revised rear end spoiler, bulkier flares for the Trans Am, and a revised connected single taillight assembly design that would remain consistent for the rest of the Firebird's design. The grilles had been repositioned to the lower section of the front bumper to allow more cold air to travel directly to the lower part of the radiator and engine bay. The interior remained mostly unchanged from the previous model year, however, the deluxe cloth interior had now changed from velour to a Hobnail pattern. The hood decal from the Y88 SE and Solar Gold cars from 1978 became the standard design across the entire Trans Am line and now came in a variety of colors. The Formula steering wheel that was optional in the lower models and standard in the Trans Am now came color coded to the interior.
For 1979, there were three possible engine options. The L80 Oldsmobile 403 6.6L V8 engine became the standard option and was only available with the Turbo Hydramatic 350 3-speed automatic. The W72 Pontiac 400 6.6L V8 was available for a short period and in limited supply. This was the last of the line for the Pontiac large displacement V8 engines, and only available with the 4-speed manual Borg-Warner Super T-10 transmission, while also requiring the WS6 handling package as mandatory equipment in conjunction with this driveline choice. A credit option with a four-speed transmission was the smaller displacement L37 Pontiac 301 4.9L V8, and it could come with either the Super T-10 or Turbo Hydramatic 350.
The Formula received some revisions for the 1979 model year, where the two-tone W50 colored stripe decal now became the standard look for the Formula, however, the W50 package was still available and it added the "Formula" lettering along the bottom of the doors and rear deck spoiler. The WS6 package had now been renamed from the "Trans Am Mk IV Special Handling Package" to the "Special Handling Package" as it was now available for the Firebird Formula. The dashboard bezel now wore the same machined swirl aluminium bezel as the Trans Am. As the Pontiac 301 had now ramped up production as the Pontiac 400 production had ceased, it became the standard engine for the Formula. Due to significant popularity and demand for the option to receive 4 wheel disc brakes in the WS6 handling package, some WS6 equipped cars were shipped without the option of rear disc brakes and were instead coded WS7, but still received all other equipment included in the WS6 package.
A limited-edition Firebird to commemorate the 10th anniversary of the 1969 Firebird Trans Am was produced for the 1979 model year. It featured platinum silver paint with charcoal gray upper paint accents, mirrored T-tops, a special interior featuring silver leather seats with custom-embroidered Firebird emblems, and aircraft-inspired red lighting for the gauges. The colloquially known as the "TATA" (Tenth Anniversary Trans Am), it featured every single available production option on the Firebird, however, cruise control was not compatible with the manual transmission resulting in the being credited on the window sticker for the 4-speed equipped TATAs. The TATA also featured special 10th-anniversary decals, including a Firebird hood decal that extended off of the hood and onto the front fenders. Pontiac produced 7,500 Y89 TATAs (RPO Y89), of which 1,817 were equipped with the Pontiac "T/A 6.6" W72 400 engine. The remainder all featured the L80 Oldsmobile 403. Two TATAs were the actual pace cars for the 1979 Daytona 500, which had been dubbed "the race that made NASCAR".
Car and Driver magazine named the Trans Am equipped with the WS6 Special Performance Package the best handling car of 1979. During period dyno testing, the National Hot Rod Association rated the "T/A 6.6" W72 Pontiac 400 engine at 260–280 net horsepower, which was significantly higher than Pontiac's conservative rating of 220 hp. In 1979 Pontiac sold 116,535 Trans Ams, the highest sold in any Firebird model year.
1980
In 1980, ever-increasing emissions restrictions led Pontiac to drop all of its large-displacement engines. The year saw the biggest engine changes for the Trans Am. The 301, offered in 1979 as a credit option, was now the standard engine. No manual transmission was available for the Firebird in 1980, all received the 3-speed automatic Turbo Hydramatic 350. Dealer order information listed a 3-speed manual available with the Buick V6 in the base model Firebird, however, none were ordered or built.
Optional engines for the Trans Am and Formula included a turbocharged 301 4.9L V8 or the LG4 Chevrolet 305 5.0L V8 small block. The Chevrolet 305 was mandatory in Californian and High Altitude emission states. There were three different iterations of the 301 in 1980, the L37 301, the W72 301 E/C "T/A 4.9", and the LU8 301 Turbo. The W72 E/C 301 was standard for the Trans Am and optional for the Formula, however, the W72 E/C could be deleted and instead, come equipped with the standard L37 301. The turbocharged 301 used a Garrett TB305 turbo attached to a single Rochester Quadrajet four-barrel carburetor and featured a hood-mounted "boost" gauge that would light up as the TB305 accumulated boost. The hood of the 301T equipped Firebirds had a large offset bulge to accommodate for the mounting position of the carburetor on the engine as the turbocharger exhaust occupied a large amount of space in the engine bay. The 301 T-equipped cars were restricted to an automatic transmission, a 3.08 rear differential ratio, and were required to have A/C. A memo from Pontiac to dealers in late 1980 mandated that all 301T cars must be ordered with J65 rear disc brakes or the orders would be rejected. However, the WS6 Special Handling Package was never mandatory with the 301 Turbo.
The Redbird Esprit was discontinued in 1980, and the new Yellowbird Esprit was introduced. This was the last year to feature the colored Esprit appearance packages. It featured a two-tone yellow exterior with yellow snowflake wheels, a deluxe Camel Tan interior, a gold dash bezel, special yellow Firebird decals, and a Formula steering wheel.
The new Limited Edition Trans Am produced for 1980 was the Y85 Turbo Trans Am Pace Car that was featured in the Indianapolis 500 race series. A total of 5,700 Pace Cars were made. Standard on the Y85 included mirrored T-Tops, a special hood and paint decal that covered the hood and roof, 15x8-inch aluminium Turbo wheels, the 301 cu in (4.9 L) Turbo, the WS6 handling package, an exclusive embroidered oyster Hobnail cloth interior, a special digital AM/FM ETR stereo, power windows, Tungsten Halogen headlamps, and a leather-wrapped steering wheel. While some of the options were standard on the Y85 Pace car, many options were still extra (unlike the Y89 TATA which had all possible options standard), such as power door locks, power trunk release, tilt steering column, cruise control, etc. The "Official Pace Car" door decals were shipped alongside the car to dealers to install as per customer request or to the dealer's liking.
A 1980 Turbo Trans Am Y84 Special Edition was featured in the movie Smokey and the Bandit II, but was fitted with nitrous oxide tanks by Marvin Miller Systems to get the desired performance.
1981
The 1981 model year became the final run for the second-generation Pontiac Firebird. The three engine options were unchanged for the model line-up, however, the option for a four-speed Borg Warner Super T-10 was re-introduced for the Formula and Trans Am, but was only available with the Chevrolet sourced LG4 305 "5.0 LITRE" V8. The W72 E/C 301 replaced the standard 301, so the W72 code was dropped as all 301 engines featured the Electronic Spark Control system. The 301T now became certified to pass Californian and H/A emissions requirements, making it the most powerful Pontiac engine to be sold in California since the mid-1970s. As with all other General Motors vehicles for 1981, all engines came equipped with the "computer command control" system attached to the carburetor.
The hood decal for the 1981 model year was also slightly restyled. All Firebirds also received an embossed silver Firebird decal on the petrol tank cap attached to the rear taillights. On the special edition Trans Ams, this Firebird was gold. The "Turbo" wheel previously exclusive to the 301 Turbo cars now became available across the Esprit and Formula line in a slightly smaller size (15x7.5" as opposed to the WS6 Formula/Trans Am 15x8")
The Formula received some changes for the 1981 model year, as previously in 1979, the two-tone W50 style paint was standard without the Formula lettering. However, if the W50 package was not ordered, the Formula simply appeared in the single color they were ordered in with the smaller fender decals. This also prompted an increase in price for the W50 option as the decals were not included in the base Formula package anymore. In mid-1981, the Buick V6 became the standard engine in the Formula.
The G80 "Safe-T-Track" limited-slip differential that was previously standard for the last decade on all Trans Ams became a pay-extra option. This decision was made by Pontiac to prepare dealers for the new ordering and pricing for the third-generation Firebird where RPO G80 was no longer being included as a standard option for the Trans Am.
The new Limited Edition Trans Am on offer was a new iteration of the Y85 Turbo Trans Am Pace Car for the Daytona 500 race series. For this year, instead of the grey/oyster interior, the TTA featured a deluxe red and black Recaro embroidered interior. It was the first production car General Motors manufactured to feature factory German manufactured Recaro seats and interior, however, Pontiac had used Recaro seats in prototype vehicles such as the 1978-79 Kammaback K-Type station wagon Trans Ams, as well as many dealers and companies installing Recaros such as DKM in the Macho Trans Ams and VSE in the Fire Ams. The Y85 for 1981 was limited to a smaller 2,000 units, and like with the Y85 in 1980, many options on the car were still extra on top of the large base cost of the Pace Car.
Engines
Production totals
Third generation (1982–1992)
The availability and cost of gasoline (two fuel crises had occurred by this time) meant the weight and the fuel consumption of the third generation had to be considered in the design. In F-body development, both the third-generation Firebird and Camaro were proposed as possible front-wheel-drive platforms, but the idea was scrapped. Computerized engine management was in its infancy, and with fuel efficiency being the primary objective, it was not possible to have high horsepower and torque numbers. They did manage to cut enough weight from the design so that acceleration performance would be better than the 1981 models. They also succeeded in reducing fuel consumption, offering a four-cylinder Firebird that would provide . GM executives decided that engineering effort would best be spent on aerodynamics and chassis development. They created a modern platform so that when engine technology advanced, they would have a well-balanced package with acceleration, braking, handling, and aerodynamics.
The Firebird and Camaro were completely redesigned for the 1982 model year, with the windshield slope set at 62 degrees, (about three degrees steeper than anything GM had ever tried before), and for the first time, a large, glass-dominated hatchback that required no metal structure to support it. Two concealed pop-up headlights, a first on the F-Body cars, were the primary characteristic that distinguished the third-generation Firebird from both its Camaro sibling and its prior form (a styling characteristic carried into the fourth generation's design). In addition to being about lighter than the previous design, the new design was the most aerodynamic product GM had ever released. Wind tunnels were used to form the new F-Body platform's shape, and Pontiac took full advantage of it. The aerodynamic developments extended to the finned aluminum wheels with smooth hubcaps and a functional rear spoiler.
Models
Firebird base
Firebird S/E (1982–1987)
Firebird Formula (1987–1992)
Firebird Trans Am
Styles
Firebird base (I4/V6/V8)-Series 2FS (1982–85)
Firebird base (V6/V8)-Series 2FS (1986–92)
Firebird ASC convertible (V6/V8)-Series 2FS (1986–89)
Firebird convertible (V6/V8)-Series 2FS (1991–92)
Firebird special edition (S/E) (I4/V6/V8)-Series 2FX (1982–85)
Firebird special edition (S/E) (V6/V8)-Series 2FX (1986)
Firebird Formula (V8)-Series 2FS/W66 (1987–92)
Firebird Formula ASC convertible (V8)-Series 2FS/W66 (1987–89)
Firebird Trans Am-Series 2FW/WS4 (V8) (1982–92)
Firebird Trans Am ASC convertible (V8)-Series 2FW/WS4 (1986–89)
Firebird Trans Am convertible (V8) 2FW/WS4 (1991–92)
Firebird Recaro Trans Am (V8)-Series 2FW/Y84 (1982–84)
Firebird Trans Am GTA (V8)-Series 2FW/Y84 (1987–92)
Firebird Trans Am GTA ASC convertible (V8)-Series 2FW/Y84 (1987–89)
Firebird 25th anniversary Daytona 500 limited edition Trans Am-(V8)-Series 2FW/WS4 (1994)
Firebird 15th anniversary Trans Am-(V8)-Series 2FW/WS4 (1984)
Firebird 20th anniversary Turbo Trans Am-(V6 turbo)-Series 5FW/WS4 (1989)
1988
In 1988 the Trans Am GTA, which was built with the standard 350 cu in 5.7 L V8 engine, was offered with the option of the removable roof "T-tops". However, any buyer ordering this option could only order the 305 cu in 5.0 L V8 engine, because the roof did not have the support for all the extra torque from the engine, requiring a power trade-off for those who wanted this option. Pontiac also introduced a rare option for the Trans Am GTA in the 1988 model year, the $800 (~$ in ) "notchback", which replaced the standard long large, glass-dominated hatchback to make the Firebird design look less like the Camaro design, and shared an appearance with the Pontiac Fiero. The notchback was a special fiberglass rear deck lid, replacing the long-sloped window with a short vertical rear window, resembling the back of a Ferrari 288 GTO.
A total of 718 of these Notchbacks were built in 1988. The promotion was only in the form of a sheet in the back of a notebook of available options. They were made by Auto-Fab of Auburn Hills, Michigan. Problems with the incorrect fitting of the notchbacks to the GTAs at the Van Nuys plant often resulted in delays of several months for buyers who wanted this option. Furthermore, quality control problems plagued the notchback, many owners complained of rippling and deforming of the fiberglass rear deck, and others complained of large defects resembling acne forming in the notchbacks. Pontiac had to repair them under warranty, sanding down the imperfections, and repainting them, only to have more flaws resurface months later. Because of the poor quality and numerous expensive warranty repairs and repainting, the notchback was subsequently canceled for the 1989 model year, via a bulletin in August 1988, although production records indicate that a few were produced.
1989
For 1989, most Firebird models were nearly identical to those made in 1988. The Trans-Am GTA and Formula 350 models were fitted with upgraded Corvette 5.7 Liter L98 Engines, replacing the 5.7 Liter L98 engine version that powered the 1987 and 1988 models. The L98 was not a factory option on the non-GTA version of the Trans Am in 1989, which was downgraded to only feature the 5.0 Liter LB9 Engine. The Formula and GTA models sold with manual transmissions all featured the LB9 engines as well.
In 1989, Pontiac made a limited edition 20th Anniversary Turbo Trans Am, which was the Indianapolis 500 Pace Car that year. The 20th Anniversary model featured the 3.8-liter turbocharged Buick engine used in the 1987 GNX, with two modifications: re-engineered cylinder heads (because the F-Body had less engine room than the G-body) with 8:1 instead of 9:1 compression, and upgraded turbocharger components that provided extra boost (16 psi vs. 14 psi for the Buick GNX). The Turbo Trans Am came with a 5-year 50,000-mile warranty rather than the 12-month 12,000-mile warranty that applied to the Buick GNX. Though officially rated at and , dynamometer testing of the 20th Anniversary model tests regularly recorded over 300 horsepower. Hagerty reported that the Turbo Trans Am was 0.1 second faster than the GNX in both 0-60 mph and 1/4-mile tests.
The 20th Anniversary Trans Am also featured Chevrolet's high-performance 'police-Camaro' 1LE brakes, and it was the first Indy-500 Pace Car that did not require an engine, suspension, and other performance upgrades and modifications to handle Pace Car duties at Indianapolis.
The 20th Anniversary Trans Am was the last 'anniversary' model to feature more than a custom interior and special exterior paint trim.
Engines
Fourth generation (1993–2002)
The fourth-generation Firebird amplified the aerodynamic styling initiated by the previous generation. While the live rear axle and floorpan aft of the front seats remained largely the same, ninety percent of the Firebird's parts were all-new. Overall, the styling of the Firebird more strongly reflected the Banshee IV concept car than the 1991 "facelift" did. As with the Camaro, major improvements included standard dual airbags, four-wheel anti-lock brakes, 16-inch wheels, rack-and-pinion power steering, short/long-arm front suspension, and several non-rusting composite body panels. Throughout its fourth generation, trim levels included the V6-powered Firebird, V8-powered Formula, and Trans Am. Standard manual transmissions were the T5 five-speed manual for the V6s, Borg-Warner′s T56 six-speed manual for the V8s. The 4L60 four-speed automatic was optional for both in 1993, becoming the 4L60E with built-in electronic controls in 1994.
1993–1997
From 1993 until 1995 (1995 non-California cars), Firebirds received a 3.4 L V6, an enhanced version of the third-generation's 3.1 L V6. Beginning mid-year 1995 onward, a Series II 3.8 L V6 with became the Firebird's sole engine. From 1993 until 1997, the sole engine for the Formula and Trans Am was the 5.7 L LT1 V8, essentially identical to the LT1 in the C4 Corvette except for more flow-restrictive intake and exhaust systems.
Steering wheel audio controls were included with optional uplevel cassette or compact disc stereo systems.
Beginning with 1994 model year cars, "Delco 2001"-series stereo systems replaced the previous Delco units. This revised series, also introduced for other Pontiac car lines, featured ergonomically-designed control panels with larger buttons and an optional seven-band graphic equalizer. Also in 1994, the fourth-generation convertible was available; every Firebird (and Camaro) convertible featured a glass rear window with a built-in electric defroster.
The 1995 models were the same as those of previous years, but traction control (ASR: acceleration slip regulation) was available for LT1 Firebirds, controlled by a switch on the console. The steering wheels in all Firebirds were also changed; their optional built-in audio controls were more closely grouped on each side. The "Trans Am GT" trim level was dropped from the lineup after its model year run in 1994. For 1995, all Trans Ams received 155-mph speedometers and Z-rated tires. 1995 was also the first year of the vented version of the Opti-Spark distributors on LT1 F-cars, addressing a common mechanical fault with the unit. The 'transmission perform' button was available only in the 1994 and 1995 Formula and Trans Am. This option was stopped for the 1996 and later models, but the unused connections remain available for the 1996 and 1997 Formula and Trans Am. While 1995 cars still used the OBD-I (on-board diagnostic) computer system (the last year of any American car including the F-body to use OBD-I), a majority of them had OBD-II connector ports under the dash.
Firebird performance levels improved for 1996, with the establishment of the stronger 200-hp 3.8 L V6 as the new base engine, and the power rating of the LT1 increased to 285 for 1996, due to its new dual catalytic-converter exhaust system. 1996 was also the first model year of the OBD-II computer system. Optional performance enhancements were available for each Firebird trim level; the Y87 performance packages for V6s added mechanical features of the V8 setups, such as four-wheel disc brakes, faster-response steering, limited-slip rear differential, and dual tailpipes. For Formulas and Trans Ams, functional dual-inlet "Ram Air" hoods returned as part of the WS6 performance package. The optional package boosted rated horsepower from 285 to 305, and torque from 325 lb·ft to 335. Also included were 17x9-inch wheels with 275/40ZR17 tires, suspension improvements, oval-shaped dual tailpipe tips, and a WS6 badge. Bilstein shocks was a further option with the package.
The 1997 model year introduced standard air conditioning, daytime running lamps (utilizing the front turn signal lamps), a digital odometer, and optional 500-watt Monsoon cassette or compact disc stereo systems to all Firebird trim levels. For V6 Firebirds, a W68 sport appearance package was also introduced as a counterpart to the Camaro RS trim level. The WS6 "Ram Air" performance package was now also an option for the Formula and Trans Am convertibles, although these convertibles did not receive the 17-inch wheel-and-tire combination. There were 41 Formula convertibles and 463 Trans Am convertibles produced from 1996 until 1997 with the WS6 package.
1998–2002
In 1997, in relation to the Camaro, the Firebird received a mid-cycle refresh for the 1998 model year. Major changes included a new hood and front fascia with dual intakes, retracting quad halogen headlights, circular turn signals and fog lamps, a front license plate pocket, lower fender air vents, unified-style lower door raised lettering for each trim level, and a new "honeycomb" rear light panel, with circular reverse lamps. In the dashboard, "next-generation" reduced-force dual airbags became standard. As before, the Formula and Trans Am again received a close derivative of the Corvette's 5.7 L V8, the LS1 of the C5 Corvette, as the LT1 (and LT4) V8s were discontinued. The LS1 Firebirds were also equipped with an aluminum driveshaft, replacing the previous steel version, while all Firebird trim levels gained four-wheel disc brakes with dual-piston front calipers and larger rotors at each wheel, complete with a solenoid-based Bosch anti-lock system. The Formula convertible was no longer offered.
Beginning in 1998 for 1999 models, a standard 16.8-gallon non-metallic fuel tank increased the potential traveling range. GM's ASR traction control system was extended to the V6-powered Firebirds, and all LS1 (V8) and Y87 (V6) Firebirds also received a Zexel/Torsen II slip-reduction rear axle. An electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD) system replaced the old hydraulic proportioning valve for improved brake performance. An enhanced sensing and diagnostic module (SDM) recorded vehicle speed, engine rpm, throttle position, and brake use in the last five seconds prior to airbag deployment. In 1999, a Hurst shifter for variants with the 6-speed manual and a power steering cooler became options for LS1 Firebirds.
In 2000, the WS6 performance package was available exclusively for the 2001 model year Trans Am coupe and convertible variants.
In 2002, more convenience items such as power mirrors and power antennae became standard equipment, while cassette stereos were phased out.
Special editions
Firehawk
The Firehawk was first sold as a production vehicle in 1992. The 1992 Firehawk models were modified Formula 350s with major engine, intake, suspension, and other upgrades, including the Chevrolet Corvette ZR-1's 6-speed transmission. Producing over 350 HP (269 KW) and 390 lb-ft of torque (526 N-m), they were the fastest and most powerful regular production Firebirds ever made available through Pontiac dealers (RPO code: B4U).
The special modifications were done by SLP (Street Legal Performance) Engineering, in Tom's River, New Jersey. Those performance upgrades pushed the price to $40,000 (and there was an extra special street racing upgrade for another $10,000, which included the same brakes used on the Ferrari F40). Consequently, only 25 of the 'regular' Firehawks were sold, and only 2 of the race models were sold during the 1992 model year, making the 1992 Firehawk an extremely rare vehicle.
The 1992 models are is the only 3rd-generation F-Body Firehawks.
The special-edition extra-performance Firehawk (available in Formula trim for 1993–1997, and again in both Formula and Trans Am trims for 1999–2002) was produced by SLP Engineering, Inc., and sold through Pontiac dealerships. Featuring 17-inch wheels with namesake Firestone Firehawk 275/40ZR17 tires along with a functional twin-inlet hood above a specific air cleaner box, its rated power increased to and 330 lb·ft (445 Nm) of torque. A total of 201 Firehawks were built in 1993. In 1994, the Firehawk package was expanded to include options for a suspension upgrade as well as a larger-diameter exhaust system that increased power to . T-top Formula coupes and convertibles could also be optioned as Firehawks beginning in 1995. For 1996 and 1997, the Firehawk gained rectangular driving lights mounted inside the front scoops and (except for Firehawk convertibles) the Trans Am's elevated rear wing. In 1997, an LT4 Firehawk was also available, utilizing the same , balanced-and-blueprinted LT4 V8 engine as found in the manual-transmission 1996 Corvette. A total of 29 LT4-powered Firehawks were produced.
Power levels for the 1999 Firehawk, powered by the LS1 V8, rose to (330 in 2000, 335 in 2001, and 345 in late 2002 models equipped with the "Blackwing" intake). A 10th-anniversary Firehawk was available in 2001, distinguished as a black Trans Am coupe (123 units) and convertible (16 units) with gold-painted hood stripes (prototype only), gold vinyl stripes on hood and spoiler (production), gold 17-inch wheels, and gold tailpipe tips.
1994 Trans Am GT
In 1994 only, a "Trans Am GT" option was available. Trans Am GTs did not receive any special badging, graphics, or emblems, and looked externally identical to the base Trans Am cars. The GT package included 245/50ZR16 tires and a 155-mph speedometer. Non-GT optioned Trans Ams in 1994 received 235/55R16 tires, a 115-mph speedometer, and a much lower top-speed limiter. The "highrise spoiler", leather, and T-tops were not standard on the Trans Am GT cars in 1994, nor any year of the LT1 Trans Am. RPO code T43 "uplevel spoiler" was an option on all Trans Ams, and while the mass majority of 1994 Trans Am GT cars received the T43 spoiler (along with the majority of all 1993–1997 Trans Ams), it was not part of the Trans Am GT package. Both base Trans Ams and Trans am GTs could be ordered as a coupe, T-top, or convertible versions and were both available with automatic or manual transmissions. While the GT package was a cost option on the 1994 Trans Am, a majority of 1994 Trans Ams were made with the GT package.
All of the 1994 Trans Am GT options became standard in 1995–2002 as part of the Trans Am package, and the GT name/package was dropped for 1995. Some of the early fourth-generation Trans Am and Formula Firebirds list "GT" on the vehicle's title or registration. The reason is that the VIN does not specify a "package" (Formula, Trans Am, Trans Am GT, Firehawk, etc.); it only specifies the engine (5.7 L V8 LT1). Because the title is based on the VIN alone, titles and registrations often list all of the packages, but it does not mean the car is equipped with any certain package.
1994 25th-anniversary Trans Am
The 1994 model year marked the 25th anniversary of the Trans Am, and another anniversary edition was released, painted white with a single dark blue stripe down the center of the vehicle that was reminiscent of the 1970 Trans Am. It also featured white-painted, five-spoke, 16-inch alloy wheels, white leather seats, and door trim. This edition was available in either coupe, T-top, or convertible form.
1999 30th-anniversary Trans Am
As with the previous 25th-anniversary edition, the 30th-anniversary edition was either a white WS6 convertible or WS6 T-top coupe, with twin dark blue stripes from hood to tail, and distinct blue anodized five-spoke 17-inch alloy A-mold wheels, with white leather seats and door trim.
2001 was the 75th anniversary of Pontiac. A 75th-anniversary package incorporated a power and performance package that included power door locks including retained accessory power, power windows including express down drivers side, dual power sport mirrors, and power antenna. Radio, ETR AM/FM stereo with CD player and 7-band graphic equalizer including a clock, seek up/down, remote CD pre-wiring Monsoon 500-watt peak power with 10-speaker premium sound system and steering wheel leather-wrapped w/driver touch radio controls. 4-speed automatic transmission, power drivers 6-way seat, security package (includes theft-deterrent system and remote key-less entry), 3800 performance package that included 3.42 gears with "posi-trac" Zexel Torsen T2 limited-slip differential, 4-wheel disc brakes, dual mufflers, and an LS1 steering rack= 14.4:1, 235/55/16 tires, hatch roof, removable, 16-inch chromed aluminum wheels, 50-state low emission vehicle. There were a total of 472 of these packages sold in 2001, No. 239 on the L36 Firebird, 231 on the Formula W66 coupe, 5 on Formula Firehawks, and 2 on Trans-Ams. The manufacturer original window stickers included this as a separate package listing the items and one price.
2002 collector's edition Trans Am
For the Firebird's final year, a collector's edition Trans Am was released as either a yellow WS6 convertible or WS6 T-top coupe, with twin black stripes from hood to tail, black-painted five-spoke 17-inch alloy wheels, and further black-trimmed body details.
Engines
Firebird Trans Am
The Trans Am was a specialty package for the Firebird, typically upgrading handling, suspension, and horsepower, as well as minor appearance modifications such as exclusive hoods, spoilers, fog lights and wheels. Four distinct generations were produced between 1969 and 2002. These cars were built on the F-body platform, which was also shared by the Chevrolet Camaro.
Despite its name, the Trans Am was not initially used in the Trans Am Series, as its smallest engine exceeded the SCCA's five-liter displacement limit.
The second generation was available from 1970 until 1981. The Firebird Trans Am was selected as the Official Pace Car for the 1979 Daytona 500, 1980 Indianapolis 500, and again for the 1981 Daytona 500.
The Trans Am GTA (Gran Turismo Americano) was an options package available on the Firebird Trans Am which added gold 16-inch diamond-spoke alloy wheels, a monochromatic paint scheme, and special cloisonné GTA badges. The GTA (along with the Formula model that was intended to fill the gap between the base model Firebird and mid-level Trans Am) was the brainchild of former Pontiac marketing manager Lou Wassel. It was intended to be the "ultimate" Trans Am and was the most expensive Firebird available. The GTA equipment package officially went on sale in 1987 and avoided a gas-guzzler tax thanks to its lightweight PW 16-inch gold cross-lace wheels. The high-performance WS6 suspension package was also re-tuned to offer a more compliant ride while still maintaining tight handling characteristics. Engine choices consisted of an L98 TPI V8 mated to GM's corporate 700R4 automatic transmission or the TPI V8. A five-speed manual was available but was mated to the 5.0 L only. The GTA trim level was available from 1987 through the 1992 model year.
For 1989, the 20th-anniversary turbo Trans Am project (originally conceived by Bill Owen of Pontiac) was outsourced to PAS, Inc., an engineering firm led by Jeff Beitzel. Beitzel and his team did most of the TTA development work. The 3.8 L turbocharged V6 engines were built by PAS at their 40,000 square foot City of Industry, CA plant. From there, they went to GM's plant in Van Nuys, CA to be installed into GTAs on the F-Body assembly line. The cars were then shipped back to PAS for final assembly, testing, and quality control. Incidentally, the GTA chassis were selected at random, thus there is no correlation between the VIN and production sequence number. The initial number of cars to be produced ranged from 500 to 2,500 until GM finally settled on 1,500. In all, a total of 1,555 Turbo Trans Ams were manufactured. One of these served as the 1989 Indianapolis 500 pace car.
The 2002 model-year WS6 Trans Am produced at 5,200 rpm and of torque at 4,000 rpm out of its 5.7 L LS1 V8 engine. A stock WS6 completed the in 13.16 seconds at on Eagle F1 street tires.
Engines
First generation
Second generation
Notes A:
Third generation
From 1982 onward, all engines were Chevrolet sourced, unless stated otherwise.
Post–Pontiac Trans Am
In 2012, General Motors signed a licensing deal with Trans Am Depot to use the Trans Am name and Pontiac logos in custom coach built versions of new Trans Am. Under this agreement, Trans Am Depot takes brand-new model Chevrolet Camaros, strips them down to their basic components and rebuilds what looks like a new Trans Am. They make these in the designs of the 6T9 version Trans Am, 6T9 Goat ("GTO"), 7T7 Trans Am and the limited-edition Hurst Trans Am.
On March 26, 2017, at the New York International Auto Show, the Bandit Edition Trans Am was introduced. Built by Trans Am Depot, only 77 will be produced, each signed by Burt Reynolds. Powertrain is a direct injection version of the current Generation V LT1 V8 engine equipped with a Magnuson supercharger with a boost of , developing and of torque.
Burt Reynolds collection of Firebirds
On April 14, 2018, at the Barrett-Jackson collector car auction in Palm Beach, FL, just 5 months before his death, actor Burt Reynolds presided over the sale of 3 Pontiac Firebird Trans Ams from his personal collection, sold via Bandit Movie Cars of Florida, the custodian of the Burt Reynolds collection. He was also an avid Firebird collector after filming the Smokey and the Bandit movie series and Hooper. The first car was a red 1977 Firebird Trans Am survivor car from the Restore a Muscle Car Collection with a price of $57,200 (~$ in ). The second vehicle was a rare 1974 Pontiac Trans AM 455 Super Duty, which was another survivor that reached $100,000 (~$ in ) plus 10% buyer commission. The third car Reynolds sold was a 1980 Indianapolis Pace car turbo Trans Am, which was also $100,000, (~$ in ) plus 10% buyer commission.
Performance (Firebird / Firebird Trans Am)
Racing
Firebirds were used in the Trans-Am series in the 1960s and 1970s. When the Firebird Trans-Am was released, there was controversy over the model's inability to compete in the Trans-Am because the smallest available engine was too large for use in the series at 400 cubic inches (6.6 L). The name also caused controversy because it was used without permission from the SCCA, who threatened the suit. GM settled the dispute by paying $5 to the SCCA for each car they sold. When the Trans-Am was last seen, the model year 2002 Firebirds were in use. From 1996 to 2006, a WS6 Trans Am coupe provided the body style for the mechanically identical racing cars used in the International Race of Champions (IROC).
During the 1995, 1996, and 1997 NHRA seasons, 14-time funny car champion John Force used a Firebird body to replace the obsolete Oldsmobile Cutlass and Chevrolet Lumina bodies he had used since 1988. He used it for three seasons, winning the championship in all three years. The Firebird was also used by drivers such as Del Worsham, Tim Wilkerson, Frank Pedregon, and Jerry Toliver. The Firebird body also replaced the Oldsmobile Cutlass in the pro stock class in 1995, forcing drivers Warren Johnson, Jerry Eckman, and Mark Pawuk to replace their body styles for the 1996 year. None of them would win with the first year of the Firebird body, but pro stock driver Jim Yates, a second-year driver, using the Firebird body, did.
Notes
References
External links
Pontiac Firebird at Muscle Car Club
Trans Am world wide
Pontiac Firebird and Pontiac Trans Am at The Crittenden Automotive Library
The Fire Chicken restoration project of 1987 Firebird
Firebird Club Of Canada
Firebird
Convertibles
Coupés
Pony cars
Hatchbacks
Muscle cars
Cars introduced in 1967
Cars discontinued in 2002
1970s cars
1980s cars
1990s cars
2000s cars
Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosynthesis
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Psychosynthesis
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Psychosynthesis is an approach to psychology that expands the boundaries of the field by identifying a deeper center of identity, which is the postulate of the Self. It considers each individual unique in terms of purpose in life, and places value on the exploration of human potential. The approach combines spiritual development with psychological healing by including the life journey of an individual or their unique path to self-realization.
The integrative framework of psychosynthesis is based on Sigmund Freud's theory of the unconscious and addresses psychological distress and intra-psychic and interpersonal conflicts.
Development
Psychosynthesis was developed by Italian psychiatrist, Roberto Assagioli, who was a student of Freud and Bleuler. He compared psychosynthesis to the prevailing thinking of the day, contrasting psychosynthesis for example with existential psychology, but unlike the latter considered loneliness not to be "either ultimate or essential".
Assagioli asserted that "the direct experience of the self, of pure self-awareness...—is true." Spiritual goals of "self-realization" and the "interindividual psychosynthesis"—of "social integration...the harmonious integration of the individual into ever larger groups up to the 'one humanity'"—were central to Assagioli's theory. Psychosynthesis was not intended to be a school of thought or an exclusive method. However, many conferences and publications had it as a central theme, and centres were formed in Italy and the United States in the 1960s.
Psychosynthesis departed from the empirical foundations of psychology because it studied a person as a personality and a soul, but Assagioli continued to insist that it was scientific. He developed therapeutic methods beyond those in psychoanalysis. Although the unconscious is an important part of his theory, Assagioli was careful to maintain a balance with rational, conscious therapeutical work.
Assagioli was not the first to use the term "psychosynthesis". The earliest use was by James Jackson Putnam, who used it as the name of his electroconvulsive therapy. The term was also used by C. G. Jung and A. R. Orage, who were both more aligned with Assagioli's use of the term than Putnam's use. C. G. Jung, in comparing his goals to those of Sigmund Freud, wrote, "If there is a 'psychoanalysis' there must also be a 'psychosynthesis which creates future events according to the same laws'." A. R. Orage, who was the publisher of the influential journal, The New Age, used the term as well, but hyphenated it (psycho-synthesis). Orage formed an early psychology study group (which included Maurice Nicoll who later studied with Carl Jung) and concluded that what humanity needed was not psychoanalysis, but psycho-synthesis. The term was also used by Bezzoli. Freud, however, was opposed to what he saw as the directive element in Jung's approach to psychosynthesis, and Freud argued for a spontaneous synthesis on the patient's part: "As we analyse...the great unity which we call his ego fits into itself all the instinctual impulses which before had been split off and held apart from it. The psycho-synthesis is thus achieved in analytic treatment without our intervention, automatically and inevitably."
Origins
In 1909, C.G. Jung wrote to Sigmund Freud of "a very pleasant and perhaps valuable acquaintance, our first Italian, a Dr. Assagioli from the psychiatric clinic in Florence". Later however, this same Roberto Assagioli (1888 – 1974) wrote a doctoral dissertation, "La Psicosintesi," in which he began to move away from Freud's psychoanalysis toward what he called psychosynthesis:
A beginning of my conception of psychosynthesis was contained in my doctoral thesis on Psychoanalysis (1910), in which I pointed out what I considered to be some of the limitations of Freud's views.
In developing psychosynthesis, Assagioli agreed with Freud that healing childhood trauma and developing a healthy ego were necessary aims of psychotherapy, but Assagioli believed that human growth could not be limited to this alone. A student of philosophical and spiritual traditions of both East and West, Assagioli sought to address human growth as it proceeded beyond the norm of the well-functioning ego; he wished to support the fruition of human potential—what Abraham Maslow later termed self-actualization—into the spiritual or transpersonal dimensions of human experience as well.
Assagioli envisioned an approach to the human being that could address both the process of personal growth—of personality integration and self-actualization—as well as transpersonal development—that dimension glimpsed for example in peak experiences (Maslow) of inspired creativity, spiritual insight, and unitive states of consciousness. Psychosynthesis recognizes the process of self-realization, of contact and response with one's deepest callings and directions in life, which can involve either or both personal and transpersonal development.
Psychosynthesis is therefore one of the earliest forerunners of both humanistic psychology and transpersonal psychology, even preceding Jung's break with Freud by several years. Assagioli's conception has an affinity with existential-humanistic psychology and other approaches that attempt to understand the nature of the healthy personality, personal responsibility, and choice, and the actualization of the personal self. Similarly, his conception is related to the field of transpersonal psychology (with its focus on higher states of consciousness), spirituality, and human experience beyond the individual self. Assagioli served on the board of editors for both the Journal of Humanistic Psychology and the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology.
Assagioli presents two major theoretical models in his seminal book, Psychosynthesis, models that have remained fundamental to psychosynthesis theory and practice:
A diagram and description of the human person
A stage theory of the process of psychosynthesis (see below).
Aims
In Psychosomatic Medicine and Bio-psychosynthesis, Assagioli states that the principal aims and tasks of psychosynthesis are:
the elimination of the conflicts and obstacles, conscious and unconscious, that block [the complete and harmonious development of the human personality]
the use of active techniques to stimulate the psychic functions still weak and immature.
In his major book, Psychosynthesis: A Collection of Basic Writings (1965), Assagioli writes of three aims of psychosynthesis:
Let us examine whether and how it is possible to solve this central problem of human life, to heal this fundamental infirmity of man. Let us see how he may free himself from this enslavement and achieve an harmonious inner integration, true Self-realization, and right relationships with others. (p. 21)
Model of the person
At the core of psychosynthesis theory is the Egg Diagram, which maps the human psyche into different distinct and interconnected levels.
Lower unconscious
For Assagioli, 'the lower unconscious, which contains one's personal psychological past in the form of repressed complexes, long-forgotten memories and dreams and imaginations', stood at the base of the diagram of the mind.
The lower unconscious is that realm of the person to which is relegated the experiences of shame, fear, pain, despair, and rage associated with primal wounding suffered in life. One way to think of the lower unconscious is that it is a particular bandwidth of one's experiential range that has been broken away from consciousness. It comprises that range of experience related to the threat of personal annihilation, of destruction of self, of nonbeing, and more generally, of the painful side of the human condition. As long as this range of experience remains unconscious, the person will have a limited ability to be empathic with self or others in the more painful aspects of human life.
At the same time, 'the lower unconscious merely represents the most primitive part of ourselves...It is not bad, it is just earlier '. Indeed, 'the "lower" side has many attractions and great vitality', and – as with Freud's id, or Jung's shadow – the conscious goal must be to 'achieve a creative tension' with the lower unconscious.
Middle unconscious
The middle unconscious is a sector of the person whose contents, although unconscious, nevertheless support normal conscious functioning in an ongoing way (thus it is illustrated as most immediate to "I"). It is the capacity to form patterns of skills, behaviors, feelings, attitudes, and abilities that can function without conscious attention, thereby forming the infrastructure of one's conscious life.
The function of the middle unconscious can be seen in all spheres of human development, from learning to walk and talk, to acquiring languages, to mastering a trade or profession, to developing social roles. Anticipating today's neuroscience, Assagioli even referred to "developing new neuromuscular patterns". All such elaborate syntheses of thought, feeling, and behavior are built upon learnings and abilities that must eventually operate unconsciously.
For Assagioli, 'Human healing and growth that involves work with either the middle or the lower unconscious is known as personal psychosynthesis '.
Higher unconscious
Assagioli termed 'the sphere of aesthetic experience, creative inspiration, and higher states of consciousness...the higher unconscious '. The higher unconscious (or superconscious) denotes "our higher potentialities which seek to express themselves, but which we often repel and repress" (Assagioli). As with the lower unconscious, this area is by definition not available to consciousness, so its existence is inferred from moments in which contents from that level affect consciousness. Contact with the higher unconscious can be seen in those moments, termed peak experiences by Maslow, which are often difficult to put into words, experiences in which one senses deeper meaning in life, a profound serenity and peace, a universality within the particulars of existence, or perhaps a unity between oneself and the cosmos. This level of the unconscious represents an area of the personality that contains the "heights" overarching the "depths" of the lower unconscious. As long as this range of experience remains unconscious – in what Desoille termed '"repression of the sublime"' – the person will have a limited ability to be empathic with self or other in the more sublime aspects of human life.
The higher unconscious thus represents 'an autonomous realm, from where we receive our higher intuitions and inspirations – altruistic love and will, humanitarian action, artistic and scientific inspiration, philosophic and spiritual insight, and the drive towards purpose and meaning in life'. It may be compared to Freud's superego, seen as 'the higher, moral, supra-personal side of human nature...a higher nature in man', incorporating 'Religion, morality, and a social sense – the chief elements in the higher side of man...putting science and art to one side'.
Subpersonalities
Subpersonalities based in the personal unconscious form a central strand in psychosynthesis thinking. 'One of the first people to have started really making use of subpersonalities for therapy and personal growth was Roberto Assagioli', psychosynthesis reckoning that 'subpersonalities exist at various levels of organization, complexity, and refinement' throughout the mind. A five-fold process of recognition, acceptance, co-ordination, integration, and synthesis 'leads to the discovery of the Transpersonal Self, and the realization that that is the final truth of the person, not the subpersonalities'.
Some subpersonalities may be seen 'as psychological contents striving to emulate an archetype...degraded expressions of the archetypes of higher qualities '. Others will resist the process of integration; will 'take the line that it is difficult being alive, and it is far easier – and safer – to stay in an undifferentiated state'.
"I"
"I" is the direct "reflection" or "projection" of Self (Assagioli) and the essential being of the person, distinct but not separate from all contents of experience. "I" possesses the two functions of consciousness, or awareness, and will, whose field of operation is represented by the concentric circle around "I" in the oval diagram – Personal Will.
Psychosynthesis suggests that "we can experience the will as having four stages. The first stage could be described as 'having no will, and might perhaps be linked with the hegemony of the lower unconscious. "The next stage of the will is understanding that 'will exists'. We might still feel that we cannot actually do it, but we know...it is possible". "Once we have developed our will, at least to some degree, we pass to the next stage which is called 'having a will, and thereafter "in psychosynthesis we call the fourth and final stage of the evolution of the will in the individual 'being will – which then "relates to the 'I' or self...draws energy from the transpersonal self".
The "I" is placed at the center of the field of awareness and will in order to indicate that "I" is the one who has consciousness and will. It is "I" who is aware of the psyche-soma contents as they pass in and out of awareness; the contents come and go, while "I" may remain present to each experience as it arises. But "I" is dynamic as well as receptive: "I" has the ability to affect awareness, in addition to the contents of awareness, by choosing to focus awareness (as in many types of meditation), expand it, or contract it.
Since "I" is distinct from any and all contents and structures of experience, "I" can be thought of as not a "self" at all but as "noself". That is, "I" is never the object of experience. "I" is who can experience, for example, the ego disintegrating and reforming, who can encounter emptiness and fullness, who can experience utter isolation or cosmic unity, who can engage any and all arising experiences. "I" is not any particular experience but the experiencer, not object but subject, and thus cannot be seen or grasped as an object of consciousness. This "noself" view of "I" can be seen in Assagioli's discussion of "I" as a reflection of Self: "The reflection appears to be self-existent but has, in reality, no autonomous substantiality. It is, in other words, not a new and different light but a projection of its luminous source". The next section describes this "luminous source", Self.
Self
Pervading all the areas mapped by the oval diagram, distinct but not separate from all of them, is Self (which has also been called Higher Self or Transpersonal Self). The concept of Self points towards a source of wisdom and guidance within the person, a source which can operate quite beyond the control of the conscious personality. Since Self pervades all levels, an ongoing lived relationship with Self—Self-realization—may lead anywhere on the diagram as one's direction unfolds (this is one reason for not illustrating Self at the top of the diagram, a representation that tends to give the impression that Self-realization leads only into the higher unconscious). Relating to Self may lead for example to engagement with addictions and compulsions, to the heights of creative and religious experience, to the mysteries of unitive experience, to issues of meaning and mortality, to grappling with early childhood wounding, to discerning a sense of purpose and meaning in life.
The relationship of "I" and Self is paradoxical. Assagioli was clear that "I" and Self were from one point of view, one. He wrote, "There are not really two selves, two independent and separate entities. The Self is one". Such a nondual unity is a fundamental aspect of this level of experience. But Assagioli also understood that there could be a meaningful relationship between the person and Self as well:
Accounts of religious experiences often speak of a "call" from God, or a "pull" from some Higher Power; this sometimes starts a "dialogue" between the man [or woman] and this "higher Source"...
Assagioli did not of course limit this relationship and dialogue to those dramatic experiences of "call" seen in the lives of great men and women throughout history. Rather, the potential for a conscious relationship with Self exists for every person at all times and may be assumed to be implicit in every moment of every day and in every phase of life, even when one does not recognize this. Whether within one's private inner world of feelings, thoughts, and dreams, or within one's relationships with other people and the natural world, a meaningful ongoing relationship with Self may be lived.
Stages
Writing about the model of the person presented above, Assagioli states that it is a "structural, static, almost 'anatomical' representation of our inner constitution, while it leaves out its dynamic aspect, which is the most important and essential one". Thus he follows this model immediately with a stage theory outlining the process of psychosynthesis. This scheme can be called the "stages of psychosynthesis", and is presented here.
It is important to note that although the linear progression of the following stages does make logical sense, these stages may not in fact be experienced in this sequence; they are not a ladder up which one climbs, but aspects of a single process. Further, one never outgrows these stages; any stage can be present at any moment throughout the process of Psychosynthesis, Assaglioli acknowledging 'persisting traits belonging to preceding psychological ages' and the perennial possibility of 'retrogression to primitive stages'.
The stages of Psychosynthesis may be tabulated as follows:
Thorough knowledge of one's personality.
Control of its various elements.
Realization of one's true Self—the discovery or creation of a unifying center.
Psychosynthesis: the formation or reconstruction of the personality around a new center.
Methods
Psychosynthesis was regarded by Assagioli as more of an orientation and a general approach to the whole human being, and as existing apart from any of its particular concrete applications. This approach allows for a wide variety of techniques and methods to be used within the psychosynthesis context. 'Dialogue, Gestalt techniques, dream work, guided imagery, affirmations, and meditation are all powerful tools for integration', but 'the attitude and presence of the guide are of far greater importance than the particular methods used'. Sand tray, art therapy, journaling, drama therapy, and body work; cognitive-behavioral techniques; object relations, self psychology, and family systems approaches, may all be used in different contexts, from individual and group psychotherapy, to meditation and self-help groups. Psychosynthesis offers an overall view which can help orient oneself within the vast array of different modalities available today, and be applied either for therapy or for self-actualization.
Recently, two psychosynthesis techniques were shown to help student sojourners in their acculturation process. First, the self-identification exercise eased anxiety, an aspect of culture shock. Secondly, the subpersonality model aided students in their ability to integrate a new social identity. In another recent study, the subpersonality model was shown to be an effective intervention for aiding creative expression, helping people connect to different levels of their unconscious creativity. Most recently, psychosynthesis psychotherapy has proven to activate personal and spiritual growth in self-identified atheists.
One broad classification of the techniques used involves the following headings: ' Analytical: To help identify blocks and enable the exploration of the unconscious'. Psychosynthesis stresses 'the importance of using obstacles as steps to growth' – 'blessing the obstacle...blocks are our helpers'.
' Mastery...the eight psychological functions need to be gradually retrained to produce permanent positive change'.
' Transformation...the refashioning of the personality around a new centre'.
' Grounding...into the concrete terms of daily life.
' Relational...to cultivate qualities such as love, openness and empathy'.
Psychosynthesis allows practitioners the recognition and validation of an extensive range of human experience: the vicissitudes of developmental difficulties and early trauma; the struggle with compulsions, addictions, and the trance of daily life; the confrontation with existential identity, choice, and responsibility; levels of creativity, peak performance, and spiritual experience; and the search for meaning and direction in life. None of these important spheres of human existence need be reduced to the other, and each can find its right place in the whole. This means that no matter what type of experience is engaged, and no matter what phase of growth is negotiated, the complexity and uniqueness of the person may be respected—a fundamental principle in any application of psychosynthesis.
Criticism
In the December 1974 issue of Psychology Today, Assagioli was interviewed by Sam Keen and was asked to comment on the limits of psychosynthesis. He answered paradoxically: "The limit of psychosynthesis is that it has no limits. It is too extensive, too comprehensive. Its weakness is that it accepts too much. It sees too many sides at the same time and that is a drawback."
Psychosynthesis "has always been on the fringes of the 'official' therapy world" and it "is only recently that the concepts and methods of psychoanalysis and group analysis have been introduced into the training and practice of psychosynthesis psychotherapy".
As a result, the movement has been at times exposed to the dangers of fossilisation and cultism, so that on occasion, having "started out reflecting the high-minded spiritual philosophy of its founder, [it] became more and more authoritarian, more and more strident in its conviction that psychosynthesis was the One Truth".
A more technical danger is that premature concern with the transpersonal may hamper dealing with personal psychosynthesis: for example, "evoking serenity ... might produce a false sense of well-being and security". Practitioners have noted how "inability to ... integrate the superconscious contact with everyday experience easily leads to inflation", and have spoken of "an 'Icarus complex', the tendency whereby spiritual ambition fails to take personality limitations into account and causes all sorts of psychological difficulties".
Fictional analogies
Stephen Potter's "Lifemanship Psycho-Synthesis Clinic", where you may "find the psycho-synthesist lying relaxed on the couch while the patient will be encouraged to walk up and down" would seem a genuine case of "parallel evolution", since its clear targets, as "the natural antagonists...of the lifeplay, are the psychoanalysts".
Notes
References
Psychosynthesis: A Collection of Basic Writings by Roberto Assagioli
The Act of Will by Roberto Assagioli
What We May Be: Techniques for Psychological and Spiritual Growth Through Psychosynthesis by Piero Ferrucci
Unfolding Self: The Practice Of Psychosynthesis by Molly Young Brown
Psychosynthesis: A Psychology of the Spirit by John Firman and Ann Gila
The Primal Wound: A Transpersonal View of Trauma, Addiction, and Growth by John Firman and Ann Gila
"Psychosynthesis: The Elements and Beyond" by Will Parfitt
A Psychology with a Soul: Psychosynthesis in Evolutionary Context by Jean Hardy
Phenomenological, Existential, and Humanistic Psychologies: a Historical Survey by Henryk Misiak and Virginia Staudt Sexton
Lombard, C.A. (2014).Coping with anxiety and rebuilding identity: A psychosynthesis approach to culture shock. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 27:2. http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/KmPD4Cfz6NhcyXEsdraS/full
Lombard, C.A. & Müller, B.C.M. (2016) Opening the Door to Creativity: A Psychosynthesis Approach Journal of Humanistic Psychology, June 30, 2016, doi: 10.1177/0022167816653224. http://jhp.sagepub.com/content/early/2016/06/24/0022167816653224.abstract
Bibliography
Assagioli, R. (1965). Psychosynthesis. New York: The Viking Press.
_. (1967). Jung and Psychosynthesis. New York: Psychosynthesis Research Foundation.
_. (1973). The Act of Will. New York: Penguin Books.
Firman, J., & Gila, A. (1997). The primal wound: A transpersonal view of trauma, addiction, and growth. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
___. (2002). Psychosynthesis: A psychology of the spirit. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Jung, C. G. 1954. The Development of Personality, Bollingen Series XX. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Maslow, Abraham. (1962). Toward a Psychology of Being. Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.
McGuire, William, ed. (1974). The Freud/Jung Letters. Vol. XCIV, Bollingen Series. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Whitmore, D. (2013) Psychosynthesis Counselling in Action (Counselling in Action series) 4th Edition. Sage.
Sørensen, Kenneth, (2016). The Soul of Psychosynthesis - The Seven Core Concepts. Kentaur Forlag
External links
The Institute of Psychosynthesis The Institute of Psychosynthesis London, founded under the guidance of Roberto Assagioli
The Psychosynthesis Trust founded by Roberto Assagioli
Re-Vision Centre for Integrative Psychosynthesis
Istituto di Psicosintesi The Institute of Psychosynthesis founded by Roberto Assagioli
Association for the Advancement of Psychosynthesis Psychosynthesis resources
Integral Psychosynthesis MA thesis on Integral Psychosynthesis
65 articles on Psychosynthesis Webpage featuring psychosynthesis
Training Schools:
The Institute of Psychosynthesis
Psychosynthesis Trust
Re-Vision
Istituto di Psicosintesi
The Synthesis Center
Humanistic psychology
Human Potential Movement
Spiritual evolution
Systems psychology
Transpersonal psychology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitchener%20Rangers
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Kitchener Rangers
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The Kitchener Rangers are a major junior ice hockey team based in Kitchener, Ontario, Canada. They are members of the Midwest Division of the Western Conference of the Ontario Hockey League. The Rangers have won the J. Ross Robertson Cup as OHL champions in 1981, 1982, 2003 and 2008. They have appeared in six Memorial Cups (1981, 1982, 1984, 1990, 2003 and 2008), advancing to the final game of the tournament each of those six years. They are two-time Memorial Cup champions (1982, 2003).
The Rangers are one of six teams in the Canadian Hockey League (Moose Jaw Warriors, Swift Current Broncos, Lethbridge Hurricanes, Peterborough Petes) that are publicly owned. Since the club's inception, a 39-person Board of Directors, including a nine-person executive committee, is elected by the team's season ticket subscribers who act as trustees of the team. This Board of Directors is also comprised entirely and only of Kitchener Rangers season ticket subscribers.
They are one of the most successful Canadian Hockey League teams in terms of alumni with over 180 players and coaches going on to serve in the NHL including Gabriel Landeskog, Jeff Skinner, Radek Faksa, John Gibson, Nazem Kadri, Mike Richards, David Clarkson, Steve Mason, Derek Roy and Peter DeBoer. Five of their alumni have gone on to be inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame: Scott Stevens, Bill Barber, Paul Coffey, Larry Robinson and Al MacInnis.
History
The Kitchener Rangers franchise was inaugurated ahead of the 1947–48 Ontario Hockey Association season as the Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters. Based in nearby Guelph, Ontario, the Biltmore Mad Hatters were a farm team for the National Hockey League's New York Rangers. The team enjoyed considerable success in the 1950s, winning three league championships and a Memorial Cup. However, by 1960, the team was struggling financially and was sold to new ownership. The new owners re-branded the team as the Guelph Royals to match Guelph's nickname, the "Royal City". Despite these efforts to reignite the fading brand, the team's financial struggles persisted. At the end of the 1962–63 season, Kitchener entrepreneur Eugene George was approached by the New York Rangers about moving the team to Kitchener in hopes of building a more stable junior environment.
In 1963, George and a group of Kitchener businessmen relocated the Guelph Royals to Kitchener and renamed them the Kitchener Rangers Junior "A" Hockey Club. The New York Rangers sponsorship of the team ended in 1967 with the expansion of the NHL's "Original Six’" Era, so George agreed to purchase the team from the New York Rangers for a sum of one dollar, but declined the opportunity for private ownership. He instead turned the team over to the community through the creation of a not-for-profit organization. The Kitchener Rangers Charter declared "no person shall be a member of the Corporation unless he is a season ticket subscriber for the current season of the home hockey games of the club, and all persons who are season ticket subscribers are automatically entitled to membership."
The 1960s
For their debut season in 1963–64 the team moved into the Kitchener Memorial Auditorium, which had previously been home to the Kitchener Greenshirts and the Kitchener Canucks. On Tuesday, October 1, 1963, the Rangers' first coach, Steve Brklacich, welcomed a 54-player roster of training camp hopefuls just two weeks prior to the home opener. The first exhibition game took place on Sunday, October 6, 1963 against the Peterborough Petes. The team's first regular season game featured the Rangers and the visiting St. Catharines Black Hawks on Tuesday, October 15, 1963 which dressed the likes of league All-Stars Dennis Hull and Doug Jarrett. The first goal in team history was scored by John Beechey, assisted by Gary Sabourin and Tommy Miller, at 11:36 of the first period. The team's first captain, Alexander 'Sandy' Fitzpatrick, would score the first game-winning goal in team history, breaking open a 3–3 tie in the third period to propel the Blueshirts to a 4–3 win. The Rangers were successful promoting the team in the community, drawing high attendance despite a poor first season in the standings which finished with a record of 9-41-6 (W-L-T).
The Rangers struggled during their first three seasons in the OHA, finishing under .500 in the following two campaigns (6th in 1964–65, 7th in 1965–66). Despite the seventh-place finish in 1965–66, the team finished the year strong and won the first two rounds of playoffs to make it to the OHA Finals, eventually falling 4–1 in a best-of-seven series to the Oshawa Generals and a young Bobby Orr. Kitchener finished in first place the next season (1966–67, 38-10-6), earning their first Hamilton Spectator Trophy in franchise history as regular season champions, but fell to the Toronto Marlboros in the semi-finals. In 1967–68, the Rangers were first again in the OHA and went on to win their second consecutive Hamilton Spectator Trophy. They played in the Finals again, but this time losing a close series 4 games to 3 with a tie, to the eventual Memorial Cup champion Niagara Falls Flyers. In 1968–69, Jim Malleck succeeded Eugene George as the team's president. In November 1968, Kitchener native Dave Weber was appointed coach after Wally Kullman was relieved of his duties. But the Rangers posted just nine wins (9-40-5), finishing in 10th place after seeing 13 players from the previous season graduate to the professional ranks. In 1969, Walter (Punch) Scherer, a former scout for the Boston Bruins, became the team's general manager. The decade finished on a high note, however, as rookie Bill Barber dressed in his first of three junior seasons in Kitchener and tallied 37 goals and 86 points in just 54 regular season games.
1969 also marked the year that Les Bradley joined the team. Bradley was a mainstay on the bench as the team's trainer from 1969 to 1986, then after retiring as a trainer became an ambassador in the press room for more than 15 years.
The 1970s
Gerry Forler became the Rangers' coach for the 1970–71 season but resigned in December, 1970 and was replaced by Ron Murphy for the remainder of the season. Kitchener struggled through most of the decade, posting only two winning seasons (a 31-24-8 record in 1971–72, and 43-18-9 in 1973–74). Barber posted his first of two straight 100+ point seasons in 1970–71, scoring 46 goals and 105 points in 61 regular season games. He was one of two players to hit the 100-point milestone (Tom Cassidy, 104 points) that year, but the Rangers were unable to get out of the first round of the playoffs. In 1973–74, the Rangers finished first in the OHA for their third Hamilton Spectator Trophy in eight years in large part due to the goalkeeping of Don Edwards, who had the league's lowest goals against average. The team lost to the Peterborough Petes in the second round of the playoffs.
In the 1974–75 season, the club finished last in the league and 20 points out of a playoff spot with a record of 17-47-6. Despite their last-place finish, the Rangers would host the Memorial Cup that season as no host team was in place. For the following season in 1975–76, there were changes at president, general manager and coach. The team improved by 17 points, rising to a fourth-place finish in the standings. In 1976–77, Foster would set the Rangers franchise record for points in a single season (143), a mark that still stands today. His total 382 points in 262 regular season games over 1973-77 also remains a club record.
The Rangers' record during the 1979–80 season dropped to 17-51-0, but Paul Coffey, a young acquired defenceman from the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds, collected 71 points in 52 regular season games before being drafted sixth overall by the Edmonton Oilers in the 1980 NHL Entry Draft.
The 1980s
1981 Memorial Cup
The Rangers were looking to rebound from a 17-51-0 season in 1979–80, but the first half of the 1980-81 campaign left them in last place at Christmas. But a strong second half - culminating with eight wins in nine games to finish the season - propelled the Rangers to a first-place finish and an Emms Division title. They would see a 35-point improvement from the previous season, finishing with a mark of 34-33-1. Coached by Orval Tessier, the Rangers were led offensively by 49 goals and 116 points from right winger Brian Bellows, along with 54 goals and 108 points from left winger Jeff Larmer. Centreman Grant Martin was just two points shy of joining them in the century club, notching 41 goals and 98 points. Other standouts on the squad included Al MacInnis, Mike Eagles, Larry Carroll and goalie Wendell Young.
Kitchener's playoffs began against the Niagara Falls Flyers, and they defeated them with a 4–2 series win, including one tie. The Rangers scored five or more goals in every game of the series, with the exception of the 3–3 tie in Game 4. Next up was a meeting with the Windsor Spitfires in Round 3, which the Rangers won 4–0 with one tie. Again the Blueshirts offense proved formidable, scoring no fewer than four goals in each contest and twice scoring seven. This set the stage for an OHL Final vs. the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds. The Hounds were favoured to win the league title, having averaged the highest goals per game average in the league and finishing 27 points ahead of Kitchener in the regular season standings. The Rangers, however, held the Greyhounds to 16 goals in the series six games and were undefeated in the league final. They skated to a 3–0 series win with three ties to earn their first J. Ross Robertson Cup as OHL champions in franchise history.
The 1981 Memorial Cup was played at the Windsor Arena in Windsor, Ontario. Kitchener represented the Ontario Hockey League while centre Barry Pederson (65 goals, 147 points in 55 regular season games), right winger Rich Chernomaz (49 goals, 113 points in 72 games) and goaltender Grant Fuhr were key pieces of the Western Hockey League's Victoria Cougars. The Quebec Major Junior Hockey League squad - and defending Memorial Cup Champions - were the Cornwall Royals which featured the likes of centre Dale Hawerchuk (81 goals, 183 points in 72 games), left winger Marc Crawford (42 goals, 99 points in 63 games) and centre Doug Gilmour (35 points in 51 games).
Kitchener lost its first two games; 6–3 to Cornwall and 7–4 to Victoria. The Rangers then posted consecutive victories; 6–4 over the Royals in which Bellows scored a hat trick, and 4-2 vs. the Cougars. The Rangers went on to face Cornwall in the tournament final but dropped a 5-2 decision to the Royals, who would win their second consecutive Memorial Cup.
1982 Memorial Cup
Joe Crozier took over the coaching duties after the 1980–81 season after coach/general manager Orval Tessier left the team to become head coach of the American Hockey League's New Brunswick Hawks, who he would lead to a Calder Cup championship. Kitchener picked up where it left off from the previous season, finding success while being led by top players Larry Carroll, Brian Bellows and Jeff Larmer, as well as added future NHL players Scott Stevens and Mike Hough. The Rangers won the Emms Division for the second year in a row with a much improved record (44-21-3).
Kitchener earned a first round bye in the playoffs, then skated to a 4–0 series win over the Windsor Spitfires in Round 2. They once again clashed with the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds, this time in Round 3, and again earned a series win this time in five games (4-1). The Rangers faced off against the Ottawa 67's, coached by Brian Kilrea, in the league final and claimed their second straight J. Ross Robertson Cup with a 4–0 series victory, including one tie.
The 1982 Memorial Cup was played at Robert Guertin Arena in Hull, Quebec. Kitchener represented the Ontario Hockey League, while left winger Gerard Gallant (34 goals, 92 points in 58 regular season games) and centre John Chabot (34 goals, 143 points in 62 games) were members of the QMJHL's Sherbrooke Castors. Centre Ken Yaremchuk (58 goals, 157 points in 72 games) and right winger Brian Shaw (56 goals, 132 points in 69 games) were members of the Western Hockey League champion Portland Winter Hawks.
Kitchener lost 10-4 to Sherbrooke in their opener before rebounding with a 9–2 win over Portland in game two. Brian Bellows scored 11 seconds into the game against Portland, setting a Memorial Cup record. In their third game, the Rangers shut out the Castors 4–0. The game was very physical, and included a bench-clearing brawl in the second period. Kitchener seemed to be a bit worn out the next night, losing 4–2 to Portland.
The Rangers and the Castors made it to the finals on a better goals for and against total, after all three teams won and lost two games each in the round-robin. The final game drew 4,091 spectators who saw Bellows score a hat trick and add two assists, propelling the Rangers to a 7–4 victory and their first Memorial Cup championship.
In 1982–83, the Rangers finished with a 45-23-2 record and a second-place finish in the Emms Division. After a first round bye they faced the North Bay Centennials in Round 2 and won the series, 4–1. They would meet the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds for the third consecutive year in the playoffs but this time the Hounds won the series, 4–2 with one tie, eliminating the Blueshirts from post-season play.
1984 Memorial Cup
Even before the season began the Rangers knew they would be returning to the Memorial Cup for the third time in four seasons, as they were awarded the right to host the event in 1984. Tom Barrett took over coaching duties prior to the campaign, which saw Kitchener post the best record in the OHL (52-16-2) with 106 points. The Rangers were led offensively by right winger Wayne Presley (63 goals, 139 points in 70 regular season games) and centre John Tucker (40 goals, 100 points in 39 games). Tucker would go on to be named the OHL's Most Outstanding Player, while Presley was the top scoring right winger. Shawn Burr (41 goals, 85 points in 68 games) was the league's Rookie of the Year.
At the end of the regular season, Kitchener earned its third straight first round bye before sweeping the London Knights, 4–0, in the second round. The Rangers avenged the previous season's loss to Sault Ste. Marie by winning that series, 4–3. Kitchener then faced the Ottawa 67's in a rematch of the 1982 OHL Finals, but this time the 67's won the series, 3–0, with two ties.
Kitchener represented the host team in the tournament, while the 67's - including right winger Don McLaren (53 goals, 113 points in 70 games), left winger Gary Roberts (27 goals, 57 points in 48 games) and goaltender Darren Pang - represented the Ontario Hockey League as champions. The Western Hockey League was represented by centre Dean Evason (49 goals, 137 points in 57 games), defenceman Doug Bodger (21 goals, 98 points in 70 games) and the Kamloops Junior Oilers, while the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League champion Laval Voisins featured a 17-year-old Mario Lemieux who tallied 133 goals and 282 points in 70 regular-season games that year.
Kitchener defeated Laval 8–2 in game one, holding Lemieux scoreless. In game two, Kitchener had an 8–0 lead over Kamloops but narrowly held on to win the game 9–7. Ottawa had also won its first two games. The Rangers faced the 67's in the final game of round-robin play, posting a 7–2 victory to earn a berth in the finals. Ottawa won their semi-final, 7–2, for the right to play Kitchener for the championship where they would also hand the Rangers a 7–2 defeat to win the Memorial Cup.
Following the 1984 Memorial Cup, the Rangers would finish sixth (1984–85), third (1985–86), fourth (1986–87) and sixth (1987–88) in their division before reclaiming top spot in the Emms with a 41-19-6 record in 1988–89. Goaltender Gus Morschauser was named the OHL Goaltender of the Year, but the Rangers were upset in the first round of the playoffs by the North Bay Centennials.
The 1990s
1990 Memorial Cup
In 1989–90, the Rangers finished second overall in the Emms Division (38-21-7) but used their experience to prevail through the playoffs. Kitchener earned a 4–1 series win over the North Bay Centennials before earning a second-round bye. They defeated the Niagara Falls Thunder in the third round, 4–1, setting up a final vs. an Oshawa Generals team which featured Eric Lindros (17 goals, 36 points in 25 games). The Rangers took a 3–1 series lead before the Generals won three straight games en route to the J. Ross Robertson Cup as OHL champions.
The 1990 Memorial Cup was played at Copps Coliseum in Hamilton, Ontario. The Dukes of Hamilton were slated to host the tournament, but due to af poor start to their season they finished last place in the league (11-49-6). They were removed from participation, and the Rangers, as league finalists, took their place.
The other two opponents Kitchener would face in the Memorial Cup were the same opponents they faced the last time they played in the tournament; the QMJHL's Laval Titan (formerly Voisins) and the WHL's Kamloops Blazers (formerly Junior Oilers). Kitchener won their opener vs. Kamloops, 8–7 in overtime. They followed that up with a 5–3 win over Laval. Similar to 1984, both Ontario-based team were undefeated after two games and faced each other in the last game of the round-robin. The game was played in front of 11,134 fans, lasting 4 hours 15 minutes into double overtime, with Oshawa winning 5–4. Kitchener then played Laval in the semi-finals, claiming a 5–4 victory.
The Rangers played the Generals in the tournament final with 17,383 fans in attendance. Much like the first game between the two teams, the championship went into double overtime with the Generals emerging as victors, 4–3.
Following the 1990 Memorial Cup run, the remainder of the decade was lackluster for Kitchener. The team managed three winning seasons (32-30-4 in 1992–93, and 35-28-3 in 1995–96) with their best season coming in 1996–97 with a Central Division title and a record of 34-22-10.
The Rangers earned a first-round bye during the playoffs that year, and claimed a 7–3 win over the Sarnia Sting in Game 7 of Round 2. They fell behind, 3–1, in their third round series vs. the Oshawa Generals before winning Game 5, 5–4. But after games in three straight days and five games in their last six, the two teams had a three-day break before resuming their series. After the break, the Raiders lost 6–1 in Game 6, dropping the series, 4–2.
The final two campaigns of the decade would see the team finish beneath .500, where they would remain until the early 2000s.
The 2000s
After missing the playoffs for the second time in three years (1998–99 and 2000–01), the team fired general manager Jamie McDonald, who earlier released Jess Snyder of his duties as head coach. Prior to the start of the 2001–02 season, Peter DeBoer was named the team's new head coach. He would lead them to a 35-22-10-1 record and a third-place finish in the Midwest Division, culminating in a first round playoff matchup with division rival, the Guelph Storm. The Storm would sweep the season series, 4–0.
In 2002-03 the Rangers brought in Steve Spott, a former assistant to Peter DeBoer in their days with the Plymouth Whalers, into the fold. The team, which featured the likes of Mike Richards, Derek Roy, Gregory Campbell and David Clarkson, began the season three losses and a tie in their first four games. After reaching mid-October with a record of 3-3-2-1 the team's record improved, winning eight in a row (11-3-2-1). During November and December they lost just five games, and sported a 26-8-3-1 record as the calendar year changed to 2003. It wasn't until January 12 when they lost their tenth game of the season, and they rebounded with their 30th win of the campaign the following game on January 17. They only lost back-to-back games once from January on; the final two games of the regular season.
The Rangers finished the campaign with a record of 46-14-5-3 (W-L-T-OTL), winning the Midwest Division; those 46 wins setting a new franchise best. Their division title set up a first-round playoff matchup with the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds, who the Rangers beat in four straight games. The Greyhounds managed just three goals in the series, being shut out twice by goaltender Scott Dickie in Games 1 and 2. The Rangers faced the Guelph Storm in Round 2, dropping their Highway 7 rivals in five games. Round 3 saw them face the Plymouth Whalers. After skating to a 2–2 series tie through the first four games, the Whalers claimed a 2–1 overtime win at The Aud to take a 3–2 lead. The Rangers earned a 7–4 win in Game 6 to stay alive, then skated to a berth in the OHL Final with a 3–1 win in Game 7.
In the league championship they would take on the eastern conference champion Ottawa 67's. The 67's picked up a 3–2 overtime win in Game 1, but from thereon out it was all Kitchener as the Rangers won the next four games to be crowned J. Ross Robertson Cup champions for the third time in their history. Of the five-game series, three games went to overtime including the series clinching game which was decided in double OT. Derek Roy was named the MVP of the playoffs.
2003 Memorial Cup
The 2003 Memorial Cup was played at Colisée Pepsi in Quebec City, Quebec. Kitchener represented the champions of the Ontario Hockey League, while defencemen Josh Georges, Duncan Keith and Shea Weber were members of the Western Hockey League champion Kelowna Rockets. The Hull Olympiques - featuring forwards Max Talbot and Jean-Michel Daoust - were the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League champions while the host Quebec Remparts were led by forwards David Masse and Josh Hennessy.
Kitchener went through the round-robin undefeated, beating the Remparts 4–3 in their opener, the Olympiques, 4–1 in their second game, and the Rockets, 4–2. In the championship final, the Rangers jumped out to a 1–0 lead on a goal by Andre Benoit just 1:45 into the game, and were up 2-0 after a Gregory Campbell power play goal at 3:32. Evan McGrath's first of two second period goals made it 3-0 Kitchener, as the Rangers and Olympiques each tallied three goals a piece in the middle frame. With the Rangers holding a 5–3 lead through 40 minutes of play, David Clarkson added another with 2:38 to play to secure the club's second Memorial Cup title, defeating Hull, 6–3.
The following season the Rangers finished with a modest record of 34-26-6-2 as they competed with division rivals, the London Knights and Guelph Storm, who each finished the campaign with more than 100 points. Their first round playoff match-up was against the Plymouth Whalers, but besides eking out a 5–4 win in Game 3, the Rangers were handily defeated in the series, 4–1.
In 2004–05, the Rangers once again finished the regular season third in the Midwest Division (35-20-9-4), but their run in the playoffs was much longer than the prior year's. After defeating the Erie Otters in six games, Kitchener went on to sweep the Owen Sound Attack in Round 2. Their third round match-up was vs. the London Knights, but after skating through a 1–1 series tie after the first two games, the Knights won the next three and eliminated the Rangers in five games.
Despite registering a franchise-best 47 wins the following year in 2005-06 (47–19–1–1) (W–L–OTL–SOL), the Blueshirts and their 96-point campaign was second-best to the London Knights (49 wins, 102 points) in the Midwest Division standings. But after such a successful regular season, in the first round of the playoffs the Owen Sound Attack (who finished 25 points behind Kitchener in the regular season), dropped the Rangers in five games in the opening round.
The 2006–07 saw the team once again turning out another 47-win campaign (47–17–1–3, 98 points), but they again finished second in the Midwest Division to the London Knights (50–14–1–3, 104 points). The Rangers barreled out of the first round, sweeping the Sarnia Sting, 4–0, but were halted by the Plymouth Whalers, 4–1, in Round 2.
In May 2007, it was announced that the Rangers would host the 2008 Memorial Cup, giving the team an automatic entry into the tournament. The 2007-08 team finished with a regular season record of 53-11-1-3, which remains a franchise best in wins and points to this day. They were crowned the winners of the Hamilton Spectator Trophy as the team with the most points (110) in the OHL through the regular season.
In the opening round of the playoffs the Rangers downed the Plymouth Whalers in four straight games, outscoring their opponents, 29–13. In Round 2 it was another sweep for the Blueshirts, this time against the Sarnia Sting. The Rangers surrendered just six goals in those four games, outscoring Sarnia, 18–4. In the third round they met the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds, but again skated to victory, this time with a 4–1 series win. The Ontario Hockey League final pitted the Rangers against the eastern conference champion Belleville Bulls. A 3-0 Rangers series lead evaporated into a 3–3 tie, but the Rangers earned their fourth Ontario Hockey League championship with a 4–1 win over the Bulls in the finale.
2008 Memorial Cup
The 2008 Memorial Cup was played at the Kitchener Memorial Auditorium in Kitchener, Ontario. Kitchener represented both the champions of the Ontario Hockey League and the host team. As league finalists, the Belleville Bulls (featuring Matt Beleskey; 41 goals, 90 points in 62 regular season games and PK Subban; eight goals, 46 points in 58 games) also earned a berth in the tournament as representatives of the OHL. Jared Spurgeon, Tyler Johnson, Jared Cowen and Dustin Tokarski were members of the Western Hockey League champion Spokane Chiefs. The Gatineau Olympiques - featuring forwards Claude Giroux, Matthew Pistilli and Paul Byron - were the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League champions.
Kitchener won its first game of the tournament, 6–5 in overtime, vs. Gatineau, before dropping a 2-1 decision to Spokane in the second game of the round robin. Their third game was a 4–3 overtime loss to Belleville, which set up a semi-final meeting between the two teams two nights later in which the Rangers won, 9–0. During the Kitchener-Spokane final, though, the Chiefs skated to a 4–1 win and a Memorial Cup championship on the Rangers home ice at The Aud. During the trophy presentation, the Chiefs endured an infamous gaffe which saw the Memorial Cup come apart and break while the team was passing it among themselves during their celebration.
Following the Memorial Cup run of 2007–08, head coach Peter DeBoer was hired as head coach of the NHL's Florida Panthers and assistant Steve Spott was named the new head coach of the club. After seven straight winning seasons, the team took a step back in the 2008-09 campaign after losing many graduating players from their championship squad. They finished under .500 and fifth in the Midwest Division with a 26-37-3-2 record, missing the playoffs for the first time since 2000–01.
It didn't take long to turn things around with Spott at the helm, as the team rebounded with a 34-point improvement the following season, finishing with a record of 42-19-4-3. After a 4–2 series win over the Saginaw Spirit and an 8–3, Game 7 win over the favoured London Knights in Round 2, the Rangers were bounced from the playoffs in the third round by the Windsor Spitfires in Game 7 after holding a 3–0 series lead. The Spitfires would go on to win their first of back-to-back Memorial Cups.
Ben Fanelli incident
On October 30, 2009, 16-year-old rookie defenceman Ben Fanelli was hit from behind by 20-year-old overage forward Michael Liambis of the Erie Otters at a high speed behind the Rangers' net. The hit, which came at the 7:52 mark of the second period, occurred with such force that it caused Fanelli's helmet to fly off before his head struck a glass partition at the Zamboni entrance. He would suffer a fractured skull and orbital bone and was immediately airlifted to Hamilton General Hospital where he was placed in intensive care. Fanelli was released from Hamilton General Hospital a week later on November 6, 2009. Liambas was suspended for the remainder of the season and the playoffs. After an absence of nearly two years, Fanelli returned to the Rangers and later became team captain. He was named the recipient of the Dan Snyder Memorial Trophy as the OHL Humanitarian of the Year, and also named the CHL Humanitarian of the Year.
The 2010s
The 2009–10 season was highlighted by a 50-goal campaign by Jeff Skinner, followed by a 47-goal effort by Jeremy Morin. The team would finish the regular season third in the western conference with a record of 42-19-4-3 for 91 points. After defeating the Saginaw Spirit in six games in Round 1, and the London Knights in Game 7 of Round 2, the Rangers took a 3–0 series lead over the Windsor Spitfires in the Western Conference Final but surrendered four straight games to the eventual Memorial Cup champion Spits, who never lost another game after Game 3 vs. the Rangers en route to the CHL championship.
The Rangers once again finished third in the conference in 2010–11, and were led by overage Jason Akeson (24G - 84A = 108 points). Down 3–1 in their best-of-seven opening round playoff series vs. the Plymouth Whalers, the Rangers battled back to force a Game 7 but fell short in the deciding game, 4–2. Akeson earned a slew of awards at season's end, including the Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy as the OHL Top Scorer, Jim Mahon Memorial Trophy as the OHL Top Scoring Right Winger, the William Hanley Trophy as OHL Most Sportsmanlike Player, and the Leo Lalonde Memorial Trophy as OHL Top Overage Player.
In 2011–12, Tobias Rieder breached the 40-goal mark, potting 42 goals and 85 points to lead the team offensively. The team returned to the Western Conference Final after a 4–1 series win in Round 1 vs. the Owen Sound Attack, a 4–3 series win vs. the Plymouth Whalers in Round 2, but were swept in Round 3 by the London Knights. Chief Operating Officer and Governor, Steve Bienkowski, was named the CHL's Executive of the Year.
The team slipped to fourth in the western conference standings in 2012–13 but advanced to Round 2 of the playoffs after a 4–1 series win over the Guelph Storm. The London Knights skated to a 4–1 series win of their own to end the Rangers' postseason. Ben Fanelli was named as both the winner of the Dan Snyder Memorial Award as the OHL's Humanitarian of the Year, and the CHL Humanitarian of the Year.
The team took a step back in 2013–14, falling to ninth place in the conference standings (22-41-2-3 = 49 points) and missing the playoffs for the first time since 2008–09. The finish led to the Rangers selecting second overall in the upcoming 2014 OHL Priority Selection where they chose left winger Adam Mascherin.
In 2014–15, the team saw a 25-point increase from the season prior, finishing 6th in the western conference with a record of 32-26-3-7 (74 points). They returned to the playoffs, but fell to the London Knights, 4–2, in the opening round.
The team improved by another 21 points the following season, finishing with a record of 44-17-5-2 (95 points) under the tutelage of new head coach Mike Van Ryn in 2015–16. Forwards Ryan MacInnis and Adam Mascherin led the team in points with 81, and Jeremy Bracco had the second-longest point streak in Rangers' franchise history from October 7 - December 9 (26 games), tallying 17 goals and 34 assists for 51 points in that span. The team advanced to the second round of the playoffs for the first time since 2012–13 with a 4–1 series win vs. the Windsor Spitfires before falling in four straight games to the London Knights in Round 2.
After one season behind the Rangers bench, head coach Mike Van Ryn left the team, and associate coach Jay McKee was named the team's new skipper in 2016–17. Adam Mascherin reached the 100-point milestone (35G, 63A) to lead the team in scoring. Down 2–1 in their opening round playoff series vs. the Owen Sound Attack, Rangers goaltender Luke Opilka made 64 saves on 70 shots in Game 4. Owen Sound outshot Kitchener 30–5 in the first period of play, 12–10 in the second, and 29–5 in the third for a game total of 71–20. The Attack would take the best-of-seven series in five games to eliminate the Rangers from the playoffs.
Prior to the 2017–18 season the team acquired defenceman, Memorial Cup champion and Waterloo native, Logan Stanley, from the Windsor Spitfires. Over the course of the season they also added players including Kole Sherwood, Givani Smith, Austin McEneny, Logan Brown and Mario. In the regular season, the team claimed its first Midwest Division championship (43-21-3-1, 90 points) in ten years. They claimed victories in both Round 1 (4-2 vs. Guelph) and Round 2 (4-2 vs. Sarnia) before meeting the CHL's top ranked Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds in the Western Conference Final.
After a literal last-second goal gave the Greyhounds a 3–2 win in the Soo in Game 1, the 'Hounds went up 2–0 in the series following a 4–2, Game 2 win. When the series shifted back to Kitchener, Mario Culina backstopped the team to a 24-save, 3–0 shutout in Game 3, and a seven-goal offensive onslaught - powered by a four-point game by Joseph Garreffa - propelled the Rangers to a 7–4 win and tied the series, 2-2. The Rangers fell, 7–3, in Game 5 and played Game 6 back at The Aud two days later. The Rangers led, 3–2, late in the third period but the Greyhounds tied the game with a power play goal with just 1:25 to play, sending the game to overtime. Kole Sherwood extended the Rangers playoff hopes, and the series, by scoring the game-winning goal at 13:12 to force a deciding Game 7. In the clinching game, the teams exchanged goals throughout the night, the Rangers erasing 1-0 and 2-1 leads. With the Greyhounds leading 3–2 in the final minutes of regulation, Logan Stanley blasted a shot from the point that beat goaltender Matthew Villalta and tied the game, 3-3, with just 51 seconds remaining and sent the game to overtime. After a scoreless first overtime period, the game was finally decided in double OT when a Jack Kopacka shot deflected past Culina to win the series for the Greyhounds, affording them a berth into the Ontario Hockey League Final.
Championships
The Kitchener Rangers have appeared in the Memorial Cup six times, winning twice. They have won the J. Ross Robertson Cup four times, are seven-time Hamilton Spectator Trophy winners, and have won eight division titles.
Coaches
There have been 23 coaches in the history of the Kitchener Rangers franchise.
1963–64 Steve Brklacich
1964–65 Floyd "Butch" Martin
1965–66 Wally Kullman
1966–67 Wally Kullman
1967–68 Wally Kullman
1968–69 Wally Kullman
1969–70 Gerry Forler
1970–71 Gerry Forler > Ron Murphy
1971–72 Ron Murphy
1972–73 Eddie Bush
1973–74 Eddie Bush
1974–75 Eddie Bush > Don McKee > Jim Morrison
1975–76 Mac MacLean
1976–77 Mac MacLean
1977–78 Mac MacLean > Bob Ertel
1978–79 Bob Ertel
1979–80 Bob Ertel > Rod Seiling
1980–81 Orval Tessier
1981–82 Joe Crozier
1982–83 Joe Crozier
1983–84 Tom Barrett*
1984–85 Tom Barrett
1985–86 Tom Barrett
1986–87 Tom Barrett > Joe McDonnell
1987–88 Joe McDonnell
1988–89 Joe McDonnell*^
1989–90 Joe McDonnell
1990–91 Joe McDonnell
1991–92 Joe McDonnell
1992–93 Joe McDonnell
1993–94 Joe McDonnell
1994–95 Joe McDonnell > Geoff Ward
1995–96 Geoff Ward
1996–97 Geoff Ward
1997–98 Geoff Ward
1998–99 Brian Hayton
1999–00 Brian Hayton > Jeff Snyder
2000–01 Jeff Snyder
2001–02 Peter DeBoer
2002–03 Peter DeBoer
2003–04 Peter DeBoer
2004–05 Peter DeBoer
2005–06 Peter DeBoer
2006–07 Peter DeBoer
2007–08 Peter DeBoer
2008–09 Steve Spott
2009–10 Steve Spott
2010–11 Steve Spott
2011–12 Steve Spott
2012–13 Steve Spott
2013–14 Troy Smith
2014–15 Troy Smith
2015–16 Mike Van Ryn
2016–17 Jay McKee
2017–18 Jay McKee
2018–19 Jay McKee
2019–20 Jay McKee > Mike McKenzie
2021–22 Mike McKenzie
2022–23 Chris Dennis > Mike McKenzie
*OHL Coach of the Year (Matt Leyden Trophy)
^CHL Coach of the Year
Players
Honoured numbers
The Rangers do not retire numbers (except for the no. 1 which is dedicated to the fans) but choose to honour numbers instead; hanging banners from the rafters while still having them in use for present players. Honoured numbers include five Rangers alumni who were later elected into the Hockey Hall of Fame:
# 3 Scott Stevens
# 4 Al MacInnis
# 6 Paul Coffey
# 7 Bill Barber
# 19 Larry Robinson
Two other numbers are also raised to the rafters of the Kitchener Memorial Auditorium, honouring two former Rangers who lost their lives at a young age:
# 21 Gary Crosby
Gary Crosby was a member of the Rangers for two seasons from 1968 to 1970. The centre was tragically killed in the early morning hours of July 29, 1972 in a head-on collision on Highway 7, eleven kilometers west of Stratford. Crosby was 20 years old.
# 22 Jim McGeachie
Jim McGeachie was a member of the Rangers for two seasons from 1978 to 1980. The left winger was tragically killed in May, 1980 after his red Ford Pinto was hit by an oncoming vehicle along Highway 9 near Teviotdale while he was a member of the Rangers. McGeachie was 19 years old.
NHL/WHA alumni
The Rangers have 186 alumni who have played in the National Hockey League or World Hockey Association. Five alumni have been elected into the Hockey Hall of Fame: Bill Barber, Paul Coffey, Al MacInnis, Larry Robinson and Scott Stevens.
Russ Adam
Chris Ahrens
Jason Akeson
Claire Alexander
John Baby
Justin Bailey
Reid Bailey
Peter Bakovic
Terry Ball
Bill Barber
Brian Bellows
Andre Benoit
Bob Blanchet
Mikkel Boedker
Dennis Bonvie
Robert Bortuzzo
Rick Bourbonnais
Logan Brown
David Bruce
Garrett Burnett
Shawn Burr
Brian Bye
Jerry Byers
Gregory Campbell
Tom Cassidy
Rick Chartraw
David Clarkson
Paul Coffey
Bob Cook
Frank Corrado
Lou Crawford
Andrew Crescenzi
Dave Cressman
Jerry D'Amigo
Patrick Davis
Peter DeBoer
Ab DeMarco
Boyd Devereaux
Gilbert Dionne
Pete Donnelly
Jamie Doornbosch
Rob Dopson
Steve Downie
Mike Duco
Denis Dupere
Mike Eagles
Tim Ecclestone
Don Edwards
Jack Egers
Steve Eminger
Paul Evans
Trevor Fahey
Radek Faksa
Sandy Fitzpatrick
Joe Fortunato
Dwight Foster
Mark Fraser
Jody Gage
John Gibson
Gaston Gingras
Brian Glenwright
David Haas
Matt Halischuk
Kevin Henderson
Paul Higgins
Dan Hinton
Mike Hoffman
Paul Hoganson
Ralph Hopiavouri
Mike Hough
Dale Hunter
Larry Huras
Bob Hurlburt
Lee Inglis
Robbie Irons
Bob Jones
Jim Jones
Nazem Kadri
Petr Kanko
Gord Kannegiesser
Sheldon Kannegiesser
Jakub Kindl
Jim Krulicki
Gary Kurt
Nick Kypreos
Gabriel Landeskog
Jeff Larmer
Matt Lashoff
David Latta
Don "Red" Laurence
Ray LeBlanc
Randy Legge
Hank Lehvonen
Josh Leivo
Chris LiPuma
Don Luce
Chuck Luksa
Brett MacDonald
Al MacInnis
Dave Maloney
Don Maloney
Eric Manlow
Grant Martin
Brandon Mashinter
Steve Mason
Brad Maxwell
Dennis McCord
Darwin McCutcheon
Joe McDonnell
Evan McEneny
Dave McLlwain
Sean McMorrow
Julian Melchiori
Chris Meloff
Max Middendorf
Tom Miller
Mike Moher
John Moore
Jason Morgan
Jeremy Morin
Ryan Murphy
Jim Nahrgang
Cam Newton
Claude Noel
Joe Noris
Gerry O'Flaherty
Victor Oreskovich
Billy Orr
Bob Parent
Jim Pavese
Serge Payer
Kent Paynter
Andrew Peters
Walt Poddubny
Paul Pooley
Wayne Presley
Shane Prince
Matt Puempel
Tyler Randell
Jake Rathwell
Paul Reinhart
Steven Rice
Mike Richards
Glen Richardson
Tobias Rieder
Doug Risebrough
Larry Robinson
Mike Robitaille
Allan Rourke
Derek Roy
Darren Rumble
Warren Rychel
Gary Sabourin
Jim Sandlak
Ted Scharf
Ron Sedlbauer
Dan Seguin
Sean Shanahan
David Shaw
Doug Shedden
Jeff Skinner
Nick Spaling
Steve Spott
Mike Stevens
Scott Stevens
Shayne Stevenson
Bill Stewart
Peter Sturgeon
Doug Sulliman
Orval Tessier
Ben Thomson
Scott Timmins
Walt Tkaczuk
Kirk Tomlinson
Mike Torchia
John Tucker
Boris Valabik
Phil Varone
Todd Warriner
Yannick Weber
Rob Whistle
Tony White
Bob Whitlock
Brian Wilks
Craig Wolanin
Bennett Wolf
Jason York
Arber Xhekaj
Wendell Young
Captains
1963–64 Sandy Fitzpatrick
1964–65 Sandy Fitzpatrick
1965–66 John Beechey, Bob Jones, Billy Hway
1966–67 Walter Tkaczuk
1967–68 Walter Tkaczuk
1968–69 Cam Crosby
1969–70 Dave Cressman
1970–71 Ted Scharf
1971–72 Bill Barber
1972–73 Les Burgess
1973–74 Paul Evans
1974–75 Larry Huras, Dan Djakolovic, Dwight Foster
1975–76 Dwight Foster
1976–77 Dwight Foster
1977–78 Don Maloney
1978–79 Paul Reinhart
1979–80 Jim Pavese
1980–81 Joe McDonnell, Brian Bellows
1981–82 Brian Bellows
1982–83 Mike Eagles
1983–84 Jim Quinn
1984–85 Garnet McKechny, Kent Paynter
1985–86 Shawn Burr
1986–87 Dave Latta
1987–88 Kevin Grant
1988–89 Mike Montanari
1989–90 Steven Rice
1990–91 Steven Rice
1991–92 Mike Polano
1992–93 Mike Polano
1993–94 Tim Spitzig
1994–95 Trevor Gallant, Eric Manlow, Tim Spitzig
1995–96 Brian Scott, Ryan Pepperall
1996–97 Ryan Pepperall
1997–98 Jason Byrnes
1998–99 Darren Mortier
1999–2000 Ryan Milanovic, Serge Payer
2000–01 Chris Cava
2001–02 Nick Policelli
2002–03 Derek Roy
2003–04 Mike Richards
2004–05 Mike Richards
2005–06 Mark Fraser
2006–07 Jean-Michel Rizk, Peter Tsimikalis
2007–08 Matt Pepe
2008–09 Ben Shutron, Dan Kelly
2009–10 Dan Kelly
2010–11 Gabriel Landeskog
2011–12 Michael Catenacci
2012–13 Ryan Murphy
2013–14 Ben Fanelli
2014–15 Liam Maaskant
2015–16 Ryan MacInnis
2016–17 Frank Hora
2017–18 Connor Bunnaman
2018–19 Rickard Hugg
2019–20 Riley Damiani, Greg Meireles
2021–22 Francesco Pinelli
2022–23 Francesco Pinelli
Award recipients
Ontario Hockey League awards
Members of the Kitchener Rangers have been named recipients of OHL Awards 34 times.
OHL All-Star Team
Members of the Kitchener Rangers have been named to All-Star teams 61 times.
OHL All-Rookie Team
Members of the Kitchener Rangers have been named to All-Star teams 23 times.
Arena
The Kitchener Rangers play home games at the Kitchener Memorial Auditorium Complex. The Auditorium was built in 1951 and underwent major renovations in 2002. In 2007–08, over 500 seats were added to accommodate larger crowds for the 2008 Memorial Cup. Over the 2012 off-season, The Aud was once again expanded with the addition of close to 1,000 seats, as well as an upper concourse and improvements to team dressing rooms and business offices. The Kitchener Memorial Auditorium Complex includes Jack Couch Park for baseball, Kiwanis and Kinsmen ice pads in the arena, and the main Auditorium arena known as the Dom Cardillo Arena. Centennial Stadium (football) was demolished in Spring, 2013 due to safety concerns.
Capacity = 7,068 seats + 632 standing room = total capacity of 7,700
Ice size = 192' x 85'
The Auditorium hosted the Memorial Cup tournament in 1962, 1975, 1984 and 2008. The OHL All-Star Game was played there in 1980 & 1985 as well as the CHL Top Prospects Game in 2003 and in 2021.
Season results
Legend: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime losses, SL = Shoot-out losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against
Notes
References
External links
Official website of the Kitchener Rangers
Official website of the Ontario Hockey League
Official website of the Canadian Hockey League
Ice hockey teams in Kitchener, Ontario
Ontario Hockey League teams
Ice hockey clubs established in 1963
Publicly traded sports companies
1963 establishments in Ontario
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerez%20de%20la%20Frontera
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Jerez de la Frontera
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Jerez de la Frontera () or simply Jerez, also cited in old English-language sources as , is a city and municipality in the province of Cádiz in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Located in southwestern Iberia, it lies on the Campiña de Jerez, an inland low-land plain crossed by the Guadalete river, midway the Atlantic Ocean, the Guadalquivir river and the western reaches of the Subbaetic System.
, with 213,105 inhabitants, Jerez is the most-populated municipality in the province of Cádiz. Its municipality covers an area of and includes Los Alcornocales Natural Park.
Winegrowing has long been, particularly upon the transition to modern agro-extractivism in the mid 18th century, the main drive of the economy of Jerez. During the 19th century, the local wine Sherry was overwhelmingly produced for foreign export, catering to the British market in the first place. Throughout this century the city earned a reputation as a paradigm for large landowners, high social inequality, and the winery-related identity.
Since 1987, Grand Prix motorcycle racing has been held at the Circuito de Jerez in early May. The circuit has also hosted several Formula One Grands Prix, including the 1997 final race of the season, which was notable for a controversial championship-deciding incident. Other popular festivals in the city are the Feria de Jerez and the Holy Week.
Etymology
The classical Latin name of Asta Regia, unrelated to the present name, referred to an ancient city now found within Mesas de Asta, a rural district approximately from the center of Jerez.
The current Spanish-language name came by way of the Arabic-language name Sherīsh, used during the Muslim period in Iberia. The placename was rendered as Xerez or Xerés () in old Romance sources. The name of the famous fortified wine, sherry, represents an adaptation of the city's Arabic name, Sherish. is the Spanish-language cognate of 'frontier', owing to being located on the border between the Moorish and Christian regions on the Iberian Peninsula during the 13th century. Upon the Modern-era readjustment and simplification of Spanish-language sibilant phonemes (including changed into ) the spelling of the placename ended up being changed accordingly.
The old spelling "Xerez" as the name given to the city survived in several foreign languages until very recently, and today continues to influence the name given to sherry: Portuguese Xerez , Catalan Xerès , English sherry , French Xérès . The city's main football team continues to use the old spelling, Xerez.
History
Prehistory and Ancient history
Traces of human presence in the area date from the upper Neolithic, and humans have inhabited Jerez de la Frontera since at least the Copper or Neolithic Age, but the identity of the first natives remains unclear. The first major protohistoric settlement in the area (around the third millennium BC) is attributed to the Tartessians. Jerez later became a Roman city under the name of Asta Regia (located 8 km further north at Cortijo el Rosario).
Middle Ages
After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Vandals and the Visigoths ruled the area until the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the early 8th century. In the 11th century it briefly became the seat of an independent taifa. Some years later 'Abdun ibn Muhammad united it with Arcos de la Frontera and ruled both (ca. 1040–1053). In 1053 it was annexed to Seville. From 1145 to 1147 the region of Arcos and Jerez briefly operated as an emirate under the dependency of Granada, led by Abu'l-Qasim Ahyal. Later the Almohads conquered the city. In the 12th and 13th centuries Jerez underwent a period of great development, building its defense system and setting the current street layout of the old town.
In 1231 the Battle of Jerez took place within Jerez. Christian troops under the command of Álvaro Pérez de Castro, lord of the House of Castro and grandson of Alfonso VII, king of Castile and León, defeated the troops of the Emir Ibn Hud, despite the numerical superiority of the latter. After a month-long siege in 1261, the city surrendered to Castile, but its Muslim population remained. It rebelled and was finally defeated in 1264.
Due to its agriculture-based economy and demographics, Jerez was already a major city of the Lower Andalusia towards the end of the Middle Ages.
Early modern period
The discovery of the Americas and the conquest of Granada, in 1492, made Jerez one of the most prosperous cities of Andalusia through trade and through its proximity to the ports of Seville and Cádiz. Attracted by the economic possibilities offered by the winemaking business, a substantial foreign European population (English, Flemish, Portuguese and, most notably, Genoese) installed in the city. Together with the local wealthy class, they participated in slave ownership.
Despite the social, economic and political decadence that occurred in the seventeenth century, towards the end of the Habsburg rule, the city managed to maintain a reasonable pace of development, becoming world-famous for its wine industry.
Late modern period
In January 1892, a peasant uprising took place in Jerez and its violent repression lead to a series of protests and revenge bombings in the next decade.
Government
The city of Jerez is governed by the ayuntamiento (municipality) of Jerez, whose representatives, as in other towns in Spain, are elected every four years by universal suffrage for all citizens older than 18 years of age. The body is chaired by the mayor of Jerez. Currently, the mayor is María del Carmen Sánchez Díaz, a member of Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, who won the municipal election in 2015, by the aid of Ganemos Jerez and IULV-CA.
Economy
The economy of Jerez has traditionally been centred on the wine industry, with exports of sherry worldwide. Because it lacks the civil service that other cities enjoy, Jerez has based its economy on industry. The cultivation of fruits, grains, and vegetables and horse and cattle husbandry has also been important to the local economy. It is the home base for the Spanish Military Stud farm, the Yeguada Militar de Jerez de la Frontera.
After the wine crisis in the 1990s, the city is now seeking to expand its industrial base. Tourism has been successfully promoted. The city's strong identity as a center for wine, flamenco, and horses, its popular festivals, MotoGP hosting and its historical heritage have contributed to this success.
The city is the home of Jerez Airport and has also been positioning itself as a logistics hub for western Andalusia, through the integration between the airport, the rail system and nearby ports.
Geography
Location
Jerez de la Frontera is located in the region of Campiña de Jerez, which includes the municipalities of Jerez de la Frontera and San José del Valle. The territory of the region corresponds to the previous municipality of the city of Jerez, before the disintegration of San José del Valle in 1995. The municipality of Jerez is the largest in the province of Cadiz and the sixth in Spain with 1188 square kilometers.
The region of the Campiña de Jerez is crossed by the Guadalete River. There are several wetlands in its territory, such as the lagoons of Medina and Torrox. There are also the Montes de Propio de Jerez, included in the Natural Park of Los Alcornocales. Its agriculture is known for the designation of origin of its wine, sherry, grown in the triangle formed between Jerez de la Frontera, Sanlúcar de Barrameda and El Puerto de Santa María.
Jerez de la Frontera is located from El Puerto de Santa Maria, from the Atlantic Ocean and from the Strait of Gibraltar. The city is one of the six municipalities that make up the Metropolitan Area of the Bay of Cadiz-Jerez, a polynuclear urban agglomeration formed by the municipalities of Cadiz, Chiclana de la Frontera, Jerez de la Frontera, Puerto Real, El Puerto de Santa Maria and San Fernando located in the Bay of Cadiz.
Climate
Jerez de la Frontera and the rest of the Cádiz metropolitan area have a Subtropical–Mediterranean climate. For its situation being inland (specially the airport which is further inland than the city), the Atlantic influences are small. Jerez is characterized by mild, short winters with occasional cool nights and hot, long summers with occasional very hot temperatures; unlike the surrounding coastal areas which are characterized by very mild winters and long warm summers. Most of the rain falls from October to January, while the summers are very dry but not rainless. For its situation being inland, the daytime temperatures are higher than in the coast and the lows are cooler, with a difference of at least 10 °C between the highs and the low temperatures of each month. The average annual temperature is during the day and at night. The average annual precipitation is per year, concentrated in the months of October through April. December is the wettest month with . The city averages 53 rainy days, 137 clear days and 2,965 hours of sunshine a year. Snow is extremely rare, and it is even more infrequent than in most of the southern European islands. The last snowfall recorded in the city happened on February 2, 1954. Since then, no snowfall has been recorded.
Main sights
Religious sites
The Cathedral
Church of San Miguel (15th century), in Gothic–Baroque style
Church of San Mateo, in Gothic style, the oldest in the city
The Charterhouse
Church of Santiago, dating to the time of Alfonso X of Castile (reigned 1252–1284)
Church of San Juan de los Caballeros, created after Alfonso X's conquest of the city in 1264
Church of San Marcos (13th century)
Church of San Dionisio (13th century), built around 1457
Church of San Lucas, built over an old mosque
Church of San Francisco, containing the grave of Queen Blanca de Borbón (died 1361)
Church of San Pedro
Chapel of San Juan de Letrán
Calvary Chapel
Chapel of Los Desamparados
Convent of San José
Convent of Santa María de Gracia
Convento of Espíritu Santo
Hermitage of San Isidro Labrador
Hermitage of San Telmo
Church of Santo Domingo
Church of Los Descalzos
Convent of Las Reparadoras
Church of La Victoria
Hermitage of La Ina
Basílica del Carmen de Jerez
Palaces and manors
Casa-palacio de la calle Lealas, número 20
Casa-palacio de los Ponce de León
Casa de los Basurto
Casa Petra de la Riva
Palace of Marqués de Montana
Palacio Dávila
Palacio de Bertemati
Palacio de Campo Real
Palacio de Riquelme
Palacio de los Condes de Montegil
Palacio de los Condes de Puerto Hermoso
Palacio de los Morla y Melgarejo
Palacio de Luna
Palacio de Mirabal
Palacio de Villapanés
Palacio de Villavicencio
Palacio del Barón de Algar del Campo
Palacio del Conde de los Andes
Palacio del Marqués de Villamarta
Palacio Duque de Abrantes
Palacio Pemartín
Palacio San Blas
Museums
Archaeological Museum
Bullfighting Museum
Nativity scene Museum
Museos de la Atalaya
Pinacoteca Rivero
Museo del Traje Andaluz
Museo de Tecnología Agraria Antonio Cabral
Museo del Enganche
Other monuments
Old City Hall of Jerez de la Frontera, built in 1575
Alcazar of Jerez de la Frontera, a Moorish fortress, dating to the 11th century
Zoo and Botanical Garden of Jerez.
Villamarta Theatre
Gallo Azul, built in 1927
Walls of Jerez de la Frontera
Main factories
González Byass
Domecq
Grupo Estévez
Grupo Garvey
Williams & Humbert
Bodegas de Pilar Plá
Bodegas Tradición
Sánchez Romate
Bodegas Lustau
Other infrastructure
Crocodile Farm Kariba, unique in Spain.
Circuit of Jerez
Jerez Airport
Fair Institution of Cádiz
Chapín Stadium
Walk of Fame Jerez de la Frontera
Military Stud of de Jerez de la Frontera
Jerez Bullring
Roundabout of Minotaur
Playground "Children's City"
Water Tower of Jerez
Old fish market
Sala Compañía
Centro Andaluz de Flamenco
Zoco de Artesanía de Jerez
Children's Traffic Park
Culture
Wine
Jerez is the world capital of sherry, a fortified wine made from white grapes grown near the city of Jerez. Jerez has been a centre of viniculture since the Phoenicians introduced winemaking to Spain in 1100 BC. The Romans continued the practice after they took control of Iberia around 200 BC. The Moors conquered the region in AD 711 and introduced distillation, which led to the development of brandy and fortified wine. Because sherry was a major wine export to the United Kingdom, British families founded many of the Jerez cellars. The city has many bodegas (wineries), many of which are of British origin. The most important include:
González Byass: Manuel María González Angel founded this bodega in 1835, and his English agent, Robert Blake Byass subsequently joined in. The firm produces the fino sherry Tío Pepe.
Williams & Humbert: This is a winery located in Jerez de la Frontera dedicated to the production of sherry wines and brandies and other liqueurs. Sir Alexander Williams and Arthur Humbert founded it in 1877.
Grupo Garvey: founded in 1780 by William Garvey Power.
Grupo Estévez: owns the Marqués del Real Tesoro and Valdespin bodegas. With origins dating from 1430, Valdespino is one of the oldest bodegas in the area.
Domecq: is a winemaking company founded by Álvaro Domecq Díez's father.
Brandy de Jerez is a brandy exclusively produced within the "Sherry Triangle" (which is bounded by Jerez de la Frontera, El Puerto de Santa María and Sanlúcar de Barrameda, all in the province of Cádiz). Brandy de Jerez is used in Spanish cuisine, especially with meats.
Carthusian breed of horses
Jerez is the original home of the Carthusian sub-strain of the Andalusian horse breed, known as the Caballo cartujano in Spain. In the latter 1400s, the Carthusian monks began breeding horses on lands donated by Álvaro Obertos de Valeto for construction of the Charterhouse of Jerez de la Frontera (la Cartuja de Jerez de la Frontera). When the Spanish Crown decreed that Spanish horse breeders should breed their Andalusian stock with Neapolitan and central European stock, the monks refused to comply, and continued to select their best specimens to develop their own jealously guarded bloodline for almost four hundred years.
Jerez is the home of the Royal Andalusian School of Equestrian Art, a riding school comparable to the famous Spanish Riding School of Vienna.
Another famous equine institution headquartered in Jerez is the Yeguada Militar de Jerez de la Frontera (known outside Spain as the Yeguada Militar), the Spanish military stud farm dedicated to the breeding of purebred Andalusian and Arabian horses. Founded in 1847, it became the official stud farm of the Spanish military in 1893.
The 2002 FEI World Equestrian Games were held in Jerez at the Estadio Municipal de Chapín, which was remodeled for the event, from September 10 to September 22, 2002. This was the 4th edition of the games, which are held every four years and run by the FEI.
Flamenco
Jerez is proud of its Andalusian Centre of Flamenco, which was founded in 1993 to safeguard and promote the values and standards of flamenco. It is devoted to the investigation, recovery, and collection of flamenco-related historical documents, whether they are in audio, visual, or journalistic form. It also has a collection of flamenco artifacts, including musical instruments, costumes, promotional posters, sheet music, and postcards. The centre operates a museum and library to help educate the public and serve as a resource for scholars. Many of the most famous personalities of the city are or were involved in the performance of flamenco, including La Paquera de Jerez, Lola Flores and José Mercé.
Festivals
Since 1987 the Grand Prix motorcycle racing has been held at the Circuito de Jerez in early May. Thousands of motorbikers from around the world come to the city this week to watch the MotoGP race held in Jerez annually. The race is one of the most watched races in Europe.
Another popular festival is the Feria del Caballo (declared a festival of international tourist interest), one of the most famous Spanish fairs, and the most important fair in the province of Cádiz. It is celebrated annually in the Parque González Hontoria for one week in May, occurring always after the Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix. The a fair dedicated mainly to the horse. All booths (casetas) at the fair are open to the public, so that attendees may walk into any one of them and enjoy the food, drinks, and dancing. This is one of the main features that differentiates the Feria de Jerez from the rest of the Andalusian Fairs, such as the Seville Fair, where most of the casetas are private and only card-holding members are allowed in.
Holy Week in Jerez, as in other cities in Andalusia, commemorates the Passion of Jesus Christ. It is celebrated by Catholic religious brotherhoods and fraternities that perform penance processions on the streets during the last week of Lent, the week immediately before Easter. The Holy Week of Jerez de la Frontera stands out for being one of the most important in Andalusia in terms of number of brotherhoods, quality in its carvings and iconographic sets. Holy Week in Jerez was declared of National Tourist Interest in 1993.
During the Christmas season, from the end of November to the end of December, many peñas (religious and cultural clubs) celebrate the holidays with public festivals where anyone can go to drink, eat, dance and sing Christmas carols, accompanied by friction drums called zambombas.
There are also:
Flamenco festival de Jerez
Carnival of Jerez
Fiestas de la Vendimia (Declared a festival of international tourist interest)
Other institutions
The old quarter of Jerez, dating from medieval times, has been named an "Artistic Historic Complex". The Easter week celebrations in Jerez are of "National Touristic Interest", and its remarkable Feria del Caballo in May is an event of "International Touristic Interest".
The Andalusian Flamenco Centre is located in the Pemartín Palace (Palacio de Pemartín) and offers a library, displays, video films and live demonstrations of the art of flamenco dancing.
Sport
Circuito de Jerez
The city of Jerez is the first motorcycling world capital. It is the site of Circuito de Jerez, formerly called the Circuito Permanente de Jerez, where the annual MotoGP Motorcycle Grand Prix is contested.
The race course is also a prime destination for Formula One teams wishing to perform off-season testing. In the past it has hosted the F1 race itself, namely the Spanish Grand Prix between 1986 and 1990, before the race moved permanently to the Catalunya Circuit near Barcelona. Since then Jerez has hosted Formula One races a few times, with the designation of the European Grand Prix in 1994 and the controversial race in 1997.
Complejo Municipal de Chapín
The Complejo Municipal de Chapín is a complex of sports facilities that includes a football stadium and field, a baseball field, equestrian facilities and a Sports Hall, as well as a futsal field and basketball and volleyball courts.
The Estadio Municipal de Chapín, a multi-purpose stadium, was built in 1988 and seats 20,523 spectators. In 2002 the stadium was remodeled to hold the 2002 FEI World Equestrian Games. The whole grandstand was covered with a roof, and a hotel and spa-gym were added. It was historically the home of Xerez CD, the city's club founded in 1947 and known simply as Xerez, which played in the top division in the 2009–2010 season. Currently, the stadium is the home of Xerez Deportivo FC, founded in 2013 to replace the old Xerez club.
The stadium, which has a running track, was designated as an Olympic Stadium. The most important track team training there is the Club Atletismo Xerez Deportivo FC, which won the Spanish championships in 2001–2007.
Canasta Unibasket Jerez and DKV Jerez are the city's basketball teams; they play in Palacio Municipal de Deportes de Chapín.
Venenciadores de Jerez, the city's baseball team, is currently without a home field and awaits completion of one in the Complejo Municipal de Chapín.
The main futsal team in Jerez is Xerez Deportivo FC (also known as Xerez Toyota Nimauto for sponsorship reasons). It was founded in 2014 and currently plays in the Ruiz Mateos Sports Center and the Palacio Municipal de Deportes de Chapín in Segunda Andaluza.
The most important rugby club is Club Rugby Xerez, which trains at the Pradera Hípica in Chapín.
Domecq Stadium
The Domecq Stadium was the first football stadium in Jerez de la Frontera. It was the home of Xerez CD and Jerez Industrial CF before its demolition. The Stadium del Parque (Park Stadium) was built in 1923 and remodeled (with the name of Domecq Stadium) in 1932 by the architect Francisco Hernández Rubio. It held 20,523 and it was demolished in 1988.
Juventud Stadium
Currently, the Juventud Stadium is the oldest stadium in the city. It holds 5,000 and is the home of Jerez Industrial CF, founded in 1951, the main rival of Xerez.
Formerly, the football field belonged to the youth hostel which is located in the vicinity thereof, hence its name.
Antonio Fernández Marchán Stadium
It is the CD Guadalcacín stadium, which plays in the Tercera Division. It is placed in Guadalcacín, a neighborhood northern Jerez.
Other sports complexes
Complejo Deportivo de La Granja
Campo de fútbol de La Canaleja
Campo de Fútbol Manuel Millán
Campo de fútbol Juan Fernández Simón
Campo de fútbol de Picadueña
Polideportivo Ruiz-Mateos
Other sports
The 2014 Vuelta a España cycle race began in Jerez de la Frontera on 23 August, with a team time trial. The race followed a 21-stage route, finishing in Santiago de Compostela on 14 September.
Club Natación Jerez, is the main Swimming Club in Jerez. It has won the "Campeonato de España Master" ("Championship of Spain Master") many times.
Education
There are 76 elementary schools, 41 secondary schools, 12 adult education centres and 10 public libraries in the city of Jerez.
University of Cádiz
The University of Cádiz, the provincial university, has a campus in Jerez. It specializes in socio-political studies.
The city is also home to a member of the Official School of Languages (Escuela Oficial de Idiomas) and a centre of the National Distance Education University (Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, UNED).
Transportation
Airport
El Aeropuerto de Jerez, also known as Aeropuerto de La Parra, is the main airport in the province of Cádiz. It is located north of the city centre and is connected to the city by train and bus.
It was built in 1937, during the Spanish Civil War by the Nationalists in order to transport soldiers from Africa to Spain. The airport was open to civil traffic in 1992. It is the third most important airport in Andalucia after Malaga and Seville.
Train
Jerez has had a railway line since 1854, which was one of the first in Spain, the Alcázar de San Juan–Cádiz railway. The line went between Jerez and El Puerto de Santa María and transported wine barrels for export. Jerez de la Frontera railway station is used by more passengers than Cádiz and is the fourth busiest in Andalucia.
Next to the Aeropuerto de Jerez, there is a new train station which connects the airport through the Cercanías Cádiz line C-1 to nearby Jerez, and also to Cádiz, Sevilla, Lebrija, Utrera, El Puerto de Santa María, and San Fernando.
Bus
The city of Jerez has 16 bus lines:
L 1 Esteve-San Telmo-Constitución
L 2 Esteve-Picadueñas
L 3 Esteve-La Plata-Mosto-San Juan de Dios
L 4 Esteve-García Lorca-El Altillo
L 5 Esteve-Campus-Guadalcacín
L 6 Esteve-Campus-La Granja
L 7 Angustias-La Pita-Estella del Marqués
L 8 Circunvalación I
L 9 Circunvalación II
L 10 Canaleja-Atlántico-Esteve-Hacienda-Hospital
L 12 Alcázar-C. Salud San Telmo-El Portal/Guadabajaque
L 13 Alcázar-Blas Infante-Asisa
L 14 Esteve-Villas Este-La Marquesa
L 16 Casinos-Hipercor-Ortega Y Gasset
L 19 Nueva Jarilla-Guadalcacín-Angustias
L 20 Rotonda-García Lorca-Guadalcacín
Intercity buses
From Jerez are made regular trips to the following towns:
Roads
Bicycle
Jerez has of bike lanes that follow the main avenues of the city.
Demographics
According to official population data from INE, the municipality of Jerez had 213,105 inhabitants as of January 1, 2020. This makes Jerez the most populous city in the province, fifth in Andalusia, and 25th in Spain.
Growth
Growth of the population of Jerez de la Frontera from 1842
Fuente: INE
Population distribution
Immigration
People
Dolores Agujetas
Manuel Alejandro
Mercedes Chilla
Daniel Güiza
Kiko
Lola Flores
José Mercé
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
Gerardo Núñez
Juan José Palomino Jiménez
Miguel Primo de Rivera
Mala Rodriguez
Luis Coloma, creator of Ratoncito Pérez
José Manuel Caballero Bonald
Juan José Padilla
Rafael de Paula
Pilar Paz Pasamar
Marina Garcia Herrera
Carlos González Ragel
International relations
Twin towns – Sister cities
Jerez de la Frontera is twinned with:
Arles, France (29 July 1980)
Tequila, Mexico (27 April 1982)
Bristol, United Kingdom (2 December 1986)
Cognac, France (16 September 1989)
Kiyosu, Japan (19 January 1994)
Biarritz, France (21 March 1997)
Ciudad Juárez, Mexico (30 January 1998)
Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil (30 January 1998)
Zacatecas, Mexico (28 June 2005)
Pisco, Peru (29 November 2005)
Moquegua, Peru (29 November 2005)
El Paso, United States
See also
List of mayors of Jerez de la Frontera
Monument to Primo de Rivera (Jerez)
References
Bibliography
External links
Jerez de la Frontera airport]
Jerez News, social digital newspaper
Jerez eGuide
Jerez.TV, tourism and videos from Jerez de la Frontera
City guide for Jerez
Andalucia Events
Jerez from Seville
Municipalities of the Province of Cádiz
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivybridge
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Ivybridge
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Ivybridge is a town and civil parish in the South Hams, in Devon, England. It lies about east of Plymouth. It is at the southern extremity of Dartmoor, a National Park of England and Wales and lies along the A38 "Devon Expressway" road. There are two electoral wards in Ivybridge East and Ivybridge West with a total population of 11,851.
Mentioned in documents as early as the 13th century, Ivybridge's early history is marked by its status as an important crossing-point over the River Erme on the road from Exeter to Plymouth. In the 16th century mills were built using the River Erme's power. The parish of Saint John was formed in 1836. Ivybridge became a civil parish in 1894 and a town in 1977.
The early urbanisation and development of Ivybridge largely coincided with the Industrial Revolution. Stowford Paper Mill was built in 1787 and rebuilt again in the 1860s with extensive investment. In 1848 the South Devon Railway arrived on the northern edge of the village. The paper mill closed in 2013 after 226 years in Ivybridge and the buildings are being converted to homes and shops. Ivybridge is often referred to as a commuter town, although a small proportion of people work in the town itself, and agriculture continues to play an economic role for the surrounding area. The area surrounding Ivybridge is varied and complex, including river valleys, farmland and dense woodland.
While heavy industry diminished during the latter half of the 20th century, the population grew significantly from 1,574 people in 1921 to 12,056 in 2001.
History
The name Ivybridge is derived from a small 13th century hump-backed bridge of the same name. The Ivy Bridge was the only means of crossing the river until the 1830s although plans were put forward in 1819. "Ivy" was used to describe the bridge, because there was ivy growing along the bridge. As the bridge was the centre of the village and important to its very existence, it was named the "parish of Ivybridge" in 1894.
The first mention of a settlement in the Ivybridge area was the manor of Stowford in the Domesday Book of 1086. Although the first mention of Ivybridge came in 1280 when it was described as "dowry of land on the west side of the River Erme, by the Ivy Bridge." There was once a chapel, that was on the site of present-day Saint John's Church, originating from 1402. From the 16th century onwards mills were built in the town, harnessing the power of the river. Records show that in the 16th century there was a corn mill, a tin mill and an edge mill. One of the mills, 'Glanville's Mill' (a corn mill), was situated where many of the town shops are today and gives its name to the shopping centre. The first church (Saint John's) was built in 1790 as a chapel of ease, but 45 years later in 1835 it was consecrated as a district church. The oldest burial in St John's church yard is from 1836. In the 1830s the Ivy Bridge lost its position as the only means of crossing the river when the 'New Bridge' was built joining Fore Street and Exeter Road. Today, this bridge has been modernised so as to carry the increased weight and traffic of the 21st century.
Stowford Mill is depicted on a commemorative coin produced for the town of Ivybridge by Bigbury Mint Ltd, based in Ermington near the town. The 25 mm diameter coin also features the town's viaduct which stands at an impressive 104 feet high. The coin was first struck circa 2005 by Bigbury Mint.
In 1977 Ivybridge became a town. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s it underwent a period of rapid growth and was designated as the fastest growing town in Europe, the construction of the A38 "Devon Expressway" adjacent to the town significantly contributed to the town growth during this period.
Governance
Ivybridge is represented by five tiers of elected government.
Ivybridge Town Council forms the lowest tier of local government. Ivybridge town council consists of sixteen council members who are elected from two wards, Ivybridge East and Ivybridge West. The council members are elected every four years and a town mayor is elected every year by the town council members. The town council is responsible for the provision of a number of local services including the management of parks, open spaces, cemeteries and allotments. A committee of the town council reviews all planning applications and makes recommendations to the District Council, which is the planning authority for the town. The town council also represents the views of the town on issues such as local transport, policing and the environment. The town council raises its own tax to pay for these services, known as the parish precept, which is collected as part of the Council Tax.
The next tier is the district council — South Hams District Council. They take care of matters such as local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection and recycling, cemeteries and crematoria, leisure services, parks and tourism.
The next tier is Devon County Council, who take care of matters such as: education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, policing and fire service trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning.
The Parliament of the United Kingdom is responsible for matters such as education, health and justice.
It is a town and parish divided into two wards: Ivybridge East (the east of the River Erme) and Ivybridge West (the west of the River Erme). The current mayor is Councillor Dave Gray-Taylor who was appointed in 2015. In 2007 Ivybridge town council won the Aon/NALC (National Association of Local Councils) Council of the Year. There is a town hall which is located close to the centre of the town and the previous town hall – Chapel Place is still in existence and located in the centre of the town close to the Ivy Bridge.
Before 1894 Ivybridge was made up of four neighbouring parishes: Harford – north; Ugborough – east; Ermington – south and Cornwood – northwest. All the parishes' boundaries met at the Ivy Bridge. In 1836 the Parish of Saint John was formed (the name of the church at the time, which was named after John the Evangelist). The parish represented the small central area of Ivybridge known at present. In 1894 St John's parish became a parish church for the newly created parish of Ivybridge. 83 years later the village and civil parish of Ivybridge became a town in 1977. Its local government district has been the South Hams since 1 April 1974 and its county constituency has been South West Devon since 1997.
The town forms part of the county constituency of South West Devon. Its Member of Parliament is Gary Streeter formerly an SDP politician, but now a member of the Conservative party who held 56.6% of the votes at the 2015 election. The town's two wards are each used for voting at the local elections and general elections.
International links
Ivybridge's first official twinning was with Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives in 1972 before Ivybridge became a town. Since then it has developed unofficial town twinnings (exchanges) and friendship treaties:
: Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives, Lower Normandy, since 1972
: Beverungen, North Rhine-Westphalia, since 1975 (then in West Germany)
: Bedford, Virginia, since 2004
Geography
At coordinates Ivybridge is situated deep in the south western peninsula of England, Ivybridge is from London, from Totnes and from Exeter. The main road in and out of the town (the A38) allows fast access to its nearby city Plymouth for many of Ivybridge's commuters.
The topography of Ivybridge is generally hilly. This is because of the River Erme which flows right through the centre of town. To the east and to the west of the river the land is elevated forming a valley. The river first enters the town at above sea level and leaves the town at above sea level. At its height the top of the east and west of the valley is above sea level. The western beacon is a hill that overlooks the town; its peak can be seen from almost anywhere in the town. It is above sea level and above the town. There is also an area of woodland called Longtimber Woods to the north of the town, which attracts many walkers along its riverside path.
The geology of Ivybridge is varied. Throughout most of the town the rock is Old Red Sandstone (correction:this should read ‘heat-altered slates), (sedimentary) from the Devonian period. To the north of the town Granite can be found as it is situated on the slopes of Dartmoor – a large pre-volcanic area of Granite. Along the River Erme large boulders and rocks can be found deposited on its meandering path brought all the way from Dartmoor; the Ivy Bridge itself is made out of Granite.
The built environment in and around Ivybridge is mainly characterised by its suburban streets plans and houses, although in the centre of Ivybridge it's mainly characterised by Victorian buildings. From the centre of the town most buildings are terraced and now many of these buildings have been converted into retail outlets along Fore Street – the town's central business district. In the middle layer of the town most buildings are semi-detached and built on quite steep roads. More detached houses are found on the outer layers of the city on the east and on the west of the town. Over the past decades the town has been shaped by its two most essential pieces of infrastructure: the railway line to the north and the A38 dual carriageway to the south. No large scaling housing has been built on either side of these boundaries. Due to this Ivybridge has been forced to grow east and west rather than north and south; it stretches approximately from east to west and from north to south.
Climate
Along with the rest of South West England, Ivybridge has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the British Isles. The annual mean temperature is approximately and shows a seasonal and a diurnal variation, but due to the modifying effect of the sea the range is less than in most other parts of the British Isles. February is the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures between and . July and August are the warmest months with mean daily maxima over .
The climate of South West England has a favoured location with respect to the Azores high pressure when it extends its influence north-eastwards towards the British Isles, particularly in summer. Coastal areas have average annual sunshine totals over 1,600 hours.
Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection. The Atlantic depressions are more vigorous in autumn and winter and most of the rain which falls in those seasons in the south-west is from this source. Average annual rainfall is around . The number of days with snow falling is typically less than ten per winter. November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, with June to August having the lightest winds. The predominant wind direction is from the south-west and, as a result, the air quality in Ivybridge may be reduced by the (proposed) construction of an incinerator southwest of the town (at the New England Quarry) with possible implications for health.
Demography
Ivybridge's most recent census indicates that Ivybridge had a population of 11,851. The United Kingdom Census 2011 was carried out by the Office for National Statistics in England and Wales, on Sunday, 27 March 2011. To put that figure into comparison with the area surrounding Ivybridge: it accounts for about 14% of the South Hams' total population (83,140) and it accounts for about 1% of Devon's total population (1,133,800). The town has a median age of 42 (up from 36 since 2001), which is above the national average of 39.
The ethnicity of Ivybridge is predominately white with 98.7% of the population identifying themselves as such. This is slightly higher than the local average of the South Hams (98.3%) and much higher than the national average for England (85.5%). Of the remaining ethnic groups, 0.7% are mixed, 0.5% are Asian, 0.1% are Black and 0.1% are classed as other.
Economy
Ivybridge's earliest known economy relied on the River Erme with a corn mill, tin mill and an edge mill in existence in the town. Later development of the town relied on both the River Erme and the railway, which was built in the latter part of the Industrial Revolution of the United Kingdom. The largest employer to the town from 1787 Stowford Paper Mill, which led to population growth in the town. The paper mill closed in 2013. With the expansion of the town in the late 20th century much of the new jobs are in the service sector of industry. Due to the A38 Ivybridge's transport to nearby city Plymouth was made possible as a commuter route. As a result, a lot of Ivybridge's work or "economy" is made in Plymouth and nearby towns. Ivybridge does still have some of its own industry with a small industrial estate at the south of the town and very nearby an industrial estate just to the west at Lee Mill. There have been attempts to brand the town as a walking centre for southern Dartmoor. There is good access to Dartmoor from the town. For example, one route follows the route of the old china clay railway to Redlake in the heart of the moor, another follows the Erme through Longtimber Woods. There are other accesses to the Moor. The Two Moors Way, which crosses Dartmoor and Exmoor starts in Ivybridge and finishes in Lynmouth on the North Devon coast.
The shopping area is mainly along Fore Street and Glanvilles Mill and provides many jobs and services for the town, although the local schools combine to be the biggest employers. There are some out of town jobs at the Tesco Extra superstore at Lee Mill and Endsleigh Garden & Leisure (Wyevale). The town has six traditional public houses: The Sportsmans, the Trehill Arms, the Exchange, the Old Smithy, the Duke of Cornwall and the Imperial.
Landmarks
The town's natural landmark is Western Beacon; a hill that overlooks the town. People walk up there for the views of Ivybridge and the South Hams. The town's first manmade landmark is the Ivy Bridge; a 13th-century hump-backed bridge covered in Ivy. It is still in use today and gives the name of the town – Ivybridge. The two remaining industrial landmarks of the town are the viaduct over the River Erme and the paper mill. The original viaduct was built by Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1848, only the granite piers remain. The operational line alongside was built by Sir James Charles Inglis opened in 1894 for the Great Western Railway. It still carries the mainline trains. They were key to the town's initial growth in the Industrial Revolution and are still importance to the town today. In the centre of the town a war memorial, equidistant from three of the churches, was unveiled in 1922 and each year on Remembrance Day the town holds a ceremony to those who lost their lives. In recent years another memorial has also been built nearby commemorating the lives of American servicemen stationed in and near the town in 1943–1944, many of whom died on Omaha Beach on D-Day. The Watermark is one of the town's modern landmarks, which began construction in 2007 and was completed in March 2008 at a cost of £1.4 million. It functions as a library, entertainment venue, cinema and offers office space.
Transport
Ivybridge has long been a staging post on the Exeter to Plymouth road dating back to the 13th century and the "Ivy Bridge" was the only way over the River Erme at the time. The bridge itself is still in use to this day taking cars (one-way) and pedestrians across the river. In the 1830s a new bridge was built at the top of Fore Street (approximately 130 yards down the river). It is now used as a 1-way road across the river for vehicles and a separate pedestrian bridge lies alongside it. Another bridge (Marjorie Kelly Way/B3213, built in the 1990s) is situated at the bottom of Fore Street. In 1974 the A38 road was opened linking Ivybridge to Plymouth and Exeter. It was the first major trunk road for Ivybridge and was bypassed at the B3213, which runs through the centre of Ivybridge and connects it to the nearby villages of Bittaford and Wrangaton.
The first railway station at Ivybridge was not complete when the South Devon Railway was opened, but was brought into use six weeks later on 15 June 1848. The building was situated on the north side of the track, immediately to the west of Ivybridge Viaduct. Passenger trains were withdrawn in 1959 and the goods facility closed in 1965. On 15 July 1994 a new station was opened on a new site costing £380,000, outside the town, to the east. It is operated by Great Western Railway who run links to London Paddington via Exeter and also south west to Cornwall. The station is advertised as a Park and Ride for the nearby city of Plymouth, although the level of service is infrequent and sporadic.
The town has a bus service (Gold) to Plymouth, Totnes, Paignton and Torquay operated by Stagecoach South West. It operates a half hourly route with Ivybridge as a primary stop. The X38 bus to Exeter is every 2 hours, and is also operated by Stagecoach South West. Plymouth Citybus operate the hourly 20A service to Plymouth, via Lee Mill and Plympton. This is a popular bus with shoppers, as it calls at the Tesco Superstore in Lee Mill.
Shopping
The shopping area is mainly along Fore Street, with some small shops and restaurants situated in the Glanvilles Mill shopping centre which is accessible from Fore Street and the car park.
Education
The town has six schools: four state primary schools, the Dame Hannah Roger's special school, and Ivybridge Community College, the town's secondary state school, which has a sixth form. It has specialist status as a sports college and has recently been given awards in science and mathematics as well as languages. The school has a very large catchment area which stretches from Shaugh Prior on Dartmoor, to Bigbury on the coast and covers many of the villages in the South Hams such as Ugborough, Modbury and Yealmpton. There are no independent schools in Ivybridge, but Dame Hannah Rogers School provides a boarding education for children with disabilities and communication needs. The nearest university is the University of Plymouth. In 2008 a new library and resource centre called the Watermark was opened, replacing the small library on Keaton Road. Notable people from the community college include sports teacher Michaela Breeze who won a gold medal weightlifting in the 2002 Commonwealth Games for Wales and won another gold medal in the 2006 Commonwealth Games., Nigel Martin (footballer) was a pupil, Chris Bell, a retired rugby union player with Leeds, Harlequins, Sale Sharks and Wasps, and the school's former principal – Geoffrey Rees now retired, who was given a CBE for his services to education.
Religion
Ivybridge has five churches. St John's Church (Anglican) is the parish church situated in Blachford Road. There is also an Evangelical Baptist church and a Methodist church. On the western outskirts of the town is a Roman Catholic church – St Austin's Priory. The Salvation Army Church hold meetings in Fore Street.
In 2011, 65.1% of the population stated that they were Christian, 26.5% stated as no religion and 7.8% did not state their religion. Furthermore, there were a few people stating other religions: 0.3 (31 people) as other religions, 0.2% (18 people) stated as Buddhist, 0.1 (16 people) as Muslim, 0.1% (7 people) as Hindu, and one Jew. Since 2001, there has been a shift from Christian (down 13 percentage points) to non-religious (up 12 points).
Sports
Each April the Ivybridge walking and outdoor festival takes place. There are various leisure facilities in the town: the South Dartmoor Leisure Centre features an indoor swimming pool, an outdoor swimming pool, an indoor sports hall, squash courts and gymnasium facilities. The South Devon Tennis Centre has four indoor and four outdoor courts. Next to the South Devon Tennis Centre are the Erme playing fields (Erme Valley) which hold a cricket field (with a practice net), two football pitches and the Erme Valley Harriers (athletics and road running). The town's football team, called Ivybridge Town F.C., was founded in 1925 and play at region level in the South West Peninsula League.
The town's flat green bowls club is situated at the end of Bridge Park. There is also a skatepark in the centre of the town and rugby pitches on the eastern outskirts of town at Ivybridge Rugby Football Club. Filham Park has a Cricket Club, football pitches and a fishing lake. The other local football club, Manstow FC, play on the football pitches located in Filham Park.
Public services
South West Water supplies the town with water and sewage services. South Hams District Council is responsible for waste management. The town's Distribution Network Operator is Western Power Distribution. Currently the town along with the rest of Devon relies on electricity generated further north from the national grid, although Langage Power Station in Plympton is now generating. The town has two health centres: Ivybridge Health Centre and Highlands Health Centre, both located near the centre of the town. It also has four dentist surgeries: Victoria House Dental Surgery, Fore Street Dental Practice, Browns Dental Practice and Highland Dental Practice. Ivybridge is served by Plymouth Hospitals NHS Trust and the nearest hospital is Derriford Hospital in Plymouth. South Western Ambulance Service NHS Trust operates in Ivybridge and the rest of the south west; its headquarters are in Exeter. Devon and Cornwall Constabulary serve the town's policing matters and there is a small police station in the centre of the town. Ivybridge has one retained fire station (number 53) on the southern outskirts of town, which is in the west division of Devon as part of Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service. It has a water tender ladder, prime mover, environmental pod and an incident support unit. The fire station used to be closer to the centre of the town.
Notable residents
Born in 1847 in Ivybridge, Edmund Hartley was awarded a Victoria Cross in the Basuto Gun War. Hartley Court in Fore Street is named after him.
Hugh Morton, actor, 1903–84, was born in the town.
In art and literature
An engraving of a painting of the river by Thomas Allom, together with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon set to music by Henry Russell, were published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1835.
See also
List of civil parishes in Devon
List of schools in the South West of England
United Kingdom Census 2001
References
External links
Ivybridge Town Council
Ivybridge Community Website
The Watermark – Information Centre, Library & Innovation Centre
Towns in Devon
Populated places established in 1836
Civil parishes in South Hams
1836 establishments in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Scarborough
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Joe Scarborough
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Charles Joseph Scarborough (; born April 9, 1963) is an American television host, attorney, political commentator, and former politician who is the co-host of Morning Joe on MSNBC with his wife Mika Brzezinski. He previously hosted Scarborough Country on the same network. A former member of the Republican Party, Scarborough served in the United States House of Representatives for Florida's 1st district from 1995 to 2001. He was appointed to the President's Council on the 21st Century Workforce in 2002. and was a visiting fellow at the Harvard Institute of Politics at the Harvard Kennedy School of Government. He was named in the 2011 Time 100 as one of the most influential people in the world.
Early life and education
Scarborough was born in Atlanta in 1963, the son of Mary Joanna (née Clark) and George Francis Scarborough, a businessman. He has two siblings. In 1969, his family moved to Meridian, Mississippi, and then to Elmira, New York in 1973, and Pensacola, Florida in 1978. Scarborough attended Pensacola Catholic High School in Pensacola. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in history from the University of Alabama in 1985 and a Juris Doctor from the University of Florida College of Law in 1990. During this time, he wrote music and produced CDs with his band, Dixon Mills, including the album Calling on Robert E. Lee, and he also coached football and taught high school. During his first year of law school, Scarborough wrote a musical about televangelists called "The Gospel According to Esther" which premiered at the University of Alabama to positive reviews. Later, the musical was showcased at the Alabama Shakespeare Festival.
Legal career
Scarborough was admitted to the Florida Bar in 1991 and practiced law in Pensacola.
Scarborough's most high-profile case was briefly representing Michael F. Griffin, who murdered Dr. David Gunn in 1993. Griffin's father was a friend of Scarborough's in-laws and he agreed to represent Griffin until he found adequate representation. Scarborough made several court appearances representing Griffin, before removing himself from the case, later saying: "There was no way in hell I could sit in at a civil trial, let alone a capital trial," referring to the prospect of prosecutors seeking the death penalty against Griffin. Scarborough assisted Griffin in choosing other counsel from the many who offered their services, however, and helped shield the family from the media exposure, pro bono.
Scarborough's political profile was also raised when he assisted with a petition drive, in late-1993, leading a tax revolt that defeated a proposed sixty-five percent increase in Pensacola's property taxes.
U.S. House of Representatives
Elections
In 1994, Scarborough was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives for Florida's 1st congressional district, becoming the first Republican to represent the Florida Panhandle since Reconstruction. The seat had become open when eight-term Democratic incumbent Earl Hutto retired. In the general election, Scarborough defeated the Democratic candidate, Pensacola attorney Vince "Vinnie" Whibbs Jr., with 61 percent of the vote. Whibbs was the son of former Pensacola mayor Vince Whibbs. This district had not supported a Democratic candidate for U.S. president since 1960, however Democratic candidates had continued to hold most local offices well into the 1990s. Scarborough's win coincided with a large Republican wave that allowed the Republicans to take the majority in the House for the first time in 40 years.
Scarborough was reelected with 72 percent of the vote in 1996. In 1998 and 2000, he faced only write-in candidates as opposition.
Tenure
In June 2000, during his congressional career, he received a 95 percent lifetime rating from the American Conservative Union. He signed the Contract with America. Scarborough served on the Armed Services, Judiciary, Government Reform, and Education committees. In 1998 he was named chairman of the Civil Service Committee.
Scarborough was one of a group of about 40 freshmen Republican legislators who dubbed themselves the "New Federalists" after The Federalist Papers. Scarborough was elected political director of the incoming legislators. The New Federalists called for sweeping cuts in the U.S. government, including plans to "privatize, localize, consolidate, [or] eliminate" the Departments of Commerce, Education, Energy and Housing and Urban Development. House speaker Newt Gingrich tapped Scarborough to head a Republican task force on education, and Scarborough declared, "Our goal is to get as much money, power, and authority out of Washington and get as much money, power, and authority into the classroom as possible." Rep. John Kasich (R-Ohio), then chairman of the House Budget Committee, adopted Scarborough's language eliminating the federal Department of Education in the 1996 House Budget Resolution. The budget passed the House by a vote of 238–193. Scarborough and the group played a pivotal role in pressing Gingrich to keep the GOP's promise to balance the federal budget.
Scarborough supported a number of pro-life positions while in Congress. He voted in favor of the Unborn Victims of Violence Act, that made it a crime to harm a fetus during the commission of other crimes.
Scarborough sponsored a bill to force the U.S. to withdraw from the United Nations after a four-year transition and replace it with an international organization of democratic nations. He voted to make the Corporation for Public Broadcasting self-sufficient by eliminating federal funding. He also voted for the "Medicare Preservation act of 1995," which cut the projected growth of Medicare by $270 billion over ten years. Scarborough was one of few house republicans to vote against efforts by Gingrich to cut Medicaid funding and the only republican in the Florida delegation to vote against oil drilling royalty relief, which Scarborough blasted as "corporate welfare". He voted against the "Small Business Job Protection Act of 1996," which raised the minimum wage to $5.15. Scarborough had a conservative voting record on economic, social, and foreign policy issues but was seen as moderate on environmental issues and human rights causes, including supporting the closure of the School of the Americas and defending accused terrorist Lori Berenson.
While in Congress, Scarborough received a number of awards, including the "Friend of the Taxpayer Award" from Americans for Tax Reform; the "Guardian of Small Business Award" from the National Federation of Independent Business; the "Spirit of Enterprise Award" from the United States Chamber of Commerce; the "Taxpayer's Hero Award" from the Citizens Against Government Waste; and the "Guardian of Seniors' Rights Award" from the 60 Plus Association. In 1996, Scarborough spoke at the John Birch Society’s Council Dinner in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles.
Scarborough was one of the 228 members of the House who voted to impeach Bill Clinton in December 1998.
Committee memberships
104th Congress – Committee on Government Reform and Oversight – Committee on National Security (formerly Committee on Armed Services)
105th Congress – Committee on National Security – Committee on Government Reform and Oversight – Committee on Education and the Workforce
106th Congress – Committee on Armed Services – Committee on Government Reform – Committee on the Judiciary
107th Congress – Committee on Government Reform – Committee on the Judiciary
Electoral history
Resignation
In May 2001, five months into his fourth term in Congress, Scarborough stated his intention to resign to spend more time with his children. Of his resignation, Scarborough said, "The realization has come home to me that they're at a critical stage of their lives and I would rather be judged at the end of my life as a father than as a congressman." A special election was held in October 2001 to replace Scarborough. Since then, Scarborough has contemplated returning to politics several times. In 2017, Scarborough left the Republican Party to become an independent.
Media career
In 1999, while still serving in Congress, Scarborough founded the free weekly Pensacola-area newspaper The Florida Sun. The paper merged in 2001 and is now known as the Independent News.
After leaving Congress, Scarborough worked as an environmental lawyer in Florida.
In April 2003, he embarked upon a television career with the launch of Scarborough Country on MSNBC. In May 2007, he began hosting Morning Joe.
In an op-ed for The Washington Post in August 2016, Scarborough argued that the Republican Party must "dump Donald Trump" as their presidential candidate. Drawing attention to Trump's remarks about Hillary Clinton and the Second Amendment, Scarborough wrote: "A bloody line has been crossed that cannot be ignored. At long last, Donald Trump has left the Republican Party few options but to act decisively and get this political train wreck off the tracks before something terrible happens."
In June 2017, Scarborough and Brzezinski were the targets of tweets by President Trump that, in response to their coverage of his administration, referred to Scarborough as "Psycho Joe" and called Brzezinski "low I.Q. Crazy Mika," while asserting that she was "bleeding badly from a face-lift" when he previously encountered her at Mar-a-Lago. The hosts responded with an op-ed in The Washington Post, in which they described White House officials telling them that the president would kill a pending National Enquirer article if they apologized to Trump for their coverage of him. The president's tweets received criticism from many Republican lawmakers, including Speaker of the House Paul Ryan, Senators John McCain, Susan Collins, Ben Sasse, Lindsey Graham, and Lisa Murkowski.
Trump has also alluded to an incident from Scarborough's time in Congress. On July 20, 2001, while Scarborough was in Washington, D.C., one of his aides was found dead on the floor of his congressional office in Fort Walton Beach, Florida. An autopsy determined that an undiagnosed heart-valve irregularity had caused the 28-year-old to lose consciousness, fall, and hit her head on the edge of a desk the day before. Speculation developed about the death, often connecting it with Scarborough's resignation from Congress, announced in May. The idea that Scarborough was involved in the death was promoted by publisher Markos Moulitsas and by filmmaker Michael Moore, who registered the domain name JoeScarboroughKilledHisIntern.com. Since 2017, Trump has resurrected the idea and has called for another investigation. "It's remarkable that we have a president who is trying to have someone prosecute the person he considers to be his chief critic in the media," Scarborough responded in 2020. "That's what Putin does. That's what Orban does. That's what autocrats have been doing for centuries."
In August 2019, Scarborough drew criticism after posting conspiracy-driven tweets about the death of Jeffrey Epstein, an American financier multimillionaire and convicted sex offender. Scarborough tweeted: "A guy who had information that would have destroyed rich and powerful men's lives ends up dead in his jail cell. How predictably...Russian."
In January 2021, Scarborough excoriated the Capitol Hill Police for having enabled the attack at the U.S. Capitol by Donald Trump supporters. He claimed a double standard that had the perpetrators been either black or Muslim, they likely would have been dealt with more harshly.
Morning Joe
In May 2007, Scarborough became one of the rotating hosts auditioning for the slot vacated by Imus in the Morning on MSNBC. Scarborough, with his morning show, won the slot permanently in July 2007.
Morning Joe is a weekday MSNBC morning news and talk show, airing from 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. Eastern Time. It features Joe Scarborough providing both enterprise reporting and discussion on the news of the day in a panel format with co-hosts Mika Brzezinski and Willie Geist. The show features in-depth discussions that help drive the day's political conversation.
In 2007, New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg joined Geist, Brzezinski, MSNBC president Phil Griffin, and Scarborough to cut the ribbon on the new set of Morning Joe at 30 Rock.
Scarborough has covered presidential elections and conventions. In 2015 he interviewed Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump and abruptly ended the interview, but resumed it after commercial break. During the 2016 election, Scarborough criticized the Democratic National Committee for trying to protect Hillary Clinton and ensure she received the Democratic party's presidential nomination, calling the DNC "rigged" against voters. 2017 marked the program's 10th year on air.
According to Nielsen ratings in 2016, Morning Joe delivered MSNBC's biggest total viewer and demo audiences in the time period ever and beat third-place CNN in both categories. This marked Morning Joes seventh straight year topping CNN in total viewers. Scarborough also is a regular guest on NBC and MSNBC news programs and has appeared on Meet the Press numerous times. In April 2012, Scarborough guest-hosted Meet the Press.
Radio
On December 8, 2008, Scarborough and Morning Joe co-host Mika Brzezinski began hosting a two-hour late-morning radio show on WABC (770 AM) in New York City, replacing 12-year veteran host John Gambling. On April 26, 2010, the radio show was placed on "hiatus", which Scarborough said was to redevelop its format into a new three-hour show. The show never returned.
Books
Scarborough released his first book, Rome Wasn't Burnt in a Day: the Real Deal on how Politicians, Bureaucrats, and other Washington Barbarians are Bankrupting America, on October 4, 2005.
In his second book, The Last Best Hope, released on June 9, 2009, Scarborough outlined a plan to help guide conservatives back to a political majority after their defeats in the 2006 midterm elections and the 2008 presidential election.
On November 12, 2013, Scarborough released his third book, The Right Path: From Ike to Reagan, How Republicans Once Mastered Politics—and Can Again.
On November 24, 2020, Scarborough released his fourth book, Saving Freedom: Truman, the Cold War, and the Fight for Western Civilization.
Music
Scarborough released his debut EP, Mystified, on June 23, 2017. A music video for the title track of the new wave-inspired EP was also released on the same day. Scarborough said he planned to release a new EP every month for the following four years.
Personal life
In 1986, Scarborough married Melanie Hinton. The couple had two sons and divorced in 1999. While interviewing Robert F. Kennedy Jr. in June 2005, Scarborough expressed concerns about the possibility that one of his sons may have suffered vaccine damage (See Thimerosal controversy). Scarborough said, "My son, born in 1991, has a slight form of autism called Asperger's. When I was practicing law and also when I was in Congress, parents would constantly come to me and they would bring me videotapes of their children, and they were all around the age of my son or younger. So, something happened in 1989."
In October 2001, Scarborough married his second wife, Susan Waren, a former aide to Florida governor Jeb Bush and also a former congressional committee staffer. Their daughter was born in August 2003; their son was born in May 2008. Scarborough and Waren were divorced in January 2013.
, Scarborough resides in New Canaan, Connecticut, an affluent exurb of New York City. He also lives in Jupiter, Florida. In early 2017, during a trip to Antibes, France, Scarborough became engaged to his co-host Mika Brzezinski. The couple married on November 24, 2018, in Washington, D.C., in a ceremony officiated by U.S. Representative Elijah Cummings.
See also
Cable news in the United States
New Yorkers in journalism
References
External links
Official Site
Morning Joe – MSNBC
Joe Scarborough bio on MSNBC
Campaign contributions made by Joe Scarborough
OnTheIssues page for Congressional terms
American Politics Journal
Chris Matthews Interviews Joe Scarborough on Hardball 06/09/09
Matt Lauer interviews Joe Scarborough on The Today Show 06/09/09
1963 births
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American politicians
American male non-fiction writers
American political commentators
American political writers
American rock musicians
American talk radio hosts
Brzezinski family
Connecticut Independents
Florida lawyers
Fredric G. Levin College of Law alumni
Living people
Horseheads High School alumni
MSNBC people
Musicians from Atlanta
Musicians from Pensacola, Florida
Never Trump movement
People from Jupiter, Florida
People from New Canaan, Connecticut
Politicians from Atlanta
Politico people
Radio personalities from New York City
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Florida
Television personalities from New York City
University of Alabama alumni
Writers from Atlanta
Writers from Pensacola, Florida
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lie%20Cartan
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Élie Cartan
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Élie Joseph Cartan (; 9 April 1869 – 6 May 1951) was an influential French mathematician who did fundamental work in the theory of Lie groups, differential systems (coordinate-free geometric formulation of PDEs), and differential geometry. He also made significant contributions to general relativity and indirectly to quantum mechanics. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest mathematicians of the twentieth century.
His son Henri Cartan was an influential mathematician working in algebraic topology.
Life
Élie Cartan was born 9 April 1869 in the village of Dolomieu, Isère to Joseph Cartan (1837–1917) and Anne Cottaz (1841–1927). Joseph Cartan was the village blacksmith; Élie Cartan recalled that his childhood had passed under "blows of the anvil, which started every morning from dawn", and that "his mother, during those rare minutes when she was free from taking care of the children and the
house, was working with a spinning-wheel". Élie had an elder sister Jeanne-Marie (1867–1931) who became a dressmaker; a younger brother Léon (1872–1956) who became a blacksmith working in his father's smithy; and a younger sister Anna Cartan (1878–1923), who, partly under Élie's influence, entered École Normale Supérieure (as Élie had before) and chose a career as a mathematics teacher at a lycée (secondary school).
Élie Cartan entered an elementary school in Dolomieu and was the best student in the school. One of his teachers, M. Dupuis, recalled "Élie Cartan was a shy student, but an unusual light of great intellect was shining in his eyes, and this was combined with an excellent memory". Antonin Dubost, then the representative of Isère, visited the school and was impressed by Cartan's unusual abilities. He recommended Cartan to participate in a contest for a scholarship in a lycée. Cartan prepared for the contest under the supervision of M. Dupuis and passed at the age of ten. He spent five years (1880–1885) at the College of Vienna and then two years (1885–1887) at the Lycée of Grenoble. In 1887 he moved to the Lycée Janson de Sailly in Paris to study sciences for two years; there he met and befriended his classmate Jean-Baptiste Perrin (1870–1942) who later became a famous physicist in France.
Cartan enrolled in the École Normale Supérieure in 1888. He attended there lectures by Charles Hermite (1822–1901), Jules Tannery (1848–1910), Gaston Darboux (1842–1917), Paul Appell (1855–1930), Émile Picard (1856–1941), Edouard Goursat (1858–1936), and Henri Poincaré (1854–1912) whose lectures were what Cartan thought most highly of.
After graduation from the École Normale Superieure in 1891, Cartan was drafted into the French army, where he served one year and attained the rank of sergeant. For next two years (1892–1894) Cartan returned to ENS and, following the advice of his classmate Arthur Tresse (1868–1958) who studied under Sophus Lie in the years 1888–1889, worked on the subject of classification of simple Lie groups, which was started by Wilhelm Killing. In 1892 Lie came to Paris, at the invitation of Darboux and Tannery, and met Cartan for the first time.
Cartan defended his dissertation, The structure of finite continuous groups of transformations in 1894 in the Faculty of Sciences in the Sorbonne. Between 1894 and 1896 Cartan was a lecturer at the University of Montpellier; during the years 1896 through 1903, he was a lecturer in the Faculty of Sciences at the University of Lyon.
In 1903, while in Lyon, Cartan married Marie-Louise Bianconi (1880–1950); at the same year, Cartan became a professor in the Faculty of Sciences at the University of Nancy. In 1904, Cartan's first son, Henri Cartan, who later became an influential mathematician, was born; in 1906, another son, Jean Cartan, who became a composer, was born. In 1909 Cartan moved his family to Paris and worked as a lecturer in the Faculty of Sciences in the Sorbonne. In 1912 Cartan became Professor there, based on the reference he received from Poincaré. He remained in Sorbonne until his retirement in 1940 and spent the last years of his life teaching mathematics at the École Normale Supérieure for girls.
As a student of Cartan, the geometer Shiing-Shen Chern wrote:Usually the day after [meeting with Cartan] I would get a letter from him. He would say, “After you left, I thought more about your questions...”—he had some results, and some more questions, and so on. He knew all these papers on simple Lie groups, Lie algebras, all by heart. When you saw him on the street, when a certain issue would come up, he would pull out some old envelope and write something and give you the answer. And sometimes it took me hours or even days to get the same answer... I had to work very hard.In 1921 he became a foreign member of the Polish Academy of Learning and in 1937 a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1938 he participated in the International Committee composed to organise the International Congresses for the Unity of Science.
He died in 1951 in Paris after a long illness.
In 1976, a lunar crater was named after him. Before, it was designated Apollonius D.
Work
In the Travaux, Cartan breaks down his work into 15 areas. Using modern terminology, they are:
Lie theory
Representations of Lie groups
Hypercomplex numbers, division algebras
Systems of PDEs, Cartan–Kähler theorem
Theory of equivalence
Integrable systems, theory of prolongation and systems in involution
Infinite-dimensional groups and pseudogroups
Differential geometry and moving frames
Generalised spaces with structure groups and connections, Cartan connection, holonomy, Weyl tensor
Geometry and topology of Lie groups
Riemannian geometry
Symmetric spaces
Topology of compact groups and their homogeneous spaces
Integral invariants and classical mechanics
Relativity, spinors
Cartan's mathematical work can be described as the development of analysis on differentiable manifolds, which many now consider the central and most vital part of modern mathematics and which he was foremost in shaping and advancing. This field centers on Lie groups, partial differential systems, and differential geometry; these, chiefly through Cartan's contributions, are now closely interwoven and constitute a unified and powerful tool.
Lie groups
Cartan was practically alone in the field of Lie groups for the thirty years after his dissertation. Lie had considered these groups chiefly as systems of analytic transformations of an analytic manifold, depending analytically on a finite number of parameters. A very fruitful approach to the study of these groups was opened in 1888 when Wilhelm Killing systematically started to study the group in itself, independent of its possible actions on other manifolds. At that time (and until 1920) only local properties were considered, so the main object of study for Killing was the Lie algebra of the group, which exactly reflects the local properties in purely algebraic terms. Killing's great achievement was the determination of all simple complex Lie algebras; his proofs, however, were often defective, and Cartan's thesis was devoted mainly to giving a rigorous foundation to the local theory and to proving the existence of the exceptional Lie algebras belonging to each of the types of simple complex Lie algebras that Killing had shown to be possible. Later Cartan completed the local theory by explicitly solving two fundamental problems, for which he had to develop entirely new methods: the classification of simple real Lie algebras and the determination of all irreducible linear representations of simple Lie algebras, by means of the notion of weight of a representation, which he introduced for that purpose. It was in the process of determining the linear representations of the orthogonal groups that Cartan discovered in 1913 the spinors, which later played such an important role in quantum mechanics.
After 1925 Cartan grew more and more interested in topological questions. Spurred by Weyl's brilliant results on compact groups, he developed new methods for the study of global properties of Lie groups; in particular he showed that topologically a connected Lie group is a product of a Euclidean space and a compact group, and for compact Lie groups he discovered that the possible fundamental groups of the underlying manifold can be read from the structure of the Lie algebra of the group. Finally, he outlined a method of determining the Betti numbers of compact Lie groups, again reducing the problem to an algebraic question on their Lie algebras, which has since been completely solved.
Lie pseudogroups
After solving the problem of the structure of Lie groups which Cartan (following Lie) called "finite continuous groups" (or "finite transformation groups"), Cartan posed the similar problem for "infinite continuous groups", which are now called Lie pseudogroups, an infinite-dimensional analogue of Lie groups (there are other infinite generalizations of Lie groups). The Lie pseudogroup considered by Cartan is a set of transformations between subsets of a space that contains the identical transformation and possesses the property that the result of composition of two transformations in this set (whenever this is possible) belongs to the same set. Since the composition of two transformations is not always possible, the set of transformations is not a group (but a groupoid in modern terminology), thus the name pseudogroup. Cartan considered only those transformations of manifolds for which there is no subdivision of manifolds into the classes transposed by the transformations under consideration. Such pseudogroups of transformations are called primitive. Cartan showed that every infinite-dimensional primitive pseudogroup of complex analytic transformations belongs to one of the six classes: 1) the pseudogroup of all analytic transformations of n complex variables; 2) the pseudogroup of all analytic transformations of n complex variables with a constant Jacobian (i.e., transformations that multiply all volumes by the same complex number); 3) the pseudogroup of all analytic transformations of n complex variables whose Jacobian is equal to one (i.e., transformations that preserve volumes); 4) the pseudogroup of all analytic transformations of complex variables that preserve a certain double integral (the symplectic pseudogroup); 5) the pseudogroup of all analytic transformations of complex variables that multiply the above-mentioned double integral by a complex function; 6) the pseudogroup of all analytic transformations of complex variables that multiply a certain form by a complex function (the contact pseudogroup). There are similar classes of pseudogroups for primitive pseudogroups of real transformations defined by analytic functions of real variables.
Differential systems
Cartan's methods in the theory of differential systems are perhaps his most profound achievement. Breaking with tradition, he sought from the start to formulate and solve the problems in a completely invariant fashion, independent of any particular choice of variables and unknown functions. He thus was able for the first time to give a precise definition of what is a "general" solution of an arbitrary differential system. His next step was to try to determine all "singular" solutions as well, by a method of "prolongation" that consists in adjoining new unknowns and new equations to the given system in such a way that any singular solution of the original system becomes a general solution of the new system. Although Cartan showed that in every example which he treated his method led to the complete determination of all singular solutions, he did not succeed in proving in general that this would always be the case for an arbitrary system; such a proof was obtained in 1955 by Masatake Kuranishi.
Cartan's chief tool was the calculus of exterior differential forms, which he helped to create and develop in the ten years following his thesis and then proceeded to apply to a variety of problems in differential geometry, Lie groups, analytical dynamics, and general relativity. He discussed a large number of examples, treating them in an extremely elliptic style that was made possible only by his uncanny algebraic and geometric insight.
Differential geometry
Cartan's contributions to differential geometry are no less impressive, and it may be said that he revitalized the whole subject, for the initial work of Riemann and Darboux was being lost in dreary computations and minor results, much as had happened to elementary geometry and invariant theory a generation earlier. His guiding principle was a considerable extension of the method of "moving frames" of Darboux and Ribaucour, to which he gave a tremendous flexibility and power, far beyond anything that had been done in classical differential geometry. In modern terms, the method consists in associating to a fiber bundle E the principal fiber bundle having the same base and having at each point of the base a fiber equal to the group that acts on the fiber of E at the same point. If E is the tangent bundle over the base (which since Lie was essentially known as the manifold of "contact elements"), the corresponding group is the general linear group (or the orthogonal group in classical Euclidean or Riemannian geometry). Cartan's ability to handle many other types of fibers and groups allows one to credit him with the first general idea of a fiber bundle, although he never defined it explicitly. This concept has become one of the most important in all fields of modern mathematics, chiefly in global differential geometry and in algebraic and differential topology. Cartan used it to formulate his definition of a connection, which is now used universally and has superseded previous attempts by several geometers, made after 1917, to find a type of "geometry" more general than the Riemannian model and perhaps better adapted to a description of the universe along the lines of general relativity.
Cartan showed how to use his concept of connection to obtain a much more elegant and simple presentation of Riemannian geometry. His chief contribution to the latter, however, was the discovery and study of the symmetric Riemann spaces, one of the few instances in which the initiator of a mathematical theory was also the one who brought it to its completion. Symmetric Riemann spaces may be defined in various ways, the simplest of which postulates the existence around each point of the space of a "symmetry" that is involutive, leaves the point fixed, and preserves distances. The unexpected fact discovered by Cartan is that it is possible to give a complete description of these spaces by means of the classification of the simple Lie groups; it should therefore not be surprising that in various areas of mathematics, such as automorphic functions and analytic number theory (apparently far removed from differential geometry), these spaces are playing a part that is becoming increasingly important.
Alternative theory to general relativity
Cartan created a competitor theory of gravity also Einstein–Cartan theory.
Publications
Cartan's papers have been collected in his Oeuvres complètes, 6 vols. (Paris, 1952–1955). Two excellent obituary notices are S. S. Chern and C. Chevalley, in Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 58 (1952); and J. H. C. Whitehead, in Obituary Notices of the Royal Society (1952).
Leçons sur les invariants intégraux, Hermann, Paris, 1922
La parallelisme absolu et la théorie unitaire du champ, Hermann, 1932
Les Espaces Métriques Fondés sur la Notion d'Arie, Hermann, 1933
La méthode de repère mobile, la théorie des groupes continus, et les espaces généralisés, 1935
Leçons sur la théorie des espaces à connexion projective, Gauthiers-Villars, 1937
La théorie des groupes finis et continus et la géométrie différentielle traitées par la méthode du repère mobile, Gauthiers-Villars, 1937
Les systèmes différentiels extérieurs et leurs applications géométriques, Hermann, 1945
Oeuvres complètes, 3 parts in 6 vols., Paris 1952 to 1955, reprinted by CNRS 1984:
Part 1: Groupes de Lie (in 2 vols.), 1952
Part 2, Vol. 1: Algèbre, formes différentielles, systèmes différentiels, 1953
Part 2, Vol. 2: Groupes finis, Systèmes différentiels, théories d'équivalence, 1953
Part 3, Vol. 1: Divers, géométrie différentielle, 1955
Part 3, Vol. 2: Géométrie différentielle, 1955
Élie Cartan and Albert Einstein: Letters on Absolute Parallelism, 1929–1932 / original text in French & German, English trans. by Jules Leroy & Jim Ritter, ed. by Robert Debever, Princeton University Press, 1979
See also
Exterior derivative
Integrability conditions for differential systems
Isotropic line
CAT(k) space
Einstein – Cartan theory
Hermitian symmetric space
Moving frame
Pseudogroup
Pure spinor
References
External links
M.A. Akivis & B.A. Rosenfeld (1993) Élie Cartan (1869–1951), translated from Russian original by V.V. Goldberg, American Mathematical Society .
Shiing-Shen Chern (1994) Book review: Elie Cartan by Akivis & Rosenfeld Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 30(1)
English translations of some of his books and articles:
"On certain differential expressions and the Pfaff problem"
"On the integration of systems of total differential equations"
Lessons on integral invariants.
"The structure of infinite groups"
"Spaces with conformal connections"
"On manifolds with projective connections"
"The unitary theory of Einstein–Mayer"
"E. Cartan, Exterior Differential Systems and its Applications, (Translated into English by M. Nadjafikhah)"
1869 births
1951 deaths
People from Isère
19th-century French mathematicians
20th-century French mathematicians
Differential geometers
Lycée Janson-de-Sailly alumni
École Normale Supérieure alumni
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
University of Paris alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20School%20Admission%20Test
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Law School Admission Test
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The Law School Admission Test (LSAT; ) is a standardized test administered by the Law School Admission Council (LSAC) for prospective law school candidates. It is designed to assess reading comprehension, analytical reasoning, and logical reasoning. The test is an integral part of the law school admission process in the United States, Canada (common law programs only), the University of Melbourne, Australia, and a growing number of other countries.
The test has existed in some form since 1948, when it was created to give law schools a standardized way to assess applicants in addition to their GPA. The current form of the exam has been used since 1991. The exam has five total sections that include three scored multiple choice sections, an unscored experimental section, and an unscored writing section. Raw scores are converted to a scaled score with a high of 180, a low of 120, and a median score around 150. When an applicant applies to a law school, all scores from the past five years are reported and typically the highest score is used.
Before July 2019, the test was administered by paper-and-pencil. In 2019, the test was exclusively administered electronically using a tablet. In 2020, due to the pandemic, the test was administered using the test-taker's personal computer. Beginning in 2023, candidates have had the option to take a digital version either at an approved testing center or on their computer at home.
Function
The purpose of the LSAT is to aid in predicting student success in law school. Researchers Balin, Fine, and Guinier performed research on the LSAT's ability to predict law school grades at the University of Pennsylvania. They found that the LSAT could explain about 14% of the variance in first year grades and about 15% of the variance in second year grades.
History
The LSAT was the result of a 1945 inquiry of Frank Bowles, a Columbia Law School admissions director, about a more satisfactory admissions test that could be used for admissions than the one that was in use in 1945. The goal was to find a test that would correlate with first year grades rather than bar passage rates. This led to an invitation of representatives from Harvard Law School and Yale Law School who ultimately accepted the invitation and began to draft the first administration of the LSAT exam. NYU, in correspondence by memorandum, was openly unconvinced "about the usefulness of an aptitude test as a method of selecting law school students," but was open to experimenting with the idea, as were other schools that were unconvinced. At a meeting on 10 November 1947, with representatives of law schools extending beyond the original Columbia, Harvard, and Yale representatives, the design of the LSAT was discussed. At this meeting the issue of a way to test students who came from excessively "technical" backgrounds that were deficient in the study of history and literature was discussed but ultimately rejected. The first administration of the LSAT followed and occurred in 1948.
From the test's inception until 1981, scores were reported on a scale of 200 to 800; from 1981 to 1991, a 48-point scale was used. In 1991, the scale was changed again, so that reported scores range from 120 to 180.
Online test
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, The Law School Admission Council created the LSAT-Flex. The LSAT-Flex is an online proctored test that was first administrated during May 2020. While the normal LSAT test consisted of four sections plus an experimental section (1 section of logic games, 1 section of reading comprehension, 2 sections of logical reasoning, and an additional random section), the LSAT-Flex consists of three sections (1 section of logic games, 1 section of reading comprehension, and 1 section of logical reasoning). Though the LSAT-Flex contains one less section than the normal LSAT test, the LSAT-Flex is scored on the normal 120–180 scale. After June 2021, the name LSAT-Flex was dropped and the test was again referred to as just the LSAT, though the format continued to be used through the testing cycle that ended in June 2022. Beginning with the August 2022 administration, LSAC reintroduced an experimental section, having the test consist of three sections plus an exprimental section (1 section of logic games, 1 section of reading comprehension, 1 section of logical reasoning, and an additional random section). The writing section is also administered online.
Administration
The LSAC previously administered the LSAT four times per year: June, September/October, December and February. However, in June 2017, it was announced that the LSAC would be increasing the number of tests from four to six, and would instead be administering it in January, March, June, July, September, and November.
There were 129,925 LSATs administered in the 2011–12 testing year (June 2011 – February 2012), the largest percentage decline in LSATs administered in more than 10 years, and a drop of more than 16% from the previous year, when 155,050 LSATs were administered. The number of LSATs administered fell more than 25% over a two-year period (from the 2009–10 testing year to the 2011–12 testing year). The October 2012 administration reflected a 16.4% drop in volume from its 2011 counterpart. LSAT numbers continued to drop over the next two cycles but to a lesser degree, with 13.4% and 6.2% drops, respectively, for the 2012–13 and 2013–14 cycles. February 2014 showed the first increase in test takers (1.1%) since June 2010.
In December 2018, LSAC announced that the Microsoft Surface Go tablet will be used exclusively to administer the LSAT beginning in 2019 when the test transitions to a digital only format. However, following the COVID-19 pandemic, candidates are able to sit for the test remotely with their own computer. The writing sample section will be separate from the LSAT starting with the 3 June 2019 test administration. Candidates will be automatically eligible to complete the writing section as early as 10 days prior to test day and up to one year thereafter. Candidates only need to complete the writing sample section once every 5 years, even if candidates re-test before then.
Test composition
The LSAT consists of four 35-minute multiple-choice sections (one of which is an unscored experimental section) followed by an unscored writing sample section that can be taken separately. Modern tests have 75–76 scored items in total. Several different test forms are used within an administration, each presenting the multiple-choice sections in different orders, which is intended to make it difficult to cheat or to guess which is the experimental section.
Logical reasoning
As of 2021, the LSAT contains one (although previously two) logical reasoning ("LR") sections, commonly known as "arguments", designed to test the taker's ability to dissect and analyze arguments. LR sections each contain 24–26 questions. Each question begins with a short argument or set of facts. This is followed by a prompt asking the test taker to find the argument's assumption, to select an alternate conclusion to the argument, to identify errors or logical omissions in the argument, to find another argument with parallel reasoning, or to choose a statement that would weaken or strengthen the argument.
In October 2023, the LSAC announced that the analytical reasoning (logic games) section would be replaced by a second logical reasoning section in August 2024 pursuant to the implementation of a 2019 settlement agreement with blind LSAT test takers.
Reading comprehension
The LSAT contains one reading comprehension ("RC") section consisting of four passages of 400–500 words, and 5–8 questions relating to each passage. Complete sections contain 26–28 questions. Though no real rules govern the content of this section, the passages generally relate to law, arts and humanities, physical sciences, or social sciences. The questions usually ask the examinee to determine the author's main idea, find specific information in the passage, draw inferences from the text, and/or describe the structure of the passage.
In June 2007, one of the four passages was replaced with a "comparative reading" question. Comparative reading presents two shorter passages with differing perspectives on a topic. Parallels exist between the comparative reading question, the SAT's critical reading section, and the science section of the ACT.
Analytical reasoning
The current LSAT contains one analytical reasoning section, more commonly referred to as the logic games (LG) section. One section contains four "games" falling into a number of categories including grouping, matching, and ordering of elements. Each LG section has 22–24 questions. Each game begins by outlining the premise ("there are five people who might attend this afternoon's meeting") and establishing a set of conditions governing the relationships among the subjects ("if Amy is present, then Bob is not present; if Cathy is present, then Dan is present..."). The examinee is then asked to draw conclusions from the statements ("What is the maximum number of people who could be present?"). What makes the games challenging is that the rules do not produce a single "correct" set of relationships among all elements of the game; rather, the examinee is tested on their ability to analyze the range of possibilities embedded in a set of rules. Individual questions often add rules or modify existing rules, requiring quick reorganization of known information. The LG section is commonly regarded by LSAT takers as the most difficult section of the test, at least at first, but it is also the section that can be most improved upon with practice.
In 2019 the LSAC reached a legal settlement with two blind LSAT test takers who claimed that the section violated the Americans with Disabilities Act because they were unfairly penalized for not being able to draw the diagrams commonly used to solve the questions in the section. As part of the settlement, the LSAC agreed to review and overhaul the section within four years. In October 2023, it announced that the section would be replaced by a second logical reasoning section in August 2024.
Unscored variable section
The current test contains one experimental section which Law Services refers to as the "Variable section". It is used to test new questions for future exams. The performance of the examinee on this section is not reported as part of the final score. The examinee is not told which section of the exam is experimental, since doing so could skew the data. Previously, this section has always been one of the first three sections of any given test, but beginning with the administration of the October 2011 LSAT, the experimental can be after the first three sections. LSAC makes no specific claim as to which section(s) it has appeared as in the past, and what section(s) it may appear as in the future. This section is regarded as harder than the scored sections.
Writing sample
The writing sample appears as the final section of the exam. The writing sample is presented in the form of a decision prompt, which provides the examinee with a problem and two criteria for making a decision. The examinee must then write an essay arguing for one of the two options over the other. The decision prompt generally does not involve a controversial subject, but rather something mundane about which the examinee likely has no strong bias. While there is no "right" or "wrong" answer to the writing prompt, it is important that the examinee argues for his/her chosen position and also argues against the counter-position.
LSAC does not score the writing sample. Instead, the essay is digitally imaged and sent to admission offices along with the LSAT score. Between the quality of the handwriting and of the digital image, some admissions officers regard the readability and usefulness of the writing sample to be marginal. Additionally, most schools require that applicants submit a "personal statement" of some kind. These factors sometimes result in admission boards disregarding the writing sample. However, only 6.8% of 157 schools surveyed by LSAC in 2006 indicated that they "never" use the writing sample when evaluating an application. In contrast, 9.9% of the schools reported that they "always" use the sample; 25.3% reported that they "frequently" use the sample; 32.7% responded "occasionally"; and 25.3% reported "seldom" using the sample.
Preparation
LSAC recommends advance preparation for the LSAT, due to the importance of the LSAT in law school admissions and because scores on the exam typically correspond to preparation time. The structure of the LSAT and the types of questions asked are generally consistent from year to year, which allows students to practice on question types that show up frequently in examinations.
LSAC suggests, at a minimum, that students review official practice tests, called PrepTests, before test day to familiarize themselves with the types of questions that appear on the exams. LSAC offers one free test that can be downloaded from their website. For best results, LSAC suggests taking practice tests under actual time constraints and representative conditions in order to identify problem areas to focus on in further review.
For preparation purposes, only tests after June 1991 are considered modern, since the LSAT was significantly modified after this date. Each released exam is commonly referred to as a PrepTest. There are over 90 PrepTests in circulation, the oldest being the June 1991 LSAT numbered as PrepTest 1 and the newest being a June 2020 LSAT numbered as PrepTest 93+. Certain PrepTests are no longer published by LSAC (among them 1–6, 8, 17, 39, and 40), despite the fact that they were in print at one time. However, these tests have been made available through some of the test preparation companies, which have licensed them from LSAC to provide only to students in their courses. For a few years, some prep companies sold digital copies of LSAT PrepTests as PDFs, but LSAC revised its licensing policy in 2016, effectively banning the sale of LSAT PDFs to the general public.
Some students taking the LSAT use a test preparation company. Students who do not use these courses often rely on material from LSAT preparation books, previously administered exams, and internet resources such as blogs, forums, and mobile apps.
Scoring
The LSAT is a standardized test in that LSAC adjusts raw scores to fit an expected norm to overcome the likelihood that some administrations may be more difficult than others. Normalized scores are distributed on a scale with a low of 120 to a high of 180.
The LSAT system of scoring is predetermined and does not reflect test takers' percentile. The relationship between raw questions answered correctly (the "raw score") and scaled score is determined before the test is administered, through a process called equating. This means that the conversion standard is set beforehand, and the distribution of percentiles can vary during the scoring of any particular LSAT.
Adjusted scores lie in a bell curve, tapering off at the extremes and concentrating near the median. For example, there might be a 3–5 question difference between a score of 175 and a score of 180, but the difference between a 155 from a 160 could be 9 or more questions—this is because the LSAT uses an ordinal grading system. Although the exact percentile of a given score will vary slightly between examinations, there tends to be little variance. The 50th percentile is typically a score of about 151; the 90th percentile is around 165 and the 99th is about 173. A 178 or better usually places the examinee in the 99.9th percentile.
Examinees have the option of canceling their scores within six calendar days after the exam, before they get their scores. LSAC still reports to law schools that the student registered for and took the exam, but releases no score. Test takers typically receive their scores by e-mail between three and four weeks after the exam. There is a formal appeals process for examinee complaints, which has been used for proctor misconduct, peer misconduct, and occasionally for challenging a question. In very rare instances, specific questions have been omitted from final scoring.
University of North Texas economist Michael Nieswiadomy has conducted several studies (in 1998, 2006, and 2008) derived from LSAC data. In the most recent study, Nieswiadomy took the LSAC's categorization of test-takers in terms of their undergraduate college and university academic major study areas, and grouped a total of 162 major study areas into 29 categories, finding the averages of each major:
Mathematics/Physics 160.0
Economics and Philosophy and Theology (tie) 157.4
International relations 156.5
Engineering 156.2
Government/service 156.1
Chemistry 156.1
History 155.9
Interdisciplinary studies 155.5
Foreign languages 155.3
English 155.2
Biology/natural sciences 154.8
Arts 154.2
Computer science 154.0
Finance 153.4
Political science 153.1
Psychology 152.5
Liberal arts 152.4
Anthropology/geography 152.2
Accounting 151.7
Journalism 151.5
Sociology/social work 151.2
Marketing 150.8
Business management 149.7
Education 149.4
Business administration 149.1
Health professions 148.4
Pre-law 148.3
Criminal justice 146.0
Use of scores in law school admissions
The LSAT is considered an important part of the law school admissions process, along with GPA. Many law schools are selective in their decisions to admit students, and the LSAT is one method of differentiating candidates.
Additionally the LSAC says the LSAT (like the SAT and ACT at the undergraduate level) serves as a standardized measure of one's ability to succeed during law school. Undergraduate grade points can vary significantly due to choices in course load as well as grade inflation, which may be pervasive at an applicant's undergraduate institution, but almost nonexistent at that of another. Some law schools, such as Georgetown University and the University of Michigan have added programs designed to waive the LSAT for selected students who have maintained a 3.8 undergraduate GPA at their schools.
LSAC says its own research supports the use of the LSAT as a major factor in admissions, saying the median validity for LSAT alone is .41 (2001) and .40 (2002) in regard to the first year of law school. The correlation varies from school to school, and LSAC says that test scores are more strongly correlated to first year law school performance than is undergraduate GPA. LSAC says that a more strongly correlated single-factor measure does not currently exist, that GPA is difficult to use because it is influenced by the school and the courses taken by the student, and that the LSAT can serve as a yardstick of student ability because it is statistically normed. However, the American Bar Association has waived the requirement for law schools to use the LSAT as an admission requirement in select cases. This may be due to the fact that an emphasis on LSAT scores is considered by some to be detrimental to the promotion of diversity among applicants. Others argue that it is an attempt by law schools to counteract declining enrollment.
Most admission boards use an admission index, which is a formula that applies different weight to the LSAT and undergraduate GPA and adds the results. This composite statistic can have a weaker correlation to first year performance than either GPA or LSAT score alone, depending on the weighting used. The amount of weight assigned to LSAT score versus undergraduate GPA varies from school to school, as almost all law programs employ a different admission index formula.
Multiple scores
Starting in September 2019, students may take the LSAT up to three times in a single LSAC year (1 June – 31 May), up to five times within the current and five past testing years (the period in which LSAC reports scores to law schools), and up to seven times over a lifetime. These restrictions will not apply retroactively; tests taken prior to September 2019 do not count toward a student's totals. Also, LSAC will implement an appeals process to grant exceptions to these restrictions under extenuating circumstances. Furthermore, starting in September 2019, no student who has obtained a perfect LSAT score of 180 within the current and five past testing years will be allowed to take the LSAT. This rule, unlike the other new rules, will be retroactive: a score of 180 obtained prior to September 2019 (but within the past five years) will preclude another attempt.
Between 2017 and July 2019, students could take the LSAT as many times as it was offered. Prior to 2017, only three attempts were allowed in a two-year period.
Every score within five years is reported to law schools during the application process, as well a separate average of all scores on record. When faced with multiple scores from repeat test takers, users of standardized assessments typically employ three indices—most recent, highest, and average scores—in order to summarize an individual’s related performance.
How the law schools report the LSAT scores of their matriculants to the American Bar Association (ABA) has changed over the years. In June 2006, the ABA revised a rule that mandated law schools to report their matriculants' average score if more than one test was taken. The current ABA rule now requires law schools to report only the highest LSAT score for matriculants who took the test more than once. In response, many law schools began considering only the highest LSAT score during the admissions process, as the highest score is an important factor in law school rankings such as those published by U.S. News & World Report. Many students rely heavily upon the rankings when deciding where to attend law school.
Use of scores in admissions to intellectual clubs
High LSAT scores are accepted as qualifying evidence for intellectual clubs such as American Mensa, Intertel, the Triple Nine Society and the International Society for Philosophical Enquiry. The minimum scores they require depend on the selectivity of each society and time period when the test was administered. After 1982, Mensa has required students to score in the 95+ percentile rank on the LSAT for membership, while Intertel has required an LSAT score of 172 for admission since 1994, and Triple Nine has required an LSAT score of 173 for acceptance since 1991.
Fingerprinting controversy
Starting October 1973, those taking the LSAT were required to have fingerprints taken, after some examinees were found to have hired impostors to take the test on their behalf.
A controversy surrounding the LSAT was the requirement that examinees submit to fingerprinting on the day of testing. Although LSAC does not store digital representations of fingerprints, there is a concern that fingerprints might be accessible by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. At the behest of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada, the LSAC implemented a change as of September 2007 which exempts Canadian test takers from the requirement to provide a fingerprint and instead requires that Canadian test-takers provide a photograph. Starting with the June 2011 admission of the LSAT, LSAC expanded this policy to include test-takers in the United States and Caribbean; LSAC therefore no longer requires fingerprints from any test takers, and instead requires that they submit a photograph.
LSAT─India For India
LSAC started conducting Law School Admission Test for Indian law schools in 2009. is conducted twice a year by a test conducting agency, Pearson on behalf of LSAC. There are around 1300 law schools in India and many of them offer admission through law entrance examinations. However, LSAT─India scores are accepted by only about 10-15 private law schools in the country. These scores are not accepted anywhere else in South Asia. As a result, student and college participation in the LSAT─India has been low.
See also
Association of American Law Schools
References
External links
Law School Admission Council
Legal profession exams
Standardized tests for Law
Standardized tests in the United States
Law schools in the United States
1948 introductions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotherham%20United%20F.C.
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Rotherham United F.C.
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Rotherham United Football Club, nicknamed The Millers, is a professional football club based in Rotherham, South Yorkshire, England. The team compete in the , the second level of the English football league system, in the 2023–24 season. The club's colours were initially yellow and black, but changed to red and white around 1930. They have played home matches at the New York Stadium since 2012, having briefly moved to the Don Valley Stadium from their original home at Millmoor in 2008.
The club was formed as a merger between Rotherham County and Rotherham Town in 1925 and were immediately placed in the Football League. They won promotion as champions of the Third Division North in 1950–51 and were beaten finalists in the inaugural League Cup final in 1961, losing to Aston Villa 3–2 on aggregate. After seventeen seasons in the Second Division, relegations followed in 1968 and 1973. Promotion from the Fourth Division was secured in 1974–75 and the club went on to win the Third Division title in 1980–81. Relegations in 1983 and 1988 gave Rotherham the opportunity to win the Fourth Division title in 1988–89, though they had to win another promotion in 1991–92 following relegation the previous season. They beat Shrewsbury Town 2–1 in the 1996 final of the Football League Trophy.
Under the stewardship of Ronnie Moore, Rotherham secured back-to-back promotions in 1999–2000 and 2000–01. They stayed in the second tier for four seasons, though were relegated twice in three years by 2007. The club again secured back-to-back promotions, this time under Steve Evans, securing automatic promotion from League Two in 2012–13 and promotion from League One via the play-offs in 2013–14. The club have moved between the Championship and League One for six successive seasons between 2016–17 and 2021–22, winning the play-offs in 2018 as well as the 2022 EFL Trophy final.
History
The club's roots go back to 1877, when the club was formed as Thornhill Football Club (later Thornhill United). George Cook was the trainer around this time. For many years the leading team in the area was Rotherham Town, who spent three seasons in the Football League while Thornhill United were still playing in the Sheffield & Hallamshire League. By the turn of the century, however, Town had resigned from the Football League and gone out of business; a new club of the same name later joined the Midland League. Meanwhile, Thornhill's fortunes were on the rise to the extent that in 1905 they laid claim to being the pre-eminent club in the town and changed their name to Rotherham County. For a period both clubs competed in the Midland League, finishing first and second in 1911–12. Rotherham County became members of the second division of the Football league in 1919 whilst Rotherham Town failed to become elected to the third division northern section the following year. By 1925 County's fortunes had declined and they had to seek re-election to the third division. By this time it had become clear that to have two professional clubs in the town was not sustainable. Talks had begun in February 1925 and in early May the two clubs merged to form Rotherham United. Days later the reformed club was formally re-elected to the Football League under its new name.
The red and white kit was adopted around 1930 after playing in amber and black, but there was no improvement in the club's fortunes: in 1931 they again had to apply for re-election. Immediately after the Second World War things looked up. The Millers won the only post-war edition of the Football League Third Division North Cup in 1946 beating Chester 5–4 on aggregate. They then finished as runners-up three time in succession between 1947 and 1949 and then were champions of Division Three (North) in 1951. Rotherham reached their highest ever league position of third in the Football League Second Division in 1955, when only goal average denied them a place in the top flight after they finished level on points with champions Birmingham City and runners-up Luton Town. During that season they had notable results including a 6–1 win over Liverpool. In 1961 the Millers beat Aston Villa 2–0 at Millmoor in the inaugural League Cup final first leg; they lost the second leg 3–0 however at Villa Park. The second leg was played the season after due to Villa having a 'Congested Fixture List'. The club held on to its place in Division Two until 1968 and then went into a decline that took them down to Division Four in 1973. In 1975 they were promoted back to the Third Division finishing in the 3rd promotion spot in the Fourth Division. The Millers won the Division Three title in the 1980–81 season, and missed out on a second consecutive promotion by four points, finishing seventh In the second tier (then Division 2) 1981–82. They have not finished this high since. This season also saw Rotherham accomplish their highest-scoring second-tier league double, beating Chelsea 6–0 at home (31 October 1981) and 4–1 away at Stamford Bridge (20 March 1982).
During the 1990s Rotherham were promoted and relegated between the Football League's lowest two divisions and they slipped into the Fourth Division in 1991, just two years after being promoted, but reclaimed their status in the third tier (renamed Division Two for the 1992–93 season due to the launch of the FA Premier League) by finishing third in the Fourth Division in 1992. They survived at this level for five years, never looking like promotion contenders, before being relegated in 1997. In 1996 Rotherham United made their first trip to Wembley, beating Shrewsbury 2–1 to win the Football League Trophy, with two goals from Nigel Jemson giving Rotherham the win, with over 20,000 Rotherham United fans following them. In 1997, just after relegation to Division Three, Ronnie Moore took charge of Rotherham United. His first season ended in a mid-table finish and then his second in a play-off semi-final defeat on penalties to Leyton Orient. In 1999–2000 as Rotherham finished as Division Three runners-up and gained promotion to Division Two, where they finished runners-up and won a second successive promotion.
Rotherham managed to remain in Division One for four seasons, and after relegation to League One in 2005, Mick Harford took over as the Millers' manager, but was sacked after a run of 17 games without a win. Harford was replaced by youth team coach, Alan Knill. Early in 2006 it was announced that the club faced an uncertain future unless a funding gap in the region of £140,000 per month could be plugged. An intervention at the latest possible time by a consortium of local businessmen kept them in business. The final match of the 2005–06 season, home to Milton Keynes Dons, was a winner-take-all relegation showdown where a scoreless draw kept Rotherham up. Rotherham United began their second successive year in League One with a 10-point deficit as a result of the CVA which saved the club from liquidation. The club initially pulled the points back but, after losing key playmaker Lee Williamson and star striker Will Hoskins in the January transfer window, the Millers sat 13 points adrift of safety, making the threat of relegation inevitable. This resulted in Knill being sacked on 1 March, with Mark Robins becoming caretaker manager.
Robins's position was made permanent on 6 April 2007, but he was not able to save Rotherham from relegation. The Millers spent the majority of the 2007–08 season in the automatic promotion places but in mid-March 2008 it was revealed that Rotherham had again entered administration and would be deducted 10 points. Local businessman Tony Stewart then took over as chairman for the 2008–09 season and took the club out of administration via a Creditors Voluntary Agreement, resulting in a 17-point deduction. The Millers were subsequently forced to leave Millmoor, their home of over 100 years, for the Don Valley Stadium in Sheffield, after disputes with the landlords. The Millers had a successful season under the new regime, wiping out the point deficit and being in contention for a play-off place. Rotherham were also involved in two cup runs, reaching the Football League Trophy Northern Final and the League Cup last 16. This included victories over higher league opposition in the form of Wolverhampton Wanderers, Southampton, Sheffield Wednesday, Leicester City and Leeds United.
Mark Robins kept the majority of the team together from the 2008–09 campaign, whilst bolstering his squad with high calibre signings in the form of Nicky Law and the prolific goalscorer Adam Le Fondre. The 2009–10 season started well until Mark Robins controversially departed to rivals Barnsley in September, leaving the Millers at the top of the league. Former manager Ronnie Moore replaced him and led the club to their first ever play-off final and first trip to the new Wembley Stadium, where they lost 3–2 loss. In March 2011, following poor form he left Rotherham by mutual consent, and Andy Scott replaced him until he was sacked in March 2012. Steve Evans succeeded him, in the first season at the New York Stadium, and won promotion by finishing second in League Two. In the 2013–14 League One season, Rotherham gained a place in the League One play-offs, where they defeated Preston North End in the semi-finals to set up a second play-off final at Wembley Stadium in four years. In the final against Leyton Orient, the game went to a penalty shoot-out, where two saves from Adam Collin secured a second successive promotion for the club.
In the 2014–15 Championship season, Rotherham's first after a nine-year absence, their survival was jeopardised by a points deduction for fielding the ineligible Farrend Rawson during their home win against Brighton & Hove Albion, Farrend Rawson's loan had expired two days prior to the match, and despite the club insisting it was an external administrative error, they were subsequently thrown back into a relegation battle. However, safety was secured in the penultimate game of the season with a 2–1 home victory against Reading. Rotherham sold key players from their promotion winning campaigns before the 2015–16 season, including Ben Pringle, Craig Morgan and Kari Arnason. Evans left the club in September and former Leeds United manager Neil Redfearn was appointed as his replacement, being sacked in February 2016 after a run of six defeats in eight games. Neil Warnock was appointed as manager for the rest of the season, and the club stayed up, finishing 21st. Warnock left the club in May 2016 after not agreeing a contract extension. Alan Stubbs became the new Rotherham boss in June 2016, but was sacked in October. Rotherham replaced Stubbs with Kenny Jackett, who himself was replaced with Paul Warne, as Rotherham finished the season bottom of the league and were relegated to League One.
At the first attempt, Rotherham returned to the Championship, defeating Shrewsbury in the 2018 play-off final.
Rotherham were relegated from the Championship the following season on the penultimate game of the campaign. The COVID-19 pandemic struck during the 2019–20 season and cut short Rotherham's ambitions of being promoted the 'old fashioned way'. Their final game before the March 2020 lockdown was a 3–1 loss away at Rochdale. The Millers were eventually promoted through points per game in 2nd place behind Coventry City. Their return to the Championship was one which fans watched from home due to the persistence of the pandemic. However, despite the best efforts of the Millers, Rotherham would be relegated. Rotherham took the season to the final day where a victory would see them survive if Sheffield Wednesday and Derby County drew with each other. The draw did indeed occur, but Rotherham suffered an 88th minute equaliser against Cardiff City, which was enough to keep Derby in the Championship and Rotherham to be relegated to League One for the 2021–22 season. In the 2021–22 season, the Millers were promoted back to the Championship as runners-up, defeating Gillingham 2–0 on the final day of the season. The club also won the 2021–22 EFL Trophy at Wembley Stadium after defeating Sutton United 4–2 after extra time. Early in the 2022–23 season, manager Paul Warne departed for Derby County, being replaced by Exeter City boss Matt Taylor.
Kit and sponsorship
Since 2015, the naming rights to the stadium are currently owned by local multimillion-pound company AESSEAL.
The club's principal sponsor is IPM Group and Asura which features on all the playing kits. The training wear has a separate sponsorship with Guardian Electrical appearing on all training and leisure wear. All kit is made by long term sponsor Puma which has worked with the club for over 10 years.
Stadium
The club's traditional home was Millmoor in Rotherham where the team played from 1907 to 2008. On one side of the ground is the site of the new Main Stand which remains unfinished. It was hoped that the 4,500 capacity stand which is single tiered, all seated and covered, would be completed sometime during the 2006–07 season, but this had not come to fruition by the time the ground became disused in 2008. On the other side of the ground is the Millmoor Lane Stand, which has a mixture of covered and open seating. Roughly each section on this side is about a third of the length of the pitch. The covered seating in the middle of this stand looks quite distinctive, with several supporting pillars and an arched roof. Both ends are former terraces, with several supporting pillars and have now been made all seated. The larger of the two is the Tivoli End, which was used by home fans. It was noticeable that the pitch slopes up towards this end. The ground also benefits from a striking set of floodlights, the pylons of which are some of the tallest in the country at approximately 124 feet high. Following the failure of the owners of the club and the owners of Millmoor to reach a lease agreement the club left for the Don Valley Stadium in Sheffield in 2008.
Whilst a new purpose-built community stadium was being built in Rotherham, the club relocated to the Don Valley Stadium in nearby Sheffield for four seasons from 2008–09 to 2011–12.
In January 2010 the club announced that their new stadium, later named the AESSEAL New York Stadium, would be built on the former Guest and Chrimes foundry site in Rotherham town centre.
Preparation work on the site began in February 2010 to make way for the foundations to be put in place and for the old factory to be knocked down to make way for the stadium. Construction started in June 2011 and the first game played at the stadium was a pre-season match between Rotherham and Barnsley, held on 21 July 2012. The Millers won 2–1; the first goal in the stadium was scored by Jacob Mellis of Barnsley, and David Noble scored Rotherham's first goal in their new home. The New York Stadium made its league debut on 18 August 2012, in which Rotherham beat Burton Albion 3–0,
Daniel Nardiello scoring the first competitive goal in the ground.
Supporters
In the TV series ChuckleVision, there are often references made to the club, whom the brothers support in real life. In "Football Heroes", Paul and Barry play for Rotherham after a mix-up with two former players of the club, Paul scores an own-goal and thinking it was a genuine goal, celebrates with Barry.
Records and statistics
Highest league finish: 3rd, 1954–55 Football League Second Division
Best FA Cup performance: Fifth round, 1952–53, 1967–68
Record league victory: 8–0 v. Oldham Athletic, Millmoor, Division 3 North, 26 May 1947
Record cup victory: 6–0 v. Spennymoor United, FA Cup second round, 17 December 1977, v. Wolverhampton Wanderers, FA Cup first round, 16 November 1985, v. King's Lynn, FA Cup second round, 6 December 1997
Record defeat: 1–11 v. Bradford City, Division 3 North, 25 August 1928
Record home attendance at Millmoor: 25,170 v. Sheffield United, Football League Second Division, 13 December 1952
Record home attendance at Don Valley Stadium: 7,082 v. Aldershot Town, Football League Two play-offs, 19 May 2010
Record home attendance at the New York Stadium: 11,758 v. Sheffield United, Football League One, 7 September 2013
Most played opponents in league and cup matches: Lincoln City (94), Doncaster Rovers (84), Crewe Alexandra (79), Bradford City (78), York City (78)
Opponents with most victories against in league and cup matches: Lincoln City (49), Doncaster Rovers (40), Bradford City (37), Rochdale (36), Chester City (35)
Opponents with most defeats against in league and cup matches: Chesterfield (41), Wrexham (31), Darlington (30), Walsall (29), Crewe Alexandra (29), Huddersfield Town (29)
Opponents with most draws against in league and cup matches: Swansea City (25), Doncaster Rovers (22), Lincoln City (21), Walsall (21), Crewe Alexandra (20), York City (20)
Record league points: 91, Division 2, 2000–01
Record league goals: 114, Division 3 (N), 1946–47
Record league goal-scorer: Gladstone Guest, 130 league goals, between 1946–1956
Record cup goal-scorer: Alan Crawford, 18 goals, between 1974–1979
Highest league scorer in a season: Wally Ardron, 38 goals, 1946/47
Most goals in one match: Jack Shaw, 5 goals v. Darlington, FA Cup, 25 November 1950, won 7–2
Most internationally capped player: Kári Árnason (36 caps for Iceland)
Record appearances: Danny Williams, 461 league matches, 39 cup matches, 621 in total
Youngest player: Kevin Eley, 16 years 71 days, 15 May 1984
Record transfer fee: Freddie Ladapo from Plymouth Argyle
Record fee received: £1,600,000 from Cardiff City for Danny Ward
Record gate receipts: £106,182 v. Southampton, FA Cup third round, 16 January 2002
Players
First-team squad
Out on loan
Club management
Coaching positions
Manager: Matt Taylor
Assistant manager: Wayne Carlisle
First Team coach: Dan Green
Goalkeeping coach: Scott Brown
Head of Performance: Stephen Gilpin
Head Physiotherapist: Dom Rae
Head of Talent ID: Rob Scott
Chief Scout: Chris Trotter
Lead Technical Scout: Warren Spalding
Academy Manager: Richard Hairyes
Academy Head of Coaching: John Williams
Development Phase Lead coach: Rob Poulter
Youth Phase Lead coach: Stuart Swift
Foundation Phase Lead coach: Dave Atkinson
Head of Academy Physiotherapy: Jessica Shaw
Head of Academy Recruitment: Scott Duncanson
Managerial history
Board of directors and ownership
Chairman: Tony Stewart
Vice-chairman: Richard Stewart
Chief Executive: Paul Douglas
Operations Director: Julie Hunt
Commercial Director: Steve Coakley
Financial Director: Karen Thomas
Honours and achievements
Football League Third Division / Third Division North / League One (3rd tier)
Champions: 1950–51, 1980–81
2nd place promotion: 2000–01, 2019–20, 2021–22
Play-off winners: 2013–14, 2017–18
Football League Fourth Division / League Two (4th tier)
Champions : 1988–89
2nd place promotion: 1991–92, 1999–2000, 2012–13
3rd place promotion: 1974–75
Football League Cup
Runners-up: 1960–61
Football League Trophy / EFL Trophy
Winners: 1995–96, 2021–22
Football League Third Division North Cup
Winners 1945–46
References
External links
1925 establishments in England
Association football clubs established in 1925
Sport in Rotherham
Football clubs in South Yorkshire
Football clubs in England
Sheffield & Hallamshire County FA members
English Football League clubs
EFL Trophy winners
Companies that have entered administration in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lines%20of%20Torres%20Vedras
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Lines of Torres Vedras
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The Lines of Torres Vedras were lines of forts and other military defences built in secrecy to defend Lisbon during the Peninsular War. Named after the nearby town of Torres Vedras, they were ordered by Arthur Wellesley, Viscount Wellington, constructed by Colonel Richard Fletcher and his Portuguese workers between November 1809 and September 1810, and used to stop Marshal Masséna's 1810 offensive. The Lines were declared a National Heritage by the Portuguese Government in March 2019.
Development
At the beginning of the Peninsular War (1807–14) France and Spain signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau in October 1807. This provided for the invasion and subsequent division of Portuguese territory into three kingdoms. Subsequently, French troops under the command of General Junot entered Portugal, which requested support from the British. In July 1808 troops commanded by Sir Arthur Wellesley, the later Duke of Wellington, landed in Portugal and defeated French troops at the Battles of Roliça and Vimeiro. This forced Junot to negotiate the Convention of Cintra, which led to the evacuation of the French army from Portugal. In March 1809, Marshal Soult led a new French expedition that advanced south to the city of Porto before being repulsed by Portuguese-British troops and forced to withdraw. After this retreat, Wellesley's forces advanced into Spain to join 33,000 Spanish troops under General Cuesta. At Talavera, some southwest of Madrid, they encountered and defeated 46,000 French soldiers under Marshal Claude Victor. After the Battle of Talavera, Wellington realised that he was seriously outnumbered by the French army, giving rise to the possibility that he could be forced to retreat to Portugal and possibly evacuate. He decided to strengthen the proposed evacuation area around the Fort of São Julião da Barra on the estuary of the River Tagus, near Lisbon.
Planning
In October 1809, Wellington, drawing on topographical maps prepared by José Maria das Neves Costa, and making use of a report that was prepared for General Junot in 1807, surveyed the area north of Lisbon with Lieutenant-Colonel Richard Fletcher. Eventually they chose the terrain from Torres Vedras to Lisbon because of its mountainous characteristics. From north to south, great undulations created peaks that straddled deep valleys, great gullies and wide ravines. The rugged and inhospitable area offered numerous possibilities for a stubborn rearguard fight from forts on many of the peaks.
Following the decision on the location, Lieutenant-Colonel Richard Fletcher ordered the work to begin on a network of interlocking fortifications, redoubts, escarpments, dams that flooded large areas, and other defences. Roads were also built to enable troops to move rapidly between forts. The work was supervised by Fletcher, assisted by Major John Thomas Jones, and 11 other British Officers, four Portuguese Army Engineers, and two KGL officers. The cost was less than £200,000 according to the Royal Engineers, one of the least expensive but most productive military investments in history.
When the results of the surveys by the Royal Engineers were completed, it was possible, in February 1810, to begin work on 150 smaller interlinking defensive positions, using, wherever possible, the natural features of the landscape. The work received a boost after the loss to the French of the fortress at the Siege of Almeida in August 1810 led to the public conscription of Portuguese labourers. The works were sufficiently complete to halt the advance of the French troops, who arrived in October of the same year. Even after the French had retreated from Portugal, construction of the lines continued in expectation of their return, and in 1812 34,000 men were still working on them. On completion there were 152 fortifications with a total of 648 cannon.
Construction
The work began on the main defensive works on 3 November 1809, initially at the Fort of São Julião da Barra and almost immediately afterwards at the Fort of São Vicente (St. Vincent) overlooking the town of Torres Vedras and at the Fort of Alqueidão on top of Monte Agraço. The entire construction was carried out in great secrecy and the French never became aware of it. Only one report appeared in the London newspapers, a major source of information for Napoleon. It is said that the British government did not know about the forts and was stunned when Wellington first said in dispatches that he had retreated to them. Even the British Ambassador in Lisbon appears to have been unaware of what was happening. These defences were accompanied by a scorched earth policy to their north in which the inhabitants were told to leave their farms, destroying all food they could not take and anything else that may be useful to the French. Although ultimately contributing to the success of the defence, this policy led to high rates of mortality among the Portuguese who had retreated south of the lines. By some estimates 40,000 died.
Labour for construction of the forts was supplied by Portuguese regiments from Lisbon, by hired Portuguese and, ultimately, through conscription of the whole district. The 152 works were supervised by just 18 engineers. The Lines were not continuous, as in the case of a defensive wall, but consisted of a series of mutually supporting forts and other defences that both guarded roads that the French could take and also covered each other’s flanks. The majority of the defences were redoubts holding 200 to 300 troops and three to six cannon, normally 12-pounders, which could fire canister shot or cannonballs. Each redoubt was protected by a ditch or dry moat, with parapets, and was palisaded. By the time the French reached the First Line in October 1810, 126 works had been completed and were manned by 29,750 men with 247 heavy guns. Wellington did not use his front-line troops to man the forts: instead, manpower was mainly provided by the Portuguese. Construction continued after the withdrawal of the French and was not fully completed until 1812.
Originally the Second Line was intended to be the main line of defence, north of Lisbon. The First Line, or Outer Line, was approximately to north of the Second Line. The original purpose of the First Line was to only delay the French. In fact, the First Line was not the original plan, the work was only carried out because the defenders were given extra time due to the slow advance of the French Army. In the end, the First Line succeeded in holding the French and the Second Line was never required. A Third Line, surrounding the Fort of São Julião da Barra near Lisbon, was built to protect Wellington’s evacuation by sea from the fort. A fourth line, of which little remains, was built south of the Tagus opposite Lisbon to prevent a French invasion of the city by boat.
First line
Wellington's first idea had been to construct the first line from Alhandra on the banks of the Tagus to Rio São Lourenço on the Atlantic coast, with advanced works at Torres Vedras, Sobral de Monte Agraço, and other commanding points. The delays to the French arrival, however, enabled him to strengthen the first line sufficiently to warrant aiming to hold it permanently rather than just using it for delaying purposes. Surveying this line from east to west, the first section from Alhandra to Arruda was about long, of which towards the Tagus had been inundated; another or more had been scarped into a precipice, and the most vulnerable point had been obstructed by a huge abatis. The additional defences included 23 redoubts mounting 96 guns, besides a flotilla of gunboats to guard the right flank on the Tagus. This area was under the command of Hill's division. Defences still visible in this section include the Fort of Subserra.
The second section extended from Arruda to the west of Monte Agraço, which was crowned by the very large fort now known as the Fort of Alqueidão, mounting twenty-five guns, with three smaller forts to support it. Monte Agraço itself was held by Pack's brigade with Anglo-Portuguese 5th Division (Leith's) in reserve behind it, while the less completely fortified country to the east was entrusted to the British Light Division.
The third section stretched from the west of Monte Agraço for nearly to the gorge of the river Sizandro, a little to south of Torres Vedras. This was strengthened by two redoubts which commanded the road from Sobral to Montachique. Here, therefore, were concentrated the 1st, 4th, and 6th divisions, under the eye of Wellington himself, who established his headquarters at Pero Negro, where he remained from approximately 16 October 1810 to 15 November 1810.
The last and most westerly section of the first line ran from the gorge of the Sizandro to the sea, a distance of nearly , more than half of which, however, on the western side had been rendered impassable by the damming of the Sizandro and by the conversion of its lower reaches into one huge inundation. The chief defence consisted of the entrenched camp of the Fort of São Vicente, a little to the north of Torres Vedras, which dominated the paved road leading from Leiria to Lisbon. The force assigned to this part of the Line was Picton's division.
Second line
The second line of defence was still more formidable. It can broadly be divided into three sections, from the Fort of Casa on the Tagus to Bucelas, from Bucelas to Mafra, and from Mafra to the sea, a total distance of . The main forts along this line that remain identifiable are three forts on the Serra da Aguieira that served to support the Fort of Casa in its defence of the River Tagus as well as covering the Bucelas Gorge. They also exchanged crossfire with the Fort of Arpim to their north, which was a link between the first and second lines as it was close to three other forts designed to protect the road from Bucelas to Alverca do Ribatejo. To the west of Bucelas was a line of hill-top forts dominated by the Montachique mountain. The mountain, at an altitude of 408 metres, was not fortified but was defended by what are today known as the Fort of Mosqueiro, the Fort of Ribas and others. Closer to Mafra, overlooking the town of Malveira, was the Fort of Feira, which was at the centre of a complex of 19 strongholds in the second Line. Mafra was one of the principle positions on the second line, with its defences being centred around the Tapada or royal park.
Third and fourth lines
In the event of failure even in the face of all these precautions, a very powerful line, long, was thrown up around the Fort of São Julião da Barra on the Tagus estuary to cover a retreat and any embarkation if it became necessary. This was considered to be the third line.
British ships dominated the Portuguese coast and the Tagus estuary, so a waterborne invasion by the French was unlikely. However, to guard against the possibility that the French would try to bypass the lines to the north of Lisbon by heading south along the left bank of the Tagus and then approaching Lisbon by boat, a fourth line was built south of the Tagus in the Almada area. The line was 7.3 kilometres (4.5 mi) long. It had 17 redoubts and covered trenches, 86 pieces of artillery, and was defended by marines and orderlies from Lisbon, with a total of 7,500 men.
Holding the Lines
The Anglo-Portuguese Army was forced to retreat to the first line after winning the Battle of Buçaco on 27 September 1810. The French army under Marshal Masséna discovered a barren land (under the scorched earth policy) and an enemy behind an almost impenetrable defensive position. Masséna's forces arrived at the lines on 11 October and took Sobral de Monte Agraço the following day. On 14 October the VIII Corps tried to push forward but at the Battle of Sobral they were repelled in an attempt to assault a strong British outpost. After attempting to wait out the enemy, the lack of food and fodder in the area north of the lines meant that Masséna was forced to order a French retreat northwards, starting on the night of 14/15 November 1810, to find an area that had not been subjected to the scorched earth policy.
In December 1810, fearing a French attempt on the left of the Tagus, a chain of 17 redoubts was constructed from Almada to Trafaria. However, the French made no movement, and after holding out through February, when starvation really set in, Marshal Masséna ordered a retreat at the beginning of March 1811, taking a month to get to Spain.
Marshal Masséna had begun his campaign with his 65,000 strong army (l'Armée de Portugal). After losing 4,000 at the Battle of Buçaco, he arrived at Torres Vedras with 61,000 men in October 1810 facing attrition warfare. When he eventually returned to Spain in April 1811, he had lost a further 21,000 men, mostly from starvation, severe illness and disease. Casualties had not been helped by the fact that the Iberian peninsula had suffered one of the coldest winters it had ever known.
When the Allies renewed their offensive in 1811, they were reinforced with fresh British troops. The advance started from the Lines of Torres Vedras shortly after the French retreat. Although work continued on certain sections of the lines, they saw no further action during rest of the Peninsular War.
Garrisons
The lines were divided up into districts by Wellington in a letter dated 6 October 1810. Each district was allocated one Captain and one Lieutenant of Engineers:
From Torres Vedras to the sea. HQ at Torres Vedras.
From Sobral de Monte Agraço to the valley of Calhandriz. HQ at Sobral de Monte Agraço.
From Alhandra to the valley of Calhandriz. HQ at Alhandra.
From the banks of the Tagus, near Alverca, to the Pass of Bucelas, inclusive. HQ at Bucelas.
From the Pass of Freixal, near Bucelas to the right of the Pass of Mafra. HQ at Montachique.
From the Pass of Mafra to the sea. HQ at Mafra.
The total number of troops available to Wellington amounted, exclusive of two battalions of marines around the Fort of São Julião, to 42,000 British, of whom 35,000 were combat ready together with over 27,000 Portuguese regulars, of whom 24,000 were combat ready; about 12,000 Portuguese militia; and 20–30,000 ordenanças, a Portuguese militia force used mainly for guerrilla warfare. Lastly, the Marquis of la Romana contributed 8,000 Spanish troops to the lines around Mafra. Altogether, therefore, Wellington had some 60,000 regular frontline troops whom he could depend upon, and 20,000 more who could be trusted to man the lines.
The redoubts of the First Line did not require more than 20,000 men to defend them, which left the whole of the true field-army free not only to reinforce any threatened point but also to make counter-attacks. To facilitate such movements a chain of five signal stations was established from one end of the First Line to the other, which allowed a message to be sent along the lines in 7 minutes, or from the HQ to any point in 4 minutes. The signal stations on the First Line were:
Redoubt n.30 close to the ocean (Ponte do Rol)
Fort of São Vicente at Torres Vedras
Monte do Socorro close to Pêro Negro, Wellington's headquarters.
Monte Agraço
Sobralinho, by the River Tagus.
while on the Second Line, five stations have been identified at:
Forts of Serra da Aguieira
Fort of Sunivel
Montachique mountain (Cabeço de Montachique)
Fort of Chipre
Fort of São Julião at Ericeira
Memorial
A monument commemorating the victory of the Anglo-Portuguese troops over the French armies and the construction of the Torres Vedras Lines was approved in 1874 and finished in 1883. Somewhat reminiscent of Nelson’s Column in London, the column is topped by a statue of the Classical Greek figure of Hercules. This was executed by the sculptor Simões de Almeida who was also responsible for the Monument to the Restorers in Lisbon. The column used marble from the parish of Pêro Pinheiro in Sintra municipality.
The monument was constructed near the village of Alhandra in the municipality of Vila Franca de Xira, on the site of the Boavista redoubt (originally numbered as work Number 3). It is close to work Number 114, the Fort of Subserra (also known as the Fort of Alhandra), which can be visited. In 1911, two plaques were added to acknowledge the contributions of Richard Fletcher and of José Maria das Neves Costa, on whose original topographic maps Wellington based his plans for the Lines.
Preservation and restoration
Substantial portions of the Lines survive today, albeit in most cases in a heavily decayed condition due to past removal of stones. Apart from some limited restoration of Fort St. Vincent in the 1960s the Lines had effectively lain abandoned from the end of the Peninsular War to the beginning of this millennium. In 2001 the six municipalities covered by the Lines (Torres Vedras, Mafra, Sobral de Monte Agraço, Arruda dos Vinhos, Loures and Villa Franca de Xira), together with agencies of what is now the Direção-Geral do Património Cultural (Directorate-General for Cultural Heritage - DGPC), and the Direção dos Serviços de Engenharia (Directorate of Military Engineering) signed a protocol to protect, restore and sustain the Lines. However, initial work was limited due to lack of resources. With the bicentennial of the Lines fast approaching the six municipalities set up an inter-municipal platform to move things forward and decided to apply for funding through the EEA and Norway Grants programme. Funding was granted in 2007.
EEA grants met the costs of 110 projects, while the municipalities funded the work at another 140 sites. Work involved included removal of excess vegetation, creation or restoration of access, archaeological studies, setting up of information boards, establishment of walking routes, and a Visitors' Centre in each municipality. This conservation work was awarded the European Union Prize for Cultural Heritage / Europa Nostra Awards in 2014.
The Leonel Trindade Municipal Museum, Torres Vedras in the centre of the town has a room dedicated to "The Lines" with a good display of information boards and artefacts. A short distance from the museum just outside of the town, Fort of São Vicente and the Fort of Olheiros have been well conserved, with the former having a visitors' centre open Tue-Sun 10-1pm and 2-6pm. The visitors' centre has well-produced historic wall displays and a 20 min video. Other information centres along the lines are:
Lines of Torres Interpretation Centre at Bucelas Wine museum.
Fort of Casa
Interpretation Centre at Sobral de Monte Agraço
Centro Cultural do Morgado, Arruda dos Vinhos
Centro de Interpretação das Linhas de Torres de Mafra
In fiction
Death to the French, novel by C. S. Forester,
Sharpe's Gold, novel by Bernard Cornwell
Sharpe's Escape, novel by Bernard Cornwell
Lines of Wellington, film by Raúl Ruiz and Valeria Sarmiento
How the Brigadier Saved An Army, short story by Arthur Conan Doyle
Beyond the Sunrise, novel by Mary Balogh
References
Sources
Attribution:
Further reading
External links
Friends of the Lines of Torres Vedras
Complete list of the different military works (In Portuguese)
British Historical Society of Portugal, which organizes regular guided visits to the forts.
Photographs and map of fort locations
05 de Dezembro – Caminhada de Sobral de Monte Agraço – Forte do Alqueidão
More details on the military fortifications
The construction of São Vicente
Semaphore Tower Monte Socorro Historical Reconstruction of semaphore tower.
Lines of Torres Vedras Historical Trail: Guide.
1810 establishments in Portugal
Infrastructure completed in 1810
19th-century fortifications
Peninsular War
Military history of Portugal
Torres Vedras
Torres Vedras
Buildings and structures in Torres Vedras
National redoubts
National monuments in Lisbon District
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy%20Johnson
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Randy Johnson
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Randall David Johnson (born September 10, 1963), nicknamed "the Big Unit", is an American former professional baseball pitcher who played 22 seasons in Major League Baseball (1988–2009) for six teams, primarily the Seattle Mariners and Arizona Diamondbacks.
At , Johnson was the tallest player in MLB history when he entered the league, contributing to his extremely intimidating persona and pitching style. He is particularly known for his overpowering fastball and devastating slider, a combination that remained effective throughout his lengthy career. While he initially struggled with control in his early seasons, Johnson subsequently established himself as one of the most dominant pitchers of his era, leading his league in strikeouts nine times, and in earned run average, winning percentage, and complete games four times each. Along with teammate Curt Schilling, Johnson was one of two World Series Most Valuable Players in 2001; in the Series, Johnson won three games and led the Arizona Diamondbacks to a World Series victory over the New York Yankees in the fourth season of the team's existence. He won the pitching Triple Crown in 2002.
Johnson's 303 career victories are the fifth-most by a left-hander in MLB history, while his 4,875 strikeouts place him second all time behind Nolan Ryan and first among left-handers. Johnson is a ten-time All-Star, won the Cy Young Award five times, and is one of only two pitchers (the other is Greg Maddux) to win the award in four consecutive seasons (1999–2002). Johnson won Cy Young Awards in both leagues. He is also one of five pitchers to pitch no-hitters in both leagues, and one of 21 pitchers in history to record a win against all 30 MLB franchises.
Johnson enjoyed a career longevity uncommon to pitchers, with his signature fastball-slider combination remaining effective well into his 40s. Four of his six 300-strikeout seasons occurred after his 35th birthday. On May 18, 2004, at 40 years old, he threw Major League Baseball's 17th perfect game, and remains the oldest pitcher to accomplish the feat. Johnson retired at the age of 46, and was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2015, his first year of eligibility. He is the first member of the Hall to be depicted in a Diamondbacks uniform on his plaque.
Early life
Johnson was born in the San Francisco Bay Area suburb of Walnut Creek, California, to Carol Hannah and Rollen Charles "Bud" Johnson. By the time he entered Livermore High School, he was a star in baseball and basketball. In 1982, as a senior, he struck out 121 batters in 66 innings, and threw a perfect game in his last high school start.
College career
Johnson accepted a full athletic scholarship to play baseball for the University of Southern California. While at USC, he also played two years of basketball. He was a starter at USC (where he was a teammate of Mark McGwire) under coach Rod Dedeaux, but often exhibited control problems.
Professional career
Drafts and minor leagues
After high school, Johnson was selected by the Atlanta Braves in the 4th round of the 1982 MLB draft, but did not sign. He was drafted by the Montreal Expos in the second round of the 1985 Major League Baseball draft. In 1985, he pitched for the Jamestown Expos of the New York-Pennsylvania League. In 1986, he pitched for the West Palm Beach Expos of the Florida State League. In 1987, he pitched for the Jacksonville Expos of the Southern League. In 1988, he pitched for the Indianapolis Indians of the American Association.
Montreal Expos (1988–1989)
He made his major league debut on September 15, 1988, against the Pittsburgh Pirates, earning a 9–4 victory with a five-inning outing in which he gave up two runs with five strikeouts; his first victim was Orestes Destrade in the second inning. Johnson posted a record of 3–0 with a 2.42 earned run average (ERA) in four games in 1988, but 1989 saw him slip to an 0–4 mark with a 6.67 ERA in seven games through May 7. On May 25, 1989, he was traded to the Seattle Mariners in a trade involving five pitchers that brought Mark Langston to Montreal. In 11 total games played with the Expos, he went 3–4 with a 4.69 ERA and one complete game in 55.2 innings with 51 strikeouts and 33 walks.
Seattle Mariners (1989–1998)
1989–1992
After joining the Mariners during the 1989 season, Johnson led the American League in walks for three consecutive seasons (1990–1992), and hit batsmen in 1992 and 1993. In July 1991, facing the Milwaukee Brewers, the erratic Johnson allowed 4 runs on 1 hit, thanks to 10 walks in 4 innings. A month later, a 9th-inning single cost him a no-hitter against the Oakland Athletics. Johnson suffered another 10-walk, 4-inning start in 1992.
His untapped talent was explosive: In 1990, Johnson became the first left-hander to strike out Wade Boggs three times in one game, and a no-hitter against the Detroit Tigers attested to his potential. Johnson credits a session with Nolan Ryan late in the 1992 season with helping him take his career to the next level; Ryan has said that he appreciated Johnson's talent and did not want to see him take as long to figure certain things out as he had taken. Ryan recommended a slight change in his delivery; before the meeting, Johnson would land on the heel of his foot after delivering a pitch, and he therefore usually landed offline from home plate. Ryan suggested that he land on the ball of his foot, and almost immediately, he began finding the strike zone more consistently. In a September 27, 1992, game against the Texas Rangers, with Ryan the opposing starting pitcher, Johnson struck out 18 batters in eight innings while throwing 160 pitches, a pitch count that has not been reached in an MLB game since. It was during the 1992 off-season when Johnson returned home for Christmas only to lose his father to an aortic aneurysm. His father's death was so devastating that he decided to quit baseball, only to have his mother convince him otherwise.
1993
Johnson broke out in 1993, posting a 19–8 record, 3.24 ERA, his first of six 300-plus strikeout seasons (308), and he was also the first Seattle Mariners pitcher to reach 300 strikeouts in a single season. In May 1993, Johnson again lost a no-hitter to a 9th-inning single; again, the opponent was the Oakland Athletics. He also recorded his 1,000th career strikeout against the Minnesota Twins' Chuck Knoblauch. Prior to the trade deadline, Johnson was nearly dealt to the Toronto Blue Jays for Steve Karsay and Mike Timlin. Toronto general manager Pat Gillick had two separate transactions on the table including the one for Johnson with Seattle general manager Woody Woodward and one for Rickey Henderson with Oakland general manager Sandy Alderson. When Gillick was unable to contact Woodward he agreed to utilize the deal with Alderson. When Woodward returned Gillick's call he said he would agree to the deal for Johnson. However, Gillick gave his word to Alderson even though the deal had not been finalized. At the 1993 All-Star Game in Baltimore, Maryland, in a famous incident, Johnson threw a fastball over the head of Philadelphia Phillies first baseman John Kruk. On October 3, Johnson entered the final game of the season as a defensive substitution, replacing Brian Turang in left field. This made him the tallest player to play the field in baseball history.
1995
After pitching well in the strike-shortened 1994 season, Johnson won the American League Cy Young Award in 1995 with an 18–2 record, 2.48 ERA and 294 strikeouts. His .900 winning percentage was the second highest in AL history, behind Johnny Allen, who had gone 15–1 for the Cleveland Indians in 1937. Johnson became the first regular starting pitcher in history to strike out more than a third of all batters faced. He also became the first Seattle Mariners pitcher to win the Cy Young Award, and the only one until Félix Hernández took home the honor in 2010. Johnson capped the Mariners' late-season comeback by pitching a three-hitter in the AL West's one-game playoff, crushing the California Angels' hopes with 12 strikeouts. Thus unable to start in the 5-game ALDS series against the Yankees until the third game, Johnson watched as New York took a 2–0 series lead. He defeated the Yankees in Game 3 with 10 strikeouts in seven innings.
When the series went the full five games, the Mariners having come back from an 2–0 deficit to win both games at the Kingdome, Johnson made a dramatic relief appearance in the series final, Game 5, on only one day's rest. Entering a 4–4 game in the ninth inning, Johnson pitched the 9th, 10th, and 11th innings. He allowed one run, struck out six, and held on for the series-ending win in Seattle's dramatic comeback.
1996−1998
Johnson was sidelined throughout much of the 1996 season with a back injury, but he rebounded in 1997 with a 20–4 record, 291 strikeouts, and a 2.28 ERA (his personal best). Between May 1994 and October 1997, Johnson had gone 53–9, including a 16–0 streak that fell one short of the AL record. Johnson had two 19-strikeout starts in 1997, on June 24 and August 8.
Another colorful All-Star Game moment proceeded in the 1997 edition involving former Expos teammate Larry Walker, at that point with the Colorado Rockies. When Johnson had started an interleague game versus the Rockies on June 12, Walker chose not to play, explaining that "I faced Randy one time in spring training and he almost killed me." In the All-Star Game, Walker batted against Johnson, who theatrically threw over his head. Ever adaptable, Walker placed his batting helmet backwards and switched sides in the batters' box to stand right-handed for one pitch. He ended the at bat by drawing a walk. The incident momentarily drew mirth and laughter from players in both dugouts, fans and announcers, and, of course, comparisons to the at bat with Kruk in the 1993 All-Star Game. In spite of garnering a reputation of avoiding Johnson, Walker batted .393 (11 hits in 28 at bats) against him in his career, nearly double the rate of all left-handed batters at .199. When the 1998 season began, Johnson was upset the Mariners would not offer him a contract extension, given his contract was expiring after the season. Though the Mariners initially wanted to keep Johnson, turning down a trade offer from the Los Angeles Dodgers, they fell out of contention, going 8–20 in June. Minutes before the non-waiver trade deadline, on July 31, the Mariners traded Johnson to the Houston Astros for three minor leaguers: Freddy García, Carlos Guillén, and John Halama. Johnson was a Mariner for nearly 9 years, his longest tenure with one team.
Houston Astros (1998)
In 11 regular-season starts with the Astros, Johnson posted a 10–1 record, a 1.28 ERA, and 116 strikeouts in innings, and pitched four shutouts. Johnson finished 7th in the National League Cy Young Award voting, despite pitching only two months in the league, and helped Houston win their second straight National League Central division title. During the playoffs, however, the Astros lost the 1998 NLDS to the San Diego Padres, 3–1. Johnson started Games 1 and 4, both losses. He only gave up three earned runs combined in the two games, but received only one run in support (in Game 4).
Arizona Diamondbacks (1999–2004)
Johnson agreed to a four-year contract, with an option for a fifth year, for $52.4 million, with the Arizona Diamondbacks, a second-year franchise. Johnson led the team to the playoffs that year on the strength of a 17–9 record and 2.48 ERA with 364 strikeouts, leading the majors in innings, complete games, and strikeouts. Johnson won the 1999 NL Cy Young Award and Warren Spahn Award as the best left-handed pitcher in MLB. Johnson became the third pitcher in history, after Gaylord Perry and Pedro Martínez, to win the Cy Young Award in both the American and National Leagues; Martínez won the AL Cy Young in the same season that Johnson won its NL counterpart. Johnson finished 2000 with 19 wins, 347 strikeouts and a 2.64 ERA, and won his second consecutive NL Cy Young Award and Warren Spahn Award. The Diamondbacks acquired Curt Schilling from the Philadelphia Phillies in July 2000, and the two aces anchored the Diamondbacks rotation.
In the fourth year of the franchise's existence, Johnson and Schilling carried the Arizona Diamondbacks to their first World Series appearance and victory in 2001 against the New York Yankees. Johnson and Schilling shared the World Series Most Valuable Player Award, the Babe Ruth Award, and were named Sports Illustrated magazine's 2001 "Sportsmen of the Year." For the first of two consecutive seasons, Johnson and Schilling finished 1–2 in the Cy Young balloting. Johnson also won his third consecutive Warren Spahn Award. Johnson's performance was particularly dominating, striking out 11 in a 3-hit shutout in Game 2, pitching seven innings for the victory in Game 6 and then coming on in relief the following day to pick up the win in Game 7. Of Arizona's eleven post-season wins in 2001, Johnson had five. He is also the last pitcher to win 3 games in a single World Series. Johnson's Game 7 relief appearance was his second of the 2001 season; on July 19, a game against the Padres was delayed by two electrical explosions in Qualcomm Stadium. When the game resumed the following day, Johnson stepped in as the new pitcher and racked up 16 strikeouts in seven innings, technically setting the record for the most strikeouts in a relief stint.
In a freak accident on March 24, 2001, at Tucson Electric Park, during the 7th inning of a spring training game against the San Francisco Giants, Johnson threw a fastball to Calvin Murray that struck and killed a dove. The ball was ruled dead, and it was ruled "no pitch". The event was not unique in baseball history, but it became one of Johnson's most-remembered baseball moments; a news story 15 years later remarked, "the event remains iconic, and the Big Unit says he gets asked about the incident nearly as much as he does about winning the World Series later that year with the Arizona Diamondbacks".
Johnson struck out 20 batters in a game on May 8, 2001, against the Cincinnati Reds. Johnson recorded all 20 strikeouts in the first nine innings and was replaced before the start of the tenth, but because the game went into extra innings, he is ineligible to share the nine-inning game strikeout record. On August 23, 2001, Johnson struck out three batters on nine pitches in the 6th inning of a 5–1 loss to the Pittsburgh Pirates, becoming the 30th pitcher in major league history to pitch an immaculate inning. Johnson's 2001 season was the 2nd time in MLB history where a starting pitcher had more than twice as many strikeouts in a season (372) as hits allowed (181) (first accomplished by Pedro Martinez in the 2000 season with 284 strikeouts and 128 hits and later also accomplished by Max Scherzer in 2017, and both Gerrit Cole and Justin Verlander in 2019).
In 2002, Johnson won the pitching Triple Crown, leading the NL in wins, ERA, and strikeouts, and was voted his fourth consecutive Cy Young and Warren Spahn Awards. It was Johnson's fourth consecutive 300-strikeout season with the Diamondbacks, and fifth consecutive overall, extending his own MLB record from the previous season in which he set the record for the most consecutive seasons with 300 or more strikeouts in a season by a pitcher. He also became the first pitcher in baseball history to post a 24–5 record.
Johnson spent the majority of the 2003 season on the disabled list and was ineffective in the few injury-hampered starts he did make. He hit the only home run of his career on September 19, 2003, against the Milwaukee Brewers. Johnson was a .125 hitter over 625 career at-bats.
Perfect game
On May 18, 2004, Johnson pitched the 17th perfect game in MLB history. At 40 years of age, he was the oldest pitcher to accomplish this feat. Johnson had 13 strikeouts on his way to a 2–0 victory against the Atlanta Braves. The perfect game made him the fifth pitcher in Major League history (after Cy Young, Jim Bunning, Nolan Ryan, and Hideo Nomo) to pitch a no-hitter in both leagues. He also became the fifth pitcher in Major League history to throw both a no-hitter and a perfect game in his career (after Young, Bunning, Addie Joss, and Sandy Koufax; since Johnson, Mark Buehrle and Roy Halladay have joined this group). Johnson struck out Jeff Cirillo of the San Diego Padres on June 29, 2004, to become only the fourth MLB player to reach 4,000 strikeouts in a career.
He finished the 2004 season with a 16–14 record, though his poor record was partially due to a lack of run support as his ERA that year was 2.60. Johnson led the major leagues in strikeouts (with 290). In the games where Arizona scored three or more runs, Johnson was 13–2. As his team only won 51 games that year, his ratio of winning 31.3% of his team's games was the highest for any starting pitcher since Steve Carlton in 1972 (who won 27 of the Phillies' 59 wins for an all-time record ratio of 45.8%).
New York Yankees (2005–2006)
The Diamondbacks traded Johnson to the New York Yankees for Javier Vázquez, Brad Halsey, Dioner Navarro, and cash in January 2005. Johnson pitched Opening Day for the Yankees on April 3, 2005, against the Boston Red Sox. Johnson was inconsistent through 2005, allowing 32 home runs; however, he regained his dominance in late 2005. He was 5–0 against the Yankees' division rival Red Sox and finished the season 17–8 with a 3.79 ERA, and was second in the AL with 211 strikeouts.
In 2005, The Sporting News published an update of their 1999 book Baseball's 100 Greatest Players. Johnson did not make the original edition, but for the 2005 update, with his career totals considerably higher and his 2001 World Championship season taken into account, he was ranked at Number 60.
Johnson was a disappointment in Game 3 of the 2005 Division Series against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, allowing 5 runs on 2 home runs in 3 innings. In Game 5 in Anaheim, Johnson made an effective relief appearance after Mike Mussina gave up 5 runs and 6 hits to give the Angels a 5–2 lead, but the Yankees were unable to come back in the series.
After an inconclusive year in pinstripes, New York fans hoped that Johnson would return to his dominant style in his second Yankee season. Johnson began 2006 well, but then he struggled to find form. In between some impressive performances, he allowed 5 or more runs in 7 of his first 18 starts for the season. Johnson was more effective in the second half. Johnson finished the season with a 17–11 record, a subpar 5.00 ERA with 172 strikeouts. It was revealed at the end of the 2006 season that a herniated disc in Johnson's back had been stiffening him and it was only in his second to last start of the season that he decided to get it checked. This exposure caused him to miss his last start of 2006. After being given epidural anesthesia and a few bullpen sessions he was cleared to start in game 3 of the ALDS; however, he gave up 5 runs in 5 innings.
Second stint with the Arizona Diamondbacks (2007–2008)
In January 2007, the Yankees traded Johnson back to the Diamondbacks, almost two years to the day that Arizona had traded him to New York, for a package of Luis Vizcaíno, Alberto González, Steven Jackson, and Ross Ohlendorf. The Yankees' decision to trade Johnson was primarily based on a pre-season conversation he had with Yankees General Manager Brian Cashman about the importance of being closer to his family in Phoenix after the death of his brother.
Johnson missed most of April, rehabilitating his injured back before returning on April 24, 2007. Johnson allowed six runs in 5 innings and took the loss, but struck out seven. He returned to form, and by his tenth start of the season was among the NL's top ten strikeout pitchers. But on July 3, his surgically repaired disc from the previous season was reinjured. Johnson had season-ending surgery on the same disc, this time removing it completely. Reporting that the procedure went "a little better than expected", Arizona hoped that Johnson would be ready for the 2008 season.
Johnson made his season debut on April 14, 2008, against the San Francisco Giants at AT&T Park eight months following his back surgery. On June 3, 2008, Johnson struck out Mike Cameron of the Milwaukee Brewers for career strikeout number 4,673. With this strikeout Johnson surpassed Roger Clemens for the number two spot on the all-time strikeout leaders list. Johnson struck out 8 in the game but could not get the win as the Diamondbacks lost 7–1.
Johnson got his 4,700th career strikeout on July 6, 2008. On July 27, 2008, Fred Lewis became the first left-handed batter to get four hits against Johnson in a game. In the first at-bat in this game, a fog horn went off as Johnson was releasing his pitch, causing him to throw an eephus which fell for a strike. He finished the season with an 11–10 record and an ERA of 3.91, recording his 100th career complete game in a 2–1 victory over the Colorado Rockies.
San Francisco Giants (2009)
On December 26, 2008, Johnson signed a one-year deal with the San Francisco Giants for a reported $8 million, with a possible $2.5 million in performance bonuses and another $2.5 million in award bonuses. Johnson became the 24th pitcher to reach 300 wins, beating the Washington Nationals (the team that he first played for when they were known as the Montreal Expos) on June 4 at Nationals Park in Washington, D.C. He became the seventh left-handed pitcher to achieve the 300-win milestone and the fifth pitcher in the last 50 years to get his 299th and 300th win in consecutive starts, joining Warren Spahn, Steve Carlton, Gaylord Perry, and Tom Seaver. Johnson was placed on the 60-day disabled list with a torn rotator cuff in his throwing shoulder on July 28, 2009. Johnson was activated by the Giants on September 16, 2009, and assigned to the Giants bullpen. On September 19, 2009, Johnson made his first relief appearance in 4 years, facing the Los Angeles Dodgers for 3 batters. At age 46, he was at the time the second oldest player in Major League Baseball, trailing only former Mariners teammate Jamie Moyer.
Retirement
On January 5, 2010, he announced his retirement from professional baseball. The Mariners invited Johnson to throw out the ceremonial first pitch at the Seattle Mariners home opener at Safeco Field on April 12, 2010, and inducted Johnson into the Mariners Hall of Fame on January 17, 2012. The Diamondbacks invited Johnson and former teammate Curt Schilling to both throw out the ceremonial first pitches for the Arizona Diamondbacks' recognition of the 10th anniversary of the 2001 World Series team that defeated the New York Yankees.
Johnson was selected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 2015. The Diamondbacks retired his number on August 8, 2015. At the retirement ceremony, Johnson was presented with a replica of the drum set used by Neil Peart, drummer for the Canadian band Rush, during their 30th anniversary tour.
Johnson has participated in over 40 trips with the United Service Organizations. He also supports initiatives to fight homelessness. In recognition of all his charitable efforts, he was the Hall of Fame recipient of the Bob Feller Act of Valor Award in 2019.
In January 2015, Johnson was named a Special Assistant to the team president of the Arizona Diamondbacks, Derrick Hall.
Photography career
Since retiring from baseball, Johnson has pursued a second career as a photographer. He had studied photojournalism at the University of Southern California, and photography remained a passion. He has done photography work for NFL games, a tour of the rock band Rush, and has done wildlife photography.
Pitching style
In the prime of his career, Johnson's fastball was clocked as high as , with a low three-quarters delivery (nearly sidearm). His signature pitch was a slider that broke down and away from left-handed hitters and down and in to right-handed hitters. The effectiveness of the pitch is marked by its velocity being in the low 90s along with tight late break; hitters often believed they were thrown a fastball until the ball broke just before it crossed home plate. Right-handed hitters have swung through and missed sliders that nearly hit their back foot. Johnson dubbed his slider "Mr. Snappy". In later years, his fastball declined to the range and his slider clocked at around . Johnson also threw a split-finger fastball that behaved like a change-up, and a sinker to induce ground-ball outs. In a June 27, 2012, appearance on The Dan Patrick Show, Adam Dunn (a left-handed batter) was asked who the best pitcher he faced was. "Honestly, Randy Johnson when he was good. It's hopeless. It's like a hopeless feeling. The first time you face him you feel like he's going to hit you right in the back of the neck when he throws it, like every pitch is going to hit you in the back of the neck. And it ends up down and away for a strike and you just have to trust it's going to be a strike, and heaven forbid he doesn't lose one out there and heaven forbid, there goes your cheek."
Accomplishments
Pitched his first no-hitter for Seattle (their first) on June 2, 1990, against Detroit
10-time All-Star (1990, 1993–1995, 1997, 1999–2002, 2004)
Led the league in strikeouts nine times (1992–1995, 1999–2002, 2004)
Led the league in ERA four times (1995, 1999, 2001, 2002)
Won 3 games in a single World Series (2001)
Triple crown (2002)
5-time Cy Young Award winner (1995, 1999–2002)
4-time Warren Spahn Award winner (1999–2002)
Holds the record for most strikeouts in a relief appearance (16 against San Diego on July 18, 2001)
Holds the record for highest single-season and career strikeout per 9 innings ratio: 13.41 and 10.61
Holds the record for most games with 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 or more strikeouts
World Series co-MVP (Curt Schilling, 2001)
Co-winner of the Babe Ruth Award (Curt Schilling, 2001)
Pitched a perfect game for Arizona against Atlanta (May 18, 2004) – oldest pitcher to do so in major-league history
Collected his 300th win in a 5–1 victory against the Washington Nationals on June 4, 2009
Sports Illustrated MLB All-Decade Team (2009)
Has defeated every major-league team at least once
Most strikeouts in a game by a left-handed pitcher, struck out 20 batters on May 8, 2001, against Cincinnati Reds (note: Johnson collected his 20th strikeout in the ninth inning of the game, but the game entered extra innings. Although he did not pitch in the 10th inning, by rule Johnson is not eligible to share the single-game strikeout record for a nine inning game.)
Set American League record for strikeouts in a nine-inning game by a left-handed pitcher with 19 against the Oakland Athletics and later the Chicago White Sox in 1997
Won 16 consecutive decisions from 1995 to 1997
4,875 strikeouts, most all-time for left-handed pitcher; 2nd most ever (Nolan Ryan, 5,714)
Named to the Mariners Hall of Fame
Pitched two immaculate innings (September 2, 1998, against the Atlanta Braves and August 23, 2001, against the Pittsburgh Pirates)
Johnson was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame on 97.3% of the vote on January 6, 2015, third-highest percentage of all time for pitchers.
Johnson was formally inducted to the National Baseball Hall of Fame on July 26, 2015, in Cooperstown, N.Y.
Personal life
Johnson has four children with his wife Lisa: Sammy (born 1994), Tanner (born 1996), Willow (born 1998), and Alexandria (born 1999). He also has a daughter from a previous relationship, Heather Renee Roszell (born 1989). He is a resident of Paradise Valley, Arizona.
"Big Unit" nickname
During batting practice in 1988, the Johnson, then with the Montreal Expos, collided head-first with outfielder Tim Raines, prompting his teammate to exclaim, "Damn! You're a big unit!" The nickname stuck.
Throughout much of his career, Johnson held the title of tallest player in MLB history. Former pitchers Eric Hillman, Andrew Sisco, Andrew Brackman, and Chris Young have also been measured at 6'10". After his retirement, the title of tallest player was held by Johnson's former Diamondback teammate Jon Rauch, a relief pitcher who is .
Acting career
Johnson guest-starred in The Simpsons episode "Bart Has Two Mommies", which aired on March 19, 2006. Johnson appeared in the movie Little Big League, playing himself.
Johnson appeared in a Just for Men commercial where he had a grey beard and his neighbors told him "Your beard is weird." Johnson also appeared in a Right Guard commercial where he fired dodgeballs at Kyle Brandt, who represented odor. Johnson also appeared in several commercials for Nike in 1998. The spots comedically portrayed him taking batting practice (swinging ineptly at balls from a pitching machine) in his hope that he would break Roger Maris's then-single-season record for home runs. He made a cameo appearance in a commercial for MLB 2K9 with teammate Tim Lincecum. Johnson made an appearance in a GEICO insurance commercial. In 2012, he appeared in a TV ad for Pepsi Max. In 2016, Johnson appeared in a TV ad for the Mini Clubman. In 2022, Johnson appeared with his former teammates Ken Griffey Jr. and Alex Rodriguez as well as Hall of Famer David Ortiz in a commercial for the streaming service DirecTV Stream parodying Ghostbusters, as the group (titled Goatbusters) battles a giant Mr. Redlegs destroying a baseball stadium.
Johnson has been featured as a playable character in various Backyard Baseball games.
Johnson appeared in the episode "Control" on Franklin & Bash as himself.
See also
300-win club
3,000 strikeout club
Houston Astros award winners and league leaders
List of Arizona Diamondbacks team records
List of Major League Baseball career bases on balls allowed leaders
List of Major League Baseball career games started leaders
List of Major League Baseball career hit batsmen leaders
List of Major League Baseball career innings pitched leaders
List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders
List of Major League Baseball career WHIP leaders
List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders
List of Major League Baseball individual streaks
List of Major League Baseball no-hitters
List of Major League Baseball single-game strikeout leaders
List of Seattle Mariners team records
Major League Baseball titles leaders
Perfect game
Seattle Mariners award winners and league leaders
References
Footnotes
Sources
External links
Randy Johnson at Baseball Almanac
Randy Johnson: Countdown to 300 Wins
Randy Johnson Video on ESPN Video Archive
Randy Johnson Video on FoxSports Video Archive
Box score of Johnson's perfect game
CBS Player Page
1963 births
Living people
American people of Swedish descent
American people of German descent
American people of Canadian descent
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
American League All-Stars
American League ERA champions
American League strikeout champions
American photographers
Arizona Diamondbacks players
Christians from California
Cy Young Award winners
El Paso Diablos players
Everett AquaSox players
Houston Astros players
Indianapolis Indians players
Jacksonville Expos players
Jamestown Expos players
Lancaster JetHawks players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Major League Baseball pitchers who have pitched a perfect game
Major League Baseball players with retired numbers
Montreal Expos players
National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
National League All-Stars
National League ERA champions
National League Pitching Triple Crown winners
National League strikeout champions
National League wins champions
New York Yankees players
San Francisco Giants players
Seattle Mariners players
Sportspeople from Walnut Creek, California
Baseball players from Contra Costa County, California
Tucson Sidewinders players
USC Trojans baseball players
USC Trojans men's basketball players
Visalia Oaks players
West Palm Beach Expos players
World Series Most Valuable Player Award winners
Anchorage Glacier Pilots players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Sega%20Genesis%20games
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List of Sega Genesis games
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This is a complete list of all Sega Genesis games.
The Sega Genesis, known as the in regions outside of North America, is a 16-bit video game console that was developed and sold by Sega. First released in Japan on October 29, 1988, in North America on August 14, 1989 and in PAL regions in 1990, the Genesis is Sega's third console and the successor to the Master System. The system supports a library of games created both by Sega and a wide array of third-party publishers and delivered on ROM cartridges. It can also play the complete library of Master System games when the separately sold Power Base Converter is installed. The Sega Genesis also sported numerous peripherals, including the Sega CD and 32X, several network services, and multiple first-party and third-party variations of the console that focused on extending its functionality. The console and its games continue to be popular among fans, collectors, video game music fans, and emulation enthusiasts. Licensed third party re-releases of the console are still being produced, and several indie game developers continue to produce games for it. Many games have also been re-released in compilations for newer consoles and offered for download on various digital distribution services, such as Virtual Console, Xbox Live Arcade, PlayStation Network, and Steam.
The Genesis library was initially modest, but eventually grew to contain games to appeal to all types of players. The initial pack-in title was Altered Beast, which was later replaced with Sonic the Hedgehog. Top sellers included Sonic the Hedgehog, its sequel Sonic the Hedgehog 2, and Disney's Aladdin. During development for the console, Sega Enterprises in Japan focused on developing action games while Sega of America was tasked with developing sports games. A large part of the appeal of the Genesis library during the console's lifetime was the arcade-based experience of its games, as well as more difficult entries such as Ecco the Dolphin and sports games such as Joe Montana Football. Compared to its competition, Sega advertised to an older audience by hosting more mature games, including the uncensored version of Mortal Kombat.
This is an alphabetical list of released games for the Sega Genesis. Titles listed do not include releases for the Sega CD and 32X add-ons. Included in this list are titles not licensed by Sega, including releases in Taiwan by several developers such as Gamtec, as well as releases by Accolade before being licensed following the events of Sega v. Accolade. This list also includes titles developed by unlicensed third-party developers after the discontinuation of the Genesis, such as Pier Solar and the Great Architects.
A few games were only released exclusively on the Sega Channel subscription service, which was active from 1994 to 1998, in the US. This means that, whilst cartridges were officially released for use on PAL and Japanese consoles, they were unavailable physically in the US. While few games were released this way, some of them are considered to be staples in the Genesis library, such as Pulseman and Mega Man: The Wily Wars.
Licensed games
A total of licensed game titles are known to have been released for the console:
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!
!
!Other
|- id=0–9
!scope="row"|3 Ninjas Kick Back
|Malibu Interactive
|Psygnosis
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|688 Attack Sub
|MicroProse
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|- id=A
!scope="row"|A Ressha de Ikou MD
|MNM Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Aaahh!!! Real Monsters
|Realtime Associates
|Viacom New Media
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Aah! Harimanada
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Addams Family Values
|Ocean Software
|Ocean Software
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|
|Ocean Software
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Advanced Busterhawk Gley Lancer
|NCS
|Masaya
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Advanced Daisenryaku: Deutsch Dengeki Sakusen
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|
|Clockwork Tortoise
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|
|WJS Design
|Ocean Software
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|
|Imagineering
|Absolute Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Aero the Acro-Bat
|Iguana Entertainment
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Aero the Acro-Bat 2
|Iguana Entertainment
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Aerobiz
|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Aerobiz Supersonic
|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|After Burner II
|Dempa
|Dempa ShimbunshaJPSegaWW
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Air BusterAero BlastersJP
|KanekoInter State
|Kaneko
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Air Diver
|Copya System
|AsmikJPSeismic SoftwareNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Aladdin
|Virgin Games USA
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Alex Kidd in the Enchanted Castle
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Alien 3
|Probe Software
|Arena Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Alien Soldier
|Treasure
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Alien Storm
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Alisia Dragoon
|Game Arts
|SegaWWGame ArtsJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Altered Beast
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|American Gladiators
|Imagitec Design
|GameTek
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Andre Agassi Tennis
|TecMagik
|TecMagik
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Animaniacs
|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Another WorldOut of This WorldNA
|Delphine Software
|Virgin Games
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|
|Millennium Interactive
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Arcade Classics
|Al Baker & Associates
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Arch Rivals: The Arcade Game
|Arc Developments
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Arcus Odyssey
|Wolf Team
|Wolf TeamJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ariel the Little Mermaid
|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Arnold Palmer Tournament GolfNaomichi Ozaki no Super MastersJP
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Arrow Flash
|I.T.L
|SegaJP/PALRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Art Alive!
|Western TechnologiesFarSight Technologies
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Art of Fighting
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Asterix and the Great Rescue
|Core Design
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Asterix and the Power of the Gods
|Core Design
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Atomic Robo-Kid
|UPLKhaos
|Treco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Atomic RunnerChelnovJP
|Data East
|Data EastNA/JPSegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|ATP Tour Championship Tennis
|SIMS
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Australian Rugby League
|I-Space Interactive
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Awesome Possum... Kicks Dr. Machino's Butt
|Tengen
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|- id=B
!scope="row"|B.O.B.Space Funky B.O.B.JP
|Foley Hi-Tech Systems
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Back to the Future Part III
|Probe Software
|Arena EntertainmentNAImage WorksPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bahamut Senki
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ball Jacks
|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ballz 3D: Fighting at its BallziestBallz 3D: The Battle of the BallzPAL
|PF Magic
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Barbie: Super Model
|Tahoe Software
|Hi Tech Expressions
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Barkley Shut Up and Jam!
|Accolade
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Barkley Shut Up and Jam! 2
|Accolade
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Barney's Hide & Seek Game
|Realtime Associates
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bass Masters Classic
|Black Pearl Software
|Black Pearl Software
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bass Masters Classic: Pro Edition
|Black Pearl Software
|Black Pearl Software
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Batman: The Video Game
|Sunsoft
|SunsoftJP/NASegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Batman Forever
|Probe Entertainment
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Batman Returns
|Malibu Interactive
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Batman: Revenge of the Joker
|Ringler Studios
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Battle Golfer Yui
|Santos
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Battle Mania: Daiginjō
|Vic Tokai
|Vic Tokai
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Battle Master
|Nick Pelling
|Arena Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Battle Squadron
|Innerprise Software
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Battletech: A Game of Armored Combat
|Malibu Interactive
|Extreme Entertainment Group
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Battletoads
|Arc System Works
|Tradewest NASega JP/PAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Battletoads & Double Dragon
|Rare
|Tradewest
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Beast Wrestler
|Telenet Japan
|RiotJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Beauty & The Beast: Belle's Quest
|Software Creations
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Beauty & The Beast: Roar of the Beast
|Software Creations
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Beavis and Butt-Head
|Radical Entertainment
|Viacom New Media
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|
|Realtime Associates
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Best of the Best: Championship KarateThe Kick BoxingJP
|Loriciel
|Micro WorldJPElectro BrainNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Beyond OasisThe Story of ThorJP/PAL
|Ancient
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bill Walsh College Football
|High Score ProductionsJim Simmons
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bill Walsh College Football '95
|High Score ProductionsJim Simmons
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bimini Run
|Microsmiths
|Nuvision Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bio-Hazard Battle
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bishōjo Senshi Sailor Moon
|Arc System WorksTNS
|Ma-Ba
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Blades of Vengeance
|Beam Software
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Blaster Master 2
|Software Creations
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Blockbuster World Video Game Championship II
|Acclaim EntertainmentIguana Entertainment
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Blockout
|Electronic Arts
|Electronic ArtsWWSegaJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|BloodshotBattle FrenzyEU
|Domark
|Domark
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Blue Almanac
|Hot-B
|Kodansha
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bodycount
|Probe Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bonanza Bros.
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bonkers
|Sega Interactive Development Division
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Boogerman: A Pick and Flick Adventure
|Interplay
|Interplay
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Boxing Legends of the RingChavez II MX
|Sculptured Software
|Electro Brain
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bram Stoker's Dracula
|PsygnosisTraveller's Tales
|Sony Imagesoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Brett Hull Hockey '95
|Radical Entertainment
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Brian Lara Cricket
|Audiogenic Software
|Codemasters
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Brian Lara Cricket '96Shane Warne Cricket AUS
|Audiogenic Software
|Codemasters
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Brutal: Paws of Fury
|Eurocom Entertainment Software
|GameTek
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bubba 'n' Stix
|Core Design
|Core DesignTengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bubble And Squeak
|Audiogenic SoftwareFox Williams
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bubsy in Claws Encounters of the Furred Kind
|Al Baker & Associates
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bubsy 2
|Accolade
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Buck Rogers: Countdown to Doomsday
|Electronic Arts
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Budokan: The Martial Spirit
|Electronic Arts
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bugs Bunny in Double Trouble
|Probe EntertainmentAtodClimax Studios
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bulls vs. Blazers and the NBA Playoffs
|Electronic Arts
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Bulls vs Lakers and the NBA Playoffs
|Electronic Arts
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Burning Force
|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|- id=C
!scope="row"|Cadash
|Cyclone System
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Caesars Palace
|Illusions Gaming Company
|Virgin Games
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Cal Ripken Jr. Baseball
|Acme Interactive
|Mindscape
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Caliber .50
|Visco
|Mentrix Software
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|California Games
|Novotrade
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Cannon Fodder
|PanelComp
|Virgin Games
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Captain America and The Avengers
|Data EastISCOOpera House
|Data East NASega PAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Captain Planet and the Planeteers
|NovaLogic
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Castle of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Castlevania: BloodlinesCastlevania: The New GenerationPAL
|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Centurion: Defender of Rome
|Bits of Magic
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Chakan: The Forever Man
|Extended PlayNu Romantic Productions
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Champions World Class Soccer
|Park Place Productions
|Flying EdgeWWAcclaim EntertainmentJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Championship BowlingBoogie Woogie BowlingJP
|Soft Machine
|Mentrix SoftwareNAVisco CorporationJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Championship Pool
|Bitmasters
|Mindscape
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Championship Pro-Am
|Rare
|Tradewest
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Soldiers of FortuneNA
|Graftgold
|Spectrum HoloByteNAMicroProsePAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Chase H.Q. IISuper H.Q.JP
|I.T.L
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Cheese Cat-Astrophe Starring Speedy Gonzales
|Cryo Interactive
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Chester Cheetah: Too Cool to Fool
|System Vision
|Kaneko
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Chester Cheetah: Wild Wild Quest
|Kaneko
|Kaneko
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Chi Chi's Pro Challenge GolfTop Pro Golf 2JP
|Soft Vision
|Soft VisionJPVirgin GamesNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Chibi Maruko-chan: Waku Waku Shopping
|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Chiki Chiki Boys
|Visco
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Chōkyūkai Miracle Nine
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Chuck Rock
|Core Design
|Virgin Games
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Chuck Rock II: Son of Chuck
|Core Design
|Virgin GamesNA/JPCore DesignPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|ClayFighter
|Ringler Studios
|Interplay
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Cliffhanger
|Malibu Interactive
|Sony Imagesoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Clue
|Sculptured Software
|Parker Brothers
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Coach K College Basketball
|Hitmen Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|College Football USA 96
|High Score EntertainmentJim Simmons
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|College Football USA 97: The Road To New Orleans
|High Score EntertainmentTiburon Entertainment
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|College Football's National Championship
|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|College Football's National Championship II
|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|College Slam
|Iguana Entertainment
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Columns
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Columns III
|SegaMinato Giken
|SegaJPVic TokaiNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Combat Cars
|Accolade
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Comix Zone
|Sega Technical Institute
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Contra: Hard CorpsProbotectorPAL
|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Cool Spot
|Virgin Games USA
|Virgin Games
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Cosmic Spacehead
|Supersonic Software
|Codemasters
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Crack Down
|Hot-B
|SegaJP/PALSage's CreationNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Crayon Shin-Chan: Arashi wo Yobu Enji
|SIMS
|Ma-Ba
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|CrossFireSuper AirwolfJP
|A.I
|Kyugo
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Crüe Ball
|NuFX
|Electronic ArtsNA/EUElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Crusader of CentySoleilPAL
|Nextech
|SegaJP/PALAtlusNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Crystal's Pony Tale
|Artech Studios
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Curse
|Micronet
|Micronet
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Cutie Suzuki no Ringside Angel
|Copya System
|Asmik
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Cutthroat Island
|Software Creations
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Cyberball
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Cyber-CopCorporation EU
|Core Design
|Virgin Games
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Cyborg Justice
|Novotrade
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|- id=D
!scope="row"|Daffy Duck in Hollywood
|Psionic Systems
|Sega
|
|
|
|BR (1994)
|-
!scope="row"|Dahna: Megami Tanjō
|IGS
|IGS
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dangerous Seed
|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dark Castle
|Artech Studios
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Darwin 4081
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dashin' Desperadoes
|Data East
|Data East
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|David Crane's Amazing Tennis
|FarSight Technologies
|Absolute Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|David Robinson's Supreme Court
|Acme Interactive
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Davis Cup TennisDavis Cup World TourPAL
|Loriciel
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Daze Before Christmas
|Funcom
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Deadly MovesPower AthleteJP
|System VisionInter State
|Kaneko
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|
|Blizzard Entertainment
|SunsoftNAAcclaim EntertainmentPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Death Duel
|Punk Development
|RazorSoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Decap Attack Magical Hat no Buttobi Tabo! DaibōkenJP
|Vic Tokai
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Demolition Man
|Alexandria, Inc.
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Desert Demolition Starring Road Runner and Wile E. Coyote
|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Desert Strike: Return to the Gulf
|Electronic Arts
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Devilish: The Next PossessionBad Omen JP
|Aisystem Tokyo
|Hot-BJPSage's CreationNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dick Tracy
|Sega Technical Institute
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dick Vitale's "Awesome, Baby!" College Hoops
|Time Warner Interactive
|Time Warner Interactive
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dino Dini's Soccer
|Dini & Dini Productions
|Virgin Interactive Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dino Land
|Wolf Team
|Wolf TeamJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dinosaurs for Hire
|Sega Interactive Development Division
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|
|Funcom
|Hi Tech Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|DJ Boy
|Inter State
|SegaJP/PALKanekoNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Donald in Maui Mallard
|Eurocom
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Doraemon: Yume Dorobou to 7 Nin no Gozans
|SegaG-SatNexus InteractWinds
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Double Clutch
|BGS Development
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Double Dragon
|Software Creations
|Ballistic
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|
|Quest
|Palsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|
|Software Creations
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|
|Leland Interactive Media
|Tradewest
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Double Dribble: The Playoff EditionHyper DunkPALHyper Dunk: The Playoff EditionJP
|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dr. Robotnik's Mean Bean Machine
|Compile
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dragon Ball Z: Buyū Retsuden
|Bandai
|Bandai
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dragon Slayer: Eiyuu Densetsu|Nihon FalcomSega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dragon Slayer: Eiyuu Densetsu II|Nihon FalcomSega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dragon's Eye Plus: Shanghai III|Home Data
|Home Data
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dragon's FuryDevil Crash MDJP
|CompileTechnosoft
|TechnosoftJPTengenWW
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dragon's Revenge|Tengen
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story|Virgin Interactive Entertainment
|Acclaim EntertainmentNAVirgin Interactive EntertainmentEU
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Accolade
|Ballistic
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Duke Nukem 3D|3D Realms
|Tectoy
|
|
|
|BR ()
|-
!scope="row"|Dune: The Battle For ArrakisDune II: Battle for ArrakisPAL
|Westwood Studios
|Virgin Games
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dungeons & Dragons: Warriors of the Eternal Sun|Westwood Associates
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dyna Brothers|CRI
|CRI
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dyna Brothers 2|CRI
|CRI
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dynamite Duke|SIMSHertz
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Dynamite Headdy|Treasure
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|- id=E
!scope="row"|Earnest Evans|Wolf Team
|Renovation Products
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Earthworm Jim|Shiny Entertainment
|Playmates Interactive EntertainmentNAVirgin Interactive EntertainmentPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Earthworm Jim 2|Shiny Entertainment
|Playmates Interactive EntertainmentNAVirgin Interactive EntertainmentPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ecco Jr.|Novotrade
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ecco the Dolphin|Novotrade
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ecco: The Tides of Time|Novotrade
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|El Viento|Wolf Team
|Wolf TeamJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Elemental Master|Technosoft
|TechnosoftJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Eliminate Down|Aprinet
|Soft Vision
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|ESPN Baseball Tonight|Park Place Productions
|Sony Imagesoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|ESPN National Hockey Night|Park Place Productions
|Sony Imagesoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|ESPN SpeedWorld|Park Place Productions
|Sony Imagesoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|ESPN Sunday Night NFL|Ringler Studios
|Sony Imagesoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|ESWAT: City Under Siege|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Eternal Champions|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|European Club SoccerWorld Trophy SoccerNAJ.League Champion SoccerJP
|Krisalis SoftwareGame ArtsJP
|Virgin GamesWWShogakukan Production/Game ArtsJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Evander Holyfield's "Real Deal" Boxing|Acme Interactive
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ex-Mutants|Malibu Interactive
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Exile|Telenet JapanMicro Factory
|RiotJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Exo Squad|Novotrade
|Playmates Interactive EntertainmentNAVirgin Interactive EntertainmentPAL
|
|
|
|
|- id=F
!scope="row"|F-117 Night Storm|Electronic Arts
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|F-15 Strike Eagle II|MicroProse
|MicroProse
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|F-22 Interceptor|Lerner Research
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|F1Formula OneNA
|Lankhor
|Domark
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|F1 Circus MD|Nihon BussanKhaos
|Nihon Bussan
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|F1 World Championship Edition|LankhorPeakstar SoftwareDomark
|Domark
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||New World Computing
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Family Feud|Eurocom Entertainment Software
|GameTek
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Fantasia|Infogrames
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Fantastic Dizzy|Chameleon Team
|Codemasters
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Fastest 1|Human Entertainment
|Human Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Fatal Fury: King of Fighters|GaibrainAspect
|TakaraNASegaJP/PAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Fatal Fury 2|GaibrainAspect
|TakaraNA/JPSegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Fatal Labyrinth|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Fatal RewindThe Killing Game ShowJP
|Raising Hell Software
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Férias Frustradas do Pica-Pau|Tectoy
|Tectoy
|
|
|
|BR ()
|-
!scope="row"|Ferrari Grand Prix ChallengeNakajima Satoru Kanshuu F1 Hero MDJP
|Aisystem Tokyo
|VarieJPFlying EdgeWW
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|FIFA 98: Road to World Cup|XYZ Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|FIFA International Soccer|Extended Play Productions
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|FIFA Soccer 95|Extended Play Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|FIFA Soccer 96|Extended Play Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|FIFA Soccer '97FIFA 97EU
|XYZ Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Fighting Masters|AicomALU
|Treco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Final ZoneFZ Senki AxisJP
|Wolf Team
|Wolf TeamJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Fire Mustang|NMK
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Fire SharkSame! Same! Same!JP
|Toaplan
|ToaplanJPDreamWorksNASegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Flashback: The Quest for Identity|Delphine Software
|U.S. GoldWWSunsoftJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Flicky|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Flink|Psygnosis
|Sony Electronic Publishing
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row" data-sort-value="flintstones"|The Flintstones|Santos Ltd.
|TaitoNA/JPSegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Foreman For Real|Software Creations
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Forgotten Worlds|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Frank Thomas Big Hurt Baseball|Iguana Entertainment
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Frogger|Morning Star Multimedia
|Majesco Sales
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|From TV Animation Slam Dunk: Kyougou Makkou Taiketsu!|SIMS
|Bandai
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Fun 'n Games|Leland Interactive Media
|Tradewest NASony Electronic Publishing PAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Fushigi no Umi no Nadia|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|- id=G
!scope="row"|G-LOC: Air Battle|Probe Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Imagitec Design
|GameTek
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Gaiares|Telenet Japan
|Renovation GameJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Gain Ground|Sanritsu
|SegaJP/PALRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Galaxy Force II|CRI
|CRIJPSegaWW
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Gambler Jiko Chuushinha: Katayama Masayuki no Mahjong Doujou|Yellow Horn
|Game Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Garfield: Caught in the Act|Sega Interactive Development Division
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Gargoyles|Buena Vista Interactive
|Buena Vista Interactive
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Gauntlet IVGauntletJP
|M2
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|GemfireRoyal BloodJP
|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|General Chaos|Game Refuge
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Generations Lost|Pacific Softscape
|Time Warner Interactive
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Genghis Khan II: Clan of the Gray Wolf|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|George Foreman's KO Boxing|Beam Software
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ghostbusters|SegaCompile
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ghouls 'n Ghosts|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Global GladiatorsMick & Mack as the Global GladiatorsNA
|Virgin Games USA
|Virgin Games
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Gods|Graftgold
|MindscapeNAAccoladePALPCM CompleteJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Golden Axe|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Golden Axe II|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Golden Axe III|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Goofy's Hysterical History Tour|Absolute Entertainment
|Absolute Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Gouketsuji Ichizoku|Atlus
|Atlus
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Granada|Wolf Team
|Wolf TeamJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Capcom
|Capcom
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Radiance Software
|THQ
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Greatest Heavyweights|Acme Interactive
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Greendog: The Beached Surfer Dude!|Interactive Designs
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Grind StormerV-VJP
|ToaplanTengen
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Growl|I.T.L
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Gunship|Probe SoftwareKrisalis Software
|U.S. Gold
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Gunstar Heroes|Treasure
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|GynougWings of WorNA
|NCS
|MasayaJPDreamWorksNASegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|- id=H
!scope="row"|Hard Drivin'|Sterling Silver Software
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|HardBall!|Accolade
|Ballistic
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|HardBall III|Mindspan Technologies
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Hardball '94|Mindspan Technologies
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Hardball '95|Mindspan TechnologiesCygnus Multimedia
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Haunting Starring Polterguy|Electronic Arts
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Head-On SoccerFever Pitch SoccerPAL
|U.S. Gold
|U.S. Gold
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Heavy Nova|Holocronet
|Micronet
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Heavy Unit: Mega Drive Special|KanekoFunari
|Toho
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Hellfire|ToaplanNCS
|MasayaJPSeismic SoftwareNASegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Herzog Zwei|Technosoft
|TechnosoftJPSegaWW
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|High Seas HavocHavocPALCaptain LangJP
|Data East
|Data EastNA/JPCodemastersPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Hit the Ice|Aisystem Tokyo
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Home Alone|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Home Alone 2: Lost in New York|Sega Interactive Development Division
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Honō no Tōkyūji: Dodge Danpei|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Hook|UkiyoteiCore Design
|Sony Imagesoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Imagitec Design
|GameTek
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Hurricanes|Arc Developments
|U.S. Gold
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||SegaOniro
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Hyokkori Hyoutanjima: Daitouryou o Mezase!|Japan System House
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|- id=I
!scope="row"|IMG International Tour Tennis|High Score Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Will HarveyElectronic Arts
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Gray Matter Inc.
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Probe Software
|U.S. Gold
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade|Tiertex
|U.S. Gold
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Insector X|Hot-B
|Hot-BJPSage's CreationNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Instruments of Chaos starring Young Indiana Jones|Brian A. Rice, Inc.Waterman Design
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|International Rugby|Tiertex
|Domark
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|International Sensible Soccer Limited Edition: World Champions|Sensible Software
|Sony Imagesoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|International Superstar Soccer Deluxe|Factor 5
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ishido: The Way of Stones|Accolade
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Izzy's Quest for the Olympic Rings|Alexandria, Inc.
|U.S. Gold
|
|
|
|
|- id=J
!scope="row"|J.League Pro Striker|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|J.League Pro Striker 2|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|J.League Pro Striker Kanzenban|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jack Nicklaus' Power Challenge Golf|Microsmiths
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|James "Buster" Douglas Knock Out BoxingFinal BlowJP
|Taito
|TaitoJPSegaWW
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|James Bond 007: The Duel|The Kremlin
|DomarkWWTengenJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|James Pond: Underwater Agent|Millennium InteractiveVectordean
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|James Pond II: Codename: RoboCod|Millennium Interactive
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|James Pond 3: Operation Starfish|Millennium InteractiveVectordean
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jammit|GTE ImagiTrek
|Virgin Interactive Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Janou Touryuumon|Game ArtsSegaMecano Associates
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jantei Monogatari|AtlusTelenet Japan
|Renovation Game
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jennifer Capriati TennisGrandSlam: The Tennis TournamentPAL
|System Sacom
|Telenet JapanJPRenovation ProductsNASegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jeopardy!|Park Place Productions
|GameTek
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jeopardy! Deluxe Edition|Park Place Productions
|GameTek
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jeopardy! Sports Edition|Park Place Productions
|GameTek
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jerry Glanville's Pigskin Footbrawl|Developer Resources
|RazorSoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jewel Master|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jimmy White's 'Whirlwind' Snooker|Archer Maclean
|Virgin Interactive Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Joe & Mac|Eden EntertainmentKrisalis Software
|Takara
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Joe Montana Football|Park Place Productions
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Joe Montana II: Sports Talk Football|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|John Madden FootballJohn Madden American FootballPAL
|Park Place Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|John Madden Football '92Pro FootballJP
|Park Place Productions
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|John Madden Football '93John Madden Football: Pro FootballJP
|Looking Glass TechnologyEA Studios
|Electronic ArtsNAEASNPALElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|John Madden Football '93: Championship Edition|Looking Glass Technology
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jordan vs. Bird: One on One|Electronic Arts
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Judge Dredd|Probe Software
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Junction|Micronet
|Micronet
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row" data-sort-value="jungle book"|The Jungle Book|Eurocom Entertainment Software
|Virgin Interactive Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jungle Strike|High Score ProductionsGranite Bay Software
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jurassic Park|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Jurassic Park: Rampage Edition|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Justice League Task Force|SunsoftCondor
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|- id=K
!scope="row"|Ka-Ge-Ki: Fists of Steel||KanekoHot-B
|Hot-BJPSage's CreationNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Kawasaki Superbike Challenge|Lankhor
|Time Warner InteractiveNADomarkPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Kick Off 3: European Challenge|Anco Software
|Vic Tokai
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Kid Chameleon|Sega Technical Institute
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Kidō Keisatsu Patlabor: 98-Shiki Kidou Seyo!|Ma-Ba
|Ma-Ba
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|King of the Monsters|SPS
|TakaraNASegaPAL/JP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|King of the Monsters 2|Betop
|Takara
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|King Salmon|Hot-B
|Hot-BJPVic TokaiNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|King's Bounty: The Conqueror's Quest|New World Computing
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Kishi Densetsu|Geo Factory
|Kodansha
|
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2 scope="row"|Klax|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
|Tengen
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Krusty's Super Fun House|Audiogenic
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Kyūkai Dōchūki|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|- id=L
!scope="row"|La Russa Baseball 95|Stormfront StudiosHigh Score Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Lakers versus Celtics and the NBA Playoffs|Electronic Arts
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Landstalker: The Treasures of King Nole|Climax Entertainment
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Langrisser II|Team Career
|Masaya
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Last Action Hero|Bits Corporation
|Sony Imagesoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Last BattleHokuto no Ken: Shin Seikimatsu Kyuuseishu DensetsuJP
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||SCiAtod ABTeque London
|Time Warner Interactive
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|GalahadNA
|Traveller's TalesKrisalis Software
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Lemmings|Sunsoft
|SunsoftNA/JPSegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Lemmings 2: The Tribes|Digital DevelopmentsKrisalis Software
|Psygnosis
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Lethal Enforcers|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Lethal Enforcers II: Gun Fighters|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|LHX Attack Chopper|Electronic Arts
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Liberty or Death|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Light Crusader|Treasure
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Westwood Studios
|Virgin Interactive Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Lord Monarch|Nihon FalcomSega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Silicon & SynapseKrisalis Software
|Interplay EntertainmentNAVirgin GamesPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Appaloosa Interactive
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Lotus Turbo Challenge|Gremlin Graphics
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Lotus II: R.E.C.S.|Gremlin Graphics
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|- id=M
!scope="row"|M-1 Abrams Battle Tank|Dynamix
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Madden NFL '94NFL Pro Football '94JP
|High Score Productions
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Madden NFL '95|High Score Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Madden NFL '96|High Score Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Madden NFL 97|High Score Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Madden NFL 98|High Score Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Madō Monogatari I|Compile
|Compile
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Magic School Bus, (Scholastic's) The: Space Exploration Game|Music Pen
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Magical Taruruto-kun|Game Freak
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mahjong Cop Ryuu: Shiro Ookami no Yabou|Whiteboard
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mamono Hunter Yōko: Dai 7 no Keishō|Klon
|Masaya
|
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2 scope="row"|Marble Madness|Electronic Arts
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
|Tengen
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mario Andretti Racing|High Score Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mario Lemieux Hockey|Ringler Studios
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Marko's Magic FootballMarkoNA
|The Cartoon Mavericks
|Domark
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Marsupilami|Marsu
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Marvel LandTalmit's AdventurePAL
|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mary Shelley's Frankenstein|Bits Corporation
|Sony Imagesoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Master of Monsters|SystemSoftISCOOpera House
|Toshiba EMIJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Master of Weapon|KID
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Maten no Sōmetsu|Geo Factory
|Kodansha
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Math Blaster: Episode 1|Davidson & Associates
|Davidson & Associates
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mazin Saga: Mutant FighterMazin WarsPAL
|Almanic CorporationALUTeam "Saga"
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|McDonald's Treasure Land Adventure|Treasure
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mega Bomberman|Westone
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mega-Lo-ManiaTyrants: Fight Through TimeNA
|Sensible Software
|Virgin GamesWWCRIJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mega Man: The Wily Wars|Minakuchi Engineering
|Capcom
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Megapanel|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mega SWIV|The Sales Curve
|Time Warner Interactive
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mega Turrican|Factor 5
|Data East NASony Electronic Publishing PAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Menacer 6-Game Cartridge|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|MercsSenjou no Ookami IIJP
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Metal Fangs|Victor Entertainment
|Victor Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Michael Jackson's Moonwalker|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mickey Mania: The Timeless Adventures of Mickey Mouse|Traveller's Tales
|Sony ImagesoftWWSegaJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mickey's Ultimate Challenge|Designer Software
|Hi Tech Expressions
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Micro Machines|Codemasters
|Codemasters
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Micro Machines 2: Turbo Tournament|Codemasters
|Codemasters
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Micro Machines: Turbo Tournament 96|Codemasters
|Codemasters
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Micro Machines Military|Supersonic Software
|Codemasters
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Midnight Resistance|Data EastISCOOpera House
|Data EastJPSegaNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|MiG-29 Fighter Pilot|The KremlinPanelComp
|Domark
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Might and Magic II: Gates to Another World|New World Computing
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mighty Morphin Power Rangers|Nova Co., Ltd
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie|SIMS
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mike Ditka Power Football|Ballistic
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Minnesota Fats: Pool Legend|Data East
|Data East
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Software Toolworks
|Software Toolworks
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|MLBPA Baseball|High Score Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Monopoly|Sculptured Software
|Parker Brothers
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Monster World IV|Westone
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mortal Kombat|Probe Software
|Arena EntertainmentWWAcclaim EntertainmentJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Probe Software
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mortal Kombat 3|Sculptured Software
|Williams Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mr. Nutz|Ocean Software
|Ocean Software
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ms. Pac-Man|Tengen
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Muhammad Ali Heavyweight Boxing|Park Place Productions
|Virgin Interactive Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|MUSHAMusha AlesteJP
|Compile
|ToaplanJPSeismic SoftwareNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mutant Chronicles: Doom Troopers|Adrenalin
|Playmates Interactive Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mutant League Football|Mutant Productions
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mutant League Hockey|Mutant Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mystic Defender|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Mystical Fighter|KID
|TaitoJPDreamWorksNA
|
|
|
|
|- id=N
!scope="row"|Nakajima Satoru Kanshuu F1 Grand Prix|Varie
|Varie
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Nakajima Satoru Kanshū F1 Super License|AprinetVarie
|Varie
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NBA Action '94|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NBA Action '95 Starring David Robinson|Double Diamond Sports
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NBA All-Star Challenge|Beam Software
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NBA Hangtime|Funcom
|Midway Home Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NBA Jam|Iguana Entertainment
|Arena EntertainmentWWAcclaim EntertainmentJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NBA Jam Tournament Edition|Iguana Entertainment
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NBA Live 95|Hitmen ProductionsEA Canada
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NBA Live 96|Hitmen ProductionsEA Canada
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NBA Live 97|NuFXHitmen Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NBA Live 98|NuFXTiertex
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NBA Showdown '94NBA ShowdownPALNBA Pro Basketball '94JP
|EA Creative Development
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NCAA Final Four Basketball|Bitmasters
|Mindscape
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NCAA Football|Software Toolworks
|Mindscape
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Nekketsu Koukou Dodgeball-bu: Soccer-hen MD|Aspect
|Palsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|New 3D Golf Simulation: Devil's Course|T&E Soft
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|New 3D Golf Simulation: Harukanaru Augusta|T&E Soft
|T&E Soft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|New 3D Golf Simulation: Waialae no Kiseki|T&E Soft
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Newman/Haas IndyCar featuring Nigel Mansell|Gremlin Graphics
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Taito
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NFL '95|Double Diamond Sports
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NFL Football '94 Starring Joe Montana|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NFL Prime Time '98|Spectacular Games
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NFL Quarterback Club|Iguana Entertainment
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NFL Quarterback Club 96|Iguana Entertainment
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NFL Sports Talk Football '93|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NHK Taiga Drama: Taiheiki|Tose
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NHL '94|High Score Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NHL 95|High Score ProductionsDouble Diamond Sports
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NHL 96|High Score Entertainment
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NHL 97|High Score Entertainment
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NHL 98|High Score Entertainment
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NHL All-Star Hockey '95|Sega Midwest StudioNew Wave Graphics
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NHL HockeyEA HockeyPALPro HockeyJP
|Park Place Productions
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|NHLPA Hockey '93|EA Studios
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Nigel Mansell's World Championship Racing|Gremlin Graphics
|GameTekNAKonamiPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Nightmare Circus|Funcom
|Tectoy
|
|
|
|BR ()
|-
!scope="row"|Ninja Burai Densetsu|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|No Escape|Bits Corporation
|Psygnosis
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Nobunaga no Yabō: Bushō Fūunroku|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Nobunaga no Yabō: Haōden|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Nobunaga's Ambition|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Normy's Beach Babe-O-Rama|High Score ProductionsRealtime Associates
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|- id=O
!scope="row"|Olympic Gold: Barcelona '92|Tiertex
|U.S. GoldWWSegaJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Olympic Summer Games: Atlanta 1996|Tiertex
|Black Pearl Software
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Onslaught|Code Monkeys Ltd.
|Ballistic
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Sega Technical Institute
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Operation Europe: Path to VictoryEuropa SensenJP
|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Osomatsu-kun: Hachamecha Gekijō|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Graftgold
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Outback Joey|Heartbeat
|Heartbeat
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Outlander|Graftgold
|Mindscape
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Out Run|SIMSHertz
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|OutRun 2019|Hertz
|SIMSJPSegaWW
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|OutRunners|Sega AM1
|SegaJPData EastNA
|
|
|
|
|- id=P
!scope="row"|P.T.O.: Pacific Theater of OperationsTeitoku no KetsudanJP
|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pac-AttackPac-PanicPAL
|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pac-Man 2: The New Adventures|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pac-Mania|Sculptured Software
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pachinko Kuunyan|Soft VisionI.S.C.
|Soft Vision
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Probe SoftwareAtod AB
|Fox Interactive
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Panorama Cotton|Success
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Paperboy|Motivetime
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Paperboy 2|Tengen
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Party Quiz Mega Q|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pat Riley BasketballSuper Real BasketballJP/PAL
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pebble Beach Golf Links|T&E Soft
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pelé II: World Tournament SoccerPelé's World Tournament SoccerPAL
|Radical Entertainment
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pelé!|Radical Entertainment
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pepenga Pengo|JSHSega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pete Sampras Tennis|Codemasters
|Sportsmaster
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|PGA European Tour|Polygames
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|PGA Tour 96|NuFXHitmen Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|PGA Tour Golf|Sterling Silver Software
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|PGA Tour Golf II|Polygames
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|PGA Tour Golf III|PolygamesHigh Score Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Phantasy Star Fukkokuban|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Phantasy Star II|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Phantasy Star III: Generations of Doom|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Phantasy Star IV: The End of the Millennium|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Phantom 2040|Illusions
|Viacom New Media
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Phelios|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pink Goes To Hollywood|HeadgamesManley & AssociatesNu Romantic Productions
|TecMagik
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pinocchio|Virgin Interactive Entertainment
|THQNASegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Iguana Entertainment
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pirates! Gold|MicroProse
|MicroProse
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pit-Fighter|Sterling Silver Software
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pitfall: The Mayan Adventure|Redline Games
|Activision
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pocahontas|Funcom
|Disney InteractiveNASegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Populous|Bullfrog Productions
|Electronic ArtsWWSegaJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Power Drive|Rage Software
|U.S. Gold
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Powermonger|Bullfrog ProductionsSprytes
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|PowerballWrestle BallJP
|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Predator 2|Teeny Weeny GamesKrisalis Software
|Arena Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Premier Manager|Realms of FantasyGremlin Interactive
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Premier Manager 97|Gremlin Interactive
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Primal Rage|Probe Entertainment
|Time Warner Interactive
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Prime Time Football '96|Spectacular Games
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Prince of Persia|Domark
|TengenNADomarkPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pro Moves Soccer|Zyrinx
|Asciiware
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pro Quarterback|Leland Interactive Media
|Tradewest
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pro Striker Final Stage|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Psy-O-Blade|T&E SoftGRC
|Sigma Enterprises
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Psycho Pinball|Codemasters
|Codemasters
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Puggsy|Traveller's TalesKrisalis Software
|Psygnosis
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Pulseman|Game Freak
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Sculptured Software
|Capcom
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Puyo Puyo|Compile
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Puyo Puyo Tsuu|Compile
|Compile
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Puzzle & Action: Ichidant-R|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Puzzle & Action: Tant-R|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|- id=Q
!scope="row"|QuackShot Starring Donald Duck|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Quad ChallengeMegaTraXJP
|Now Production
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|- id=R
!scope="row"|R.B.I. Baseball '93|Tengen
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|R.B.I. Baseball '94|Tengen
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|R.B.I. Baseball 3|Tengen
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|R.B.I. Baseball 4|Tengen
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Race Drivin'|Polygames
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Radical Rex|Beam Software
|Activision
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Raiden Trad|Seibu KaihatsuBeyond Interactive
|Micronet
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rainbow Islands Extra|Aisystem Tokyo
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rambo III|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rampart|Silicon Sorcery
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ranger X|GAU Entertainment
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ransei no Hasha|SystemSoftSPS
|Asmik
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rastan Saga II|Opera House
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Red Zone|Zyrinx
|Time Warner Interactive
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row" data-sort-value="ren & stimpy show: stimpy's invention"|The Ren & Stimpy Show: Stimpy's Invention|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rent a Hero|Sega AM2
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Revolution X|Rage Software
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Richard Scarry's Busytown|Novotrade
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rings of Power|Naughty Dog
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rise of the Robots|Data Design Interactive
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Risk|Sculptured Software
|Parker Brothers
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Risky WoodsJashin DraxosJP
|Dinamic SoftwareZeus Software
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ristar|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Road Rash|Electronic Arts
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Road Rash II|Electronic Arts
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Road Rash 3|Monkey Do Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|RoadBlasters|Sterling Silver Software
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|RoboCop 3|Ocean SoftwareEden EntertainmentKrisalis Software
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|RoboCop Versus The Terminator|Virgin Games USA
|Virgin Games
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rock n' Roll Racing|Silicon & Synapse
|Interplay Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rocket Knight Adventures|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Roger Clemens' MVP Baseball|Sculptured Software
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rolling Thunder 2|Namco
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rolling Thunder 3|Now Production
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rolo to the Rescue|Vectordean
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Romance of the Three Kingdoms II|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Romance of the Three Kingdoms III: Dragon of Destiny|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Rugby World Cup '95|The Creative Assembly
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|- id=S
!scope="row"|SagaiaDarius IIJP
|Taito
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Saint Sword|Cyclone System
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sampras Tennis 96|Codemasters
|Sportsmaster
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Samurai Shodown|SaurusSystem Vision
|SegaJP/PALTakaraNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sangokushi Retsuden: Ransei no Eiyuutachi|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Saturday Night Slam Masters|Capcom
|Capcom
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Scooby-Doo Mystery|Illusions Gaming Company
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|SeaQuest DSV|Sculptured Software
|Black Pearl Software
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Second Samurai|Psygnosis
|Vivid Image
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sensible Soccer: European Champions|Sensible Software
|Sony Imagesoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sesame Street: Counting Cafe|Electronic Arts
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shadow Blasters|Sigma Pro-Tech
|Sigma EnterprisesJPSage's CreationNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shadow Dancer: The Secret of Shinobi|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shadow of the Beast|Reflections InteractiveWJS Design
|Electronic ArtsWWVictor Musical IndustriesJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shadow of the Beast II|Psygnosis
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shadowrun|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shanghai II: Dragon's Eye|Home Data
|Activision
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shaq Fu|Delphine Software
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shi-Kin-Jou|Scap TrustSunsoft
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shining Force||Sonic! Software PlanningClimax Entertainment
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shining Force II|Sonic! Software Planning
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shining in the Darkness|Sonic! Software PlanningClimax Entertainment
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shinobi III: Return of the Ninja Master|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shougi no Hoshi|Home Data
|Home Data
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Shove It! ...The Warehouse GameShijou Saidai no SoukobanJP
|Thinking RabbitNCS
|MasayaJPDreamWorksNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Show do Milhão|Tectoy
|Tectoy
|
|
|
|BR ()
|-
!scope="row"|Show do Milhão vol.2|Tectoy
|Tectoy
|
|
|
|BR ()
|-
!scope="row"|Shura no Mon|SIMS
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Side Pocket|Data East
|Data EastNA/JPSegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Arc Developments
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Sculptured Software
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Skeleton Krew|Core Design
|Core Design
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Skitchin'|Electronic Arts
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Slap Fight MD|MNM Software
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Slaughter SportFat ManJP
|Brian A. RiceMediagenic
|SanritsuJPRazorsoftNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Infogrames
|Infogrames
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Infogrames
|Infogrames
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Snake Rattle 'n' Roll|Rare
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Snow Bros.|Toaplan
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|SocketTime Dominator 1stJP
|Vic Tokai
|Vic Tokai
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sol-Deace|Wolf Team
|Renovation Products
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sonic 3D BlastSonic 3D Flickies' IslandPAL
|Traveller's Tales
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sonic & Knuckles|Sega Technical Institute
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sonic the Hedgehog|Sonic Team
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sonic the Hedgehog 2|Sega Technical Institute
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sonic the Hedgehog 3|Sega Technical Institute
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sonic Spinball|Sega Technical Institute
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sorcerer's Kingdom|NCS
|MasayaJPTrecoNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sorcerian|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Space Harrier II|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Space Invaders '90Space Invaders 91NA
|Taito
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sparkster: Rocket Knight Adventures 2|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Speedball 2: Brutal Deluxe|The Bitmap Brothers
|Arena EntertainmentNACRIJPVirgin GamesPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Spider-Man|Western Technologies
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Spider-Man vs. The Kingpin|Technopop
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Spider-Man and Venom: Maximum Carnage|Software Creations
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Spider-Man and the X-Men in Arcade's Revenge|Software Creations
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Spirou|Infogrames
|Infogrames
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Splatterhouse 2|Now Production
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Splatterhouse 3|Now Production
|Namco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sports Talk BaseballPro Yakyū Super League '91JP
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Spot Goes To Hollywood|Eurocom
|Virgin Games
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|S.S. Lucifer: Man Overboard!|Odysseus Software
|Codemasters
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Star Control|Toys For Bob
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Star Cruiser|Arsys Software
|Masaya
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Star Trek: Deep Space Nine – Crossroads of Time|Novotrade
|Playmates Interactive Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Star Trek: The Next Generation: Echoes from the Past|MicroProse
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Starflight|Binary Systems
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Stargate|Probe Entertainment
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Steel EmpireEmpire of SteelPAL
|Hot-B
|Hot-BJPFlying EdgeWW
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Steel Talons|Polygames
|Tengen
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Stormlord|Hewson ConsultantsPunk Development
|RazorsoftNAMicro WorldJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Street Fighter II': Special Champion Edition|Capcom
|Capcom
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Street Racer|Vivid Image
|Ubisoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Street Smart|Treco
|Treco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Streets of Rage|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Streets of Rage 2|SegaAncientShout! Design WorksMNM SoftwareH.I.C.
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Streets of Rage 3|SegaAncient
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Strider|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Strider IIJourney from Darkness: Strider ReturnsNA
|Tiertex
|U.S. Gold
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Striker|Rage Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sub-Terrania|Zyrinx
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Summer Challenge|Accolade
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sunset Riders|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Baseball 2020|PallasNuFX
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Battleship|Synergistic
|Mindscape
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Battletank: War in the Gulf|Imagineering
|Absolute Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Daisenryaku|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Fantasy Zone|Sunsoft
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Hang-On|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super High Impact|Beam Software
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Hydlide|T&E Soft
|AsmikJPSeismic SoftwareNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Kick Off|Anco SoftwareTiertex
|U.S. Gold
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Monaco GP|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ayrton Senna's Super Monaco GP II|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Off Road|Software Creations
|Ballistic
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Skidmarks|Acid
|Codemasters
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Smash TV|Probe Software
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Street Fighter II|Capcom
|Capcom
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Thunder Blade|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Super Volleyball|Khaos
|Video System
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|SupermanSuperman: The Man of SteelPAL
|Sunsoft
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Surging Aura|Japan Media ProgrammingSega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sword of Sodan|Innerprise Software
|Electronic ArtsWWSegaJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sword of Vermilion|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Syd of Valis|I.S.C.
|Laser SoftRenovation Products
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Sylvester and Tweety in Cagey Capers|Alexandria, Inc.
|TecMagik
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Syndicate|Bullfrog Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|- id=T
!scope="row"|T2: Terminator 2: Judgment Day|Bits Studios
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|T2: The Arcade Game|Probe Software
|Arena EntertainmentWWAcclaim EntertainmentJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Taikō Risshiden|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|TaleSpin|Sega InterActive
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Target EarthAssault Suit LeynosJP
|NCS
|MasayaJPDreamWorksNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Task Force Harrier EX|NMKJorudanOpus
|Treco
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Taz-Mania|Recreational BrainwareNu Romantic Productions
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Taz in Escape from Mars|HeadgamesNu Romantic Productions
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Team USA BasketballDream Team USAJP
|Electronic Arts
|Electronic ArtsWWElectronic Arts VictorJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Technoclash|ZonoBlueSky SoftwareNu Romantic Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Techno Cop|Gray Matter Inc.ImagexcelPunk Development
|RazorSoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tecmo Super Baseball|Tecmo
|Tecmo
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tecmo Super Bowl|Tecmo
|Tecmo
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tecmo Super Bowl II: Special Edition|Tecmo
|Tecmo
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tecmo Super Bowl III: Final Edition|Tecmo
|Tecmo
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tecmo Super Hockey|Malibu Games
|Tecmo
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tecmo Super NBA Basketball|Sculptured Software
|Tecmo
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tecmo World CupTecmo World Cup '92JP
|SIMSHertz
|SIMSJPAtlusNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: The Hyperstone HeistTeenage Mutant Hero Turtles: The Hyperstone HeistPALTeenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Return of the ShredderJP
|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Tournament FightersTeenage Mutant Hero Turtles: Tournament FightersPAL
|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tel-Tel Mahjong|SunsoftChatnoir
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tel-Tel Stadium|Sunsoft
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Probe SoftwareKrisalis Software
|Virgin Games
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tetris|Sanritsu Denki
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Theme Park|Bullfrog ProductionsImages Software
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends|Malibu Interactive
|THQ
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Thunder Force II|Technosoft
|TechnosoftJPSegaWW
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Thunder Force III|Technosoft
|Technosoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Thunder Force IVLightning Force: Quest for the DarkstarNA
|Technosoft
|TechnosoftJPSegaWW
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Thunder Fox|TaitoAisystem Tokyo
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Thunder Pro Wrestling Retsuden|Human Entertainment
|Human Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"||Software Creations
|Fox Interactive
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Time Killers|Incredible Technologies
|Black Pearl Software
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tinhead|MicroProse
|Spectrum HoloByte
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tintin in Tibet|Infogrames
|Infogrames
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tiny Toon Adventures: ACME All-Stars|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tiny Toon Adventures: Buster's Hidden Treasure|Konami
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|TNN Bass Tournament of Champions|Imagitec Design
|American Softworks
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|TNN Outdoors Bass Tournament '96|Imagitec Design
|ASC Games
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Todd's Adventures in Slime World|Micro World
|Micro WorldJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|ToeJam & Earl|Johnson-Voorsanger Productions
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron|Johnson-Voorsanger Productions
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tōgi Ō: King Colossus|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Toki: Going Ape Spit|TADSantosSega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tom & Jerry: Frantic Antics!|Beam Software
|Hi Tech ExpressionsNAAltronJP
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tommy Lasorda BaseballSuper LeagueJP/PAL
|Sega
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Tony La Russa Baseball|Beyond SoftwareElectronic Arts
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Top Gear 2|Gremlin Graphics
|Vic Tokai
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Top Pro Golf|Soft Vision
|Soft Vision
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Total Football|Domark
|Domark
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Toughman Contest|Visual ConceptsHigh Score Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Toxic Crusaders|Infogrames
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Toy Story|Traveller's TalesPsygnosis
|Disney InteractiveNASegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Toys|Absolute Entertainment
|Absolute Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Trampoline Terror!|NCS
|DreamWorks
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Traysia|Telenet Japan
|RiotJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Triple Play 96|Extended Play Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Triple Play: Gold Edition|EA Canada
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Trouble ShooterBattle ManiaJP
|Vic Tokai
|Vic Tokai
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Troy Aikman NFL Football|Leland Interactive Media
|Tradewest
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|True Lies|Beam Software
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Truxton|Toaplan
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Turbo Outrun|Sega AM2
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Turrican|Rainbow ArtsCode Monkeys Ltd.
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Twin Cobra: Desert Attack HelicopterKyuukyoku TigerJP
|ToaplanGRC
|TrecoJPSegaNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Twin Hawk|Toaplan
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Twinkle Tale|Zap Corporation
|Wonder Amusement Studio
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Two Crude Dudes|Data EastISCOOpera House
|Data EastJP/NASegaPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Two Tribes: Populous II|Panelcomp
|Virgin Games
|
|
|
|
|- id=U
!scope="row"|Uchuu Senkan Gomora|UPLAisystem Tokyo
|UPL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3|Avalanche Software
|Williams EntertainmentNAAcclaim EntertainmentPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ultimate QixVolfiedJP
|ITL
|Taito
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ultimate Soccer|Rage Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Ultraman|Human Entertainment
|Ma-Ba
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Uncharted Waters|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Uncharted Waters: New Horizons|Koei
|Koei
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Undeadline|T&E Soft
|Palsoft
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Universal Soldier|Rainbow ArtsCode Monkeys Ltd.
|Ballistic
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Unnecessary Roughness '95|Accolade
|Accolade
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Urban Strike|Foley Hi-Tech SystemsGranite Bay Software
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Uzu Keobukseon|Samsung
|Samsung
|
|
|
|KR ()
|- id=V
!scope="row"|Valis: The Fantasm Soldier|Riot
|RiotJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Valis III|Telenet Japan
|Renovation GameJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Vapor Trail|Data East
|RiotJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Vectorman|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Vectorman 2|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Venom/Spider-Man: Separation Anxiety|Software Creations
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Verytex|Opera HouseISCO
|Asmik
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Viewpoint|Nexus Interact
|Sammy
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Virtua Fighter 2|SuccessGaibrainWinds
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Virtua Racing|Sega AM2
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Virtual Bart|Sculptured Software
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Virtual Pinball|BudgeCo
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Vixen 357|NCSOpus
|Masaya
|
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|VR Troopers|Syrox Developments
|Sega
|
|
|
|
|- id=W
!scope="row"|Wacky Worlds Creativity Studio|HeadgamesNu Romantic Productions
|Sega
|
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Wani Wani World|Inter State
|Kaneko
|
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|WardnerWardner no Mori SpecialJP
|ToaplanVisco Corporation
|Visco CorporationJPMentrix SoftwareNA
|
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|
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|-
!scope="row"|Warlock|Realtime AssociatesTrimark Interactive
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
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|
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|-
!scope="row"|WarpSpeed|Accolade
|Accolade
|
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|
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|-
!scope="row"|Warrior of Rome|Micronet
|Micronet
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Warrior of Rome II|Micronet
|Micronet
|
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|-
!scope="row"|WarsongLangrisserJP
|Team Career
|MasayaJPTrecoNA
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Wayne Gretzky and the NHLPA All-Stars|Time Warner InteractiveCygnus MultimediaDMP Productions
|Time Warner Interactive
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Wayne's World|Gray Matter Inc.
|THQ
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Weaponlord|Visual Concepts
|Namco
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|-
!scope="row"|Wheel of Fortune|Imagitec Design
|GameTek
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego?|EA Canada
|Electronic Arts
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Where in Time is Carmen Sandiego?|EA Canada
|Electronic Arts
|
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Whip Rush|Vic Tokai
|SegaJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Williams Arcade's Greatest HitsMidway Presents Arcade's Greatest HitsPAL
|Digital Eclipse SoftwareImage Impressions
|Williams Entertainment
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Wimbledon Championship TennisWimbledonPAL/JP
|Sega
|Sega
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|-
!scope="row"|Winter Challenge|MindSpan Technologies
|BallisticNAAccoladePAL
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|-
!scope="row"|Winter Olympics|Tiertex
|U.S. GoldNAKixxPALSegaJP
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Wiz 'n' LizWiz 'n' Liz: The Frantic Wabbit WescuePAL
|Raising Hell ProductionsKrisalis Software
|Psygnosis
|
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Wolfchild|Core DesignKrisalis Software
|JVC Musical Industries
|
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Wolverine: Adamantium Rage|Teeny Weeny Games
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Wonder Boy III: Monster Lair|Aicom
|Sega
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|-
!scope="row"|Wonder Boy in Monster World|Westone
|Sega
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|BR ()
|-
!scope="row"|World Championship SoccerWorld Cup Italia '90PALWorld Cup SoccerJP
|Sega
|Sega
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|-
!scope="row"|World Championship Soccer 2World Championship Soccer IINA
|Graftgold
|Sega
|
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|-
!scope="row"|World Class Leaderboard Golf|Access SoftwareTiertex
|U.S. Gold
|
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|
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|-
!scope="row"|World Cup USA '94|Tiertex
|U.S. Gold
|
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|World Heroes|Sega Midwest Studio
|Sega
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|-
!scope="row"|World of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck|Sega
|Sega
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|World Series Baseball|BlueSky Software
|Sega
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|-
!scope="row"|World Series Baseball '95|BlueSky Software
|Sega
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|-
!scope="row"|World Series Baseball '96|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
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|-
!scope="row"|World Series Baseball '98|BlueSky Software
|Sega
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Worms|Team17East Point Software
|Ocean Software
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Wrestle War|Sega
|Sega
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|-
!scope="row"|WWF Raw|Sculptured Software
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
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|-
!scope="row"|WWF Royal Rumble|Sculptured Software
|Flying EdgeWWAcclaim EntertainmentJP
|
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|-
!scope="row"|WWF Super WrestleMania|Sculptured Software
|Flying Edge
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|WWF WrestleMania: The Arcade Game|Sculptured Software
|Acclaim Entertainment
|
|
|
|
|- id=X
!scope="row"|X-Men|Western Technologies
|Sega
|
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|X-Men 2: Clone Wars|HeadgamesZono
|Sega
|
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|-
!scope="row"|X-Perts|Abalone Entertainment
|Deep Water
|
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|-
!scope="row"|XDR: X-Dazedly-Ray|Affect
|UNIPACC
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Xenon 2: Megablast|The Bitmap Brothers
|Virgin Games
|
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|- id=Y
!scope="row"|Yogi Bear: Cartoon Capers|Empire Interactive
|GameTek
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Ys III: Wanderers from Ys|Riot
|RiotJPRenovation ProductsNA
|
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|
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|-
!scope="row"|Yū Yū Hakusho Gaiden|GAU Entertainment
|Sega
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Yū Yū Hakusho Makyō Tōitsusen|Treasure
|Sega
|
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|
|
|- id=Z
!scope="row"|Zan: Yasha Enbukyoku|Wolf Team
|Wolf Team
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Zany Golf|Sandcastle Productions
|Electronic Arts
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Zero the Kamikaze Squirrel|Iguana Entertainment
|Sunsoft
|
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Zero Tolerance|Technopop
|Accolade
|
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Zero Wing|Toaplan
|ToaplanJPSegaPAL
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Zombies Ate My NeighborsZombiesPAL
|LucasArts
|Konami
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Zool|Gremlin Graphics
|GameTekNAElectronic ArtsPAL
|
|
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|Zoom!|Discovery SoftwareCyclone SystemSigma Pro-Tech
|Sega
|
|
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|-
!scope="row"|Zoop|HookstonePanelcomp
|Viacom New Media
|
|
|
|
|}
Sega Meganet titles
Sega Meganet, also known as the Net Work System, was an online service for the Mega Drive in Japan. Utilizing dial-up Internet access, Meganet was Sega's first online multiplayer gaming service, and functioned on a pay to play basis. The system functioned through the use of a peripheral called the Mega Modem and offered several unique titles that could be downloaded, and a few could be played competitively with friends. In addition, it shared technology and equipment with more serious services such as the Mega Anser, used for banking purposes. Though the system was announced for North America under the rebranded name "Tele-Genesis", it was never released for that region.
The Meganet service utilized its own library of titles, independent of the Mega Drive library. Most of these games never received a cartridge release; however, Columns, Flicky, Fatal Labyrinth, and Teddy Boy Blues each later saw cartridge versions. Several Meganet games would also later appear in the Game no Kanzume series, released for the Mega-CD exclusively in Japan. Most games for the service were small, at around 128kB per game, due to the limits of Internet connection speeds at the time. Downloads were estimated to take about five to eight minutes to complete. All of the Meganet games were available through the Sega Game Library, accessed through the Meganet modem. Due to issues with long-distance charges through the use of telephone lines, as well as seconds of lag time between commands, only two games featured competitive play: Tel-Tel Stadium and Tel-Tel Mahjong'', with the remainder of the games available for single players via download. Due to Sega's reluctance to commit to releasing the service in North America, third-party developers in that region were unwilling to invest in developing games specifically for Meganet. This resulted in a low number of titles created for the service.
The following list contains all of the titles released for the Meganet service. All titles in this list were released in Japan only.
There were games on the Meganet.
" * " determines games that also had a physical release
Compilations
Unlicensed games
See also
List of Sega video game franchises
List of Sega CD games
List of 32X games
List of cancelled games for Sega consoles
Lists of video games
Notes
References
Sega Genesis
Genesis
|
386407
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitization
|
Digitization
|
Digitization is the process of converting information into a digital (i.e. computer-readable) format. The result is the representation of an object, image, sound, document, or signal (usually an analog signal) obtained by generating a series of numbers that describe a discrete set of points or samples. The result is called digital representation or, more specifically, a digital image, for the object, and digital form, for the signal. In modern practice, the digitized data is in the form of binary numbers, which facilitates processing by digital computers and other operations, but digitizing simply means "the conversion of analog source material into a numerical format"; the decimal or any other number system can be used instead.
Digitization is of crucial importance to data processing, storage, and transmission, because it "allows information of all kinds in all formats to be carried with the same efficiency and also intermingled." Though analog data is typically more stable, digital data has the potential to be more easily shared and accessed and, in theory, can be propagated indefinitely without generation loss, provided it is migrated to new, stable formats as needed. This potential has led to institutional digitization projects designed to improve access and the rapid growth of the digital preservation field.
Sometimes digitization and digital preservation are mistaken for the same thing. They are different, but digitization is often a vital first step in digital preservation. Libraries, archives, museums, and other memory institutions digitize items to preserve fragile materials and create more access points for patrons. Doing this creates challenges for information professionals and solutions can be as varied as the institutions that implement them. Some analog materials, such as audio and video tapes, are nearing the end of their life cycle, and it is important to digitize them before equipment obsolescence and media deterioration makes the data irretrievable.
There are challenges and implications surrounding digitization including time, cost, cultural history concerns, and creating an equitable platform for historically marginalized voices. Many digitizing institutions develop their own solutions to these challenges.
Mass digitization projects have had mixed results over the years, but some institutions have had success even if not in the traditional Google Books model.
Technological changes can happen often and quickly, so digitization standards are difficult to keep updated. Professionals in the field can attend conferences and join organizations and working groups to keep their knowledge current and add to the conversation.
Process
The term digitization is often used when diverse forms of information, such as an object, text, sound, image, or voice, are converted into a single binary code. The core of the process is the compromise between the capturing device and the player device so that the rendered result represents the original source with the most possible fidelity, and the advantage of digitization is the speed and accuracy in which this form of information can be transmitted with no degradation compared with analog information.
Digital information exists as one of two digits, either 0 or 1. These are known as bits (a contraction of binary digits) and the sequences of 0s and 1s that constitute information are called bytes.
Analog signals are continuously variable, both in the number of possible values of the signal at a given time, as well as in the number of points in the signal in a given period of time. However, digital signals are discrete in both of those respects – generally a finite sequence of integers – therefore a digitization can, in practical terms, only ever be an approximation of the signal it represents.
Digitization occurs in two parts:
Discretization The reading of an analog signal A, and, at regular time intervals (frequency), sampling the value of the signal at the point. Each such reading is called a sample and may be considered to have infinite precision at this stage;
Quantization Samples are rounded to a fixed set of numbers (such as integers), a process known as quantization.
In general, these can occur at the same time, though they are conceptually distinct.
A series of digital integers can be transformed into an analog output that approximates the original analog signal. Such a transformation is called a digital-to-analog conversion. The sampling rate and the number of bits used to represent the integers combine to determine how close such an approximation to the analog signal a digitization will be.
Examples
The term is used to describe, for example, the scanning of analog sources (such as printed photos or taped videos) into computers for editing, 3D scanning that creates 3D modeling of an object's surface, and audio (where sampling rate is often measured in kilohertz) and texture map transformations. In this last case, as in normal photos, the sampling rate refers to the resolution of the image, often measured in pixels per inch.
Digitizing is the primary way of storing images in a form suitable for transmission and computer processing, whether scanned from two-dimensional analog originals or captured using an image sensor-equipped device such as a digital camera, tomographical instrument such as a CAT scanner, or acquiring precise dimensions from a real-world object, such as a car, using a 3D scanning device.
Digitizing is central to making digital representations of geographical features, using raster or vector images, in a geographic information system, i.e., the creation of electronic maps, either from various geographical and satellite imaging (raster) or by digitizing traditional paper maps or graphs (vector).
"Digitization" is also used to describe the process of populating databases with files or data. While this usage is technically inaccurate, it originates with the previously proper use of the term to describe that part of the process involving digitization of analog sources, such as printed pictures and brochures, before uploading to target databases.
Digitizing may also be used in the field of apparel, where an image may be recreated with the help of embroidery digitizing software tools and saved as embroidery machine code. This machine code is fed into an embroidery machine and applied to the fabric. The most supported format is DST file. Apparel companies also digitize clothing patterns.
History
1957 The Standards Electronic Automatic Computer (SEAC) was invented. That same year, Russell Kirsch used a rotating drum scanner and photomultiplier connected to SEAC to create the first digital image (176x176 pixels) from a photo of his infant son. This image was stored in SEAC memory via a staticizer and viewed via a cathode ray oscilloscope.
1971 Invention of Charge-Coupled Devices that made conversion from analog data to a digital format easy.
1986 work started on the JPEG format.
1990s Libraries began scanning collections to provide access via the world wide web.
Analog signals to digital
Analog signals are continuous electrical signals; digital signals are non-continuous. Analog signals can be converted to digital signals by using an analog-to-digital converter.
The process of converting analog to digital consists of two parts: sampling and quantizing. Sampling measures wave amplitudes at regular intervals, splits them along the vertical axis, and assigns them a numerical value, while quantizing looks for measurements that are between binary values and rounds them up or down.
Nearly all recorded music has been digitized, and about 12 percent of the 500,000+ movies listed on the Internet Movie Database are digitized and were released on DVD.
Digitization of home movies, slides, and photographs is a popular method of preserving and sharing personal multimedia. Slides and photographs may be scanned quickly using an image scanner, but analog video requires a video tape player to be connected to a computer while the item plays in real time. Slides can be digitized quicker with a slide scanner such as the Nikon Coolscan 5000ED.
Another example of digitization is the VisualAudio process developed by the Swiss Fonoteca Nazionale in Lugano, by scanning a high resolution photograph of a record, they are able to extract and reconstruct the sound from the processed image.
Digitization of analog tapes before they degrade, or after damage has already occurred, can rescue the only copies of local and traditional cultural music for future generations to study and enjoy.
Analog texts to digital
Academic and public libraries, foundations, and private companies like Google are scanning older print books and applying optical character recognition (OCR) technologies so they can be keyword searched, but as of 2006, only about 1 in 20 texts had been digitized. Librarians and archivists are working to increase this statistic and in 2019 began digitizing 480,000 books published between 1923 and 1964 that had entered the public domain.
Unpublished manuscripts and other rare papers and documents housed in special collections are being digitized by libraries and archives, but backlogs often slow this process and keep materials with enduring historical and research value hidden from most users (see digital libraries). Digitization has not completely replaced other archival imaging options, such as microfilming which is still used by institutions such as the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) to provide preservation and access to these resources.
While digital versions of analog texts can potentially be accessed from anywhere in the world, they are not as stable as most print materials or manuscripts and are unlikely to be accessible decades from now without further preservation efforts, while many books manuscripts and scrolls have already been around for centuries. However, for some materials that have been damaged by water, insects, or catastrophes, digitization might be the only option for continued use.
Library preservation
In the context of libraries, archives, and museums, digitization is a means of creating digital surrogates of analog materials, such as books, newspapers, microfilm and videotapes, offers a variety of benefits, including increasing access, especially for patrons at a distance; contributing to collection development, through collaborative initiatives; enhancing the potential for research and education; and supporting preservation activities. Digitization can provide a means of preserving the content of the materials by creating an accessible facsimile of the object in order to put less strain on already fragile originals. For sounds, digitization of legacy analog recordings is essential insurance against technological obsolescence. A fundamental aspect of planning digitization projects is to ensure that the digital files themselves are preserved and remain accessible; the term "digital preservation," in its most basic sense, refers to an array of activities undertaken to maintain access to digital materials over time.
The prevalent Brittle Books issue facing libraries across the world is being addressed with a digital solution for long term book preservation. Since the mid-1800s, books were printed on wood-pulp paper, which turns acidic as it decays. Deterioration may advance to a point where a book is completely unusable. In theory, if these widely circulated titles are not treated with de-acidification processes, the materials upon those acid pages will be lost. As digital technology evolves, it is increasingly preferred as a method of preserving these materials, mainly because it can provide easier access points and significantly reduce the need for physical storage space.
Cambridge University Library is working on the Cambridge Digital Library, which will initially contain digitised versions of many of its most important works relating to science and religion. These include examples such as Isaac Newton's personally annotated first edition of his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica as well as college notebooks and other papers, and some Islamic manuscripts such as a Quran from Tipu Sahib's library.
Google, Inc. has taken steps towards attempting to digitize every title with "Google Book Search". While some academic libraries have been contracted by the service, issues of copyright law violations threaten to derail the project. However, it does provide – at the very least – an online consortium for libraries to exchange information and for researchers to search for titles as well as review the materials.
Digitization versus digital preservation
Digitizing something is not the same as digitally preserving it. To digitize something is to create a digital surrogate (copy or format) of an existing analog item (book, photograph, or record) and is often described as converting it from analog to digital, however both copies remain. An example would be scanning a photograph and having the original piece in a photo album and a digital copy saved to a computer. This is essentially the first step in digital preservation which is to maintain the digital copy over a long period of time and making sure it remains authentic and accessible.
Digitization is done once with the technology currently available, while digital preservation is more complicated because technology changes so quickly that a once popular storage format may become obsolete before it breaks. An example is a 5 1/4" floppy drive, computers are no longer made with them and obtaining the hardware to convert a file stored on 5 1/4" floppy disc can be expensive. To combat this risk, equipment must be upgraded as newer technology becomes affordable (about 2 to 5 years), but before older technology becomes unobtainable (about 5 to 10 years).
Digital preservation can also apply to born-digital material, such as a Microsoft Word document or a social media post. In contrast, digitization only applies exclusively to analog materials. Born-digital materials present a unique challenge to digital preservation not only due to technological obsolescence but also because of the inherently unstable nature of digital storage and maintenance. Most websites last between 2.5 and 5 years, depending on the purpose for which they were designed.
The Library of Congress provides numerous resources and tips for individuals looking to practice digitization and digital preservation for their personal collections.
Digital reformatting
Digital reformatting is the process of converting analog materials into a digital format as a surrogate of the original. The digital surrogates perform a preservation function by reducing or eliminating the use of the original. Digital reformatting is guided by established best practices to ensure that materials are being converted at the highest quality.
Digital reformatting at the Library of Congress
The Library of Congress has been actively reformatting materials for its American Memory project and developed best standards and practices pertaining to book handling during the digitization process, scanning resolutions, and preferred file formats. Some of these standards are:
The use of ISO 16067-1 and ISO 16067-2 standards for resolution requirements.
Recommended 400 ppi resolution for OCR'ed printed text.
The use of 24-bit color when color is an important attribute of a document.
The use of the scanning device's maximum resolution for digitally reproducing photographs
TIFF as the standard file format.
Attachment of descriptive, structural, and technical metadata to all digitized documents.
A list of archival standards for digital preservation can be found on the ARL website.
The Library of Congress has constituted a Preservation Digital Reformatting Program. The Three main components of the program include:
Selection Criteria for digital reformatting
Digital reformatting principles and specifications
Life cycle management of LC digital data
Audio digitization and reformatting
Audio media offers a rich source of historic ethnographic information, with the earliest forms of recorded sound dating back to 1890. According to the International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives (IASA), these sources of audio data, as well as the aging technologies used to play them back, are in imminent danger of permanent loss due to degradation and obsolescence. These primary sources are called “carriers” and exist in a variety of formats, including wax cylinders, magnetic tape, and flat discs of grooved media, among others. Some formats are susceptible to more severe, or quicker, degradation than others. For instance, lacquer discs suffer from delamination. Analog tape may deteriorate due to sticky shed syndrome.
Archival workflow and file standardization have been developed to minimize loss of information from the original carrier to the resulting digital file as digitization is underway. For most at-risk formats (magnetic tape, grooved cylinders, etc.), a similar workflow can be observed. Examination of the source carrier will help determine what, if any, steps need to be taken to repair material prior to transfer. A similar inspection must be undertaken for the playback machines. If satisfactory conditions are met for both carrier and playback machine, the transfer can take place, moderated by an analog-to-digital converter. The digital signal is then represented visually for the transfer engineer by a digital audio workstation, like Audacity, WaveLab, or Pro Tools. Reference access copies can be made at smaller sample rates. For archival purposes, it is standard to transfer at a sample rate of 96 kHz and a bit depth of 24 bits per channel.
Challenges
Many libraries, archives, museums, and other memory institutions, struggle with catching up and staying current regarding digitization and the expectation that everything should already be online. The time spent planning, doing the work, and processing the digital files along with the expense and fragility of some materials are some of the most common.
Time spent
Digitization is a time-consuming process, even more so when the condition or format of the analog resources requires special handling. Deciding what part of a collection to digitize can sometimes take longer than digitizing it in its entirety. Each digitization project is unique and workflows for one will be different from every other project that goes through the process, so time must be spent thoroughly studying and planning each one to create the best plan for the materials and the intended audience.
Expense
Cost of equipment, staff time, metadata creation, and digital storage media make large scale digitization of collections expensive for all types of cultural institutions.
Ideally, all institutions want their digital copies to have the best image quality so a high-quality copy can be maintained over time. In the mid-long term, digital storage would be regarded as the more expensive part to maintain the digital archives due to the increasing number of scanning requests. However, smaller institutions may not be able to afford such equipment or manpower, which limits how much material can be digitized, so archivists and librarians must know what their patrons need and prioritize digitization of those items. To help the information institutions to better decide the archives worth of digitization, Casablancas and other researchers used a proposed model to investigate the impact of different digitization strategies on the decrease in access requests in the archival and library reading rooms. Often the cost of time and expertise involved with describing materials and adding metadata is more than the digitization process.
Fragility of materials
Some materials, such as brittle books, are so fragile that undergoing the process of digitization could damage them irreparably. Despite potential damage, one reason for digitizing fragile materials is because they are so heavily used that creating a digital surrogate will help preserve the original copy long past its expected lifetime and increase access to the item.
Copyright
Copyright is not only a problem faced by projects like Google Books, but by institutions that may need to contact private citizens or institutions mentioned in archival documents for permission to scan the items for digital collections. It can be time consuming to make sure all potential copyright holders have given permission, but if copyright cannot be determined or cleared, it may be necessary to restrict even digital materials to in library use.
Solutions
Institutions can make digitization more cost-effective by planning before a project begins, including outlining what they hope to accomplish and the minimum amount of equipment, time, and effort that can meet those goals. If a budget needs more money to cover the cost of equipment or staff, an institution might investigate if grants are available.
Collaboration
Collaborations between institutions have the potential to save money on equipment, staff, and training as individual members share their equipment, manpower, and skills rather than pay outside organizations to provide these services. Collaborations with donors can build long-term support of current and future digitization projects.
Outsourcing
Outsourcing can be an option if an institution does not want to invest in equipment but since most vendors require an inventory and basic metadata for materials, this is not an option for institutions hoping to digitize without processing.
Non-traditional staffing
Many institutions have the option of using volunteers, student employees, or temporary employees on projects. While this saves on staffing costs, it can add costs elsewhere such as on training or having to re-scan items due to poor quality.
MPLP
One way to save time and resources is by using the More Product, Less Process (MPLP) method to digitize materials while they are being processed. Since GLAM (Galleries, Libraries, Archives, and Museums) institutions are already committed to preserving analog materials from special collections, digital access copies do not need to be high-resolution preservation copies, just good enough to provide access to rare materials. Sometimes institutions can get by with 300 dpi JPGs rather than a 600 dpi TIFF for images, and a 300 dpi grayscale scan of a document rather than a color one at 600 dpi.
Digitizing marginalized voices
Digitization can be used to highlight voices of historically marginalized peoples and add them to the greater body of knowledge. Many projects, some community archives created by members of those groups, are doing this in a way that supports the people, values their input and collaboration, and gives them a sense of ownership of the collection. Examples of projects are Gi-gikinomaage-min and the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA).
Gi-gikinomaage-min
Gi-gikinomaage-min is Anishinaabemowin for "We are all teachers" and its main purpose is "to document the history of Native Americans in Grand Rapids, Michigan." It combines new audio and video oral histories with digitized flyers, posters, and newsletters from Grand Valley State University's analog collections. Although not entirely a newly digitized project, what was created also added item-level metadata to enhance context. At the start, collaboration between several university departments and the Native American population was deemed important and remained strong throughout the project.
SAADA
The South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA) has no physical building, is entirely digital and everything is handled by volunteers. This archive was started by Michelle Caswell and Samip Mallick and collects a broad variety of materials "created by or about people residing in the United States who trace their heritage to Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and the many South Asian diaspora communities across the globe." (Caswell, 2015, 2). The collection of digitized items includes private, government, and university held materials.
Black Campus Movement Collection (BCM)
Kent State University began its BCM collection when it acquired the papers of African American alumnus Lafayette Tolliver, which included about 1,000 photographs that chronicled the black student experience at Kent State from 1968-1971. The collection continues to add materials from the 1960s up to and including the current student body and several oral histories have been added since it debuted. When digitizing the items, it was necessary to work with alumni to create descriptions for the images. This collaboration created changes in local controlled vocabularies the libraries used to create metadata for the images.
Mass digitization
The expectation that everything should be online has led to mass digitization practices, but it is an ongoing process with obstacles that have led to alternatives. As new technology makes automated scanning of materials safer for materials and decreases need for cropping and de-skewing, mass digitization should be able to increase.
Obstacles
Digitization can be a physically slow process involving selection and preparation of collections that can take years if materials need to be compared for completeness or are vulnerable to damage. Price of specialized equipment, storage costs, website maintenance, quality control, and retrieval system limitations all add to the problems of working on a large scale.
Successes
Digitization on demand
Scanning materials as users ask for them, provides copies for others to use and cuts down on repeated copying of popular items. If one part of a folder, document, or book is asked for, scanning the entire object can save time in the future by already having the material access if someone else needs the material. Digitizing on demand can increase volume because time spent on selection and prep has been used on scanning instead.
Google Books
From the start, Google has concentrated on text rather than images or special collections. Although criticized in the past for poor image quality, selection practices, and lacking long-term preservation plans, their focus on quantity over quality has enabled Google to digitize more books than other digitizers.
Standards
Digitization is not a static field and standards change with new technology, so it is up to digitization managers to stay current with new developments. Although each digitization project is different, common standards in formats, metadata, quality, naming, and file storage should be used to give the best chance of interoperability and patron access. As digitization is often the first step in digital preservation, questions about how to handle digital files should be addressed in institutional standards.
A standard for still images adapted from the Smithsonian digitization standards might include the following:
Resources to create local standards are available from the Society of American Archivists, the Smithsonian, and the Northeast Document Conservation Center.
Implications
Cultural heritage concerns
Digitization of community archives by indigenous and other marginalized people has led to traditional memory institutions reassessing how they digitize and handle objects in their collections that may have ties to these groups. The topics they are rethinking are varied and include how items are chosen for digitization projects, what metadata to use to convey proper context to be retrievable by the groups they represent, and whether an item should be accessed by the world or just those who the groups originally intended to have access, such as elders. Many navigate these concerns by collaborating with the communities they seek to represent through their digitized collections.
Lean philosophy
The broad use of internet and the increasing popularity of lean philosophy has also increased the use and meaning of "digitizing" to describe improvements in the efficiency of organizational processes. Lean philosophy refers to the approach which considers any use of time and resources, which does not lead directly to creating a product, as waste and therefore a target for elimination.
This will often involve some kind of Lean process in order to simplify process activities, with the aim of implementing new "lean and mean" processes by digitizing data and activities. Digitization can help to eliminate time waste by introducing wider access to data, or by the implementation of enterprise resource planning systems.
Fiction
Works of science-fiction often include the term digitize as the act of transforming people into digital signals and sending them into digital technology. When that happens, the people disappear from the real world and appear in a virtual world (as featured in the cult film Tron, the animated series Code: Lyoko, or the late 1980s live-action series Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future). In the video game Beyond Good & Evil, the protagonist's holographic friend digitizes the player's inventory items. One Super Friends cartoon episode showed Wonder Woman and Jayna freeing the world's men (including the male super heroes) onto computer tape by the female villainess Medula.
Mind uploading
Mind uploading is the () speculative process of copying a human mind into a digital computer so it can be emulated there. This would require some form of advanced brain scan far more detailed than what is currently possible.
See also
Book scanning
Digital audio
Digital library
Economics of digitization
ENUMERATE
Fourth Industrial Revolution
Frame grabber
Newspaper digitization
Optical character recognition
Raster to vector
Scannebago
References
Further reading
Anderson, Cokie G.; Maxwell, David C, Starting a Digitization Center, Chandos Publishing, 2004,
Bulow, Anna; Ahmon, Jess, Preparing Collections for Digitization, Facet Publishing, 2010,
Perrin, Joy, "Digitization of Flat Media: Principles and Practices", Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2015,
Piepenburg, Scott, "Digitizing Audiovisual and Nonprint Materials: the Innovative Librarian's Guide", Libraries Unlimited, 2015,
Robinson, Peter, Digitization of Primary Textual Sources, Office for Humanities Communication, 1993,
S Ross; I Anderson; C Duffy; M Economou; A Gow; P McKinney; R Sharp; The NINCH Working Group on Best Practices, Guide to Good Practice in the Digital Representation and Management of Cultural Heritage Materials, Washington DC: NINCH, 2002.
Speranski, V. Challenges in AV Digitization and Digital Preservation
'The Library of Congress National Recording Preservation Plan'
Data transmission
Mass digitization
Digital preservation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamil%20Basayev
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Shamil Basayev
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Shamil Salmanovich Basayev (; ; 14 January 1965 – 10 July 2006), also known by his kunya "Abu Idris", was a North Caucasian guerilla leader who served as a senior military commander in the breakaway Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. He held the rank of brigadier general in the Armed Forces of Ichkeria, and was posthumously declared generalissimo. As a military commander in the separatist armed forces of Chechnya, one of his most notable battles was the separatist recapture of Grozny in 1996, which he personally planned and commanded together with Aslan Maskhadov. He also masterminded several of the worst terrorist attacks that occurred in Russia.
Starting as a field commander in the Transcaucasus, Basayev led guerrilla campaigns against Russian forces for years, as well as launching mass-hostage takings of civilians, with his goal being the withdrawal of Russian soldiers from Chechnya. From 1997 to 1998, he also served as the vice-prime minister of the breakaway state in Aslan Maskhadov's government. Beginning in 2003, Basayev used the nom de guerre and title of "Emir Abdullah Shamil Abu-Idris". As Basayev's ruthless reputation gained notoriety, he became well revered among his peers and eventually became the highest ranking Chechen military commander and was considered the undisputed leader of the Chechen insurgency as well as being the overall senior leader of all other Chechen rebel factions.
He ordered the Budyonnovsk hospital raid in 1995, the Beslan school siege in 2004, and was responsible for numerous attacks on security forces in and around Chechnya. He also masterminded the 2002 Moscow theater hostage crisis and the 2004 Russian aircraft bombings. ABC News described him as "one of the most-wanted terrorists in the world". Despite his aura, journalist Tom de Waal described him as "almost unassuming in the flesh", being "of medium height, with a bushy beard and high forehead worthy of a Moscow intellectual, and a quiet voice."
Basayev was killed in a truck explosion during an arms deal in July 2006. Forensic evidence suggests that his death was caused when a landmine he was examining exploded, but Russian officials have also claimed that one of the Kamaz trucks used was booby-trapped and detonated to destroy the arms shipment, also killing Basayev.
Biography
Family history
Shamil Basayev was born in the village of Dyshne-Vedeno, near Vedeno, in south-eastern Chechnya, in 1965 to Chechen parents from the Belghatoy teip. He was named after Imam Shamil, the third imam of Chechnya and Dagestan and one of the leaders of anti-Russian Chechen-Avar forces in the Caucasian War.
His family is said to have had a long history of involvement in Chechen resistance to foreign occupation, especially Russian rule.
In the 14th century an ancestor fought Timur, a great-great-great-grandfather served as Imam Shamil's deputy and died fighting the Czar, while a great-grandfather died fighting the Bolsheviks. His grandfather fought for the abortive attempt to create a breakaway North Caucasian Emirate after the Russian Revolution.
The Basayevs, along with most of the rest of the Chechen population, had been deported to Kazakhstan during World War II in an act of ethnic cleansing on the orders of the NKVD leader Lavrenti Beria. They were only allowed to return when the deportation order was lifted by Nikita Khrushchev in 1957.
Early life and education
Basayev, an avid football player, graduated from school in Dyshne-Vedeno in 1982, aged 17, and spent the next two years in the Soviet military serving as a firefighter. For the next four years, he worked at the Aksaiisky state farm in the Volgograd region of southern Russia before moving to Moscow.
He reportedly attempted to enroll in the law school of the Moscow State University but failed, and instead entered the Moscow Engineering Institute of Land Management in 1987. However, he was expelled for poor grades in 1988. He subsequently worked as a computer salesman in Moscow, in partnership with a local Chechen businessman, Supyan Taramov. Ironically, the two men ended up on opposite sides in the Chechen wars, during which Taramov sponsored a pro-Russian Chechen militia (Sobaka magazines dossier on Basayev reported that Taramov apparently equipped or "outfitted" this group of pro-Russian Chechens; they were also known as "Shamil Hunters").
Personal life
Basayev had four wives, a Chechen woman who was killed in the 1990s, an Abkhaz woman he met while fighting against Georgia, and a Cossack he was said to have married on Valentine's Day, 2005. A fourth secret wife, Elina Ersenoyeva, was apparently forced to marry Basayev under threat of her two brothers' lives, and subsequently hid the identity of her husband from her friends and family. Following revelations about the marriage, Elina was abducted in November 2006, four months after the death of Basayev, allegedly by the Kadyrovtsy ("pro-Kremlin" Chechen forces). She has never been found.
In May 1995, eleven members of Basayev's family were killed in a Russian air raid including his mother, his two children and a brother and sister. He also lost his home in the same attack, becoming the first Chechen who took revenge outside Chechen lands, in the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis.
He lost a leg in 2000 during the Second Chechen War.
His younger brother, Shirvani Basayev, who fought the Russians alongside him, is now living in exile in Turkey.
Early militant activities
When some hardline members of Soviet government attempted to stage a coup d'état in August 1991, Basayev allegedly joined supporters of Russian President Boris Yeltsin on the barricades around the Russian White House in central Moscow, armed with hand grenades.
A few months later, in November 1991, the Chechen nationalist leader Dzhokhar Dudayev unilaterally declared independence from the newly formed Russian Federation. In response, Yeltsin announced a state of emergency and dispatched troops to the border of Chechnya. It was then that Basayev began his long career as an insurgent—seeking to draw international attention to the crisis. Basayev, Lom-Ali Chachayev, and the group's leader, Said-Ali Satuyev, a former airline pilot suffering from schizophrenia, hijacked an Aeroflot Tu-154 plane, en route from Mineralnye Vody in Russia to Ankara on 9 November 1991, and threatened to blow up the aircraft unless the state of emergency was lifted. The hijacking was resolved peacefully in Turkey, with the plane and passengers being allowed to return safely and the hijackers given safe passage back to Chechnya.
Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
Basayev moved to Azerbaijan in 1992, where he assisted Azerbaijani forces in their unsuccessful war against Armenian fighters in the enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh. He was said to have led a battalion-strength Chechen contingent. According to Azeri Colonel Azer Rustamov, in 1992, "hundreds of Chechen volunteers rendered us invaluable help in these battles led by Shamil Basayev and Salman Raduyev". Basayev was said to be one of the last fighters to leave Shusha (see Capture of Shusha). He ordered the withdrawal of the Chechen detachments from Karabakh in 1993, stating that they had entered the region for a Jihad, but saw not a single sign of it.
Abkhaz–Georgian conflict
Later in 1992, Basayev traveled to Abkhazia, a breakaway region of Georgia, to assist the local separatist movement against the Georgian government's attempts to regain control of the region. Basayev became the commander-in-chief of the forces of the Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus (a volunteer unit of pan-North Caucasian nationalists, people from the North Caucasus). Their involvement was crucial in the Abkhazian war and in October 1993 the Georgian government suffered a decisive military defeat. It was rumored that the volunteers were trained and supplied by some part of the Russian army's GRU military intelligence service. According to The Independent journalist Patrick Cockburn, "cooperation between Mr Basayev and the Russian army is not so surprising as it sounds. In 1992–93 he is widely believed to have received assistance from the GRU when he and his brother Shirvani fought in Abkhazia, a breakaway part of Georgia." No specific evidence was given.
Accusations of being a GRU agent
The Russian government newspaper Rossiyskaya Gazeta reported that Basayev was an agent of GRU, and another publication by journalist Boris Kagarlitsky said that "It is maintained, for example, that Shamil Basayev and his brother Shirvani are long-standing GRU agents, and that all their activities were agreed, not with the radical Islamists, but with the generals sitting in the military intelligence offices. All the details of the attack by Basayev's detachments were supposedly worked out in the summer of 1999 in a villa in the south of France with the participation of Basayev and the Head of the Presidential administration, Aleksandr Voloshin. Furthermore, it is alleged that the explosive materials used were not supplied from secret bases in Chechnya but from GRU stockpiles near Moscow." The Russian newspaper Novaya Gazeta stated that the Basayev brothers "both recruited as agents by the Main Intelligence Directorate of the Russian General Staff (GRU) in 1991–92." The Russian newspaper Versiya published a file from the Russian foreign military agency on Basayev and his brother, which stated that "both Chechen terrorists were named as regular agents of the military intelligence organization." In a July 2020 interview, the former Russian Federal Security Service chief Sergei Stepashin admitted that Basayev cooperated with military intelligence while fighting against Georgian government in Abkhazia.
Russian special forces joined with the Chechens under Basayev to attack Georgia. A GRU agent, Anton Surikov, had extensive connections with Basayev. Russian military intelligence had ordered Basayev to support the Abkhaz.
Basayev received direct military training from the GRU since the Abkhaz were backed by Russia. Other Chechens also were trained by the GRU in warfare, many of these Chechens who fought for the Russians in Abkhazia against Georgia had fought for Azerbaijan against Armenia in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War.
The Russians allowed Basayev to travel between Russia and Abkhazia to battle the Georgians.
In an interview with Nezavisimaya Gazeta on March 12, 1996, Basayev denied the information that he was trained on the basis of the Russian 345th Airborne Regiment: “Not a single Chechen studied there, because they were not accepted.”
Representatives of Chechen separatists have always rejected allegations of Basayev's cooperation with Russian intelligence services, calling them a deliberate attempt to discredit Basayev in the eyes of his supporters.
War crimes
According to Paul J. Murphy, "Russian military intelligence turned a blind eye to the 1991 terrorist arrest warrant against Basayev to train him and his detachment in Abkhazia, and the Russians even helped direct Basayev's combat operations" and "long after the war, Basayev praised the professionalism and courage of his Russian trainers in Abkhazia – praise that led some of his enemies in Grozny, even President Maskhadov, to later call him a "longtime GRU agent".
In 1993 Basayev lead the CMPC corps of North Caucasian volunteers, according to allegations made by Georgian tabloids, the volunteers led by him had decapitated Georgian civilians. After an investigation by a commission composed of Russian deputies, as well as a commission led by UNPO lawyer and investigator Michael van Praag, they could not find any proof for such an incident ever taking place. The tabloid in question also admitted in November that they had no proof to confirm that such an incident had taken place.
Allegations of links with Pakistan's ISI
Having already been noticed in Afghanistan, where he fought as a young man, and then in Abkhazia in Georgia, Basayev would further attract the attention of Pakistan's premier intelligence agency, the ISI: under Pakistani command, and after meeting many powerful personalities of the army, including the DG ISI Javed Ashraf Qazi, he would be one of the 1,500-strong Afghan mujahideen contingent which fought the Armenians during the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, and in April 1994, the ISI would eventually arrange "a refresher course for Basayev and some of his NCOs in guerrilla warfare and Islamic learning in the Amir Munawid Camp in Khost province in Afghanistan", with Basayev also having further specialized training in Pakistan proper, in cities like Rawalpindi, Peshawar and Muridke, near Lahore. They were also given Stingers, anti-tank rockets and advanced explosives, which would be later used to shoot down Russian combat airplanes and dozens of helicopters. Ultimately, hundreds of Chechens would be trained in Khost, under the ISI as well as the Pakistan-based Islamist outfit Harkat-ul-Ansar, and one of its commanders, Abu Abdullah Jaffa, once in Pakistan's Northern Light Infantry, would work closely with Basayev over the years, as for instance he's supposed to be the one who planned the invasion of Dagestan.
Basayev's own account of his activities in Afghanistan and Pakistan is as such, as given in a September 2003 interview to The Globe and Mail:I was interested in the Afghan experience on the defence engineering constructions, air defense system and mine-explosive works. Therefore, I went first to Peshawar (Pakistan). There, I lived with some Tajiks and through them I agreed for training for 200 Chechens. I sold at home some captured weaponry, seized in June from Labazanov’s band in then Groznyi, took also some money from my acquaintances and transported the first group of 12 people to Afghanistan. There I spent a night in the training camp and in the morning I returned to Karachi to meet the second group. But at the airport they aroused a suspicion because of their number and they didn’t have their passports in their hands. The Russians raised a large noise and in the week they sent us back.
Basayev's role in the First Chechen War
1994–1995
The First Chechen War began when Russian forces invaded Chechnya on 11 December 1994, to depose the government of Dzhokhar Dudayev. With the outbreak of war, Dudayev made Basayev one of the front-line commanders. Basayev took an active role in the resistance, successfully commanding his "Abkhaz Battalion." The unit inflicted major losses on Russian forces in the Battle of Grozny, Chechnya's capital, which lasted from December 1994 to February 1995. Basayev's men were among the last fighters to abandon the city.
1995
After capturing Grozny, the momentum changed in favor of the Russian forces, and by April Chechen forces had been pushed into the mountains with most of their equipment destroyed. Basayev's "Abkhaz Battalion" suffered many casualties, particularly during battles around Vedeno in May and their ranks sank to as low as 200 men, critically low on supplies.
Around this time, Basayev also suffered a personal tragedy. On 3 June 1995, during a Russian air raid on Basayev's hometown of Dyshne-Vedeno, two bombs targeted the home of Basayev's uncle, killing six children, four women as well as his uncle. Basayev's wife, child and his sister Zinaida were among the dead. Twelve additional members of Basayev's family were also seriously wounded in the attack. One of his brothers was also killed in fighting near Vedeno.
In an attempt to force a stop to the Russian advance, some Chechen forces resorted to a series of attacks directed against civilian targets outside the area that they claimed. Basayev led the most infamous such attack, the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis on 14 June 1995, less than two weeks after he lost his family in the air raids. Basayev's large band seized the Budyonnovsk hospital in southern Russia and the 1,600 people inside for a period of several days. At least 129 civilians died and 415 were wounded during the crisis as the Russian special forces repeatedly attempted to free the hostages by force. Although Basayev failed in his principal demand for the removal of Russian forces from Chechnya, he did successfully negotiate a stop to the Russian advance and an initiation of peace talks with the Russian government, saving the Chechen resistance by giving them time to regroup and recover. Basayev and his fighters then returned to Chechnya under cover of human shields.
On 23 November, Basayev announced on the Russian NTV television channel, that four cases of radioactive material had been hidden around Moscow. Russian emergency teams roamed the city with Geiger counters, and located several canisters of caesium, which had been stolen from the Budennovsk hospital by the Chechen militants. The incident has been called "the most important sub-state use of radiological material."
1996
By 1996 Basayev had been promoted to the rank of General and Commander of the Chechen Armed Forces. In July 1996 he was implicated in the death of the rogue Chechen warlord Ruslan Labazanov.
In August 1996, he led a successful operation to retake the Chechen capital Grozny, defeating the Russian garrison of the city. Yeltsin's government finally moved for peace, bringing in former Soviet–Afghan War General Aleksandr Lebed as a negotiator. A peace agreement was concluded between the Chechens and Russians, under which the Chechens acquired de facto independence from Russia.
Interwar period
Basayev stepped down from his military position in December 1996 to run for president in Chechnya's second (and the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria's first and only ever internationally monitored) presidential elections. Basayev came in second place to Aslan Maskhadov, obtaining 23.5% of the votes. Allegedly Basayev found the defeat very painful.
In early 1997 he was appointed deputy Prime Minister of Chechnya by Maskhadov. In January 1998 he became the acting head of the Chechen government for a six-month term, after which he resigned. Basayev's appointment was symbolic because it took place on the eve of the celebrations of the 200th anniversary of his renowned namesake. Basayev subsequently reduced the government's administrative departments and abolished several ministries. However, the collection of taxes and the Chechen National Bank's reserves shrank, and theft of petroleum products increased seriously.
Maskhadov worked with Basayev until 1998, when Basayev established a network of military officers, who soon became rival warlords. As Chechnya collapsed into chaos, Basayev's reputation began to plummet as he and others were accused of corruption and involvement in kidnapping; his alliance with Khattab also alienated many Chechens. By early 1998 Basayev emerged as the main political opponent of the Chechen president, who in his opinion was "pushing the republic back to the Russian Federation." On 31 March 1998, Basayev called for the termination of talks with Russia; on 7 July 1998, he sent a letter of resignation from his post as the Chechen Prime Minister. During these years he wrote Book of a Mujahiddeen, an Islamic guerilla manual.
Incursion into Dagestan
In December 1997, after Movladi Udugov's Islamic Nation party had called for Chechnya to annex territories in
neighbouring Dagestan, Basayev promised to "liberate" neighbouring Dagestan from its status as "a Russian colony."
According to Alex Goldfarb and Marina Litvinenko's book Death of a Dissident, Kremlin-critic Boris Berezovsky said that he had a conversation with the Chechen Islamist leader Movladi Udugov in 1999, six months before the beginning of fighting in Dagestan. A transcript of the phone conversation between Berezovsky and Udugov was leaked to one of Moscow tabloids on 10 September 1999. Udugov proposed to start the Dagestan war to provoke the Russian response, topple the Chechen president Aslan Maskhadov and establish new Islamic republic of Basayev-Udugov that would be friendly to Russia. Berezovsky asserted that he refused the offer, but "Udugov and Basayev conspired with Stepashin and Putin to provoke a war to topple Maskhadov ... but the agreement was for the Russian army to stop at the Terek River. However, Putin double-crossed the Chechens and started an all-out war."
It was also alleged that Alexander Voloshin, a key figure in the Yeltsin administration, paid Basayev to stage the Dagestan incursion, and that Basayev was working for the Russian GRU at the time. According to the BBC, conspiracy theories are part of the staple diet of Moscow politics.
In August 1999, Basayev and Khattab led a 1,400-strong group of militants in an unsuccessful attempt to aid Dagestani Wahhabists to take over the neighboring Republic of Dagestan and establish an Islamic republic and start an uprising. By the end of the month, Russian forces had managed to repel the invasion.
1999 apartment bombings
In early September, a series of bombings of Russian apartment blocks took place, killing 293 people. Russia quickly blamed the attacks on Chechen militants without any evidence. Basayev, Ibn Al-Khattab and Achemez Gochiyaev were named by Russia as key suspects. Basayev and Khattab denied any involvement in the attacks, with Basayev stating whoever committed them are not human. According to a Russian FSB spokesman, Gochiyaev's group was trained at Chechen militant bases in the towns of Serzhen-Yurt and Urus-Martan, where the explosives were prepared. The group's "technical instructors" were two Arab field commanders, Abu Umar and Abu Djafar, and Al-Khattab was the bombings' brainchild. Two members of Gochiyayev's group that carried out the attacks, Adam Dekkushev and Yusuf Crymshamhalov, have been sentenced to life term each in a special-regime colony. According to FSB, Basayev and Al-Khattab masterminded the attacks. Al-Khattab has been killed, but Gochiyaev remains a fugitive.
Although Basayev and Khattab denied responsibility, the Russian government blamed the Chechen government for allowing Basayev to use Chechnya as a base. Chechen President Aslan Maskhadov denied any involvement in the attacks, and offered a crackdown on the renegade warlords, which Russia refused. Commenting on the attacks, Shamil Basayev said: "The latest blast in Moscow is not our work, but the work of the Dagestanis. Russia has been openly terrorizing Dagestan, it encircled three villages in the centre of Dagestan, did not allow women and children to leave." Al-Khattab, who was reportedly close with Basayev, said the attacks were a response to what the Russians had done in Karamakhi and Chabanmakhi, two Dagestani villages where followers of the Wahhabi sect were living until the Russian army bombed them out. A group called the Liberation army of Dagestan claimed responsibility for the apartment bombings.
Second Chechen War
Michael Radu of the Foreign Policy Research Institute said "Basayev managed to radically change the world's perception of the Chechen cause, from that of a small nation resisting victimization by Russian imperialism into another outpost of the global jihad. In the process, he also significantly modified the very nature of Islam in Chechnya and Northern Caucasus, from a traditional mix of syncretism and Sufism into one strongly influenced by Wahhabism and Salafism—especially among the youth. With Wahhabism came expansionism."
1999
Basayev stayed in Grozny for the duration of the siege of the city. His threats of "kamikaze" attacks in Russia were widely dismissed as a bluff.
2000
During the Chechens retreat from Grozny in January 2000 Basayev lost a foot after stepping on a land mine while leading his men through a minefield. The operation to amputate his foot and part of his leg was videotaped by Adam Tepsurgayev and later televised by Russia's NTV network and Reuters, showing his foot being removed by Khassan Baiev using a local anaesthetic while Basayev watched impassively.
Despite this injury, Basayev eluded Russian capture together with other Chechens by hiding in forests and mountains. He welcomed assistance from foreign fighters from Afghanistan and other Islamic countries, encouraging them to join the Chechen cause. He also ordered the execution of nine Russian OMON prisoners on 4 April 2000; the men were killed because the Russians had refused to swap them for Yuri Budanov, an arrested army officer accused of raping and killing an 18-year-old Chechen girl.
2001
According to the US State Department, Basayev trained in Afghanistan in 2001. The US also alleges that Basayev and Khattab sent Chechens to serve in Al-Qaeda's "055" brigade, fighting alongside the Taliban against the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan.
On 2 June 2001, it was reported General Gennady Troshev, then-commander-in-chief of Russian forces in Chechnya, had offered a bounty of one million dollars to anyone who would bring him the head of Basayev.
In August, Basayev commanded a large-scale raid on the Vedensky District. A deputy commander of Russian forces in Chechnya claimed Basayev was wounded in a firefight.
2002
In January 2002, Basayev's father, Salman, was reputedly killed by Russian forces. This has not been independently confirmed. Shamil's younger brother, Shirvani, was reported killed by the Russians in 2000, but is, according to numerous accounts, actually living in exile in Turkey where he is involved in coordination of the activities of the diaspora.
In May, the Russian side declared Basayev "dead".The Russian military had also made several claims about Basayev's alleged death in the past.
Around 2 November 2002, Basayev claimed on a militant website that he was responsible for the Moscow theater hostage crisis (although the siege was led by Movsar Barayev) in which 50 Chechens held about 800 people hostage; Russian forces later stormed the building using gas, killing the Chechens and more than 100 hostages. Basayev also tendered his resignation from all posts in Maskhadov's government apart from the reconnaissance and sabotage battalion. He defended the operation but asked Maskhadov for forgiveness for not informing him of it. The answer to who was behind the hostage taking, however, is not so clear – some dissidents claim, including Alexander Litvinenko, was that the FSB was behind the Moscow theater incident.
On 27 December 2002, Chechen suicide bombers rammed vehicles into the republic's government headquarters in Grozny, bringing down the four-story building and killing about 80 people. Basayev claimed responsibility, published the video of the attack, and said he personally triggered the bombs by remote control.
2003
On 12 May 2003, suicide bombers rammed a truck loaded with explosives into a Russian government compound in Znamenskoye, northern Chechnya, killing 59 people. Two days later a woman got within six feet of Akhmad Kadyrov, the head of the Moscow-appointed Chechen administration, and blew herself up killing herself and 14 people; Kadyrov was unhurt. Basayev claimed responsibility for both attacks; Maskhadov denounced them.
From June until August 2003 Basayev lived in the town of Baksan in nearby Kabardino-Balkaria. Eventually, a skirmish took place between when local policemen came to check the house he was staying in. Basayev escaped the incident.
On 8 August 2003, U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell designated Shamil Basayev as a threat to U.S. security and citizens, saying that Basayev "has committed or poses a significant risk of committing, acts of terrorism that threaten the security of U.S. nationals or the national security, foreign policy, or economy of the United States". In February, the U.S. State Department designated three Chechen groups with links to al-Qaeda, including the Islamic International Peacekeeping Brigade, stating that Osama bin-Laden had sent "substantial" amounts to its founders Basayev and Ibn al-Khattab. The United Nations Security Council also placed Basayev on its official list of terrorists after the U.S. designation.
In late 2003, Basayev claimed responsibility for terrorist bombings in both Moscow and Yessentuki in Stavropol Krai. He said both attacks were carried out by the group operating under his command.
2004
On 9 May 2004, the pro-Russian Chechen President Akhmad Kadyrov was killed in Grozny in a bomb attack for which Basayev later claimed responsibility. That explosion killed at least six people and wounded nearly 60, including the top Russian military commander in Chechnya, who lost his leg; Basayev called it a "small but important victory".
Basayev was accused of commanding the 21 June raid on Nazran in the Russian republic of Ingushetia. In fact, he was shown in a video made of the raid, in which he led a large group of militants. Around 90 people died in this attack, mostly local servicemen and officials of the Russian security forces including the republic's acting interior minister. The Ministry building was burned down.
In September 2004 Basayev claimed responsibility for the Beslan school siege in which over 350 people, most of them children, were killed and hundreds more injured. The Russian government put up a bounty of 300m rubles ($10m) for information leading to his capture. Basayev himself did not participate in the seizure of the school, but claimed to have organized and financed the attack, boasting that the whole operation cost only 8,000 euros. On 17 September 2004, Basayev issued a statement claiming responsibility for the school siege, saying his Riyadus-Salihiin "Martyr Battalion" had carried out this and other attacks. In his message, Basayev described the Beslan massacre as a "terrible tragedy". He blamed it on Russian President Vladimir Putin, stating that by Putin giving the order to storm the school he had destroyed and injured the hostages.
Basayev also claimed responsibility for the attacks against civilians during the previous week, in which a metro station in Moscow was bombed (killing 10 people), and two airliners were blown up by suicide bombers (killing 89 people). Basayev dubbed these attacks "Operation Boomerang". He also said that during the Beslan crisis he offered Putin "independence in exchange for security".
2005
On 3 February 2005, UK's Channel 4 announced that it would air Basayev's interview. In response, the Russian Foreign Ministry said that the broadcast could aid terrorists in achieving their goals and demanded that the Government of the United Kingdom call off the broadcast. The British Foreign Office replied that it could not intervene in the affairs of a private TV channel and the interview was aired as scheduled. The same day, Russian media reported that Shamil Basayev had been killed; it was the sixth such report about Basayev's demise since 1999.
In May 2005, Basayev reportedly claimed responsibility for the power outage in Moscow. The BBC reported that the claim for responsibility was made on a web site connected to Basayev, but conflicted with official reports that sabotage was not involved.
Even though Basayev had a $10 million bounty on his head, he gave an interview to Russian journalist Andrei Babitsky in which he described himself as "a bad guy, a bandit, a terrorist ... but what would you call them?", referring to his enemies. Basayev stated each Russian had to feel war's impact before the Chechen war would stop. Basayev asked "Officially, over 40,000 of our children have been killed and tens of thousands mutilated. Is anyone saying anything about that? ... responsibility is with the whole Russian nation, which through its silent approval gives a 'yes'." This interview was broadcast on U.S. television network ABC's Nightline program, to the protest of the Russian government; on 2 August 2005, Moscow banned journalists of the ABC network from working in Russia.
On 23 August 2005, Basayev rejoined the Chechen separatist government, taking the post of first deputy chairman. Later this year Basayev claimed responsibility for a raid on Nalchik, the capital of the Russian republic of Kabardino-Balkaria. The raid occurred on 13 October 2005; Basayev said that he and his "main units" were only in the city for two hours and then left. There were reports that he had died during the raid, but this was contradicted when the separatist website, Kavkaz Center, posted a letter from him.
2006
In March 2006, Prime Minister of Chechen Republic, Ramzan Kadyrov, claimed that upwards of 3,000 police officers were hunting for Basayev in the southern mountains. On 15 June 2006, Basayev repeated his claim of responsibility for the bombing that killed Akhmad Kadyrov, saying he had paid $50,000 to those who carried out the assassination. He also said he had put a $25,000 bounty on the head of Ramzan, mocking the young Kadyrov in offering the smaller bounty.
On 27 June 2006, Shamil Basayev was appointed by Dokka Umarov as the Vice President of Ichkeria. On 10 July 2006, in his last statement at 1.06 pm Moscow time, Kavkaz Center quoted him as thanking the Mujahideen Shura Council for executing the three captured Russian diplomats in Iraq and calling it "a worthy answer to the murder by Russian terrorists from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation of the Chechen diplomat, ex-president of CRI, Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev".
Death
On 10 July 2006, Basayev was killed near the border of North Ossetia in the village of Ekazhevo, Ingushetia, a republic bordering Chechnya.
According to the Interior Ministry and Prosecutor of Ingushetia, a group of three cars and two KAMAZ trucks (one pulling the other by a rope) gathered at the spot of an unfinished estate on the outskirts of the village in the early morning hours of 10 July. According to a handful of witnesses, men in black uniforms came in and out from the wooded area adjacent to the estate that runs to the border of North Ossetia; the men were carrying boxes, shifting them from one vehicle to another, when a massive explosion occurred.
It is believed that the partially completed estate, which contained empty new buildings, was being used as an insurgent reception and distribution point for large quantities of weapons purchased from abroad. It is also believed that the most "anticipated" part of the incoming shipment was located in the KAMAZ trucks, but because one of them broke down the weaponry had to quickly be transferred into the cars.
Basayev is assumed to have been the main recipient of the arms, and thus in charge of distributing them. With the back tailgate of one of the trucks open, Basayev allegedly asked that a mine be placed on the ground for inspection, at which point it exploded. An Ossetian forensic specialist who examined Basayev's remains stated that, "The man…died of mine-blast injuries. The explosive device was quite powerful…and the victim was in close proximity to the epicenter. Most likely, the bomb lay on the ground, and the victim was bending over it."
According to explosives experts, Basayev was most likely a victim of careless handling of the mine, but it is also not out of the question that the FSB could have been involved – as they would claim in the aftermath of the detonation. This could have happened if the shipment of weapons was seized and the smugglers detained; in forcing the captured smugglers to cooperate, an ordinary-looking anti-personnel mine rigged with an extra-sensitive fuse or radio-controlled detonator could have been inserted amongst the cargo. The device almost certainly would have caused suspicion when discovered in the shipment, which might explain why Basayev stopped to inspect it, at that point triggering the explosion. It was also not ruled out that an unknown FSB operative set off the blast by remote control, but in the event that this was the case, it almost assuredly would not have been a "targeted" killing, as identifying Basayev in the dark – even with the aid of night-vision goggles – would have been exceedingly difficult. Thus, experts have concluded that if it was a remote-controlled blast, it was intended to eliminate the weapons shipment and whoever the recipients were, rather than specifically Basayev.
Basayev's upper torso was recovered at the epicenter of the blast, while smaller pieces of his remains were scattered over the distance of a mile. Included among the smaller pieces was Basayev's prosthetic lower right leg, which led FSB Director Nikolai Patrushev to confidently assert that Basayev was dead even before positive identification.
Russian officials stated that the explosion was the result of a special targeted killing operation. According to the official version of Basayev's death, the FSB, following him with a drone, spotted his car approach a truck laden with explosives that the FSB had prepared, and by remote control triggered a detonator that the FSB had hidden in the explosives.
Interfax, quoting Ingush Deputy Prime Minister Bashir Aushev, reported that the explosion was a result of a truck bomb detonated next to the convoy by Russian agents. According to a Russian edition of Newsweek, Basayev's death was a result of an FSB operation, whose primary aim was to prevent a planned terrorist attack in Chechnya or Ingushetia the days before the G8 summit in St Petersburg. The Russian ambassador to the UN, Vitaly Churkin, said: "He is a notorious terrorist, and we have very clearly and publicly announced what is going to happen to notorious terrorists who commit heinous crimes of the type Mr. Basayev has been involved in." In February 2014, a Turkish court convicted a Chechen national Ruslan Papaskiri aka Temur Makhauri with the killings of several Chechen separatists on Turkish soil. The pro-Chechen separatist Imkander organization held a press conference claiming that Turkish investigators believed that Makhauri had prepared the explosives laden truck that killed Basayev.
On 29 December 2006, forensic experts positively identified Basayev's remains. On 6 October 2007, Basayev was promoted to the rank of Generalissimo post mortem by Doku Umarov.
Book of a Mujahideen
Basayev wrote a book after the First Chechen War, Book of a Mujahideen. According to the introduction, in March 2003 Basayev obtained a copy of The Manual of the Warrior of Light by Paulo Coelho. He wanted to draw benefits to the Mujahideen from this book and decided to "rewrite most of it, remove some excesses and strengthen all of it with verses (ayats), hadiths and stories from the lives of the disciples." Some sections are specifically about ambush tactics, etc.
In popular culture
Basayev appeared in 2018 Russian movie Decision: Liquidation, played by Ayub Tsingiev.
References
External links
1965 births
2006 deaths
21st-century criminals
Beslan school siege
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Chechen field commanders
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Military personnel of the Nagorno-Karabakh War
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People designated by the Al-Qaida and Taliban Sanctions Committee
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20S.%20Mosby
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John S. Mosby
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John Singleton Mosby (December 6, 1833 – May 30, 1916), also known by his nickname "Gray Ghost", was an American military officer who was a Confederate army cavalry battalion commander in the American Civil War. His command, the 43rd Battalion, Virginia Cavalry, known as Mosby's Rangers or Mosby's Raiders, was a partisan ranger unit noted for its lightning-quick raids and its ability to elude Union Army pursuers and disappear, blending in with local farmers and townsmen. The area of northern central Virginia in which Mosby operated with impunity became known as Mosby's Confederacy. After the war, Mosby became a Republican and worked as an attorney, supporting his former enemy's commander, U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant. He also served as the American consul to Hong Kong and in the U.S. Department of Justice.
Early life and education
Mosby was born in Powhatan County, Virginia, on December 6, 1833, to Virginia McLaurine Mosby and Alfred Daniel Mosby, a graduate of Hampden–Sydney College. His father was a member of an old Virginia family of English origin whose ancestor, Richard Mosby, was born in England in 1600 and settled in Charles City, Virginia in the early 17th century. Mosby was named after his maternal grandfather, John Singleton, who was ethnically Irish.
Mosby began his education at a school called Murrell's Shop (Elma, Nelson County). When his family moved to Albemarle County, Virginia (near Charlottesville) in about 1840, John attended school in Fry's Woods before transferring to a Charlottesville school at the age of ten years. Because of his small stature and frail health, Mosby was the victim of bullies throughout his school career. Instead of becoming withdrawn and lacking in self-confidence, the boy responded by fighting back. The editor of his memoirs recounted a statement Mosby made that he never won any fight in which he was engaged. The only time he did not lose a fight was when an adult stepped in and broke it up.
In 1847, Mosby enrolled at Hampden–Sydney College, where his father was an alumnus. Unable to keep up with his mathematics class, Mosby left the college after two years. On October 3, 1850, he entered the University of Virginia, taking Classical Studies and joining the Washington Literary Society and Debating Union. He was far above average in Latin, Greek, and literature (all of which he enjoyed), but mathematics was still a problem for him. In his third year, a quarrel erupted between Mosby and a notorious bully, George R. Turpin, a tavern keeper's son who was robust and physically impressive. When Mosby heard from a friend that Turpin had insulted him, Mosby sent Turpin a letter asking for an explanation—one of the rituals in the code of honor to which Southern gentlemen adhered. Turpin became enraged and declared that on their next meeting, he would "eat him up raw!" Mosby decided he had to meet Turpin despite the risk; to run away would be dishonorable.
On March 29 the two met, Mosby having brought with him a small pepper-box pistol in the hope of dissuading Turpin from an attack. When the two met and Mosby said, "I hear you have been making assertions ..." Turpin put his head down and charged. At that point, Mosby pulled out the pistol and shot his adversary in the neck. The distraught 19-year-old Mosby went home to await his fate. He was arrested and arraigned on two charges: unlawful shooting (a misdemeanor with a maximum sentence of one year in jail and a $500 fine) and malicious shooting (a felony with a maximum sentence of 10 years in the penitentiary). After a trial that almost resulted in a hung jury, Mosby was convicted of the lesser offense, but received the maximum sentence. Mosby later discovered that he had been expelled from the university before he was brought to trial.
While serving time, Mosby won the friendship of his prosecutor, attorney William J. Robertson. When Mosby expressed his desire to study law, Robertson offered the use of his law library. Mosby studied law for the rest of his incarceration. Friends and family used political influence in an attempt to obtain a pardon. Gov. Joseph Johnson reviewed the evidence and pardoned Mosby on December 23, 1853, as a Christmas present, and the state legislature rescinded the $500 (~$ in ) fine at its next session. The incident, trial, and imprisonment so traumatized Mosby that he never wrote about it in his memoirs.
After studying for months in Robertson's law office, Mosby was admitted to the bar and established his own practice in nearby Howardsville.
Family life
About this time, Mosby met Pauline Clarke (March 30, 1837 – May 10, 1876), who was visiting from Kentucky. Although he was Protestant (nominally Methodist or agnostic) and she was Catholic, courtship ensued. Her father was Beverly L. Clarke. They were married in a Nashville hotel on December 30, 1857. After living for a year with Mosby's parents, the couple settled in Bristol, Virginia, which was near a road connecting into Tennessee and Kentucky over the Cumberland Gap.
The Mosbys had two children before the Civil War (May and Beverley). John Singleton Mosby Jr., who like his father became a lawyer, and later worked for mining companies in the west, was born in 1863 during the war. By 1870, the family included five children (adding Lincoln Mosby, 1865–1923, and Victoria Stuart Mosby Coleman, 1866–1946), and lived in Warrenton, Virginia. The Catholic Church established a mission in Warrenton by 1874, which is now known as St. John the Evangelist Catholic Church. Mosby was dedicated to his family and paid to have them educated at the best Catholic schools in Washington, D.C., when he moved there after his wife's death in 1876. Their sons served as altar boys and Mosby's youngest sister, Florie, not only converted to Catholicism, but became a Catholic nun. Two more daughters also survived their parents, Pauline V. Mosby (1869–1951) and Ada B. Mosby (1871–1937), but the Mosbys also lost two sons in the turbulent aftermath of the Panic of 1873, George Prentiss Mosby (1873–1874) and Alfred McLaurine Mosby (1876–1876).
Civil War career
1861
Mosby spoke out against secession, but joined the Confederate army as a private at the outbreak of the war. He first served in William "Grumble" Jones's Washington Mounted Rifles. Jones became a Major and was instructed to form a more collective "Virginia Volunteers", which he created with two mounted companies and eight companies of infantry and riflemen, including the Washington Mounted Rifles. Mosby thought the Virginia Volunteers lacked congeniality, and he wrote to the governor requesting to be transferred. However, his request was not granted. The Virginia Volunteers participated in the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas) in July 1861.
1862
In April 1862, the Confederate Congress passed the Partisan Ranger Act which "provides that such partisan rangers, after being regularly received into service, shall be entitled to the same pay, rations, and quarters, during their term of service, and be subject to the same regulations, as other soldiers."
By June 1862, Mosby was scouting for J.E.B. Stuart during the Peninsular Campaign, including supporting Stuart's "Ride around McClellan". He was captured on July 20 by Union cavalry while waiting for a train at the Beaverdam Depot in Hanover County, Virginia. Mosby was imprisoned in the Old Capitol Prison in Washington, D.C., for ten days before being exchanged as part of the war's first prisoner exchange. Even as a prisoner Mosby spied on his enemy. During a brief stopover at Fort Monroe he detected an unusual buildup of shipping in Hampton Roads and learned they were carrying thousands of troops under Ambrose Burnside from North Carolina on their way to reinforce John Pope in the Northern Virginia Campaign. When he was released, Mosby walked to the army headquarters outside Richmond and personally related his findings to Robert E. Lee.
After the Battle of Fredericksburg, in December 1862, Mosby and his senior officer J.E.B. Stuart led raids behind Union lines in Prince William, Fairfax and Loudoun counties, seeking to disrupt federal communications and supplies between Washington, D.C., and Fredericksburg, as well as provision their own forces. As the year ended, at Oakham Farm in Loudoun County, Virginia Mosby gathered with various horsemen from Middleburg, Virginia who decided to form what became known as Mosby's Rangers.
1863
In January 1863, Stuart, with Lee's concurrence, authorized Mosby to form and take command of the 43rd Battalion Virginia Cavalry. This was later expanded into Mosby's Command, a regimental-sized unit of partisan rangers operating in Northern Virginia. The 43rd Battalion operated officially as a unit of the Army of Northern Virginia, subject to the commands of Lee and Stuart, but its men (1,900 of whom served from January 1863 through April 1865) lived outside of the norms of regular army cavalrymen. The Confederate government certified special rules to govern the conduct of partisan rangers. These included sharing in the disposition of spoils of war. They had no camp duties and lived scattered among the civilian population. Mosby required proof from any volunteer that he had not deserted from the regular service, and only about 10% of his men had served previously in the Confederate Army.
In March 1863, Mosby conducted a daring raid far inside Union lines near the Fairfax County courthouse. He was helped, according to his own account, by a deserter from the 5th New York Cavalry regiment named James Ames, who served under Mosby until he was killed in 1864. He and his men captured three Union officers, including Brig. Gen. Edwin H. Stoughton. Mosby wrote in his memoirs that he found Stoughton in bed and roused him with a "spank on his bare back." Upon being so rudely awakened the general indignantly asked what this meant. Mosby quickly asked if he had ever heard of "Mosby". The general replied, "Yes, have you caught him?" "I am Mosby," the Confederate ranger said. "Stuart's cavalry has possession of the Court House; be quick and dress." Mosby and his 29 men had captured a Union general, two captains, 30 enlisted men, and 58 horses without firing a shot.
Mosby was formally promoted to the rank of captain two days later, on March 15, 1863, and major on March 26, 1863.
On May 3, 1863, Mosby attacked and captured supply depot Warrenton Junction, Virginia guarded by about 80 men of the 1st West Virginia Volunteer Cavalry Regiment; Mosby's losses were 1 killed and 20 wounded/and or captured; Union losses were 6 officers and 14 privates killed and wounded.
On May 29, 1863, Mosby with 40 men led a raid in Greenwich, Virginia derailing a supply train; a battle occurred between Mosby's forces and the Union Cavalry under Colonel Mann who commanded the 1st Vermont Cavalry; 5th New York Cavalry; 7th Michigan Cavalry; Mosby was obliged to retreat losing 6 killed; 20 wounded and 10 men and 1 howitzer captured; Union losses were 4 killed and 15 wounded.
On June 10, 1863, Mosby led 100 men on a raid across the Potomac River to attack the Union camp at Seneca, Maryland. After routing a company of the Sixth Michigan Cavalry and burning their camp, Mosby reported the success to J.E.B. Stuart. This drew Stuart's attention to Rowser's Ford. Mosby had crossed the Potomac there, and during the night of June 27 Stuart's forces would use the same crossing while separated from Lee's army, and thus didn't arrive at Gettysburg until the afternoon of the second day of the battle. Thus, some analysts claim Lee stumbled into the battle without his cavalry, partly because of Mosby's successful skirmish at Seneca three weeks earlier.
Mosby endured his first serious wound of the war on August 24, 1863, during a skirmish near Annandale, Virginia, when a bullet hit him through his thigh and side. He retired from the field with his troops and returned to action a month later.
1864
The partisan rangers proved controversial among Confederate army regulars, who thought they encouraged desertion as well as morale problems in the countryside as potential soldiers would favor sleeping in their own (or friendly) beds and capturing booty to the hardships and privations of traditional military campaigns. Mosby was thus enrolled in the Provisional Army of the Confederate States and soon promoted to lieutenant colonel on January 21, 1864, and to colonel, December 7, 1864. Mosby carefully screened potential recruits, and required each to bring his own horse.
The Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant tell of an incident near Warrenton, Virginia on about May 1, 1864, when Mosby unknowingly missed by only a few minutes a chance to kill or capture Grant, who was traveling unguarded on a special train from Washington back to his headquarters to launch the Overland Campaign.
Mosby endured a second serious wound on September 14, 1864, while taunting a Union regiment by riding back and forth in front of it. A Union bullet shattered the handle of his revolver before entering his groin. Barely staying on his horse to make his escape, he resorted to crutches during a quick recovery and returned to command three weeks later.
Mosby's successful disruption of supply lines, attrition of Union couriers, and disappearance in the disguise of civilians caused Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant to tell Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan:
On September 22, 1864, Union forces executed six of Mosby's men who had been captured out of uniform (i.e. as spies) in Front Royal, Virginia; a seventh (captured, according to Mosby's subsequent letter to Sheridan, "by a Colonel Powell on a plundering expedition into Rappahannock") was reported by Mosby to have suffered a similar fate. William Thomas Overby was one of the men selected for execution on the hill in Front Royal. His captors offered to spare him if he would reveal Mosby's location, but he refused. According to reports at the time, his last words were, "My last moments are sweetened by the reflection that for every man you murder this day Mosby will take a tenfold vengeance." After the executions a Union soldier pinned a piece of paper to one of the bodies that read: "This shall be the fate of all Mosby's men."
After informing General Robert E. Lee and Confederate Secretary of War James A. Seddon of his intention to respond in kind, Mosby ordered seven Union prisoners, chosen by lot, to be executed in retaliation on November 6, 1864, at Rectortown, Virginia. Although seven men were duly chosen in the original "death lottery," in the end just three men were actually executed. One numbered lot fell to a drummer boy who was excused because of his age, and Mosby's men held a second drawing for a man to take his place. Then, on the way to the place of execution a prisoner recognized Masonic regalia on the uniform of Confederate Captain Montjoy, a recently inducted Freemason then returning from a raid. The condemned captive gave him a secret Masonic distress signal. Captain Montjoy substituted one of his own prisoners for his fellow Mason (though one source speaks of two Masons being substituted). Mosby upbraided Montjoy, stating that his command was "not a Masonic lodge". The soldiers charged with carrying out the executions of the revised group of seven successfully hanged three men. They shot two more in the head and left them for dead (remarkably, both survived). The other two condemned men managed to escape separately.
On November 11, 1864, Mosby wrote to Philip Sheridan, the commander of Union forces in the Shenandoah Valley, requesting that both sides resume treating prisoners with humanity. He pointed out that he and his men had captured and returned far more of Sheridan's men than they had lost. The Union side complied. With both camps treating prisoners as "prisoners of war" for the duration, there were no more executions.
On November 18, 1864, Mosby's command defeated Blazer's Scouts at the Battle of Kabletown.
Mosby had his closest brush with death on December 21, 1864, near Rector's Crossroads in Virginia. While dining with a local family, Mosby was fired on through a window, and the ball entered his abdomen two inches below the navel. He managed to stagger into the bedroom and hide his coat, which had his only insignia of rank. The commander of the Union detachment, Maj. Douglas Frazar of the 13th New York Cavalry, entered the house and—not knowing Mosby's identity—inspected the wound and pronounced it mortal. Although left for dead, Mosby recovered and returned to the war effort once again two months later.
1865
Several weeks after General Robert E. Lee's surrender, Mosby's status was uncertain, as some posters above the signature of Gen. Winfield S. Hancock stated that marauding bands would be destroyed, and specifically named Mosby as a guerrilla chief who was not included in the parole. However, Mosby received a copy of the poster on April 12 at a letter drop in the Valley along with a letter from Hancock's chief of staff, Gen. C.H. Morgan, calling on Mosby to surrender and promising the same terms as were extended to General Lee. Further negotiations followed at Winchester and Millwood. Finally, on April 21, 1865, in Salem, Virginia, Mosby disbanded the rangers, and on the following day many former rangers rode their worst horses to Winchester to surrender, receive paroles and return to their homes.
Rather than following his men to Winchester, Mosby instead rode south with several officers, planning to fight on with General Joseph E. Johnston's army in North Carolina. However, before he reached his fellow Confederates, he read a newspaper article about Johnston's surrender. Some proposed that they return to Richmond and capture the Union officers who were occupying the White House of the Confederacy, but Mosby rejected the plan, telling them, "Too late! It would be murder and highway robbery now. We are soldiers, not highwaymen." By early May, Mosby confirmed the $5,000 bounty on his head, but still managed to evade capture, including at a raid near Lynchburg, Virginia which terrified his mother. When Mosby finally confirmed the arrest order had been rescinded, he surrendered on June 17, one of the last Confederate officers to do so.
Later legal career
When the Civil War ended, Mosby was just 31, and would live another five decades. He resumed his law practice in Warrenton, and by December 1865 was prosecuting the internal revenue collector in Prince William County for mule-stealing. Nonetheless, during the year after receiving his parole, Mosby often found himself harassed by occupying Union forces, arrested on petty or trumped-up charges, until his wife and young son Revardy, after being rebuffed by President Andrew Johnson despite their mutual kinship ties, met General Grant in January 1866 and secured a handwritten exemption from arrest and guarantee of safe conduct.
Virginia politics
On May 8, 1872, as covered by the Washington Star, Mosby personally thanked then-U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant for that document. Mosby also told Grant he believed vehemently that election of Horace Greeley (a long-time editor of the New York Tribune detested in the South) would be worse for the South because the men surrounding him were worse than those surrounding his old benefactor Grant. A few days later, Massachusetts Congressman Benjamin Butler presented an amnesty bill for former Confederates, as Mosby had suggested in that meeting, and soon President Grant signed it into law. After Greeley became the Democratic party's nominee in July, Mosby became Grant's campaign manager in Virginia, and an active Republican, although he also made sure the Republicans would not run a candidate against his friend and fellow Warrenton attorney Eppa Hunton, who campaigned and won as a Democrat. In his autobiography Grant stated, "Since the close of the war, I have come to know Colonel Mosby personally and somewhat intimately. He is a different man entirely from what I supposed. ... He is able and thoroughly honest and truthful."
Soon, Mosby had become one of Grant's favorites and was bringing federal patronage jobs to local Virginians, although initially he did not hold any federal job. He tried to make a rapprochement between President Grant and Virginia Governor James L. Kemper, a Confederate Major General and Conservative elected the following year and whom Mosby also supported. However, that failed. His Republican political activity diminished Mosby's popularity in Warrenton; many considered him a turncoat. Many Southerners still considered Grant "the enemy". Mosby received death threats, his boyhood home was burned down, and at least one attempt was made to assassinate him. Later reflecting on the animosity shown to him by his fellow Virginians, Mosby stated in a May 1907 letter that "There was more vindictiveness shown to me by the Virginia people for my voting for Grant than the North showed to me for fighting four years against him."
After the deaths of his wife Pauline and infant son Alfred in mid-1876, Mosby decided to move his family to Washington, D.C., but had difficulty finding enough legal business to support them. He thus spent much time campaigning for the Republican candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes. Scandals had rocked the Grant Administration as it ended, but Hayes became the next President, and Mosby hoped for a patronage appointment. He also courted powerful Ohio Congressman James Garfield, telling him his desire for a government position, preferably in the Justice Department. He was instead offered a position as trade representative to Canton, but ultimately was confirmed by the Senate as United States consul to Hong Kong (a position he held from 1878 to 1885).
Mosby had to leave his children in the care of relatives, but this proved to be the first in a series of other federal government jobs and postings, many fighting rampant fraud in politically volatile situations. President McKinley appointed Mosby's daughter May the postmistress in Warrenton, which became very important after her husband Robert Campbell died in August 1889, leaving her to raise her young children alone (although her sons John Mosby Campbell and Alexander Spottswood Campbell received many letters and some money from their overseas grandfather, as to a lesser extent did Jack Russell, son of his late sister Lucie).
Consul in Hong Kong
Upon arriving in Hong Kong, Mosby found discrepancies in his predecessor's recordkeeping, and believed David H. Bailey had colluded with his vice-consul Loring (whom Mosby fired), to bilk the government of thousands of dollars in fees. Bailey had pocketed fees charged Chinese emigrants sailing to the U.S. on foreign-flag ships (certifying that they emigrated voluntarily and were not part of notorious "coolie traffic"), and claimed "expenses" for shipboard examinations (by the illiterate proprietor of a local boardinghouse frequented by sailors) of those emigrating on U.S.-flag ships equal to the fees charged. Mosby thought Bailey had almost doubled his salary over the previous eight years by embezzlement and kickbacks, and stopped charging for shipboard examinations (which he personally conducted).
However, Bailey had recently been nominated to become consul at Shanghai because George Seward, previous consul since 1863, had been nominated to become the ambassador to China. Seward's replacement in Shanghai, John C. Myers of Reading, Pennsylvania, had reported to State Department superiors that George Seward and his vice-consul Oliver Bradford had been engaging in land and capital speculation in China that seemed to violate the Burlingame Treaty of 1868, but had been suspended, as had his successor Wiley Wells, ex-Congressman from Mississippi. Wells and Myers then sought redress from Congress, which was considering impeaching George Seward, but Bailey traveled to Washington to defend his crony.
Mosby's initial letter to his superior (Frederick W. Seward, son of the former secretary of state and who had been wounded by Mosby's ex-subordinate while defending his father from an assassination attempt on the night of President Lincoln's assassination) languished. However, Special Treasury Department Inspector DeB. Randolph Keim made a whirlwind inspection of Far East consulates and found many similar bookkeeping irregularities. Eventually, in March 1879, Mosby wrote to General Thomas C. H. Smith, a friend of President Hayes, about a similar embezzlement scheme operated by David B. Sickels (U.S. Consul at Bangkok) and his vice-consul Torrey (a Hong Kong native whose correspondence to the fired Loring Mosby accepted and read). Mosby also learned that Bailey had charged (and pocketed) $10,000 per year for shipments of opium to the United States from Macao, although Mosby proposed to issue the required certificate for the legal export for just $2.50.
Meanwhile, consul Mosby was occupied entertaining his old friend President Grant, who spent the two years after his retirement touring the world as a semi-private citizen. Mosby received Grant on April 30. During the nearly week-long visit, Grant told Mosby he had heard more reports about the problems in Bangkok and advised Mosby to go directly to President Hayes (as Mosby had just done) and promised to talk to Hayes personally. However, Bailey was confirmed as consul in Shanghai before Grant's return home, and newspapers had begun publishing stories about Mosby's inappropriate attire, the start of a campaign to minimize him as a "crackpot." Moreover, the new State Department investigator was General Julius Stahel, who had fought Mosby in Virginia and had been consul at Hyogo, Japan.
Nonetheless, Stahel verified Mosby's complaints, and former Union Cavalry Major William H. Forbes (who had once stabbed Col. Mosby's coat during an engagement) who now headed Russell and Co. (major traders in the Far East, including of opium) also supported Mosby against Bailey, Seward and their newspaper friends. Alexander McClure of the Philadelphia Times agitated to clean up the consular service. Fred Seward, amidst charges that he was shielding the rascals, resigned by October 1879, and was replaced by John Hay. By January 1880, Grant and journalist John R. Young (who would become consul at Shanghai two years later) briefed Secretary of State William M. Evarts about Sickels and Torrey. George Seward resigned well before the 1880 election, followed by Bailey and Sickels as the President "at last swept the China coast".
Nonetheless, Mosby was unhappy, despite the electoral victory of his friend Garfield in November and his son Beverley joining him as vice-consul. His repeated requests for leave to return home and visit the rest of his family kept being denied, as were most requests for supplies or funds, and one relative was removed from the Lighthouse Board. In addition to the press and bureaucratic sniping, Mosby found his salary insufficient to support socialization among the local merchant class. Still, as 1880 began, Mosby won a slander lawsuit brought against him in Hong Kong by Peter Smith, the sailors' boardinghouse keeper associated with ex-consul Bailey, reporting that he defended himself to the applause of jury and spectators, as well as laughter of the distinguished judge. By the time Mosby received notice that his U.S. leave had been approved, President Garfield had been shot and was hanging on to life. Garfield died on September 20, and President Chester Arthur considered promoting Mosby to the similar post at Shanghai (with higher living expenses), but Mosby wanted to either return home or remain in Hong Kong. Thus he remained in exile and dealt with the implications of the Chinese Exclusion Act, the growing opium trade and the brewing war between France and China.
Mosby left China after the election of Democrat Grover Cleveland led to a change in administrations. He was replaced by fellow Virginian Robert E. Withers, whom Mosby had long despised.
Railroad lawyer
Before leaving China, Mosby had written Grant seeking help in finding another position. Grant responded (as he was dying) with a letter recommending Mosby to Senator Leland Stanford, a former California railroad magnate. Mosby then spent about 16 years in California, working as a lawyer for the Southern Pacific Railroad until the death of his mentor Collis Huntington. Much of what he did remains unknown, due to a fire which destroyed the company's records of that era. Although Mosby hated the desk work, he twice returned to Washington, D.C., to argue before the United States Supreme Court—once based on the consul fees he had remitted to the Treasury (and which the claims court found him entitled to) and once for the railroad. Mosby also wrote articles for Eastern newspapers about his escapades during the Civil War, and traveled to New England on a speaking tour where he met Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. & Sr. (father and son). He also befriended the Patton family and spent time at their ranch with their young son, George S. Patton, recreating Civil War battles, with Mosby playing himself and George playing Robert E. Lee.
In 1898, Mosby tried to secure an officer's commission, for the Spanish–American War, but was blocked by Secretary of War Russell A. Alger (see: Russell A. Alger § Vendetta against John S. Mosby). Mosby trained an Oakland, California cavalry troop, dubbed Mosby’s Hussars, but the War ended, and they never left for Cuba or the Philippines.
Government attorney
When Mosby returned to Washington in 1901, during the second term of the McKinley administration (wary during the first term because of McKinley's service in the Shenandoah Valley during the Civil War, as well as being perceived as just another office-seeker), he again sought a job in the Justice Department. After McKinley's assassination, President Theodore Roosevelt instead sent Mosby west as a special agent of the Department of the Interior. There, Mosby dealt with illegal fencing of range land by cattle barons in Colorado and Nebraska, who often used fake homestead claims by military widows as well as violated the Van Wyck Fence Law of 1885. When witnesses refused to come forward to testify about illegal fencing for fear of retaliation, Mosby upheld the law by first sending notices to the affected landowner. The Pawnee Cattle Company capitulated in Colorado, so Mosby moved on to western Nebraska, where he learned the land agent actually lived in Iowa and failed to supervise the range.
Mosby's Colorado methods failed, however, since the Omaha grand jury refused to authorize an indictment against Bartlett Richards or anyone but nonresident agent W.R. Lesser. Mosby was recalled to Washington to appease Nebraska's Senators, and then sent to halt timber trespassers in Alabama forests. However, other attorneys were sent out, who secured indictments. Richards and his English brother in law William G. Comstock were convicted in 1905 despite their argument that the government land hadn't been surveyed. The local judge sentenced them to $300 fine apiece and six hours in custody, which they spent celebrating at the Omaha Cattlemen's Club, and which led President Roosevelt to fire both the U.S. attorney and U.S. Marshal. The next year Richards and Comstock were indicted on a new charge of conspiracy to deprive the government of public land, convicted and fined $1,500 fines as well as sentenced to a year in jail. After three years of appeals, the convictions and sentences were upheld, so they were sent to prison in Hastings, Nebraska for a year beginning in 1901, and Richards died in a hospital a month before the sentence would end.
Mosby finally got the Department of Justice post he wanted as Philander Knox ended his term as attorney general. It was not with the trust-busting unit, however, but with the Bureau of Insular and Territorial affairs, where Mosby worked (at a low salary of $2,400/year) under his brother-in-law Charles W. Russell Jr. from 1904 to 1910. In 1905 President Roosevelt again sent him to Alabama to troubleshoot allegations of irregularities at the Port of Mobile. Next, he was sent to Oklahoma to investigate charges against U.S. Marshal (and former Rough Rider) Benjamin Colbert. He also secured an indictment of McAlester attorneys George Mansfield, John F. McMurray and Melvin Cornish for misappropriation of Indian Trust funds, but his superior Russell thought the evidence insufficient and ultimately dropped the charges two years later. Meanwhile, Mosby went back to investigate charges of land frauds against Indian minors, and on his return found little to do.
Memoirist of the Civil War
Mosby was forced to retire from his Justice Department post at age 76, under the William Howard Taft administration. Blind in one eye and cantankerous, he spent his final years in Washington, D.C., living in a boardinghouse and watched over by his remaining daughters to the extent he would let them or others.
Mosby also continued writing about his wartime exploits, as he had been in 1887 Mosby's War Reminiscences and Stuart's Cavalry Campaigns, which had defended the reputation of J.E.B. Stuart, who some partisans of the "Lost Cause" blamed for the Confederacy's defeat at the Battle of Gettysburg. Mosby had served under Stuart and was fiercely loyal to the late general, writing, "He made me all that I was in the war. ... But for his friendship I would never have been heard of." He lectured in New England in connection with that first book and wrote numerous articles for popular publications. He published a book length treatise in 1908, a work that relied on his skills as a lawyer to refute categorically all of the claims laid against Stuart. A recent comprehensive study of the Stuart controversy, written by Eric J. Wittenberg and J. David Petruzzi, called Mosby's work a "tour de force".
He attended only one reunion of his Rangers, in Alexandria, Virginia, in January 1895, noticing with bemusement how many had become clergymen but preferring to look forward not back. During the war, he had kept a slave, Aaron Burton, to whom he occasionally sent money in Brooklyn, New York after the war and with whom he kept in contact into the 1890s. In 1894, Mosby wrote to a former comrade regarding the cause of the war, stating: "I've always understood that we went to war on account of the thing we quarreled with the North about. I've never heard of any other cause than slavery."
In June 1907, Mosby wrote a letter to Samuel "Sam" Chapman, in which he expressed his displeasure over people, namely George Christian, downplaying and denying the importance of slavery in its causing the American Civil War. In the letter, Mosby explained his reasons as to why he fought for the Confederacy, despite personally disapproving of slavery. Although he admitted that the Confederate states had seceded to protect and defend their institution of slavery, he had felt it was his patriotic duty as a Virginian to fight on behalf of the Confederacy, stating that, "I am not ashamed of having fought on the side of slavery—a soldier fights for his country—right or wrong—he is not responsible for the political merits of the course he fights in" and that, "The South was my country."
Death and legacy
In January 1915 the University of Virginia awarded Mosby a medal and written tribute, which touched him deeply. Throughout his life, Mosby remained loyal to those he believed fair-minded, such as Stuart and Grant, but refused to cater to Southern sympathies. He proclaimed that there was "no man in the Confederate Army who had less of the spirit of knight-errantry in him, or took a more practical view of war than I did." He died of complications after throat surgery in a Washington, D.C., hospital on May 30, 1916, noting at the end that it was Memorial Day. He is buried at the Warrenton Cemetery in Warrenton, Virginia.
The area around Middleburg, from where Mosby launched most of his behind-the-lines activities, was called "Mosby's Confederacy", even in the Northern press. The Virginia Piedmont Heritage Area Association, formerly called the Mosby Heritage Area Association and headquartered in Middleburg, is actively involved in preserving the history, culture, and scenery of this historic area.
The John Singleton Mosby Museum was located in Warrenton, Virginia, at the historic Brentmoor estate where Mosby lived from 1875 to 1877. After it closed many of the artifacts moved to the Old Fauquier County Jail museum.
There are 35 monuments and markers in Northern Virginia dedicated to actions and events related to Mosby's Rangers.
John Mosby Highway, a section of US Route 50 between Dulles Airport and Winchester, Virginia, is named for Colonel Mosby.
Mosby Woods Elementary School in the Fairfax County Public Schools system was originally named in his honor. The name of the school was changed to Mosaic Elementary School by the Fairfax County School Board in February 2021; effective at the start the 2021–2022 academic year.
The segregation academy John S. Mosby Academy operated in Front Royal, Virginia from 1959 to 1969.
Mosby Woods subdivision in Fairfax City is also named in his honor.
The Mosby Woods Pool, located in the Mosby Woods subdivision, is named in his honor as is its swim team, the Mosby Woods Raiders, who compete in the Northern Virginia Swim League.
The post office branch for zip code 22042 (in Northern Virginia's Falls Church area) is referred to by the USPS as the Mosby branch.
Mosby Court, located in the Hillwood Estates subdivision of Round Hill, Virginia, remains named in his honor after residents there, in 2022, rejected Loudoun County's proposal to rename the cul-de-sac along with several other streets in the neighborhood (Early Avenue, Hampton Road, Jackson Avenue, Lee Drive, Longstreet Avenue, and Pickett Road) that were named or renamed after Confederate generals in the early 1960s.
The World War II Liberty Ship was named in his honor.
The John S. Mosby Army Reserve Center located on Fort Belvoir, VA is named in his honor.
In popular culture
Herman Melville's poem "The Scout Toward Aldie" was about the terror a Union brigade felt upon facing Mosby and his men. In part, the poem was based on Melville's experiences in the field with the 13th New York Cavalry and several of its officers who were alumni of Rutgers College.
A 1913 film entitled The Pride of the South, starred actor Joseph King as John Mosby.
In 1924 Carrie Stevens of Maine created one of the most famous streamers for fly fishing which she called the Gray Ghost.
Virgil Carrington Jones published Ranger Mosby (1944), and Gray Ghosts and Rebel Raiders (1956). He also wrote the late-1950s television program, The Gray Ghost.
Science fiction author H. Beam Piper wrote a popular account of Mosby's life which was published in 1950 under the title "Rebel Raider".
CBS Television produced The Gray Ghost during the 1957–58 television season. The show aired in syndication and starred Tod Andrews as Mosby during his Civil War exploits.
The 1967 Disney television movie Mosby's Marauders starred Kurt Russell as a young Confederate serving under Mosby, portrayed by Jack Ging.
In the 1988 alternate history novel Gray Victory author Robert Skimin depicts Mosby as the head of military intelligence after the Confederacy wins the Civil War. He defends his friend, J.E.B. Stuart, from a court of inquiry investigating Stuart's actions in the battle of Gettysburg. In the novel, Skimin portrays Mosby as more pro-slavery than was the case historically.
Mosby was the namesake of "The Gray Ghost (aka Simon Trent)", a character introduced in the 1992 Batman: The Animated Series, episode "Beware the Gray Ghost," and voiced by Adam West. The character also took inspiration from the 1950s show about his war career, as well The Spirit, The Shadow, and other pulp adventurers.
There is a computer game based on Mosby's Civil War activities, by Tilted Mill, called "Mosby's Confederacy". (2008)
See also
43rd Battalion of the Virginia Cavalry, also known as "Mosby's Rangers"
Loudoun Rangers, opponents of Mosby
Shenandoah River, Mosby's cave, above Harper's Ferry
References
Sources
Allardice, Bruce S. Confederate Colonels: A Biographical Register. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2008. .
Barefoot, Daniel W. Let Us Die Like Brave Men: Behind the Dying Words of Confederate Warriors. Winston-Salem, NC: John F. Blair Publisher, 2005. .
Bell, Griffin B.; John P. Cole. Footnotes to History: A Primer on the American Political Character. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2008. .
Boyle, William E. "Under the Black Flag: Execution and Retaliation in Mosby's Confederacy", Military Law Review 144 (Spring 1994): p. 148ff.
Crawford, J. Marshall. Mosby and His Men. New York: G. W. Carleton, 1867. .
Grant, Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. 2 vols. Charles L. Webster & Company, 1885–86. .
Jones, Virgil Carrington. Ranger Mosby. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1944. .
Longacre, Edward G. Lee's Cavalrymen: A History of the Mounted Forces of the Army of Northern Virginia. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2002. .
McGiffin, Lee. Iron Scouts of the Confederacy. Arlington Heights, IL: Christian Liberty Press, 1993. .
McKnight, Brian D. "John Singleton Mosby." In Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. .
Mosby, John Singleton, and Charles Wells Russell. The Memoirs of Colonel John S. Mosby. New York: Little, Brown, and Company, 1917. .
Neely, Mark E. The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. .
Ramage, James A. Gray Ghost: The Life of Col. John Singleton Mosby. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2010. .
Ramage, James A. Rebel Raider: The Life of General John Hunt Morgan. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986. .
Siepel, Kevin H. Rebel: The Life and Times of John Singleton Mosby, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008. . First published 1983 by St. Martin's Press.
Smith, Eric. Mosby's Raiders, Guerrilla Warfare in the Civil War. New York: Victoria Games, Inc., 1985. .
Wert, Jeffry D. Mosby's Rangers: The True Adventure of the Most Famous Command of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990. .
Winik, Jay. April 1865: The Month That Saved America. New York: HarperCollins, 2006. . First published 2001.
Wittenberg, Eric J., and J. David Petruzzi. Plenty of Blame to Go Around: Jeb Stuart's Controversial Ride to Gettysburg. New York: Savas Beatie, 2006. .
The Home of The American Civil War: John Mosby
John Singleton Mosby "A Long And Stormy Career"
Further reading
Alexander, John H. Mosby's Men. New York: Neale Publishing Company, 1907. .
Evans, Clement A., ed. Confederate Military History: A Library of Confederate States History. 12 vols. Atlanta: Confederate Publishing Company, 1899. .
Mosby, John Singleton. Mosby's Reminiscences and Stuart's Cavalry Campaigns. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1887. .
Mosby, John Singleton. Stuart's Cavalry in the Gettysburg Campaign. New York: Moffat, Yard & Co., 1908. .
Munson, John W. Reminiscences of a Mosby Guerrilla. New York: Moffat, Yard, and Co., 1906. .
Scott, John. Partisan Life with Col. John S. Mosby. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1867. .
Williamson, James Joseph. Mosby's Rangers: A Record of the Operations of the Forty-third Battalion Virginia Cavalry. New York: Ralph B. Kenyon, 1896. .
External links
Pauline Mosby, Wife Of John Singleton Mosby
Col. John Mosby and the Southern code of honor, University of Virginia
Typed carbon copy letter, signed. John Mosby to Eppa Hunton. November 18, 1909.
Mosby Heritage Area Association
1833 births
1916 deaths
People from Powhatan County, Virginia
People from Charlottesville, Virginia
Methodists from Virginia
American slave owners
American people of English descent
Loudoun County in the American Civil War
Virginia lawyers
Virginia Republicans
Confederate States Army officers
People of Virginia in the American Civil War
United States Army Rangers
Irregular forces of the American Civil War
American Civil War prisoners of war held by the United States
Hampden–Sydney College alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20computing
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History of computing
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The history of computing is longer than the history of computing hardware and modern computing technology and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper or for chalk and slate, with or without the aid of tables.
Concrete devices
Digital computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers. But long before abstractions like the number arose, there were mathematical concepts to serve the purposes of civilization. These concepts are implicit in concrete practices such as:
One-to-one correspondence, a rule to count how many items, e.g. on a tally stick, eventually abstracted into numbers.
Comparison to a standard, a method for assuming reproducibility in a measurement, for example, the number of coins.
The 3-4-5 right triangle was a device for assuring a right angle, using ropes with 12 evenly spaced knots, for example.
Numbers
Eventually, the concept of numbers became concrete and familiar enough for counting to arise, at times with sing-song mnemonics to teach sequences to others. All known human languages, except the Piraha language, have words for at least "one" and "two", and even some animals like the blackbird can distinguish a surprising number of items.
Advances in the numeral system and mathematical notation eventually led to the discovery of mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, squaring, square root, and so forth. Eventually the operations were formalized, and concepts about the operations became understood well enough to be stated formally, and even proven. See, for example, Euclid's algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers.
By the High Middle Ages, the positional Hindu–Arabic numeral system had reached Europe, which allowed for systematic computation of numbers. During this period, the representation of a calculation on paper actually allowed calculation of mathematical expressions, and the tabulation of mathematical functions such as the square root and the common logarithm (for use in multiplication and division) and the trigonometric functions. By the time of Isaac Newton's research, paper or vellum was an important computing resource, and even in our present time, researchers like Enrico Fermi would cover random scraps of paper with calculation, to satisfy their curiosity about an equation. Even into the period of programmable calculators, Richard Feynman would unhesitatingly compute any steps which overflowed the memory of the calculators, by hand, just to learn the answer; by 1976 Feynman had purchased an HP-25 calculator with a 49 program-step capacity; if a differential equation required more than 49 steps to solve, he could just continue his computation by hand.
Early computation
Mathematical statements need not be abstract only; when a statement can be illustrated with actual numbers, the numbers can be communicated and a community can arise. This allows the repeatable, verifiable statements which are the hallmark of mathematics and science. These kinds of statements have existed for thousands of years, and across multiple civilizations, as shown below:
The earliest known tool for use in computation is the Sumerian abacus, and it was thought to have been invented in Babylon –2300 BC. Its original style of usage was by lines drawn in sand with pebbles. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. This was the first known calculator and most advanced system of calculation known to date - preceding Archimedes by 2,000 years.
In –771 BC, the south-pointing chariot was invented in ancient China. It was the first known geared mechanism to use a differential gear, which was later used in analog computers. The Chinese also invented a more sophisticated abacus from around the 2nd century BC known as the Chinese abacus.
In the 5th century BC in ancient India, the grammarian Pāṇini formulated the grammar of Sanskrit in 3959 rules known as the Ashtadhyayi which was highly systematized and technical. Panini used metarules, transformations and recursions.
In the 3rd century BC, Archimedes used the mechanical principle of balance (see ) to calculate mathematical problems, such as the number of grains of sand in the universe (The sand reckoner), which also required a recursive notation for numbers (e.g., the myriad myriad).
The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC.
Mechanical analog computer devices appeared again a thousand years later in the medieval Islamic world and were developed by Muslim astronomers, such as the mechanical geared astrolabe by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, and the torquetum by Jabir ibn Aflah. According to Simon Singh, Muslim mathematicians also made important advances in cryptography, such as the development of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis by Alkindus. Programmable machines were also invented by Muslim engineers, such as the automatic flute player by the Banū Mūsā brothers, and Ismail al-Jazari's humanoid robots and castle clock, which is considered to be the first programmable analog computer.
During the Middle Ages, several European philosophers made attempts to produce analog computer devices. Influenced by the Arabs and Scholasticism, Majorcan philosopher Ramon Llull (1232–1315) devoted a great part of his life to defining and designing several logical machines that, by combining simple and undeniable philosophical truths, could produce all possible knowledge. These machines were never actually built, as they were more of a thought experiment to produce new knowledge in systematic ways; although they could make simple logical operations, they still needed a human being for the interpretation of results. Moreover, they lacked a versatile architecture, each machine serving only very concrete purposes. In spite of this, Llull's work had a strong influence on Gottfried Leibniz (early 18th century), who developed his ideas further, and built several calculating tools using them.
Indeed, when John Napier discovered logarithms for computational purposes in the early 17th century, there followed a period of considerable progress by inventors and scientists in making calculating tools. The apex of this early era of formal computing can be seen in the difference engine and its successor the analytical engine both by Charles Babbage. Babbage never completed constructing either engine, but in 2002 Doron Swade and a group of other engineers at the Science Museum in London completed Babbage's difference engine using only materials that would have been available in the 1840s. By following Babbage's detailed design they were able to build a functioning engine, allowing historians to say, with some confidence, that if Babbage would have been able to complete his difference engine it would have worked. The additionally advanced analytical engine combined concepts from his previous work and that of others to create a device that, if constructed as designed, would have possessed many properties of a modern electronic computer, such as an internal "scratch memory" equivalent to RAM, multiple forms of output including a bell, a graph-plotter, and simple printer, and a programmable input-output "hard" memory of punch cards which it could modify as well as read. The key advancement which Babbage's devices possessed beyond those created before his was that each component of the device was independent of the rest of the machine, much like the components of a modern electronic computer. This was a fundamental shift in thought; previous computational devices served only a single purpose, but had to be at best disassembled and reconfigured to solve a new problem. Babbage's devices could be reprogramed to solve new problems by the entry of new data, and act upon previous calculations within the same series of instructions. Ada Lovelace took this concept one step further, by creating a program for the analytical engine to calculate Bernoulli numbers, a complex calculation requiring a recursive algorithm. This is considered to be the first example of a true computer program, a series of instructions that act upon data not known in full until the program is run.
Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, Percy Ludgate in 1909 published the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history. Two other inventors, Leonardo Torres Quevedo and Vannevar Bush, also did follow-on research based on Babbage's work. In his Essays on Automatics (1914) Torres presented the design of an electromechanical calculating machine and introduced the idea of Floating-point arithmetic. In 1920, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the invention of the arithmometer, Torres presented in Paris the Electromechanical Arithmometer, an arithmetic unit connected to a remote typewriter, on which commands could be typed and the results printed automatically. Bush's paper Instrumental Analysis (1936) discussed using existing IBM punch card machines to implement Babbage's design. In the same year he started the Rapid Arithmetical Machine project to investigate the problems of constructing an electronic digital computer.
Several examples of analog computation survived into recent times. A planimeter is a device which does integrals, using distance as the analog quantity. Until the 1980s, HVAC systems used air both as the analog quantity and the controlling element. Unlike modern digital computers, analog computers are not very flexible, and need to be reconfigured (i.e., reprogrammed) manually to switch them from working on one problem to another. Analog computers had an advantage over early digital computers in that they could be used to solve complex problems using behavioral analogues while the earliest attempts at digital computers were quite limited.
Since computers were rare in this era, the solutions were often hard-coded into paper forms such as nomograms, which could then produce analog solutions to these problems, such as the distribution of pressures and temperatures in a heating system.
Digital electronic computers
None of the early computational devices were really computers in the modern sense, and it took considerable advancement in mathematics and theory before the first modern computers could be designed.
In an 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits. During 1880-81 he showed that NOR gates alone (or alternatively NAND gates alone) can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other logic gates, but this work on it was unpublished until 1933. The first published proof was by Henry M. Sheffer in 1913, so the NAND logical operation is sometimes called Sheffer stroke; the logical NOR is sometimes called Peirce's arrow. Consequently, these gates are sometimes called universal logic gates.
Eventually, vacuum tubes replaced relays for logic operations. Lee De Forest's modification, in 1907, of the Fleming valve can be used as a logic gate. Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of the 16-row truth table as proposition 5.101 of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921). Walther Bothe, inventor of the coincidence circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics, for the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924. Konrad Zuse designed and built electromechanical logic gates for his computer Z1 (from 1935 to 1938).
The first recorded idea of using digital electronics for computing was the 1931 paper "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by C. E. Wynn-Williams. From 1934 to 1936, NEC engineer Akira Nakashima, Claude Shannon, and Victor Shestakov published papers introducing switching circuit theory, using digital electronics for Boolean algebraic operations.
In 1935 Alan Turing wrote his seminal paper On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem in which he modeled computation in terms of a one-dimensional storage tape, leading to the idea of the Universal Turing machine and Turing-complete systems.
The first digital electronic computer was developed in the period April 1936 - June 1939, in the IBM Patent Department, Endicott, New York by Arthur Halsey Dickinson. In this computer IBM introduced for the first time, a calculating device with keyboard, processor and electronic output (display). Competitor to IBM was the digital electronic computer NCR3566, developed in NCR, Dayton, Ohio by Joseph Desch and Robert Mumma in the period April 1939 - August 1939. The IBM and NCR machines were decimal, executing addition and subtraction in binary position code.
In December 1939 John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry completed their experimental model to prove the concept of the Atanasoff–Berry computer. This experimental model is binary, executed addition and subtraction in octal binary code and is the first binary digital electronic computing device. The Atanasoff–Berry computer was intended to solve systems of linear equations, though it was not programmable and it was never completed. The Z3 computer, built by German inventor Konrad Zuse in 1941, was the first programmable, fully automatic computing machine, but it was not electronic.
During World War II, ballistics computing was done by women, who were hired as "computers." The term computer remained one that referred to mostly women (now seen as "operator") until 1945, after which it took on the modern definition of machinery it presently holds.
The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was the first electronic general-purpose computer, announced to the public in 1946. It was Turing-complete, digital, and capable of being reprogrammed to solve a full range of computing problems. Women implemented the programming for machines like the ENIAC, and men created the hardware.
The Manchester Baby was the first electronic stored-program computer. It was built at the Victoria University of Manchester by Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948.
William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs invented the first working transistor, the point-contact transistor, in 1947, followed by the bipolar junction transistor in 1948. At the University of Manchester in 1953, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built the first transistorized computer, called the Transistor Computer, a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves. The first stored-program transistor computer was the ETL Mark III, developed by Japan's Electrotechnical Laboratory from 1954 to 1956. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.
In 1954, 95% of computers in service were being used for engineering and scientific purposes.
Personal computers
The metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistor (MOSFET), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuit chips. The MOSFET is the most widely used transistor in computers, and is the fundamental building block of digital electronics.
The silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit was developed by Federico Faggin at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968. This led to the development of the first single-chip microprocessor, the Intel 4004. The Intel 4004 was developed as a single-chip microprocessor from 1969 to 1970, led by Intel's Federico Faggin, Marcian Hoff, and Stanley Mazor, and Busicom's Masatoshi Shima. The chip was mainly designed and realized by Faggin, with his silicon-gate MOS technology. The microprocessor led to the microcomputer revolution, with the development of the microcomputer, which would later be called the personal computer (PC).
Most early microprocessors, such as the Intel 8008 and Intel 8080, were 8-bit. Texas Instruments released the first fully 16-bit microprocessor, the TMS9900 processor, in June 1976. They used the microprocessor in the TI-99/4 and TI-99/4A computers.
The 1980s brought about significant advances with microprocessor that greatly impacted the fields of engineering and other sciences. The Motorola 68000 microprocessor had a processing speed that was far superior to the other microprocessors being used at the time. Because of this, having a newer, faster microprocessor allowed for the newer microcomputers that came along after to be more efficient in the amount of computing they were able to do. This was evident in the 1983 release of the Apple Lisa. The Lisa was one of the first personal computers with a graphical user interface (GUI) that was sold commercially. It ran on the Motorola 68000 CPU and used both dual floppy disk drives and a 5 MB hard drive for storage. The machine also had 1MB of RAM used for running software from disk without rereading the disk persistently. After the failure of the Lisa in terms of sales, Apple released its first Macintosh computer, still running on the Motorola 68000 microprocessor, but with only 128KB of RAM, one floppy drive, and no hard drive in order to lower the price.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, we see more advancements with computers becoming more useful for actual computational purposes. In 1989, Apple released the Macintosh Portable, it weighed and was extremely expensive, costing US$7,300. At launch it was one of the most powerful laptops available, but due to the price and weight, it was not met with great success, and was discontinued only two years later. That same year Intel introduced the Touchstone Delta supercomputer, which had 512 microprocessors. This technological advancement was very significant, as it was used as a model for some of the fastest multi-processor systems in the world. It was even used as a prototype for Caltech researchers, who used the model for projects like real time processing of satellite images and simulating molecular models for various fields of research.
Supercomputers
In terms of supercomputing, the first widely acknowledged supercomputer was the Control Data Corporation (CDC) 6600 built in 1964 by Seymour Cray. Its maximum speed was 40 MHz or 3 million floating point operations per second (FLOPS). The CDC 6600 was replaced by the CDC 7600 in 1969; although its normal clock speed was not faster than the 6600, the 7600 was still faster due to its peak clock speed, which was approximately 30 times faster than that of the 6600. Although CDC was a leader in supercomputers, their relationship with Seymour Cray (which had already been deteriorating) completely collapsed. in 1972, Cray left CDC and began his own company, Cray Research Inc. With support from investors in Wall Street, an industry fueled by the Cold War, and without the restrictions he had within CDC, he created the Cray-1 supercomputer. With a clock speed of 80 MHz or 136 megaFLOPS, Cray developed a name for himself in the computing world. By 1982, Cray Research produced the Cray X-MP equipped with multiprocessing and in 1985 released the Cray-2, which continued with the trend of multiprocessing and clocked at 1.9 gigaFLOPS. Cray Research developed the Cray Y-MP in 1988, however afterwards struggled to continue to produce supercomputers. This was largely due to the fact that the Cold War had ended, and the demand for cutting edge computing by colleges and the government declined drastically and the demand for micro processing units increased.
In 1998, David Bader developed the first Linux supercomputer using commodity parts. While at the University of New Mexico, Bader sought to build a supercomputer running Linux using consumer off-the-shelf parts and a high-speed low-latency interconnection network. The prototype utilized an Alta Technologies "AltaCluster" of eight dual, 333 MHz, Intel Pentium II computers running a modified Linux kernel. Bader ported a significant amount of software to provide Linux support for necessary components as well as code from members of the National Computational Science Alliance (NCSA) to ensure interoperability, as none of it had been run on Linux previously. Using the successful prototype design, he led the development of "RoadRunner," the first Linux supercomputer for open use by the national science and engineering community via the National Science Foundation's National Technology Grid. RoadRunner was put into production use in April 1999. At the time of its deployment, it was considered one of the 100 fastest supercomputers in the world. Though Linux-based clusters using consumer-grade parts, such as Beowulf, existed prior to the development of Bader's prototype and RoadRunner, they lacked the scalability, bandwidth, and parallel computing capabilities to be considered "true" supercomputers.
Today, supercomputers are still used by the governments of the world and educational institutions for computations such as simulations of natural disasters, genetic variant searches within a population relating to disease, and more. , the fastest supercomputer is Frontier.
Navigation and astronomy
Starting with known special cases, the calculation of logarithms and trigonometric functions can be performed by looking up numbers in a mathematical table, and interpolating between known cases. For small enough differences, this linear operation was accurate enough for use in navigation and astronomy in the Age of Exploration. The uses of interpolation have thrived in the past 500 years: by the twentieth century Leslie Comrie and W.J. Eckert systematized the use of interpolation in tables of numbers for punch card calculation.
Weather prediction
The numerical solution of differential equations, notably the Navier-Stokes equations was an important stimulus to computing,
with Lewis Fry Richardson's numerical approach to solving differential equations. The first computerised weather forecast was performed in 1950 by a team composed of American meteorologists Jule Charney, Philip Duncan Thompson, Larry Gates, and Norwegian meteorologist Ragnar Fjørtoft, applied mathematician John von Neumann, and ENIAC programmer Klara Dan von Neumann. To this day, some of the most powerful computer systems on Earth are used for weather forecasts.
Symbolic computations
By the late 1960s, computer systems could perform symbolic algebraic manipulations well enough to pass college-level calculus courses.
Important women and their contributions
Women are often underrepresented in STEM fields when compared to their male counterparts. In the modern era prior to the 1960s, computing was widely seen as "women's work", since it was associated with the operation of tabulating machines and other mechanical office work. The accuracy of this association varied from place to place. In America, Margaret Hamilton recalled an environment dominated by men, while Elsie Shutt recalled surprise at seeing even half of the computer operators at Raytheon were men. Machine operators in Britain were mostly women into the early 1970s. As these perceptions changed and computing became a high-status career, the field became more dominated by men. Professor Janet Abbate, in her book Recoding Gender, writes:Yet women were a significant presence in the early decades of computing. They made up the majority of the first computer programmers during World War II; they held positions of responsibility and influence in the early computer industry; and they were employed in numbers that, while a small minority of the total, compared favorably with women's representation in many other areas of science and engineering. Some female programmers of the 1950s and 1960s would have scoffed at the notion that programming would ever be considered a masculine occupation, yet these women’s experiences and contributions were forgotten all too quickly.
Some notable examples of women in the history of computing are:
Ada Lovelace: wrote the addendum to Babbage's Analytical Machine. Detailing, in poetic style, the first computer algorithm; a description of exactly how The Analytical Machine should have worked based on its design.
Grace Murray Hopper: a pioneer of computing. She worked alongside Howard H. Aiken on the IBM's Mark I. Hopper also came up with the term "debugging."
Hedy Lamarr: invented a "frequency hopping" technology that was used by the Navy during World War II to control torpedoes via radio signals. This same technology is also used today in creating Bluetooth and Wi-Fi signals.
Frances Elizabeth "Betty" Holberton: invented "breakpoints" which are mini pauses put into lines of computer code to help programmers easily detect, troubleshoot, and solve problems.
The women who originally programmed the ENIAC: Kay McNulty, Betty Jennings, Marlyn Meltzer, Fran Bilas, Ruth Lichterman, and Betty Holberton (see above.)
Jean E. Sammet: co-designed COBOL, a widely used programming language.
Frances Allen: computer scientist and pioneer in the field of optimizing compilers, first woman to win the Turing Award.
Karen Spärck Jones: responsible for "inverse document frequency" - a concept that is most commonly used by search engines.
Dana Angluin: made fundamental contributions to computational learning theory.
Margaret Hamilton: the director of the Software Engineering Division at MIT, which developed on-board flight software for the Apollo's Missions to Space.
Barbara Liskov: developed the "Liskov substitution principle."
Radia Perlman: invented the "Spanning Tree Protocol", a key network protocol used in Ethernet networks.
Stephanie "Steve" Shirley: started F International, a highly successful freelance software company.
Sophie Wilson: helped design ARM processor architecture widely used in many products such as smartphones and video games.
Ann Hardy: pioneered computer time-sharing systems.
Lynn Conway: revolutionised microchip design and production by co-introducing structured VLSI design among other inventions.
The women at Bletchley Park: around 8,000 women who worked in numerous capacities with British cryptanalysis during World War II. Many came from the Women's Royal Naval Service (who were called "wrens") as well as the Women's Auxiliary Air Force ("WAAFs.") They were instrumental in cracking the "Enigma" cipher and helping the Allies win the war.
See also
Algorithm
Moore's law
Timeline of computing hardware costs
Charles Babbage Institute - research center for history of computing at University of Minnesota
Computing timelines category
History of computing in the Soviet Union
History of computing in Poland
History of computer hardware in Yugoslavia
History of software
IT History Society
Lists of mathematicians
List of pioneers in computer science
Timeline of quantum computing and communication
Timeline of computing 2020–present
References
Works cited
External links
The History of Computing by J.A.N. Lee
"Things that Count: the rise and fall of calculators"
The History of Computing Project
SIG on Computers, Information and Society of the Society for the History of Technology
The Modern History of Computing
A Chronology of Digital Computing Machines (to 1952) by Mark Brader
Bitsavers, an effort to capture, salvage, and archive historical computer software and manuals from minicomputers and mainframes of the 1950s, 60s, 70s, and 80s
Developed at SRI International in 1961
Stephen White's excellent computer history site (the above article is a modified version of his work, used with permission)
Soviet Digital Electronics Museum - a big collection of Soviet calculators, computers, computer mice and other devices
Logarithmic timeline of greatest breakthroughs since start of computing era in 1623 by Jürgen Schmidhuber, from "The New AI: General & Sound & Relevant for Physics, In B. Goertzel and C. Pennachin, eds.: Artificial General Intelligence, p. 175-198, 2006."
IEEE Computer Society Timeline of Computing History
Computer History - a collection of articles by Bob Bemer
Computer Histories - An introductory course on the history of computing
British history links
Resurrection Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society (UK) 1990–2006
The story of the Manchester Mark I (archive), 50th Anniversary website at the University of Manchester
Richmond Arabian History of Computing Group Linking the Gulf and Europe
History of Computing Collection; University of Manchester Library
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American Indian Wars
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The American Indian Wars, also known as the American Frontier Wars, and the Indian Wars, were fought by European governments and colonists in North America, and later by the United States government and American settlers, against various American Indian tribes. These conflicts occurred in the United States from the time of the earliest colonial settlements in the 17th century until the end of the 19th century. The various wars resulted from a wide variety of factors, the most common being the desire of settlers and governments for Indian tribes' lands. The European powers and their colonies also enlisted allied Indian tribes to help them conduct warfare against each other's colonial settlements. After the American Revolution, many conflicts were local to specific states or regions and frequently involved disputes over land use; some entailed cycles of violent reprisal.
As settlers spread westward across the United States after 1780, armed conflicts increased in size, duration, and intensity between settlers and various Indian tribes. The climax came in the War of 1812, when major Indian coalitions in the U.S. Midwest and the U.S. South fought against the United States and lost. Conflict with settlers became less common and was usually resolved by treaties between the federal government and specific tribes, which often required the tribes to sell or surrender land to the United States. These treaties were frequently broken by the U.S. government. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorized the U.S. government to force Indian tribes to move from east of the Mississippi River to the west on the American frontier, especially to Indian Territory which became Oklahoma. As settlers expanded onto the Great Plains and the Western United States, the nomadic and semi-nomadic Indian tribes of those regions were forced to relocate to reservations.
Indian tribes and coalitions often won battles with the encroaching settlers and soldiers, but their numbers were too few and their resources too limited to win more than temporary victories and concessions from the U.S. and other countries that colonized areas that had composed the modern-day borders of the U.S.
Colonial periods (1609–1774)
The colonization of North America by English, Spanish, French, Russian and Dutch was resisted by some Indian tribes and assisted by other tribes. Wars and other armed conflicts in the 17th and 18th centuries included:
Beaver Wars (1609–1701) between the Iroquois and the French, who allied with the Algonquians
Anglo-Powhatan Wars (1610–14, 1622–32, 1644–46), including the 1622 Jamestown Massacre, between English colonists and the Powhatan Confederacy in the Colony of Virginia
Pequot War of 1636–38 between the Pequot tribe and colonists from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and Connecticut Colony and allied tribes
Kieft's War (1643–45) in the Dutch territory of New Netherland (New Jersey and New York) between colonists and the Lenape people
Peach Tree War (1655), the large-scale attack by the Susquehannocks and allied tribes on several New Netherland settlements along the Hudson River
Esopus Wars (1659–63), conflicts between the Esopus tribe of Lenape Indians and colonial New Netherlanders in Ulster County, New York
King Philip's War (Metacom's Rebellion) (1675–78) in New England between colonists and the local tribes including, but not limited to, the Nipmuc, Wampanoag, and Narragansett
Tuscarora War (1711–15) in the Province of North Carolina
Yamasee War (1715–17) in the Province of South Carolina
Dummer's War (1722–25) in northern New England and French Acadia (New Brunswick and Nova Scotia)
Pontiac's War (1763–66) in the Great Lakes region
Lord Dunmore's War (1774) in western Virginia (Kentucky and West Virginia)
In several instances, the conflicts were a reflection of European rivalries, with Indian tribes splitting their alliances among the powers, generally siding with their trading partners. Various tribes fought on each side in King William's War, Queen Anne's War, Dummer's War, King George's War, and the French and Indian War, allying with British or French colonists according to their own self interests. On 14 August 1784, Russian colonists had massacred 200–3,000 Koniag Alutiiq tribesmen in Sitkalidak Island, Alaska. This massacre is known as Awa'uq Massacre. Despite the incidents that occurred between European colonists and the Native population, most Indian tribes were friendly towards the Swedes in New Sweden as result of Swedish authorities respecting tribal land.
East of the Mississippi (1775–1842)
British merchants and government agents began supplying weapons to Indians living in the United States following the Revolution (1783–1812) in the hope that, if a war broke out, they would fight on the British side. The British further planned to set up an Indian nation in the Ohio-Wisconsin area to block further American expansion. The US protested and declared war in 1812. Most Indian tribes supported the British, especially those allied with Tecumseh, but they were ultimately defeated by General William Henry Harrison. The War of 1812 spread to Indian rivalries, as well.
Many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada; those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control as they would be considered free, and not slaves, under the Viceroyalty of New Spain. During the early 19th century, the federal government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Indians from their areas. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 stated the "authorizing of the President to grant lands west of the Mississippi in exchange for Indian lands within existing state borders." Some tribes resisted relocation fiercely, most notably the Seminoles in a series of wars in Florida. They were never defeated, although some Seminoles migrated to Indian Territory. Other tribes were forced to move to reservations west of the Mississippi River, most famously the Cherokee whose relocation was called the "Trail of Tears".
American Revolutionary War (1775–1783)
The American Revolutionary War was essentially two parallel wars for the American Patriots. The war in the east was a struggle against British rule, while the war in the west was an "Indian War". The newly proclaimed United States competed with the British for control of the territory east of the Mississippi River. Some Indians sided with the British, as they hoped to reduce American settlement and expansion. In one writer's opinion, the Revolutionary War was "the most extensive and destructive" Indian war in United States history.
Some Indian tribes were divided over which side to support in the war, such as the Iroquois Confederacy based in New York and Pennsylvania who split: the Oneida and Tuscarora sided with the American Patriots, and the Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, and Onondaga sided with the British. The Iroquois tried to avoid fighting directly against one another, but the Revolution eventually forced intra-Iroquois combat, and both sides lost territory following the war. The Crown aided the landless Iroquois by rewarding them with a reservation at Grand River in Ontario and some other lands. In the Southeast, the Cherokee split into a pro-patriot faction versus a pro-British faction that the Americans referred to as the Chickamauga Cherokee; they were led by Dragging Canoe. Many other tribes were similarly divided.
When the British made peace with the Americans in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, they ceded a vast amount of Indian territory to the United States. Indian tribes who had sided with the British and had fought against the Americans were enemy combatants, as far as the United States was concerned; they were a conquered people who had lost their land.
Cherokee–American wars
The frontier conflicts were almost non-stop, beginning with Cherokee involvement in the American Revolutionary War and continuing through late 1794. The so-called "Chickamauga Cherokee", later called "Lower Cherokee", were from the Overhill Towns and later from the Lower Towns, Valley Towns, and Middle Towns. They followed war leader Dragging Canoe southwest, first to the Chickamauga Creek area near Chattanooga, Tennessee, then to the Five Lower Towns where they were joined by groups of Muskogee, white Tories, runaway slaves, and renegade Chickasaw, as well as by more than a hundred Shawnee. The primary targets of attack were the Washington District colonies along the Watauga, Holston, and Nolichucky Rivers, and in Carter's Valley in upper eastern Tennessee, as well as the settlements along the Cumberland River beginning with Fort Nashborough in 1780, even into Kentucky, plus against the Franklin settlements, and later states of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The scope of attacks by the Chickamauga and their allies ranged from quick raids by small war parties to large campaigns by four or five hundred warriors, and once more than a thousand. The Upper Muskogee under Dragging Canoe's close ally Alexander McGillivray frequently joined their campaigns and also operated separately, and the settlements on the Cumberland came under attack from the Chickasaw, Shawnee from the north, and Delaware. Campaigns by Dragging Canoe and his successor John Watts were frequently conducted in conjunction with campaigns in the Northwest Territory. The colonists generally responded with attacks in which Cherokee settlements were completely destroyed, though usually without great loss of life on either side. The wars continued until the Treaty of Tellico Blockhouse in November 1794.
Northwest Indian War
In 1787, the Northwest Ordinance officially organized the Northwest Territory for settlement, and American settlers began pouring into the region. Violence erupted as Indian tribes resisted, and so the administration of President George Washington sent armed expeditions into the area. However, in the Northwest Indian War, a pan-tribal confederacy led by Blue Jacket (Shawnee), Little Turtle (Miami), Buckongahelas (Lenape), and Egushawa (Ottawa) defeated armies led by Generals Josiah Harmar and Arthur St. Clair. General St. Clair's defeat was the most severe loss ever inflicted upon an American army by Indians. Following the successive defeats, the United States sent delegates to discuss peace with the Northwestern Confederacy, but the two sides could not agree on a boundary line. The United States dispatched a new expedition led by General Anthony Wayne, which defeated the confederacy at the 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers. Realizing that British assistance was not forthcoming, the native nations were compelled to sign the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, which ceded Ohio and part of Indiana to the United States.
Tecumseh, the Creek War, and the War of 1812
By 1800, the Indian population was approximately 600,000 in what would become the contiguous United States. By 1890, their population had declined to about 250,000. In 1800, William Henry Harrison became governor of the Indiana Territory, under the direction of President Thomas Jefferson, and he pursued an aggressive policy of obtaining titles to Indian lands. Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa organized Tecumseh's War, another pan-tribal resistance to westward settlement.
Tecumseh was in the South attempting to recruit allies among the Creeks, Cherokees, and Choctaws when Harrison marched against the Indian confederacy, defeating Tenskwatawa and his followers at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. The Americans hoped that the victory would end the militant resistance, but Tecumseh instead chose to ally openly with the British, who were soon at war with the Americans in the War of 1812. The Creek War (1813–14) began as a tribal conflict within the Creek tribe, but it became part of the larger struggle against American expansion. Tecumseh was killed by Harrison's army at the Battle of the Thames, ending the resistance in the Old Northwest. The First Seminole War in 1818 resulted in the transfer of Florida from Spain to the United States in 1819.
Second Seminole War
American settlers began to push into Florida, which was now an American territory and had some of the most fertile lands in the nation. Paul Hoffman claims that covetousness, racism, and "self-defense" against Indian raids played a major part in the settlers' determination to "rid Florida of Indians once and for all". To compound the tension, runaway black slaves sometimes found refuge in Seminole camps. The result was clashes between white settlers and the Indians residing there. Andrew Jackson sought to alleviate this problem by signing the Indian Removal Act in 1830, which stipulated the relocation of Indians out of Floridaby force if necessary. Many Seminole groups were relatively new arrivals in Florida, led by such powerful leaders as Aripeka (Sam Jones), Micanopy, and Osceola, and they had no intention of leaving their lands. They retaliated against the settlers, and this led to the Second Seminole War, the longest and most costly war that the Army ever waged against Indians.
In May 1830, the Indian Removal Act was passed by Congress which stipulated forced removal of Indians to Oklahoma. The Treaty of Paynes Landing was signed in May 1832 by a few Seminole chiefs who later recanted, claiming that they were tricked or forced to sign and making it clear that they would not consent to relocating to a reservation out west. The Seminoles' continued resistance to relocation led Florida to prepare for war. The St. Augustine Militia asked the US War Department for the loan of 500 muskets, and 500 volunteers were mobilized under Brig. Gen. Richard K. Call. Indian war parties raided farms and settlements, and families fled to forts or large towns, or out of the territory altogether. A war party led by Osceola captured a Florida militia supply train, killing eight of its guards and wounding six others; most of the goods taken were recovered by the militia in another fight a few days later. Sugar plantations were destroyed along the Atlantic coast south of St. Augustine, Florida, with many of the slaves on the plantations joining the Seminoles.
The US Army had 11 companies (about 550 soldiers) stationed in Florida. Fort King (Ocala) had only one company of soldiers, and it was feared that they might be overrun by the Seminoles. Three companies were stationed at Fort Brooke (Tampa), with another two expected imminently, so the army decided to send two companies to Fort King. On December 23, 1835, the two companies totaling 110 men left Fort Brooke under the command of Major Francis L. Dade. Seminoles shadowed the marching soldiers for five days, and they ambushed them and wiped out the command on December 28. Only three men survived, and one was hunted down and killed by a Seminole the next day. Survivors Ransome Clarke and Joseph Sprague returned to Fort Brooke. Clarke died of his wounds later, and he provided the only account of the battle from the army's perspective. The Seminoles lost three men and five wounded. On the same day as the massacre, Osceola and his followers shot and killed Agent Wiley Thompson and six others during an ambush outside of Fort King.
On December 29, General Clinch left Fort Drane with 750 soldiers, including 500 volunteers on an enlistment due to end January 1, 1836. The group was traveling to a Seminole stronghold called the Cove of the Withlacoochee, an area of many lakes on the southwest side of the Withlacoochee River. When they reached the river, the soldiers could not find the ford, so Clinch ferried his regular troops across the river in a single canoe. Once they were across and had relaxed, the Seminoles attacked. The troops fixed bayonets and charged them, at the cost of four dead and 59 wounded. The militia provided cover as the army troops then withdrew across the river.
In the Battle of Lake Okeechobee, Colonel Zachary Taylor saw the first major action of the campaign. He left Fort Gardiner on the upper Kissimmee River with 1,000 men on December 19 and headed towards Lake Okeechobee. In the first two days, 90 Seminoles surrendered. On the third day, Taylor stopped to build Fort Basinger where he left his sick and enough men to guard the Seminoles who had surrendered. Taylor's column caught up with the main body of the Seminoles on the north shore of Lake Okeechobee on December 25.
The Seminoles were led by "Alligator", Sam Jones, and the recently escaped Coacoochee, and they were positioned in a hammock surrounded by sawgrass. The ground was thick mud, and sawgrass easily cuts and burns the skin. Taylor had about 800 men, while the Seminoles numbered fewer than 400. Taylor sent in the Missouri volunteers first, moving his troops squarely into the center of the swamp. His plan was to make a direct attack rather than encircle the Indians. All his men were on foot. As soon as they came within range, the Indians opened with heavy fire. The volunteers broke and their commander Colonel Gentry was fatally wounded, so they retreated back across the swamp. The fighting in the sawgrass was deadliest for five companies of the Sixth Infantry; every officer but one was killed or wounded, along with most of their non-commissioned officers. The soldiers suffered 26 killed and 112 wounded, compared to 11 Seminoles killed and 14 wounded. No Seminoles were captured, although Taylor did capture 100 ponies and 600 head of cattle.
By 1842, the war was winding down and most Seminoles had left Florida for Oklahoma. The US Army officially recorded 1,466 deaths in the Second Seminole War, mostly from disease. The number killed in action is less clear. Mahon reports 328 regular army killed in action, while Missall reports that Seminoles killed 269 officers and men. Almost half of those deaths occurred in the Dade Massacre, Battle of Lake Okeechobee, and Harney Massacre. Similarly, Mahon reports 69 deaths for the Navy, while Missal reports 41 for the Navy and Marine Corps. Mahon and the Florida Board of State Institutions agree that 55 volunteer officers and men were killed by the Seminoles, while Missall says that the number is unknown. A northern newspaper carried a report that more than 80 civilians were killed by Indians in Florida in 1839. By the end of 1843, 3,824 Indians had been shipped from Florida to the Indian Territory.
West of the Mississippi (1804–1924)
The series of conflicts in the western United States between Indians, American settlers, and the United States Army are generally known as the Indian Wars. Many of these conflicts occurred during and after the Civil War until the closing of the frontier in about 1890. However, regions of the West that were settled before the Civil War saw significant conflicts prior to 1860, such as Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Oregon, California, and Washington state.
Various statistics have been developed concerning the devastation of these wars on the peoples involved. Gregory Michno used records dealing with figures "as a direct result of" engagements and concluded that "of the 21,586 total casualties tabulated in this survey, military personnel and civilians accounted for 6,596 (31%), while Indian casualties totaled about 14,990 (69%)" for the period of 1850–90. However, Michno says that he "used the army's estimates in almost every case" and "the number of casualties in this study are inherently biased toward army estimations". His work includes almost nothing on "Indian war parties", and he states that "army records are often incomplete".
According to Michno, more conflicts with Indians occurred in the states bordering Mexico than in the interior states. Arizona ranked highest, with 310 known battles fought within the state's boundaries between Americans and Indians. Also, Arizona ranked highest of the states in deaths from the wars. At least 4,340 people were killed, including both the settlers and the Indians, over twice as many as occurred in Texas, the second highest-ranking state. Most of the deaths in Arizona were caused by the Apaches. Michno also says that 51 percent of the battles took place in Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico between 1850 and 1890, as well as 37 percent of the casualties in the country west of the Mississippi River.
Background
American settlers and fur trappers had spread into the western United States territories and had established the Santa Fe Trail and the Oregon Trail. Relations were generally peaceful between American settlers and Indians. The Bents of Bent's Fort on the Santa Fe Trail had friendly relations with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, and peace was established on the Oregon Trail by the Treaty of Fort Laramie signed in 1851 between the United States and the Plains Indians and the Indians of the northern Rocky Mountains. The treaty allowed passage by settlers, building roads, and stationing troops along the Oregon Trail.
The Pike's Peak Gold Rush of 1859 introduced a substantial white population into the Front Range of the Rockies, supported by a trading lifeline that crossed the central Great Plains. Advancing settlement following the passage of the Homestead Act of 1862 and the growing transcontinental railways following the Civil War further destabilized the situation, placing white settlers into direct competition for the land and resources of the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountain West. Additional factors included discovery of gold in Montana during the Montana Gold Rush of 1862–1863 and the opening of the Bozeman Trail, which led to Red Cloud's War, and later discovery of gold in the Black Hills resulting in the gold rush of 1875–1878 and the Great Sioux War of 1876–77.
Miners, ranchers, and settlers expanded into the plain, and this led to increasing conflicts with the Indian populations of the West. Many tribes fought American settlers at one time or another, from the Utes of the Great Basin to the Nez Perce tribe of Idaho. But the Sioux of the Northern Plains and the Apaches of the Southwest waged the most aggressive warfare, led by resolute, militant leaders such as Red Cloud and Crazy Horse. The Sioux were relatively new arrivals on the Plains, as they had been sedentary farmers in the Great Lakes region previously. They moved west, displacing other Indian tribes and becoming feared warriors. The Apaches supplemented their economy by raiding other tribes, and they practiced warfare to avenge the death of a kinsman.
During the American Civil War, Army units were withdrawn to fight the war in the east. They were replaced by the volunteer infantry and cavalry raised by the states of California and Oregon, by the western territorial governments, or by the local militias. These units fought the Indians and kept open communications with the east, holding the west for the Union and defeating the Confederate attempt to capture the New Mexico Territory. After 1865, national policy called for all Indians either to assimilate into the American population as citizens, or to live peacefully on reservations. Raids and wars between tribes were not allowed, and armed Indian bands off a reservation were the responsibility of the Army to round up and return.
Texas
The 18th and early 19th centuries in Texas were characterized by competition and warfare between the Comanches in the north and west of the state and Spanish settlements in the south and east. In the Battle of the Twin Villages in 1759, the Comanche and their Wichita allies defeated a Spanish and Apache army of more than 500 men and halted Spanish expansion in Texas. Comanche raids on Spanish settlements and their Lipan Apache allies in Texas and a defensive Spanish posture characterized the next 70 years. In the 1830s large numbers of Americans began to settle in Texas and they encroached on Comancheria, the proto-empire of the Comanches. A series of battles between Americans and Comanches and their Kiowa and Kiowa Apache allies continued until the 1870s.
The first notable battle between American settlers and Comanche was the Fort Parker massacre in 1836, in which a war party of Comanches, Kiowas, Wichitas, and Delawares attacked the Texan outpost at Fort Parker. A small number of settlers were killed during the raid, and the abduction of Cynthia Ann Parker and two other children caused widespread outrage among Texans.
The Republic of Texas gained independence from Mexico in 1836. The Texas government under President Sam Houston pursued a policy of engagement with the Comanches and Kiowas. Houston had lived with the Cherokees, but the Cherokees joined with Mexican forces to fight against Texas. Houston resolved the conflict without resorting to arms, refusing to believe that the Cherokees would take up arms against his government. The administration of Mirabeau B. Lamar followed Houston's and took a very different policy towards the Indians. Lamar removed the Cherokees to the west and then sought to deport the Comanches and Kiowas. This led to a series of battles, including the Council House Fight, in which the Texas militia killed 33 Comanche chiefs at a peace parley. The Comanches retaliated with the Great Raid of 1840, and the Battle of Plum Creek followed several days later.
The Lamar Administration was known for its failed and expensive Indian policy; the cost of the war with the Indians exceeded the annual revenue of the government throughout his four-year term. It was followed by a second Houston administration, which resumed the previous policy of diplomacy. Texas signed treaties with all of the tribes, including the Comanches. In the 1840s and 1850s, the Comanches and their allies shifted most of their raiding to a weak and newly independent Mexico. Comanche armies numbering in the hundreds raided deep into Mexico for horses and captives and used Texas as a safe haven from Mexican retaliation.(see Comanche–Mexico Wars)
Texas joined the Union in 1845, and the Federal government and Texas took up the struggle between the Plains Indians and the settlers. The conflicts were particularly vicious and bloody on the Texas frontier in 1856 through 1858, as settlers continued to expand their settlements into Comancheria. The first Texan incursion into the heart of the Comancheria was in 1858, the so-called Antelope Hills Expedition marked by the Battle of Little Robe Creek.
The battles between settlers and Indians continued in 1860, and Texas militia destroyed an Indian camp at the Battle of Pease River. In the aftermath of the battle, the Texans learned that they had recaptured Cynthia Ann Parker, the little girl captured by the Comanches in 1836. She returned to live with her family, but she missed her children, including her son Quanah Parker. He was the son of Parker and Comanche Chief Peta Nocona, and he became a Comanche war chief at the Second Battle of Adobe Walls. He ultimately surrendered to the overwhelming force of the federal government and moved to a reservation in southwestern Oklahoma in 1875.
Pacific Northwest
On 1–4 October 1804, Russian America (now the state of Alaska) had suppressed a revolt by the Tlingit Kiks.ádi Clan during the battle of Sitka.
A number of wars occurred in the wake of the Oregon Treaty of 1846 and the creation of Oregon Territory and Washington Territory. Among the causes of conflict were a sudden immigration to the region and a series of gold rushes throughout the Pacific Northwest. The Whitman massacre of 1847 triggered the Cayuse War, which led to fighting from the Cascade Range to the Rocky Mountains. The Cayuse were defeated in 1855, but the conflict had expanded and continued in what became known as the Yakima War (1855–1858). Washington Territory Governor Isaac Stevens tried to compel Indian tribes to sign treaties ceding land and establishing reservations. The Yakama signed one of the treaties negotiated during the Walla Walla Council of 1855, establishing the Yakama Indian Reservation, but Stevens' attempts served mainly to intensify hostilities. Gold discoveries near Fort Colville resulted in many miners crossing Yakama lands via Naches Pass, and conflicts rapidly escalated into violence. It took several years for the Army to defeat the Yakama, during which time war spread to the Puget Sound region west of the Cascades. The Puget Sound War of 1855–1856 was triggered in part by the Yakima War and in part by the use of intimidation to compel tribes to sign land cession treaties. The Treaty of Medicine Creek of 1855 established an unrealistically small reservation on poor land for the Nisqually and Puyallup tribes. Violence broke out in the White River valley, along the route to Naches Pass and connecting Nisqually and Yakama lands. The Puget Sound War is often remembered in connection with the Battle of Seattle (1856) and the execution of Nisqually Chief Leschi, a central figure of the war.
In 1858, the fighting spread on the east side of the Cascades. This second phase of the Yakima War is known as the Coeur d'Alene War. The Yakama, Palouse, Spokane, and Coeur d'Alene tribes were defeated at the Battle of Four Lakes in late 1858.
In southwest Oregon, tensions and skirmishes escalated between American settlers and the Rogue River peoples into the Rogue River Wars of 1855–1856. The California Gold Rush helped fuel a large increase in the number of people traveling south through the Rogue River Valley. Gold discoveries continued to trigger violent conflict between prospectors and Indians. Beginning in 1858, the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in British Columbia drew large numbers of miners, many from Washington, Oregon, and California, culminating in the Fraser Canyon War. This conflict occurred in the Colony of British Columbia, but the militias involved were formed mostly of Americans.
Shortly after the Fraser Canyon War the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, including areas that are now part of the United States and Canada, from Washington to Alaska, suffered major population loss, cultural devastation, and loss of sovereignty due to the 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic. The Chilcotin War of 1864 occurred near the end of the epidemic when a road from the gold fields to the coast was being built through Tsilhqotʼin (Chilcotin) territory without permission. At the time, and still today, First Nations such as the Tsilhqotʼin say the colonial government deliberately spread smallpox with the aim of ending indigenous sovereignty and indigenous rights in British Columbia. Workers on the road-building project threatened the Tsilhqotʼin with smallpox. The war ended with the hanging of six Tsilhqotʼin chiefs. In 2014, British Columbia Premier Christy Clark formally exonerated the executed chiefs and apologized for these acts, acknowledging that "there is an indication [that smallpox] was spread intentionally." The discovery of gold in Idaho and Oregon in the 1860s led to similar conflicts which culminated in the Bear River Massacre in 1863 and Snake War from 1864 to 1868.
In the late 1870s, another series of armed conflicts occurred in Oregon and Idaho, spreading east into Wyoming and Montana. The Nez Perce War of 1877 is known particularly for Chief Joseph and the four-month, 1,200-mile fighting retreat of a band of about 800 Nez Perce, including women and children. The Nez Perce War was caused by a large influx of settlers, the appropriation of Indian lands, and a gold rush—this time in Idaho. The Nez Perce engaged 2,000 American soldiers of different military units, as well as their Indian auxiliaries. They fought "eighteen engagements, including four major battles and at least four fiercely contested skirmishes", according to Alvin Josephy. Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce were much admired for their conduct in the war and their fighting ability.
The Bannock War broke out the following year for similar reasons. The Sheepeater Indian War in 1879 was the last conflict in the area.
Southwest
Various wars between Spanish and Native Americans, mainly Comanches and Apaches, took place from the 17th to the 19th century in the Southwest United States. Spanish governors made peace treaties with some tribes during this period. Several events stand out during the colonial period: On the one hand, the administration of Tomás Vélez Cachupín, the only colonial governor of New Mexico who managed to establish peace with the Comanches after having confronted them in the Battle of San Diego Pond, and learned how to relate to them without giving rise to misunderstandings that could lead to conflict with them. The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 was also highlighted, causing the Spanish province to be divided into two areas: one led by the Spanish governor and the other by the leader of the Pueblos. Several military conflicts happened between Spaniards and Pueblos in this period until Diego de Vargas made a peace treaty with them in 1691, which made them subjects of the Spanish governor again. Conflicts between Europeans and indigenous peoples continued following the acquisition of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México from Mexico at the end of the Mexican–American War in 1848, and the Gadsden Purchase in 1853. These spanned from 1846 to at least 1895. The first conflicts were in the New Mexico Territory, and later in California and the Utah Territory during and after the California Gold Rush.
Indian tribes in the southwest had been engaged in cycles of trading and fighting with one another and with settlers for centuries prior to the United States gaining control of the region. These conflicts with the United States involved every non-pueblo tribe in the region and often were a continuation of Mexican–Spanish conflicts. The Navajo Wars and Apache Wars are perhaps the best known. The last major campaign of the military against Indians in the Southwest involved 5,000 troops in the field, and resulted in the surrender of Chiricahua Apache Geronimo and his band of 24 warriors, women, and children in 1886.
California
The U.S. Army kept a small garrison west of the Rockies, but starting in 1849, the California Gold Rush brought a great influx of miners and settlers into the area. The result was that most of the early conflicts with the California Indians involved local parties of miners or settlers. During the American Civil War, California volunteers replaced Federal troops and won the ongoing Bald Hills War and the Owens Valley Indian War and engaged in minor actions in northern California. California and Oregon volunteer garrisons in Nevada, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, New Mexico, and the Arizona Territories also engaged in conflicts with the Apache, Cheyenne, Goshute, Navajo, Paiute, Shoshone, Sioux, and Ute Indians from 1862 to 1866. Following the Civil War, California was mostly pacified, but federal troops replaced the volunteers and again took up the struggle against Indians in the remote regions of the Mojave Desert, and in the northeast during the Snake War (1864–1868) and Modoc War (1872–1873).
Great Basin
The tribes of the Great Basin were mostly Shoshone, and they were greatly affected by the Oregon and California Trails and by Mormon pioneers to Utah. The Shoshone had friendly relations with American and British fur traders and trappers, beginning with their encounter with Lewis and Clark.
The traditional way of life of the Indians was disrupted, and they began raiding travelers along the trails and aggression toward Mormon settlers. During the American Civil War, the California Volunteers stationed in Utah responded to complaints, which resulted in the Bear River Massacre. Following the massacre, various Shoshone tribes signed a series of treaties exchanging promises of peace for small annuities and reservations. One of these was the Box Elder Treaty which identified a land claim made by the Northwestern Shoshone. The Supreme Court declared this claim to be non-binding in a 1945 ruling, but the Indian Claims Commission recognized it as binding in 1968. Descendants of the original group were compensated collectively at a rate of less than $0.50 per acre, minus legal fees.
Most of the local groups were decimated by the war and faced continuing loss of hunting and fishing land caused by the steadily growing population. Some moved to the Fort Hall Indian Reservation when it was created in 1868. Some of the Shoshone populated the Mormon-sanctioned community of Washakie, Utah. From 1864 California and Oregon Volunteers also engaged in the early campaigns of the Snake War in the Great Basin areas of California, Nevada, Oregon and Idaho. From 1866 the U.S. Army replaced the Volunteers in that war which General George Crook brought to an end in 1868 after a protracted campaign.
Great Plains
Initially relations between participants in the Pike's Peak gold rush and the Native American tribes of the Front Range and the Platte valley were friendly. An attempt was made to resolve conflicts by negotiation of the Treaty of Fort Wise, which established a reservation in southeastern Colorado, but the settlement was not agreed to by all of the roving warriors, particularly the Dog Soldiers. During the early 1860s tensions increased and culminated in the Colorado War and the Sand Creek Massacre, where Colorado volunteers fell on a peaceful Cheyenne village killing women and children, which set the stage for further conflict.
The peaceful relationship between settlers and the Indians of the Colorado and Kansas plains was maintained faithfully by the tribes, but sentiment grew among the Colorado settlers for Indian removal. The savagery of the attacks on civilians during the Dakota War of 1862 contributed to these sentiments, as did the few minor incidents which occurred in the Platte Valley and in areas east of Denver. Regular army troops had been withdrawn for service in the Civil War and were replaced with the Colorado Volunteers, rough men who often favored extermination of the Indians. They were commanded by John Chivington and George L. Shoup, who followed the lead of John Evans, territorial governor of Colorado. They adopted a policy of shooting on sight all Indians encountered, a policy which in short time ignited a general war on the Colorado and Kansas plains, the Colorado War.
Raids by bands of plains Indians on isolated homesteads to the east of Denver, on the advancing settlements in Kansas, and on stage line stations along the South Platte, such as at Julesburg, and along the Smoky Hill Trail, resulted in settlers in both Colorado and Kansas adopting a murderous attitude towards Native Americans, with calls for extermination. Likewise, the savagery shown by the Colorado Volunteers during the Sand Creek Massacre resulted in Native Americans, particularly the Dog Soldiers, a band of the Cheyenne, engaging in savage retribution.
Dakota War
The Dakota War of 1862 (more commonly called the Sioux Uprising of 1862 in older authorities and popular texts) was the first major armed engagement between the U.S. and the Sioux (Dakota). After six weeks of fighting in Minnesota, led mostly by Chief Taoyateduta (aka, Little Crow), records conclusively show that more than 500 U.S. soldiers and settlers died in the conflict, though many more may have died in small raids or after being captured. The number of Sioux dead in the uprising is mostly undocumented. After the war, 303 Sioux warriors were convicted of murder and rape by U.S. military tribunals and sentenced to death. Most of the death sentences were commuted by President Lincoln, but on December 26, 1862, in Mankato, Minnesota, 38 Dakota Sioux men were hanged in what is still today the largest penal mass execution in U.S. history.
After the expulsion of the Dakota, some refugees and warriors made their way to Lakota lands in what is now North Dakota. Battles continued between Minnesota regiments and combined Lakota and Dakota forces through 1864, as Colonel Henry Sibley pursued the Sioux into Dakota Territory. Sibley's army defeated the Lakota and Dakota in three major battles in 1863: the Battle of Dead Buffalo Lake on July 26, 1863, the Battle of Stony Lake on July 28, 1863, and the Battle of Whitestone Hill on September 3, 1863. The Sioux retreated further, but again faced an American army in 1864; this time, Gen. Alfred Sully led a force from near Fort Pierre, South Dakota, and decisively defeated the Sioux at the Battle of Killdeer Mountain on July 28, 1864.
Colorado War, Sand Creek Massacre, and the Sioux War of 1865
On November 29, 1864, the Colorado territory militia responded to a series of Indian attacks on white settlements by attacking a Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment on Sand Creek in southeastern Colorado, under orders to take no prisoners. The militia killed about 200 of the Indians, two-thirds of whom were women and children, taking scalps and other grisly trophies.
Following the massacre, the survivors joined the camps of the Cheyenne on the Smokey Hill and Republican Rivers. They smoked the war pipe and passed it from camp to camp among the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho camped in the area, and they planned an attack on the stage station and fort at Julesburg which they carried out in the January 1865 Battle of Julesburg. This attack was followed up by numerous raids along the South Platte both east and west of Julesburg, and by a second raid on Julesburg in early February. The bulk of the Indians then moved north into Nebraska on their way to the Black Hills and the Powder River. In the spring of 1865, raids continued along the Oregon trail in Nebraska. Indians raided the Oregon Trail along the North Platte River and attacked the troops stationed at the bridge across the North Platte at Casper, Wyoming in the Battle of Platte Bridge.
Sheridan's campaigns
After the Civil War, all of the Indians were assigned to reservations, and the reservations were under the control of the Interior Department. Control of the Great Plains fell under the Army's Department of the Missouri, an administrative area of over 1,000,000 mi2 encompassing all land between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock had led the department in 1866 but had mishandled his campaign, resulting in Sioux and Cheyenne raids that attacked mail stagecoaches, burned the stations, and killed the employees. They also raped, killed, and kidnapped many settlers on the frontier.
Philip Sheridan was the military governor of Louisiana and Texas in 1866, but President Johnson removed him from that post, claiming that he was ruling over the area with absolute tyranny and insubordination. Shortly after, Hancock was removed as head of the Department of the Missouri and Sheridan replaced him in August 1867. He was ordered to pacify the plains and take control of the Indians there, and he immediately called General Custer back to command of the 7th Cavalry; Hancock had suspended him.
The Department of Missouri was in poor shape upon Sheridan's arrival. Commissioners from the government had signed a peace treaty in October 1867 with the Comanche, Kiowa, Kiowa Apache, Cheyenne, and Arapaho which offered them reservation land to live on along with food and supplies, but Congress failed to pass it. The promised supplies from the government were not reaching the Indians and they were beginning to starve, numbering an estimated 6,000. Sheridan had only 2,600 men at the time to control them and to defend against any raids or attacks, and only 1,200 of his men were mounted. These men were also under-supplied and stationed at forts that were in poor condition. They were also mostly unproven units that replaced retired veterans from the Civil War.
Sheridan attempted to improve the conditions of the military outpost and the Indians on the plains through a peace-oriented strategy. Toward the beginning of his command, members of the Cheyenne and Arapaho followed him on his travels from Fort Larned to Fort Dodge where he spoke to them. They brought their problems to him and explained how the promised supplies were not being delivered. In response, Sheridan gave them a generous supply of rations. Shortly after, the Saline Valley settlements were attacked by Indians, and that was followed by other violent raids and kidnappings in the region. Sheridan wanted to respond in force but was constrained by the government's peace policy and the lack of well-supplied mounted troops. He could not deploy official military units, so he commissioned a group of 47 frontiersmen and sharpshooters called Solomon's Avengers. They investigated the raids near Arickaree Creek and were attacked by Indians on September 17, 1868. The Avengers were under siege for eight days by some 700 Indian warriors, but they were able to keep them at bay until military units arrived to help. The Avengers lost six men and another 15 were wounded. Sherman finally gave Sheridan authority to respond in force to these threats.
Sheridan believed that his soldiers would be unable to chase the horses of the Indians during the summer months, so he used them as a defensive force the remainder of September and October. His forces were better fed and clothed than the Indians and they could launch a campaign in the winter months. His winter campaign of 1868 started with the 19th Kansas Volunteers from Custer's 7th Cavalry, along with five battalions of infantry under Major John H. Page setting out from Fort Dodge on November 5. A few days later, a force moved from Fort Bascom to Fort Cobb consisting of units of the 5th Cavalry Regiment and two companies of infantry, where they met up with units from the 3rd Cavalry leaving from Fort Lyon. Sheridan directed the opening month of the campaign from Camp Supply. The Units from the 5th and 3rd Cavalry met at Fort Cobb without any sign of the 19th Kansas, but they had a lead on a band of Indians nearby and Custer led a force after them.
Custer's force attacked the Cheyenne Indians and Black Kettle in the Battle of Washita River, and an estimated 100 Indians were killed and 50 taken prisoner. Custer lost 21 men killed and 13 men wounded, and a unit went missing under Major Elliott's command. Custer shot 675 ponies that were vital for the Indians' survival on the plains. Immediately following the battle, Sheridan received backlash from Washington politicians who defended Black Kettle as a peace-loving Indian. This began the controversy as to whether the event was best described as a military victory or as a massacre, a discussion which endures among historians to this day.
Following Washita, Sheridan oversaw the refitting of the 19th Kansas and personally led them down the Washita River toward the Wichita Mountains. He met with Custer along the Washita River and they searched for Major Elliott's missing unit. They found the bodies of the missing unit—mutilated, some beyond recognition—and the bodies of Mrs. Blynn and her child who had been taken by Indians the previous summer near Fort Lyon. The defeat at Washita had scared many of the tribes and Sheridan was able to round up the majority of the Kiowa and Comanche people at Fort Cobb in December and get them to reservations. He began negotiations with Chief Little Robe of the Cheyennes and with Yellow Bear about living on the reservations. Sheridan then began the construction of Camp Sill, later called Fort Sill, named after General Sill who died at Stone River.
Sheridan was called back to Washington following the election of President Grant. He was informed of his promotion to lieutenant general of the army and reassigned from the department. Sheridan protested and was allowed to stay in Missouri with the rank of lieutenant general. The last remnants of Indian resistance came from Tall Bull Dog soldiers and elements of the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne tribes. The 5th Cavalry from Fort McPherson were sent to handle the situation on the Platte River in Nebraska. In May, the two forces collided at Summit Springs and the Indians were pursued out of the region. This brought an end to Sheridan's campaign, as the Indians had successfully been removed from the Platte and Arkansas and the majority of those in Kansas had been settled onto reservations. Sheridan left in 1869 to take command of the Army and was replaced by Major General Schofield.
Black Hills War
In 1875, the Great Sioux War of 1876–77 erupted when the Dakota gold rush penetrated the Black Hills. The government decided to stop evicting trespassers from the Black Hills and offered to buy the land from the Sioux. When they refused, the government decided instead to take the land and gave the Lakota until January 31, 1876, to return to reservations. The tribes did not return to the reservations by the deadline, and Lt. Colonel George Custer found the main encampment of the Lakota and their allies at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Custer and his men were separated from their main body of troops, and they were all killed by the far more numerous Indians led by Crazy Horse and inspired by Sitting Bull's earlier vision of victory. The Anheuser-Busch brewing company made prints of a dramatic painting that depicted "Custer's Last Fight" and had them framed and hung in many American saloons as an advertising campaign, helping to create a popular image of this battle.
The Lakotas conducted a Ghost Dance ritual on the reservation at Wounded Knee, South Dakota in 1890, and the Army attempted to subdue them. Gunfire erupted on December 29 during this attempt, and soldiers killed up to 300 Indians, mostly old men, women, and children in the Wounded Knee Massacre. Following the massacre, author L. Frank Baum wrote: "The Pioneer has before declared that our only safety depends upon the total extermination of the Indians. Having wronged them for centuries, we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the earth."
Last conflicts
Many sources place the end of the American Indian Wars in the 1890s (1890 to 1901). The last campaign of the Indian Wars that has been designated by the U.S. Army, the Pine Ridge Campaign, ended in 1891.
Scattered incidents of armed conflict between Indians and whites continued into the 1920s.
October 5, 1898: Leech Lake, Minnesota: Battle of Sugar Point; last Medal of Honor given for Indian Wars campaigns was awarded to Private Oscar Burkard of the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment.
1907: Four Corners, Arizona: Two troops of the 5th Cavalry from Fort Wingate skirmish with armed Navajo men; one Navajo was killed and the rest escaped.
March 1909: Crazy Snake Rebellion, Oklahoma: Federal officials attack the Muscogee Creeks and allied Freedmen who had resisted forcible allotment and division of tribal lands by the federal government since 1901, headquartered at Hickory ceremonial grounds in Oklahoma; a two-day gun battle seriously wounded leader Chitto Harjo and quelled this rebellion.
1911: Chaco Canyon, New Mexico: A company of cavalry went from Fort Wingate to quell an alleged uprising by some Navajo.
January 19, 1911: Washoe County, Nevada: The Last Massacre occurred; a group of Shoshones and Bannocks killed four ranchers; on February 26, 1911, eight of the Indians involved in the Last Massacre were killed by a posse in the Battle of Kelley Creek; the remaining four were captured.
March 1914 – March 15, 1915: Bluff War in Utah between Ute Indians and Mormon residents.
January 9, 1918: Santa Cruz County, Arizona: The Battle of Bear Valley was fought in Southern Arizona; Army forces of the 10th Cavalry engaged and captured a band of Yaquis, after a brief firefight.
March 20–23, 1923: Posey War in Utah between Ute and Paiute Indians against Mormon residents.
1924: The Apache Wars ended in 1924 and brought the American Indian Wars to a close. This ended the post-1887 Apache Wars period.
Effects on Native American populations
The 2010 United States Census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being American Indian or Alaskan Native, about 0.9% of the US population. The Canada 2011 Census found 1,836,035 Canadians who identified themselves as being First Nations (or Inuit or Métis), about 4.3% of the Canadian population. No consensus exists on how many people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans, but extensive research continues to be conducted. Contemporary estimates range from 2.1 million to 18 million people living on the North American continent prior to European colonization.
The number of Indians dropped to below half a million in the 19th century because of Eurasian diseases such as influenza, pneumonic plagues, and smallpox, in combination with conflict, forced removal, enslavement, imprisonment, and outright warfare with European newcomers reduced populations and disrupted traditional societies.
The United States Census Bureau (1894) provided their estimate of deaths due specifically to war during the 102 years between 1789 and 1891, including 8,500 Indians and 5,000 whites killed in "individual affairs":
The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given ... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate.
Historiography
According to historian David Rich Lewis, American popular histories, film, and fiction have given enormous emphasis to the Indian wars. New ethno-historical approaches became popular in the 1970s which mixed anthropology with historical research in hopes of gaining a deeper understanding of the Indian perspective. During the 1980s, human rights abuses by the US government were increasingly studied by historians exploring the impact of the wars on Indian cultures. Prior to this, popular history was heavily influenced by Dee Brown's non-academic treatment of historical events in the 1970 non-fiction book, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee. In more academic history, Francis Jennings's 1975 book The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest was notable for criticizing the Puritans and rejecting the traditional portrayal of the wars between the Indians and colonists.
List
See also
Canadian Indian Act of 1876
Captives in American Indian Wars
Cultural assimilation of American Indians
French and Indian Wars
Indian Campaign Medal
List of American Indian Wars weapons
List of battles won by indigenous peoples of the Americas
List of Indian massacres
List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Indian Wars
List of indigenous rebellions in Mexico and Central America
Manifest destiny
North-West Rebellion
Red River Rebellion
United States Army Indian Scouts
American frontier
Awa'uq Massacre
California genocide
Texas–Indian wars
European colonization of the Americas
Comparable and related events
Australian frontier wars
Apache–Mexico Wars
Comanche–Mexico Wars
Conquest of the Desert
Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
Dungan revolt (1895–1896)
Hawaiian rebellions (1887–1895)
Mexican Indian Wars
New Zealand Wars
Occupation of Araucanía
Pacification of Algeria
Russian conquest of the Caucasus
Russian conquest of Central Asia
Russian conquest of Siberia
Sino-Tibetan War
Xinjiang Wars
Anglo-Zulu War
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Parry, Mae. "The Northwestern Shoshone ". In A History of Utah's American Indians, ed. Forrest S. Cuch. Utah State University Press, 2010. .
Parker, Aaron. The Sheepeater Indian Campaign (Chamberlin Basin Country). Idaho Country Free Press, 1968.
Raphael, Ray. A People's History of the American Revolution: How Common People Shaped the Fight for Independence. New York: The New Press, 2001. .
Remini, Robert V. Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars. New York: Viking, 2001. .
Richter, Daniel K. Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001. .
Thornton, Russell. American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492. Oklahoma City: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. .
Utley, Robert M. and Wilcomb E. Washburn. Indian Wars (2002) excerpt and text search
Yenne, Bill. Indian Wars: The Campaign for the American West. Yardley, PA: Westholme, 2005. .
Further reading
Barnes, Jeff. Forts of the Northern Plains: Guide to Historic Military Posts of the Plains Indian Wars. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2008. .
Glassley, Ray Hoard. Indian Wars of the Pacific Northwest, Binfords & Mort, Portland, Oregon 1972
Heard, J. Norman. Handbook of the American Frontier (5 vol Scarecrow Press, 1987–98); Covers "1: The Southeastern Woodlands", "2: The Northeastern Woodlands", "3: The Great Plains", "4: The Far West" and vol 5: "Chronology, Bibliography, Index." Compilation of Indian-white contacts & conflicts
McDermott, John D. A Guide to the Indian Wars of the West. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998. .
Michno, Gregory F. Deadliest Indian War in the West: The Snake Conflict, 1864–1868, 360 pages, Caxton Press, 2007, .
Historiography
Bellesiles, Michael A (2004). "Western Violence", in A Companion to the American West ed. by William Deverell pp: 162–178. online
Lewis, David Rich (2004). "Native Americans in the nineteenth-century American West." in A Companion to the American West ed. by William Deverell pp: 143–161. online
Miller, Lester L. Jr. Indian Wars: A Bibliography (US Army, 1988) online; lists over 200 books and articles.
Primary sources
Greene, Jerome A (2007). Indian War Veterans: Memories of Army Life and Campaigns in the West, 1864–1898. New York: Savas Beatie. .
Available online through the Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection.
External links
Indian Wars National Association
Indian Wars and Pioneers of Texas by John Henry Brown, published 1880, hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
The Indian Wars and African American Soldiers, US Army
Increase Mather, A Brief History of the War with the Indians in New-England, (1676) Online Edition
www.history.com; American-Indian Wars
The War of 1812 at Real Peoples History Highlighting Native Nations in the War of 1812
Urlacher, Brian R (2021). "Introducing Native American Conflict History (NACH) data". Journal of Peace Research.
17th-century conflicts
18th-century conflicts
19th-century conflicts
Native American history
First Nations history
United States Marine Corps in the 18th and 19th centuries
Indigenous conflicts in Canada
Wars involving the United States
Wars involving Canada
Internal wars of the United States
Internal wars of Canada
King Philip's War
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Lloydminster
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Lloydminster is a city in Canada which has the unusual geographic distinction of straddling the provincial border between Alberta and Saskatchewan. The city is incorporated by both provinces as a single city with a single municipal administration.
Located in the heart of Treaty 6, Lloydminster is the traditional homeland of the Plains Cree, Wood Cree, Dene, Saulteaux and Homeland of the Metis.
History
Intended to be an exclusively British utopian settlement centred on the idea of sobriety, Lloydminster was founded in 1903 by the Barr Colonists, who came directly from the United Kingdom. At a time when the area was still part of the North-West Territories, the town was located astride the Fourth Meridian of the Dominion Land Survey. This meridian was intended to coincide with the 110° west longitude, although the imperfect surveying methods of the time led to the surveyed meridian being placed a few hundred metres (yards) west of this longitude.
The town was named for George Lloyd, an Anglican priest who would become Bishop of Saskatchewan in 1922. Lloyd was a strong opponent of non-British immigration to Canada. During a nearly disastrous immigration journey, which was badly planned and conducted, he distinguished himself with the colonists and replaced the Barr Colony's leader and namesake Isaac Montgomery Barr during the colonists' journey to the eventual townsite.
The town developed rapidly: by 1904, there was a telegraph office as well as a log church; in 1905, the Lloydminster Daily Times started publication and the first train arrived on July 28. Its main north-south street, today named Meridian Avenue (or 50th Avenue), along which stores, businesses and the post office began locating, was situated right on the Fourth Meridian, although the actual road right-of-way was located in Saskatchewan.
While provincehood of some sort for the prairie territories was seen as inevitable by 1903, it had been widely expected that only one province would eventually be created instead of two. The colonists were not aware of the federal government's deep-rooted opposition to the creation of a single province and thus had no way of knowing that the Fourth Meridian (110° W) was under consideration as a future provincial boundary. Had they known, it is very unlikely that they would have sited the new settlement on the future border.
When the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created in 1905, the Fourth Meridian was selected as the border, bisecting the town right along its main street. Caught by surprise, Lloydminster residents petitioned for the new border to be revised so as to encompass the entire town within Saskatchewan, without success.
For the next quarter century, Lloydminster remained to be administered as two separate towns with two separate municipal administrations. Finally, in 1930, the provincial governments agreed to amalgamate the towns into a single town under shared jurisdiction. The provinces, again jointly, reincorporated Lloydminster as a city in 1958.
Commemorating Lloydminster's distinctive bi-provincial status, a monument consisting of four 100-foot survey markers was erected in 1994 near the city's downtown core.
Although the majority of Lloydminster's population once lived in Saskatchewan, that ratio has long since been reversed; in the 2011 Canadian Census, nearly two-thirds of the city's population lived in Alberta. In 2000, the city hall and municipal offices were moved from Saskatchewan to Alberta in a location right along Meridian Avenue, also known as 50th Avenue, which runs along the Fourth Meridian.
Despite its bi-provincial status, Lloydminster was not exempted from anti-smoking legislation passed by the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan. Citizens responded by initiating a referendum against the wishes of the mayor, as permitted in the charter, which resulted in the enactment of a citywide anti-smoking bylaw. The matter became moot when Alberta enacted its own anti-smoking legislation, which was the solution that the mayor and council preferred.
Since Lloydminster's founders were attempting to create a utopian, temperance society, alcohol was not available in Lloydminster for the first few years after its founding.
Geography
The provincial border runs north to south, falling directly on 50th Avenue (Meridian Avenue) in the centre of Lloydminster. Meridian Avenue north of the Yellowhead Highway (also named 44th Street) remains the main downtown street for stores, offices and businesses, with some also located on the intersecting east-west streets. Addresses east of 50th Avenue are considered to be in Lloydminster, Saskatchewan and addresses west of 50th Avenue are considered to be in Lloydminster, Alberta. The city is bordered by the County of Vermilion River, Alberta, on the west, the Rural Municipality (R.M.) of Britannia No. 502, Saskatchewan, on the northeast and the R.M. of Wilton No. 472, Saskatchewan, on the southeast. The majority of the large retail properties serving the city, including larger stores, gas stations and hotels, are located in its Alberta portion, in particular along the Yellowhead Highway west of Meridian Avenue and along the Alberta side of 50th Avenue south of the Yellowhead Highway.
Lloydminster's distinctive situation is reflected in other legal matters, including its time zone. Most of Saskatchewan does not observe daylight saving time, instead staying on Central Standard Time year-round. However, Alberta mandates daylight saving time. Lloydminster's charter allows the city to follow Alberta's use of daylight saving time on both sides of the provincial border in order to keep all clocks within the city in synchronisation. This has the effect of placing Lloydminster and the surrounding area in the Mountain Time Zone along with Alberta. During the summer therefore, the entire city is on UTC−06:00—Mountain Daylight Time, which is the same as the rest of Saskatchewan where the time is defined as Central Standard Time. During the winter, Lloydminster is on Mountain Standard Time with the rest of Alberta, which is UTC−07:00, and is therefore one hour behind the time in the rest of Saskatchewan.
The provincial line divides the city in two aspects related to communications. Telephones on the Saskatchewan side are assigned to area codes 306 and 639, the two area codes assigned to that province, while land lines on the Alberta side have numbers in the 780 and 587 area codes, the two area codes assigned to northern Alberta. Similarly, Saskatchewan addresses have a postal code with a forward sortation area designation (first three characters) of "S9V", and addresses in Alberta have postal codes beginning with "T9V". All postal codes in Canada beginning with the letter "S" are assigned to Saskatchewan, and those beginning with "T" belong to Alberta.
Climate
Lloydminster experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb), which approaches a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc) due to May and September being only marginally above . Winters are long, cold and dry, while summers are short, warm and moderately wet. Year-round precipitation is fairly low, with an average of , whilst the dry winters restrict snowfall to .
The highest temperature ever recorded in Lloydminster was on 12 July 2002. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 13 January 1911.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Alberta portion of the City of Lloydminster had a population of 19,739 living in 7,636 of its 8,530 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of 19,645. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. The Saskatchewan portion of Lloydminster had a population of 11,843 living in 4,443 of its 5,002 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of 11,765. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016. Overall, the entire City of Lloydminster had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016.
In the 2016 Census of Population, the Alberta portion of the City of Lloydminster had a population of 19,645 living in 7,444 of its 8,444 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2011 population of 18,032. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016. Meanwhile, the Saskatchewan portion of Lloydminster had a population of 11,765 living in 4,392 of its 4,909 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2011 population of 9,772. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016. Overall, the entire City of Lloydminster had a population of 31,410 living in 11,836 of its 13,353 total private dwellings in the 2016 Census of Population, a change of from its 2011 population of 27,804. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016.
The City of Lloydminster's 2015 municipal census counted a population of 31,377, a change of −0.3% from its 2013 municipal census population of 31,483. Of the 31,377 residents, 19,740 () lived on the Alberta side and 11,637 () lived on the Saskatchewan side.
There are substantial demographic differences between the populations on each side of the border, with the population on the Saskatchewan side being substantially younger; the median age on the Saskatchewan side is 26.6, nearly seven years less than the median age of 33.2 on the Alberta side. Even when combining the median ages for both sides of the city, Lloydminster has the youngest median age in all of Canada. Also, the specific age group of 20–24 is much more concentrated on the Saskatchewan side. The two sides of the city have virtually identical numbers of people in that age group (1,220 in Saskatchewan, 1,230 in Alberta) even though the total population on the Alberta side is nearly twice that of the Saskatchewan side. This situation has been attributed in part to differential car insurance rates for drivers; because Saskatchewan has a public auto insurance system while Alberta relies on conventional private insurance, young drivers with the highest insurance rates can save thousands of dollars by living in Saskatchewan rather than Alberta.
The census agglomeration of Lloydminster includes both parts of the city, as well as the rural municipality of Wilton No. 472, the town of Lashburn, and the village of Marshall, Saskatchewan.
Language
About 94% of residents identified English as their first language. More than 1.4% of the population identified French as their first language, while 0.8% identified German, 0.7% identified Ukrainian, and 0.5% identified Cree as their first language learned. The next most common languages were Chinese and Spanish at about 0.3% each.
Ethnicity
More than 8% of residents identified themselves as aboriginal at the time of the 2006 census.
Religion
More than 78% of residents identified as Christian at the time of the 2001 census, while over 18% indicated that they had no religious affiliation. For specific denominations Statistics Canada found that 31% of residents identified as Roman Catholic, and 44% Protestants of which, 18% identified with the United Church of Canada, more than 7% identified as Anglican, about 5% identified as Lutheran, almost 3% identified as Pentecostal, about 2% identified as Baptists, and just over 1% of the population identified as Eastern Orthodox.
Economy
The local economy is driven primarily by the petroleum industry. Agriculture remains an important economic activity. The Husky Lloydminster Refinery is also located in the community. An issue in business is the sales tax. The only sales tax applicable in Alberta is the federal Goods and Services Tax (GST). Saskatchewan has, in addition to GST, a provincial sales tax (PST). To ensure that business will not float away from the Saskatchewan side in favour of lower prices in Alberta, PST does not apply in the Saskatchewan side of the city with the exception of hotels, vehicle registration and utility services.
Government
Lloydminster is governed by a seven-member city council, consisting of a mayor and six city councillors. The city follows the Saskatchewan schedule when voting in municipal elections.
Residents on the Alberta side are in the electoral district of Lakeland for elections to the federal House of Commons, and Vermilion-Lloydminster-Wainwright for elections to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta. Residents in Saskatchewan are in Battlefords—Lloydminster federally, and Lloydminster for the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan.
Taxation
Lloydminster's bi-provincial status has resulted in special provisions regarding provincial taxation within the city limits. The Saskatchewan side of the city is exempt from that province's sales tax, preventing businesses located there from being placed at a disadvantage relative to businesses in Alberta, which has no provincial sales tax. There is no exemption for provincial income tax, which is based solely on the taxpayer's province of residence. Other differences surrounding interprovincial costs are reflected within the treatment of automobile insurance, and housing taxes. For example, a driver under age 25 who lives on the Alberta side will pay approximately 2-3 times the average amount required of a Saskatchewan driver of the same age.
Infrastructure
Health care
Lloydminster relies on health care resources from both Alberta Health Services and the Saskatchewan Health Authority. The Lloydminster Hospital was constructed in 1987 on the Saskatchewan side of the border.
In 2013, an independent report found that Lloydminster was underserved by health care services in comparison to similar catchment areas in Alberta. In 2007, Lloydminster was deemed to have outgrown the capacity of its hospital; calls for more operating rooms, acute care beds, and a dedicated MRI unit did not come to fruition, resulting in patients sometimes having to travel to larger cities such as Saskatoon for operations. Due to health data privacy laws in both provinces, the Lloydminster Hospital does not have direct access to AHS patient records, which have led to Alberta-based patients sometimes bringing their own paper records or receiving diagnostic tests a second time.
The city's contracts with WPD to provide ambulance service in Lloydminster have faced criticism over unsatisfactory performance, with some patients having had to wait up to 40 minutes for help to arrive; in August 2021, AHS pulled out of the contract and signed with a different provider, but WPD invoked an arbitration clause in Saskatchewan law that has prevented the SHA from immediately exiting the contract.
Transportation
The city is served by Lloydminster Airport. The Yellowhead Highway, (Alberta Highway 16 and Saskatchewan Highway 16) passes through the city from west to east, and Highway 17 (which is considered part of both Alberta's and Saskatchewan's highway system and is maintained by both provinces) travels along the provincial border from south to north. There is no local public transport serving the city.
Education
Elementary and secondary schools on both sides of the border all use Saskatchewan's curriculum. Lloydminster provides public and catholic education up to grade 12 as well as post-secondary education through Lakeland College, offering one and two year certificate and diploma programs.
Media
Newspapers
Lloydminster Meridian Booster, serves Lloydminster and area, circulating to 15,000 homes. Published Monday, Wednesday and Friday each week.
Lloydminster Source is a free weekly newspaper, distributed each Tuesday and Thursday.
Radio
Television
Lloydminster is served by two broadcast television stations, operated as part of a twinstick operation owned by Newcap Radio:
Notable people
Ron Adam – Canadian Football League (CFL) defensive back
Colby Armstrong – National Hockey League (NHL) forward
Calvin Ayre – founder of the online gambling company Bodog
Garnet "Ace" Bailey – NHL forward and scout, died on United Airlines Flight 175
Leon Benoit – Canadian politician
Samuel Delbert Clark – sociologist
Joan Crockatt – Canadian politician, journalist
Cory Cross – NHL defenceman
David Dziurzynski – NHL forward
Rosemarie Falk – Canadian politician
Scott Hartnell – NHL forward
Braden Holtby – NHL goaltender
Skip Krake – NHL forward who now lives in Lloydminster
Clarke MacArthur – NHL forward
Lucella MacLean – AAGPBL utility
James Hanna McCormick – Northern Irish politician
Keith Morrison – journalist, newscaster
Wade Redden – NHL defenceman
Richard Starke – Canadian politician
James Till – biophysicist who helped demonstrate the existence of stem cells
Lance Ward – NHL defenceman
Tyler Weiman – NHL goaltender
Colleen Young – Saskatchewan politician
Tanner Novlan – actor
See also
Flin Flon, a town split between Manitoba and Saskatchewan
List of communities in Alberta
List of communities in Saskatchewan
List of cities in Alberta
List of cities in Saskatchewan
References
External links
1903 establishments in the Northwest Territories
Borders of Alberta
Borders of Saskatchewan
Cities in Alberta
Cities in Saskatchewan
Divided cities
Populated places established in 1903
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Stone
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London Stone
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London Stone is a historic landmark housed at 111 Cannon Street in the City of London. It is an irregular block of oolitic limestone measuring 53 × 43 × 30 cm (21 × 17 × 12"), the remnant of a once much larger object that had stood for many centuries on the south side of the street.
The name "London Stone" was first recorded around the year 1100. The date and original purpose of the Stone are unknown, although it is possibly of Roman origin. There has been interest and speculation about it since the medieval period, but modern claims that it was formerly an object of veneration, or has some occult significance, are unsubstantiated.
Description
The present London Stone is only the upper portion of a once much larger object. The surviving portion is a block of oolitic limestone approximately 53 cm wide, 43 cm high, and 30 cm front to back (21 × 17 × 12 inches). A study in the 1960s indicated that the stone is Clipsham limestone, a good-quality stone from Rutland transported to London for building purposes in both the Roman and medieval periods. More recently, Kevin Hayward has suggested that it may be Bath stone, the stone most used for monuments and sculpture in early Roman London and in Saxon times.
The Stone is located on the north side of Cannon Street, opposite Cannon Street station, in an aperture in the wall of 111 Cannon Street (EC4N 5AR), within a Portland stone casing.
History
When London Stone was erected and what its original function was are unknown, although there has been much speculation.
The Stone was originally located on the south side of medieval Candlewick Street (afterward widened to create modern Cannon Street) opposite the west end of St Swithin's Church, and is shown in this position on the "Copperplate" map of London, dating to the 1550s, and on the derivative "Woodcut" map of the 1560s. It was described by the London historian John Stow in his Survey of London (1598) as "a great stone called London stone", "pitched upright... fixed in the ground verie deep, fastned with bars of iron". Stow does not give the dimensions of this "great stone", but a French visitor to London in 1578 had recorded that the Stone was three feet high (above ground), two feet wide, and one foot thick (90 × 60 × 30 cm). Thus, although it was a local landmark, London Stone, at least that part of it standing above ground, was not particularly large.
Middle Ages
The earliest reference to the Stone is usually said to be that in a medieval document cited by Stow in 1598. He refers to an early list of properties in London belonging to Christ Church, Canterbury (Canterbury Cathedral), and says that one piece of land was described as lying "neare unto London stone". In Stow's account, the list had been bound into the end of a Gospel Book given to the cathedral by "Ethelstane king of the west Saxons", usually identified as Æthelstan, king of England (924–39). However, it is impossible to confirm Stow's account, since the document he saw cannot now be identified with certainty. Nevertheless, the earliest extant list of Canterbury's London properties, which has been dated to between 1098 and 1108, does refer to a property given to the cathedral by a man named "Eadwaker æt lundene stane" ("Eadwaker at London Stone"). Although not bound into a Gospel Book (it is now bound into a volume of miscellaneous medieval texts with a Canterbury provenance (MS Cotton Faustina B. vi) in the British Library), it could be that it was this, or a similar text, that Stow saw.
Like Eadwaker, other medieval Londoners acquired or adopted the byname "at London Stone" or "of London Stone" because they lived nearby. One of these was "Ailwin of London Stone", the father of Henry Fitz-Ailwin the first Mayor of the City of London, who took office at some time between 1189 and 1193, and governed the city until his death in 1212. The Fitz-Ailwin house stood away from Candlewick Street, on the north side of St Swithin's church.
London Stone was a well-known landmark in medieval London, and when in 1450 Jack Cade, leader of a rebellion against the corrupt government of Henry VI, entered the city with his men, he struck his sword on London Stone and claimed to be "Lord of this city". Contemporary accounts give no clue as to Cade's motivation, or how his followers or the Londoners would have interpreted his action. There is nothing to suggest he was carrying out a traditional ceremony or custom.
16th and 17th centuries
By the time of Queen Elizabeth I London Stone was not merely a landmark, shown and named on maps, but a visitor attraction in its own right. Tourists may have been told variously that it had stood there since before the city existed, or that it had been set up by order of King Lud, legendary rebuilder of London, or that it marked the centre of the city, or that it was "set [up] for the tendering and making of payment by debtors". It appears to have been routinely used in this period as a location for the posting and promulgation of a variety of bills, notices and advertisements. In 1608 it was listed in a poem by Samuel Rowlands as one of the "sights" of London (perhaps the first time the word was used in that sense) shown to "an honest Country foole" on a visit to town.
During the 17th century the Stone continued be used as an "address", to identify a locality. Thus, for example, Thomas Heywood's biography of Queen Elizabeth I, Englands Elizabeth (1631), was, according to its title page, "printed by Iohn Beale, for Phillip Waterhouse; and are to be sold at his shop at St. Pauls head, neere London stone"; and the English Short Title Catalogue lists over 30 books published between 1629 and the 1670s with similar references to London Stone in the imprint.
In 1671 the Worshipful Company of Spectacle Makers broke up a batch of substandard spectacles on London Stone: "two and twenty dozen [= 264] of English spectacles, all very badd both in the glasse and frames not fitt to be put on sale... were found badd and deceitful and by judgement of the Court condemned to be broken, defaced and spoyled both glasse and frame the which judgement was executed accordingly in Canning [Cannon] Street on the remayning parte of London Stone where the same were with a hammer broken in all pieces." The reference to "the remayning parte of London Stone" may suggest that it had been damaged and reduced in size, perhaps in the Great Fire of London five years earlier, which had destroyed St Swithin's church and the neighbouring buildings; it was later covered with a small stone cupola to protect it.
18th century to early 20th century
In 1598 John Stow had commented that "if carts do run against it through negligence, the wheels be broken, and the stone itself unshaken", and by 1742 it was considered an obstruction to traffic. The remaining part of the Stone was then moved, with its protective cupola, from the south side of the street to the north side, where it was first set beside the door of St Swithin's Church, which had been rebuilt by Christopher Wren after its destruction in the Great Fire. It was moved again in 1798 to the east end of the church's south wall, and finally in the 1820s set in an alcove in the centre of the wall within a solidly built stone frame set on a plinth, with a circular aperture through which the Stone itself could be seen. In 1869 the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society arranged for the installation of a protective iron grille and an explanatory inscription in Latin and English on the church wall above it.
During the 19th and 20th centuries London Stone was regularly referred to in popular London histories and guidebooks, and visited by tourists. During his stay in England in the 1850s the American author Nathaniel Hawthorne recorded a visit to London Stone in his journal, noting the indentations on the top "which are said to have been made by Jack Cade’s sword". In 1937 Arthur Mee, founder of The Children's Newspaper and author of The King's England series of guidebooks, described it as "a fragment of its old self [...] said by some to have been a stone set up in Stone Age days". The American archaeologist George Byron Gordon was more expansive (and fanciful) in the course of his Rambles in Old London, published in 1924. London Stone, he tells us, was "the very oldest object in London streets". "The Mediaeval Kings after their coronations used to strike London Stone with their swords in token of the City’s submission" (followed of course by a reference to Jack Cade). "It was an object of great antiquity when the Romans arrived and their predecessors the ancient Britons found it on their arrival more than two thousand years before. It was erected by the people of the New Stone Age [...]."
1940 to present
In 1940 St Swithin's church was burnt out by bombing in the Blitz. However, the outer walls remained standing for many years, with London Stone still in its place in the south wall. In 1962 the remains of the church were demolished, and replaced by an office building, 111 Cannon Street, which originally housed the Bank of China; London Stone was placed without ceremony in a specially constructed Portland stone alcove, glazed and with an iron grille, in the new building. Inside the building it was protected by a glass case. The stone and its surround, including the iron grille, were designated a Grade II* listed structure on 5 June 1972.
In the early 21st century the office building was scheduled for redevelopment, and in October 2011 the then landowners proposed to move the stone to a new location further to the west. Objections were raised by, among others, the Victorian Society and English Heritage, and the proposal was rejected by the City of London Corporation.
Until February 2016 the ground floor of the building was occupied by a branch of WHSmith newsagents. Inside the shop London Stone in its glass case was hidden behind a magazine rack and not usually accessible. In March 2016, planning permission was granted to allow the building to be demolished and replaced by a new one. The Stone was put on temporary display at the Museum of London while the building works were carried out. It was returned to Cannon Street in October 2018. The new premises publicly display London Stone on a plinth, within a Portland stone casing loosely inspired by its 19th-century predecessor, and behind glass. The plaque adjacent to the Stone reads:
Interpretations
14th century
The Short English Metrical Chronicle, an anonymous history of England in verse composed in about the 1330s, which survives in several variant recensions (including one in the so-called Auchinleck manuscript), includes the statement that "Brut sett Londen ston" – that is to say, that Brutus of Troy, the legendary founder of London, set up London Stone. This claim suggests that interest in the Stone's origin and significance already existed. However, the story does not seem to have circulated widely elsewhere, and was not repeated in other chronicles.
16th century
In 1598 the London historian John Stow admitted that "The cause why this stone was set there, the time when, or other memory hereof, is none". However, his contemporary William Camden, in his Britannia of 1586, concluded that it was a Roman milliarium, a central stone from which all distances in Roman Britain were measured, and similar to the Milliarium Aureum of Rome. This identification remains popular, although there is no archaeological evidence to support it.
18th century
Alternatively, writers in the 18th century speculated that the Stone was prehistoric and had been an object of Druidic worship. Although this suggestion is now generally dismissed, it was revived in 1914 by Elizabeth Gordon in her unorthodox book on the archaeology of prehistoric London, Prehistoric London: Its Mounds and Circles, in which she envisaged London Stone as an ancient British "index stone" pointing to a great Druidic stone circle, similar to Stonehenge, that she claimed had once stood on the site of St Paul's Cathedral. As we have seen, in 1924 American archaeologist George Byron Gordon claimed a "New Stone Age" date for it, but such claims do not find favour with modern archaeologists.
19th century
By the early 19th century, a number of writers had suggested that London Stone was once regarded as London's "Palladium", a talismanic monument in which, like the original Palladium of Troy, the city's safety and wellbeing were embodied. This view seemed to be confirmed when a pseudonymous contributor to the journal Notes and Queries in 1862 quoted a supposedly ancient proverb about London Stone to the effect that "So long as the Stone of Brutus is safe, so long shall London flourish". This verse, if it were genuine, would link London Stone to Brutus of Troy, as well as confirming its role as a Palladium.
However, the writer in Notes and Queries can be identified as the Revd Richard Williams Morgan, an eccentric Welsh clergyman who in an earlier book The British Kymry or Britons of Cambria (1857) had claimed that the legendary Brutus was a historical figure; London Stone, he wrote, had been the plinth on which the original Trojan Palladium had stood, and was brought to Britain by Brutus and set up as the altar stone of the Temple of Diana in his new capital city of Trinovantum or "New Troy" (London). This story, and the verse about the "Stone of Brutus", can be found nowhere any earlier than in Morgan's writings, and both are probably his own invention. Although London Stone had been associated with Brutus in the 14th century, that tradition had never reached print, and there is nothing to indicate that Morgan had encountered it. The spurious verse is still frequently quoted, but there is no evidence that London's safety has ever traditionally been linked to that of London Stone.
In 1881 Henry Charles Coote argued that London Stone's name and reputation arose simply because it was the last remaining fragment of the house of Henry Fitz-Ailwin of London Stone (ca. 1135–1212), the first Mayor, although London Stone was mentioned about 100 years before Henry's time, and the Fitz-Ailwin house was some distance from the Stone on the other side of St Swithin's church.
In 1890 the folklorist and London historian George Laurence Gomme proposed that London Stone was the city's original "fetish stone", erected when the first prehistoric settlement was founded on the site and treated as sacred ever after. Later, folklorist Lewis Spence combined this theory with Richard Williams Morgan's story of the "Stone of Brutus" to speculate about the pre-Roman origins of London in his book Legendary London (1937).
20th and 21st centuries
By the 1960s, archaeologists had noted that in its original location London Stone would have been aligned on the centre of a large Roman building, probably an administrative building, now known to have lain in the area of Cannon Street station. This has been tentatively identified as a praetorium, even the local "governor's palace". It has further been suggested – originally by the archaeologist Peter Marsden, who excavated there between 1961 and 1972 – that the Stone may have formed part of its main entrance or gate. This "praetorium gate theory", while impossible to prove, is the prevailing one among modern experts.
London Stone has been identified as a "mark-stone" on several ley lines passing through central London. It has also entered the psychogeographical writings of Iain Sinclair as an essential element in London's "sacred geometry".
There are two recent additions to the mythology surrounding London Stone. The first claims that Dr John Dee, astrologer, occultist and adviser to Queen Elizabeth I, "was fascinated by the supposed powers of the London Stone and lived close to it for a while" and may have chipped pieces off it for alchemical experiments; the second that a legend identifies it as the stone from which King Arthur pulled the sword to reveal that he was rightful king. Both these "legends" seem first to be recorded on the website h2g2 in 2002. The first may have been inspired by the fictionalised John Dee of Peter Ackroyd's 1993 novel The House of Doctor Dee (see In literature below).
In literature
15th to 19th centuries
So familiar was London Stone to Londoners that from an early date it features in London literature and in stories set in London. Thus, in an often reprinted anonymous satirical poem of the early 15th century, "London Lickpenny" (sometimes attributed to John Lydgate), the protagonist, lost and bewildered, passes London Stone during his wanderings through the city streets:
Then went I forth by London Stone
Thrwgheout all Canywike Strete...
In about 1522 a pamphlet was published by the London printer Wynkyn de Worde with the long title: A Treatyse of a Galaunt, with the Maryage of the Fayre Pusell the Bosse of Byllyngesgate Unto London Stone. It comprised two anonymous humorous poems, the second of which, The Maryage..., just two pages in length, purports to be an invitation to the forthcoming wedding between London Stone and the "Bosse of Billingsgate", a water fountain near Billingsgate erected or renovated in the 1420s under the terms of the will of the mayor Richard Whittington. Guests are invited to watch the couple dancing – "It wolde do you good to see them daunce and playe." The text, however, goes on to suggest that both London Stone and the Bosse were known for their steadfastness and reliability.
London Stone also features in a tract The Returne of the renowned Caualiero Pasquill of England... published in 1589. Otherwise known as Pasquill and Marforius it was one of three that were printed under the pseudonym of the Cavaliero Pasquill, and contributed to the Marprelate controversy, a war of words between the Church of England establishment and its critics. At the end of this short work, Pasquill declares his intention of posting a notice on London Stone, inviting all critics of his opponent, the similarly pseudonymous Martin Marprelate, to write out their complaints and stick them up on the Stone. Some writers have argued that this fictional episode proves that London Stone was a traditional place for making official proclamations,
The Jack Cade episode was dramatised in William Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part 2 (Act 4, Scene 6), first performed in 1591 or 1592. In Shakespeare's elaborated version of the event, Cade strikes London Stone with a staff rather than a sword, then seats himself upon the Stone as if on a throne, to issue decrees and dispense rough justice to a follower who displeases him.
In 1598, London Stone was again brought to the stage, in William Haughton's comedy Englishmen for My Money, when three foreigners, being led about on stage through the supposedly pitch-black night-time streets of London, blunder into it.
Later, London Stone was to play an important but not always consistent role in the visionary writings of William Blake. Thus in Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion, his long illustrated poem on engraved plates begun in 1804, London Stone is a Druidic altar, the site of bloody sacrifices. Alternatively in Jerusalem and in Milton a Poem it is the geographic centre of Golgonooza, Blake's mystical city of London; it is a place where justice is delivered, where Los sits to hear the voice of Jerusalem, and where Reuben sleeps.
20th and 21st centuries
Ray Nelson's science fiction novel Blake's Progress (1975), based on the writings of William Blake, featured an alternative history in which Cleopatra won the Battle of Actium and an Alexandrian Empire replaced the Roman Empire. In the alternate London, called Gogonooza, London Stone is still to be seen, standing in front of a Temple of Isis.
In the last years of the 20th century and the early years of the 21st, the Stone has made an increasing number of appearances in novels of imagination and urban fantasy. In Peter Ackroyd's novel The House of Doctor Dee (1993), the character Dr Dee, broadly based upon the historical figure of the occultist John Dee, claims that London Stone is the last remnant above ground of a glorious antediluvian and now buried city of London that he is searching for. London Stone appears as an embodiment of evil in Charlie Fletcher's trilogy for children Stoneheart (2006–2008). It also features in The Midnight Mayor (2010), Kate Griffin's second Matthew Swift novel about urban magic in London, and in China Miéville's Kraken (2010), in which it is the beating heart of London and the sports shop that (at the time Miéville was writing) housed it hides the headquarters of the "Londonmancers" who may know the whereabouts of the Kraken stolen from the Natural History Museum. The third of a series of fantasy novels for children The Nowhere Chronicles by Sarah Pinborough, writing as Sarah Silverwood, is entitled The London Stone (2012): "The London Stone has been stolen and the Dark King rules the Nowhere..." And in Marie Brennan's Onyx Court series (2008–2011), the Stone is part of the magical bond between the mortal Prince of the Stone and the fairie court beneath London.
The Stone appears in several chapters of Edward Rutherfurd's novel, London (1997). In the second chapter we see it as the marker stone for all the roads in Roman Londinium, and also sitting beside the wall of the Governor's Palace as mentioned above as a hypothesis of its use or origin. It is seen again in the ninth chapter where the main family unit of the novel bring in the character of the foundling who is found propped up against it. It is one of the many central focus points in the novel that the author uses to tie the different time periods together.
The Stone is a central focus of DC Comics Vertigo storyline called The Knowledge (2008), featuring John Constantine's sidekick Chas Chandler. The Stone also appears many times in the Dark Fae FBI series (2017), by C. N. Crawford and Alex Rivers, in which it is the site of many ancient sacrifices and is used to channel memories and power.
The Stone is mentioned in Nicci French's crime novel Tuesday's Gone (2013).
See also
For the London Stone at Staines, and other Thames riverside boundary markers, see London Stone (riparian).
For the "Brutus Stone" in Totnes, Devon, see Totnes.
Notes
References
External links
Article on London Stone linked to a reproduction of the "Woodcut" map of London, c.1562.
BBC report on plans to move London Stone in 2006.
Limestone
History of the City of London
Monuments and memorials in London
Kilometre-zero markers
Grade II* listed buildings in the City of London
Grade II* listed monuments and memorials
Tourist attractions in the City of London
Stones
Mythological objects
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathala
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Bathala
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In the indigenous religion of the ancient Tagalogs, Bathala/Maykapal was the transcendent Supreme Being, the originator and ruler of the universe. He is commonly known and referred to in the modern era as Bathala, a term or title which, in earlier times, also applied to lesser beings such as personal tutelary spirits, omen birds, comets, and other heavenly bodies which the early Tagalog people believed predicted events. It was after the arrival of the Spanish missionaries in the Philippines in the 16th century that Bathala /Maykapal came to be identified with the Christian God, hence its synonymy with Diyos. Over the course of the 19th century, the term Bathala was totally replaced by Panginoon (Lord) and Diyos (God). It was no longer used until it was popularized again by Filipinos who learned from chronicles that the Tagalogs' indigenous God was called Bathala.
Etymology
Most scholars believed that Bathala (Chirino 1595–1602), Badhala (Plasencia 1589), Batala (Loarca 1582), or Bachtala (Boxer Codex 1590) was derived from the Sanskrit word bhattara or bhattaraka (noble lord) which appeared as the sixteenth-century title batara in the southern Philippines and Borneo. In the Indonesian language, batara means "god"; its feminine counterpart is batari. In Malay, betara means "holy", and was applied to the greater Hindu gods in Java. Betara was also assumed by the ruler of Majapahit.
Dr. Pardo de Tavera, a linguist, states that bhattala could have come from avatara, avatar; that is, the descent of a god on earth in a visible form, such as the ten avatars of Vishnu. According to John Crawfurd, the Malay word Batara is derived from avatara both in "sense and orthography", and is a prefix to connote any deity.
According to Jose Rizal's former mentor Rev. Pablo Pastells, S.J., who reprinted in 1900 the early work of his fellow Jesuit, Fr. Pedro Chirino, Labor Evangelica, which was first published in 1663 from an anonymous document dated April 20, 1572, the name of Bathala can be ascertained "by resolving the word into its primary elements, Bata and Ala = 'Son God, or Son of God.'" This is why the first missionaries did not deprive the natives of this name when they instructed them about the existence of God and the mysteries of the Trinity, the incarnation, and redemption, as states an anonymous but very circumstantial relation written in Manila, on April 20, 1572.
Other possible origins of the term Bathala or Batala are the Malay word Berhala ("idol") and the Arabic expression ‘Allah-ta’ala ("God, be exalted"), which is the origin of Bathala’s other name Anatala.
Mentions during Spanish colonial era
The name of the supreme being of the Tagalogs was given as Batala in "Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas" (1582) by Miguel de Loarca, Bathala mei capal in "Relación de las Islas Filipinas" (1595–1602) by Pedro Chirino, Badhala in "Relacion de las Costumbres de Los Tagalos" (1589) by Juan de Plasencia, Bachtala napal nanca calgna salahat (Bathala na kumapal at nangangalaga sa lahat – God the creator and preserver of all things), Mulayri, Molaiari, Molayare, and Dioata in the Boxer Codex (1590), Anatala and Ang Maygawa in "Carta sobre la idolatria de los naturales de la provincia de Zambales, y de los del pueblo de Santo Tomas y otros circunvecinos" (1686-1688) by Felipe Pardo, O.P., and Bathala mei Capal and Diuata in "The history of Sumatra: containing an account of the government, laws, customs and manners of the native inhabitants, with a description of the natural productions, and a relation of the ancient political state of that island." (1784) by William Marsden. The true name of this deity, however, is actually unknown, and the ancient Tagalogs usually referred to and addressed him under several titles and epithets.
Jose Rizal, in his letter to his friend Ferdinand Blumentritt (17 April 1890), wrote that the word Bathala was an error of Chirino or some missionary older than or ahead of him who had been copied by subsequent historians, because, according to him, the majority of the historians of the Philippines were mere copyists. He believed that the phrase Bathala/Maykapal that was adopted by other historians after Chirino was nothing more than the phrase Bahala ang Maykapal wrongly written; that is, equivalent to Alla or Alah of the Muslims or to the Malayan Tuan Alla punia Kraja. This is because Bahala ang May Kapal means "God will take care", a meaning given also in a dictionary to the phrase Bathala May Kapal. The fact that the phrase Bathala May Kapal was so often encountered made Rizal presume that it may only have been a copy, and that another source where the word Bathala was used without the denomination May Kapal could not be found. Rizal believed that the Tagalogs never pronounced the name of their God, just as they did not pronounce the names of their parents, especially before strangers whom they considered their greatest enemies. He believed that they only called him Maykapal, a designation still used and understood by most Tagalogs today. He also pointed out that there was no trace at all of the name Bathalà among the Tagalogs in the local towns despite the fact that they used words such as Tikbalang, Asuang, Anito, Nuno, Tiyanak, etc. and retained many pagan usages, traditions, legends, and stories. He believed that the old missionaries did not take much interest in getting to know the religion of the Tagalogs. On account of their religious zeal, the missionaries considered the Tagalogs' religion unworthy and diabolical, and as a result, they never undertook a thorough investigation of it.
For Isabelo de los Reyes, the name of the Tagalog supreme god was Maykapal or Lumikha, and hence they called their sacred images likha and not Badhala, since the latter was not a specific name, but a common treatment of deities, ominous beings, and other fabulous beings that they feared. Thus, there was Badhala Maykapal (Lord Maker), Badhala Katutubo (Conborn Lord Anito), and Badhala Tigmamanok, or Blue Bird, which actually referred to the kásay-kásay (Kingfisher). Their names were Badhala, like comets, not because they were gods, but because they were ominous. The word was pronounced Badhala and not Bathala, as an enlightened Tagalog elder told de los Reyes, and this was confirmed by Fr. Noceda in his old Dictionario Tagalog (1754). Also, according to Fr. Noceda, the term Bathala, or Badhala, was only used among Tagalogs who had connections with Malay Hindus or Mohammedans, i.e. those from Manila to the South. Moreover, the Tagalogs did not remember the word Bathala, Bátala, or Badhala until it was popularized again by Filipinos when they learned from lightly written chronicles that the indigenous Tagalog God was called Bathala.
Other names, titles and epithets
1. Mulayari (Boxer Codex: Mulayri [42r], Molaiari [59r], Molayare [62r]) – In the transcription and translation of the Boxer Codex (1590) by George Bryan Souza and Jeffrey Scott Turley (2015), the word May-ari ("Owner" or "Owner of Property") is used instead of the original spelling Mulayri. The footnote explains: "Q&G, 419, gloss this Tagalog term as "an indirect appellation of God"". According to the author Jean-Paul G. Potet (Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs, 2018) "Its compounds are mula "origin" and yari "power", therefore it means "Source of Power". The absence of linker between the two components, as in Malay, points at the Bruneian period for the time when it was coined". The word yari also means "made, finished or complete, etc." Thus, the meaning of Mulayari is also similar to that of Mulajadi ("Beginning of Becoming"), which is the name of the creator deity of the Batak people of Indonesia. The Tagalog and Malay word mula is derived from Sanskrit mula, meaning "root", while the Malay word jadi and its Tagalog equivalent yari are descended from the Sanskrit word jati (birth), and both words can mean "finished" or completed regarding something made or created (becoming/being). Another possible origin of the name Mulayari is the Malayalam word mulayari which means "bamboo seed". The name Mulayari was not entered by Spanish lexicographers in the old Tagalog dictionaries.
2. Diwata (Dioata, Diuata) - Derived from Sanskrit deva and devata, which mean “deity”. Like Mulayari, Spanish lexicographers did not enter this name in early Tagalog dictionaries. In Richard E. Elkin's Manobo-English Dictionary (1968), diwata specifically refers to the highest supreme being. In Bla'an mythology, Diwata is one of the four primordial beings. According to some Bla'ans, Diwata and Melu (the Creator) were brothers, and because Diwata was older than Melu, Christian Bible translators chose Diwata to refer to the Christian God. Among the Tagbanwa people, Diwata is another name for the supreme deity Mangindusa. In the Kaharingan religion of Borneo, the supreme god Hatala (represented as a hornbill Tingang) gave his reflection on the primeval waters the name Jata (represented as a watersnake Tambon). In unity, they were known as Jatatala which was considered a male deity as a whole. However, Jata represented the Underworld, the Earth, and the feminine aspect of God, while Hatala represented the Upperworld, the Sun, and the masculine aspect of God. The name "Jata" is derived from the Sanskrit deva and devata [Wilken (1912, vol. III)]. "Jata" as a collective designation refers to a category of spirits inhabiting the Underworld. With the ancient Visayans, diwata was the equivalent of the Tagalog anito (ancestral spirit). According to Rev. Pablo Pastells, S.J., the interpretation of the word Bathala as 'Son of God' is confirmed by the Visayan word Diuata: "we always find here the same idea signified in the words Diwa and uata differing only in their transposition.... In closing, we may note that Dewa in Malay, Déwa in Javanese, Sunda, Makasar, and Day[ak?], Deva in Maguindanao, and Djebata in Bornean, signify 'the supreme God,’ or 'Divinity." In the Tagalog language, diwa means "spirit, thought, idea, central point, sense". According to Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, and Nakpil Zialcita, the Tagalogs and Kapampangans of Luzon used the word "anito" instead of the word "diwata", which was more predominant in the Visayan regions. This indicated that those peoples of Luzon were less influenced by the Hindu and Buddhist beliefs of the Madjapahit empire than the Visayans were. In modern Tagalog, diwata means fairy or nymph. It refers particularly to feminine nature spirits of extraordinary beauty, like Maria Makiling.
3. Maykapal (Meicapal, Meycapal) – "Owner of what has been shaped". The title or epithet Maykapal is derived from the word kapal, the basic meaning of which is "to shape earth, clay, or wax into balls". Its doublet kipil expresses the same meaning about food: "to make rice balls and eat them". This title is related to Bathala's other title Maylupa, meaning "Owner of the Earth/Land".
4. Maygawa (Meigaua, Meygawa) – "Owner of the Work".
5. Maylupa (Meilupa, Meylupa) – “Owner of the Earth/Land". Under this title, Bathala is symbolically represented by a crow/raven (uwak), one of the birds associated with the omen of death. Fr. Francisco Colin (1663) compared Maylupa with ancient European deities such as Ceres (an agricultural deity) and Pan (a pastoral deity), which indicates that devotees of Bathala under this title were farmers and herders.
6. Magpalaylay – "the One Fond of Incantations" (‘’laylay’’ meaning “incantation”). The word laylay can also mean reverence, hence the term kalaylayan (your reverence), which early Tagalog men with children used to address their fathers.
7. Lumikha – "Creator". In the Old Tagalog language, the word likha also referred to the statuettes of the anitos. In modern Tagalog, including Filipino, it mainly refers to and means "creation". The word likha was derived from the Sanskrit word lekha, which means "drawing, picture or writing". In the ancient Tagalogs’ creation myth, the first man and woman sprang forth from a bamboo, which was the most common writing material of pre-Hispanic Filipinos.
8. Anatala – A corruption of the Arabic expression ‘Allah-ta’ala which means "God, be exalted". It probably reached Tagalog through Malay or Maranao, where the Arabic expression is read "Alataala". Because the expression ended in "-a", Spanish inquisitors thought that it referred to a female deity of the Tagalogs, the superior goddess of all their deities, thus making this name a synonym of Bathala. The name of the Bornean deity Hatala, Mahatala, or Lahatala is also a corruption of the same Arabic expression [Wilken (1912, vol. III)]. However, according to Blumentritt, Mahatala or Mahatara is the contraction of Mahabatara, which means "the Great Lord". Pedro A. Paterno (1892) also referred to Anatala as Anak-Hala, which, according to him, means "Son of God".
9. Nuno (Nono) – "Grandparent" or "Ancient One", similar to Laon of the Visayans and Gugurang of the Bicolanos. This is the name used to refer to Bathala by the initiates (antiñgeros) of Anting-anting, a post-colonial esoteric belief system of the Tagalogs. The antiñgeros also refer to Nuno as Infinito Dios (Infinite God). The term nuno was also used by the ancient Tagalogs to refer to the spirits of their ancestors (i.e. anito), nature spirits (e.g. nuno sa punso), and the crocodile/cayman/alligator (buwaya).
Tagalismo
Ancient Tagalog idea of god
Excerpts from the Boxer Codex (1590):
The Moors [i.e. the Tagalogs from Manila] of the Philippines have that the world, earth, and sky, and all other things that are in them, were created and made by only one god, whom they calls in their language Bachtala, napal nanca, calgna salahat, which means "God, creator and preserver of all things", and by another name they call him Mulayri. They said that this god of theirs was in the atmosphere before there was heaven or earth or anything else, that he was ab eterno (from eternity) and not made or created by anybody from anything, and that he alone made and created all that we have mentioned simply by his own volition because he wanted to make something so beautiful as the heaven and earth, and that he made and created one man and one woman out of the earth, from whom have come and descended all the men and their generations that are in the world.
these people feared and revered a god, maker of all things, who some call him Bathala, others Molaiari, others Dioata and, although they confess this god as the maker of all things, they do not even know nor do they know when or how he did or what for, and that his dwelling place is in heaven.
Every time the chiefs eat, they put a little of everything they eat or drink in small plates on the table as an offering to the anitos and the Molayare or Batala, creator of all things.
Excerpt from Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas by Miguel de Loarca (1582):
According to the religion formerly observed by these Moros, they worshiped a deity called among them Batala, which properly means "God." They said that they adored this Batala because he was the Lord of all, and had created human beings and villages. They said that this Batala had many agents under him, whom he sent to this world to produce, in behalf of men, what is yielded here. These beings were called anitos, and each anito had a special office. Some of them were for the fields, and some for those who journey by sea; some for those who went to war, and some for diseases.
Because there were many Bornean people in Manila when the Spaniards first arrived, the Spaniards called the people of Manila Moro, the Spanish name for the Muslims of the Maghreb, Iberian Peninsula, Sicily, and Malta. It was something that the friars who arrived later on repudiated, as the religion of the people of Manila was so different from what they recognized as Islamic that they could not possibly identify it as Islam, all the more so as pigs (often called "unclean animals" by Spanish chroniclers, possibly crypto-Jews) were listed among the chief holocausts to their deities, and, other than the rooster (manok na kalakyan), no other animal was listed. There was no feast without at least one pig being killed and roasted. This pig was always a holocaust, and consuming its flesh as a group was certainly regarded as a form of communion wth the deity to whom it had been sacrificed. The water buffalo (anwang), which is the greatest holocaust among Malays, was never used as such by the Tagalogs. Despite all of this, the Spaniards continued to call the people of Manila Moros for a very long time, as it served as a reason or justification for the Spaniards to seize and enslave them. The English translation of the Boxer Codex (1590) by Souza and Turley renders "Bachtala, napalnanca, calgna salahat" as "Bathala na may kapangyarihan sa lahat" which is translated into English as "God who has power over everything". The exact translation of "God, creator and preserver of all things" in Tagalog is "Bathala na kumapal at nangangalaga sa lahat".
Bathala and the Anitos
The chief deity of the Tagalas is called Bathala mei Capal, and also Diuata; and their principal idolatry consists in adoring those of their ancestors who signalised themselves for courage or abilities; calling them Humalagar, i.e. manes.
— William Marsden, The History of Sumatra (1784)
Anitería (literally meaning worship of anitos) was the term coined by some Spanish chroniclers to denote the Tagalogs' religion, as they observed that, despite the people's belief and respect to the omnipotent Bathala, they also offered sacrifices to ancestral spirits called anitos. Miguel de Loarca (Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas, 1582) asked Tagalogs why holocausts were offered to anitos and not to Bathala. The Tagalogs answered that Bathala was a great lord, and no one could speak to him directly because he lived in heaven (Kaluwálhatian), so he sent down the anitos to provide for them.
They placed their ancestors, the invocation of whom was the first thing in all their work and dangers, among these anitos.
— Francisco Colin, et al. [The Philippine Islands (1493-1898)]
The function of the anitos, therefore, was similar to that of liminal deities in polytheistic religions who serve as intermediaries between mortals and the divine, such as Agni (Hindu) and Janus (Roman) who hold the access to divine realms, hence the reason why they are invoked first and are the first to receive offerings, regardless of the deity that one wants to pray to. The anitos—just like the loa of Haitian Vodou—are not considered gods and goddesses but merely messengers, intermediaries, and advocates (abogado) of the people to the Supreme Being. This is similar in concept to Neoplatonism wherein spiritual beings called daimones carry divine things to mortals and mortal things to the Divine: requests and sacrifices from below and commandments and answers from above.
They are the assistants, the ministers of Batala, who sends them on earth to help men. These helpers are called: Anitos. The nature of the Anito is such that he comes on earth, deals with men and speaks in his behalf to Batala.
— Miguel de Loarca (1582)
Some chroniclers, such as the anonymous author of Boxer Codex, do not call these agents of Bathala anitos, but instead have referred to them as dioses, rendered in translation by Quirino and Garcia as "gods". The American-Filipino historian William Henry Scott supports the opinion of these chroniclers (some of whom might be Crypto-Jews) that the ancient Tagalogs worshipped the anitos as gods and goddesses (aniteria), arguing that "in actual prayers, they were petitioned directly, not as intermediaries". Scott cites the example of a farmer's prayer to the anito named Lakapati, where a child would be held over a field, and the farmer would pray: "Lakapati, pakanin mo yaring alipin mo; huwag mong gutumin [Lakapati feed this thy slave; let him not hunger]". However, Scott—who himself was an appointed lay missionary in the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America—may be using the Protestant definition or idea of intercession and worship in contrast to that of the Catholic explorers and missionaries, who described the role of the anitos as an advocate (abogado) or intercessor. Most chronicles (and isolated descriptions by explorers and missionaries) present one supreme deity analogous to the Christian God, evoking the impression that the Tagalog religion was monotheistic. Only a few sources include the names of other deities. Also, the missionaries who described the Tagalog religion in the early modern period did emphasize (with only a few exceptions) that the Tagalogs believed in one supreme god as the creator of all things. Their intention was mainly to find an equivalent for the Christian god in order to help them explain Catholic doctrines. Mostly, the titles of their chapters on the Tagalog religion suggest that they intended to portray the religion as a "false religion" or "superstition", despite their constant wondering whether or not the "new peoples" they claimed to have discovered already had some knowledge of the Gospel.
Although Bathala can only be reached through the agency of the anitos, he is not a distant deity too mighty to be bothered with the concerns of mortal men. The early Tagalogs believed that, on the birth of every child, the god Bathala appointed a lesser spirit, whom they also called Bathala, as guardian or Bathala Catotobo (Katutubo), identified by Father Noceda as a guardian angel. The god Bathala also guided people through omens and prophetic dreams. The souls of those who perished by the sword, were devoured by crocodiles, or killed by lightning immediately would ascend to Kaluwálhatian (glory) by means of the rainbow (balangaw).
Rituals and ceremonies
Bathala is the subject of sacred songs such as Diona and Tulingdao, wherein performers invoke him to prevent flood, drought, and pests and to grant them plentiful harvest and a beautiful field. The people of Indang and Alfonso, Cavite conducted Sanghiyang rituals as an offering to Bathala for a bountiful harvest, healing, a recovery from illness, or deliverance from death. The ritual is believed to have started from Naic long before the arrival of the Spaniards and the friars led to the suppression of its observance. This ritual is always done in preparation for other rituals such as "Sayaw sa Apoy" (Fire Dancing), "Basang-Gilagid" (House Blessing), Ancestral Offering, or Mediumistic Healing. It is also performed before searching for a lost item, such as jewelry and other valuables. After it, the Magsasanghiyang dialogues with the Superpower through her Timbangan (pendulum).
Some believed that the term Sanghiyang is coined from two Tagalog words: isa (one), and hiyang (compatible), together meaning "compatible whole" ("nagkakaisang kabuuan"). It is more likely, however, that said ritual is related to the sacred Balinese dance ceremony Sanghyang, which is also the title for a deified spirit and means "The Revered One" or "Holiness". Hyang, or personified as Sang Hyang, (Kawi, Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese) is an unseen spiritual entity that has supernatural power in ancient Nusantara mythology. This spirit can be either divine or ancestral. In modern Nusantara, this term tends to be associated with gods, which are each known as a dewata or God. Currently, the term is widely associated with Indonesian Dharmism which developed in ancient Java and Bali more than a millennium ago. However, the term actually has an older origin: it has its root in indigenous animistic and dynamistic beliefs of the Austronesian people inhabiting the Nusantara archipelago. The Hyang concept is indigenously developed in the archipelago and is not considered to have originated from Indian dharmic religions.
Sacred animals and omens
The early Tagalogs believed that Bathala revealed his will through omens by sending the bird tigmamanukin (tigmamanuquin) to which they also attributed the name Bathala. Plasencia (1589), Chirino (1604), and Colin (1663) described this bird as blue in color and as large as a thrush or turtledove. Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson identified this bird as the Philippine fairy-bluebird (Irena cyanogastra). Although the Boxer Codex described it as "reddish blue and black", Antonio de Morga spoke of the bird as "yellow colored", which was the color of beauty for the early Tagalogs and had religious significance to them. According to Morga, the bird tigmamanukin—as described by Chirino and Colin—could be either inexistent or extinct, since there is no known blue bird of the same size as a thrush; however, there is a similar yellow (though not completely so) bird called kuliawan (golden oriole). The name Bathala was also attributed to comets and other heavenly bodies which the Tagalog people believed predicted events.
Other animals that were observed for omens include the balatiti or balantikis, uwak (crow/raven), kuwago (owl), bahaw (mountain owl), butiki (lizard), malimakan snail, and the tigmamanok (white-collared kingfisher, also known as salaksak among the Ilocanos). These birds, crocodiles and lizards were so sacred to the ancient Tagalogs that killing one was considered taboo. When a crocodile died, they anointed it with sesame oil, enshrouded it in a mat and buried it. This is also reported about the tuko (gecko), a venomous lizard. San Buenaventura questioned the Tagalogs for tolerating monitor lizards (bayawak), saurians fond of eggs and chicken and therefore dangerous to poultry: "Ano’t di ninyo siluin itong bayawak?" (How is it that you haven't noosed this monitor lizard?) The while-collared kingfishers (tigmamanok) were considered very sacred because they were permitted to pick a crocodile's teeth without harm. According to Chirino (1595–1602) and Colin (1663), the ancient Tagalogs held the crocodiles in the greatest veneration, and when they saw one in the water, they cried out in all subjection "Nono" (Nuno), meaning "grandfather". They asked it pleasantly and tenderly not to harm them and, for that purpose, offered it a portion of the fish they carried in their boat by throwing it into the water. Also, the river of Manila (now called Pasig River) once had a large rock (Buayang Bato/Stone Crocodile) that served as an idol for many years. The ancient Tagalogs left offerings to it whenever they passed by until the fathers of St. Augustine broke it into small bits and set up a cross in its place. Soon, a small shrine or chapel, with an image of St. Nicolas of Tolentino, was constructed in that location.
Creation myth
From The History of Sumatra (1784) by William Marsden:
Their notions of the creation of the world, and formation of mankind, had something ridiculously extravagant. They believed that the world at first consisted only of sky and water, and between these two, a glede; which, weary with flying about, and finding no place to rest, set the water at variance with the sky, which, in order to keep it in bounds, and that it should not get uppermost, loaded the water with a number of islands, in which the glede might settle and leave them at peace. Mankind they said, sprang out of a large cane with two joints, that, floating about in the water, was at length thrown by the waves against the feet of the glede, as it stood on shore, which opened it with its bill, and the man came out of one joint, and the woman out of the other. These were soon after married by consent of their god, Bathala Meycapal, which caused the first trembling of the earth; and from thence are descended the different nations of the world.
From Philippine Folktales (1916) by Mabel Cook Cole:
When the world first began there was no land, but only the sea and the sky, and between them was a kite (a bird something like a hawk). One day the bird which had nowhere to light grew tired of flying about, so she stirred up the sea until it threw its waters against the sky. The sky, in order to restrain the sea, showered upon it many islands until it could no longer rise, but ran back and forth. Then the sky ordered the kite to light on one of the islands to build her nest, and to leave the sea and the sky in peace. Now at this time the land breeze and the sea breeze were married, and they had a child which was a bamboo. One day when this bamboo was floating about on the water, it struck the feet of the kite which was on the beach. The bird, angry that anything should strike it, pecked at the bamboo, and out of one section came a man and from the other a woman. Then the earthquake called on all the birds and fish to see what should be done with these two, and it was decided that they should marry. Many children were born to the couple, and from them came all the different races of people. After a while the parents grew very tired of having so many idle and useless children around, and they wished to be rid of them, but they knew of no place to send them to. Time went on and the children became so numerous that the parents enjoyed no peace. One day, in desperation, the father seized a stick and began beating them on all sides. This so frightened the children that they fled in different directions, seeking hidden rooms in the house—some concealed themselves in the walls, some ran outside, while others hid in the fireplace, and several fled to the sea. Now it happened that those who went into the hidden rooms of the house later became the chiefs of the islands; and those who concealed themselves in the walls became slaves. Those who ran outside were free men; and those who hid in the fireplace became negroes; while those who fled to the sea were gone many years, and when their children came back they were the white people.
These creation myths refer to what is known by theologians as a "second creation". This conception presupposes a pre-existing matter or substratum out of which the Earth was made. In Philippine mythologies, struggle between two hostile forces is a common theme in the formation of the earth; hence, the existence of the Land Breeze. It is always subsequently followed by the creation or appearance of the first man and woman in contrast to the animals that precede them. According to Andres San Nicolas (1624), the Sambal people, an ethnic group closely related to the Tagalogs, particularly those in Tanay, Rizal, "did not doubt the fact of there having been in its time a creation of man, but they believed that the first one had emerged from a bamboo joint and his wife out of another, under very ridiculous and stupid circumstances." According to William Marsden (1784), the ancient Tagalogs believed that the first man and woman were produced from a bamboo pole which burst in the island of Sumatra, an they quarreled about their marriage. A paper by Catalina Villaruz, written in about 1920 and now in the H. Otley Beyer manuscript collection, reports that the Southern Luzon Tagalogs believed that the first man started his life inside a bamboo pole. He grew, the bamboo cracked, and out he came. The same story is told of the first woman, and once out of the cane they looked at each other, fell in love, and married. A Tagalog euphemism for a child born out of wedlock is "putok sa buho" ("one who burst out of a bamboo") – an evident carryover from the times when the myth was held as gospel of truth. According to Nick Joaquin [Alamanac for Manileño (1979)] "The man wooed the woman but the woman was shy, illusive, and stubbornly coy. Becoming impatient, God [i.e. Bathala] started violent earthquake, which flung the woman into the man’s arm. Only thus were they married and the earth populated".
Francisco Colin identified the "earthquake" in the creation myth as a god. Based on the version of the creation myth provided by William Marsden (1784), the ancient Tagalogs viewed the "earthquake" as a manifestation of Bathala Maykapal. However, Pedro Chirino in his writings did not speak of the "earthquake", nor did he believe that it was considered as God, as, according to the Tagalogs and the Mandayas of Mindanao who informed him, the "earthquake" was nothing more than the effect of the movement of a huge animal in the entrails of the earth. According to some, this animal was an alligator; to others, a boar which scratched his body against the trunk of the earth. This is also the belief of the mountain people of Palawan and Camarines. San Buenaventura (1663:76) threatened his congregation with the manunungab na buwaya sa impierno (the devouring crocodile of hell). Some documented curses in old Tagalog include Kainin ka nang buaya! (May a crocodile eat you!) and Lamunin ka nang lindol! (May the earthquake swallow you up!). The low-frequency vibrations produced by male crocodiles just before bellowing, which could vibrate the ground and result in water appearing to "dance", is more likely where the ancient Tagalogs got the idea of the origin of earthquakes. In modern Tagalog mythology, earthquakes are caused by a messianic figure named Bernardo Carpio, the King of the Tagalogs, who was trapped between the boulders in the mountains of Montalban. In contrast to the gigantic subterranean crocodile, the ancient Tagalogs also believed in the existence of a gigantic celestial bird which made its nest in the clouds. It is not clear, however, whether this bird is associated with the primordial kite/glede that initiated the series of events which led to the creation of the world and humankind. According to Colin, the Tagalogs believed that the first man and woman sprang from a bamboo pole pecked by a bird they called Tigmamanokin to which they applied the name of their god Bathala.
Connection to Dian Masalanta
According to Father San Agustin, the Tirurays worshipped Linog, meaning "earthquake", who, as the god of marriage, advised the first man and woman to mate and populate the earth. Bathala Meycapal, therefore, is identified with the Tiruray's god of marriage, linking him to another Tagalog deity named Dian Masalanta. Dian Masalanta is an idol who was mentioned by Juan de Plasencia in "Relacion de las Costumbres de Los Tagalos" (1589) as the patron of lovers and procreation. Dian Masalanta is also correlated by some scholars to an unnamed Tagalog deity, referred to by the contemporary of Plasencia as Alpriapo. This deity is often misidentified as the goddess of childbirth by modern writers, despite the fact that Plasencia used the masculine patron instead of the feminine patrona (patroness). The true anito of childbirth is actually La Campinay (Lakang Pinay or Lakampinay) [Pardo inquisition report (1686-1688)], who is said to be "the first midwife in the world" [Boxer Codex (1590)].
The meaning of the name Dian Masalanta is not provided, but according to Jean-Paul G. Potet (Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs, 2018), the meaning could be "the blind deity" [dian "deity", ma – "adj. prefic" + salanta "blindness"]. However, the name could also mean "the blinding light" (Sun?) assuming that the original spelling of the name in Tagalog was Diyang Masalanta, from Sanskrit Dia or Diya meaning "lamp or light"/ In the Malay language, Dian means candle. Dia is also the name of the supreme god of the early Visayans according to Blumentritt, which some scholars believed was derived from Sanskrit Dyu "bright shining sky", one of the first names ever given to god, which developed into the Dewas and Diwatas of all the Malayan nations. Masalanta (devastating) comes from the root word salanta, which is listeded in the "Noceda and Sanlucar Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala (1754)" and the "San Buenaventura dictionary (1613)" as meaning "poor, needy, crippled, and blind". Generally, the words magsalanta and nasalanta, which mean "is destroyed/devastated", are used to refer to a calamity, such as a typhoon, flood, or earthquake.
Professor of Anthropology Fay-Cooper Cole identified the Mandayan supreme gods—the father and son Mansilatan (The Creator) and Batla/Badla (The Preserver/Protector)—with the Tagalog deities Dian Masalanta and Bathala/Badhala, respectively. He also noted that Todlai, the god of marriage of the Bagobo people, is sometimes addressed as Maniládan. Mansilatan, the father of Batla, is the source of the omnipotent virtue called Busao, which takes possession of the Baylans (Priestesses) and the Baganis (Warriors) while they are in a trance, making them strong and valiant above other men. In other ethnolinguistic groups of the Philippines, the term Busao refers to demons, monsters, and/or the spirit or god of calamity. In the Mandayan language, the prefix man indicates paternity, being or dominion, while the word silatan means 'east', the direction of the rising sun.
Among the ancient Tagalogs, there existed a doctrine—which, according to Chirino (1601-1604), was sown by the Devil—that a woman who did not have a lover, whether married or single, could not be saved. They said that this man, in the other world, would hasten to offer the woman his hand at the passage of a very perilous stream which had no other bridge than a very narrow beam, which was traversed to reach the repose that they call Kaluwálhatian i.e. Bathala's abode. Hence, virginity was not recognized or esteemed among them; rather, they considered it a misfortune and a humiliation. This doctrine explains why most religious ministers (catalonas) among the ancient Tagalogs were women. Some minority tribes in the Philippines who still have some priestesses serving them, such as the Mandayas, offer an explanation. They assert that, as opposed to men, women are more appealing and persuasive toward gods and evil spirits, who are mostly males. Other places in the afterlife besides Kaluwálhatian include Maca or "kasanáan ng tuwa" ("a thousand joys"), where good souls temporarily stay pending reincarnation, and "kasanáan ng hírap" ("a thousand pains"), where bad souls go. Whether or not Dian Masalanta is identified with Bathala Meycapal is impossible to know, as the former has only been mentioned—and rather briefly—in "Relacion de las Costumbres de Los Tagalos" (1589) by Juan de Plasencia.
Whether or not Bathala is a solar deity
Another possible name for Bathala, although unconfirmed, is Hari, which is the old Tagalog name for the sun ('king’ in modern Tagalog), hence the Tagalog words tanghali (noon) and halimaw (lion or tiger, an animal associated with the sun in Vedic religion). The ancient Tagalogs believed that the rainbow (balangaw) was either Bathala's bridge (balaghari) or loincloth (bahaghari). The rainbow was regarded as a divine sign, and it was considered blasphemy to point one's finger at it. The Tagalogs today still use the expression harinawa, which means "God willing" or "may God wills it". In an article written by Lorenz Lasco in Dalumat Ejournal, he cited that, in Philippine mythologies, the sky-world's own anito (deity) is the Sun which is symbolized by a bird. However, there is no evidence or documentations directly referring to or describing Bathala as a solar deity. The Hiligaynon anthropologist F. Landa Jocano mentioned Apolaki as the solar and war god of the ancient Tagalogs, who is actually the supreme god of the ancient Pangasinans, alternatively addressed by them as Anagaoley or Ama-Gaoley (Supreme Father). According to Jean-Paul G. Potet (Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs, 2018), no sun deity allegedly worshipped or venerated by the ancient Tagalogs was mentioned in Spanish chronicles.
Christianity
The ancient Indian [Indio i.e. the Tagalogs] name for God was Bathala, to whom they attributed the creation of the world. Remnants of the old idolatry remain among the people, and the names of some of the idols are preserved. A few phrases are still retained, especially in the remoter parts, as for example, "Magpabathala ca" (Let the will of Bathala be done), and the priest have been generally willing to recognize the name as not objectionable in substitution for Dios. The Tagal word adopted for Idolatry is Pagaanito, but to the worship of images they give the term Anito.
— Sir John Bowring, A Visit to the Philippine Islands in 1858, 1859
During the conversion of the Tagalogs to Christianity, the katalonan (shamans) were condemned by Spaniard missionaries as witches and were forced to convert. Ancestral and nature spirits were demonised, sometimes conflated with Biblical demons. The dictionary of Fray Domingo de los Santos gives Bathala as the Tagalog name for God the Creator in contrast with idols, to which the dictionary gives the collective names anito and lic-ha, or statues. The friars believed that the anitos were demons who led the Tagalogs away from the worship of God, but Bathala was the exception to this as he was similar to the Christian concept of the Creator. The people learned to incorporate Catholic elements into some of their traditional rituals such as the Sanghiyang wherein the majority of the spirits invoked are presumed Christian saints. As noted by Alejandro Roces, "In Alfonso, Cavite, there is a Barrio called Marahan where there lives an exclusive sect that perform a cultic ritual known as Sanghiyang. This ritual used to be a pagan rite of ancestral worship but was later imbued with Christian connotations and biblical justification". Presently, Sanghiyang is being practiced not only as a form of ancestral worship but also as preparation for mediumistic healing and as a preliminary rite for a more colorful ritual called "Sayaw sa Apoy" (Dance on Fire). In the course of the 19th century, the term Bathala fell out of use, as it was replaced by Panginoon (Lord) and Diyos (God).
but now they never say: Bathalang Maykapal, Bathalang San Jose; if not Panginoong Diyos, Panginoong San Jose, and the Panginoon means "Lord", like Apo.
— De los Reyes' study (1909:113)
Bathalismo
Bathalismo is a religious movement in the Philippines whose mythology is partly borrowed from Christianity. Bathala is a name in this movement, hence its case markers in Tagalog are si, ni, and kay. In classical Tagalog, Bathala, being a title, not a name, has the markers of common nouns – ang/ng/sa – e.g. ngunit ang Bathala’y dapat nating sundin (but God we must obey). The same rule applies to Diyos – ang Diyos/ng Diyos/sa Diyos. Regarding the word “Bathala” in Baybayin, with the characters written from top to bottom, Pedro Paterno (1915 in Pambid 2000:108) considers that the “ba” character stands for ‘’babae’’ (woman/female), the “la” character for lalaki (man/male), and the “ha” character for the rays of spiritual light beaming from heaven, or the Holy Spirit of God. According to him, this was the concept of the Holy Trinity before the arrival of Christianity in the Philippines. Paterno was a self-styled renaissance man. He was educated in philosophy and theology, and he held a doctorate in law. He also wrote several books on Filipino ethnology, including La antigua civilización tagalog, the book in which he first imagined the Bathala-baybayin connection which some people today misconstrue as a proven part of ancient Filipino spirituality. Jose Rizal, no less, wrote the following in a letter to his friend, the ethnologist Ferdinand Blumentritt:
In regard to the work of my countryman P.A. Paterno on Bathalà, I tell you, pay no attention to it; P.A. Paterno is like this: [here Rizal drew a line with a series of loops]. I can find no word for it, but only a sign like this: [more loops].
Anting-anting
In Anting-anting—the post-colonial esoteric belief system and traditional occult practices of the Tagalogs—Bathala, also known as the Infinito Dios or Nuno, is identified with the magical power (bertud or galing) that resides in amulets and talismans.
It can be said that the Infinito Dios or Nuno (native Bathala of the Tagalogs) is the genius or galing of Filipinos who entered the stone or anting-anting, that even though they were not able to blossom and won because of poverty and lack of power
— Nenita Pambid, "Anting-Anting: O Kung Bakit Nagtatago sa Loob ng Bato si Bathala"
In this belief system, the Nuno or Infinito Dios is the highest God and the oldest being, from whom everything else has emanated. One such emanation is the Santisima Trinidad (Holy Trinity), to whom the Infinito Dios gave the authority to create the world and its inhabitants. Maria (who should not be confused with the Virgin Mary) or the Infinita Dios (i.e. the female aspect of the Divine) is said to be the first emanation of the Infinito Dios, who sprang forth from his mind (Holy Wisdom/Divine Logos?). The sum of all these powers are the Cinco Vocales, i.e. the five vowels of the Filipino alphabet: AEIOU. 'A' for the Infinito Dios/Nuno, 'E' for the Infinita Dios/Maria, 'I' for God the Father, 'O' for God the Son, and 'U' for God the Holy Spirit. The Cinco Vocales, also known as the fragmentation (basag) of the supreme deity, are said to be the secret names of God who gives power. The antiñgeros (initiates of anting-anting) have simplified the complexity of one god in five personas. For them, the Cinco Vocales rank as the highest deity because they are the complete composition of the five highest gods (Kadeusan). The Infinito Dios/Nuno, the Infinita Dios/Maria, and the Santisima Trinidad all share in the equality of their divinity. No one of them is more or less than any of the others. The Infinito Dios is also referred to as Animasola (Lonely Soul), Waksim (his name as a water deity), and Atardar (reflecting his warrior or protective aspect). On the other hand, the Infinita Dios is also referred to as Gumamela Celis (Flower of Heaven), Rosa Mundi (Flower of the World), and Dios Ina (God the Mother); she is also identified with the concept of Inang Pilipinas (Mother Philippines) or Inang Bayan (Motherland) celebrated in the writings of the revolutionary Andres Bonifacio (Tapunan ng Lingap; Katapusang Hibik ng Pilipinas). Although it is widely believed that this esoteric belief system preceded Spanish colonization and Catholicism, the Tagalog term antíng-antíng (talisman) was not recorded by lexicographers until the second half of the 19th century. The same can be said of its synonyms: agímat, búti, dúpil, and galíng (Laktaw 1914:236: dúpil).
The theogony of the Infinito Dios
In the beginning, there was a bright light that covered the entire universe. This light was called the Infinito Dios. There is considered to be no God other than the Infinito Dios. He was the Animasola (Lonely Soul), a winged eye wrapped in a shawl, forever changing his form while floating in space. Soon, the Infinito Dios decided to create the world. He pulled away the light in order to give way to the darkness. His light receded until it became a small ball of light. The ball of light suddenly had a gash on its lower portion that became a mouth. On top of the mouth, a line appeared that became a nose. On top of the nose emerged two holes that became eyes. From these eyes came forth bursts of flame. Parallel to the eyes, on the sides of the ball of light, two holes appeared that became ears. In short, the Infinito Dios, once a ball of light, became a figure resembling a man's head.
Before the Infinito Dios created the universe, he decided to have someone help him in his task of creation. While thinking, five shining letters sprang forth from his mind that became the five petals of a beautiful flower (mayuming bulaklak). This flower was called the Gumamela Celis (Flower of Heaven) or Rosa Mundi (Flower of the Earth). The five letters were none other than the beautiful name M-A-R-I-A, which in the Syrian language is Miriam, which means the highest. The original name of Maria before God created the universe was Bulaklak (Flower).
The Infinito Dios decided to create other beings to assist him in his task of creation. While thinking, the Infinito Dios suddenly began perspirating on his right side. When he wiped off the perspiration, the droplets became sixteen spirits. Two of these spirits became Uph Madac and Abo Natac, the two elders who would reside in the two corners of the Earth and would become the guardians of the Sun and the Moon. The next six spirits became the beings who would reside outside the Earth. They did not want to receive any blessings from the Infinito Dios. They were named Elim, Borim, Morim, Bicairim, Persalutim, and Mitim. The next seven spirits became the unbaptized Archangels named Amaley, Alpacor, Amacor, Apalco, Alco, Araco, and Azarague. The last spirit was called Luxbel, a spirit whose name means light of heaven. He was named Becca, the being who would later rebel against the Infinito Dios. His other name was Lucifer.
Meanwhile, the Infinito Dios decided to create even more beings. While thinking, he suddenly began perspiring on his left side. Wiping the perspiration off, the droplets became eight spirit beings. Five of them became beings who would go to Jesus Christ while he was nailed to the cross to ask for his blessing; however, Jesus would expire before he could give his blessing to these five spirits. The five spirits never received their blessings and therefore retained their original names of Istac, Inatac, Islalao, Tartaraw, and Sarapao. The last three spirit beings became known as the Tres Personas, or the Santisima Trinidad. The Infinito Dios gave them the task to create the world and its inhabitants. On each of the eyes of the Tres Personas could be seen the letter M, the initial of each of their names: Magub, Mariagub, and Magugab.
The Infinito Dios and Bulaklak
Before the name Maria was used, God only called the first fruit of his thought Bulaklak (Flower). The first thing God prepared for the beginning of his creation was Impierno (Hell) or Averni, which was below and in the abyss. He said to Bulaklak: "I will leave you for a while—guard my Ark of the Covenant and do not dare to open it. If you do not obey my command, you will go down to the land that I will create and will suffer to gather the scattered and lost virtudes.' Once God had said that, he went down to the abyss to prepare a sad home for his chosen Archangels, who would be created and rebel against him. When God left, Bulaklak opened the said Ark of the Covenant in the desire to know the truth and fulfillment of God's words. When the Ark was opened, three letters "B" with wings suddenly appeared and flew away. The three letters mentioned were BAM, BAU, and BIM also known as the Tres Virtudes, which were very miraculous and wonderful. Bulaklak immediately closed the box, but the three "B"'s had been released already, and she could not find them. When God returned from the abyss, he said to Bulaklak: "Now, what I said to you will be fulfilled—that you will descend to the earth and will suffer."
God had already made a plan for and the forms of his works and creations: water, fire, earth, heaven, trees and plants, Sun, Moon, stars, and, above all, the holy spirits that would help him in his works and creations. God showed them to his consultant Bulaklak. She said that the spiritual creations were perfect, but the material things should be changed. This was because, in God's plan, the huge and tall trees were to bear large fruits, and the small and low trees were to bear tiny fruits. Bulaklak said that if those trees were to be placed on the ground, people and animals would seek shelter under the huge and tall trees when exposed to the heat of the sun, and if the large fruits of the trees were ripe and could no longer cling to the stalk and withstand the fall, they may cause injury or death to said people and animals.
God changed his plan in accordance with Bulaklak’s advice. The huge and tall trees would be the ones to bear tiny fruits, while the small and low trees would be the ones to bear large fruits. When everything was ready, God thought to create his helpers, but he was suddenly sweaty, and when he shed the sweat away on his right and left sides, the sixteen droplets of sweat on his right side became sixteen spirits, while the eight droplets of sweat on his left side became eight other spirits. From these twenty-four, he drew three to carry out his plan of creation. These were the so-called three powerful Avelator, Avetemet, and Avetillo. These were the Tres Personas, or the Santisima Trinidad, who would speak from the beginning of creation.
The Nuno and the Santisima Trinidad
The Nuno or Infinito Dios, the first and most powerful deity of all, created twenty-four holy spirits, and among them he chose three who would come to be known under the names Tres Persona Solo Dios, the Sagrada Familia, and the Santisima Trinidad. The Three were the helpers and executioners of the creative plans made by the Nuno and by Maria, or Gumamela Celis.
When the Tres Persona – God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit – talked about the things they created, suddenly the Nuno joined in and hid from the Three. The Three thought that they were the first and had the right to plan creations. They were not aware that everything was planned before they were created. The Tres Persona were deeply confused by the mysterious voice they heard and what they saw: a winged eye, a light, and an old man. As the Three chased the mysterious voice, they exchanged oraciones or words of power until they reached Heaven's gate. In this phase, the Tres Persona would be called the Sagrada Familia.
The Tres Persona did not know that they came from one God, the Nuno, that God the Father was the son of the Nuno, and that God the Son was the Nunos grandchild. Because they did not know this, they desired to seize and baptize whom they thought was the god of the heathens in order to be saved. The chase ended when the Nuno entered the mount Bood. After a battle and an exchange of oraciones, with persuasion the Nuno agreed to be baptized, but would do so by his own power. The Nuno took out his finger from the rock of the mount Bood to be baptized, as depicted in the anting-anting of the Infinito Dios. However, it is said that, for some mysterious reason, the Nuno was not really baptized.
The twenty-four Ancianos
The twenty-four Ancianos are the holy spirits created by the Infinito Dios (from his sweat) as helpers in his works; they are identified by the antiñgeros with the Twenty-Four Elders mentioned in Revelation 11:16. The twenty-four Ancianos have been given by the Infinito Dios roles and names which wield magical powers. One of the duties of the twenty-four Ancianos is to keep track of the hours of each day: the first of them is to keep track of the time at 1 o’clock in the morning and so on in succession until the end of exactly 24 hours according to their respective numbers. They are also the observers of everything that people do or work on earth, be it right or wrong, so man's sins are not safe from the Lord because of it.
The first two elders (nuno) reside in the two corners of the Earth and are the guardians of the Sun and the Moon:
1. Uph Madac – The first spirit of the twenty-four Ancianos, responsible for guarding the first hour after midnight. She designed the Sun in accordance with a task given to her by the Infinito Dios. She made many designs and presented them to her companions and to the Lord, and they all agreed on the shape and appearance of the sun that would give light to the world from then until now and into the future.
2. Abo Natac – The second spirit, who designed the Moon, which gives us light during the night. He did so many times, and these designs were presented to his companions and to the Infinito Dios, and they agreed on the shape of the moon that is present today.
The following six spirits do not have any other office. What they do is just wander out into the world and be God's watchmen:
3. Elim – The watchman from 3:00 AM to 3:59 AM
4. Borim – The watchman from 4:00 AM to 4:59 AM
5. Morim – The watchman from 5:00 AM to 5:59 AM
6. Bicairim – The watchman from 6:00 AM to 6:59 AM
7. Persalutim – The watchman from 7:00 AM to 7:59 AM
8. Mitim – The watchman from 8:00 AM to 8:59 AM
The Siete Arkanghelis:
9. Amaley – The president and first minister of the archangel warriors. He is San Miguel Arkanghel; on his shoulders rests the fight against the wicked to have security on Earth and in heaven. San Miguel is assigned as the watchman from 9:00 AM to 9:59 AM each day; he is also the watchman on the first day of each week, which is Sunday, so he is called upon on this day to prevent any disastrous events that may occur. He is also the spirit messenger and messenger of the Infinito Dios throughout the heavens.
10. Alpacor – Made secretary of the whole universe by the Siete Arkanghelis, he is San Gabriel, who is the recorder of all the hidden wonders in the galaxy and the whole universe. San Gabriel is the watchman from 10:00 AM to 10:59 AM each day. He is also the watchman every Monday; therefore, people call upon him on this day to be saved from disasters.
11. Amacor – The prince of angelic justice and the giver of heavenly grace, for which he is also the Butler of the Infinite God. This angel is well known by the name San Rafael. He is the watchman from 11:00 AM to 11:59 AM each day and each Tuesday. He is the one to be called upon on Tuesdays for salvation from calamities.
12. Apalco – The angel who was made Justicia mayor in heaven. Chief Ruler of heavenly things and recommender to God of punishments to be inflicted, he is also the giver of wisdom to be used by the soul and earthly body of man. This angel is identified as San Uriel, who is assigned to watch at 12:00 noon, and he is also the watchman on Wednesdays, so he must be called on this day to be saved from a disaster.
13. Alco – The spirit that offers or prays to God for every good work of man, he is also the receiver and informer of human needs regarding God. This angel is San Seatiel, who is the watchman on Thursdays and at the time of the first hour of the afternoon of each day, so he is to be called upon at these times.
14. Araco – The spirit who was made the keeper of treasures and graces. He holds the key to giving the riches and glory of God. This angel is San Judiel, the benefactor and giver of God's mercy. He is also the assigned watchman on Fridays and from 2:00 PM to 2:59 PM each day, so he is to be called upon at these times.
15. Azarague – The guardian spirit of heaven and Earth and the helper and protector of all spirits under the Infinito Dios. He is San Baraquiel, the watchman at 3:00 PM of each day, and is also assigned as the watchman every Saturday, so he is the one to be called on this day. San Baraquiel is the last of the Seven Archangels, who are known as the seven warriors of God the Father.
The Rebel:
16. Luxbel''' – The youngest (bunso) of the 16 spirits first created by the Infinito Dios. His name means "Light of Heaven" because he is considered the closest to God. When God began his creation, he was baptized with the name Becca, but he disobeyed the Infinito Dios, so God renamed him Luxquer or Lucifer. The history of Luxbel can be found in a book entitled Diez Mundos (Ten Planets). In this book exist various types of illicit wisdom, such as hexes (kulam), glamour (malik mata), philters (gayuma) and much more. All are discouraged from having a copy of this book because it is considered the cause of the unforgivable sin against the Lord.
The following five spirits were not baptized and did not accept the Infinito Dioss calling. When the Lord Jesus Christ was hanging on the cross, they came to be baptized, but it did not turn out because at that time, the Lord Jesus breathed his last. They are:
17. Istac – The watchman from 5:00 PM to 5:59 PM.
18. Inatac – The watchman from 6:00 PM to 6:59 PM.
19. Islalao – The watchman from 7:00 PM to 7:59 PM.
20. Tartarao – The watchman from 8:00 PM to 8:59 PM.
21. Sarapao – The watchman from 9:00 PM to 9:59 PM.
The last three spirits are the Santisima Trinidad:
22. Magugab – Presents himself as Dios Ama (God the Father), who some say is the first person of the Santisima Trinidad. But as Dios Ama, he is not the Infinito Dios, but only given the right and duty to identify himself as God the Father. He was given the design of the world and all its contents, such as the various types of flying creatures in the air and those crawling on the ground, including man. He is the watchman from 9:00 PM to 9:59 PM.
23. Mariagub – The second person of the Santisima Trinidad, he has the fullness of Dios Anak (God the Son) and the power to fulfill all the mysteries wrought by the Lord Jesus Christ. He is the spirit who incarnates in order to save those who receive him and believe in him. This spirit, in every age, enters the bodies of the people commanded by God, who, in this context, is called the "Lamb of God". He is the watchman from 10:00 PM to 10:59 PM.
24. Magub' – The third person of the Santisima Trinidad, as the Espiritu Santo (Holy Spirit), he acts to accomplish whatever must happen in the present. Through his power, the promises of the Infinito Dios to the people are formed and fulfilled. He is the watchman from 11:00 PM to 12:00 midnight.
The term "Bathala" in other cultures
In ancient Bicol, bathala was a minor divinity, represented by a small image which Bicolanos always carried for good luck; according to the Bicol grammar of Mark of Lisbon (1628, 61), "they say it was an anito that brought good luck to one it accompanied". Thus, if a man was never hit by objects thrown at him, he was said to be batalaan. According to Ferdinand Blumentritt, the ancient Bicolano bathala was a kind of guardian angel. Its counterpart in the Tagalog culture, according to Isabelo de los Reyes, was the badhala katutubo.
According to Andrés de San Nicolás (1664, 420), Bathala mey kapal was also among the deities of the Sambal people, whose false genealogies and fabulous deeds they celebrated in certain tunes and verses like hymns, which William Henry Scott wrote may have been due to the influence of the Tagalogs on the Sambal's culture and beliefs.
Diccionario Pampango del P. Beiv gaño, 1860 defines batala as "a bird to whom the Pampangos have their omens".
According to Ferdinand Blumentritt (1895), the term "bathala" among the ancient Visayans referred to the images of diwatas (gods).
Ancient Visayan invocation to Bathala
1. Bathala, origin of the first creatures,
Lives in the high mountains;
In your two hands
Resides the generator-
Maniliw, who is a witch.
Tall like the trunk
Of the coconut;
Solid like rock;
Voracious like fire;
Fierce, more than the mad perverse dog.
From your breast
The generator Lulid
Went forth.
It is he
Who does what he likes;
Who darkens
More than the night-
Like the stalk of the Palay;
And Sometimes
As if by means of rays of light,
Shoots the witches like an arrow.
Your living among the pygmies.
Destroy, oh, those bad characters
Of the generator Kamakala.
2. Bathala, thou art, oh, little bird, Adarna!
Oh thou, who art nestled in that encumbered home-
The abode of hawks and eagles,
Descend, we pray thee, to earth,
With all thy multicolored feathers
And thy silken, feathery tail-
Descend! Descend!-to earth.
Oh, thou bright-winged, little bird!
Celestial gift arth thou, prepared for the earth-
Our life's source, our mother devoted.
Verily, thou hast suffered pains in those confines
Of mountains craggy and precipitous-
Searching for lakes of emerald, now vanished.
Ferocious animals
Art thine, mother
Oh, venerable Mount Kanlaon-
The ruler of the people of the mountain.
Note: The bird Adarna is the eponymous character of a 16th-century Filipino tale in verse, "Corrido'' and Life Lived by the Three Princes, children of King Fernando and Queen Valeriana in the Kingdom of Berbania", which is believed by some researchers to have been based on similar European stories. The tale is also known as "The Adarna Bird".
Original Visayan invocation
Bathala, pinunuan sang mga
una nga mga inanak,
Dito mag estar sa mga layog
Sa anang alima na tagsa
Si amay Maniliw nga tamaw
nga,
Malayog anay sang puno ka
niug,
Mabakod angay sa bantiling,
Kag masupong angay sa
kalayo,
Mabangis labi a madal nga
Bany-aga nga ayam.
Sa amang kilid lumsit.
Si ama Lulid Amo;
Siya ang mag sumunod
Kon tunay sa boot niya,
Nga mag bulit labing
Kagab-ihon mapilong…
Tagalog translation
Bathalang pinagmulan ng
mga unang nilikha,
Nakatira ka sa mga bundok
Sa kamay mo nakalagay
Si Maniliw, na mangkukulam
Matayog kang parang puno
ng niyog;
Matigas na parang bato,
Masiklab na parang apoy,
Mabangis na higit sa
Asong nahihibang.
Sa dibdib mo lumabas
Ang manlilikhang Lulid Amo;
Siya ang nakagagawa
At nagbibigay dilim
Na higit sa gabi…
References
Conceptions of God
Creator gods
God
Indigenous culture of the Tagalog people
Names of God
Philippine mythology
Singular God
Tagalog gods
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitchurch-Stouffville
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Whitchurch-Stouffville
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Whitchurch-Stouffville (2021 population 49,864) is a town in the Greater Toronto Area of Ontario, Canada, approximately north of downtown Toronto, and north-east of Toronto Pearson International Airport. It is in area, and located in the mid-eastern area of the Regional Municipality of York on the ecologically-sensitive Oak Ridges Moraine. Its motto since 1993 is "country close to the city".
The town is bounded by Davis Drive (York Regional Road 31) in the north, York-Durham Line (York Regional Road 30) in the east, and Highway 404 in the west. The southern boundary conforms with a position approximately north of 19th Avenue (York Regional Road 29), and is irregular due to the annexation of lands formerly part of Markham Township in 1971.
Between 2011 and 2021, the town grew 32.8%. The number of private dwellings jumped from 7,642 in 2001 to 16,705 in 2021, with an average of 3.0 people per private dwelling. The town projects a total population of 72,109 by 2031, and 91,654 in 2041, with most of the growth within the urban boundaries of the Community of Stouffville plus lands adjacent to Highway 48 and south of Stouffville Road. Future growth is governed provincially by the Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Act (2001), the Greenbelt Protection Act (2005) and the Places to Grow Act (2005). The intent of these statutes is to prevent urban sprawl on environmentally sensitive land and to protect the ecological integrity of the moraine and its hydrological features.
Communities
The Town of Whitchurch–Stouffville consists of several distinct communities and the intermediary countryside. The largest urban area is the community of Stouffville proper (2021 pop. 36,753), while other communities in the larger town include Ballantrae, Bethesda, Bloomington, Cedar Valley, Gormley, Lemonville, Lincolnville, Musselman's Lake, Pine Orchard, Pleasantville, Preston Lake, Ringwood, Vandorf, Vivian, and Wesley Corners.
History
The oldest human artifacts found in Whitchurch Township date to 1500 BC and were found in the hamlet of Ringwood (now part of urban Stouffville). Prior to the arrival of Europeans, two Native trails crossed through what is today Whitchurch–Stouffville. The Vandorf Trail ran from the source waters of the Rouge River to Newmarket, across the heights of the hamlet of Vandorf. The Rouge Trail ran along the Rouge River and northwest from Musselman Lake; both were part of the aboriginal and Coureur des bois trail system leading through dense forests from Lake Ontario to Lake Simcoe. The territory was the site of several Native villages, including Iroquoian peoples' settlements around Preston Lake, Vandorf, and Musselman Lake.
In 2003, a large 16th-century ancestral Huron village was discovered in Stouffville during land development; approximately 2000 people once inhabited the site (Mantle Site), from 1578 to 1623. A palisade protected more than 70 longhouses, and tens of thousands of artifacts were excavated here.
In 2012, archaeologists revealed that a European forged-iron axehead, believed to be Basque, was discovered at the site--"the earliest European piece of iron ever found in the North American interior."
Other significant late precontact Huron village sites have been located to the south-east (the earlier Draper Site on the Pickering Airport lands) and to the north-west of urban Stouffville (the later Ratcliff or Baker Hill Site on Ontario Highway 48, and the Old Fort or Aurora Site on Kennedy Road).
The western end of Whitchurch and Markham townships was purchased by the British crown from the Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation in 1787 as part of the Toronto Purchase. Whitchurch Township was created in 1792 as one of ten townships in York County. It was named in honour of the village of Whitchurch, Herefordshire in England, where Elizabeth Simcoe was born (she was the wife of Upper Canada Lieutenant Governor Sir John Graves Simcoe). The first European settlements in Whitchurch Township were established in the 1790s. The south-Central Ontario Mississaugas did not formally cede these areas of Whitchurch and southern Ontario until 1923.
Between 1800 and 1802, John Stegman completed a survey of the township, which created a system of land concessions. This allowed for the organized distribution of land to settlers, with each concession containing five, lots. This layout remains visible today, as the road network in the area reflects the locations of the boundaries between concession blocks.
Early settlers of this period included Quakers and Mennonites—two pacifist groups from the nearby American states of Pennsylvania, Vermont and New York. Both groups were seeking religious freedom, and were identified by the Upper Canadian government as people with necessary skills and abilities for establishing viable communities that could, in turn, attract others to settle in the region. The Crown also granted land in Upper Canada to mercenary German Hessian soldiers, such as Stegman, in exchange for their service against the Thirteen Colonies in the American Revolution.
Many of the first settlements in Whitchurch Township were developed at the intersections of main roads throughout the township and /or near streams where mills could be built to process the timber cleared from the land. Stoufferville was one such hamlet, developing around the saw and grist mills of Abraham Stouffer, a Mennonite who with his wife Elizabeth Reesor Stouffer immigrated from Chambersburg, Pennsylvania in 1804. He acquired of land. Elizabeth's brother Peter Reesor established what is today Markham, first called Reesorville. Fifty-five more families from Pennsylvania, mostly Mennonite, arrived in Stoufferville in the next few years. Stouffer's sawmill was in operation by 1817 on Duffin's Creek on the Whitchurch side of Main Street. By 1825 he had a gristmill across the street on the Markham Township side of Main St. as well.
In the early 1830s, the old Stouffville Road was carved through largely virgin forest to connect York (Toronto) with Brock Township; a post office was opened in 1832 and the name Stouffville was standardized. In 1839, a new resident from England noted that Stouffville still had "no church (other than the Mennonite Meeting House in neighbouring Altona), baker, or butcher," though "saddlebag [Methodist circuit] preachers sometimes arrived and held meetings at the schoolhouse." Stouffville was considered a centre "of Radical opinion," one of the "hotbeds of revolution," and it was here that William Lyon Mackenzie set forth his plan for the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837–38.
The hamlet of Stouffville grew rapidly in the 1840s, and by 1849, it had "one physician and surgeon, two stores, two taverns, one blacksmith, one waggon maker, one oatmeal mill, one tailor, one shoemaker." The population reached 350 in 1851, 600 in 1866, and 866 in 1881, with a diversity of Mennonite, Methodist, Presbyterian, Episcopal, Baptist and Congregational places of worship. In 1869 Ballantrae had a population of 75, Bloomington 50, Gormley 80, Lemonville 75, and Ringwood 100. In 1876, there was a regular stage coach connection from the hamlet of Stouffville to Ringwood, Ballantrae, Lemonville, Glasgow, Altona and Claremont.
In 1877, Stouffville became an incorporated village. Stouffville's growth was aided by the establishment of the Toronto and Nipissing Railway, built in 1871, which connected Stouffville and Uxbridge with Toronto. In 1877, a second track was built north to Jackson's Point on Lake Simcoe. These connections were created in large part to provide a reliable and efficient means of transporting timber harvested and milled in these regions. Soon Stouffville Junction serviced thirty trains per day. During this time of prosperity, Stouffville businessman R.J. Daley built a large music hall, roller-skating rink, and curling rink. In 1911 Stouffville had a public library, two banks, two newspapers, as well as telephone and telegraph connections.
Intensive forestry in Whitchurch Township led to large-scale deforestation, eroding the thinner soils of northern Whitchurch into sand deserts; by 1850 Whitchurch Township was only 35 percent wooded, and that was reduced to 7 percent by 1910. The Lake Simcoe Junction Railway Line was consequently abandoned in 1927. Reforestation efforts were begun locally, and with the passage of the Reforestation Act (1911), the process of reclaiming these areas began. Vivian Forest, a large conservation area in northern Whitchurch–Stouffville, was established in 1924 for this purpose. This development has helped to restore the water-holding capacity of the soil and to reduce the cycles of flash spring floods and summer drought. In 2008, the town had more than 62²km of protected forest; the forest is considered one of the most successful restorations of a degraded landscape in North America. Yet similar environmental consequences due to increased urbanization were projected in 2007 by the Toronto and Region Conservation Authority as probable for southern Whitchurch–Stouffville (headwaters of the Rouge River watershed) if targeted plantings in this area did not begin quickly. Already in 1993, the Whitchurch Historical Committee warned a new generation of "Whitchurch-Stouffville residents" to be "vigilant to treat trees and forests with respect ... In the 1990s care must be taken so that urbanization and concrete road-building do not repeat the destruction to our forest heritage."
Though growth in the hamlets of Whitchurch–Stouffville was stagnant after the demise of the forest industry, the population began to grow again in the 1970s, with development in Metropolitan Toronto and the consequent arrival of new commuters. These developments led to a reexamination at the provincial level of municipal governance. On January 1, 1971, Whitchurch Township and the Village of Stouffville were merged to create the Town of Whitchurch–Stouffville; the combined population was 11,487. The town's southern boundary was also moved four farm lots south of the original southern boundary of Main Street. This land was formerly a part of Markham Township.
Whitchurch–Stouffville adopted its coat of arms in 1973 (see information box right). The dove of peace, the original seal of Whitchurch Township, is at the crest, recalling the pacifist Quaker and Mennonite settlers who founded many of the town's communities, including Stouffville. The British Union banner of 1707 pays tribute to the United Empire Loyalists. The white church symbolizes Whitchurch, and the star and chalice come from the Stouffer family (Swiss) coat of arms.
The growth of Toronto brought serious ecological problems to Whitchurch–Stouffville. Between 1962 and 1969, hundreds of thousands of litres per month of sulfuric acid, calcium hydroxide, and oil waste were poured into unlined Whitchurch–Stouffville dumps never designed as landfill sites and situated directly above the town's main aquifer. This was followed by years of solid waste from Toronto (1,100 tons per day in 1982). In the early 1980s, a group initially named "Concerned Mothers" found that the miscarriage rate in Whitchurch–Stouffville was 26% compared to the provincial average of 15%, and that the town had a high rate of cancer and birth defects. Though the Ministry of Environment was satisfied that the wells tested in 1974 and 1981 had negligible levels of cancer causing agents (mutagens), the town opposed the expansion of the "York Sanitation Site #4". Only after much grass-roots advocacy at the provincial level was the site ordered to close on June 30, 1983. In 1984 it was reported in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario that PCBs were found in well-water, and that 27,000 gallons of contaminated leachate per day were leaking from the site, threatening ground water quality.
With new commuter rail service on the Stouffville Line in the 1990s, the drilling of two deep aquifer wells to secure safer water for a large, new development in the hamlet of Ballantrae in 1996, and the controversial expansion of the York-Durham Sewage System Big Pipe with additional water capacity from Lake Ontario, Whitchurch–Stouffville began a major self-transformation. Not unlike the late 19th century, responsible land and water stewardship, as well as the positive integration of many new residents annually into the community, define the challenges and opportunities for Whitchurch–Stouffville in the years to come.
The most significant challenge facing Whitchurch–Stouffville in coming years, however, is the federal government's potential development of an international airport immediately south-east of Whitchurch–Stouffville (the Pickering Airport lands). Under the current draft plan, approaches for two of the three landing strips would be directly above Whitchurch–Stouffville communities: the first over Ballantrae, Musselman's Lake and the north-east corner of urban Stouffville, with planes descending (or ascending) from 535 to 365 metres (with an allowable building height in Stouffville of 43 metres); the second over Gormley and the Dickson Hill area (near the Walmart and Smart Centre). A "Needs Assessment Study" was completed by the Greater Toronto Airports Authority for the federal government in May 2010. After a "due diligence review," Transport Canada released the report in July 2011, which identified the most likely time range for the need of the airport to be 2027–2029, and confirmed the site layout proposed in the 2004 Draft Plan Report.
In late 2019, the Town decided to drop the word Whitchurch from signs, for "branding" reasons. While signs would indicate Town of Stouffville, the official name remained Whitchurch-Stouffville.
Government
Municipal
Whitchurch–Stouffville is governed by a mayor and six councillors, with one councillor representing each of the six municipal wards. The Mayor of Whitchurch–Stouffville represents the town on the York Regional Council. The original ward boundaries were created with amalgamation in 1971, and were amended in 2009 for the 2010 municipal elections and again in 2021 for the 2022 municipal elections. As of the 2022 election, the elected council members are:
Mayor: Iain Lovatt
Councillors: Hugo T. Kroon, Maurice Smith, Keith Acton, Rick Upton, Richard Bartley, Sue Sherban
One York Region District School Board trustee is elected to represent Whitchurch–Stouffville and Aurora, as well as one trustee for the York Catholic District School Board. A French Public School Board trustee and a French Catholic School Board trustees are also elected on the same ballot as the mayor and town councillors. As of the election in 2022, the elected trustees are:
English Public School Board: Melanie Wright
English Separate School Board: Elizabeth Crowe
Conseil Scolaire Viamonde: Stephania Sigurdson Forbes
Conseil Scolaire Catholique MonAvenir : Donald Blais
In 2008, 94.4% of Whitchurch–Stouffville residents were either satisfied or very satisfied with the overall quality of life in the
Town of Whitchurch–Stouffville. In a major community survey, close to 30% of the respondents described the town as fine, good, nice, great, or pleasant; more than half of the respondents like the community or small-town feel, while 46.3% enjoyed the friendly neighbourhoods. The most important municipal issues indicated by residents in 2008 were the need to improve the road system; traffic issues; increasing urbanization and overcrowding; land use development and sprawl; and the cost of living (including taxes and user fees) in the town. Environmental protection, including environmental assessments for new development and natural preservation measures, was identified as matter of high importance by residents, but low on a scale of satisfaction. In the hamlet of Musselman's Lake, 72% of residents in 2009 were concerned about the environmental health of the lake and the surrounding community.
In August 2011, the municipal offices were moved into a business park area at 111 Sandiford Drive in Stouffville.
List of mayors
Ken Laushway, 1971 to 1972
Gordon Ratcliff, 1973 to 1978
Eldred King (1927-2011), 1978 to 1984 - Markham school trustee 1965-1968, later served as York Region Chair 1985-1997 and GO Transit Board member; lived in Stouffville and later in Uxbridge
Tom Wood, 1984 to 1985
Fran Sainsbury, 1985 to 1994
Wayne Emmerson, 1994 to 2003 - current York Region Chair (2015-)
Susan Sherban, 2003 to 2006
Wayne Emmerson, 2006 to 2014
Justin Altmann, 2014 to 2018
Iain Lovatt, 2018 to Present
Provincial
At the provincial level Whitchurch–Stouffville is in the Markham-Stouffville electoral district. Since 2018 this riding has been represented at the Legislative Assembly of Ontario by Paul Calandra, a member of the governing Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario.
Federal
At the federal level Whitchurch–Stouffville is in the riding of Markham—Stouffville. Since the federal election of October 2019, the riding has been represented by Helena Jaczek, former Minister of Community and Social Services in Ontario.
Geography and environment
The greatest portion of Whitchurch–Stouffville lies on the Oak Ridges Moraine. The moraine consists of knobby hills between 290 and 373 meters above sea level of irregularly bedded layers of unconsolidated sand and gravel (built-up glacial debris) deposited by the meltwater of the Wisconsin glacier some twenty-five thousand to ten thousand years ago. In a few cases the retreating glacier left behind and buried huge blocks of ice which, when melted, created deep, water-filled depressions known as kettle lakes. Preston Lake, Van Nostrand Lake and Musselman Lake are three such examples.
The boundaries of Whitchurch–Stouffville contain a watershed divide. Streams and rivers at the top of the Oak Ridges Moraine flow northward into the Lake Simcoe basin, part of the Lake Huron watershed. The southern sections (south of Bloomington Road) make up the headwaters of the Rouge River and Duffins Creek, both of which flow into the Lake Ontario basin. These headwaters include many smaller streams and creeks throughout southern Whitchurch–Stouffville. Their identification and protection, plus reforestation in these area, has been identified as urgent for rebuilding water-capacity in the Rouge River watershed which can off-set the worst environmental impacts (e.g., flash flooding, erosion and ground water contamination) of rapid urbanization. The heavily wooded Vivian Infiltration Area is an environmentally significant hydrological infiltration area that contributes groundwater to the Oak Ridges aquifer complex.
The northwestern corner of Whitchurch–Stouffville is outside the moraine and is part of the Schomberg Lake plain, an ancient lake-bed overlain by silts and fine sands. The soil formed over the former lake-bed is well-drained, arable farmland.
The southernmost portion of Whitchurch–Stouffville west of Highway 48 lies below the moraine and is a clay-loam till plain.
Tree species native to Whitchurch–Stouffville include: American Mountain Ash, Balsam Fir, Bitternut Hickory, Black Cherry, Black Spruce, Bur Oak, Eastern Hemlock, Eastern White Cedar, Peachleaf Willow, Pin Cherry, Red Oak, Red Maple, Red Pine, Shagbark Hickory, Silver Maple, Sugar Maple, Tamarack, Trembling Aspen, White Birch, White Oak, White Pine and White Spruce. In 2012, Whitchurch–Stouffville's forest cover was 28.9%.
Whitchurch–Stouffville's water supply system is both groundwater-based with five municipal wells and since 2009 lake-based (Lake Ontario) as well. 5,500 cubic metres of water are withdrawn from the Oak Ridges Aquifer and the Thorncliffe Aquifer daily. Stouffville's well-water is chlorinated for disinfection, and sodium silicate is added to keep iron from staining plumbing fixtures and laundry. Two wells receive additional disinfection through an ultraviolet (UV) system. Three groundwater wells are in close proximity to the settlement area of Stouffville (Main Street, east of 10th Line); consequently 239 "significant drinking water threats" have been identified.
Whitchurch–Stouffville has a continental climate moderated by the Great Lakes and influenced by warm, moist air masses from the south, and cold, dry air from the north. The Oak Ridges Moraine affects levels of precipitation: as air masses arrive from Lake Ontario and reach the elevated ground surface of the moraine, they rise causing precipitation.
Under the Köppen climate classification, Stouffville has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with warm, humid summers and cold winters.
Because of increasing greenhouse gas emissions, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources estimates a 1 degree increase in summer and 2 degree increase in winter average temperatures in the region between 2011 and 2040, and a 0% to 10% decrease in precipitation (compared to averages between 1970 and 2000).
Smog producing ground-level ozone is a problem affecting the entire Greater Toronto Area. A major pathway for airborne pollutants flows from the upper Midwest United States and the Ohio River Valley and across southern Ontario and Toronto; key sources are coal-burning power-plants and vehicle engines. On episode days (O3 > 82 ppb), Whitchurch–Stouffville reaches its peak about one to two hours later than Toronto. Smog Advisory Alerts are issued by the Ministry of the Environment when smog conditions are expected to reach the poor category in Ontario. The Greater Toronto Area had 13 smog days in 2008, 29 in 2007, 11 in 2006, 48 in 2005.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Whitchurch-Stouffville had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
In 2021 with a population of 49,864, 35% of residents were immigrants. The number of visible minorities grew from 4.53% in 2001, to 24.5% in 2011 and 45.8% in 2021 (the trend is expected to continue through 2031). In 2018–19, 43% of the Grade 3 children in one of the community's newer schools were effectively bi-lingual (i.e., the first language learned at home was other than English).
According to the 2021 Census, English is the mother tongue for 61.4% of Whitchurch–Stouffville residents. Immigrant languages with the most native speakers are Cantonese (8.2%), Mandarin (4.5%) and Tamil (3.8%).
The most common non-European ethnic origins represented in Whitchurch-Stoufville as per the 2021 census are Chinese (17%), Indian (India) (5.2%), Sri Lankan (3.2%), Filipino (3%), and Tamil (2.8%).
Infrastructure
Transportation
Primarily roadways include Highway 48, Highway 407, and Highway 404, which are in turn complemented by a network of regional roads that form a grid pattern across the town. In 1994, a plan to connect urban Stouffville directly to Highway 401 via the proposed East Metro Freeway was cancelled in large part due to the concerns of residents and the work of the Rouge River activist groups. Ninth Line has since been widened to handle traffic load south to Highway 407 in Markham and onto Highway 404 to connect with Highway 401.
Whitchurch–Stouffville is traversed by two railway lines: One is Canadian National Railway's primary freight corridor connecting Greater Toronto to Northern Ontario and Western Canada, which is being considered for future GO Transit train service with stations in the communities of Vandorf and Gormley (West). The other railway line, formerly the Toronto and Nipissing Railway, is now owned by GO Transit and hosts Stouffville line passenger service to and from Toronto. This line includes two stations in Whitchurch–Stouffville: the Stouffville GO Station in urban Stouffville, and the line's terminus, Old Elm GO Station, located to Stouffville's northeast. The York-Durham Heritage Railway also runs historical trains between the station and Uxbridge on summer weekends.
Until 2012, York Region Transit (YRT) operated two routes (9 and 15) within urban Stouffville, with connection to the Markham-Stouffville Hospital and other Markham routes. With the 2012 York Region Transit Service Plan, the two routes were merged, and the frequency of direct buses to the hospital YRT transit hub was reduced. In February 2014, a new Route 15 was introduced, connecting Stouffville to Yonge Street in Richmond Hill and to a future GO-Station in Gormley. GO Transit operates bus services in Stouffville, with buses traveling south into Markham and to Union Station, Toronto, as well as services north to the Town of Uxbridge.
Despite excellent access to the GO Transit and York Region Transit systems, the two systems are not integrated. In 2011, only 6.9% of working Whitchurch–Stouffville residents used public transit to get to work (compare 14% for Ontario), and only 2.7% walked or cycled to work (compare 3.6% for Whitchurch–Stouffville in 2006, and 6.3% for Ontario in 2011). Excellent public transportation options is an increasingly urgent issue for Whitchurch–Stouffville as the town continues to grow with residents who commute daily to Toronto (see Economy below).
Other amenities
The Markham Stouffville Hospital is a multi-site hospital that serves approximately 400,000 people in the communities of Markham, Uxbridge, and Whitchurch–Stouffville. The main hospital site is in Markham, 10 kilometers south of urban Stouffville on Ninth Line, and linked by public transportation from Stouffville. The hospital opened in 1990 and, after a successful $50 million expansion campaign, completed a 385,000 sq. ft. addition and renovation project in 2014. The expanded hospital employs an additional 875 staff and 60 new physicians. Residents in northern Whitchurch–Stouffville live in close proximity to the Southlake Regional Health Centre in neighbouring Newmarket.
The York-Durham Aphasia Centre is located in Stouffville's Parkview Village, and is a program of March of Dimes Canada.
The Town of Whitchurch–Stouffville is policed by the York Regional Police (YRP) and is located within Number Five District; a new Whitchurch–Stouffville Community Sub-Station was opened at 111 Sandiford Drive in 2014. In August 2010 York Regional Police reported to Whitchurch–Stouffville Town Council that the crime rate in the region was down 7% making it "one of Canada's safest communities."
Historic downtown Stouffville offers casual eateries, cafes, pubs, fine dining restaurants, and a variety of boutique stores. Urban Stouffville also has a large-scale format, unenclosed shopping centre anchored by Walmart and Canadian Tire. Stouffville has no regular cinema, however Canadian and international films are shown on the second Wednesday of every month at The Lebovic Centre for Arts & Entertainment – Nineteen on the Park (built in 1896 as Stouffville Town Hall and converted in 2009).
Outside of urban Stouffville, the town operates community centres in the hamlets of Ballantrae, Lemonville, and Vandorf.
Education
The first schoolhouse in Stouffville was on Church St., just north of Main St., where the United Church building stands. In 1865, the schoolhouse was purchased by the Methodist congregation and moved across the street; the building still exists as a two-family dwelling.
The majority of employed Whitchurch–Stouffville residents commute to Toronto and its environs for employment; in 2011 the median commuting time was 30 minutes. In the same year, the unemployment rate for Whitchurch–Stouffville was 6.3% (up from 4.8% in 2006), but below the Ontario average of 8.3%.
The top private sector employers in Whitchurch–Stouffville in 2009 were:
Teva Canada, pharmaceutical manufacturing: 310 employees
Parkview Services for Seniors, 250 employees
Strategic Information Technology, computer and communications equipment and supplies: 160 employees
K-Line Group, electrical power generation: 120 employees
Ontario SPCA, 120 employees
Hanson, concrete pipe manufacturing: 105 employees
King Cole Ducks Processing: 100 employees
Stock Transportation Ltd., school and employee bus transportation
Tam-Kal, sheet-metal manufacturing for HVAC industry
Walmart Supercentre
Whitchurch–Stouffville is York Region's largest "mineral aggregate resource area;" these gravel sites and designated resource areas are located north and south of Bloomington Road, and all lie within the boundaries of the Oak Ridges Moraine. Under the Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Act (2001), future aggregate resource operations must meet stringent review and approval standards.
In 2001, 20,406 acres (8,258 hectares) of land in Whitchurch–Stouffville was dedicated to farming; 45% of the farms were between 10 and in size; 25% focused on "other animal production," (792 horses and ponies on 50 farms) and 24% in greenhouse, nursery and floriculture production. Gross farm receipts for 2000 were $27,182,691; gross forestry receipts (once the backbone of Whitchurch Township's wealth) were $59,098.
Since 2009, the town's economic development strategy has focused on small and large knowledge-based industries, agricultural and environmental services, and not-for-profit organizations. Whitchurch–Stouffville is home to two internationally respected, church-based non-governmental service organizations: Emmanuel International Canada, EMAS Canada and Christian Blind Mission – Canada (CBM), all located on Stouffville Road near Kennedy Avenue.
Household income and housing
By 2013, the town had 14,334 residential units, and projected the building of 6,525 new residential units between 2013 and 2021—and a further 1,969 units by 2031—in order to accommodate a net population increase of 17,408 new residents by 2031.
In 2013 the median value of dwellings in Whitchurch–Stouffville was $471,000, or 79% higher than the provincial median of $263,500, and the town's estimated average household income was $141,885; the Ontario average was $96,1300.
Only 8.8% of the private dwellings in Whitchurch–Stouffville were apartments (including duplexes) in 2011, down from 15.2% in 2006, and significantly below the provincial average was 30%. In 2009, the ratio of owned dwellings to rented dwellings in Whitchurch–Stouffville was almost 6 to 1, compared to provincial average of 2.5 to 1. In 2011, 30 per cent of renters in Whitchurch–Stouffville spent more than half their income on shelter costs, the highest in the province.
Because of the high cost of housing in Whitchurch–Stouffville relative to the provincial average, 36% of Whitchurch–Stouffville businesses said in 2012 that the community was poorly positioned to attract new immigrant employees, and 45% said the same for retaining and attracting employees under 30 years of age. Nonetheless, in 2012 Stouffville residents protested zoning designations in the Town's Official Plan which called for apartments near their own neighbourhoods.
Whitchurch–Stouffville has 51 units of public social housing and 124 not-for-profit units for the elderly (including a long-term care facility).
Social services in Whitchurch–Stouffville include the Whitchurch–Stouffville Food Bank and the Care and Share Thrift Store (Mennonite Central Committee), both located on Ringwood Drive in the Community of Stouffville. The YMCA also operates an employment resource centre in Stouffville.
Sports
The first organized sport in Stouffville was curling in 1890 on the Mill Pond (today site of the Latcham Art Gallery and the Mennonite Care and Share Thrift Store). Lacrosse was also played at this time, and in 1897, Stouffville won the Ontario championships. The first hockey team was organized about 1900, and at the turn of the century the Stouffville rink below Burkholder Street was considered "the largest and best arranged rink in Canada." Lawnbowling has also been played in Stouffville since the early 1900s as well as organized men's and women's baseball.
The most important recreational facilities in Whitchurch–Stouffville are Soccer City, a 55,775 square feet indoor soccer complex (completed 2013); the Stouffville Clippers Sports Complex, with two NHL size ice pads (completed 2010); the Stouffville Arena, with two ice pads; the Whitchurch-Stouffville Leisure Centre, with a 25-meter pool, hot tub, gym and fitness centre, and Bethesda Park, with two ball diamonds, a senior soccer pitch and four mini sports fields (completed 2010).
Whitchurch–Stouffville is home to many golf courses, including Emerald Hills, Rolling Hills, Spring Lakes, Maples of Ballantrae, Ballantrae Golf & Country Club, St. Andrews East Golf & Country Club, Timber Creek Mini Golf & Family Fun Centre, Sleepy Hollow, Meadowbrook and Station Creek.
Organized sports
The Town has a Junior "A" ice hockey team, the Stouffville Spirit. The Stouffville Amateur Hockey League (men's and women's leagues), the Stouffville-Markham Girls Hockey Association, Whitchurch–Stouffville Minor Hockey Association, the Whitchurch–Stouffville Skating Club, and the Stouffville Adult Skating Club offer programs in the town's arenas.
The Whitchurch–Stouffville Soccer Club was established in 1977 and had 1,250 members in 2010. The club uses fields at Bethesda Park, the Stouffville Arena, Bruce's Mill Conservation Area, fields owned by Teva Canada, and the Soccer City indoor facility.
The Whitchurch–Stouffville Softball Association is a volunteer-run house-league organization. The association uses eleven ball diamonds in town plus five in the neighbouring villages of Goodwood and Claremont.
Recreational trails and water recreation
1,142 hectares of the twenty York Regional Forest tracts (or slightly more than half of the total) are found within the borders of Whitchurch–Stouffville.
The Whitchurch Conservation Area covers ten hectares, and is accessed on Aurora Sideroad, three kilometres east of Woodbine Ave. It is connected to a larger York Region Forest Tract and to trails of the Oak Ridges Trail Association.
The Pangman Springs Conservation Area is accessed from Kennedy Road between Davis Drive and Aurora Road or from the Porritt tract of the York Region Forest using an Oak Ridges Trail Association side trail.
Bruce's Mill Conservation Area in Whitchurch–Stouffville is the northern gateway to Rouge Park. The Master Plan for the conservation area includes not only a trail system within the park, but also future trail connections to inter-regional trails.
An extensive trail system within urban Stouffville is being developed that connects to the larger forested areas of the Whitchurch–Stouffville. The most significant trail begins in town along the Stouffville Creek and leads through a mature forest around the Stouffville Reservoir. In 2012, Whitchurch–Stouffville had 32 kilometers of trails.
Whitchurch–Stouffville is also home to a number of kettle lakes which are ideal for outdoor water recreation. While these glacier-formed lakes are crown property, and the resources of all levels of government are used for their regulation, protection and preservation, the actual perimeter of the lakes are in private hands (kettle lakes are not fed by creeks or rivers) and therefore only homeowners in the sub-communities have access rights to Whitchurch–Stouffville's lakes. Access to Musselman's Lake via Cedar Beach Trailer Park was lost in 2012, while access to Preston Lake was lost when Landford Development purchased the west-shore beach and trailer park and built estate properties with a shared private beach. In 2008 the town's development plans included a trail system with access to Preston Lake, but this was met with opposition from Preston Lake residents who desired to protect their exclusive access. Interest and support for the purchase or expropriation of land for public access to the town's most important natural and recreational assets has grown with the town's development.
The Town of Whitchurch–Stouffville operated an outdoor public swimming pool until 2010 when it was closed due to disrepair.
Arts, culture and media
In 2006, the town of Whitchurch–Stouffville developed and adopted Municipal Cultural Policy as a framework for planning and delivering cultural services. Whitchurch–Stouffville's investment in the arts has been slow, and consequently residents have not only fallen below the national average on exposure to the performing arts, museums and galleries, but the average exposure has decreased from 2006 to 2010.
Arts and entertainment centre
Whitchurch–Stouffville's deficit in the performing arts has been addressed in part by the recent rehabilitation of the former Stouffville Town Hall (constructed in 1896), a redevelopment that created a multifaceted arts, culture and entertainment centre in downtown Stouffville; The Lebovic Centre for Arts & Entertainment – Nineteen on the Park opened its doors to the public in May 2009.
Art gallery and visual art
Latcham Art Centre (formerly The Latcham Gallery) is a public art gallery established in 1979, by a group of local artists and supporters who saw the need for an arts facility in Whitchurch–Stouffville. The art centre was named after Arthur Latcham, a local philanthropist who donated money for the building on 6240 Main Street that housed the art centre from 1979-2018. Latcham Art Centre hosts 5-6 curated exhibitions a year featuring contemporary work by provincial artists and three community exhibitions, including an annual juried exhibition, an exhibition of work by a local graduating high school art class, and an exhibition of work by students from local elementary schools. Along with exhibitions, Latcham Art Centre provides educational and public programs including school visits, public lectures, art workshops and classes, and tours led by the curator, art educators and exhibiting artists. Admission to Latcham Art Centre is free. The art centre is a member of the Ontario Association of Art Galleries and its operations are supported by the Town of Whitchurch–Stouffville and the Ontario Arts Council. In August 2018, Latcham Art Centre moved from 6240 Main Street to the Whitchurch-Stouffville Leisure Centre, changing its name from The Latcham Gallery to Latcham Art Centre.
Since 2000, artists in Whitchurch–Stouffville have organized the Whitchurch-Stouffville Studio Tour, featuring more than two dozen artists in several venues across Whitchurch–Stouffville. The Studio Tour takes place the weekend after Thanksgiving each year. In 2008, the Tour was nominated for "The Premier's award for excellence in art."
Library
The Whitchurch-Stouffville Public Library is located in the Whitchurch-Stouffvile Leisure Centre (constructed in 2001), a facility occupied jointly by the department of Leisure Services and the library. The population served by the library doubled between 2005 and 2013, and circulation increased 109%. Library expenditures dropped from 5.1% of town operating expenses in 2004 to 3.0% in 2007, and 2.7% in the 2014 budget. In 2014, Whitchurch–Stouffville's per capita library costs were $26, the lowest of twenty-four Ontario towns in its population category (median $42). In 2010, the Maclean's "Third Annual Smart Cities Rankings" showed that for residents in Whitchurch–Stouffville, "exposure to reading" had declined annually from 2006 to 2010, and fell significantly below the national average. A library expansion was first projected for 2009. In June 2011 local book clubs and individuals began a grass-roots campaign to petition for greater municipal funding for the public library. In 2012, the Town commissioned a study of the library's current and future space needs. A 2014 expansion design was rejected by the newly elected Town Council in 2015, and the minimum space requirements for a community library were vigorously challenged.
Festivals and fairs
The Stouffville Strawberry Festival is a traditional community fair on the Canada Day weekend, which celebrates Stouffville's agricultural heritage.
The annual Stouffville Country Ribfest is held by the Town of Whitchurch-Stouffville every August in Memorial Park. This event features ribbers, merchants, food vendors, a midway and more and attracts over 20 000 visitors a year. The Town also holds two Food Truck Frenzy events, Art in the Park, six outdoor movie screenings, Victoria Day Fireworks, Snowflakes & Starlight Winterfest and the Whitchurch-Stouffville Santa Claus Parade.
The Markham Fair is hosted by the Markham and East York Agricultural Society, and supported by both the City of Markham and the Town of Whitchurch–Stouffville (Stouffville south of Main Street was part of Markham Township prior to 1971). The Markham Fair dates back to 1844 and is one of Canada's oldest and largest fairs, hosting upwards of 80,000 visitors. The fair is held on the weekend before Thanksgiving. It is held at the Markham fairgrounds, directly south of the Stouffville town border.
Bruce's Mill Conservation Area hosts an annual Sugarbush Maple Syrup Festival over four weeks in March and April.
In February the Musselman Lake community hosts an annual Winter Carnival at Cedar Beach.
York Region's Spring Forest Festival is held annually during Earth Week (April) in the York Regional Forest, Eldred King Tract, Highway 48 (just south of Vivian Road).
The annual Wine and Food Festival (June) is organized by the Ballantrae Golf and Country Club.
On the third Saturday of September, Stouffville's Willowgrove Farm hosts the annual GTA Toronto Mennonite Festival and Quilt Auction.
Museum
The idea for the Whitchurch–Stouffville Museum began in 1969 as a civic-minded project by a group of local residents. After opening in 1971 in the hamlet of Vandorf the site has grown over the years from the original museum building. The museum site includes five historic structures from the former Township of Whitchurch: the Bogarttown Schoolhouse (1857), a pioneer log cabin (c. 1850), a Victorian Farmhouse built by James Brown (1857), a barn (c. 1830) and Vandorf Public School (1870). In 2012, the Whitchurch–Stouffville Museum added a Community Centre that blended the old with the new by joining the two schoolhouses. The new facility includes a Research Room, Exhibition Gallery, Discovery Room, and two rental spaces.
Media
The town is currently served by two local community newspapers: the Stouffville Free Press and the Stouffville Sun-Tribune. SNAP Stouffville/Uxbridge is a print publication which specializes in a photographic view of life in the community. Stouffville Connects is an online publication focussed on community contributed journalism. A community radio station, WhiStle Radio (CIWS-FM), was launched in 2008.
Film and TV
Movies partially shot on location in the community of Stouffville include: The Russell Girl (2008), Stir of Echoes: The Homecoming (2007), Who Killed Atlanta's Children? (2000), On Hostile Ground (2000), Strike! (1998), The Sweet Hereafter (1997), Bad Day on the Block (1997), Martin's Day (1984), and The Dead Zone (1983). Television shows shot in Stouffville include episodes from Warehouse 13 (2010), The West Wing, Degrassi: The Next Generation, Nikita, Schitt's Creek (2015), and Curse of the Axe (documentary film on the Wendat-Huron village site discovered in Stouffville).
Films and television shows shot at Shadow Lake Centre in Whitchurch–Stouffville (Musselman Lake) include 1-8oo-Missing, Tarzan & Jane, The Crossing, Run the Wild Fields, Ice Men, Top Cops, The Loretta Claiborne Story, True Romance, Ready or Not, and The White Dog Sacrifice. and The Littlest Hobo (Summitview Public School).
Attractions
Applewood Farm Winery
Bruce's Mill Conservation Area, the northern gateway to Rouge Park with trails, and Community Safety Village.
Burd's Family Fishing
Downtown Stouffville Farmers' Market (Thursdays, May–October)
Latcham Gallery
Lionel's Farm (Petting zoo, pony farm, horse centre and wagon collection)
Magic Hill Farms
Oak Ridges Trail and York Demonstration Forest
RHLS Narrow Gauge Railway
Ringwood Fish Culture Station
Stouffville Country Market (flea market; Saturdays&Sundays) closed 2016
Timber Creek Mini Golf & Family Fun Centre
Whitchurch–Stouffville Museum
Willow Springs Winery
York-Durham Heritage Railway
Churchill Chimes Equestrian Centre
Notable people
Keith Acton – National Hockey League player and Stanley Cup winner, current owner of the local Boston Pizza franchise
John W. Bowser – Construction Superintendent of the Empire State Building and Royal Ontario Museum
Roy Brown – Royal Air Force officer and World War I flying ace, credited with downing the Red Baron (Manfred von Richthofen)
Karen Cockburn – Olympic medalist (trampoline gymnast)
Earl Cook – Major League Baseball player (Detroit Tigers)
Michael Del Zotto – National Hockey League player
Nicole Dollanganger - singer/songwriter
Mike Harris – Olympic medalist (curler)
Bob Hassard – National Hockey League player and Stanley Cup winner
Liz Knox – Canadian Women's Hockey League player; Professional Women's Hockey Players Association founding board member and player
H.R. MacMillan – forester, forestry industrialist, wartime administrator, and philanthropist
Jeff Marek – Hockey Analyst for Sportsnet
Brad May – National Hockey League player
Jason "Human Kebab" Parsons – Member of band Ubiquitous Synergy Seeker
Sean Pierson – professional mixed martial arts fighter
B. W. Powe – author
Raffi Torres – National Hockey League player
Frank Underhill – Founder of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) Party; co-writer of the Regina Manifesto (1933) and Officer of the Order of Canada.
Jim Veltman – National Lacrosse League Hall of Fame player
Ethan Werek – Professional ice hockey player
Dean Michael Wiwchar, contract killer.
Sister city
Igoma, Tanzania (Stouffville-Igoma Partnership).
See also
List of archaeological sites in Whitchurch–Stouffville
List of townships in Ontario
References
External links
Lower-tier municipalities in Ontario
Towns in Ontario
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawn%20Green
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Shawn Green
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Shawn David Green (born November 10, 1972) is an American former Major League Baseball right fielder. Green was a first-round draft pick and a two-time major league All-Star. He drove in 100 runs four times and scored 100 runs four times, hit 40 or more home runs three times, led the league in doubles, extra base hits, and total bases, won both a Gold Glove Award and a Silver Slugger Award, and set the Dodgers single-season record in home runs. Green was also in the top five in the league in home runs, RBIs, intentional walks, and MVP voting.
Green holds or is tied for the following major league records: most home runs in a game (four), most extra base hits in a game (five), most total bases in a game (19), most runs scored in a game (six), most home runs in two consecutive games (five), most home runs in three consecutive games (seven), and most consecutive home runs (four). He hit his four home runs and five extra base hits, totaling 19 total bases, in one game against the Milwaukee Brewers on May 23, . Green broke the record of 18 total bases (four home runs and double) set by Joe Adcock of the Milwaukee Braves (vs. Brooklyn Dodgers) in .
At the time of his retirement, he was one of only four active players with at least 300 home runs, 1,000 runs and RBIs, 400 doubles, a .280 batting average, and 150 stolen bases. The others were Barry Bonds, Ken Griffey Jr., and Gary Sheffield, each of whom was at least two years older than Green, with at least 1,400 more at bats (though the other three had considerably more home runs and, for Bonds, far more doubles and runs scored too).
Early and personal life
Green was born in Des Plaines, Illinois, and is Jewish, and his family moved to New Jersey when he was one year old, and later to San Jose, California, and finally to Tustin, California when he was 12 years old. His father, Ira, played forward in basketball at DePaul University for the Blue Demons during the 1960s, graduating in 1966, and his mother is the former Judy
Schneider. Green was one of the best-known Jewish major league ballplayers, and the most prominent one with the New York Mets since Art Shamsky played right field for the 1969 World Series champion Mets. Of Jewish major leaguers, only Hank Greenberg, with 331 home runs and 1,276 RBIs, has more major league home runs and RBIs than Green. Green opted to miss games on Yom Kippur, even when his team was in the middle of a playoff race. While Green is often likened to Hank Greenberg, Green's grandfather in fact shortened the family name from Greenberg to Green, for "business reasons." Green was arguably the best Jewish baseball player since Sandy Koufax, although his stats (especially his home runs) declined in his last years. Green retired on February 28, 2008.
Green has a residence in the Orange County, California city of Irvine, which neighbors his old Tustin hometown. In 2002, he married Lindsay Bear in a mixed Jewish and Christian ceremony. The couple have two daughters.
High school
He attended Tustin High School in Tustin, California, where he tied the California Interscholastic Federation record with 147 hits during his high school career. He was a 1st team selection to the 1991 USA Today All-USA high school team, while ranking 3rd in his class academically.
College and the baseball draft
In , Green won a baseball scholarship to Stanford University, where he became a brother of the Delta Tau Delta International Fraternity.
Green was drafted by the Toronto Blue Jays as their 1st round pick (16th overall) in the 1991 amateur draft. The Blue Jays drafted him using a compensation pick from the San Francisco Giants, to whom they had lost Bud Black via free agency. Green ultimately struck a deal with the Blue Jays. They agreed that Green would play in the minor leagues during the summer, but go back to the university in the off-season.
Green received one of the highest signing bonuses at that time ($725,000; ($ today)), a portion of which he donated to the Metropolitan Toronto Housing Authority Breakfast Club (which provides breakfast for kids who would otherwise go to school hungry).
Minor league career
In , Green played for the Dunedin Blue Jays of the Florida State League, and was selected to the league's all-star team.
Green spent most of and in the minors, where he compiled impressive numbers. In 1994, he hit .344—winning the International League batting title—while ranking third in runs, hits, and on-base percentage and hitting thirteen home runs with 61 RBIs for Toronto's AAA affiliate, the Syracuse Chiefs. He was an International League all-star, was voted the International League Rookie of the Year, and was also voted the International League's Best Batting Prospect, Best Outfield Arm, and Most Exciting Player in Baseball America'''s Tools of the Trade poll. In addition, he won the R. Howard Webster Award as the Chief's MVP, and was the Blue Jays' Minor League Player of the Year. Green then hit .306 in the 1994– Venezuelan Winter League.
Major league career
Toronto Blue Jays (1993–1999)
Green made his Major League debut on September 28 as the second-youngest player in the Major Leagues. Though he did not play in the 1993 World Series, he was awarded a World Series ring. He would appear in just seventeen games in 1993 and 1994.
In 1995, his full rookie season, Green started in 97 games, hitting fifteen home runs and batting .288. Green set Blue Jays rookie records in doubles (31), hit streak (14), extra base hits (50), and slugging percentage (.509). He came in fifth in voting for the American League Rookie of the Year.
His and seasons were similar, in that Green was given limited at bats, wasn't trusted to hit left-handed pitching, and produced only sporadically. Green was, however, more aggressive on the base paths in 1997 than in any previous year, stealing fourteen bases while being caught only three times.
In 1998, Green was granted an everyday spot in the line-up and he delivered by becoming the first Blue Jay to become a member of the 30–30 club, in which he hit over 30 home runs and stole 30 or more bases in the same season. He also became the tenth Major Leaguer to hit 35 or more home runs and steal 35 or more bases in a season, joining among others Willie Mays, Barry Bonds, and Alex Rodriguez. Green had never hit more than eighteen home runs in a season (major or minor leagues). He finished the season batting .278 with 35 home runs, 100 RBIs, and 35 stolen bases (a career best).
In , Green proved his new-found power was no fluke. On April 22, he hit a home run into SkyDome's fifth deck, putting him in prestigious company with José Canseco, Mark McGwire, and Joe Carter. By the All-Star break, he had hit 25 home runs and knocked in 70 runs, earning him not only his first All-Star appearance, but also a chance to compete in the Home Run Derby at Fenway Park. Green hit only two home runs, however, and was eliminated in the first round. He finished the season batting .309 (a career best), with 42 home runs (5th in the league), 134 runs (2nd in the league, and a career best), 123 RBIs, and a .588 slugging percentage (5th best in the league). Green also led the league in doubles (45), extra-base hits (87), and total bases (361). He hit a home run in every 14.6 at-bats. After the season, he was awarded a Gold Glove Award for his defense, and a Silver Slugger Award for his offense, and came in ninth in the voting for MVP.
In the off-season, Green expressed a desire to sign as a free agent with a team closer to his California roots after the season. The Blue Jays, facing the rising contract demands of Green and slugger teammate Carlos Delgado, decided not to leave the decision of which player to pursue until mid-way through the season. On November 8, 1999, Green was traded with Jorge Nuñez to the Los Angeles Dodgers for Pedro Borbón Jr. and Raúl Mondesí. Green quickly signed an extension with Los Angeles, agreeing to an $84 million ($ today)/6-year deal that included a $4 million ($ today) signing bonus.
Los Angeles Dodgers (2000–2004)
With a lot of pressure riding on his now well-paid shoulders, Green struggled at times in 2000, his first season with Los Angeles. Still, he led the league in games played (with 162), and was fifth in the league in doubles with 44 (the second-highest total in Dodgers history), while driving in 99 runs. He also had one of the longest consecutive games on-base streaks in baseball history, at 53; five behind Duke Snider's modern day National League (NL) record. He hit home runs in five straight games; the only other Dodgers to achieve this feat are Roy Campanella (1950), Matt Kemp (2010), Adrián González (2014–15), and Joc Pederson (2015). He hit .329 in late innings of close games.
Green had a career year in , batting .297 (.331 with runners in scoring position) with a .598 slugging percentage (a career best), 49 home runs (a career best), 121 runs (7th in the league), 125 RBIs (a career best), 370 total bases (5th in the league), and 20 stolen bases. His 49 home runs were a Dodgers single-season record, but only tied for fourth in the league, behind Barry Bonds, Sammy Sosa, and Luis González. For the fourth straight year he stole 20 or more bases, and batted .331 with runners in scoring position. Green came in sixth in voting for league MVP.
Green made headlines for two decisions that he made during the 2001 season. On September 26, he stood by his word and sat out a game for the first time in 415 games, to honor the most significant holiday on the Jewish calendar, Yom Kippur. He also made a second notable decision on September 26, donating his day's pay of $75,000 ($ today) to a charity for survivors of the New York 9/11 terrorist attacks.
Green started off slowly in , but turned things around with a record-setting power display. On May 23, the turning point of his season, he had one of the best single game performances ever. He hit a Major League record-tying four home runs and a record-tying five extra-base hits (he hit a double in addition to the home runs) against the Milwaukee Brewers, and had 19 total bases, breaking Joe Adcock's 1954 Major League record by one, while matching the major league record of six runs scored in one game. No other major league player had six hits, five runs, and as many as four extra-base hits in a game again until Ian Kinsler of the Texas Rangers in 2009. He hit a 5th home run during the following game to tie the Major League 2-game home run record (5), and then hit 2 more the game after to break the Major League three-game record (seven). Green also broke the NL record with 9 home runs in that calendar week. He was voted to the All-Star team, and finished the season with a .285 average, .385 On-base percentage (a career best), 42 home runs (3rd in the league), 114 RBIs (4th in the league), 114 runs (4th in the league), 93 walks (a career best), 22 intentional walks (5th in the league), and 20 stolen bases. He hit .333 with runners in scoring position and two out. Green came in 5th in voting for league MVP.
In , Green struggled with his power and RBI production. He had problems with tendinitis in his left shoulder, which limited him to a 19 home runs and 85 RBIs as he batted .280. Still, he was 2nd in the league in doubles (with 49; a career best).
Green's power improved in , as he hit 28 home runs and collected 86 RBIs, while batting .266, leading the Dodgers to the 2004 playoffs. Green moved to first base for much of the season. He hit three home runs in the post-season, in just 16 at bats.
Green was traded to the Arizona Diamondbacks on January 11, 2005. He waived his no-trade clause for a three-year extension from the team for $32 million. The trade was part of a three-team trade which sent Green and cash to the Diamondbacks, in exchange for catcher Dioner Navarro and three minor leaguers.
Arizona Diamondbacks (2005–06)
While Green's batting average in 2005 (.286) was his best in four years, he walked fewer times (62) than he had in the prior six years, and hit fewer home runs (22) and scored fewer runs (87) than he had in all but seven of his prior seasons. Green came to bat 398 times with the Diamondbacks before being traded in , and while his batting average and on-base percentage were near his career averages, his slugging percentage (.425) was the lowest it had been since he broke into the Majors.
On August 22, 2006, Green was dealt, along with $6.5 million in cash, by the Arizona Diamondbacks to the New York Mets for Triple-A 23-year-old left-handed pitcher, Evan MacLane.
New York Mets (2006–07)
2006
Green's second at bat as a Met was an RBI single off Cardinals' pitcher Jason Marquis, another Jewish ball player.
Overall, in 2006 Green had his worst offensive year in a decade. He hit only fifteen home runs, with 66 RBI, four stolen bases, a .432 slugging percentage, and a .277 batting average. Green's fifteen home runs matched his second-lowest total since becoming a full-time player. His 73 runs scored was also a significant drop-off from the 134 runs he scored in his outstanding 1999 season with Toronto. One bright point was that his .799 OPS against lefties was the tenth-best in the league for lefty batters. Curiously, while he had the ninth-highest ground ball/fly ball ratio in the league (2.17), he also tied with Barry Bonds for the longest average home run in the NL in 2006 (407 ft). His home run against the Mets on April 11 was the ninth-longest in the NL for the year, and only two longer home runs were hit in the AL. He also had another bright point—he struck out only 15.5% of the time, his best career year through 2006. He faded as the season progressed, dropping 65 points—and batting .240—after the All Star break.
After the season ended, Green was eighteenth of all active players in doubles (and younger than all those ahead of him), and in the top thirty of all active players in home runs, runs, total bases, and extra base hits. He was also in the top 100 of all players ever lifetime in home runs.
2006 marked only the second post-season appearance of Green's career. In the 2006 playoffs, Green tied for the team lead with three doubles, and hit .313, second best on the team (as the Mets hit only .250).
2007
On February 13, 2007, the Mets declined a $10 million mutual option on Green's contract, that would have kept him in New York through the season. He got a $2 million buyout instead. The report came amid retirement rumors. Green commented on them, saying: "There's been no decision on the future at all as far as I'm concerned. I'm planning on playing and seeing how things go...."
In the fifth inning of the May 25, 2007, game against the Florida Marlins, Green suffered a chip fracture of the first metatarsal bone in his right foot when he fouled a ball off of it. Green at the time of the injury was batting .314, tenth-best in the NL, and .341 against right-handers, with five home runs, 22 RBIs, twelve doubles, and four stolen bases. On May 29, Green was placed on the 15-day disabled list; his first time on the DL in his career. The bone was expected to fully heal in six weeks, but he was activated well before then; on June 11 he was back in the lineup, though the bone was not completely healed, and went 2–for–4 with a run batted in and a stolen base.
On June 24, Green started at first base for the first time since 2006, when he was a member of the Diamondbacks.
Retirement
After the 2007 season, Green became a free agent. He chose to retire before the start of the 2008 season as he wanted to be with his family. Green confirmed his retirement on February 28, 2008.
Among all-time Jewish major league baseball players—through 2010—he was second in career home runs and RBIs (behind Hank Greenberg), and tenth in batting average (behind Morrie Arnovich).
Fielding
In 1998, Green had fourteen assists and five double plays from the outfield. Most of Green's innings in the field were in right field, where he was awarded a Gold Glove Award in 1999. In 2005, he did not commit an error in the outfield. Green also played over 100 games at first base (mostly in 2004 and 2006), and over fifty games each in center field and left field.
Accomplishments
Toronto Blue Jays Minor League Player of the Year (1994)
Fifth in AL Rookie of the Year voting (1995)
Topps All-Star Rookie Team (1995)
Member of the 30–30 club (1998)
All-Star (1999, 2002)
AL Total Bases leader (1999)
AL Doubles leader (1999)
AL Gold Glove Award (1999)
AL Silver Slugger Award (1999)
Ninth in AL MVP voting (1999)
Toronto Blue Jays Player of the Year (1999)
Holds Dodgers record for most home runs in a season, with 49 (2001)
Sixth in NL MVP voting (2001)
LA Dodgers Player of the Year (2001)
Four home runs in a game (May 23, 2002)
Holds record for total bases in a game, with 19 (May 23, 2002)
Fifth in NL MVP voting (2002)
20-Home Run Seasons: seven (1998–2002, 2004 & 2005)
30-Home Run Seasons: four (1998, 1999, 2001 & 2002)
40-Home Run Seasons: three (1999, 2001 & 2002)
100 RBI Seasons: four (1998, 1999, 2001 & 2002)
100 Runs Scored Seasons: four (1998, 1999, 2001 & 2002)
Only Major League player to ever hit seven home runs in a three-game span (May 23 (4), 24 (1), 25 (2), 2002)
Recorded his 2,000th Major League hit (September 25, 2007)
Hall of Fame candidacy
Green became eligible for the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 2013. 75% of the vote was necessary for induction, and 5% was necessary to stay on the ballot. Of the 37 total candidates, Green received 2 votes (0.4%) and was eliminated from future BBWAA voting.
Team Israel
Green played and coached for the Israeli national baseball team in the 2013 World Baseball Classic qualifier in September 2012. He was eligible to play for Israel because he is Jewish. Under the Classic's rules, non-Israeli citizens of Jewish heritage can play for the country. Israel lost to Spain in extra innings in the Pool Finals, missing out on a spot in the tournament. During the first game of the tournament Green was the designated hitter and batted fifth, going 2 for 5 with a run scored and a strike out. Green did not play in the second game. During the third and final game, Green went 1-for-4 with a run batted in while leaving seven men on base.
Non-baseball career
Green made a cameo appearance on the series premiere of the hit show Numb3rs (2005), while he was a Los Angeles Dodger, in the film The Core (2003) and on The Nick Cannon Show (2002).
He founded Greenfly in 2014, a software company developing technology for sports and entertainment organizations and used by the Los Angeles Dodgers.
In 2011, Green, with co-author Gordon McAlpine, published The Way of Baseball, a memoir of his spiritual development through his baseball career.
Charitable work
Green assists several charities, including the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation, Special Olympics, Parkinsons Foundation, and the United Jewish Federation. He donated $250,000 of his salary each year to the Dodgers' Dream Foundation ($1.5 million over 6 years), supporting the development of 4 Dodger Dream Fields throughout LA and the purchase of books for local elementary schools and youth community programs. He also served as Spokesman for the Jewish Federation of Greater Los Angeles to promote literacy.
In 2007, Green pledged to donate $180—or 10 times chai—to the UJA-Federation of New York for every run batted in. This was also matched by the New York Mets and Steiner Sports Collectibles. Chai, which means life in Hebrew, has a numerological value of 18 and the Jewish community often gives gifts in multiples of 18 as a result.
Honors and awards
Honored at the Baseball Assistance Team's annual Going to Bat for BAT fundraising dinner as the recipient of the Bart Giamatti Award for his off-the-field involvement in the community in 2000.
Named Baseball Man of the Year at the Cedars-Sinai Sports Spectacular on June 29, 2003, an event that helped raise money for the hospital's genetic defects unit.
Named a 2003 inductee into the Arizona Fall League Hall of Fame.
Presented the Hank Greenberg Sportsmanship Award by the American Jewish Historical Society in 2004.
Inducted into the Orange County Jewish Sports Hall of Fame at the Merage Jewish Community Center in Irvine, California.
Inducted into the Jewish Sports Hall of Fame Northern California.
Inducted into the Southern California Jewish Sports Hall of Fame (2001).
Inducted into the National Jewish Sports Hall of Fame (2005).
Inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame (2014).
Miscellaneous
Green's walkup songs were "Be Yourself" by Audioslave and "Song 2" by Blur.
Threw his batting gloves to children each time he hit a home run in his home ballpark.
Has two bats in the National Baseball Hall of Fame: 1) the bat he used on May 23, 2002, to hit four homers against the Milwaukee Brewers; and 2) the bat he used to hit a grand slam on May 21, 2000, one of a record six grand slams hit on that day.
Shawn Green was also a playable character in Backyard Baseball 2001,Backyard Baseball 2003, and "Backyard Baseball 2005", representing the Dodgers.
See also
List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders
List of Major League Baseball home run records
List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
30–30 club
List of Major League Baseball single-game home run leaders
List of Major League Baseball single-game hits leadersJews and Baseball: An American Love Story'', 2010 documentary
List of select Jewish baseball players
References
External links
, or Retrosheet, or Pelota Binaria (Venezuelan Winter League)
"A Power Hitter. And a Source of Jewish Pride", August 26, 2006
1972 births
Living people
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
American League All-Stars
Arizona Diamondbacks players
Cardenales de Lara players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Dunedin Blue Jays players
Gold Glove Award winners
Jewish American baseball players
Jewish Major League Baseball players
Knoxville Smokies players
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Major League Baseball right fielders
National League All-Stars
New York Mets players
People from Des Plaines, Illinois
Baseball players from Cook County, Illinois
Sportspeople from Irvine, California
Silver Slugger Award winners
Syracuse Chiefs players
Toronto Blue Jays players
21st-century American Jews
Tustin High School alumni
Baseball players from Orange County, California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SL-1
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SL-1
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Stationary Low-Power Reactor Number One, also known as SL-1 or the Argonne Low Power Reactor (ALPR), was a United States Army experimental nuclear reactor in the western United States at the National Reactor Testing Station (NRTS) in Idaho about west of Idaho Falls, now the Idaho National Laboratory. On January 3, 1961, a steam explosion killed all three of its young military operators, pinning one of them to the ceiling with a reactor vessel plug. It remains the only U.S. reactor accident to cause immediate deaths.
Part of the Army Nuclear Power Program, SL-1 was a prototype for reactors intended to provide electrical power and heat for small, remote military facilities, such as radar sites near the Arctic Circle, and those in the DEW Line. The design power was 3 MW (thermal), but some 4.7 MW tests were performed in the months before the accident. Operating power was 200 kW electrical and 400 kW thermal for space heating.
During the accident, the core power level reached nearly 20 GW in just four milliseconds, causing the explosion. The direct cause was the over-withdrawal of the central control rod that absorbed neutrons in the reactor's core. The accident released about of iodine-131, which was not considered significant, due to its location in the remote high desert of Eastern Idaho. About of fission products were released into the atmosphere.
Design and operations
From 1954 to 1955, the U.S. Army evaluated their need for nuclear reactor plants that would be operable in remote regions of the Arctic. The reactors were to replace diesel generators and boilers that provided electricity and space heating for the Army's radar stations. The Army Reactors Branch wrote the guidelines for the project and hired Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) to design, build, and test a prototype reactor plant to be called the Argonne Low Power Reactor (ALPR). Some of the more important criteria included:
All components able to be transported by air
All components limited to packages measuring and weighing
Use of standard components
Minimal on-site construction
Simplicity and reliability
Adaptable to the Arctic permafrost region
3-year fuel operating lifetime per core loading
The prototype was constructed at the National Reactor Testing Station west of Idaho Falls from July 1957 to July 1958. It went critical on August 11, 1958, became operational on October 24, and was formally dedicated on December 2, 1958. The 3 MW (thermal) boiling water reactor (BWR) used 93.20% highly enriched uranium fuel. It operated with natural circulation, using light water as a coolant (vs. heavy water) and moderator. ANL used its experience from the BORAX experiments to design the reactor. The circulating water system operated at flowing through fuel plates of uranium-aluminum alloy. The plant was turned over to the Army for training and operating experience in December 1958 after extensive testing, with Combustion Engineering Incorporated (CEI) acting as the lead contractor beginning February 5, 1959.
Trainees in the Army Reactor Training Program included members of the Army, called cadre, who were the primary plant operators. Many maritime civilians also trained along with a few Air Force and Navy personnel. While plant operation was generally done by the cadre in two-man crews, development of the reactor was supervised directly by CEI staff. CEI decided to perform development work on the reactor as recent as the latter half of 1960 in which the reactor was to be operated at 4.7 MWthermal for a "PL-1 condenser test." As the reactor core aged and boron neutron poison strips corroded and flaked off, CEI calculated that about 18% of the boron in the core had been lost. On November 11, 1960, CEI installed cadmium sheets (also a poison) "to several tee slot positions to increase reactor shutdown margin."
Most of the plant equipment was in a cylindrical steel reactor building known as ARA-602. It was in diameter with an overall height of , and was made of plate steel, most of which had a thickness of . Access to the building was provided by an ordinary door through an enclosed exterior stairwell from ARA-603, the Support Facilities Building. An emergency exit door led to an exterior stairwell to the ground level. The reactor building was not a pressure-type containment shell as would have been used for reactors located in populated areas. Nevertheless, the building was able to contain most of the radioactive particles released by the eventual explosion.
The reactor core structure was built to hold 59 fuel assemblies, one startup neutron source assembly, and nine control rods. The actual core in use had 40 fuel elements and was controlled by five cruciform rods. The five active rods were in the shape of a plus symbol (+) in cross section: one in the center (Rod Number 9), and four on the periphery of the active core (Rods 1, 3, 5, and 7). The control rods were made of thick cadmium, clad with of aluminum. They had an overall span of and an effective length of . The 40 fuel assemblies were composed of nine fuel plates each. The plates were thick, consisting of of uranium-aluminum alloy "meat" covered by of X-8001 aluminum cladding. The meat was long and wide. The water gap between fuel plates was . Water channels within the control rod shrouds was . The initial loading of the 40 assembly core was highly enriched with 93.2% uranium-235 and contained of U-235.
The deliberate choice of a smaller fuel loading element made the region near the center more active than it would have been with 59 fuel assemblies. The four outer control rods were not even used in the smaller core after tests concluded they were not necessary. In the operating SL-1 core, Rods 2, 4, 6, and 8 were dummy rods, had newly installed cadmium shims, or were filled with test sensors, and were shaped like the capital letter T. The effort to minimize the size of the core gave Rod 9 an abnormally large reactivity worth.
Accident and response
On Tuesday, January 3, 1961, SL-1 was being prepared for restart after a shutdown of 11 days over the holidays. Maintenance procedures required that Rod 9 be manually withdrawn a few inches to reconnect it to its drive mechanism. At 9:01 pm MST, this rod was suddenly withdrawn too far, causing SL-1 to go prompt critical instantly. In four milliseconds, the heat generated by the resulting enormous power excursion caused fuel inside the core to melt and to explosively vaporize. The expanding fuel produced an extreme pressure wave that blasted water upward, striking the top of the reactor vessel with a peak pressure of . The slug of water was propelled at with average pressure of around . This extreme water hammer propelled the entire reactor vessel upward at , while the shield plugs were ejected at . With six holes on the top of the reactor vessel, high-pressure water and steam sprayed the entire room with radioactive debris from the damaged core. A later investigation concluded that the (or thirteen short tons) vessel had jumped , parts of it striking the ceiling of the reactor building before settling back into its original location, and depositing insulation and gravel on the operating floor. If the vessel's #5 seal housing had not hit the overhead crane, it would have risen about . The excursion, steam explosion, and vessel movement took two to four seconds.
The spray of water and steam knocked two operators onto the floor, killing one and severely injuring another. The No. 7 shield plug from the top of the reactor vessel impaled the third man through his groin and exited his shoulder, pinning him to the ceiling. The victims were Army Specialists Richard Leroy McKinley (age 27) and John A. Byrnes (age 22), and Navy Seabee Construction Electrician First Class (CE1) Richard C. Legg (age 26). It was later established by author Todd Tucker that Byrnes (the reactor operator) had lifted the rod and caused the excursion; Legg (the shift supervisor) was standing on top of the reactor vessel and was impaled and pinned to the ceiling; and McKinley (the trainee) stood nearby. Only McKinley was found alive, unconscious and in deep shock, by rescuers. This was consistent with the analysis of the SL-1 Board of Investigation and with the results of the autopsies, which suggested that Byrnes and Legg died instantly, while McKinley showed signs of diffuse bleeding within his scalp, indicating he survived about two hours before succumbing to his wounds. All three men died of physical trauma.
Reactor principles and events
Early press reports indicated that the explosion may have been due to a chemical reaction, but that was shortly ruled out. Fast neutron activation had occurred to various materials in the room, indicating a nuclear power excursion unlike a properly operating reactor.
In a thermal-neutron reactor such as SL-1, neutrons are moderated (slowed down) to control the nuclear fission process and increase the likelihood of fission with U-235 fuel. Without sufficient moderator, cores such as SL-1 would be unable to sustain a nuclear chain reaction. When the moderator is removed from the core, the chain reaction decreases. Water, when used as a moderator, is maintained under high pressure to keep it liquid. Steam formation in the channels around the nuclear fuel suppresses the chain reaction.
Another control is the effect of the delayed neutrons on the chain reaction in the core. Most neutrons (the neutrons) are produced nearly instantaneously by the fission of U-235. But a few—approximately 0.7 percent in a U-235-fueled reactor operating at steady-state—are produced through the relatively slow radioactive decay of certain fission products. (These fission products are trapped inside the fuel plates in close proximity to the uranium-235 fuel.) The delayed production of a fraction of the neutrons enables reactor power changes to be controlled on a time scale amenable to humans and machinery.
In the case of an ejected control assembly or poison, it is possible for the reactor to become critical (i.e. prompt critical). When the reactor is prompt critical, the time to double the power is of the order of 10 microseconds. The duration necessary for temperature to follow the power level depends on the design of the reactor core. Typically, the coolant temperature lags behind the power by 3 to 5 seconds in a conventional LWR. In the SL-1 design, it was about 6 milliseconds before steam formation started.
SL-1 was built with a main central control rod that could produce a very large excess reactivity if it were completely removed. The extra rod worth was in part due to the decision to load only 40 of the 59 fuel assemblies with nuclear fuel, thus making the prototype reactor core more active in the center. In normal operation control rods are withdrawn only far enough to generate sufficient reactivity for a sustained nuclear reaction and power generation. In this accident, however, the additional reactivity was enough to take the reactor prompt critical within an estimated 4 milliseconds. That was too fast for the heat from the fuel to permeate the aluminum cladding and boil enough water to fully stop the power growth in all parts of the core via negative moderator temperature and void feedback.
Post-accident analysis concluded that the final control method (i.e., dissipation of the prompt critical state and the end of the sustained nuclear chain reaction) occurred by means of catastrophic core disassembly: destructive melting, vaporization, and consequent conventional explosive expansion of the parts of the reactor core where the greatest amount of heat was being produced most quickly. It was estimated that this core heating and vaporization process happened in about 7.5 milliseconds, before enough steam had been formed to shut down the reaction, beating the steam shutdown by a few milliseconds. A key statistic makes it clear why the core blew apart: the reactor designed for a 3 MW power output operated momentarily at a peak of about 20 GW, a power density over 6,000 times higher than its safe operating limit. This criticality accident is estimated to have produced 4.4 × 1018 fissions, or about energy.
Events after the power excursion
Heat sensors above the reactor set off an alarm at the NRTS security facility at 9:01 pm MST, the time of the accident. False alarms had occurred in the morning and afternoon that same day. The response team of six firemen (Ken Dearden, assistant chief; Mel Hess, lieutenant.; Bob Archer; Carl Johnson; Egon Lamprecht; Gerald Stuart; Vern Conlon) arrived nine minutes later, expecting another false alarm. They noticed nothing unusual at first, with only a little steam rising from the building, normal for the cold night. The firefighters, unable to hail anyone inside the SL-1 facility, had a security guard open the gate for them. They donned their Scott Air-Paks, and arrived at the Support Facilities Building to investigate.
The building appeared normal, but was unoccupied. Three mugs of warm coffee were in the break room and three jackets were hanging nearby. They entered the reactor control room and noticed a radiation warning light. Their handheld radiation detector jumped sharply above its maximum range as they were climbing the stairs to SL-1's reactor operating floor level. This prompted a retreat for a second radiation detector. The second radiation detector also maxed out at its 200 röntgens per hour (R/hr) scale as they ascended again. They peered into the reactor room before withdrawing.
At 9:17 pm, a health physicist arrived; he and Assistant Chief Moshberger, both wearing air tanks and masks with positive pressure in the mask to force out any potential contaminants, approached the reactor building stairs. Their detectors read 25 röntgens per hour (R/hr) as they started up the stairs, and they withdrew. Finding a higher-scale ion chamber detector, the pair reached the top of the stairs to look inside the reactor room for the three missing men. Their Jordan Radector AG-500 meter pegged at 500 R/hr on the way up. They saw a dim, humid, wet, operating floor strewn with rocks and steel punchings, twisted metal, and debris scattered.
Coming from nearby Idaho Falls, the lead SL-1 health physicist, Ed Vallario, and Paul Duckworth, the SL-1 Operations Supervisor, arrived at SL-1 around 10:30 pm. The two donned air packs and went quickly into the administration building, through the support building, and up the stairs to the reactor floor. Half-way up the stairs, Vallario heard McKinley moaning. Finding him and a second operator on the floor who appeared to be dead, the two decided to return to the checkpoint and get help for the bleeding McKinley.
The two were joined by three health physicists who donned air packs and went with them back to the reactor floor. The masks on their air packs were fogging up, limiting visibility. McKinley was moving slightly, but his body was partially covered with metal debris, which the rescuers had to remove in order to carry him with a stretcher. Vallario also moved debris in his attempt to find the missing crewman. Byrnes was partially covered with steel pellets and blood. Another man checked for Byrnes' pulse and announced that he was dead.
Three men attempted to remove McKinley via the outside stairs, sending one man outside to meet them with a truck. But after carrying McKinley across the operating floor to the exit, they discovered equipment blocking the emergency exit door. This forced the rescuers to reverse course and use the main stairs.
During the movement of McKinley, two men had their Scott Air-Paks freeze up and cease to work. Duckworth evacuated due to the malfunction, while Vallario removed his mask and breathed contaminated air to complete the evacuation of McKinley. The rescue took about three minutes.
The evacuation of McKinley turned quickly into a major radiological problem. McKinley was first shuttled into a panel truck and then into the back of an ambulance. The on-call nurse, Helen Leisen, tending to the patient in the back of the ambulance, heard at least a faint breath, perhaps his last. But before the vehicle made it to nearby Highway 20, the AEC doctor had the nurse evacuate and, entering the ambulance, found no pulse. He pronounced the man dead at 11:14 pm. The contaminated ambulance, with the body of McKinley, was driven out into the desert and abandoned for several hours.
Four men had entered into the reactor building at 10:38 pm and found the third man. Legg was discovered last because he was pinned to the ceiling above the reactor by a shield plug and not easily recognizable.
Extensive decontamination was conducted that night. About 30 of the first responders took showers, scrubbed their hands with potassium permanganate, and changed their clothes. The body in the ambulance was later disrobed and returned to the ambulance, which took it to a nearby facility for storage and autopsy.
On the night of January 4, a team of six volunteers worked in pairs to recover Byrnes' body from the SL-1 operating floor. It was taken, also by ambulance, to the same facility.
After four days of planning, the third body, by far the most contaminated, was retrieved. Modifications to the reactor room had to be performed by a welder inside a lead shielded box attached to a crane. On January 9, in relays of two at a time, a team of ten men, allowed no more than 65 seconds exposure each, used sharp hooks on the end of long poles to pull Legg's body free of the No. 7 shield plug, dropping it onto a stretcher attached to a crane outside the building.
Radioactive copper 64Cu from a cigarette lighter screw on McKinley and a brass watch band buckle from Byrnes both proved that the reactor had indeed gone prompt critical. This was confirmed with several other readings, including gold 198Au from Legg's wedding ring. Nuclear accident dosimeters inside the reactor plant and particles of uranium from the victim's clothes also provided evidence of the excursion. Before these discoveries of neutron-activated elements in the men's belongings, scientists had doubted that a nuclear excursion had occurred, believing the reactor was inherently safe. Strontium-91, a major fission product, was also found with the uranium particles. These findings ruled out early speculation that a chemical explosion caused the accident.
Some sources and eyewitness accounts confuse the names and positions of each victim. In Idaho Falls: The untold story of America's first nuclear accident, the author indicates that the rescue teams identified Byrnes as the man found still alive, believing that Legg's body was the one found next to the reactor shield and recovered the night after the accident, and that McKinley was impaled by the control rod to the ceiling directly above the reactor. The misidentification, caused by the severe blast injuries to the victims, was rectified during the autopsies conducted by Clarence Lushbaugh, but this caused confusion for some time.
The seven rescuers who carried McKinley and received Carnegie Hero awards from the Carnegie Hero Fund were: Paul Duckworth, the SL-1 Operations Supervisor; Sidney Cohen, the SL-1 Test supervisor; William Rausch, SL-1 Assistant Operations Supervisor; Ed Vallario, SL-1 Health Physicist; William Gammill, the on-duty AEC Site Survey Chief; Lovell J. Callister, health physicist, and Delos E. Richards, health physics technician.
Cause
One of the required maintenance procedures called for Rod 9 to be manually withdrawn about in order to attach it to the automated control mechanism from which it had been disconnected. Post-accident calculations, as well as examination of scratches on Rod 9, estimate that it had actually been withdrawn about , causing the reactor to go prompt critical and triggering the steam explosion. The most common theories proposed for the withdrawal of the rod are (1) sabotage or suicide by one of the operators, (2) a murder-suicide involving an affair with the wife of one of the other operators, (3) inadvertent withdrawal of the main control rod, or (4) an intentional attempt to "exercise" the rod (to make it travel more smoothly within its sheath). The maintenance logs do not address what the technicians were attempting to do, and thus the actual cause of the accident will never be known. However, it seems unlikely that it was a suicide.
Post-accident experiments were conducted with an identically weighted mock control rod to determine whether it was possible or feasible for one or two men to have withdrawn Rod 9 by 20 inches. Experiments included a simulation of the possibility that the central rod was stuck and one man freed it himself, reproducing the scenario that investigators considered the best explanation: Byrnes broke the control rod loose and withdrew it accidentally, killing all three men. When testing the theory that Rod 9 was rapidly withdrawn manually, three men took part in timed trials and their efforts were compared to the energy of the nuclear excursion that had occurred.
At SL-1, control rods would sometimes get stuck in the control rod channel. Numerous procedures were conducted to evaluate control rods to ensure they were operating properly. There were rod drop tests and scram tests of each rod, in addition to periodic rod exercising and rod withdrawals for normal operation. From February 1959 to November 18, 1960, there were 40 cases of a stuck control rod for scram and rod drop tests and about a 2.5% failure rate. From November 18 to December 23, 1960, there was a dramatic increase in stuck rods, with 23 in that time period and a 13.0% failure rate. Besides these test failures, there were an additional 21 rod-sticking incidents from February 1959 to December 1960; four of these had occurred in the last month of operation during routine rod withdrawal. Rod 9 had the best operational performance record even though it was operated more frequently than any of the other rods.
Rod sticking has been attributed to misalignment, corrosion product build-up, bearing wear, clutch wear, and drive mechanism seal wear. Many of the failure modes that caused a stuck rod during tests (like bearing and clutch wear) would apply only to a movement performed by the control rod drive mechanism. Since the No. 9 rod is centrally located, its alignment may have been better than Nos. 1, 3, 5, and 7, which were more prone to sticking. After the accident, logbooks and former plant operators were consulted to determine if there had been any rods stuck during the reassembly operation that Byrnes was performing. One person had performed this about 300 times, and another 250 times; neither had ever felt a control rod stick when being manually raised during this procedure. Furthermore, no one had ever reported a stuck rod during manual reconnection.
During congressional hearings in June 1961, the SL-1 Project Manager, W. B. Allred, admitted that the lack of supervision by CEI of SL-1 plant operation on an "around-the-clock basis" was because the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) had rejected the idea "for budget reasons." Allred was also grilled on the matter of increased rod sticking between November 16, 1960, and the final shutdown on December 23. Of the increase, Allred stated, "I was not completely aware of significant increase" and, "I was not aware that this sharp increase had occurred." When asked who was the person responsible for informing him of the sticking problem, Allred said that Paul Duckworth, the SL-1 Operations Supervisor, should have reported this to him but did not. When pressed, Allred said that if he had known of the increased control rod sticking, he "would have shut the plant down for more detailed examination."
Consequences
The accident caused SL-1's design to be abandoned and future reactors to be designed so that a single control rod removal could not produce very large excess reactivity. Today this is known as the "one stuck rod" criterion and requires complete shutdown capability even with the most reactive rod stuck in the fully withdrawn position. The documentation and procedures required for operating nuclear reactors expanded substantially and became far more formal; procedures that had previously taken two pages expanded to hundreds. Radiation meters were changed to allow higher ranges for emergency response activities.
Although portions of the center of SL-1's core had been vaporized briefly, very little corium was recovered. The fuel plates showed signs of catastrophic destruction leaving voids, but "no appreciable amount of glazed molten material was recovered or observed." Additionally, "There is no evidence of molten material having flowed out between the plates." It is believed that rapid cooling of the core was responsible for the small amount of molten material. There was insufficient heat generated for any corium to reach or penetrate the bottom of the reactor vessel.
The SL-1 reactor building contained most of the radioactivity, but iodine-131 levels on plant buildings downwind reached 50 times background levels during several days of monitoring. Radiation surveys of the Support Facilities Building, for example, indicated high contamination in halls, but light contamination in offices. Radiation exposure limits before the accident were 100 röntgens to save a life and 25 to save valuable property. During the response to the accident, 22 people received doses of 3 to 27 Röntgens full-body exposure. Removal of radioactive waste and disposal of the three bodies eventually exposed 790 people to harmful levels of radiation. In March 1962, the AEC awarded certificates of heroism to 32 participants in the response.
After a pause for evaluation of procedures, the Army continued its use of reactors, operating the Mobile Low-Power Reactor (ML-1), which started full-power operation on February 28, 1963, becoming the smallest nuclear power plant on record to do so. This design was eventually abandoned after corrosion problems. While the tests had shown that nuclear power was likely to have lower total costs, the financial pressures of the Vietnam War caused the Army to favor lower initial costs and it stopped the development of its reactor program in 1965, although the existing reactors continued operating (MH-1A until 1977).
Cleanup
General Electric was hired to remove the reactor vessel and dismantle and clean up the contaminated buildings at the SL-1 project site. The site was cleaned from 1961 to 1962, removing the bulk of the contaminated debris and burying it. The massive cleanup operation included the transport of the reactor vessel to a nearby "hot shop" for extensive analysis. Other items of less importance were disposed of or transported to decontamination sites for various kinds of cleaning. About 475 people took part in the SL-1 site cleanup, including volunteers from the U.S. Army and the Atomic Energy Commission.
The recovery operation included clearing the operating room floor of radioactive debris. The extremely high radiation areas surrounding the reactor vessel and the fan room directly above it contributed to the difficulty of recovering the reactor vessel. Remotely operated equipment, cranes, boom trucks, and safety precautions had to be developed and tested by the recovery team. Radiation surveys and photographic analysis was used to determine what items needed to be removed from the building first. Powerful vacuum cleaners, operated manually by teams of men, collected vast quantities of debris. The manual overhead crane above the operating floor was used to move numerous heavy objects weighing up to for them to be dumped out onto the ground outside. Hot spots up to 400 R/hr were discovered and removed from the work area.
With the operating room floor relatively clean and radiation fields manageable, the manual overhead crane was employed to do a trial lift of the reactor vessel. The crane was fitted with a dial-type load indicator and the vessel was lifted a few inches. The successful test found that the estimated vessel plus an unknown amount of debris weighed about . After removing a large amount of the building structure above the reactor vessel, a 60-ton Manitowoc Model 3900 crane lifted the vessel out of the building into an awaiting transport cask attached to a tractor-trailer combination with a low-boy 60-ton capacity trailer. After raising or removing 45 power lines, phone lines, and guy wires from the proposed roadway, the tractor-trailer, accompanied by numerous observers and supervisors, proceeded at about to the ANP Hot Shop (originally associated with the Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion program), located in a remote area of the NRTS known as Test Area North, about away.
A burial ground was constructed about northeast of the original site of the reactor. It was opened on May 21, 1961. Burial of the waste helped minimize radiation exposure to the public and site workers that would have resulted from transport of contaminated debris from SL-1 to the Radioactive-Waste Management Complex over of public highway. The original cleanup of the site took about 24 months. The entire reactor building, contaminated materials from nearby buildings, and soil and gravel contaminated during cleanup operations were buried in the burial ground. The majority of buried materials consist of soils and gravel.
Recovered portions of the reactor core, including the fuel and all other parts of the reactor that were important to the accident investigation, were taken to the ANP Hot Shop for study. After the accident investigation was complete, the reactor fuel was sent to the Idaho Chemical Processing Plant for reprocessing. The reactor core minus the fuel, along with the other components sent to the Hot Shop for study, was eventually disposed of at the Radioactive Waste Management Complex.
The remains of SL-1 are now buried near the original site at . The burial site consists of three excavations, in which a total volume of of contaminated material was deposited. The excavations were dug as close to basalt as the equipment used would allow and ranges from in depth. At least of clean backfill was placed over each excavation. Shallow mounds of soil over the excavations were added at the completion of cleanup activities in September 1962. The site and burial mound are collectively known as United States Environmental Protection Agency Superfund Operable Unit 5-05.
Numerous radiation surveys and cleanup of the surface of the burial ground and surrounding area have been performed in the years since the SL-1 accident. Aerial surveys were performed by EG&G Las Vegas in 1974, 1982, 1990, and 1993. The Radiological and Environmental Sciences Laboratory conducted gamma radiation surveys every three to four years between 1973 and 1987 and every year between 1987 and 1994. Particle-picking at the site was performed in 1985 and 1993. Results from the surveys indicated that cesium-137 and its progeny (decay products) are the primary surface-soil contaminants. During a survey of surface soil in June 1994, "hot spots," areas of higher radioactivity, were found within the burial ground with activities ranging from 0.1 to 50 milliroentgen (mR)/hour. On November 17, 1994, the highest radiation reading measured at above the surface at the SL-1 burial ground was 0.5 mR/hour; local background radiation was 0.2 mR/hour. A 1995 assessment by the EPA recommended that a cap be placed over the burial mounds. The primary remedy for SL-1 was to be containment by capping with an engineered barrier constructed primarily of native materials. This remedial action was completed in 2000 and first reviewed by the EPA in 2003.
Movies and books
The U.S. government produced a film about the accident for internal use in the 1960s. The video was subsequently released and can be viewed at The Internet Archive and YouTube. SL-1 is the title of a 1983 movie, written and directed by Diane Orr and C. Larry Roberts, about the nuclear reactor explosion. Interviews with scientists, archival film, and contemporary footage, as well as slow-motion sequences, are used in the film. The events of the accident are also the subject of one book: Idaho Falls: The untold story of America's first nuclear accident (2003) and 2 chapters in Proving the Principle – A History of The Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, 1949–1999 (2000).
In 1975, the anti-nuclear book We Almost Lost Detroit, by John G. Fuller was published, referring at one point to the Idaho Falls accident. Prompt Critical is the title of a 2012 short film, viewable on YouTube, written and directed by James Lawrence Sicard, dramatizing the events surrounding the SL-1 accident. A documentary about the accident was shown on the History Channel.
Another author, Todd Tucker, studied the accident and published a book detailing the historical aspects of nuclear reactor programs of the U.S. military branches. Tucker used the Freedom of Information Act to obtain reports, including autopsies of the victims, writing in detail how each person died and how parts of their bodies were severed, analyzed, and buried as radioactive waste. The autopsies were performed by the same pathologist known for his work following the Cecil Kelley criticality accident. Tucker explains the reasoning behind the autopsies and the severing of victims' body parts, one of which gave off 1,500 R/hour on contact. Because the SL-1 accident killed all three of the military operators on site, Tucker calls it "the deadliest nuclear reactor incident in U.S. history."
See also
BORAX experiments, 1953–54, which proved that the transformation of water to steam would safely limit a boiling water reactor power excursion, similar to that in this incident.
International Nuclear Event Scale
List of civilian nuclear accidents
List of civilian radiation accidents
List of military nuclear accidents
List of nuclear reactors
Nuclear power debate
Nuclear safety and security
Radiation
Radioactive contamination
References
External links
"SL-1 Reactor Accident on January 3, 1961, Interim Report", May 1961. From the above page. 15.5 MB PDF.
"IDO Report on the Nuclear Incident at the SL-1 Reactor on January 3, 1961, at the National Reactor Testing Station, January 1962. 16.5 MB PDF. From the above page. This report has more accurate times for the events.
Department of Energy Document: Nuclear Reactor Testing
Buildings and structures in Butte County, Idaho
Disasters in Idaho
Energy infrastructure completed in 1958
Former nuclear power stations in the United States
Military nuclear reactors
Nuclear power plants in Idaho
Radioactively contaminated areas
Superfund sites in Idaho
1961 disasters in the United States
1961 in Idaho
Engineering failures
Nuclear accidents and incidents in the United States
Former power stations in Idaho
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piotrk%C3%B3w%20Trybunalski
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Piotrków Trybunalski
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Piotrków Trybunalski (; also known by alternative names), often simplified to Piotrków, is a city in central Poland with 71,252 inhabitants (2021). It is the capital of Piotrków County and the second-largest city in the Łódź Voivodeship.
Founded in the late Middle Ages, Piotrków was once a royal city and an important place in Polish history; the first parliament sitting was held here in the 15th century. It then became the seat of a Crown Tribunal, the highest court of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The city also hosted one of Poland's oldest Jewish communities, which was entirely destroyed by the Holocaust. The old town in Piotrków features many historical and architectural monuments, including tenements, churches, synagogues and the medieval Royal Castle.
Etymology and other names
According to tradition, but not confirmed by historical sources, Piotrków was founded by Piotr Włostowic, a powerful 12th century magnate from Silesia. The name of the city comes from the Polish version of the name Peter (Piotr), in a diminutive form (Piotrek, or "Pete"). Trybunalski indicates that tribunal sessions (including the Crown Tribunal) were held in the town. The town has been known in Yiddish as פּעטריקעװ or Petrikev, in German as Petrikau, and in Russian as Петроков or Petrokov.
Location, demographics and statistics
Piotrków Trybunalski is situated in the middle-west part (Piotrków Plains) of the Łódź Uplands. The population of the city is approximately 80,000 and its area is nearly . The landscape of the Piotrków region and its geological structure was formed during the glaciation of 180,000–128,000 years ago. There are hardly any forests on the Piotrków Plains.
Two rivers cross the region, the Wolbórka and the Luciąża, which with their tributaries flow into the Pilica River and belong to the catchment area of the Vistula River. The watershed of Poland's two main rivers, the Vistula and the Oder (Odra), runs along the meridional line three km west of Piotrków. Two small rivers, the Strawa and the Strawka flow through the city, and it is between their valleys that the first settlement of Piotrków was founded in the early Middle Ages. Recently two more rivers have been included within the boundary of the city area—the Wierzejka, which in the western part of the city forms a reservoir, and the Śrutowy Dołek to the south of Piotrków.
The city is above sea level. The average temperature during the year is about , the coldest month is January (ranging from ), the warmest is July (with on average). Yearly rainfall is from . The sandy soil of the region is not fertile.
History
Middle Ages
In the early Middle Ages the Piotrków region was part of the province of Łęczyca of Poland ruled by the Piast dynasty. In c1264 it became part of a separate principality. The foundation of the city and its development were connected with its geographical position and the advantageous arrangement of the roads linking the provinces of Poland in Piast times. At first, a market town and a place of the princes' tribunals (in the 13th and 15th centuries), Piotrków became an administrative center (the capital of the district since 1418), and in later centuries it also became an important political center in Poland. The first record of Piotrków is in a document issued in 1217 by Polish monarch Leszek I the White, where there is a mention of the duke's tribunal held "in Petrecoue". Mediaeval Piotrków was a trading place on the trade routes from Pomerania to Russia and Hungary, and later from Masovia to Silesia.
During the 13th century, apart from the tribunals, Polish provincial princes made Piotrków the seat of some assemblies of the Sieradz knights, which according to historical sources were held in 1233, in 1241, and in 1291. It might have been during the 1291 assembly that the Prince of Sieradz, Władysław I the Elbow-high, granted Piotrków civic rights, because in documents from the beginning of the 14th century he mentions "civitate nostra Petricouiensi".
The first certificate of foundation and the other documents were burnt in a great fire which destroyed the city around 1400. The privileges and rights were re-granted by King Władysław II Jagiełło in 1404. The city walls were built during the reign of King Casimir III the Great, and after the great fire, they were rebuilt at the beginning of the 15th century. During the reign of Casimir III, many expelled German Jews from the Holy Roman Empire migrated to the town, which grew to have one of the largest Jewish settlements in the kingdom.
Between 1354 and 1567 the city held general assemblies of Polish knights, and general or elective meetings of the Polish Sejm (during the latter Polish kings of the Jagiellon dynasty were elected there). In Piotrków, two Grand Masters of the Teutonic Order pledged allegiance to Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon in 1469 and 1470. It was in the city of Piotrków that the Polish Parliament was given its final structure with the division into an Upper House and Lower Chamber in 1493. King John I Albert published his "Piotrków privilege" on 26 May 1493, which expanded the privileges of the szlachta at the expense of the bourgeoisie and the peasantry.
Modern period
Piotrków became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569. When the seat of the Parliament was moved to Warsaw, the town became the seat of the highest court of Poland, the Crown Tribunal, and trials were held there from 1578–1793; the highest Lithuanian court was held in Grodno. Piotrków's Jewish population was expelled in 1578 and only allowed back a century later. The town became a post station in 1684. Around 1705, German settlers (often Swabians) arrived in the town's vicinity and founded villages; they largely retained their customs and language until 1945.
While the importance of Piotrków in the political life of the country had contributed to its development in the 16th century, the city declined in the 17th and 18th centuries, due to fires, epidemics, wars against Sweden, and finally the Partitions of Poland. One of two main routes connecting Warsaw and Dresden ran through the city in the 18th century and Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland often traveled that route.
The first official inventory of important buildings in Poland, A General View of the Nature of Ancient Monuments in the Kingdom of Poland, led by Kazimierz Stronczyński from 1844–55, describes the Great Synagogue of Piotrków as one of Poland's architecturally notable buildings.
In 1793, the Kingdom of Prussia annexed the town in the Second Partition of Poland and administered it as part of the Province of South Prussia. During the Napoleonic Wars, Piotrków became part of the Duchy of Warsaw (1807–15) and was a district seat in the Kalisz Department. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Piotrków became part of Congress Poland, a puppet state of the Russian Empire.
When the Warsaw-Vienna railway was built in 1846, there was a slight increase in the economic and industrial development of Piotrków.
In January 1863, the Polish January Uprising broke out. Among local Polish insurgents were many young people and Poles conscripted into the Russian army, who were stationed in the city. The Russians established a prison for captured insurgents in Piotrków. Thousands of Poles passed through the prison, were subjected to flagellation and tortures, and then either deported to the Warsaw Citadel or to Siberia, or executed in Piotrków. Two insurgents, wanting to escape from torture, committed suicide by jumping out of the prison windows. As punishment for supporting the uprising, the Russians closed down the Bernardine monastery in 1864, and the last Bernardine monks were expelled in 1867.
In 1867 the Russian authorities formed the Piotrków Governorate, which included Łódź, Częstochowa, and the coal fields of Dąbrowa Górnicza and Sosnowiec. According to the Russian census of 1897, out of the total population of 30,800, Jews constituted 9,500 (around 31% percent). The province had the best developed industry of all of Congress Poland until 1914. Many Poles demonstrated and went on strike during the 1905 Russian Revolution.
During World War I, Piotrków was occupied by Austria-Hungary. From 1915–16, it was a center for Polish patriotic activity. The city was a seat of the Military Department of the National Committee, and a headquarters for the Polish Legions, which were voluntary troops organized by Józef Piłsudski, Władysław Sikorski and others to fight against Russia. Piotrków became part of restored independent Poland in 1918, following the defeat of the Central Powers in the war.
In the interwar period, Piotrków was the capital of Piotrków County in the Łódź Voivodeship, and lost its previous importance. In 1922, the old monastery was restored to the Bernardines. In 1938 the town had 51,000 inhabitants, including 25,000 Jews and 1,500 Germans. The town had a large Jewish settlement and until the Holocaust a thriving Hebrew printing and publishing industry.
World War II
During the invasion of Poland at the beginning of World War II, Piotrków was the setting for fierce fighting between the Polish 19th Infantry Division and the 16th Panzer Corps of the German Wehrmacht on 5 September 1939. On the next day, German troops committed a massacre of Polish prisoners of war, including 19 officers, in the present-day neighbourhood of Moryca (see also German atrocities committed against Polish prisoners of war). The Einsatzgruppe II then entered the city to commit various crimes against the population. The town was occupied by Nazi Germany for the following six years.
In autumn of 1939, the Germans carried out mass arrests of dozens of Poles, including teachers, local activists, judges, parliamentarians, editors and bank employees, however some were later released. 47 Poles arrested in Tomaszów Mazowiecki, including Tomaszów's mayor, were also imprisoned in Piotrków. Further mass arrests of hundreds of Poles were carried out in January, March, June and August 1940. Among Poles arrested in March were 12 teachers and students of secret Polish schools. On 29 June 1940 the Germans carried out a massacre of 42 Poles from the prison in the Wolborski Forest in the northern part of the city. Among the victims were 14 students aged 17–18, eight reserve officers, and people of various professions, including pharmacists, an architect, railwayman, teacher, farmer and local secretary. 121 Poles from the local prison were deported to the Auschwitz, Gross-Rosen and Dachau concentration camps in June 1940. Many Poles, who were born or lived in the city, were murdered by the Russians in the large Katyń massacre in April–May 1940.
As early as October 1939 Piotrków became the site of the first Jewish ghetto of World War II set up in occupied Poland. Approximately 25,000 people from Piotrków and the nearby towns and villages were imprisoned there. During the Holocaust 22,000 were sent to the Treblinka extermination camp, while 3,000 were imprisoned in other Nazi concentration camps. A personal account of the Holocaust, In the Mouth of the Wolf details the escape of the author Rose Zar (née Rose Guterman) from the Piotrków Ghetto and hiding in plain sight, by working for the Wehrmacht and the SS. The secret Polish Council to Aid Jews "Żegota", established by the Polish resistance movement, operated in the city.
From the first months of the war, Piotrków was a center for underground resistance. From the spring of 1940, it was the seat of the district headquarters of the Armia Krajowa, or Home Army. In the summer of 1944, the 25th Infantry Regiment of the Home Army was formed in the district; it was the largest military unit of the Łódź Voivodeship, and fought against the Germans until November 1944. In the city and district, there were also other partisan groups: the Military Troops (connected with the Polish Socialist Party), People's Guard and People's Army (Polish Workers' Party), Peasants' Battalions (Polish People's Party), the National Military Organization and the National Armed Forces (National Party). In 1944, during the Warsaw Uprising, the Germans deported over 15,000 Varsovians from the Dulag 121 camp in Pruszków, where they were initially imprisoned, to Piotrków. Those Poles were mainly old people, ill people and women with children. After the fall of the uprising, the headquarters of the Polish Red Cross was temporarily located in the local Royal Castle from October 1944 to January 1945.
On 18 January 1945 the Soviet Red Army entered the city, dislodging the German troops. The city was restored to Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which stayed in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1980s. Anti-communist partisans continued to fight in the vicinity in the following years.
Recent times
From 1949–1970, Piotrków was transformed into an industrial center.
Piotrków remained a district capital in the Łódź Voivodeship, until 1975. Then, following the changes in the administrative division of the country, the city became the capital of the new Piotrków Voivodeship, thus regaining the status of an important administrative, educational and cultural center of Poland. In 1999, the Piotrków Voivodeship was dissolved and Piotrków became the capital of Piotrków County within the Łódź Voivodeship.
Economy
Piotrków, thanks to its location, is known as the second largest "logistic center" after Warsaw. There is a high concentration of warehouses and distribution centers around the city. The biggest distribution centers are:
Prologis Park Piotrkow I and Prologis Park Piotrkow II owned by ProLogis
IKEA Distribution Center owned by IKEA
Logistic City – Piotrków Distribution Center owned by local concern Emerson
Poland Central
In Piotrków are also located:
Emerson Polska – self-copying computer paper
Häring – facility producing fuel injection equipment (for Mercedes-Benz, Bosch, Volkswagen)
Metzeler Automotive Profile Systems – car profiles
Kiper brewery
FMG Pioma S.A. – mining machinery, conveyor belts
Sigmatex Sp. z o.o. – knitted fabrics
and many small and medium textile processing factories.
Transport
Piotrków lies almost in the center of Poland.
It has a train station on the PKP rail line 1 from Warsaw to Częstochowa. Direct trains go among others to Cracow, Zakopane, Katowice, Bielsko-Biała, Wrocław, Łódź, Poznań, Szczecin, Świnoujście, Gdynia, Olsztyn and Białystok.
Roads
A highway, an expressway and three national roads cross Piotrków:
Gdańsk – Gorzyczki, part of European route E75
Kudowa-Zdrój – Budzisko, part of European route E67
Łęknica – Dorohusk, eventually to be upgraded to the S12 expressway
Wieluń – Zosin
Gdańsk – Podwarpie
Airports
There is a small airfield for light passenger aircraft in Piotrków. The nearest airport is Łódź Władysław Reymont Airport in Łódź. Two large international airports are Warsaw Frédéric Chopin Airport about from Piotrków and Katowice International Airport about from Piotrków.
Educational institutions
Wyższa Szkoła Handlowa in Piotrków Trybunalski
Wyższa Szkoła Kupiecka in Łódź, branch in Piotrków
Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce, branch in Piotrków
Bolesław I the Brave High School in Piotrków Trybunalski
Politics
Piotrków Trybunalski/Skierniewice constituency
Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected by the Piotrków/Skierniewice constituency
Antoni Macierewicz, Law and Justice
Dariusz Seliga, Law and Justice
Marcin Witko, Law and Justice
Robert Telus, Law and Justice
Elżbieta Radziszewska, Civic Platform
Dorota Rutkowska, Civic Platform
Marek Domaracki, TR
Jacek Nibliecky, NPD
Krystyna Ozga, PSL
Artur Ostrowski, SLD
Sports
Piotrcovia Piotrków Trybunalski – women's and men's handball team playing in the Polish Ekstraklasa Women's Handball League and the Polish Ekstraklasa Men's Handball League
Concordia Piotrków Trybunalski – men's football team playing in the lower leagues.
Notable people
Ernestine Rose (1810–1892), feminist writer and human rights activist
Chaim Elozor Wax (1822–1887), famous rabbi
Michael Heilprin (1823–1888), Polish-American Jewish biblical scholar, critic, and writer
Władysław Biegański (1857–1917), medical doctor, philosopher, and social activist
Michał Rawita-Witanowski (1858–1943), Polish historian and pharmacist, founder of the local museum
Thaddeus Wronski (1887–1965), Polish-American opera singer and conductor, founder and director of the Detroit Civic Light Opera
Grigory Levenfish (1889–1961), chess player
Stefan Rowecki (1895–1944), general and journalist
Irena Sendler (1910–2008), humanitarian and nurse of the Polish resistance movement in World War II, head of the children's section of the Żegota, who rescued 2,500 Jewish children during the Holocaust, lived in Piotrków in the 1920s
Adam Muszka (1914–2005), Polish-French painter and sculptor
Moshe Bromberg (1920–1982), Polish-Jewish painter
Alice Miller (1923–2010), Polish-Swiss psychologist
Sabina Zimering (1923–2021), Polish-American ophthalmologist and memoirist
John Michael Małek (1928–2022), Polish-American, born in Piotrków Trybunalski
Naphtali Lau-Lavie (1926–2014), Israeli journalist, author, and diplomat
Ben Helfgott (born 1929), Polish-born British Jewish Olympic weightlifter
Yisrael Meir Lau (born 1937), Chief Rabbi of Tel Aviv, chairman of Yad Vashem, Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel
Mariusz Trynkiewicz (born 1962), serial killer
Adam Szymczyk (born 1970), art critic and curator
Maciej Ganczar (born 1976), literary scholar specializing in German literature, literary translator
Wojciech Szala (born 1976), footballer
Wioletta Frankiewicz (born 1977), runner
Michał Bąkiewicz (born 1981), volleyball player and coach
Michał Jonczyk (born 1992), footballer
Kamil Majchrzak (born 1996) professional tennis player
International relations
Twin towns – sister cities
Piotrków Trybunalski is twinned with:
Piotrków Trybunalski is also partnered with:
– Udine, Italy
– Schiedam, Netherlands
Image gallery
References
External links
Official website
Photos
Satellite image
"Here Their Stories Will Be Told..." The Valley of the Communities at Yad Vashem, Piotrków Trybunalski, at Yad Vashem website
Cities and towns in Łódź Voivodeship
City counties of Poland
Sieradz Voivodeship (1339–1793)
Piotrków Governorate
Łódź Voivodeship (1919–1939)
Holocaust locations in Poland
Jewish communities destroyed in the Holocaust
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Scott%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Eldon
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John Scott, 1st Earl of Eldon
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John Scott, 1st Earl of Eldon, (4 June 1751 – 13 January 1838) was a British barrister and politician. He served as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain between 1801 and 1806 and again between 1807 and 1827.
Early life
Background
Eldon was born in Newcastle upon Tyne. His grandfather, William Scott of Sandgate, a street adjacent to the Newcastle quayside, was clerk to a fitter, a sort of water-carrier and broker of coals. His father, whose name also was William, began life as an apprentice to a fitter, in which service he obtained the freedom of Newcastle, becoming a member of the guild of Hostmen (coal-fitters); later in life he became a principal in the business, and attained a respectable position as a merchant in Newcastle, accumulating property worth nearly £20,000.
Education
Eldon was educated at Newcastle upon Tyne Royal Grammar School. He was not remarkable at school for application to his studies, though his wonderful memory enabled him to make good progress in them; he frequently played truant and was whipped for it, robbed orchards, and indulged in other questionable schoolboy pranks; nor did he always come out of his scrapes with honour and a character for truthfulness.
When he had finished his education at the grammar school, his father thought of apprenticing him to his own business, to which an elder brother Henry had already devoted himself; and it was only through the influence of his elder brother William (afterwards Lord Stowell), who had already obtained a fellowship at University College, Oxford, that it was ultimately resolved that he should continue with his studies. Accordingly, in 1766, John Scott entered University College with the view of taking holy orders and obtaining a college living.
In the year following he obtained a fellowship, graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1770, and in 1771 won the prize for the English essay, the only university prize open in his time for general competition.
Elopement with Bessie Surtees
His wife, Elizabeth, known as "Bessie", was the eldest daughter of Aubone Surtees, a Newcastle banker. The Surtees family objected to the match, and attempted to prevent it; but a strong attachment had sprung up between them.
On 18 November 1772, Scott, with the aid of a ladder and an old friend, carried off the lady from her father's house in the Sandhill, across the border to Blackshields, in Scotland, where they were married. The father of the bridegroom objected not to his son's choice, but to the time he chose to marry; it was a blight on his son's prospects, depriving him of his fellowship and his chance of church preferment. But while the bride's family refused to associate with the couple, Scott, like a prudent man and an affectionate father, set himself to make the best of a bad matter, and received them kindly, settling on his son £2000.
John returned with his wife to Oxford, and continued to hold his fellowship for what is called the year of grace given after marriage, and added to his income by acting as a private tutor. After a time, Mr Surtees was reconciled with his daughter, and made a liberal settlement of £3000.
John Scott's year of grace closed without any college living falling vacant; and with his fellowship he gave up the church and turned to the study of law. He became a student at the Middle Temple in January 1773. In 1776, he was called to the bar, intending at first to establish himself as an advocate in his native town, a scheme which his early success led him to abandon, and he soon settled to the practice of his profession in London, and on the northern circuit. In the autumn of 1776, his father died, leaving him a legacy of £1000 over and above the £2000 previously settled on him.
Political career
At the English bar
In his second year at the bar his prospects began to brighten.
His brother William, who by this time was the Camden professor of ancient history at Oxford, and enjoyed an extensive acquaintance with men of eminence in London, was in a position materially to advance his interests.
Among his friends was the notorious Andrew Bowes of Gibside, to the patronage of whose house the rise of the Scott family was largely owing.
Bowes having contested Newcastle and lost it, presented an election petition against the return of his opponent.
Young Scott was retained as junior counsel in the case, and though he lost the petition he did not fail to improve the opportunity which it afforded for displaying his talents.
This engagement, at the start of his second year at the bar, and the dropping in of occasional fees, must have raised his hopes; and he now abandoned the scheme of becoming a provincial barrister.
A year or two of dull drudgery and few fees followed, and he began to be much depressed.
But in 1780, his prospects suddenly improved by his appearance in the case of Ackroyd v Smithson, which became a leading case settling a rule of law; and the young Scott, having lost his point in the inferior court, insisted on arguing it, on appeal, against the opinion of his clients, and carried it before Lord Thurlow, whose favorable consideration he won by his able argument.
The same year Bowes again retained him in an election petition; and in the year following Scott greatly increased his reputation by his appearance as leading counsel in the Clitheroe election petition. From this time his success was certain.
In 1782, he obtained a silk gown, and was so far cured of his early modesty that he declined accepting the king's counselship if precedence over him were given to his junior, Thomas Erskine, though the latter was the son of a peer and a most accomplished orator.
He was now on the high way to fortune. His health, which had hitherto been but indifferent, strengthened with the demands made upon it; his talents, his power of endurance, and his ambition all expanded together.
He enjoyed a considerable practice in the northern part of his circuit, before parliamentary committees and at the chancery bar.
By 1787, his practice at the equity bar had so far increased that he was obliged to give up the eastern half of his circuit (which embraced six counties) and attend it only at Lancaster.
Member of Parliament
In 1782, he entered Parliament for Lord Weymouth's close borough of Weobley in Herefordshire, which Lord Thurlow obtained for him without solicitation.
In Parliament he gave a general and independent support to Pitt. His first parliamentary speeches were directed against Fox's India Bill. They were unsuccessful.
In one he aimed at being brilliant; and becoming merely laboured and pedantic, he was covered with ridicule by Sheridan, from whom he received a lesson which he did not fail to turn to account.
In 1788, he was appointed Solicitor General, and was knighted, and at the close of this year he attracted attention by his speeches in support of Pitt's resolutions on the state of the king (George III, who then labored under a mental malady) and the delegation of his authority.
It is said that he drafted the Regency Bill, which was introduced in 1789.
In 1793, Sir John Scott was promoted to the office of Attorney-General, in which it fell to him to conduct the memorable prosecutions for high treason against British sympathizers with French republicanism, among others, against the celebrated Horne Tooke. These prosecutions, in most cases, were no doubt instigated by Sir John Scott, and were the most important proceedings in which he was ever professionally engaged. He has left on record, in his Anecdote Book, a defence of his conduct in regard to them.
In 1793 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society
Lord High Chancellor
In 1799, the office of chief justice of the Court of Common Pleas falling vacant, Sir John Scott's claim to it was not overlooked; and after seventeen years' service in the Lower House, he entered the House of Lords as Baron Eldon.
In February 1801, the ministry of Pitt was succeeded by that of Addington, and the chief justice now ascended the woolsack.
The chancellorship was given to him professedly on account of his notorious anti-Catholic zeal.
From the Treaty of Amiens (1802) until 1804, Lord Eldon appears to have interfered little in politics.
In the latter year we find him conducting the negotiations which resulted in the dismissal of Addington and the recall of Pitt to office as prime minister.
Lord Eldon was continued in office as chancellor under Pitt; but the new administration was of short duration, for on 23 January 1806 Pitt died, worn out with the anxieties of office, and his ministry was succeeded by a coalition, under Lord Grenville. The death of Fox, who became foreign secretary and leader of the House of Commons, soon, however, broke up the Grenville administration; and in the spring of 1807 Lord Eldon once more, under the Duke of Portland's administration, returned to the woolsack, which, from that time, he continued to occupy for about twenty years, swaying the cabinet.
During this time Lord Eldon was revered for his work in consolidating equity into a working body of legal principles. In Gee v Pritchard he wrote,
"Nothing would inflict on me greater pain in quitting this place, than the recollection that I had done anything to justify the reproach that the equity of this court varies like the Chancellor's foot."
It was not until April 1827, when the premiership, vacant through the paralysis of Lord Liverpool, fell to Canning, the chief advocate of Roman Catholic emancipation, that Lord Eldon, in the seventy-sixth year of his age, finally resigned the chancellorship in protest, being deeply opposed to the new prime minister's more liberal principles.
When, after the two short administrations of Canning and Goderich, it fell to the Duke of Wellington to construct a cabinet, Lord Eldon expected to be included, if not as chancellor, at least in some important office, but he was chagrined at being overlooked at Robert Peel's insistence, in a decisive break with the High Tory past. Notwithstanding his frequent protests that he did not covet power, but longed for retirement, we find him again, so late as 1835, within three years of his death, in hopes of office under Peel. He spoke in parliament for the last time in July 1834.
In 1821, Lord Eldon had been created Viscount Encombe and Earl of Eldon by George IV, whom he managed to conciliate, partly, no doubt, by espousing his cause against his wife, whose advocate he had formerly been, and partly through his reputation for zeal against the Roman Catholics.
In the same year his brother William, who from 1798 had filled the office of judge of the High Court of Admiralty, was raised to the peerage under the title of Lord Stowell.
Personal life
Lord Eldon's wife, the former Elizabeth Surtees, whom he called Bessie, died before him, on 28 June 1831. They had had two sons and two daughters that survived childhood:
John (8 March 1774 - 24 December 1805) married Henrietta Elizabeth Ridley, daughter of Sir Matthew White Ridley, 2nd Baronet. He had one son, John, later heir to the title.
William Henry John (d. 1832) unmarried.
Lady Elizabeth Repton John (1783 - 16 April 1862) married George Stanley Repton, son of Humphry Repton.
Frances Jane (d. 6 August 1838) married Rev. Edward Bankes (son of Henry Bankes) on 6 April 1820. They had two sons, John Scott and Rev. Eldon Surtees. Their grandson was Sir John Eldon Bankes
Lord Eldon himself survived almost all his immediate relations. His brother William died in 1836. He himself died in London on 13 January 1838. Eldon left an estate of £2,300,000 – at a time when even estates of a million pounds were exceedingly rare. John Wade, compiler of The Black Book, or Corruption Unmasked detailed in precise figures how Eldon's "almost incredible wealth" was due to state "emoluments of which he and his family monopolize to an inordinate degree."<ref>[https://archive.org/details/blackbookorcorru01wadeuoft/page/36/mode/2up John Wade,The Black Book, or Corruption Unmasked, 1820];</ref>
Eldon's title subsequently passed to his eldest grandson, John.
There is a blue plaque on his house in Bedford Square, London.
Lord Eldon and his wife are buried in the churchyard in Kingston, Dorset.
Legacy
War, peace and sorrow
Eldon was a loyal and tenacious supporter of the war against Napoleon; but when the prospect of a new war arose in 1823, he expressed rather different concerns:
"Men delude themselves by supposing that war consists only in a proclamation, a battle, a victory and a triumph. Of the soldiers' widows and the soldiers' orphans, after the fathers and husbands have fallen in the field of battle, the survivors think not".
Shelley, however, in his Masque of Anarchy, challenged Eldon's sincerity:
"Next came Fraud and he had on,
Like Eldon, an ermined gown -
His big tears, for he wept well -
Turned to millstones as they fell".
Political and legal views
Eldon notoriously accused the political reformer Thomas Hardy of attempting to establish "representative government, the direct opposite of the government which is established here" .
He himself was, however, criticised with equal force for not reforming the notoriously slow Court of Chancery, hence a cartoon of 1817 depicting him as leading a flight of lawyer-locusts descending on the law courts.
During Eldon's lifetime, journalist (George) Wingrave Cook observed: "Posterity will probably pass a severe judgement upon the memory of this statesman...there is no other instance of a man who was possessed of nearly absolute influence in the councils of the nation for a quarter of a century, and of whom it can be said that he never originated one measure that the next generation judged beneficial to his country, and never allowed one such measure to be discussed without his strenuous and generally fatal opposition."
John Wade equally noted: "there is no absurdity in law, no intolerance in church government; no arbitrary state measure, of which he is not the surly, furious, and bigoted advocate."
Party allegiance
Although labelled a Tory by the opposition and by subsequent historians, Eldon placed himself long-term in the Whig tradition, defending "a doctrine essentially similar to that which ministerial Whigs had held since the days of Burnet, Wake, Gibson and Potter". As an Ultra-Tory, protesting against Catholic Emancipation, he sat with the Whigs during the 1830 parliamentary session and in 1825, following the defeat of the Tory Sir Francis Burdett's Emancipation Bill in the House of Lords by a majority of 48, drank "the 48, the year 1688, and the glorious and immortal memory of William III".
In 1831, while returning to Purbeck in an open carriage from the declaration at the Dorset county election in the company of George Bankes, he was stoned at Wareham by a mob of a hundred men. Although there were no injuries, it was stated that he might have died had not an umbrella deflected one of the stones from his head.
Nevertheless, in his unstinting opposition to the Great Reform Act as well as his belief in an unchanging Britain anchored in the values of 1688, he epitomised the reactionary values of what Palmerston called "the stupid old Tory party" .
See also
Charles Dickens
Circumlocution Office
Charles Wetherell
Decided cases
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|Ackroyd v SmithsonEvans v Bicknell (1801) 6 Ves Jun 173Ex parte James (1803) 8 Ves 337
17 Ves 320Higginbotham v Holme 19 Ves 88Lucena v Craufurd (1806) 2 Bos & PNR 269Carlen v Drury (1812) 1 Ves & B 154Gee v Pritchard (1818) 2 Swans 402Gordon v Gordon (1821) 3 Swan 400William Lawrences suit for copyright (1822)
}}
Vessels named for Lord Eldon
Several ships were named in his honour, e.g., and , and the East Indiaman .
ReferencesAttribution'Further reading
Horace Twiss: Life of Lord Chancellor Eldon - 3 volumes 1844 London: John Murray Publishers
Rose A. Melikan: John Scott, Lord Eldon, 1751-1838 The Duty of Loyalty - 1999 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press -
Anthony L.J. Lincoln & Robert Lindley McEwen (editors): Lord Eldon's Anecdote Book - 1960 London: Stevens & Sons Ltd.
William Charles Townsend: The Lives of Twelve Eminent Judges of the Last and of the Present Century'' Volume 2 - 1846 London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. Modern reprint by Kessinger Publishing . See pages 366 to 520.
External links
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1751 births
1838 deaths
Politicians from Newcastle upon Tyne
Scott, John
Alumni of University College, Oxford
18th-century English lawyers
Chief Justices of the Common Pleas
Solicitors General for England and Wales
Attorneys General for England and Wales
Lord chancellors of Great Britain
Peers of Great Britain created by George III
Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
British MPs 1780–1784
British MPs 1784–1790
British MPs 1790–1796
British MPs 1796–1800
Fellows of the Royal Society
Scott family (England)
Peers of the United Kingdom created by George IV
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przemy%C5%9Bl
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Przemyśl
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Przemyśl (; ; ; ; ) is a city in southeastern Poland with 58,721 inhabitants, as of December 2021. In 1999, it became part of the Subcarpathian Voivodeship; it was previously the capital of Przemyśl Voivodeship.
Przemyśl owes its long and rich history to the advantages of its geographic location. The city lies in an area connecting mountains and lowlands known as the Przemyśl Gate (Brama Przemyska), with open lines of transport, and fertile soil. It also lies on the navigable San River. Important trade routes that connect Central Europe from Przemyśl ensure the city's importance. The Old Town of Przemyśl is listed as a Historic Monument of Poland.
Names
Different names in various languages have identified the city throughout its history. Selected languages include: ; ; ; (Peremyshlj) and (Pshemyslj); and (Pshemishl).
History
Origins
Przemyśl is the second-oldest city (after Kraków) in southern Poland, dating back to the 8th century. It was the site of a fortified gord belonging to the Ledzianie (Lendians), a West Slavic tribe. In the 9th century, the fortified settlement and the surrounding region became part of Great Moravia. Most likely, the city's name dates back to the Moravian period. Also, archeological remains testify to the presence of a Christian monastic settlement as early as the 9th century.
Upon the invasion of the Hungarian tribes into the heart of the Great Moravian Empire around 899, the local Lendians declared allegiance to the Hungarians. The region then became a site of contention between Poland, Kievan Rus and Hungary beginning in at least the 9th century, with Przemyśl along with other Cherven Grods, falling under the control of the Polans (Polanie), who would in the 10th century under the rule of Mieszko I establish the Polish state.
When Mieszko I annexed the tribal area of Lendians in 970–980, Przemyśl became an important local centre on the eastern frontier of Piast's realm.
The city was mentioned by Nestor the Chronicler, when in 981 it was captured by Vladimir I of Kiev. In 1018, Przemyśl returned to Poland, and in 1031 it was retaken by the Rus'. Around the year 1069, Przemyśl again returned to Poland, after Bolesław II the Generous retook the town and temporarily made it his residence. In 1085, the town became the capital of a semi-independence Principality of Peremyshl under the lordship of Kievan Rus'.
The palatium complex including a Latin rotunda was built during the rule of the Polish king Bolesław I the Brave in the 11th century. Sometime before 1218, an Orthodox eparchy was founded in the city.
Przemyśl later became part of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, from 1246 under Mongol suzerainty.
Kingdom of Poland and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
In 1340, Przemyśl was retaken by the king Casimir III of Poland and again became part of the Kingdom of Poland as result of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars. Around this time, the first Latin Catholic diocese was founded in the city, and Przemyśl was granted a city charter based on Magdeburg rights, confirmed in 1389 by the king Władysław II Jagiełło. The city prospered as an important trade centre during the 16th century. Like nearby Lwów, the city's population consisted of a great number of nationalities, including Poles, Jews, Germans, Czechs, Armenians and Ruthenians. The long period of prosperity enabled the construction of public buildings such as the Renaissance town hall and the Old Synagogue of 1559. Also, a Jesuit college was founded in the city in 1617.
The prosperity came to an end in the middle of the 17th century, caused by the invading Swedish army during the Deluge, and a general decline of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The city decline lasted for over a hundred years, and only at the end of the 18th century did it recover its former levels of population. In 1754, the Latin Catholic bishop founded Przemyśl's first public library, which was only the second public library in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, with Warsaw's Załuski Library founded 7 years earlier. Przemyśl's importance at that time was such that when Austria annexed eastern Galicia in 1772 the Austrians considered making Przemyśl their provincial capital, before deciding on Lwów. In the mid-18th century, Jews constituted 55.6% (1,692) of the population, Latin Catholic Poles 39.5% (1,202), and Greek Catholic Ruthenians 4.8% (147).
Part of Austrian Poland
In 1772, as a consequence of the First Partition of Poland, Przemyśl became part of the Austrian Empire, in what the Austrians called the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. According to the Austrian census of 1830, the city was home to 7,538 people of whom 3,732 were Latin Catholic, 2,298 Jews and 1,508 were members of the Greek Catholic Church, a significantly larger number of Ruthenians than in most Galician cities. In 1804, a Ruthenian library was established in Przemyśl. By 1822, its collection had over 33,000 books and its importance for Ruthenians was comparable to that held by the Ossolineum library in Lwów for Poles. Przemyśl also became the centre of the revival of Byzantine choral music in the Greek Catholic Church. Until eclipsed by Lviv in the 1830s, Przemyśl was the most important city in the Ruthenian cultural awakening in the nineteenth century. As the majority of Przemyśl's inhabitants were Poles, the city also became a centre for the development of Polish culture and science, and Polish independence organisations also operated in Przemyśl. The greatest heyday of Polishness in Przemyśl dates back to 1860-1918, due to the granting of autonomy to Galicia.
In 1861, the Galician Railway of Archduke Charles Louis built a connecting line from Przemyśl to Kraków, and east to Lwów. In the middle of the 19th century, due to the growing conflict between Austria and Russia over the Balkans, Austria grew more mindful of Przemyśl's strategic location near the border with the Russian Empire. During the Crimean War, when tensions mounted between Russia and Austria, a series of massive fortresses, in circumference, were built around the city by the Austrian military.
In 1909, the Polish "Museum of the Przemyśl Land" was established in Przemyśl. It was an extremely important facility for the Polish population.
The census of 1910, showed that the city had 54,078 residents. Latin Catholics were the most numerous 25,306 (46.8%), followed by Jews 16,062 (29.7%) and Greek Catholics 12,018 (22.2%). 87% of the city's inhabitants spoke Polish. All Poles spoke Polish, and most Jews were bilingual and communicated in Yiddish and Polish, but owing to the inability to declare Yiddish, almost all Jews declared the Polish language.
World War I (Przemyśl Fortress)
With technological progress in artillery during the second half of the 19th century, the old fortifications rapidly became obsolete. The longer range of rifled artillery necessitated the redesign of fortresses so that they would be larger and able to resist the newly available guns. To achieve this, between the years 1888 and 1914 Przemyśl was turned into a first-class fortress, the third-largest in Europe out of about 200 that were built in this period. Around the city, in a circle of circumference , 44 forts of various sizes were built. The older fortifications were modernised to provide the fortress with an internal defence ring. The fortress was designed to accommodate 85,000 soldiers and 956 cannons of all sorts, although eventually 120,000 soldiers were garrisoned there.
In August 1914, at the beginning of the First World War, Russian forces defeated Austro-Hungarian forces in the opening engagements and advanced rapidly into Galicia. The Przemyśl fortress fulfilled its mission very effectively, helping to stop a 300,000-strong Russian army advancing upon the Carpathian Passes and Kraków, the Lesser Poland regional capital. The first siege was lifted by a temporary Austro-Hungarian advance. However, the Russian army resumed its advance and initiated a second siege of the fortress of Przemyśl in October 1914. This time relief attempts were unsuccessful. Due to lack of food and exhaustion of its defenders, the fortress surrendered on 22 March 1915. The Russians captured 126,000 prisoners and 700 big guns. Before the surrender, the complete destruction of all fortifications was carried out. The Russians did not linger in Przemyśl. A renewed offensive by the Central Powers recaptured the destroyed fortress on 3 June 1915. During the fighting around Przemyśl, both sides lost up to 115,000 killed, wounded, and missing.
Second Polish Republic
Population of Przemyśl, 1931
At the end of World War I, Przemyśl became disputed between renascent Poland and the West Ukrainian People's Republic. On 1 November 1918, a local provisional government was formed with representatives of Polish, Jewish, and Ruthenian inhabitants of the area. However, on 3 November, a Ukrainian military unit overthrew the government, arrested its leader and captured the eastern part of the city. The Ukrainian army was checked by a small Polish self-defence unit formed of World War I veterans. Also, numerous young Polish volunteers from Przemyśl's high schools, later to be known as Przemyśl Orlęta, The Eaglets of Przemyśl (in a similar manner to more famous Lwów Eaglets), joined the host. The battlefront divided the city along the river San, with the western borough of Zasanie held in Polish hands and the Old Town controlled by the Ukrainians. Neither Poles nor Ukrainians could effectively cross the San river, so both opposing parties decided to wait for a relief force from the outside. That race was won by the Polish reinforcements and the volunteer expeditionary unit formed in Kraków arrived in Przemyśl on 10 November 1918. When the subsequent Polish ultimatum to the Ukrainians remained unanswered, on 11–12 November the Polish forces crossed the San and forced out the outnumbered Ukrainians from the city in what became known as the 1918 Battle of Przemyśl.
After the end of the Polish–Ukrainian War and the Polish–Bolshevik War that followed, the city became a part of the Second Polish Republic. Although the capital of the voivodship was in Lwów (see: Lwów Voivodeship), Przemyśl recovered its nodal position as a seat of local church administration, as well as the garrison of the 10th Military District of the Polish Army — a staff unit charged with organizing the defence of roughly 10% of the territory of pre-war Poland. As of 1931, Przemyśl had a population of 62,272 and was the biggest city in southern Poland between Kraków and Lwów.
World War II
On 11–14 September 1939, during the invasion of Poland, which started World War II, the German and Polish armies fought the Battle of Przemyśl in and around the city. Afterwards the battle German Einsatzgruppe I entered the city to commit various atrocities against the population, and the Einsatzgruppe zbV entered to take over the Polish industry. The battle was followed by three days of massacres carried out by the German soldiers, police and Einsatzgruppe I against hundreds of Jews who lived in the city. In total, over 500 Jews were murdered in and around the city and the vast majority of the city's Jewish population was deported across the San River into the portion of Poland that was occupied by the Soviet Union.
The border between the two invaders ran through the middle of the city along the San River until June 1941. German-occupied left-bank Przemyśl was part of the Kraków District of the General Government. Members of the Einsatzgruppe I co-formed the local German police unit. On November 10, 1939, the Germans carried out mass arrests of Poles in left-bank Przemyśl and the county, as part of the Intelligenzaktion. Arrested Poles were detained in the local German police prison, and then deported to a prison in Kraków, from where they were eventually deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp. The Soviet-occupied right-bank part of the city was incorporated to the Ukrainian SSR in the atmosphere of NKVD terror as thousands of Jews were ordered to be deported. It became part of the newly established Drohobych Oblast. In 1940, the city became an administrative centre of Peremyshl Uyezd with the Peremyshl Fortified District established along the Nazi-Soviet frontier before the German attack against the USSR in 1941.
The town's population increased due to a large influx of Jewish refugees from the General Government who sought to cross the border to Romania. It is estimated that by mid-1941 the Jewish population of the city had grown to roughly 16,500. In the Operation Barbarossa of 1941, the eastern Soviet-occupied part of the city was also occupied by Germany. On 20 June 1942, the first group of 1,000 Jews was transported from the Przemyśl area to the Janowska concentration camp, and on 15 July 1942 a Nazi ghetto was established for all Jewish inhabitants of Przemyśl and its vicinity – some 22,000 people altogether. Local Jews were given 24 hours to enter the ghetto. Jewish communal buildings, including the Tempel Synagogue and the Old Synagogue were destroyed; the New Synagogue, Zasanie Synagogue, and all commercial and residential real estate belonging to Jews were expropriated.
The ghetto in Przemyśl was sealed off from the outside on 14 July 1942. By that time, there may have been as many as 24,000 Jews in the ghetto. On 27 July the Gestapo notified Judenrat about the forced resettlement program and posted notices that an "Aktion" (roundup for deportation to camps) was to be implemented involving almost all occupants. Exceptions were made for some essential, and Gestapo workers, who would have their papers stamped accordingly. On the same day, Major Max Liedtke, military commander of Przemyśl, ordered his troops to seize the bridge across the San river that connected the divided city, and halt the evacuation. The Gestapo were forced to give him permission to retain the workers performing service for the Wehrmacht (up to 100 Jews with families). For the actions undertaken by Liedtke and his adjutant Albert Battel in Przemyśl, Yad Vashem later named them "Righteous Among the Nations". The process of extermination of the Jews resumed thereafter. Until September 1943 almost all Jews were sent to the Auschwitz or Belzec extermination camps. The local branches of the Polish underground and the Żegota managed to save 415 Jews. According to a postwar investigation in German archives, 568 Poles were executed by the Germans for sheltering Jews in the area of Przemyśl, including Michał Kruk, hanged along with several others on 6 September 1943 in a public execution. Among the many Polish rescuers there, were the Banasiewicz, Kurpiel, Kuszek, Lewandowski, and Podgórski families.
The Red Army retook the town from German forces on 27 July 1944. On 16 August 1945, a border agreement between the government of the Soviet Union and the Polish Provisional Government of National Unity, installed by the Soviets, was signed in Moscow. According to the so-called Curzon Line, the postwar eastern border of Poland was established several kilometres to the east of Przemyśl.
Post-war communism to present
In the postwar period, the border ran only 15 kilometres to the east of the city, cutting it off from much of its economic hinterland. Due to the killing of Jews in the Nazi Holocaust and the postwar expulsion of Ukrainians (in the Operation Vistula or akcja Wisła), the city's population fell to 36,000, almost entirely Polish. However, the city welcomed thousands of Polish migrants from Kresy (Eastern Borderlands) who were expelled by the Soviets — their numbers restored the population of the city to its prewar level.
On 11 July 2022, President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy conferred the honorary title of "Rescuer City" upon Przemyśl for the role the city played in helping Ukrainian refugees fleeing the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Climate
The climate is warm-summer humid continental (Köppen: Dfb). Despite its location in southern Poland, its winters may be colder than at higher latitudes, especially in the north-west of the country due to continentality.
Transport
The main Przemyśl railway station is called Przemyśl Główny, and is located in the city center. About 40 trains depart every day, including trains to many cities in Poland, as well as in Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic and Ukraine.
The main road connection to the rest of Poland is provided by the A4 motorway that passes about 15 km north of the city center.
The closest international airport is Rzeszów–Jasionka, about 90 km away by road.
Main sights
Due to the long and rich history of the city, there are many sights in and around Przemyśl, of special interest to tourists, including the Old Town, which is listed as a Historic Monument of Poland, with the Rynek, the main market square.
Among the historic buildings and museums, opened to visitors, are:
Muzeum Narodowe (the National Museum), contains a collection of icons, second only to the one in Sanok in size
Muzeum Dzwonów i Fajek (the Museum of Bells and Pipes)
Muzeum Diecezjalne (the diocesan museum)
Reformed Franciscan church and monastery, founded in 1627
Franciscan Church, from mid-18th-century in a baroque style
Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, Przemyśl, former 17th-century Jesuit church, now a Ukrainian Greek Catholic cathedral
Carmelite Church, 17th century late-Renaissance church
The Great Przemyśl Cathedral
Przemyśl Castle, built by Casimir III the Great in the 14th century
Zasanie Synagogue
New Synagogue (Przemyśl)
Lubomirski Palace, an eclectic style palace of the Lubomirski family constructed in 1885
Kopiec Tatarski, a mound to the south of the city where a 16th-century Tatar khan was supposedly buried. The Tatarska Góra TV tower is built on the mound.
World War I cemeteries (Cmentarz Wojskowy)
Civil Defense Shelter – Schron Kierowania Obroną Cywilną
Education
Wyższa Szkoła Administracji i Zarządzania
Wydział zamiejscowy w Rzeszowie
Wyższa Szkoła Gospodarcza
Wyższa Szkoła Informatyki i Zarządzania
Nauczycielskie Kolegium Języków Obcych
Nauczycielskie Kolegium Języka Polskiego
Sport
Czuwaj Przemyśl – football club
AZS Czuwaj Przemyśl – handball club
Polonia Przemyśl – football club
Politics
Krosno/Przemyśl constituency
Members of Sejm elected from Krosno/Przemyśl constituency
Law and Justice
Marek Kuchciński
Anna Schmidt-Rodziewicz
Piotr Uruski (SP)
Maria Kurowska (SP)
Piotr Babinetz
Teresa Pamuła
Adam Śnieżek
Tadeusz Chrzan
Civic Coalition
Joanna Frydrych (PO)
Marek Rząsa (PO)
Polish People's Party
Mieczysław Kasprzak
Twin towns
Przemyśl is twinned with:
Chivasso, Italy
Eger, Hungary
Kamianets-Podilskyi, Ukraine
Lviv, Ukraine
Paderborn, Germany
South Kesteven, United Kingdom
Truskavets, Ukraine
Notable people
Jerzy Bartmiński (1939–2022), Polish linguist and ethnologist, lecturer at the UMCS
Avraham Ben-Yitzhak (1883–1950), Israeli poet
Ben Bernanke (born 1953), American economist
Svetozar Boroević (1856–1920), Austro-Hungarian Army Marshal
Jan Borukowski, Bishop of Przemyśl (1524–1584)
Helene Deutsch, née Rosenbach (1884–1982), Polish-American psychoanalyst
Karl Duldig (1902–1986), Austrian-Australian sculptor
Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro (–1679), Sejm Marshal
Mark Gertler (1891–1939), British painter
Leonid Gobyato (1875–1915), Russian military designer
Stefan Grabiński (1887–1936), Polish writer
Giulietta Guicciardi (1782–1856), Austrian countess
Joshua Höschel ben Joseph (1578–1648), Polish rabbi
Wojciech Inglot (1955–2013), Polish entrepreneur, founder of Inglot Cosmetics Company
Hermann Kusmanek von Burgneustädten (1860–1934), Colonel-General of the Austrian Imperial Army
Czesław Marek (1891–1985) Polish composer, pianist, and piano teacher
Lidia Morawska (born 1952), physicist
Yaroslav Osmomysl (–1187), Prince of Halych
Jerzy Podbrożny (born 1966), Polish footballer
Stefania Podgórska (1925–2018), Polish holocaust resister, Righteous Among the Nations
Jan Nepomucen Potocki (1867–1943), Polish nobleman
Teodor Andrzej Potocki (1664–1738), Polish nobleman, Primate of Poland
Hieronim Florian Radziwiłł (1715–1760), Polish–Lithuanian nobleman
Jaroslav Rudnyckyj (1910–1995), Ukrainian-Canadian linguist
Pawel Sek (born 1977), Polish music producer and composer
Ryszard Siwiec (1909–1968), Polish accountant and former Home Army resistance member
Renia Spiegel (1924–1942), Polish-born Jewish diarist
Zeev Sternhell (1935–2020), Polish-born Israeli historian, political scientist and commentator
Andrzej Trzebicki (1607–1679), Polish nobleman, bishop of Kraków
Anatole Vakhnianyn (1841–1908), Ukrainian political and cultural figure, composer, teacher and journalist
Jan Wężyk (1575–1638), Polish nobleman, Primate of Poland
Andrzej Tomasz Zapałowski (born 1966), Polish politician and a former Member of the European Parliament (MEP)
Władysław Dominik Zasławski (–1656), Polish nobleman of Ruthenian origin
Velvel Zbarjer (1824–1884), Galician Jewish Brody singer
Samuel Zborowski (?–1584), Polish military commander
Zyndram of Maszkowice (–), Polish knight
See also
Old Synagogue in Przemyśl destroyed by the Nazis in 1941
Przemyślanin
References
External links
Municipal website
Powiat of Przemyśl (Przemyśl County)
Przemyśl 24/7
Photo-blog about Przemyśl
Przemyśl on old postcards
Przemyśl Photo Gallery
The Jewish Przemyśl Blog, its Sons and Daughters
Przemyśl at KehilaLinks
City counties of Poland
Cities and towns in Podkarpackie Voivodeship
Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
Lwów Voivodeship
Ruthenian Voivodeship
Holocaust locations in Poland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Erskine%2C%201st%20Baron%20Erskine
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Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine
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Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine, (10 January 175017 November 1823) was a British Whig lawyer and politician. He served as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain between 1806 and 1807 in the Ministry of All the Talents.
Background and childhood
Erskine was the third and youngest surviving son of Henry David Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan and Agnes Steuart, the daughter of Sir James Steuart, solicitor general for Scotland.
His older brothers were David (Lord Cardross and later the 11th Earl of Buchan) and Henry (later Lord Advocate of Scotland). His elder sister was Lady Anne Agnes Erskine who was involved with the evangelical Methodists of Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion.
Erskine was born in a tenement at the head of South Grays Close on the High Street in Edinburgh. His mother undertook much of her children's education as the family, though noble, were not rich. The family moved to St Andrews, where they could live more cheaply, and Erskine attended the grammar school there. The family's money having been spent on the education of his older brothers, Erskine, aged fourteen, reluctantly abandoned his formal education for the time being and went to sea as a midshipman. His family meanwhile moved to Bath to become members of the Methodist community headed by Selina, Countess of Huntingdon. Erskine's sister Anne Agnes, was to become treasurer of Selina, Countess of Huntingdon's charities.
Navy, army and legal studies
Erskine went to sea as a midshipman in the Tartar, under captain Sir David Lindsay, who was a nephew of Lord Mansfield and a friend of the Erskine family. The Tartar set sail for the Caribbean, where Erskine was to spend the next four years, rising to the rank of acting lieutenant. When Erskine was eighteen he resigned from the Navy. His ship had been paid off, there were no commissions available, and he didn't want to return to sea as a midshipman after having been an acting lieutenant.
The 10th Earl of Buchan had recently died, and Erskine now had just enough money to buy a commission in the army, becoming an ensign in the 1st (Royal) Regiment of Foot. He was stationed first at Berwick and then on Jersey. In April 1771, after a six month leave of absence from the army, Erskine, along with his wife Frances, rejoined his regiment in Minorca, and were there for two years.
While he was stationed in Jersey and Minorca, Erskine had on occasion preached sermons to his men, prompting one biographer to say that "a taste for oratory that ultimately would lead on to his true career originated in those soldier sermons". He also demonstrated his future skills as an advocate in a pamphlet entitled "Observations on the Prevailing Abuses in the British Army Arising from the Corruption of Civil Government with a Proposal toward Obtaining an Addition to Their Pay". Whilst on leave in London, the charming and well-connected young officer was able to mix in literary circles and met Dr Johnson. James Boswell, in his Life of Johnson, recalled meeting "a young officer in the regimentals of the Scots royal, who talked with a vivacity, fluency and precision so uncommon, that he attracted particular attention. He proved to be the Honorable Thomas Erskine, youngest brother to the Earl of Buchan, who has since risen into such brilliant reputation at the Bar in Westminster-hall". Although Erskine was appointed a lieutenant in April 1773, he decided to leave the army and, with the encouragement of his family and Lord Mansfield, study for the Bar.
Erskine was admitted as a student of Lincoln's Inn on 26 April 1775. He discovered that the period of study required before being called to the Bar could be reduced from five years to three for holders of a degree from Oxford or Cambridge universities. He therefore on 13 January 1776 entered himself as a gentleman commoner on the books of Trinity College, Cambridge where, as the son of an earl, he was entitled to gain a degree without sitting any examinations. He did however win the English declamation prize for an oration on the "glorious revolution" of 1688. At the same time, he was a pupil in the chambers of first Francis Buller and then George Wood. These were years of poverty for Erskine and his growing family: he installed his wife Frances and the children in cheap lodgings in Kentish Town and survived on a gift of £300 from a relative, and the sale of his army commission. Jeremy Bentham, who knew Erskine at this time, described him as "so shabbily dressed as to be quite remarkable".
Early legal and political career
In the summer of 1778 Erskine was awarded a degree and was called to the Bar on 3 July. While many newly qualified barristers, especially those without contacts to put briefs their way, took years to establish themselves, Erskine's success was immediate and brilliant. His first case, that of Thomas Baillie, came to him by chance. The case involved the Greenwich Hospital for Seamen, of which Captain Baillie was lieutenant-governor. Baillie had uncovered abuses in the management of the hospital and, having failed to interest the directors and governors of the hospital or the lords of the Admiralty, he published a pamphlet and was then sued by the agents of John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich who was first lord of the Admiralty and had been placing his agents in positions of authority in the hospital. Hearing of a newly qualified barrister who had himself been a seaman and was sympathetic to his cause, Baillie appointed Erskine to his team although he already had four counsel. Erskine was the most junior, but it was his brilliant speech that won the case and exonerated Baillie. Despite a warning from the judge, Erskine attacked Lord Sandwich calling him "the dark mover behind the scene of iniquity". After his success in the Baillie case, Erskine had no shortage of work and a few months later was retained by Admiral Augustus Keppel in his court martial at Portsmouth. Keppel was acquitted and gave Erskine £1,000 in gratitude. For the first time in his life Erskine was financially secure.
In 1781 Erskine had his first opportunity to address a jury when he defended Lord George Gordon who had been charged with high treason for instigating the anti-Catholic riots of 1780. Erskine's defence not only achieved Gordon's acquittal but also dealt a blow to the English legal doctrine of constructive treason. The case established Erskine as the country's most successful barrister. By 1783, when he received a patent of precedence, he had earned enough to pay off all his debts and accumulate £8–9,000. He could afford a country house, Evergreen Villa, in Hampstead as well as a house in Lincoln's Inn Fields.
In 1783, when the Fox-North Coalition came into power, Erskine entered parliament as Whig member for Portsmouth. Erskine's friend Charles James Fox had been eager to have such a brilliant lawyer join the ranks of Whig members, but Erskine's speeches failed to make the impact in parliament that they did in court. Erskine lost his seat the following year in the general election, becoming one of "Fox's martyrs" when Pitt's party made large gains, although he would regain the seat in 1790.
Defending radicals and reformers
The loss of his parliamentary seat enabled Erskine to concentrate on his legal practice. In 1786, when he was thirty-six years old and had been practising at the Bar for only eight years, he was able to write: "I continue highly successful in my profession, being now, I may say, as high as I can go at the Bar. The rest depends on politics, which at present are adverse." Amongst his notable cases in 1780s was his successful defence of William Davies Shipley, dean of St Asaph (and son of Jonathan Shipley) who was tried in 1784 at Shrewsbury for seditious libel for publishing Principles of Government, in a Dialogue between a Gentleman and a Farmer, a tract by his brother-in-law Sir William Jones advancing radical views on the relationship between subjects and the state. Erskine's defence anticipated the Libel Act 1792, which laid down the principle that it is for the jury (who previously had only decided the question of publication) and not the judge to decide whether or not a publication is a libel.
In 1789 he was counsel for John Stockdale, a bookseller, who was charged with seditious libel in publishing John Logan's pamphlet in support of Warren Hastings, whose impeachment was then proceeding. Erskine's speech, which resulted in the Stockdale's acquittal, argued that a defendant should not be convicted if his composition, taken as a whole, did not go beyond a free and fair discussion, even if selected passages might be libellous. Henry Brougham considered this to be one of Erskine's finest speeches: "It is justly regarded, by all English lawyers, as a consummate specimen of the art of addressing a jury".
Three years later he would, against the advice of his friends, take on the defence of Thomas Paine who had been charged with seditious libel after the publication of the second part of his Rights of Man. Paine was tried in his absence; he was in France. Erskine argued for the right of a people to criticise, reform and change its government; he made the point that a free press produces security in the government. But in this case his arguments failed to convince the special jury, who returned a verdict of guilty without even retiring. Erskine's speech is also remembered for a passage on the duty of barristers to take on even unpopular cases: "I will for ever, at all hazards, assert the dignity, independence, and integrity of the English Bar, without which impartial justice, the most valuable part of the English constitution, can have no existence. From the moment that any advocate can be permitted to say that he will or will not stand between the Crown and the subject arraigned in the court where he daily sits to practise, from that moment the liberties of England are at an end."
Erskine's decision to defend Paine cost him his position as attorney-general (legal advisor) to the Prince of Wales, to which he had been appointed in 1786.
In 1794 William Pitt's government, fearful of a revolution, decided to take action against people who were campaigning for parliamentary reform. Habeas corpus was suspended and twelve members of radical societies were imprisoned and charged with a variety of offences amounting to high treason. Erskine and Vicary Gibbs were assigned as counsel to seven of them. They were not paid for their services, as it was considered unprofessional to take fees for defending people charged with high treason. The treason trials began on 28 October before Lord Chief Justice Eyre at the Old Bailey with the trial of Thomas Hardy, a shoemaker and secretary of the London Corresponding Society. After eight days of evidence and speeches, including Erskine's seven-hour speech on the final day, and several hours deliberation, the jury returned a verdict of not guilty. Erskine was hailed as a hero by the crowds outside who unharnessed his horses (which he never saw again) and pulled his carriage through the streets. Although it was usual in cases where several people were jointly charged with high treason to discharge the rest if the first was acquitted, the government persisted with the trials of John Horne Tooke and John Thelwall. They too, defended by Erskine and Vicary Gibbs, were acquitted and it was only then that the prosecution was halted. A disappointed government had to scrap a further 800 warrants of arrest. In 1800, the owner of the Manor of Hartshorne, Derbyshire, William Bailey Cant, left it to Erskine, in recognition of his role in these cases.
Notable amongst the later cases of Erskine's career was that of James Hadfield, a former soldier who had fired a shot at the king in Drury Lane Theatre. The shot missed and Hadfield was charged with treason. Erskine called a large number of witnesses who testified to Hadfield's sometimes bizarre behaviour, a surgeon who testified to the nature of the head injuries that Hadfield had sustained in battle, and a doctor, Alexander Crichton, who gave evidence that Hadfield was insane. Erskine argued that, although Hadfield could appear rational, he was in the grip of a delusion and could not control his actions. He summed up: "I must convince you, not only that the unhappy prisoner was a lunatic, within my own definition of lunacy, but that the act in question was the immediate unqualified offspring of the disease". The judge, Lord Kenyon, was convinced by Erskine's evidence and argument and stopped the trial, acquitted Hadfield and ordered him to be detained. The trial led to two acts of parliament: the Criminal Lunatics Act 1800 which provided for the detention of people who were acquitted of a crime by reason of insanity, and the Treason Act 1800.
Lord Chancellor
In 1806 Erskine was offered the Lord Chancellorship in the Ministry of All the Talents formed by Lord Grenville and Charles Fox on the death of William Pitt. Fox's original plan had been to offer Erskine the chief judgeship of the Common Pleas or the King's Bench when one of the holders was elevated to Lord Chancellor. But both Lord Ellenborough, chief justice of the King's Bench and Sir James Mansfield, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, declined the chancellorship. Erskine was therefore appointed although he had no experience in Chancery. He was created a peer on 10 February 1806 to become Lord Chancellor. The Prince of Wales, who had inherited the Duchy of Cornwall, chose Erskine's title, Baron Erskine, of Restormel Castle in the County of Cornwall, while the motto, "trial by jury" was Erskine's own. Frances Erskine did not live to enjoy the title of Lady Erskine; she died a few weeks before her husband took the seals of office.
Although Erskine lacked experience in equity, only one of the judgements he made during his brief tenure as Lord Chancellor was appealed against and that, concerning Peter Thellusson's will, was upheld. His handling of the impeachment of Lord Melville was generally admired. Along with Lords Grenville, Spencer and Ellenborough, Erskine was commissioned by the king to enquire into the morals of his daughter-in-law Caroline of Brunswick in what became known as the "delicate investigation".
Erskine was Lord Chancellor for only fourteen months, having to give up the seals of office when the ministry of all the talents resigned over a disagreement with the king concerning the question of Catholic Emancipation. The king gave Erskine a week to finish pending cases, and Erskine took advantage of this to appoint one of his sons-in-law, Edward Morris, as master of Chancery.
Retirement and second marriage
As ex-chancellor, Erskine was not permitted to return to the Bar. He was awarded a pension of £4000 a year and remained a member of the House of Lords. He was only 57 when the ministry of all the talents fell, and hoped that he might return to office when the Prince of Wales became regent. In the event, however, the regent retained the ministry of Spencer Perceval and the Whigs would not be in power again until 1830, seven years after Erskine's death. Erskine largely retired from public life, rarely speaking in the House of Lords. In 1818 he married for the second time. His bride was a former apprentice bonnet-maker, Sarah Buck, with whom he had already had four children. The couple travelled to Gretna Green for the marriage, with an angry adult son in hot pursuit. It was a tempestuous relationship, and the marriage ended in separation a few years later. In spite of his generous pension and the enormous sums he had earned at the Bar, Erskine experienced financial difficulties in his later years, having to sell his villa in Hampstead and move to a house in Pimlico. He also bought an estate in Sussex, but his agricultural efforts were not a great success. He wrote a political romance, Armata, which ran to several editions.
Causes which Erskine took up in his retirement were animal rights, Greek independence, and the defence of Queen Caroline. He had always been an animal lover; amongst his favourite animals were a Newfoundland dog called Toss who used to accompany him to chambers, a macaw, a goose and two leeches. He introduced a bill in the House of Lords for the prevention of cruelty to animals, arguing that humanity's dominion over them was given by God as a moral trust. It was the first time he had proposed a change in the law. The bill was accepted in the Lords but opposed in the Commons; William Windham arguing that a law against cruelty to animals was incompatible with fox-hunting and horse racing. Eventually the bill was introduced in the Commons and passed as statute 3 Geo 4 c71. When Caroline was being prosecuted for divorce Erskine spoke against the Bill of Pains and Penalties and, when the government dropped the bill, expressed his approval: "My Lords, I am an old man, and my life, whether it has been for good or evil, has been passed under the sacred rule of Law. In this moment I feel my strength renovated by that rule being restored". He was invited to a public dinner in Edinburgh in February 1820, and made his first trip to Scotland since he had left it on the Tartar over fifty years before.
In 1823 Erskine set out by sea on another visit to Scotland with one of his sons, hoping to see his brother the Earl of Buchan. But he became ill with a chest infection on the journey and was put ashore at Scarborough. He managed to travel to the home of his brother Henry's widow in Almondell in West Lothian, where they were joined by the earl. He died at Almondell on 17 November 1823 and was buried in the family burial-place at Uphall in Linlithgowshire. His widow survived him by over thirty years. She, as reports in The Times revealed, was reduced to poverty and had to rely on a small charitable allowance to survive. Even these meagre payments were withheld by Erskine's executors when she tried to prevent them sending her son Hampden away to school, and she had to appeal to the lord mayor of London. She died in 1856.
Family
On 29 March 1770 Erskine married Frances Moore, against the wishes of her father, Daniel Moore who was member of parliament for Great Marlowe. Frances was the granddaughter of John Moore, who had been attorney general of Pennsylvania. Before meeting Frances, Erskine had written about the qualities he was looking for in a bride: "Let then my ornament be far from the tinsel glare, let it be fair yet modest, let it rather delight than dazzle, rather shine like the mild beams of the morning than the blaze of the noon. I seek in my fair one a winning female softness both in person and mind". Erskine appears to have found these qualities in Frances: she is described on her memorial in Hampstead Church as "the most faithful and affectionate of women". The couple produced four sons and three daughters:
David Montagu Erskine (1776–1855) was a member of parliament and diplomat
Henry David (1786–1859) was Dean of Ripon
Thomas (1788–1864) became a judge of the Court of Common Pleas
Esmé Steuart (1789–1817) fought at the Battle of Waterloo where he lost an arm (his widow Eliza married Admiral James Norton, who also lost an arm in action)
Frances (died 1859) married Samuel Holland, Precentor of Chichester and Rector of Poynings, Sussex (a grandson of Frances and Samuel was the jurist Thomas Erskine Holland)
Elizabeth (died 1800) married her cousin Captain (later Sir) David Erskine, the illegitimate son of the 11th Earl of Buchan;
Mary (1784-1804) married lawyer Edward Morris.
With his second wife Sarah Buck, Erskine had four children:
Erskine Thomas (1809–1893) was an officer in the Bengal Army and emigrated to New Zealand after his retirement
Alfred (1810–1830) died at his father’s residence in Arabella Row
Agnes Sarah Steuart (1812–1883) emigrated to New Zealand with her brother and his family
John Hampden (1817–1837) died of tuberculosis
Erskine's eldest brother, the 11th Earl of Buchan, had no legitimate sons and was succeeded by a nephew, the son of Erskine's brother Henry. When all Henry's descendants in the direct male line died out in 1960 the seventh Baron Erskine (Donald Cardross Flower Erskine, Erskine's great-great-great-grandson) became the sixteenth Earl of Buchan.
References
Bibliography
J Hostettler 1996 Thomas Erskine and trial by jury. Chichester: Barry Rose Law Publishers Ltd
JA Lovat-Fraser 1932 Erskine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
R Ormrod 1977 The McNaughton case and its predecessors. In DJ West and A Walk (eds.) Daniel McNaughton: his trial and the aftermath. London: Gaskell Books, 4–11
RG Thorne 2006 Erskine, Hon. Thomas in RG Thorne (ed.) The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1790–1820 volume iii, Members A-F: 710–13. Melton: Boydell and Brewer
External links
Portrait of Thomas Erskine by Sir Joshua Reynolds 1786 in the Royal Collection
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1823 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Younger sons of earls
People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutno
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Kutno
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Kutno is a city located in central Poland with 42,704 inhabitants (2021) and an area of . Situated in the Łódź Voivodeship since 1999, previously it was part of Płock Voivodeship (1975–1998) and it is now the capital of Kutno County.
During the invasion of Poland in 1939, Polish armies under General Tadeusz Kutrzeba conducted an offensive in and around Kutno, a battle that was later named the Battle of the Bzura.
Based on its central location and the intersection of multiple rail lines, Kutno is an important railroad junction in Poland. Two main lines cross there (Łódź – Toruń and Warsaw – Poznań – Berlin). Another connection also starts in Kutno, which connects the town to Płock.
Geographical position
Kutno is located in the northern part of the Łódź Voivodeship and is to the northwest of the geographical center of Poland.
According to the data from 1 January 2009, the area of the town amounts to .
According to the physical–geographic division of Poland, the town is placed on the western edge of Kutno plain, which is the part of Middle–Masovia macro region. At the south of Kutno plain, Kutno straddles the boundary of the Łowicko – Błońska plain, which belongs to the same region and the Kłodawa Upland plain, which spreads in the west and is counted in the southern Greater Poland. To the north of the Przedecz – Gostynin line Kujawskie lakeland begins, which is included in the Greater Poland lakeland.
Kutno is located on the edge of four historical lands. Greater Poland, Kuyavia, Masovia, and Łęczyca. It is located in what is virtually the center of Poland, at a point where geographical and historical borders, as well as in the crossing of communication lines, are of major importance to the development of the city.
Administrative divisions
Kutno has maintained the administrative units of a town (Districts, housing developments), although certain parts of the town are simply called housing developments (e.g.: Łąkoszyn housing development). These divisions are mostly historical references. For instance, the Łąkoszyn housing development is part of what remains of the town of Łąkoszyn town which was incorporated to Kutno.
The following parts of Kutno have been formulated in the National Register of Country's Administrative Division: Antoniew, Azory, Bielawki, Dybów, Kościuszków, Kotliska Małe, Łąkoszyn, Puśniki, Sklęczki, Stara Wieś, Stodółki, Walentynów, Wiktoryn, Żwirownia.
Customary Administrative Division of Kutno:
Dybów, Piaski, Rejtana, Tarnowskiego, Kościuszków, Olimpijska, Sklęczki, Łąkoszyn (New Łąkoszyn – houses and Old Łąkoszyn – housing development), Majdany, Grunwald, Batorego, Rataje (between Solidarność roundabout, Targowica and The Kutno House of Culture).
Natural environment
Climate
The climate of Kutno is similar to that of the entire lowland region of Poland. The temperature is influenced by continental and oceanic airflow patterns. Kutno is in the lowest zone of precipitation in Poland. It averages per year, but this can be significantly lower in some years. This is a problem for Kutno, exacerbated by low forest cover and intensive agriculture in the area. Kutno has about five storms during the year (about half of the national average). Snow falls, on average, 39 days in a year. There are about 21 foggy days during the year in the municipal area. But near the Ochnia river fog occurs quite often. On average there are 50 sunny and 130 cloudy days every year. The wind comes mostly from the west, veering southwest in winter and northwest in summer.
July and August are the hottest months with average highs of . December and January are the coldest with average highs of and lows of . July has the most rainfall with an average of 73mm and January has the least with 30mm.
History
Early history
There are indications that the origin of the town may have taken place in the 12th century. The first mention of it was found in a document concerning an endowment of Łęczyca prepositure published due to a consecration of the collegiate church in Łęczyca in the year 1161.
According to the local folklore, both the town and the parish came into being in 1250, although official documentation to that effect is lacking. Most probably, the town began to be settled some time between the 12th and the 14th centuries; its name appeared for the first time in a document from the year 1301. The document had been published for his son Ziemysław by Leszek, Przemysł, and Kazimierz – duke of Kuyavia in the presence of three estate dignitaries as well as other people gathered during a convention in Włocławek. References to Kutno concern the appearance of rector Michał from the church in Kutno on the list of witnesses. In 1386, Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia had given to Andrzej de Kutno the privilege of freeing Kutno and Sieciechów villages from all charges and burdens excluding two coins (Groschen) out of every crop fee. The role of the provincial courts was transferred to the Duke. In 1386, the village of Kutno was given trade and town rights, and 46 years later, in 1432 a municipal town charter. The first records that define Kutno as a town appeared in 1444.
1500–1938
1 July 1504: Mikołaj of Kutno gained the right to hold the St. Wawrzyniec fair, improving the development of the town's trade. In 1701, the Kucieński family gave up Kutno to Anna Zamojska. The Zamoyski family fought amongst themselves for the property for a long time. The town fell into debt but the situation had normalized when Andrzej Hieronim Zamoyski became the owner of Kutno. During that time Kutno was a town of prosperity and development. A route connecting Warsaw with Poznań and Dresden ran through the town in the 18th century and King Augustus III of Poland often traveled that route. The town's prestige increased after King Augustus III of Poland ordered the construction of the Postal Palace and consequently, the Saxon Palace was built. It was constructed between 1750 and 1753, after a royal track leading from Dresden to Warsaw had been built. The palace was decorated with rich interiors according to John M Walter's plans. In 1753, Kutno was completely burned, resulting in the loss of the town records along with the settlement grant. After the fire, the King's Lord Councillor Andrzej Zamoyski left Kutno in order to obtain another settlement grant, however, the town suffered another fire due to one of many army march-passes in 1774 and easygoing attitude of soldiers.
In 1775, Andrzej Zamoyski sold Kutno to Stanisław Kostka Gadomski – governor of Łęczyca province. Under his reign, Kutno became one of the biggest settlements in central Poland. The Second Partition of Poland occurred in 1793. Kutno had been completely under Prussian control and became part of the newly created province of South Prussia. The whole province of Kutno became part of the Łęczyca department, then after the Third Partition, it became part of the Warsaw department.
On 4 January 1807, Napoleon Bonaparte passed through Kutno. In 1807, under the Treaties of Tilsit, Kutno became part of the Duchy of Warsaw. An 1808 fire, most likely set by Napoleon's army, destroyed 180 houses. In 1809 Kutno was visited by Jan Henryk Dąbrowski. After 1815, the area was incorporated into the Congress Kingdom of Poland. In 1826, the first town map was published due to the planned rebuilding of the town.
In 1840, a chapel was built which later became the Museum of the Battle of the Bzura river. Built in the Neo-Renaissance style and rotunda shape and crowned with a dome, it is part of the Wiosny Ludów park. It formerly served as a mausoleum for the Rzątkowski and Mniewski families. Another fire destroyed nearly all of the houses on Królewska St. Only two buildings remained – nowadays Crocantino and MDM. In 1844, the first hospital in Kutno was opened, sponsored by Kutno's former owner Feliks Mniewski. A City Hall was built in 1845 in classicistic style. The building, located in the Marshal Piłsudski square, currently serves as the Regional Museum, in which one can see mementos and records from the history of Kutno.
In 1862, the Warsaw – Bydgoszcz railway line opened, leading Kutno to become an important railway junction and a trade and industry center. Directly before and during the period of the January Uprising, Kutno was the seat of the head of the Gostynin province. During the January Uprising, clashes between Polish insurgents and Russian troops took place in Kutno on July 1–2 and August 8, 1863.
In 1867, Kutno district was formed. This state endured until World War I outbreak. In 1886, on the place of the former Gothic church, the St. Lawrence Church (designed in a neo-Gothic style by Konstantyn Wojciechowski) was built.
The famous Jewish writer Szalom Asz was born in Kutno in 1880. In his collection of short stories "Miasteczko" ("The Town"), he described the situation of Jewish people from his family town – Kutno. Every two years, the town holds the Szalom Asz Festival of Jewish Culture, which includes a literary contest about his works. Kutno was historically a center of a sizeable Jewish community. In 1900, 10,356 Jews lived there.
On 5 January 1904, the Polish writer Henryk Sienkiewicz, a Nobel prize laureate, stayed in the Town Theatre, which was the seat of the Fire Brigade at that time. Income from his lecture was given to the poor children of Kutno. After his speech, a ball was held, to which only men were allowed, while women could watch it only from open windows.
From 15 to 16 October 1914, the Battle of Kutno took place between the Russian and the German. The Russians lost the battle, and the loss of Kutno provided the Germans with a direct access to Warsaw. In 1915, a local parish priest Franciszek Pruski was executed by a firing squad. A plaque commemoratinf this event has been placed in the St. John the Baptist church.
Many Kutno inhabitants took part in the Polish-Bolshevik War. They also fought in the Siberian Division. After the war, hundreds of 15-year-old boys enlisted in the Army Mining Corps, today known as the miner–soldiers.
From April 1919 to January 1921, a future French president Charles de Gaulle stayed in Kutno, as an instructor with the French military mission under general Louis Faury. On 5 March 1938, Kutno received its blazon, which depicts two rampant wild boars on the yellow background, leaning against a green bulrush.
World War II
The Battle of the Bzura river took place from 9 to 12 September 1939 during the German invasion of Poland, which started World War II. On 9 September the Poznań Army (Armia Poznań) operational group, led by General Edmund Knoll-Kownacki, attacked the German 8th Army led by General Johannes Blaskowitz. On 11 September Poland's Pomorze Army reinforced the Polish troops in battle. At first, the Polish assault was successful but the Germans reinforced their troops on 12 September and started to counterattack. General Tadeusz Kutrzeba ordered Knoll to retreat beyond the Bzura river. Kutno remained outside the battle area. Despite the ultimate defeat of Polish army, the Battle of the Bzura river made the Germans change their strategy and regroup and also delayed the capitulation of Warsaw.
On 16 September 1939, the German Wehrmacht moved into Kutno, bombarding trains, the railway station, and houses throughout the district. At the junction of what is now Kochanowski Street and Maja Street, a German saboteur laid down a target for the bombers bombing the railway station.
The area was annexed directly to Germany, and administratively became part of the Third Reich's Reichsgau Wartheland, within the district/county (kreis) of Kutno. In December 1939 expulsions began in accordance with Nazi Germany's racial and ethnic policies, which aimed to make the town population purely German. People were forced to leave their houses early in the morning with only an hour's notice and could take only of baggage and a small amount of money. Expulsion was very often carried out with violence. People were transported by trucks or wagons and then in sealed trains. The trip was up to eight days long, in terrible conditions. Poles from Kutno were also among the victims of a massacre carried out by the German police in February 1940 near Gostynin (see Nazi crimes against the Polish nation). On 14 April 1940, during the AB-Aktion, most of the Polish teachers from the Kutno district were arrested. Only a few survived having had left their houses earlier or having been prewarned. At least 173 Poles from Kutno and the county were murdered by the Soviets in the Katyn massacre in April–May 1940 or died in Soviet camps.
Subsequently, the Germans created a ghetto in Kutno on 15 June 1940. The entire area of a former sugar factory ("Hortensja" or "Konstancja" according to various sources) was surrounded by barbed wire. On the first day, the Poles were forbidden to leave their houses, while the Jews were forced to take all their belongings and proceed to the factory. The German soldiers and SS members beat the Jews standing in the street. Eight thousand people were transferred to the area of the factory, within five buildings. On the first day, crowded and without any first-aid facilities, a few people died. The only food they had was a small amount of potatoes and bread. Prices of extra food were very high. For instance, one kilogram of potatoes cost 40 Pfennig in the ghetto, while it was 5 Pfennig in the rest of the town. However, a true nightmare started in winter, when there was not enough firewood, so that the Jews had to burn furniture or scaffolding.
In the following year, 1941, due to overcrowding of resettled people and transport difficulties, a concentration camp was established at 7 Przemysłowa St. Due to terrible conditions in the camp, about 10 persons died of dysentery every day.
On 9 June 1941, at present-day Wolności Square, three Poles, Kalikst Perkowski, Wilhelm Czernecki and Piotr Sanda, were publicly executed in punishment for smuggling food to Warsaw. Their deaths were intended to be a lesson and the presence of locals at the execution was compulsory; even the families of the executed were there.
On 19 March 1942, the ghetto was closed. All Jews, in alphabetical order, were deported to Koło and then to the Chełmno extermination camp. The 6,000 Jewish inhabitants of Kutno were killed there, while elder people who had been ghetto administrators were killed in Kutno itself. Additionally, a forced labor camp operated in the area from January 1942 until January 1945. On 19 January 1945, the Red Army arrived in Kutno, ending the German occupation, and the town was restored to Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which remained in power until the Fall of Communism in the end of the 1980s.
1945–1989
Cultural institutions resumed activity during first years after the liberation. Firstly, posts that had existed before 1939 were reopened. In June 1945 the Kutno District Public Library was opened. Thanks to donations by the public and the regaining of books that had been kept during the War, the library's collection grew rapidly. The public library was and still is fulfilling its important role in broadening culture. Because of developed railway and road trails, Kutno has been attractive for investors. Among the many branches of industry in Kutno, the most important was the electronics industry. In 1957 Radio Components Company Miflex opened, and would eventually employ over three thousand people. The Company is one of the important distributors of capacitors, anti-interference filters. At the Marshal Piłsudski square Polish – Soviet brotherhood was constructed, depicting two persons: Red Army soldier and People's Army of Poland soldier shaking hands with each other. After the monument had been constructed incidents such as vandalism and defacing it with paint by local high school students occurred. They were part of the group called "Bloody Hawk" ("Krwawy Jastrząb").
In 1968 Kazimierz Jóźwiak, who was a choreographer and manager as well as director of the Kutno House of Culture founded the "Song and Dance of Kutno`s Land Band" ("Zespół Pieśni i Tańca Ziemi Kutnowskiej"). In 1971, the former Town Hall at the Marshal Piłsudski square Kutno Regional Museum was reopened. In 1975, the town was adjoined to the province of Płock and would remain so for the next 23 years. Annually, since September 1975, the Kutno Rose Festival takes place at the Kutno House of Culture, which has long been a center of cultural events in Kutno.
After 1989
In 1990 formula of the fair has been changed as well as its name: from The "Rose Fair" to "The Rose Festival"
In 1996 International Little League Baseball Tournament took place in Kutno. Since that time Kutno is the world-famous seat of the European Little League Baseball Center. On 18 August 1998 Higher School of Economics has been opened in Kutno in 7th Lelewel St. In 1999 because of an administrative resolution, Kutno district once again become part of the Łódź province after 24 years. In 2001, Królewska St. and Marshal Józef Piłsudski Square were renovated.
Economy
Kutno Agro–Industrial Park (KAIP)
As a result of decisions made in the 1970s, industry investments began being located in the eastern part of Kutno - Sklęczki - now Kutno Agro-Industrial Park. The decisive factor was access to the A2 motorway and the presence of a system of sidings connected with the E20 railway. KAIP began in 1996 during construction of the National Center for Food Processing and Distribution. Construction was led by the Urban Institute and the U.S. Agency for International Development and was opened in 1998. KAIP is constructed on 370 hectares, and now has over 60 businesses of local and foreign capital operate within its boundaries. Nearly 6,000 people are employed here. The food industry, packaging, plastics processing, manufacturing of agricultural equipment, and pharmaceuticals are the dominant branches. 111 hectares were set aside as part of the Special Economic Zone of Łódź.
Kutno subzone of the Łódź Special Economic Zone
In 2000, the Town Council created the Łódź Special Economic Zone in Kutno Agro-Industrial park. It was originally 23 hectares and had four zones: Odlewnicza St. (4.24ha), Sklęczkowska St. (6.48 ha), Stalowa I and II (7.87ha and 4.49ha). The Sub-zone has been broadened in the following years: 2002, 2005, twice in 2007 and in 2010.
According to data from the end of January 2010, the whole area of Kutno sub-zone is 111 hectares. Capital investments of companies operating only in the Kutno sub-zone have exceeded the value of 1 billion PLN over the last 10 years.
Industry in Kutno
Pharmaceutical industry: Teva Kutno, Polfarmex, Fresenius Kabi Poland, Nobilus Ent, Trouw Nutrition International (a part of Nutreco)
Engineering and Metallurgic industry: Kongskilde, Skiold BL, Ideal Europe, Florian Centrum (owned by Mittal Steel), Kraj, Miflex-Masz, AMZ Kutno, Libner Poland, Fermator (Enginova), Profilplast
Electronics industry: Miflex (a former branch of Unitra),
Transportation: Nijhof-Wassink, Hartwig Poland
Food industry: Exdrob, Kofola, Polmos, Pini Polonia, Pringles
Construction industry: Schomburg Polska, Vester, Urbud, Mavex, Trakt, Kutnowska Prefabrykacja Betonu (Kutno Concrete Prefabrication), Mawex, Aarsleff, ProfilPas
Packaging and plastic industry: DS Smith, Fuji Seal Poland, PrintPack Poland, Paja Folie, Sirmax Poland, PolyOne Poland Manufacturing, Elplast
Tourism
Old Town – two markets connected to Królewska St. that after the modernization made along with Piłsudski square has become town's showcase, a place where Kutno citizens can spend their free time. Taking a walk around Old Town one can easily find marks of the medieval concept of Wolnośći square, church or Zduński fair (Zduńska St. and Tetralna St.). Current buildings at New Town and in Królewska St. have been constructed in the first half of the 19th century.
Kutno Town Hall – currently place where Regional Museum is located
Museum of the Battle of the Bzura river – at Wiosny Ludów park where grave chapel of Mniewscy family is located. It was built in the 19th century. Currently, the place where Museum of the Battle of the Bzura River is located
Postal Palace – known also as the Saxon Palace that was used by king Augustus III on his travel way from Warsaw to Dresden. The building is one of the oldest in town; it was constructed in the 18th century. On 11 December 1812, Napoleon Bonaparte stayed there during his escape from Russia.
Complex of Gierałty's palaces – property of the owners of Kutno. Currently seat of National Music School. Palace was constructed between 1781 and 1785 years. In 1920 Charles de Gaulle paid a visit there. Wiosny Ludów park is located behind the palace.
Manor house of Chlewiccy (also called Modrzewiowy) with column-shaped veranda from the 1st half of 19th century – currently seat of the Companionship of Friends of The Kutno land.
Manor house of Szymańscy – constructed in the first half of the 18th century. Currently it a hotel with restaurant.
Izaak Holcman's villa by the Solidarność rotary. Currently a health center.
Villa in the 8th Matejki St – constructed during the years 1927 to 1929 for the family of engineer Ryszard Macher
"New Inn" building – formerly seat of the Provisional government on the first days of the January Uprising.
Former St. Valenine hospital
Lutheran church
Dr Antoni Troczewski's Villa
Complex of postfactory buildings of "Kraj" owned by Alfred Vaedtke
Former city theatre at the Zduński Market (formerly House of Volunteer Fire Brigade)
Motor mill in Warszawskie Przedmieście St.
Churches in Kutno
St. Lawrence Parish – founded in 1301. The first reference about St. Lawrence the Martyr comes from 1301 and mentions parish priest Michał. The first presumed wooden construction of the church was in the 13th century during the efforts to construct village parishes. It was a small church made in a Gothic style that had lasted until 1483 when burned down. The new one was funded by the Mikołaj from Kutno in 1484. It was made in gothic style, a one-aisled church with set apart presbytery and tower on the west side and St. Anne chapel adjacent to the aisle. In 1883 because of high-level of damage church had been decided to be pulled down. Construction of the current one ended in 1886 according to a design made by Konstantyn Wojciechowski. Basilical, neo-gothic church has two towers with clock placed on the top of one.
St. John the Baptist Parish – founded in 1988. The main altar consists of a relief depicting Resurrected Christ, Consecration by Pope John Paul II in Łowicz on 1 June 1999.
The Saint Queen Jadwiga Parish – founded in 1990. On 8 June 1997 on Kraków grasslands Pope John Paul II Consecration Cornerstone for the construction of this church.
St. Stanislaus the Martyr Bishop Parish – founded in 1297
The Our Lady of Perpetual Help Parish church – founded in 1988
Saint Michael the Archangel Parish – is placed in Woźniaków district.
City parks
Wiosny Ludów Park – is the oldest and simultaneously biggest park in Kutno (area 17,1ha). Once it was a palace garden by the Gierałty's Palace and came into being during the years 1775 to 1791. Park is separated in two parts, first one is a symmetric garden that is similar to the shape of French garden. The other one is landscape English garden, which came into being during the years 1826 to 1840. In the western edge of the park stands chapel in the memory of Mniewscy family (owners of Kutno from the 19th century).
Romuald Traugutt City Park – placed in the central part of town on the area of 4,2ha. Has been founded during Poland's twenty years of independence after World War I as a place where one can reSt. Park is placed on terrain with diverse heights which gives him interesting landscape composition with pond being placed on the lowest part. At first, it was just an industrial pond nowadays it is adapted to leisure functions. Most of the cultural events in Kutno take place there. Stefan Żeromski's public library and Kutno House of Culture are placed in there.
City park by the Ochnia river – is the newest park in Kutno. Groundworks ended there in 2003 year. Park's small woodiness gives it a modern image. Football and Basketball pitches located in the neighborhood create opportunity to practice sports.
Education
Kindergartens, elementary schools and middle schools:
Jarzębinka Integrational Municipal Kindergarten nr.3
Stokrotka Municipal Kindergarten nr.5
Municipal Kindergarten nr.8
Fable's Municipal Kindergarten nr.15
Cindarella's Municipal Kindergarten
Forget-me-not's Municipal Kindergarten nr.17
Catholic Kindergarten
Elementary school in Gołębiew
T.Kościuszko Elementary school nr.1
M.Kopernik Elementary school nr.4
Elementary school nr.5
M.Skłodowska-Curie Elementary school nr.6
W.Jagiełło Elementary school nr.9
Catholic Elementary school of catholic school friends association in Wierzbie
A.Mickiewicz Middle school nr.1
J.Piłsudski Middle school nr.2
H.Sienkiewicz Middle school nr.3
W.Anders Catholic Middle school of catholic middle school friends association in Wierzbie
Middle school in Byszew
St.Stanislaus Kostka Catholic Middle school of catholic middle school friends association
High schools
Zbigniew Religa Academic High School
Jan Henryk Dąbrowski High School No.1 (so called "Dąbrowszczak")
Jan Kasprowicz High School No.2
St.Stanislaus Kostka Catholic High School association of catholic school friends (so called "Katolik")
Stanisław Staszic nr.1 set of schools (so called "Mechanik")
A. Troczewski nr.2 set of schools (so called "Margaryna")
Wł.Grabski nr.3 set of schools (so called "Ekonomik")
Z. Balicki nr.4 set of schools in Kutno – Azory
Higher education
Higher School of National Economy in Kutno
Commuting didactic facility of Łódź University Economic – Sociological department
Commuting facility of High schools of social skills – Law department (master's studies)
Art schools
K.Kurpiński National Music School of Ist and IInd degree
Communions
Pastoral services are provided by the following churches:
Roman Catholic church
Lutheran church
Pentecost church
Christian church "Jesus lives"
Seventh-day Adventist Church
Culture
Events
The Rose Festival – a cultural event organized by Kutno House of Culture. It was held for the first time from 20 to 21 September 1975 as Kutno's Roses Fair. Main element of this event is exhibition of roses that comes from different Kutno growers along with performances of music bands (mostly folk bands), exhibition of the local artist and trade stalls. Since 1990 name of the festival has been changed to The Rose Festival (Święto Róży) along with its theme. Exhibition of roses has been extended with arts and set design arrangements.
Kutno Station – Nationalwide Competition of Honorable Songs of Kutno District Governor – Jeremi Przybora. For the first time, took place in 2005.
Szalom Asz Festival – A nationwide contest that is held once every two years. Jewish music, photographic exhibitions and film screenings also are immanent part of the festival.
Sport
Kutno is the seat of the European Little League Baseball Center. In 1984, Juan Echevarria Motola, a Cuban living in Kutno, started teaching baseball to groups of young people. Therefore, a baseball section of "Stal Kutno" club was created. It is the biggest youth center of baseball in Europe. The European Baseball Championship is hosted annually in various age categories. The complex consists of two lighted stadiums that have enough space to hold up to two thousand spectators named for Edward Piszka and Stan Musial. The complex also includes three training fields and a dormitory for over 200 players.
Sports club City Stadium in Kutno on Tadeusz Kościuszki St. is named by Henryk Reyman.
Sports clubs
KS Kutno – Football, currently in third league, founded in 2014.
KKS Kutno – basketball, currently Polish Basketball League.
Tytan Kutno – rugby club founded in 2009
Stal Kutno – baseball club, first league
Stal Kutno II – Baseball club, second league
International cooperation
Kutno cooperates with various cities and regions in Europe. For instance with Bat Yam city in Israel (Szalom Asz festival connects both towns). Thanks to Commune Association of Kutno Region town maintains relationship with the English county Northumberland.
Transport
Kutno is an important communication junction in Central Europe. Two main roads lead through town: national road No. 92 (former road No. 2) connecting Miedzichowo near Nowy Tomyśl with Łowicz and Warsaw; national road No. 60 connecting Kutno with Płock and Ostrów Mazowiecka national road which is the transit corridor for trucks, leading from the Baltic states to Germany. Both roads leading through town are bypassed which helps transport though country and to reduce traffic in the town.
Fourteen kilometers () from Kutno is Krośniewice. This is where the junction of roads nr 91 and 92 is situated.
Beside country roads through Kutno leads a system of Province and District roads connecting town with Łódź and other nearby towns.
The A1 motorway which opened to traffic in November 2012 has greatly improved the importance of the town in road transportation. Kutno is served by two exits from the A1 motorway (Kutno North, from the town and Kutno East, from the town).
List of country and province roads in Kutno
country road nr 60: Łęczyca – Kutno – Płock – Ostrów Mazowiecka
country road nr 92: Miedzichowo – Poznań – Konin – Kutno – Łowicz
province road nr 702: Kutno – Piątek – Zgierz
Railway
Kutno is served by the Kutno railway station.
Kutno has been an important railway hub in Poland since the 19th Century. The railways enjoyed its greatest development in the 1920s and 1930s.
The history of rail in Kutno dates from 1861. Intensive railway development started during the interwar period. Between 1922 and 1926, the connection linking Kutno with Poznań (thereby construction of Warsaw - Poznań railway) was completed and Łódź with Płock was finished. During the postwar period, the current platform and underground passage was constructed.
One can now travel by train from Kutno to most of the big cities in Poland (Warsaw, Łódź, Bydgoszcz, Szczecin, Poznań, Wrocław, Katowice, Kraków, Lublin) and also to various tourism centers (Kołobrzeg, Krynica-Zdrój, Hel, Zakopane).
Bus service
PKS Kutno enables coach connection with neighbouring localities for which Kutno is the administrative and regional center. There are also possible regional connections to Łódź and Płock.
Municipal Transportation Company serves Kutno inhabitants around town and its closest surroundings. The 13-day bus line and one marked "N" (night bus) route through Kutno. Remaining lines with numbers from 5 to 16 service the city area and also route to neighbouring areas.
There are also private carriers servicing line: Kutno – Piątek – Zgierz – Łódź
Honorary citizens
List of individuals granted with the Honorary citizen title by the City council
Edward John Piszek
Stanley Frank Musial
Eugeniusz Filipowicz
PhD Antoni Troczewski
Robert Sczcepanik
Former names in the city
During the times of German occupation, the square at the center of Kutno (nowadays Marshal Józef Piłsudski square) was named Adolf Hitler Platz, while Gabriel Narutowicz St. was named Hindenburg Strase.
During the times of People's Republic of Poland, Piłsudski square was named Józef Stalin square. After his death, the name of the square was changed to 19 January Square (the date related to the liberation of Kutno by the Red Army).
Former names of the streets in Kutno:
nowadays cardinal Stefan Wyszyński st – former General Karol Świerczewski (before war Szosowa St.),
nowadays Wilcza St. – former Hanki Sawickiej St.
nowadays Maria Skłodowska-Curie St. – former Głogowiecka St.
nowadays Peowiacka St. – former Mariana Buczka St.
nowadays Augustyn Kordecki – former Marcin Kasprzak St.
nowadays General Władysław Sikorski – former General Siemiona Kriwoszeina St.
nowadays General Władysław Anders – former Feliks Dzierżyński St.
Legends
According to a widespread story, Kutno was supposed to have been founded by Count Piotr from Kutna Hora, who had escaped in 997 with the brother of Bishop Wojciech from Bohemia to Poland. Kutno, the town, was founded as an heirloom of a family estate.
J. Łukawski, the publisher of Liber beneficiorum by J. Ławski, placed a footnote on page 478, with the following account: "When Piotr of Kutno came to Poland in the year 997, he founded Kutno in memory of his manor house in the Bohemia. The parish church was founded along with the settlement. Piotr's ancestors designated themselves as the Counts of Kutno and later assumed the name of Kucieńscy".
However, this story is not considered to be reliable and is rejected by most historians due to its doubtful origin. It is treated as an 18th-century legend or possibly a varnished version of the origins some "noble" families. The geographic dictionary of Polish Kingdom, commonly known as "Kąty", gives the impression that Kutno could have been named "Kątno" originally.
The source of this legend is likely because of the similarities between names Kutno and Kutná Hora. First references to Kutná Hora were made in 1289, whereas about Kutno itself was not noted until 1301. In addition, in the 10th century Poles were not founding towns, as an equivalent. Instead, they had strongholds which were changed in the 13th century. The title of Count being used in Bohemia since 1627.
References
External links
Website of Kutno city council
Kutno – eKutno.pl city news center
Kutno Culture Center
Kutno – information center
Shtetl Kutno (English and Polish)
Photos of 1939 Kutno Jewish Ghetto
Jewish Kutno Memorial (English, French, Spanish and Hebrew)
Cities and towns in Łódź Voivodeship
Kutno County
Rawa Voivodeship
Warsaw Governorate
Warsaw Voivodeship (1919–1939)
Łódź Voivodeship (1919–1939)
Holocaust locations in Poland
Jewish communities destroyed in the Holocaust
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Piła
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Piła (; ) is a city in northwestern Poland and the capital of Piła County, situated in the Greater Poland Voivodeship. Its population was 71,846, making it the city in the voivodeship after Poznań and Kalisz and the largest city in the northern part of Greater Poland. The city is located on the Gwda river and is famous for its green areas, parks and dense forests nearby. It is an important road and railway hub, located at the intersection of two main lines: Poznań–Szczecin and Bydgoszcz–Krzyż Wielkopolski.
City name
Piła is a Polish word meaning "saw". This was a typical name denoting a village of woodcutters belonging to a local noble. The German name Schneidemühl means "sawmill".
History
In the Kingdom of Poland
Overview
Piła traces its origins to an old fishing village. Following the German colonist movement of the 13th century, and particularly after the end of the first Mongol invasion of Poland of 1241, many German colonizers came to this densely wooded area of Poland. General immigration of German settlers diminished, however, when Poland, under King Casimir IV Jagiellon (1447–1492), finally defeated the Teutonic Order in 1466.
Early history
A Slavic settlement of woodcutters in the fishing village Piła may have existed before any of the later villages and surrounding towns of the area were established. Thus, in the 14th century Piła grew to some extent because of its position on the Gwda a mere from where it joins the river Notec. Yet, the settlement developed less than others that were on such major water routes as the rivers Warta or Vistula. Piła's simple layout of unpaved streets and primitive clay and timber houses gave little protection to its inhabitants and was still far from becoming a commercially interesting locale. If one were to credit a Privilegium (charter) of the early 1380s as evidence, a document associated with the building of a church in Piła and ascribed to the very young Polish Queen Jadwiga of Poland—a copied document that still existed in the archives of the town before 1834—then that period could well be regarded as the time when the village of Piła/Snydemole was elevated to the status of town. The recurring double naming Piła-Snydemole may be because two originally separate localities took their name from the water-powered sawmill that had been part of the town's raison d’être from the beginning.
Documented references to Snydemole and Piła are reportedly found in parish church sources of 1449, where there is mention of a sawmill and of the name of the current wojewoda (governor) Paul. Evidence also exists of a letter from 1456 by the Brandenburg Friedrich II Hohenzollern who had bought the Neumark region from the Teutonic Order in 1455. The letter is addressed to bishop Andrzej of Poznań and to Łukasz Górka, the local Starosta, the royal constable of Wielkopolska. The elector complained that in prevailing peace times some burghers of Snydemole and Piła were making raids on his lands. This accusation may tend to give additional credence to the earlier claim that Queen Jadwiga in the 1380s was indeed the founder of the town of Piła.
City rights
Until 1480 Piła was a town owned by the nobility, belonging to Maciej Opaliński who later presented his holdings to King Casimir IV Jagiellon, at which time Piła became a royal town. Administratively it was located in the Poznań County in the Poznań Voivodeship in the Greater Poland Province of the Kingdom of Poland. It is known that ten years later the burghers of the town were accused and penalized for tax evasion that had been occurring over a period of five years. However, King Sigismund I the Old—during whose reign immigration of numerous Jews from the Iberian peninsula, Bohemia and German states was encouraged—bestowed municipal rights upon the town of Piła on 4 March 1513, a landmark decision. This was an important achievement for Piła since it gave the burghers not only status, but also the rights to self-administration and its own judiciary. The administration of the town's affairs was now in the hands of three legislative bodies, elected from among the burghers. They were the council with the mayor, jury court and the elders of the guilds. Only the position of the Wójt remained in the hands of the crown or its deputy, the Starosta. The sovereign, however, remained the ultimate judge, warlord and owner of the land. Being free from the arbitrariness of a Castellan or of Wojewoda (governor of the province)—Piła's town folk took advantage of the town's privileges by owning property, carrying on any trade and enjoying the right to hold much needed market fairs.
16th century
Economic circumstances or personal feuds may have been responsible for the frequent changes of ownership of the town, as Piła was ‘purchased’ in 1518 by Hieronymus von Bnin; the document outlining the deed and ownership during his lifetime was given to him by King Sigismund I in 1525. Following the demise of Bnin, the town became the property of the dynasty of the mighty Gorka family. This family, secretly leaning toward Protestantism and in power until the 17th century, included some of the wealthiest landowners and most influential nobles of Poland and was known to be benevolent to their town's folk.
In 1548 Piła obtained a privilege that banned any foreign potter from the town's markets, and in 1561 a fishing privilege was obtained. Piła was part of the Poznań Voivodeship, the region divided into the four starostwa (land holdings) of Poznań, Kościan, Wschowa and Wałcz, the latter encompassing the Starosty Ujscie-Piła, the area between the rivers Gwda, Notec and Drage. Stara Piła, the old Piła, a town that never had walls, was slow to grow.
By the middle of the 16th century, many German Protestant craftsmen and traders, driven out of Bohemia by religious persecution during the Reformation, settled in numerous towns in the region. Some may have settled in Piła too, yet in 1563 the small town had no more than 750 inhabitants. They are known to have lived in 153 houses, primitively built, primarily with timber and clay, covered with straw and grouped mainly around the Old Market. When King Stephen Báthory of Poland confirmed two of the town's privileges on 3 September 1576, the burghers were granted the right to hold their weekly market on a Monday (instead of Thursday), an important feat. Over the following 150 years, numerous privileges and charters were re-issued by the Polish crown, mainly as a result of loss by fire. By 1591 a statute allowing apprenticeships in various trades was obtained. In 1593 King Sigismund III Vasa confirmed old privileges of Piła.
17th century: Queen Constance reshaping the town
When the widowed Sigismund III Vasa married princess Constance, an Austrian archduchess from the House of Habsburg, in 1605, he presented the town of Piła, together with the lands of the domain of Ujście, as a wedding gift to his new bride. She became responsible for changing Piła in several ways over the next few decades. Acting in concert with the tenets of the prevailing Catholic Counter Reformation, the queen first attended to what seemed closest to her heart. She saw to it that numerous Protestant churches in the region of Wałcz, the most German of areas where seventeen Protestant villages existed, be handed over to the Roman Catholic clergy, hounding many a German Protestant burgher in the process.
After one of the town's frequent fires in 1619, the queen—in a benevolent gesture and as her ‘present’ to the burghers of Piła—appropriated funds from the large estate to have the old burnt-out wooden Catholic Church rebuilt. Alas, given the random, close proximity of houses to one another, town fires occurred with such regularity in numerous communities during that period that in 1626 another devastating fire broke out in Piła. This time the entire town was laid to ashes, including the newly built church. Constance subsequently charged her secretary Samuel Targowski on 15 July 1626 to survey what was left of the town. His proposal for a new layout was to be drastic for Christian burghers; to the developing Jewish community it was most consequential and of particular detriment. Constance also decided on a distinct segregation of Jews and Christians. The Jewish community was to resettle in a ghetto, what was to become a virtual town within a town. The new site, from thereon often referred to as Judenstadt, the Jews’ town. To demarcate the newly created ghetto, the decree called for a sizable trench to be dug to surround the Jewish quarters where feasible; otherwise a tall wooden fence had to serve to close in the area completely.
A new church arose in 1628. Unlike most other buildings in town, the choir room section of this edifice was to remain intact in its original form until 1945. New houses were constructed of brick and stone and the town was reconstructed in plain Renaissance style. Polish Kings confirmed old privileges of Piła again in 1633 and 1650, and granted new privileges in 1660, 1670 and 1688, which were then confirmed in 1716. On 24 July 1655, during the Deluge, Swedish troops captured the predominantly Lutheran town and destroyed most of its buildings and infrastructure. During October 1656, a Polish troupe of Stefan Czarniecki's army sought retribution upon the largely German and Protestant burghers of Piła, accusing them of collusion with the Swedes. During the consecutive Great Northern and Seven Years' Wars similar havoc was visited upon the remaining inhabitants. To add to the plight, it was discovered that the plague had been carried in.
In the Kingdom of Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw
With the signing of the definitive treaty to divide Poland between Prussia, Austria and Russia in 1772, the First Partition of Poland was accomplished. Piła became part of the Kingdom of Prussia and was officially renamed Schneidemühl. After Frederick II of Prussia signed the Ownership Protocol of his Polish lands on 13 September 1772, he created out of the northern parts of Greater Poland and Kuyavia the Département Westpreussen. Part of that area was later also known as the Netzedistrikt, a governmental administrative district consisting of a wide strip of land both sides of the river Noteć (Netze), stretching from it source north of Września (Wreschen) to the border of the Neumark. Frederick II initiated new German Protestant colonization in opposition to Polish Catholics.
In the year 1781, another huge fire occurred, which devastated half the town. Although Prussian authorities had brought in chimney sweeps and regulations that spelled out fire emergency tasks, hardly anyone in the town was prepared for a major conflagration. 44 houses, 37 stables and 17 barns burned down.
In 1793 Piła was recaptured for a short period by a Polish army led by Colonel Wyganowski. Following Prussia's defeat in the battle of Jena and Greater Poland uprising (1806), and after signing the Peace of Tilsit of 7 July 1807, Piła became part of the semi-independent Polish Duchy of Warsaw.
19th century: industrialization and railway hub
After the Congress of Vienna of 1815, Prussia regained the town once again. Under the Prussian administrative reforms of 1816–18, the town became part of the Kolmar District within the Bromberg Region of the Grand Duchy of Posen. On 1 January 1818 Kreis Kolmar was established, with its seat in Piła / Schneidemühl, which in 1821 was moved to Chodzież. One of the main escape routes for insurgents of the unsuccessful Polish November Uprising from partitioned Poland to the Great Emigration led through the city.
The Polish language was restricted from offices and education and the city saw a significant influx of German settlers. By 1834 Schneidemühl had barely recovered from the worst outbreak of cholera of 1831, an epidemic that affected the town's burghers to such an extent that a special Protestant cholera cemetery had to be laid out in the town's suburb Berliner Vorstadt. In the summer of 1834 the city was again struck by a fire that destroyed a large part of the city centre and the city archives. The city was rebuilt shortly afterwards.
In 1851 the city was connected to Berlin and Bydgoszcz (Bromberg) by the Prussian Eastern Railway. An architectural artifact which remains from the railway development period is a historical roundhouse.
The Germanisation policy of the Prussian and Imperial German government replaced its Polish identity with a German one. By the end of the 19th century the city had become one of the most important railway centers of the region and one of the biggest towns in the Province of Posen. It was turned into a Prussian military garrison town. Schneidemühl was revisited by a catastrophe, known as the Brunnenunglück, or the ‘calamity of the well’ that made national headlines. The drilling of an artesian well in August 1892 went horribly wrong and led to unexpected widespread flooding of many of the streets laid out in 1834, causing numerous houses to simply collapse and leaving more than eighty families without shelter. The worst was that this disaster came only a few years on the heels of unexpected flooding caused by the spring thaw of March 1888 that had turned the Küddow into a raging river, when many people were forced to use rowboats to navigate the streets.
First World War and Imperial German military aviation technology
On 1 April 1914 Schneidemühl was disentangled from the Kolmar District and became an independent city (or urban district; Stadtkreis) within the Bromberg Region. In the months before the outbreak of World War I, in April 1914 the Albatros Flugzeugwerke established the so-called Ostdeutsche Albatros-Werke (East German Albatros Works, abbreviated "O.A.W.") in Schneidemühl for construction of military aircraft for the Fliegertruppe air service of the German Army throughout the war — it later undertook license production of Fokker's famous Fokker D.VII fighter during the last year of World War I.
During the First World War, the Germans operated a prisoner-of-war camp in the city, initially taking mainly Russian POWs (including Poles and Latvians conscripted into the Russian Army) but later including prisoners from most Allied nations including Britain and Australia. A telling account of life in the town during that period survives in the form of the diary of Piete Kuhr, then a young girl whose grandmother worked at the Red Cross canteen at the railway station.
As a provincial capital within the Weimar Republic
After World War I, in 1918, Poland regained independence, and the Greater Poland Uprising broke out, which aim was to reintegrate the region with Poland. Local Poles were persecuted for their pro-Polish stance by the Germans, who also held Polish insurgents in the local prison. After the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, and after much protest by the German majority of its population, Schneidemühl was not included in the Polish Second Republic. After the Greater Poland Uprising, the new Polish-German border ran south of the city.
On 21 July 1922 Schneidemühl became the administrative centre of the new Frontier March of Posen-West Prussia Province, a body of self-rule encompassing those three disconnected parts of the former Province of Posen and the westernmost parts of the Province of West Prussia, which were not ceded to Poland and of the Posen-West Prussian Schneidemühl Region, a body of central government supervision comprising the same provincial area. In 1925, with the sudden influx of the Optanten, inhabitants of areas annexed by Poland who opted not to become Polish citizens and left for the reduced German Reich. Schneidemühl's population swelled by about 10,000 to 37,518, creating considerable publicity in Germany.
In 1930 Schneidemühl replaced Tütz (Tuczno) as seat of the Catholic jurisdiction, which was promoted from Apostolic administration to Territorial Prelature of Schneidemühl within the Eastern German Ecclesiastical Province. The city experienced a short period of growth followed by a period of decline in the early 1930s. High unemployment and the ineffectiveness of local administration led to rising support for the NSDAP.
Nazi rule and Second World War
With the onset of the Nazi period and the beginning of the Gestapo's harassment of political and racial undesirables, the climate for Schneidemühl's shrinking Jewish community (which had reached over 1,000 members during the mid-19th century) changed irreversibly — institutionalized antisemitism had arrived in Schneidemühl.
In March and September 1938, a Verwaltungsgliederung, or administrative reform, merged the three territorially unconnected parts of the Frontier March of Posen-West Prussia province into the respective neighbouring Prussian provinces of Brandenburg, Silesia and Pomerania — placing the bulk of former Posen-West Prussia with the districts of Deutsch Krone, Flatow, Netzekreis, Schlochau and Schneidemühl into Pomerania. Schneidemühl remained the headquarters of the government region, reduced by the districts ceded to Brandenburg and Silesia, but enlarged by four previously Brandenburgian and Pomeranian districts and renamed as (Regierungsbezirk Grenzmark Posen-Westpreußen) for reasons of tradition, as of 1 October 1938.
During the pogrom of 9/10 November 1938 the freestanding structure of Schneidemühl's 100-year-old synagogue became a prime target for the Nazis who set fire to it. In 1939, in the city and the region, the Germans carried out mass arrests of Polish activists, who then were imprisoned in a temporary camp in the city before deportation to Nazi concentration camps, some were even tortured. In October 1939, a German camp for Sinti and Romani people was established. The city's 300-year-old Jewish community was destroyed when on 21 March 1940, on the order of Gauleiter Schwede-Coburg, the last remaining Jews, together with more than 500 Jews of the surrounding area within an radius, were arrested and held prisoner in various locations in the city. A large number of them were subsequently taken to the forced labour camp Radinkendorf and the Glowno prisoner camp outside of Poznań and held there in detention under inhuman conditions. Over the following two years they were taken to various labour camps, hospices, hospitals in Pomerania, Bielefeld and Berlin. Those who had not committed suicide or had perished during that period were deported to concentration camps, the last in 1943. During World War II a camp for civil prisoners-of-war named "Albatros" was established. Poles expelled from Gmina Dziemiany in Gdańsk Pomerania were used as forced labour in the local aviation industry. Also seven forced labour subcamps of the Stalag II-B prisoner-of-war camp and a forced labour camp, which was subordinate to the local prison, were operated in the city. Several British POWs escaped, and then the Polish resistance facilitated their further escape through the port of Gdynia by sea to Sweden. The local Home Army also maintained contact with Polish POWs held in the Oflag II-C camp.
The city became part of the Pomeranian Wall line of fortifications. In 1945 the town was declared a fortress by Adolf Hitler. During the East Pomeranian offensive it was captured by the joint Polish and Red Army forces after two weeks of heavy fighting on 14 February 1945. 75% of the city was destroyed and almost 90% of the historic city centre was in ruins.
Post-war Poland
As a result of the border changes agreed at the Potsdam Conference in 1945, the city became again part of Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which stayed in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1980s. The city's historic Polish name Piła was restored. The remaining local German population was expelled by Polish and Soviet troops from 1945 to 1948 in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement, while Polish expelees from former eastern Poland annexed by the Soviet Union and settlers from areas of central Poland, which were destroyed during the war, were resettled in the city. The historical city centre was only partially restored.
In 1972 the Territorial Prelature of Piła was suppressed, its territory being reassigned to establish the Diocese of Koszalin–Kołobrzeg and Diocese of Gorzów.
In August 1980, employees of local factories joined the nationwide anti-communist strikes, which led to the foundation of the Solidarity organization, which played a central role in the end of communist rule in Poland.
In 1975 Piła became the capital of the newly established Piła Voivodeship (province), which started a period of fast development of industry in the area as one of the most important cities of the region. It remained a voivodeship capital until the administrative reform of 1999. It is known for its green areas and parks, as well as for its speedway club Polonia Piła.
Historical population
Geography
Climate
Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb". (Marine West Coast Climate).
Economy
Major corporations
Signify formerly known as 'Philips Lighting Poland", Piła
Quad/Graphics Europe, Piła (in the past known as Winkowski sp. z o.o.)
Attractions
Museum of Stanisław Staszic in his former house
19th-century building of the former arsenal
St. Stanislaus Kostka's church, built in Neo-Gothic style
Holy Family's church, built in Neo-baroque style, formerly concathedral of the Prałatura Pilska
St. Anthony's Church with the biggest wooden figure of Jesus in Europe, tall (church built in 1930)
Two war cemeteries (Allied POWs from World War I and Polish and Soviet soldiers killed during the battle of the Pomeranian Wall during World War II); cemeteries are in uptown Piła, in Leszków.
Modern two-level shopping center "Atrium Kasztanowa"
Modern shopping center "Vivo!" (Piła), located next to railway station "Dworzec PKP - Piła Główna (en. Station PKP - Piła Main)
"Aqua Park" - water park
"Park na wyspie" - big park located on island (wyspa) with open-air gym, playground, square and fountains
Politics
Piła constituency
Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Piła constituency:
Adam Szejnfeld – Civic Platform
Jakub Rutnicki – Civic Platform
Stanisław Chmielewski – Civic Platform
Piotr Waśko – Civic Platform
Maks Kraczkowski – Law and Justice
Tomasz Górski – Law and Justice
Romuald Ajchler – Left and Democrats
Stanisław Stec – Left and Democrats
Stanisław Kalemba – Polish People's Party
Members of Polish Senate elected from Piła constituency:
Mieczysław Augustyn – Civic Platform
Piotr Głowski – Civic Platform
Municipal politics
The president of the Town of Piła: Piotr Głowski
Vicepresidents: Krzysztof Szewc, Beata Dudzińska
Town council chairman: Rafał Zdzierela
Town council vicechairmans: Paweł Jarczak, Janusz Kubiak
Sports
Polonia Piła – speedway team, 1999 Polish Champions
PTPS Piła – women's volleyball team playing in the TAURON Liga (Polish top division): Polish champions in 1998–1999, 1999–2000, 2000–2001, 2001–2002 seasons, 2nd place in 2005–2006, 2006–2007 and 2007–2008 seasons and 3rd place in 2004–2005 and 2008–2009 seasons.
Joker Piła – men's volleyball team playing in the lower leagues, which also played in the top division in the past (most recently in season 2005–06)
Basket Piła – men's basketball team playing in the lower leagues
Gwda Piła – athletics club
Gwardia Piła – athletics club
Notable people
Wolfgang Altenburg (born 1928), former Chief of Staff, Bundeswehr
Dirk Galuba (born 1940), German actor
Carl Friedrich Goerdeler (1884–1945), German politician and anti-Nazi
Fritz Goerdeler (1886–1945), German jurist and resistance fighter
Andrzej Gronowicz (born 1951), Polish athlete
Jerzy Stanisław Janicki (born 1956), physicist
Maximilian Kaller (1880–1947), first Roman Catholic church administrator of the town
Hein Kötz (born 1935), German jurist
Erwin Kramer (1902–1979), German politician
Ben Mendelsohn (born 1969), Australian actor whose ancestors lived in Piła
Jo Mihaly (born Elfriede Alice Kuhr) (1902–1989), German dancer and writer
Daria Pająk (born 1993), Polish bowling player
Karl Retzlaw (1896–1979), German politician
Eberhard Schenk (born 1929), German athlete
Bernard Schultze (1915–2005), German painter
Kasia Smutniak (born 1979), Polish actress
Stanisław Staszic (1755–1826), philosopher, leading figure in Polish Enlightenment.
Wolfgang Thonke (1938–2019), East German general
Johanna Töpfer (1929–1990), German politician
International relations
Twin towns — Sister cities
Piła is twinned with:
Châtellerault, France
Schwerin, Germany
Imola, Italy
Former twin towns
Kronstadt, Russia
On 1 March 2022, Piła suspended its partnership with the Russian city of Kronsdadt as a reaction to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
References
External links
Internet portal of Piła
Our city - Piła
Forum Dyskusyjne Pilskiej Społeczności Internetowej
Historical information about Piła
Życie Piły - daily news from Piła
History of the former Jewish community of Schneidemühl / Pila
Cities and towns in Greater Poland Voivodeship
Piła County
1380 establishments in Europe
Populated places established in the 1380s
Holocaust locations in Poland
14th-century establishments in Poland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Latter%20Day%20Saint%20movement%20topics
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List of Latter Day Saint movement topics
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In an effort to bring together pages on various religions, below is a list of articles that are about or reference Latter Day Saint movement topics.
As a rule, the links below should direct to existing articles, not empty pages (non-existent articles), or off-site web pages. If an article is needed, please create a Stub and/or leave a request for additional information on Talk:List of Latter Day Saint movement topics.
Supercategories of the Latter Day Saint movement
Christianity, Gospel, Religion, Religion in the United States, Restorationism (Christian primitivism)
Latter Day Saint movement in general, as a religion or group of religions
Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints), Latter-day Saint, Latter Day Saint, Latter Day Saint movement, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints membership statistics, Mormon, Mormonism, Mormonism and Christianity, Mormonism and Freemasonry, Mormonism and Judaism, Mormon studies, Saint
Latter Day Saint denominations
A to M: Aaronic Order, Apostolic United Brethren, Church of Christ (Cutlerite), Church of Christ (Temple Lot), Church of Christ (Whitmerite), Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite), Church of Jesus Christ, the Bride, the Lamb's Wife, Church of Christ with the Elijah Message, Community of Christ, Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, Kingston clan
N to Z: Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, Restoration Church of Jesus Christ, Restoration Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, Restored Church of Jesus Christ, Rigdonite, The Church of Jesus Christ, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, True Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, True and Living Church of Jesus Christ of Saints of the Last Days
Organizations related to the Latter Day Saint movement
Bonneville International, Brigham Young University, Deseret Book, Deseret Management Corporation, Deseret Morning News, Excel Entertainment Group, Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS), Intellectual Reserve, John Whitmer Historical Association, JustServe, KSL-TV, Mormon History Association, Mormon Historic Sites Foundation, Mormon apologetics, Ordain Women, Signature Books
Topics that reference the Latter Day Saint movement
Accounts of pre-mortal existence, Baptismal clothing, Beehive#Symbolism, Breastplate, Christian countercult movement, Christian denominations, Cunning folk, Fate of the unlearned, Henotheism, Millerites, Religious perspectives on Jesus, Survivalism, Temple robes, Urim and Thummim, Whore of Babylon
Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices
A to M: Adamic language, Animals in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Angel, Authority and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Black people, Blood atonement, Celestial Kingdom, Chastity, Chosen people, Christian eschatology, Christian view of marriage, City of Zion (Mormonism), Continuous revelation, Ecumenical council, Exaltation (Mormonism), Ex-Mormon, Excommunication, Evolution, Fast Sunday, fast offering, Gender identity, Gentile, Gifts of the Spirit in Mormonism, Great and abominable church, Great Apostasy, Holy of Holies (Latter Day Saints), Homosexuality, Interracial marriage, Israelite, Kolob, Marriage, Masturbation, Mormon fundamentalism
N to Z: Native Americans in the United States, Outer darkness, Phrenology and the Latter Day Saint Movement, Plan of Salvation (Latter Day Saints), Polygamy, Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, Pre-existence, Restoration (Mormonism), Revelation (Latter Day Saints), Satan, Seer stone (Latter Day Saints), Separation of church and state, Sexuality and Mormonism, Solemn assembly, Son of perdition (Mormonism), Spiritual wifery, Telestial Kingdom, Temple garment, Terrestrial Kingdom, Testimony, Urim and Thummim (Latter Day Saints), Word of Wisdom, Word of Wisdom (Latter-day Saint)
Latter Day Saint doctrines regarding deity
Adam-God theory, Creator god, Elohim, Exaltation (LDS Church), God, God the Father, Godhead (Christianity), Godhead (Mormonism), Heavenly Mother, Henotheism, Holy Spirit, Jesus, Jesus Christ as the Messiah, Jesus in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Nontrinitarianism, Omnipotence, Trinity, Divinization (Christian)
Latter Day Saint ordinances, rituals, and symbolism
Anointing of the Sick, Baptism for the dead, Baptism in Mormonism, Blood atonement, Eternal Marriage, Marriage, Infant baptism#Denominations and religious groups opposed to infant baptism, light of Christ (Latter Day Saints), Ordinance (Mormonism), Patriarchal blessing, Rebaptism (Mormonism), Sacrament meeting, Sacrament (Mormonism), Sealing (Latter Day Saints), Second anointing, Temple, Temple (Latter Day Saints), Temple (LDS Church), Temple architecture (LDS Church)
Latter-day Saint religious clothing
Baptismal clothing, CTR ring, Temple garment, Temple robes, Veil, White clothing (religious)
Latter Day Saint hierarchy
A to M: Aaronic priesthood (Latter Day Saints), Anointed Quorum, Apostle (Latter Day Saints), Apostolic succession, Bishop (Latter Day Saints), Chapel, Choir, Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints), Clergy, Deacon (Latter Day Saints), Elder (Latter Day Saints), First Presidency, General authority, High council (Latter Day Saints), High priest (Latter Day Saints), Melchizedek priesthood (Latter Day Saints), Missionary (LDS Church)
N to Z: Patriarch (Latter Day Saints), Patriarchal priesthood, Presiding bishop, Presiding Patriarch, President of the Church, President of the Quorum of the Twelve, Priest (Latter Day Saints), Priesthood (Latter Day Saints), Priesthood Correlation Program, Primary (LDS Church), Prophet, seer, and revelator, Quorum (Latter Day Saints), Quorum of the Twelve, Quorums of the Seventy, Relief Society, Stake (Latter Day Saints), Teacher (Latter Day Saints), Ward (LDS Church), World Church Leadership Council
General Conferences of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Conference Center (LDS Church), General Conference (LDS Church)
Mormonism and controversy
Anti-Mormonism, Black people and Mormonism, Controversies regarding The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Common Latter-day Saint perceptions, Cultural Mormon, Jack Mormons, LGBT Mormon suicides, Mormonism Unvailed, Ordain Women, US politics and the LDS Church, Search for the Truth (video), The God Makers (film), The God Makers II
LDS Doctrines concerning the afterlife
Plan of salvation (Latter Day Saints), Degrees of glory
Latter Day Saint texts
Account of John, Apocrypha, Articles of Faith (Latter Day Saints), Articles of the Church of Christ, Book of Abraham, Book of Commandments, Book of Joseph, Book of Mormon, Book of Moses, Doctrine and Covenants, Encyclopedia of Mormonism, The Family: A Proclamation to the World, Jesus the Christ (book), Joseph Smith–History, Joseph Smith–Matthew, Joseph Smith Papyri, King Follett Discourse, Kirtland Egyptian Papers, Lectures on Faith, Nauvoo Expositor, Peace Maker (pamphlet), Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism), Sacred text, Scriptures, Sefer haYashar (midrash), Standard Works, The Wentworth Letter, The Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel, Word of Wisdom
Latter Day Saint movement and the Bible
Bible, Biblical canon, Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible, King-James-Only Movement, King James Version of the Bible, Makhshava, New Testament, Old Testament
Book of Mormon
Book of Mormon, Book of Mormon chronology, Curelom, Gadianton robbers, Egbert Bratt Grandin, Egyptian Names in the Book of Mormon, Paanchi (Book of Mormon), Record of the Nephites, Secret combination (Latter Day Saints), Sword of Laban
Book of Mormon people
Ammaron, Ammon (Book of Mormon), Book of Mormon rulers, Captain Moroni, Coriantumr, Enos (Book of Mormon), Ether (Book of Mormon), Gadianton robbers, Ishmael (Book of Mormon), Jaredite, Joseph (Book of Mormon), King Noah, Korihor, Laban (Book of Mormon), Laman and Lemuel, Lamanites, Lamoni, Limhi, List of Book of Mormon groups, List of Book of Mormon people, King Mosiah I, King Mosiah II, Mulek, Nephite, Paanchi (Book of Mormon), Sam (Book of Mormon), Sariah, Sons of Mosiah, Various Book of Mormon people, Zedekiah, Zeniff, Zenock, Zenos, Zoram
Book of Mormon artifacts
Breastplate, Cunning Folk Traditions and the Latter Day Saint Movement, Liahona (Book of Mormon), Rameumptom, Seer stones in Mormonism, Urim and Thummim
Book of Mormon places
Bountiful (Book of Mormon), Khirbet Beit Lehi, Lehi-Nephi, Nahom, Zarahemla
Book of Mormon prophets
Abinadi, Alma the Elder, Alma the Younger, Ether (Book of Mormon), Helaman, Helaman, son of Helaman, Jacob (Book of Mormon), Jarom, King Benjamin, Lehi (Book of Mormon), List of Book of Mormon prophets, Mahonri Moriancumer, Mormon (prophet), Nephi, son of Lehi, Omni (Book of Mormon), Samuel the Lamanite, Zenos, Zenock
Book of Mormon studies
Archaeology and the Book of Mormon, Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, Genetics and the Book of Mormon, Golden Plates, Limited geography model (Book of Mormon), Linguistics and the Book of Mormon, Reformed Egyptian, Studies of the Book of Mormon, The Book of Mormon and the King James Bible
Books of the Book of Mormon
Lost 116 pages, First Book of Nephi, Second Book of Nephi, Book of Jacob, Book of Enos, Book of Jarom, Book of Omni, Words of Mormon, Book of Mosiah, Book of Alma, Book of Helaman, Third Book of Nephi, Fourth Book of Nephi, Book of Mormon (Mormon's record), Book of Ether, Book of Moroni, Large Plates of Nephi, Small Plates of Nephi
Latter Day Saint periodicals
Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Elders' Journal, Ensign (LDS magazine), Evening and Morning Star, The Friend (Mormon magazine), Journal of Discourses, Liahona (magazine), List of Latter Day Saint periodicals, Messenger and Advocate, Millennial Star, New Era (magazine), Prophwyd y Jubili, Relief Society Magazine, The Seer (periodical), Sunstone Magazine, Times and Seasons, Udgorn Seion, Woman's Exponent
History of the Latter Day Saint movement
Dates: 1831 polygamy revelation, 1843 polygamy revelation, 1890 Manifesto
A to M: Amboy Conference, Authoritarianism and Mormonism, Battle Creek, Utah, Blacks and Mormonism, Burned-over district, Cart, BYU LGBT history, Council of Fifty, Culture of the United States, Danite, Deseret (Book of Mormon), Deseret alphabet, Execution by firing squad, Extermination Order (Mormonism), First Transcontinental Railroad (North America), First Vision, Forgery, Mormon War (1838)#Gallatin Election Day Battle, Haun's Mill Massacre, History of Christianity, History of the Americas, History of the United States, History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, History of the Latter Day Saint movement, Honeybee, Indian Placement Program, The Joseph Smith Papers, Joshua tree, Kirtland Safety Society, LGBT Mormon history timeline, Miracle of the Gulls, Mormon Battalion, Mormon handcart pioneers, Mormon pioneers, Mormon Reformation, Mormon Trail, Mormon War (1838), Mormonism and women, Mountain Meadows Massacre
N to Z: Nauvoo Expositor, Nauvoo Legion, Persecution of Christians, Polygamy, Priesthood Correlation Program, Rigdon's July 4th oration, Salamander Letter, Salt Sermon, School of the Prophets, Second Great Awakening, Short Creek raid, Succession crisis (Latter Day Saints), United States religious history University of Deseret, Utah War, Zelph, Zion's Camp
Significant dates in the Latter Day Saint movement
December 23, 1805 - birth of Joseph Smith
Spring of 1820 - Joseph Smith, age 14, was visited by God the Father and His Son, Jesus Christ
September 21, 1823 - Moroni The Angel visits Joseph Smith
September 22, 1823 - Joseph Smith is shown the gold plates for the first time
January 18, 1827 - Joseph Smith marries Emma Hale.
September 22, 1827 - Joseph Smith receives the gold plates.
May 15, 1829 - John The Baptist The Angel bestows the Aaron Priesthood upon Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery
June 1829 - Peter James and John The Angels bestow the Melchizedek Priesthood upon Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery
March 26, 1830 - 5,000 copies of the Book of Mormon published in Palmyra, New York
April 6, 1830 - Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints founded in Fayette, New York
July 17, 1831 - The 1831 polygamy revelation in which Christ commands Smith's followers to take “wives of the Lamanites and Nephites [Native Americans].”
1832
November 13, 1838 - birth of Joseph Fielding Smith
July 12, 1843 - The 1843 polygamy revelation in which Christ commands polygamy in a “new and an everlasting covenant.”
June 27, 1844 - Joseph and Hyrum Smith murdered in Carthage Jail, in Carthage, Illinois
August 8, 1844 - Quorum of Twelve is created as the leading body of the church.
February 10, 1846 - Many Mormons begin their migration from Nauvoo, Illinois to Great Salt Lake
July 24, 1847 - Brigham Young arrives in Salt Lake Valley; Salt Lake City established
1857 - Mormons abandon Las Vegas
October 6, 1890 - Wilford Woodruff issues the "1890 Manifesto" halting polygamy.
1904 - Joseph F. Smith issues a "Second Manifesto" against polygamy
Significant places in the Latter Day Saint movement
A to M: Adam-ondi-Ahman, Alberta, Arizona, Auditorium (Community of Christ), Beaver Island (Lake Michigan), Brigham Young University, Brigham Young University–Hawaii, Brigham Young University Jerusalem Center, Burlington, Wisconsin, Caldwell County, Missouri, Chihuahua (state), Church Office Building, Conference Center (LDS Church), Culture of Mexico, Davis County, Utah, Demographics of Greece, Demographics of Kiribati, Demographics of Mexico, Demographics of Niue, Demographics of Palau, Demographics of Swaziland, Demographics of the Marshall Islands, Downtown (Salt Lake City), Endowment House, Far West, Missouri, Finger Lakes, Fort Bridger, Hiram, Ohio, Independence, Missouri, Jackson County, Missouri, Kane County, Utah, Kirtland, Ohio, Lā'ie, Hawai'i, Las Vegas, Nevada, Los Angeles, California, Missouri, Morgan County, Utah
N to Z: Nauvoo, Illinois, Palmyra, Platte River, Rich County, Utah, Salt Lake Assembly Hall, Salt Lake City, Utah, San Bernardino, California, Seagull Monument, Sharon, Vermont, State of Deseret, St. James Township, Michigan, Temple Lot, Temple Square, University of Utah, Utah, Utah Territory, Voree, Wisconsin, Zion (Latter Day Saints)
Latter Day Saint temples
A to M: Apia Samoa Temple, Atlanta Georgia Temple, Bern Switzerland Temple, Cardston Alberta Temple, Chicago Illinois Temple, Freiberg Germany Temple, Guayaquil Ecuador Temple, Hamilton New Zealand Temple, Hong Kong China Temple, Houston Texas Temple, Idaho Falls Idaho Temple, Independence temple, Jordan River Utah Temple, Kirtland Temple, Kona Hawaii Temple, Laie Hawaii Temple, Las Vegas Nevada Temple, Logan Utah Temple, London England Temple, Los Angeles California Temple, Manti Utah Temple, Mesa Arizona Temple
N to Z: Nauvoo Illinois Temple, Nauvoo Temple, Oakland California Temple, Ogden Utah Temple, Orlando Florida Temple, Nuku alofa Tonga Temple, Provo Utah Temple, Raleigh North Carolina Temple, Salt Lake Temple, São Paulo Brazil Temple, Seattle Washington Temple, St. George Utah Temple, Tokyo Japan Temple, Vernal Utah Temple, Washington, D.C. Temple
Latter Day Saints
List of Latter-day Saints
Black Mormons
LGBTQ Mormon people
A – M: Nephi Anderson, Billy Barty, Earl W. Bascom, Glenn Beck, Steve Benson (cartoonist), Don Bluth, Shawn Bradley, Hugh B. Brown, Orson Scott Card, James C. Christensen, Kresimir Cosik, Stephen Covey, Mitch Davis, Richard Dutcher, Aaron Eckhart, Philo Farnsworth, Brandon Flowers, Rulon Gardner, Marvin Goldstein, Bo Gritz, Orrin Hatch, Jon Heder, Jared Hess, Ken Jennings, Steven E. Jones, Kate Kelly (feminist), Gladys Knight, Glen A. Larson, Michael O. Leavitt, Jon Peter Lewis, Robert L. Millet, Dale Murphy,
N – Z: Donny Osmond, Marie Osmond, Olive Osmond, Anne Perry, Sandy Petersen, William Wines Phelps, D. Michael Quinn, Carmen Rasmusen, Harry Reid, Mitt Romney, Elizabeth Smart (Elizabeth Smart kidnapping), Benjamin Urrutia, Olene S. Walker, Steve Young (American football),
Groups: Jericho Road, The Osmonds, The Lettermen, The Jets
Historians of the Latter Day Saint movement
Church Historian and Recorder, Latter Day Saint Historians,
A – M: Thomas G. Alexander, Edward H. Anderson, Nephi Anderson, Leonard J. Arrington, Valeen Tippetts Avery, Philip Barlow, Davis Bitton, Fawn M. Brodie, Juanita Brooks, Richard Bushman, Todd Compton, Ron Esplin, Dean C. Jessee, H. Michael Marquardt, Armand Mauss, Dean Lowe May, Dale Morgan,
N – Z: Linda King Newell, Hugh Nibley, Grant H. Palmer, Gregory Prince, D. Michael Quinn, B. H. Roberts, Stephen E. Robinson, Jan Shipps, Linda Sillitoe, Wallace Stegner, Jerald and Sandra Tanner, Dan Vogel, Wesley P. Walters, Wm. Robert Wright
Groups or Organizations: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, John Whitmer Historical Association, Mormon Historic Sites Foundation, Mormon History Association, September Six,
Notable people in Latter Day Saint history
A – M: Leonard J. Arrington, Valeen Tippetts Avery, Earl W. Bascom, Lilburn Boggs, Gutzon Borglum, Fawn M. Brodie, Juanita Brooks, John Browning, Butch Cassidy, William Henry Chamberlin (philosopher), J. Reuben Clark, Kresimir Cosik, Henry Eyring (Mormon convert), Mark Hofmann, Sonia Johnson, Gordon Jump, Thomas L. Kane, Kate Kelly (feminist), Gladys Knight, Jesse Knight, O. Raymond Knight, William Law (Mormonism), Mark Madsen,
N – Z: Hugh Nibley, Marie Osmond, Natacha Rambova, Stephen E. Robinson, William Shunn, Jerald and Sandra Tanner, Bertel Thorvaldsen
Groups: September Six,
Mormon pioneers
Mormon handcart pioneers
Mormon pioneers
Mormon Trail
Perpetual Emigration Fund
A – M: Elijah Abel, Milo Andrus, Truman O. Angell, Israel Barlow, John Milton Bernhisel, Samuel Brannan, George Q. Cannon, Martha Hughes Cannon, Albert Carrington, Zebedee Coltrin, William Clayton (Latter Day Saints), Joseph Fielding, William Harrison Folsom, Emma Lee French, Archibald Gardner, William S. Godbe, Henry Grow, Ephraim Hanks, "Wild Bill" Hickman, Jefferson Hunt, Orson Hyde, William B. Ide, Luke S. Johnson, Heber C. Kimball, Helen Mar Kimball, Dudley Leavitt, John D. Lee, Walker Lewis, Francis M. Lyman, Isaac Morley
N – Z: Orson Pratt, Parley P. Pratt, Franklin D. Richards (Mormon apostle), Willard Richards, Brigham Henry Roberts, Porter Rockwell, Charles Roscoe Savage, Bathsheba W. Smith, Joseph F. Smith, Lot Smith, Mary Fielding Smith, Abraham O. Smoot, Eliza Roxcy Snow, Erastus Snow, Lorenzo Snow, Orson Spencer, Edward Stevenson, Levi Stewart, John Taylor (1808-1887), Moses Thatcher, David King Udall, John Van Cott, Daniel H. Wells, Wilford Woodruff, Brigham Young, Brigham Young, Jr., Zina D. H. Young,
Latter Day Saint leaders
A – M: Elijah Abel, Milo Andrus, Jason W. Briggs, Hugh B. Brown, Zebedee Coltrin, Oliver Cowdery, Alpheus Cutler, W. A. Draves, Otto Fetting, Zenos H. Gurley, Sr., Martin Harris (Latter Day Saints), George M. Hinkle, Milton R. Hunter, J. Golden Kimball, William Law (Mormonism), John D. Lee, Rex E. Lee, Walker Lewis, William Marks (Mormonism), William E. McLellin,
N – Z: Warren Parrish, William Wines Phelps, Sidney Rigdon, Brigham Henry Roberts, Alexander Hale Smith, Bathsheba W. Smith, Emma Hale Smith, Frederick Madison Smith, Hyrum Smith, Joseph Smith, Sr., Joseph Smith, Jr., Joseph Smith III, Eliza Roxcy Snow, James Strang, Levi Stewart, David Whitmer, John Whitmer, Elizabeth Ann Whitney, Benjamin Winchester, Zina D. H. Young
Presidents of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
President of the Church (LDS Church)
A – M: Ezra Taft Benson, Heber J. Grant, Gordon B. Hinckley, Howard W. Hunter, Spencer W. Kimball, Harold B. Lee, David O. McKay, Thomas S. Monson,
N – Z: George Albert Smith, Joseph Smith, Jr., Joseph F. Smith, Joseph Fielding Smith, Lorenzo Snow, John Taylor (1808-1887), Wilford Woodruff, Brigham Young
Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)
A – M: Marvin J. Ashton, M. Russell Ballard, David A. Bednar, Ezra T. Benson, Ezra Taft Benson, Albert E. Bowen, Hugh B. Brown, George Q. Cannon, D. Todd Christofferson, J. Reuben Clark, Quentin L. Cook, Richard L. Evans, Henry B. Eyring, James E. Faust, Heber J. Grant, David B. Haight, Robert D. Hales, Alonzo A. Hinckley, Gordon B. Hinckley, Jeffrey R. Holland, Howard W. Hunter, Orson Hyde, Anthony W. Ivins, Luke S. Johnson, Heber C. Kimball, Spencer W. Kimball, Harold B. Lee, Thomas B. Marsh, Bruce R. McConkie, David O. McKay, Thomas S. Monson,
N – Z: Russell M. Nelson, Dallin H. Oaks, Boyd K. Packer, David W. Patten, L. Tom Perry, Mark E. Petersen, Orson Pratt, Parley P. Pratt, Willard Richards, Richard G. Scott, George A. Smith, George Albert Smith, Hyrum Smith, Hyrum Mack Smith, Joseph F. Smith, Joseph Fielding Smith, William Smith (Latter Day Saints), Reed Smoot, Lorenzo Snow, John Taylor (Mormon), John Whittaker Taylor, George Teasdale, Dieter F. Uchtdorf, Daniel H. Wells, Joseph B. Wirthlin, Wilford Woodruff, Brigham Young
LDS Church by Location
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints membership statistics
North America
Canada • Dominican Republic • Mexico • Membership Statistics (United States)
United States
Alabama • Arizona • Arkansas • California • Colorado • Florida • Georgia • Hawaii • Louisiana • Michigan • Mississippi • North Carolina • Ohio • Oklahoma • South Carolina • Tennessee • Texas • Pennsylvania
South Pacific
Marshall Islands • Tonga
Asia
Malaysia • Singapore • South Korea • Sri Lanka
Africa
Ghana
Latter Day Saint art and culture
Scouting in Utah, C.C.A. Christensen, Fireside (Mormonism), Jack Mormon, Mormon Corridor, LDS cinema, LDS fiction, Pioneer Day (Utah), Saints Unified Voices, Sunstone Magazine, Undergarment, Bloggernacle
Portrayals of Mormons in popular media
Latter Day Saints in popular culture
"Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes" (Tony Kushner), A Study in Scarlet (Arthur Conan Doyle), Brigham Young (movie), Go Ask Alice (Beatrice Sparks), "If This Goes On—" (Robert A. Heinlein), Jay's Journal (Beatrice Sparks), Latter Days, L. E. Modesitt, Jr., The Man with 80 Wives, Orgazmo, The Other Side of Heaven, South Park episode 411: "Probably", South Park episode 712: "All About the Mormons?", Lost Boys (novel) (Orson Scott Card), St Albion Parish News, The Memory of Earth (Orson Scott Card), Big Love (HBO Drama)
Latter Day Saint music
Collection of Sacred Hymns (Kirtland, Ohio), I Am A Child Of God, If You Could Hie to Kolob, Joy to the World (Phelps), Maren Ord, Mormon folk music, Mormon Tabernacle Choir, Music of Utah, O My Father (hymn), The Spirit of God Like a Fire Is Burning, Saints Unified Voices
Latter Day Saint films
LDS cinema
The Best Two Years, Brigham City, God's Army, Jack Weyland's Charly, Mobsters and Mormons, Out of Step, Pride and Prejudice: A Latter-Day Comedy, The R.M., The Singles Ward
LDS movies
Joseph Smith: Prophet of the Restoration, Legacy, The Testaments of One Fold and One Shepherd
Genealogy
Family History Library, GEDCOM, Genealogy
Law related to Mormonism
Edmunds Act, Edmunds–Tucker Act, Extermination Order (Mormonism), Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, Poland Act, Reed Smoot hearings
Court decisions regarding the Latter Day Saint movement
Cannon v. United States, Clawson v. United States, Davis v. Beason, Davis v. United States (1990), Kirtland Temple Suit, Intellectual Reserve v. Utah Lighthouse Ministry, LDS Church v. United States, Reynolds v. United States, Temple Lot Case
See also
Lists
List of sects in the Latter Day Saint movement, List of Latter Day Saints, List of presidents of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Chronology of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church), List of general authorities of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, List of general officers of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, List of area seventies of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, List of stakes of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, List of LDS missionary entries by country, List of references to seer stones in the Latter Day Saint movement history, List of Zion's Camp participants, List of Latter Day Saint practitioners of plural marriage, List of Joseph Smith's wives, Children of Joseph Smith, List of Brigham Young's wives,
List of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, List of Book of Mormon translations, List of Latter Day Saint periodicals, List of Mormon wars and massacres
Topics
Latter Day Saint movement
Latter Day Saint movement
Latter Day Saint movement topics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking%20ban
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Smoking ban
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Smoking bans, or smoke-free laws, are public policies, including criminal laws and occupational safety and health regulations, that prohibit tobacco smoking in certain spaces. The spaces most commonly affected by smoking bans are indoor workplaces and buildings open to the public such as restaurants, bars, office buildings, schools, retail stores, hospitals, libraries, transport facilities, and government buildings, in addition to public transport vehicles such as aircraft, buses, watercraft, and trains. However, laws may also prohibit smoking in outdoor areas such as parks, beaches, pedestrian plazas, college and hospital campuses, and within a certain distance from the entrance to a building, and in some cases, private vehicles and multi-unit residences.
The most common rationale cited for restrictions on smoking is the negative health effects associated with secondhand smoke (SHS), or the inhalation of tobacco smoke by persons who are not smoking. These include diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The number of smoking bans around the world increased substantially in the late 20th century and early 21st century due to increased knowledge about these health risks. Many early smoking restrictions merely required the designation of non-smoking areas in buildings, but policies of this type became less common following evidence that they did not eliminate the health concerns associated with SHS.
Opinions on smoking bans vary. Many individuals and organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) support smoking bans on the basis that they improve health outcomes by reducing exposure to SHS and possibly decreasing the number of people who smoke, while others oppose smoking bans and assert that they violate individual and property rights and cause economic hardship, among other issues.
Rationale
Smoking bans are usually enacted in an attempt to protect non-smokers from the effects of secondhand smoke, which include an increased risk of heart disease, cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and other diseases. Laws implementing bans on indoor smoking have been introduced by many countries and other jurisdictions as public knowledge about these health risks increased.
Additional rationales for smoking restrictions include reduced risk of fire in areas with explosive hazards; cleanliness in places where food, pharmaceuticals, semiconductors, or precision instruments and machinery are produced; decreased legal liability; potentially reduced energy use via decreased ventilation needs; reduced quantities of litter; healthier environments; and giving smokers incentive to quit.
Evidence basis
Research has generated evidence that secondhand smoke causes the same problems as direct smoking, including lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, and lung ailments such as emphysema, bronchitis, and asthma. Specifically, meta-analyses show that lifelong non-smokers with partners who smoke in the home have a 20–30% greater risk of lung cancer than non-smokers who live with non-smokers. Non-smokers exposed to cigarette smoke in the workplace have an increased lung cancer risk of 16–19%. An epidemiology report by the Institute of Medicine (IOM), convened by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), says that the risk of coronary heart disease is increased by around 25–30% when one is exposed to secondhand smoke. The data shows that even at low levels of exposure, there is risk and the risk increases with more exposure.
A study issued in 2002 by the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization concluded that non-smokers are exposed to the same carcinogens on account of tobacco smoke as active smokers. Sidestream smoke emitted from the burning ends of tobacco products contains 69 known carcinogens, particularly benzopyrene and other polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, and radioactive decay products, such as polonium-210. Several well-established carcinogens have been shown by the tobacco companies' own research to be present at higher concentrations in secondhand smoke than in mainstream smoke.
Scientific organisations confirming the effects of secondhand smoke include the U.S. National Cancer Institute, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the U.S. National Institutes of Health, the Surgeon General of the United States, and the World Health Organization.
Air quality in bars and restaurants
Restrictions upon smoking in bars and restaurants can substantially improve the air quality in such establishments. For example, one study listed on the website of the CDC states that New York's statewide law to eliminate smoking in enclosed workplaces and public places substantially reduced RSP (respirable suspended particles) levels in western New York hospitality venues. RSP levels were reduced in every venue that permitted smoking before the law was implemented, including venues in which only smoke from an adjacent room was observed at baseline. The CDC concluded that their results were similar to other studies which also showed substantially improved indoor air quality after smoking bans were instituted.
A 2004 study showed New Jersey bars and restaurants had more than nine times the levels of indoor air pollution of neighbouring New York City, which had already enacted its smoking ban.
Research has also shown that improved air quality translates to decreased toxin exposure among employees. For example, among employees of the Norwegian establishments that enacted smoking restrictions, tests showed decreased levels of nicotine in the urine of both smoking and non-smoking workers (as compared with measurements prior to going smoke-free).
Public Health Law Research
In 2009, the Public Health Law Research Program, a national program office of the US-based Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, published an evidence brief summarising the research assessing the effect of a specific law or policy on public health. They stated that "There is strong evidence supporting smoking bans and restrictions as effective public health interventions aimed at decreasing exposure to secondhand smoke."
History
One of the world's earliest smoking bans was a 1575 Roman Catholic Church regulation which forbade the use of tobacco in any church in Mexico. In 1590, Pope Urban VII moved against smoking in church buildings. He threatened to excommunicate anyone who "took tobacco in the porchway of or inside a church, whether it be by chewing it, smoking it with a pipe or sniffing it in powdered form through the nose". Pope Urban VIII imposed similar restrictions in 1624. In 1604 King James VI and I published an anti-smoking treatise, A Counterblaste to Tobacco, that had the effect of raising taxes on tobacco. Russia banned tobacco for 70 years from 1627.
The Ottoman Sultan Murad IV prohibited smoking in his empire in 1633 and had smokers executed. The earliest citywide European smoking bans were enacted shortly thereafter. Such bans were enacted in Bavaria, Kursachsen, and certain parts of Austria in the late 17th century. Smoking was banned in Berlin in 1723, in Königsberg in 1742, and in Stettin in 1744. These bans were repealed in the revolutions of 1848. Prior to 1865 Russia had a ban on smoking in the streets.
The first building in the world to ban smoking was the Old Government Building in Wellington, New Zealand in 1876. The ban related to concerns about the threat of fire, as it is the second largest wooden building in the world.
The first modern attempt at restricting smoking saw Nazi Germany banning smoking in every university, post office, military hospital, and Nazi Party office, under the auspices of Karl Astel's Institute for Tobacco Hazards Research, established in 1941 under orders from Adolf Hitler. The Nazis conducted major anti-tobacco campaigns until the demise of their regime in 1945.
In the latter part of the 20th century, as research on the risks of secondhand tobacco smoke became public, the tobacco industry launched "courtesy awareness" campaigns. Fearing reduced sales, the industry began a media and legislative programme that focused upon "accommodation". Tolerance and courtesy were encouraged as a way to ease heightened tensions between smokers and those around them, while avoiding smoking bans. In the US, states were encouraged to pass laws providing separate smoking sections.
In 1975 the U.S. state of Minnesota enacted the Minnesota Clean Indoor Air Act, making it the first state to restrict smoking in most public spaces. At first restaurants were required to have "No Smoking" sections, and bars were exempt from the Act. As of 1 October 2007 Minnesota enacted a ban on smoking in all restaurants and bars statewide, called the Freedom to Breathe Act of 2007.
The resort town of Aspen, Colorado, became the first city in the US to restrict smoking in restaurants, in 1985, though it allowed smoking in areas that were separately ventilated.
On 3 April 1987 the city of Beverly Hills, California, initiated an ordinance to restrict smoking in most restaurants, in retail stores and at public meetings. It exempted restaurants in hotels – City Council members reasoned that hotel restaurants catered to large numbers of visitors from abroad, where smoking is more acceptable than in the United States.
In 1990 the city of San Luis Obispo, California, became the first city in the world to restrict indoor smoking in bars as well as in restaurants. The ban did not include workplaces, but covered all other indoor public spaces and its enforcement was somewhat limited.
In the United States, California's 1998 smoking ban encouraged other states such as New York to implement similar regulations. California's ban included a controversial restriction upon smoking in bars, extending the statewide ban enacted in 1994. As of April 2009, there were 37 states with some form of smoking ban. Some areas in California began banning smoking across whole cities, including every place except residential homes. More than 20 cities in California enacted park- and beach-smoking restrictions. In May 2011, New York City expanded its previously implemented smoking ban by banning smoking in parks, beaches and boardwalks, public golf courses and other areas controlled by the New York City Parks Department. In recent years New York City has passed administrative codes §17-502 and §17-508 forcing landlords of privately owned buildings, cooperatives, and condominiums to adopt a smoking policy into all leases. These codes oblige landlords to enact provisions telling tenants the exact locations where they can or can not smoke. In January 2010, the mayor of Boston, Massachusetts, Thomas Menino, proposed a restriction upon smoking inside public housing apartments under the jurisdiction of the Boston Housing Authority.
From December 1993, in Peru, it became illegal to smoke in any public enclosed place and any public transport vehicle (according to Law 25357 issued on 27 November 1991 and its regulations issued on 25 November 1993 by decree D.S.983-93-PCM). There is also legislation restricting publicity, and it is also illegal (Law 26957 21 May 1998) to sell tobacco to minors or directly to advertise tobacco within 500m of schools (Law 26849 9 Jul 1997).
On 11 November 1975 Italy banned smoking on public transit vehicles (except for smokers' rail carriages) and in some public buildings (hospitals, cinemas, theatres, museums, universities and libraries). After an unsuccessful attempt in 1986, on 16 January 2003 the Italian parliament passed the Legge Sirchia, which would ban smoking in all indoor public places, including bars, restaurants, discotheques and offices from 10 January 2005.
On 3 December 2003, New Zealand passed legislation to progressively implement a smoking ban in schools, school grounds, and workplaces by December 2004.
On 29 March 2004, the Republic of Ireland implemented a nationwide ban on smoking in all workplaces. In Norway, similar legislation came into force on 1 June the same year.
In Scotland, Andy Kerr, the Minister for Health and Community Care, introduced a ban on smoking in public areas on 26 March 2006. Smoking was banned in all public places in the whole of the United Kingdom in 2007, when England became the final region to have the legislation come into effect (the age limit for buying tobacco also increased from 16 to 18 on 1 October 2007).
On 12 July 1999 a Division Bench of the Kerala High Court in India banned smoking in public places by declaring "public smoking as illegal first time in the history of whole world, unconstitutional and violative of Article 21 of the Constitution". The Bench, headed by Dr. Justice K. Narayana Kurup, held that "tobacco smoking" in public places (in the form of cigarettes, cigars, beedies or otherwise) "falls within the mischief of the penal provisions relating to public nuisance as contained in the Indian Penal Code and also the definition of air pollution as contained in the statutes dealing with the protection and preservation of the environment, in particular, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution), Act 1981."
In 2003 India introduced a law that banned smoking in public places like restaurants, public transport or schools. The same law also made it illegal to advertise cigarettes or other tobacco products.
In 2010 Nepal planned to enact a new anti-smoking bill that would ban smoking in public places and outlaw all tobacco advertising to prevent young people from smoking.
On 31 May 2011 Venezuela introduced a ban on smoking in all enclosed public and commercial spaces, including malls, restaurants, bars, discos, workplaces, etc.
Smoking was first restricted in schools, hospitals, trains, buses and train stations in Turkey in 1996. In 2008 a more comprehensive smoking ban was implemented, covering all public indoor venues.
The Plage Lumière beach in La Ciotat, France, became the first beach in Europe
to restrict smoking from August 2011, in an effort to encourage more tourists to visit the beach.
In 2012, smoking in Costa Rica became subject to some of the most restrictive regulations in the world, with the practice being banned from many outdoor recreational and educational areas as well as in public buildings and vehicles.
In December 2022, as part of an effort to become smoke-free by 2025, New Zealand passed a bill that prohibits the sale of cigarettes to anyone born on or after 1 January 2009, and imposes major restrictions on availability and nicotine content. The bill was described as creating a "smoke-free generation" by effectively raising the minimum smoking age annually.
Total tobacco bans
In 2004, Bhutan became the first country to completely outlaw the cultivation, harvesting, production, and sale of tobacco products. Penalties for violating the ban increased under the 'Tobacco Control Act of Bhutan 2010'. However, small allowances for personal possession were permitted as long as the possessor could prove that they have paid import duties.
This was reversed in 2021 with the new Tobacco Control Rules and Regulations (TCRR) 2021 allowing the import, sales and consumption of tobacco products in order to stamp out cross-border smuggling.
In January 2016, Turkmenistan president Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov reportedly banned all tobacco sales in the country. The Pitcairn Islands had previously banned the sale of cigarettes; however, it now permits sales from a government-run store. A proposal in Iceland would ban tobacco sales from shops, making it prescription-only and therefore dispensable only in pharmacies on doctor's orders.
In March 2012, Brazil became the world's first country to ban all flavored tobacco, including the menthol-flavored kind. It also banned the majority of the estimated 600 additives used, permitting only eight. This regulation applies to domestic and internationally imported cigarettes. Tobacco manufacturers had 18 months to remove the non-compliant cigarettes, and 24 months to remove the other forms of non-compliant tobacco.
Public support
A 2007 Gallup poll found that 54% of Americans favoured completely smoke-free restaurants, 34% favoured completely smoke-free hotel rooms, and 29% favoured completely smoke-free bars.
Another Gallup poll, of over 26,500 Europeans, conducted in December 2008, found that "a majority of EU citizens support smoking bans in public places, such as offices, restaurants and bars." The poll further found that "support for workplace smoking restrictions is slightly higher than support for such restrictions in restaurants (84% vs. 79%). Two-thirds support smoke-free bars, pubs and clubs." The support is highest in countries which have implemented clear smoking bans: "Citizens in Italy are the most prone to accept smoking restrictions in bars, pubs and clubs (93% – 87% "totally in favour"). Sweden and Ireland join Italy at the higher end of the scale with approximately 80% of respondents supporting smoke-free bars, pubs and clubs (70% in both countries is totally in favor)."
Effects
Effects upon health
Several studies have documented health and economic benefits related to smoking bans. A 2009 report by the Institute of Medicine concluded that smoking bans reduced the risk of coronary heart disease and heart attacks, but the report's authors were unable to identify the magnitude of this reduction. Also in 2009, a systematic review and meta-analysis found that bans on smoking in public places were associated with a significant reduction of incidence of heart attacks. The lead author of this meta-analysis, David Meyers, said that this review suggested that a nationwide ban on smoking in public places could prevent between 100,000 and 225,000 heart attacks in the United States each year.
A 2012 meta-analysis found that smoke-free legislation was associated with a lower rate of hospitalizations for cardiac, cerebrovascular, and respiratory diseases, and that "More comprehensive laws were associated with larger changes in risk." The senior author of this meta-analysis, Stanton Glantz, told USA Today that, with respect to exemptions for certain facilities from smoking bans, "The politicians who put those exemptions in are condemning people to be put into the emergency room." A 2013 review found that smoking bans were associated with "significant reduction in acute MI [myocardial infarction] risk", but noted that "studies with smaller population in the United States usually reported larger reductions, while larger studies reported relatively modest reductions".
A 2014 systematic review and meta-analysis found that smoke-free legislation was associated with approximately 10% reductions in preterm births and hospital attendance for asthma, but not with a decrease in low birth weight. A 2016 Cochrane review found that since the previous version of that review was published in 2010, the evidence that smoking bans improved health outcomes had become more robust, especially with respect to acute coronary syndrome admissions.
However, other studies came to the conclusion that smoking bans have little or no short-term effect on myocardial infarction rates and other diseases. A 2010 study from the US used huge nationally representative databases to compare smoking-restricted areas with control areas and found no associations between smoking bans and short-term declines in heart attack rates. The authors have also analyzed smaller studies using subsamples and revealed that large short-term increases in myocardial infarction incidence following a smoking ban are as common as the large decreases.
Effects upon tobacco consumption
Smoking bans are generally acknowledged to reduce rates of smoking; smoke-free workplaces reduce smoking rates among workers, and restrictions upon smoking in public places reduce general smoking rates through a combination of stigmatisation and reduction in the social cues for smoking. The World Health Organization considers smoking bans to have an influence on reducing demand for tobacco by producing an environment where smoking becomes increasingly more difficult and to help shift social norms away from the acceptance of smoking in everyday life. Along with tax measures, cessation measures, and education, smoking bans are viewed by public health experts as an important element in reducing smoking rates and promoting positive health outcomes. When effectively implemented, they are seen as an important element of policy to support behaviour change in favour of a healthy lifestyle. However, reports in the popular press after smoking bans have been enacted often present conflicting accounts as regards perceptions of effectiveness.
One report stated that cigarette sales in Ireland and Scotland increased after their smoking bans were implemented. In contrast, another report states that in Ireland, cigarette sales fell by 16% in the six months after implementation of the ban. In the UK, cigarette sales fell by 11% during July 2007, the first month of the nationwide smoking ban, compared with July 2006.
A 1992 document from Phillip Morris summarised the tobacco industry's concern about the effects of smoking bans: "Total prohibition of smoking in the workplace strongly effects tobacco industry volume. Smokers facing these restrictions consume 11%–15% less than average and quit at a rate that is 84% higher than average."
In the United States, the CDC reported a levelling-off of smoking rates in recent years despite a large number of ever more comprehensive smoking bans and large tax increases. It has also been suggested that a "backstop" of hardcore smokers has been reached: those unmotivated and increasingly defiant in the face of further legislation. The smoking ban in New York City was credited with the reduction in adult smoking rates at nearly twice the rate as in the rest of the country, "and life expectancy has climbed three years in a decade".
In Sweden, use of snus, as an alternative to smoking, has risen steadily since that nation's smoking ban.
Smoking restrictions may make it easier for smokers to quit. A survey suggests 22% of UK smokers may have considered quitting in response to that nation's smoking ban.
Restaurant smoking restrictions may help to stop young people from becoming habitual smokers. A study of Massachusetts youths, found that those in towns with smoking bans were 35 percent less likely to be habitual smokers.
Economic impact
Many studies have been published in the health industry literature on the economic effect of smoking bans. The majority of these government and academic studies have found that there is no negative economic impact associated with smoking restrictions and many have found that there may be a positive effect on local businesses. A 2003 review of 97 such studies of the economic effects of a smoking ban on the hospitality industry found that the "best-designed" studies concluded that smoking bans did not harm businesses. Similarly, a 2014 meta-analysis found no significant gains or losses in revenue in restaurants and bars affected by smoking bans. In addition, such laws may reduce health care costs, improve work productivity, and lower the overall cost of labour in the community thus protected, making that workforce more attractive for employers.
Studies funded by the bar and restaurant associations have sometimes claimed that smoking bans have a negative effect on restaurant and bar profits. Such associations have also criticised studies which found that such legislation had no impact. Many bar and restaurant associations have relationships with the tobacco industry and are sponsored by them.
Australia
A government survey in Sydney found that the proportion of the population attending pubs and clubs rose after smoking was banned inside them. However, a ClubsNSW report in August 2008 blamed the smoking ban for New South Wales clubs suffering their worst fall in income ever, amounting to a decline of $385 million. Income for clubs was down 11% in New South Wales. Sydney CBD club income fell 21.7% and western Sydney clubs lost 15.5%.
Germany
Some smoking restrictions were introduced in German hotels, restaurants, and bars in 2008 and early 2009. The restaurant industry has claimed that some businesses in the states which restricted smoking in late 2007 (Lower Saxony, Baden-Württemberg, and Hessen) experienced reduced profits. The German Hotel and Restaurant Association (DEHOGA) claimed that the smoking ban deterred people from going out for a drink or meal, stating that 15% of establishments that adopted a ban in 2007 saw turnover fall by around 50%. However, a study by the University of Hamburg (Ahlfeldt and Maennig 2010) finds negative impacts on revenues, if any, only in the very short run. In the medium and long run, a recovery of revenues took place. These results suggest either, that the consumption in bars and restaurants is not affected by smoking bans in the long run, or, that negative revenue impacts by smokers are compensated by increasing revenues through non-smokers.
Ireland
The Republic of Ireland was the first country to introduce fully smoke-free workplaces (March 2004). The Irish workplace smoke-free law was introduced with the intention of protecting workers from secondhand smoke and to discourage smoking in a nation with a high percentage of smokers. In Ireland, the main opposition to the ban came from publicans. Many pubs introduced "outdoor" arrangements (generally heated areas with shelters). It was speculated by opponents that the smoke-free workplaces law would increase the amount of drinking and smoking in the home, but recent studies showed this was not the case.
Ireland's Office of Tobacco Control website indicates that "an evaluation of the official hospitality sector data shows there has been no adverse economic effect from the introduction of this measure (the March 2004 national smoking ban in bars, restaurants, etc), despite claims that the smoke-free law was a significant contributing factor to the closure of hundreds of small rural pubs, with almost 440 fewer licences renewed in 2006 than in 2005."
United Kingdom
Smoking bans were enacted in Scotland on 26 March 2006, in Wales on 2 April 2007, in Northern Ireland on 30 April 2007, and in England on 1 July 2007. The legislation was cited as an example of good regulation which has had a favourable impact on the UK economy by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, and a review of the impact of smoke-free legislation carried out for the Department of Health concluded that there was no clear adverse impact on the hospitality industry despite initial criticism from some voices within the pub trade.
Six months after implementation in Wales, the Licensed Victuallers Association (LVA), which represents pub operators across Wales, claimed that pubs had lost up to 20% of their trade. The LVA said some businesses were on the brink of closure, others had already closed down, and there was little optimism trade would eventually return to previous levels.
The British Beer and Pub Association (BBPA), which represents some pubs and breweries across the UK claimed that beer sales were at their lowest level since the 1930s, ascribing a fall in sales of 7% during 2007 to the smoke-free regulations.
According to a survey conducted by pub and bar trade magazine The Publican, the anticipated increase in sales of food following introduction of smoke-free workplaces did not immediately occur. The trade magazine's survey of 303 pubs in the United Kingdom found the average customer spent £14.86 on food and drink at dinner in 2007, virtually identical to 2006.
A survey conducted by BII (formerly British Institute of Innkeeping) and the Federation of Licensed Victuallers' Associations (FLVA) concluded that sales had decreased by 7.3% in the 5 months since the introduction of smoke-free workplaces on 1 July 2007. Of the 2,708 responses to the survey, 58% of licensees said they had seen smokers visiting less regularly, while 73% had seen their smoking customers spending less time at the pub.
United States
In the US, smokers and hospitality businesses initially argued that businesses would suffer from no-smoking laws. However, a 2006 review by the U.S. Surgeon General found that smoking restrictions were unlikely to harm businesses in practice, and that many restaurants and bars might see increased business.
In 2003, New York City amended its smoke-free law to include virtually all restaurants and bars, including those in private clubs, making it, along with the California smoke-free law, one of the toughest in the United States. The city's Department of Health found in a 2004 study that air pollution levels had decreased sixfold in bars and restaurants after the restrictions went into effect, and that New Yorkers had reported less secondhand smoke in the workplace. The study also found the city's restaurants and bars prospered despite the smoke-free law, with increases in jobs, liquor licenses, and business tax payments. The president of the New York Nightlife Association remarked that the study was not wholly representative, as by not differentiating between restaurants and nightclubs, the reform may have caused businesses like nightclubs and bars to suffer instead. A 2006 study by the New York State Department of Health found that "the CIAA has not had any significant negative financial effect on restaurants and bars in either the short or the long term".
In Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, three restaurants received short-term exemptions from a local smoke-free ordinance in restaurants when they managed to demonstrate financial suffering because of it.
Effects upon musical instruments
Bellows-driven instruments – such as the accordion, concertina, melodeon and (Irish) Uilleann bagpipes – reportedly need less frequent cleaning and maintenance as a result of the Irish smoke-free law. "Third-hand smoke", solid particulates from secondhand smoke that are adsorbed onto surfaces and later re-emitted as gases or transferred through touch, are a particular problem for musicians. After playing in smoky bars, instruments can emit nicotine, 3-ethenylpyridine (3-EP), phenol, cresols, naphthalene, formaldehyde, and tobacco-specific nitrosamines (including some not found in freshly-emitted tobacco smoke), which can enter musicians' bodies through the skin, or be re-emitted as gases after they have left the smoky environment. Concern about third-hand smoke on instruments is one of the reasons many musicians, represented by the New Orleans Musicians' Clinic, supported the smoking ban there.
Effects of prison smoking restrictions
Prisons are increasingly restricting tobacco smoking. In the United States, 24 states prohibit indoor smoking whereas California, Nebraska, Arkansas, and Kentucky prohibit smoking on the entire prison grounds. In July 2004 the Federal Bureau of Prisons adopted a smoke-free policy for its facilities. A 1993 U.S. Supreme Court ruling acknowledged that a prisoner's exposure to secondhand smoke could be regarded as cruel and unusual punishment (which would be in violation of the Eighth Amendment). A 1997 ruling in Massachusetts established that prison smoking bans do not constitute cruel and unusual punishment. Many officials view prison smoking bans as a means of reducing health-care costs.
With the exception of Quebec, all Canadian provinces have banned smoking indoors and outdoors in all their prison facilities. Prison officials and guards are sometimes worried due to previous events in other prisons concerning riots, fostering a cigarette black market within the prison, and other problems resulting from total prison smoking restrictions. Prisons have experienced riots when placing smoking restrictions into effect resulting in prisoners setting fires and destroying prison property, and persons being assaulted, injured, and stabbed. One prison in Canada had some guards reporting breathing difficulties from the fumes of prisoners smoking artificial cigarettes made from nicotine patches lit by creating sparks from inserting metal objects into electrical outlets. For example in 2008, the Orsainville Detention Centre near Quebec City, withdrew its smoke-free provision following a riot. But the feared increase in tension and violence expected in association with smoking restrictions has generally not been experienced in practice.
Prison smoking bans are also in force in New Zealand, the Isle of Man and the Australian states of Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, Northern Territory and New South Wales. The New Zealand ban was subsequently successfully challenged in court on two occasions, resulting in a law change to maintain it.
Some prisoners are getting around the prison smoking bans by producing and smoking "teabacco", which is nicotine patches or lozenges mixed with tea leaves, and rolled up in Bible paper. A forensic analysis of teabacco made from nicotine lozenges identified some potentially-toxic compounds, but concluded that teabacco made from nicotine lozenges may be less harmful than traditional tobacco cigarettes.
Compliance
The introduction of smoking restrictions occasionally generates protests and predictions of widespread non-compliance, along with the rise of smokeasies, including in New York City, Germany, Illinois, the United Kingdom, Utah, and Washington, D.C.
High levels of compliance with smoke-free laws have been reported in most jurisdictions including New York, Ireland, Italy and Scotland. Poor compliance was reported in Calcutta.
Criticism
Smoke-free regulations and ordinances have been criticised on a number of grounds.
Government interference with personal lifestyle
Critics of smoke-free provisions, including musician Joe Jackson, and political essayist Christopher Hitchens, have claimed that regulation efforts are misguided. Typically, such arguments are based upon an interpretation of John Stuart Mill's harm principle which perceives smoke-free laws as an obstacle to tobacco consumption per se, rather than a bar upon harming other people.
Such arguments, which usually refer to the notion of personal liberty, have themselves been criticised by Nobel Prize-winning economist Amartya Sen who defended smoke-free regulations on several grounds. Among other things, Sen argued that while a person may be free to acquire the habit of smoking, they thereby restrict their own freedom in the future given that the habit of smoking is hard to break. Sen also pointed out the heavy costs that smoking inevitably imposes on every society which grants smokers unrestricted access to public services (which, Sen noted, every society that is not "monstrously unforgiving" would do). Arguments which invoke the notion of personal liberty against smoke-free laws are thus incomplete and inadequate, according to Sen.
In New Zealand, two psychiatrist patients and a nurse took their local district health board to court, arguing a smoking ban at intensive care units violated "human dignity" as they were there for mental health reasons, not smoking-related illness. They argued it was "cruel" to deny patients cigarettes.
Property rights
Some critics of smoke-free laws emphasise the property rights of business owners, drawing a distinction between nominally public places (such as government buildings) and privately owned establishments (such as bars and restaurants). Citing economic efficiency, some economists suggest that the basic institutions of private property rights and contractual freedom are capable of resolving conflicts between the preferences of smokers and those who seek a smoke-free environment, without government intrusion.
Legality of smoke-free regulations
Businesses affected by smoke-free regulations have filed lawsuits claiming that these are unconstitutional or otherwise illegal. In the United States, some cite unequal protection under the law while others cite loss of business without compensation, as well as other types of challenges. Some localities where hospitality businesses filed lawsuits against the state or local government include Nevada, Montana, Iowa, Colorado, Kentucky, New York, South Carolina, and Hawaii, though none have succeeded.
Smoke-free laws may move smoking elsewhere
Restrictions upon smoking in offices and other enclosed public places often result in smokers going outside to smoke, frequently congregating outside doorways. This can result in non-smokers passing through these doorways getting exposed to more secondhand smoke rather than less. Many jurisdictions that have restricted smoking in enclosed public places have extended provisions to cover areas within a fixed distance of entrances to buildings.
The former UK Secretary of State for Health John Reid claimed that restrictions upon smoking in public places may lead to more people smoking at home. However, both the House of Commons Health Committee and the Royal College of Physicians disagreed, with the former finding no evidence to support Reid's claim after studying Ireland, and the latter finding that smoke-free households increased from 22% to 37% between 1996 and 2003.
Connection to DUI fatalities
In May 2008, research published by Adams and Cotti in the Journal of Public Economics examined statistics of drunken-driving fatalities and accidents in areas where smoke-free laws have been implemented in bars and found that fatal drunken-driving accidents increased by about 13%, or about 2.5 such accidents per year for a typical county of 680,000. They speculate this could be caused by smokers driving farther away to jurisdictions without smoke-free laws or where enforcement is lax.
Effects of funding on research literature
As in other areas of research, the effect of funding on research literature has been discussed with respect to smoke-free laws. Most commonly, studies which found few or no positive and/or negative effects of smoke-free laws and which were funded by tobacco companies have been delegitimised because of the obvious conflict of interest.
Professor of Economics at the California State Polytechnic University-San Luis Obispo, Michael L. Marlow, defended "tobacco-sponsored" studies arguing that all studies merited "scrutiny and a degree of skepticism", irrespective of their funding. He wished for the basic assumption that every author were "fair minded and trustworthy, and deserves being heard out" and for less attention to research funding when evaluating the results of a study. Marlow suggests that studies funded by tobacco companies are viewed and dismissed as "deceitful", i.e. as being driven by (conscious) bad intention.
Alternatives
Incentives for voluntarily smoke-free establishments
During the debates over the Washington, DC, smoke-free law, city council member Carol Schwartz proposed legislation that would have enacted either a substantial tax credit for businesses that chose to voluntarily restrict smoking or a quadrupling of the annual business license fee for bars, restaurants and clubs that wished to allow smoking. Additionally, locations allowing smoking would have been required to install specified high-performance ventilation systems.
Ventilation
Critics of smoke-free laws have suggested that ventilation is a means of reducing the harmful effects of secondhand smoke. A tobacco industry-funded study conducted by the School of Technology of the University of Glamorgan in Wales, published in the Building Services Journal suggested that "ventilation is effective in controlling the level of contamination", although "ventilation can only dilute or partially displace contaminants and occupational exposure limits are based on the 'as low as reasonably practicable' principle".
Some hospitality organisations have claimed that ventilation systems could bring venues into line with smoke-free restaurant ordinances. A study published by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers and funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation found one establishment with lower air quality in the non-smoking section, due to improperly installed ventilation systems. They also determined that even properly functioning systems "are not substitutes for smoking bans in controlling environmental smoke exposure".
The tobacco industry has focused on proposing ventilation as an alternative to smoke-free laws, though this approach has not been widely adopted in the U.S. because "in the end, it is simpler, cheaper, and healthier to end smoking". The Italian smoke-free law permits dedicated smoking rooms with automatic doors and smoke extractors. Nevertheless, few Italian establishments are creating smoking rooms due to the additional cost.
A landmark report from the U.S. Surgeon General found that even the use of elaborate ventilation systems and smoking rooms fail to provide protection from the health hazards of secondhand smoke, since there is "no safe level of secondhand smoke".
Preemption
A number of states in the United States have "preemption clauses" within state law which block local communities from passing smoke-free ordinances more strict than the state laws on the books. The rationale is to prevent local communities from passing smoke-free ordinances which are viewed as excessive by that state's legislature. Other states have "anti-preemption clauses" that allow local communities to pass smoking ban ordinances that their legislature found unacceptable.
See also
General
Smoking bans in private vehicles
List of smoke-free colleges and universities
Tobacco control
Tobacco fatwa
A Counterblaste to Tobacco
Blue law
Indoor air quality
Organizations
Action on Smoking and Health
Airspace Action on Smoking and Health
Anti-Cigarette League of America
FOREST (A UK pro-tobacco group)
People
Douglas Eads Foster, Los Angeles, California, City Council member, 1927–29, proposed prohibition of smoking near schools
Lucy Page Gaston, American leader early 20th cebtury
Evan Lewis, Los Angeles City Council member, 1925–41, opposed smoking on balconies of theaters
Adolf Hitler, 1889–1945, often considered to be the first national leader to advocate against smoking
Patricia Hewitt introduced bans in UK
Nicola Roxon introduced plain packaging in Australia
References
Further reading
Alston, Lee J., Ruth Dupré, and Tomas Nonnenmacher. "Social reformers and regulation: the prohibition of cigarettes in the United States and Canada." Explorations in Economic History 39.4 (2002): 425-445. doi.org/10.1016/S0014-4983(02)00005-0
Cairney, Paul, Donley Studlar, and Hadii Mamudu. Global tobacco control: power, policy, governance and transfer (Springer, 2011), scholarly study by political scientists. online
Feldman, Eric A., and Ronald Bayer, eds. Unfiltered: Conflicts Over Tobacco Policy and Public Health (Harvard University Press, 2004).
Goodin, Robert. No Smoking: The Ethical Issues (University of Chicago Press, 1989).
Haines-Saah, Rebecca J., Kirsten Bell, and Simone Dennis. "A qualitative content analysis of cigarette health warning labels in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States." American journal of public health 105.2 (2015): e61-e69. online
Kluger, Richard. Ashes to Ashes: America’s Hundred-Year Cigarette War, the Public Health, and the Unabashed Triumph of Philip Morris (Knopf, 1996).
Pennock, Pamela E. Advertising sin and sickness: The politics of alcohol and tobacco marketing, 1950-1990 (Northern Illinois University Press, 2007).
Speaker, Susan L. " 'The struggle of mankind against its deadliest foe': themes of counter-subversion in anti-narcotic campaigns, 1920-1940." Journal of Social History 34.3 (2001): 591-610. extract
Studlar, Donley T. "US tobacco control: public health, political economy, or morality policy?" Review of Policy Research 25.5 (2008): 393-410. online
Tate, Cassandra. Cigarette wars: the triumph of "the little white slaver" . (Oxford University Press, 2000), scholarly history of bans in United States.
External links
Canadian Council for Tobacco Control
Clearing the Air Scotland Scottish Executive site established to provide information on Scotland's smoke-free legislation
Hong Kong Tobacco Control Office
History of Smoking Bans in the US
Irish Government's Office of Tobacco Control
State Tobacco Laws from the American Cancer Society
Legacy Tobacco Documents Library from the University of California, San Francisco
Philip Morris USA Document Archive
Prevalence of smoking and information on smoking bans in an interactive world map
Health law
Tobacco control
Ban
Articles containing video clips
Prohibitionism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brzeg
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Brzeg
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Brzeg (; Latin: Alta Ripa, German: Brieg, Silesian German: Brigg, , ) is a town in southwestern Poland with 34,778 inhabitants (December 2021) and the capital of Brzeg County. It is situated in Silesia in the Opole Voivodeship on the left bank of the Oder river.
The town of Brzeg was first mentioned as a trading and fishing settlement in the year 1234. In 1248, Silesian Duke Henry III the White granted the settlement Magdeburg town rights and by the late 13th century the city became fortified. Sometimes referred to as "the garden town", the town's size greatly expanded after the construction of dwelling houses which were located on the city outskirts. From the early 14th to late 17th centuries, the town was ruled by the Piast dynasty as fiefs of the Bohemian Crown within the Holy Roman Empire. Later, as the result of the Silesian Wars, the town became Prussian. After the border shifts of 1945, the town's German populace was expelled and the town became part of Poland.
Etymology
In older documents, Brzeg was referred to as Civitas Altae Ripae, meaning 'city on the high banks' of the Oder River; its name is derived from Polish brzeg 'shore'.
(1841–1895), in his book of the etymology of Silesian localities, states that in a Latin document from 1234 the settlement's name was Visoke breg (, ; literally 'high bank').
A native or resident of Brzeg is known as a brzeżan, brzeżanin (male), brzeżanka (female), brzeżanie and brzeżaninie (plural).
History
Prehistory
The locality in and around present-day Brzeg has been settled by people since the Mesolithic era, with the earliest signs of settlement between 8000 and 4200 BC, as concluded from archaeological findings in Myślibórz, Kościerzyce, Lubsza and Lipki. The early human populace left behind traces of lithic flakes, flint flakes and other flint related tools. The earliest signs of agriculture come around during the Neolithic Era (4200–1700 BC). The Neolithic culture developed agriculture and domesticated farm animals; this lifestyle led Nomadic cultures to settle in the locality. The era saw the development of weaving, pottery and mining in the Brzeg Plain, with archaeological finds in Brzeg, Buszyce, Prędocin, Lewin Brzeski, Małujowice, Lipki, Myśliborze, Mąkoszyce and Obórki.
The time period of 1300–700 BC bears the existence of the Lusatian culture of the late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age. The culture settled in the region and in large continued to develop agriculture and the domestication of farm animals. The natural economy of the culture was based on weaving, pottery and metal works. The Lusatian culture's populace that inhabited the Brzeg Lands was identified by archaeological excavations, revealing 17 individual localities, including 3 hamlets and 8 burial sites, namely a fortified wooden settlement in Rybna and an open-pit crematory in Pisarzowice (with 30 discovered burial sites).
To follow the Lusatian culture, which witnessed its decline around 500 BC, were the Celts, around 400–300 BC in Silesia, as identified with archaeological findings in Lubsza and Pawłów (located in the eastern vicinity of Brzeg). Around 100 BC, the peoples of Silesia (Celtic and Germanic tribes) began trading with the Roman Empire, as evidenced through the findings of Roman currency in the locality. In the 7th century Slavic peoples started settling in the region. At the same time Iron tools and blacksmith-based hamlets found in Kantorowice and Pępice are evidenced for the first time in this region.
Silesian period and foundation
The period of AD 500–1000 saw the establishment of the early feudal system in Silesia. The era was characteristic of the establishment of gord settlements, towns and the continued development of trade and crafts. It is believed the permanent populace around modern-day Brzeg was set up by Silesian tribes. The first mention of the Silesian tribes is made in the mid-ninth-century document known as the Bavarian Geographer (), which included the Silesian gord of Ryczyn, located north-west of Brzeg, in the eastern Oława County. The Ryczyn gords became the main line of defence for the Silesians, namely to protect the river trade routes along the Oder river and the land trade route between Ryczyn (the locality's administrative centre, home to a castellan) and Brzeg (being some in length). The importance of the Ryczyn gords is demonstrated by Henry V of the Holy Roman Empire's army halting their advancement before the gords in 1109.
Between the ninth and early-tenth century, the Brzeg Lands, together with all of Silesia, were part of Great Moravia until its demise in AD 906, after which, until 990 the region was under the rule of the Premyslids. Around the year 990, Silesia was annexed into Mieszko I's Poland. During the Fragmentation of Poland (1138 – ), the area of the Brzeg Lands, along with the rest of Silesia, came under the control of King of Poland, Bolesław III Wrymouth's oldest son, Władysław II the Exile.
The most favourable area for the settlement of Brzeg is located between the Castle Square (Plac Zamkowy), with elevated ground extending south-east towards the Square of the American Polonia (Plac Polonii Amerykańskiej). Before the town's foundation, three separate settlements existed in its modern-day territory, with "Wysoki Brzeg" (Alta ripa) bearing the main administrative role in the region. Between the late-twelfth and early-thirteen century, the Dukes of Wrocław set up a curia, led by a claviger. In 1235, Henry the Bearded occupied the area around Oława, by which Walloons had to turn over a tribute of 1 scale of grain and of oat to the settlement of Brzeg, suggesting the existence of a granary and other outbuildings in the curia's established headquarters.
Some two hundred m south-west from the curia was the former location, on what was later to be called Mary's Hill (Góra Marii), of the Romanesque St. Mary's Church (Kościół Najświętszej Marii Panny). During the Reformation, the church was deconstructed, and its brickwork used for the construction of the town's fortifications. A sixteenth-century chronicle states it was "the first church", however, no more is known about the holy site. Historians believe the founder of the church may have been Bolesław I the Tall or Henry the Bearded. Around the peripheries of the settlement was the location of several hospital buildings. Towards the route to Wrocław in the town's west was the location of the Hospital of the Holy Ghost (Świętego Ducha), used both to cure the town's dwellers and as an inn for travellers along the Wrocław-Opole route the town of Brzeg was located in the middle of, with an average walking distance between each town taking one day. The area around the Holy Ghost Hospital, present-day Moniuszko Square (Plac Moniuszki), was the location of a major market, positioned by the cross roads of the Wrocław–Nysa route, east of the Wrocławska Gate. By the end of the thirteenth century, the Duke of Brzeg possessed 10 shambles. The market is believed to be characteristic of other Silesian towns, commonly selling agricultural produce, namely bread, meat and shoes. Prior to the locality receiving its town charter in 1248 or 1250, the settlement had characteristics of a town and not of an ordinary fishing village, being referred to as "civitas" in an early Latin document, as exemplified by the existence of the curia, church and a major market, allowing the settlement to develop through the exchange of produce and barter.
Prior to Brzeg receiving its town charter, the Duke of Wrocław, Henry III the White, received the settlement of Małkowice, (present-day Kępa Młyńska), in exchange of his feudal rights over Zębice (south-west from Oława). The fishermen living in Małkowice (present-day ul. Rybacka), in accordance to ancient Polish law were charged with the task of protecting the Ducal Castle along the riverside. By the turn of the thirteenth century, the defenceless populace living in the pastures of the Brzeg Plain began to relocate into the fortified Visoke breg, building up a new osiedle around the present-day streets of: Łokietka, Piastowska and Trzech Kotwic (extending south-east). The osiedle was documented as Stary Brzeg (Antiqua Brega; Alt Brieg), to be renamed Wieś Brzeska: Brygischedorf (c. 1329) and villa Bregensis in 1339. To the west of the fortified centre of Brzeg, the settlement of Rataje (a separate village until 1975) as the former village's etymology suggests, centered around the upkeep of the ducal pastures.
Middle Ages and Early Modern period
The town received German town law in 1250 from the Wrocław Duke Henry III the White. The foundation was carried out by the three lokators, Gerkinus of Goldberg, Ortlif and Heinrich of Reichenbach. From the emblem of Heinrich of Reichenbach the town also got its coat of arms. While in power, Henry III, granted the town (by a singular payment) the forest around the locality of Lubsza. His successor, Henryk IV the Righteous regulated the town's church affairs, as well as renouncing his patronage over St. Mary's Church (Kościół Św. Marii Panny), located west of the town's western boundary. The church was granted to the Order of Saint John, subsequently founding the Church of St. Nicholas in 1292. The town was fortified in 1297.
From 1311 to 1675 Brzeg was the capital of a Lower Silesian duchy (Duchy of Brzeg) ruled by the Piast dynasty, a branch of the dukes of Lower Silesia, one of whom built a castle in 1341. The Duchy became part of the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1329. The town was burned by the Hussites in 1428 and soon afterwards rebuilt.
In 1595 Brieg was again fortified by Joachim Frederick of Brieg and Liegnitz. In the Thirty Years' War it suffered greatly; in the War of the Austrian Succession it was heavily bombarded by the Prussian forces; and in 1807 it was captured by Napoleon's army. When Bohemia fell to the Habsburg monarchy of Austria in 1526, the town fell under the overlordship of the Habsburgs in their roles of Kings of Bohemia, although it was still ruled locally by the Silesian Piasts. Upon the extinction of the last duke George William of Legnica in 1675, Brieg came under the direct rule of the Habsburgs.
Late modern and contemporary
In 1537 the duke Frederick II of Legnica concluded a treaty with Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg, whereby the Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg would inherit the duchy upon the extinction of the Silesian Piasts. On the death of George William the last duke in 1675, however, Austria refused to acknowledge the validity of the treaty and annexed the duchies and Frederick the Great of the Kingdom of Prussia used this treaty to justify his claim at the invasion of Silesia during the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740. Brieg and most of Silesia were annexed by Prussia in 1741 during the First Silesian War. In 1807 the town's fortifications were pulled down by Napoleon's army. The Prussian Province of Silesia, and thus Brieg, consequently became part of the German Empire when it was proclaimed in 1871 on the unification of Germany. According to the Prussian census of 1905, the city of Brieg had a population of 27,486, of which 93% spoke German, 6% spoke Polish, and 1% were bilingual.
During World War II, 60% of Brieg was destroyed and many of the town's inhabitants died during the severe winter of 1944–5 as they fled from the advancing Red Army. The war had brought the most severe destruction to the town in its entire history. Some of the town's population was evacuated by the German Army who moved its population further west inside Germany for safety and declared Brieg "Festung Brieg" (Fortification Brieg). After the fall of the town to the Soviets the remaining German population were later subject to harassment and expulsion (see Expulsion of Germans after World War II). After the war, the Potsdam Conference placed Silesia, and thus the town, under Polish administration. Subsequently, Brzeg and Lower Silesia were repopulated by Poles whom Soviets expelled from the eastern part of Interwar Poland.
Traditional Garrison Town
From the late 19th century the then German town of Brieg had expanded into a traditional military garrison town, from 1897 until 1919 it was the home town base to Infantry Regiment No. 157 designated from 1902 the 4th Silesian Infantry Regiment No. 157 (4. Schlesisches Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 157) of the Royal Prussian Army and respectively the Imperial German Army. In 1914 under the regiment's last peacetime commander Lieutenant General Paul Tiede the regiment began mobilizing for the Western Front at the outbreak of World War I as part of VI Army Corps (VI. Armee-Korps), 12th Division (12. Division), 78th Infantry Brigade (78. Infanterie-Brigade).
At the end of World War I the garrison barracks at Brieg remained for some years after without a stationed military regiment. The Imperial German Army Air Arm (Luftstreitkräfte) military aerodrome (Fliegerhorst) found in nearby Grüningen was furthermore dismantled and destroyed as part of the Treaty of Versailles. It was not until 4 August 1930 that the 5th Squadron of Cavalry Regiment No. 8 (5. Schwadron Reiterregiments Nr. 8) of the German Reichswehr arrived in Brieg from Breslau-Carlowitz, other cavalry squadrons from Militsch and Oels followed shortly after. This resulted in the garrison's Tiede-Barracks (named after Generalleutnant Paul Tiede) located in Moltke-, Sedan-, Roon- und Bismarckstraße requiring some alterations to accommodate the new arrival of horse-cavalry residents. It was from Brieg garrison, the German Cavalry Captain (Rittmeister) Konrad Freiherr von Wangenheim became famous for securing a Gold medal win at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin for the German equestrian team whilst suffering from a broken collarbone. In 1933 an airfield located in nearby Hermsdorf was also built and thereby a much larger military aerodrome was established. The new aerodrome was occupied by Flight Reconnaissance Group 113 (Fliegeraufklärungsgruppe 113).
Towards the end of World War II, on 6 February 1945, the Soviet army captured Brzeg, which resulted in moderate destruction of the town's buildings and infrastructure. After Germany's defeat in the war, Brzeg became part of Poland. Since 1950 the reconstructed town has been a part of the Opole Voivodeship.
History of the Jewish population
As the town was situated on the commercial route to Wrotizla, in which a colony of Jews had long resided, Jews settled there about 1324. The Jewish community of Brieg had its separate place of worship from early times. In 1358 Jews lent money to local noblemen and the duke of Brieg, Ludwig I, who granted the Jews freedom of movement in the duchy in that year. In the 14th century the Jews of Brieg were persecuted on account of their usurious practices; one outbreak of such violence occurred in 1362. In 1392 it was claimed that all debts of the duke had been discharged by the payments to a Jew of Brieg (Jacob, the son of Moses), of a certificate of indebtedness. In 1398 the Brieg Jews bought a letter of protection from the duke, whereby they were guaranteed the peaceful possession of their privileges. But in 1401 they were driven from the city, except Jacob and Seman von Reichenbach, who had received a patent of protection from the duke's council for six years from May 1, 1399. In 1423, duke Ludwig II granted the Jews rights of residence on payment of an annual tax of 20 gulden, but they were expelled from the duchies of Brieg and Liegnitz in 1453 as a result of the inflammatory preachings of the Franciscan John Capistrano. Solomo, a capitalist, lent large sums of money to royal houses in the 15th century. In the 16th century, one of the local Jews served as a physician to the duke of Brieg.
With the decline of Breslau as a trade center, the Jews of Brieg became little more than an isolated community; and in modern times they shared the lot of the other Silesian Jews. They carried on insignificant trade operations as a rule. The conquest of Silesia by Frederick the Great brought but slight change in their condition.
A synagogue was built in Brieg in 1799, and a rabbi was first appointed in 1816. The Jewish population numbered 156 in 1785; 376 in 1843; 282 in 1913; 255 in 1933; and 123 in 1939. In the Kristallnacht pogroms of 1938 the interior of the synagogue was completely demolished and the Torah scrolls publicly burned; numerous shops were ransacked. The community was not reestablished after the Holocaust.
Geography
Status
The shape of the town, including its neighbouring osiedla, is comparable to that of a deformed rectangle, elongated north-south and west-east. The area of the town, including the village of Rataje, which was incorporated into Brzeg on January 1, 1973, is some . In comparison to Opole, with a total area of ; Nysa's and Kędzierzyn-Koźle's ; Brzeg is ranked fourth in the Opole Voivodeship by both population and area.
Topography
Brzeg, as the regional capital of Brzeg County (Powiat Brzeski), is located in the west of the Opole Voivodeship, in the south-east of Poland. The settlement is located in the valley of the Oder, located between Opole 38.5 km to its east and Wrocław, to its north-west. The town has a predominantly flat relief (in comparison to the river scarp on the eastern bank of the river). The River Oder, at low water levels (predominantly between June and early September) forms eyots north of Jerzynowa, Kępa and Srebrna Islands. The locality is located in the Brzeg Plain (Rownina Brzeska), part of the Silesian Lowlands. The Brzeg Plain's boundaries are outlined by the Oder river to its north, the Nysa Kłodzka Valley to its south-east, the hillocks of Grodków Hills and the Wawrzyszów Hills to its south. The western boundary of the Brzeg Plain is marked by the Oława Valley, along the Oder's mid-course.
The Brzeg Plain was formed by the Riss glaciation period (347,000 to 128,000 years ago), leaving behind remnants of a ground moraine from the last glacial period. The ground moraines have left two equally small hills, bearing characteristics of kames. The kames form the Łosiów Range (Wał Łosiowski), between the confluence of the River Nysa Kłodzka and the Oława Valley. Small streams, having their sources around the range, are fed directly into the Oder in the region of Nysa Kłodzka and Oława.<ref name="Po Ziemi Brzeskiej -
Climate
Settlement and trade
The settlement of Brzeg, historically located in the regional unit of Lower Silesia as opposed to Upper Silesia, is due to the formation of a "przesieka" ("clearing"). The "clearing" was a lateral formation, extending northerly from the former Sudetes Wildland to the southern foothills of the Sudetes Mountains. The clearing's characteristics set it as a point for defence in the Lower Silesia region, lined with barrages made out of cut down woodland. The Brzeg Plain was settled due to its fertile soil, allowing for the earliest forms of agriculture to develop in the locality. The locality was first settled by Silesian tribes and in later history, until 1675, by the Piast duchies of Duchy of Brzeg, Legnica and Wołów, united under the Duchy of Legnica-Wołów-Brzeg. Presently, the region is spotted with numerous towns, including Brzeg, Grodków and Strzelin, as well as villages, with agriculture providing the major source of income. The development of agriculture is met with a lack of forested areas, apart from the Stobrawa Landscape Park, located 7.2 km to the north of Brzeg and the Oder river. The Stobrawa woodland, agriculture and the Oder (as a form of transport) provided Brzeg the necessary diversity to remain the regional trade capital in Silesia.
Brzeg's geographical position between two trade routes, running from west to east (Legnica–Opole) and north to south (Gniezno–Nysa) and further on into the Kingdom of Bohemia, additionally stimulated the town's demographic and economic expansion. Presently, Brzeg remains located between the European route E67 and E40.
Environment
Brzeg has five public parks, three of which encircle the Old Town (Stare Miasto), after the area was transformed into parkland with the deconstruction of the garrison town's fortifications during the Napoleonic Wars in 1807. The parkland, surrounding the Old Town to its south, became known as the Planty. The Planty constitute of the Central Park of J. Czajkowski (Park Centralny im. J. Czajkowskiego), with a total area of 6.1 ha. The Central Park contains an artificial lake and a stream, connecting its waters to the western portion of the Planty, the Park nad Fosą. The Park by the Moat (Park nad Fosą), with a total area of 3.7 ha, is located south of the Silesian Piasts' Castle. The third and largest by area parkland surrounding the Old Town is located by the Oder river, the Odranian Park (Park Nadodrzański), with a total area of 10.9 ha. The castle, together with the town's fortification remnants, the Odrzańska Gate is located in the park.
The largest parkland in Brzeg, located in the south-west of the town is the Park of Juliusz Peppel (Park im. Juliusza Peppela) and formerly Liberty Park (Park Wolności) having a total area of 68.8 ha. The parkland was established after donations from the owners of Skarbimierz and the landed-elite family von Lobbecke donated the area to the town's authorities, to make way for a landscape park in the area. The smallest of the five public parks in Brzeg is the Park Ptasi, located in the south of the town, west of the osiedle of Westerplatte. The park has a total area of 1 ha.
Demography
History
After 1945, the town of Brzeg was part of the population transfers of the Soviet and Polish People's Republic's campaign to resettle Poles from Kresy (annexed by the USSR) to the newly annexed territories by Poland from the defeated Germany, as part of the Potsdam Agreement. During the Polish resettlement campaign, the German population of Brzeg was expelled to the remaining territories of Germany. The newly arrived population in Brzeg predominantly came from the countryside, being former peasants. The integration of the residents came in phases: education, communal work, marriages and the provision of material goods and items left behind by the former populace. By 1975, 37.9% of the population of Brzeg had settled in the town after 1960.
Breakdown of population origin of Brzeg in 1950:
Breakdown of migrant population origin of Brzeg in 1950:
Population change:
Main sights
The Renaissance Brzeg Town Hall (Rynek), surrounded by thirteenth-century townhouses.
Old Castle (Zamek), with an interesting adorned façade, host of the Muzeum Piastów Śląskich. The Brzeg Castle is referred to as the Silesian Wawel. The castle-complex includes the Chapel of St. Jadwiga of Poland.
St. Nicholas's Church (Gothic architectural style).
Holy Cross Church (on old castle square), (Baroque architectural style).
St. Jadwiga's Church, located by the castle.
St. Luke's Church, a church built in the Neoclassical architectural style.
Saints Peter and Paul Church, a Franciscan church built in the thirteen-century.
Christ's Resurrection Church, a garrison church built in the Baroque architectural style.
Baroque figures of John of Nepomuk and Jude the Apostle from 1722, standing by the façade of the Holy Cross Church.
Statue of the Holy Trinity (on old castle square), raised in 1731.
Piast Gimnasium (Gimnazium Piastowskie) founded in 1569.
Odrzańska Gate, part of the former fortifications; located in the Park Odrzański (Odranian Park).
Water tower (Wieża ciśnień) by Rybacka Street (ul. Rybacka), from 1877.
Residential townhouses:
Rynek 19, Renaissance façade from 1621 (reconstruction).
Chopina 1, Renaissance from 1597.
Jabłkowa 5, Baroque townhouse from 1715.
Jabłkowa 7, Empire architectural style from 1797.
Old Garrison buildings (Stare Koszary) from the Frederick the Great colonisation period.
Planty - remaining bastion fortifications around the medieval town. The fortifications were deconstructed in 1807, with the area transformed into the Planty Park.
Synagogue from 1799.
River Boat Station (Brzeg Marina) (on the east bank of the Oder), built in 2012.
Economy
Industry
Brzeg is the centre for industry and production in the Brzeg County. The town's industries include the production of agricultural machinery, electric engines, margarine and sugar production.
The largest concentration of industry in Brzeg is located in the town's eastern quarter, south of the Oder, with numerous manufacturers, including: the German Bartling GmbH (plastic packaging company); "BESEL" (Polish electric engine company, founded in the town in 1950), and CIK car accessories plant. All three industries are located between Ciepłownicza Street (ul. Ciepłownicza) and Składowa Street (ul. Składowa).
Brzeg is also home to one of the largest confectionary companies in Poland, PWC Odra S.A. (founded in 1946). Presently, the firm is part of the joint-stock company Otmuchów Group. The production plant is located by Starobrzeska Street (ul. Starobrzeska).
Tourism
, Brzeg had the lowest number of foreign tourists in the Opole Voivodeship, with some 95% being national tourists. Per 1000 of the population, there are 1.60–3.89 available accommodations, which is behind nine of the eleven regional capitals (being at level with Kędzierzyn-Koźle) in the Opole Voivodeship, including Opole, with 3.90–5.89 tourist accommodations per 1000 of the population.
Education
Brzeg has a total of 7,826 citizens in the potential education age group (3-24 year of age). The number of city dwellers in Brzeg that have completed higher education is at 14.4% of the population, which is similar to the statistical average of the number of people obtaining higher education in the Opole Voivodeship, being at 15.1%. Data from 2015 indicates that 2.5% of the population of Brzeg have completed post-lyceum (policealne) education, with Brzeg having two post-lyceum schools (szkoły policealne): Medyczne Studium Zawodowe by Ofiar Katynia Street (medical practice institution); Policealne Studium Zawodowe – Zespół Szkół Ekonomicznych by Jan Paweł II Street (higher school of economics). The population of Brzeg that is in the age of potential further education (aged 19–24) is 26.8%, out of which 27.1% are women and 26.6% are men.
Some 22.4% of the population of the town of Brzeg () has some sort of work-related further education (i.e. scholarship or college course). In 2015, 5.3% of the town's population participated in secondary education, while some 19.6% have attended primary education in that same year. The city council of Brzeg spends 33.3% of its annual budget on education, amounting to 35.2 million zlotys annually.
Post-secondary education institutions:
Public gymnasium (secondary school) institutions:
Transport
Brzeg is located at the crossroads of the National Road (northbound to Namysłów and Kępno; southbound to Wiązów and Strzelin) and the National Road (westbound to Oława, Wrocław, Bolesławiec and Zgorzelec; eastbound to Opole, Strzelce Opolskie, Bytom, Kraków, Tarnów, Jarosław and Korczowa. The interchange to the Motorway (Węzeł Przylesie) is located 14 km south of Brzeg.
Brzeg has well developed railway and bus transportation services. The PKP Brzeg railway station is operated by PKP Intercity and Przewozy Regionalne. The town has direct connections to Opole, Wrocław, Kraków, Warszawa, Katowice, Poznań, Szczecin, Zielona Góra, Lublin, Kielce, Przemyśl, Zamość, Nysa, and other cities. The Brzeg bus service is operated by PKS Brzeg, with ten bus lines around the town and Gmina Brzeg. The important routes are to Wrocław, Opole, Grodków, Namysłów, Nysa, Karpacz, Strzelin, Wiązów, and others. On Sunday, there is a special route to Szklarska Poręba.
In 2013, a hospital helipad was opened by Mossora Street (ul. Mossora).
Sports
KS Cukierki Odra Brzeg – women's basketball team, 8th place in Sharp Torell Basket Liga in 2003/2004 season
Notable people
C. de Bridia (born 1247), Minorite friar, wrote the Tartar Relation (de Bridia meaning "of Brzeg")
Melchior Adam (ca.1575 in Grottkau – 1622), a German Calvinist literary historian.
Johann Heermann (1585–1647), German poet and hymnodist
Georg Gebel the younger (1709–1753), Prussian general
Leopold Wilhelm von Dobschütz (1763–1836), Prussian general
Karl Otfried Müller (1797–1840), a professor, scholar of classical Greek studies and philodorian.
Julius Müller (1801–1878), a German Protestant theologian.
Wilhelm Schuppe (1836–1913), German positivist philosopher
Max Friedlaender (1852–1934), German musician and composer
Oskar Moll (1875-1947), German painter
Max Obal (1881–1949), German actor, screenwriter and film director
Alfred Kurella (1895–1975), German SED functionary
Johannes Brockt (1901–1980), German-Austrian musicologist and conductor
Franciszek Gajowniczek (1901–1995), Polish Auschwitz survivor
Otto Thorbeck (1912–1976), German lawyer
Kurt Masur (1927–2015), German musician and conductor
Mieczysław Domaradzki (1949–1998), Polish archaeologist and thracologist
Adrian Tekliński (born 1989), Polish road and track cyclist
Kamil Bednarek (born 1991), Polish reggae and dancehall musician and composer.
Bartosz Białek (born 2001), Polish football player
Twin towns – sister cities
Brzeg is twinned with:
Beroun, Czech Republic
Bourg-en-Bresse, France
Goslar, Germany
Gallery
References
Bibliography of Jewish Encyclopedia
Brann, Geschichte der Juden in Schlesien;
Jahrbuch des Deutsch-Israelitischen Gemeindebundes
()
By : Gotthard Deutsch & A. M. Friedenberg
External links
Forum Brzeg
Dziennik Brzeski
Foto Brzeg
Komornik Brzeg
Jewish Community in Brzeg on Virtual Shtetl
Cities in Silesia
Cities and towns in Opole Voivodeship
Brzeg County
Holocaust locations in Poland
Province of Upper Silesia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prudnik
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Prudnik
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Prudnik (, , , ) is a town in southern Poland, located in the southern part of Opole Voivodeship near the border with the Czech Republic. It is the administrative seat of Prudnik County and Gmina Prudnik. Its population numbers 21,368 inhabitants (2016). Since 2015, Prudnik is a member of the Cittaslow International.
The town was founded in the 1250s, and was historically part of the Polish-ruled Duchy of Opole, and afterwards was located within the Habsburg monarchy, Poland, Habsburg Monarchy again, Prussia, Germany, and eventually Poland again. It was once an important industrial hub known for its shoe-making traditions and more recently towel making by the ZPB "Frotex" Company, one of the largest towel manufacturers in Europe. The town also possesses numerous architectural monuments and historic buildings such as the Main Town Hall and "Wok's Tower" (Wieża Woka) from the 13th-century.
Geography
Prudnik is located in the historic Silesia (Upper Silesia) region at the confluence of the Prudnik river and its Złoty Potok tributary. The city is situated on the border of Opawskie Mountains and the Prudnik Depression (; a part of the Silesian Lowlands). Prudnik and Vrbno pod Pradědem are headquarters of the Euroregion Praděd.
Etymology
The name "Prudnik" was created after Polish word prąd (flow, stream, Czech: proud, Silesian: prōnd) and, like nearby Prężyna, means a river with a fast stream. In the Middle Ages, the city's name was written with a letter u, which was Czech counterpart of ą (1262 Pruthenos, 1331 Prudnik). Since the 17th century, the name Prudnik was used along with Neustadt.
The town's German name was also written in its Latin form Neostadium. Sometimes its Polish and Czech translations were used (Nowe Miasto, Nové Město). The town's older name also had its Latin form (Prudnicium). The town was also called Polnisch Neustadt ("Polish New Town"), but in 1708 it got replaced with Königliche Stadt Neustadt ("Royal Town New Town"). Its Polish counterpart Nowe Miasto Królewskie was used in a Polish document published in 1750 by Frederick the Great.
In the 19th century, the city's name was changed to Neustadt in Oberschlesien ("New Town in Upper Silesia"), while the Slavic name Prudnik was still used by its Polish inhabitants, which was mentioned in Upper Silesia's topographical description from 1865: "Der ursprünglische Stadtname "Prudnik" ist noch jetz bei den polnischen Landbewohnern üblich". In the alphabetic list of cities of Silesia published by Johann Knie in Wrocław in 1830, Polish name Prudnik was used along with German Neustadt ("Prudnik, polnische Benennung der Kreistadt Neustadt").
In Polish publications since the 20th century, the city's name was written as Prądnik. This name was also used formally in 1945. The city's name was changed to Prudnik on 7 May 1946.
In Polish, the city name has masculine grammatical gender.
History
Prehistory
The first human traces in the present town area, confirmed by archaeological excavations, are dated to the Paleolithic times. Local early Slavs maintained trade contacts with Rome, which is confirmed by Roman coins found here dating back to 700 BC–1250 AD.
Middle Ages
The area of present Prudnik was located at the border of Golensizi and Opolans. Between the years of 1255 and 1259 the Czech knight Wok of Rosenberg founded in the defensive bend of the Prudnik river a castle, and his son Jindřich obtained the city rights in 1279. In 1337 it became a part of the Duchy of Opole, and remained under the rule of local Polish dukes of the Piast dynasty until the dissolution of the duchy in 1532, when it was incorporated into the Austrian-ruled Bohemian (Czech) Crown. It was located on a trade route between Wrocław and Vienna.
The oldest known form of Prudnik's coat of arms comes from a 1399 wax seal. A knight Maćko of Prudnik participated in the Battle of Grunwald fought on 15 July 1410 during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War. Maćko fought together with the troops of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.
On 23 March 1464, Prudnik and villages around it were excommunicated by Pope Pius II for refusing to pay the debt of Duke Konrad IV the Older. Although local historian Antoni Dudek claimed that the excommunication was lifted in 16th century, the Pope never revealed a document that lifted the curse.
Early modern era
In 1562, the Austrian-ruled Duchy of Opole and Racibórz passed a resolution that obligated Jews to sell their houses, pay their debts, and leave the duchy in a year. On the basis of this resolution, in 1564, Jews were ordered to leave Prudnik, but Krzysztof Prószkowski, who leased the land there, let them stay until 1570. The town was captured and plundered by the Swedes in 1632, during the Thirty Years' War. In 1645 along with Opole and Racibórz it returned to Poland under the House of Vasa, and in 1666 it fell to Austria again as part of Austrian Silesia.
In 1742 the town was in the large area of Silesia annexed by Prussia. During the Seven Years' War it was the scene of a bloody surprise attack on 15 March 1760 upon the Prussians as they were marching out of the city. The London Magazine of April 1760 reported "General Laudohn, who had set out from his Quarters on 14th with Palfy's Regiment of Cuirassiers, Lowenstein's Dragoons, 500 Hussars of Nadaski, 500 of Kalnocki, 2000 Croats and 14 Companies of Grenadiers, marched all Night with a View to surprise our Troops at Neustadt. The latter were scarce out of the Gates, when they were surrounded by those of the Enemy. General Jacquemin was posted with the Regiment of Lowenstein near Buchelsdorff on the road to Steinau, General Laudohn followed with the Regiment of Palfy and 2000 Croats, supported by 14 Companies of Grenadiers; a thousand of their Hussars were upon our right flank, the advanced Guard of which consisted of 100 Men under Capt. Blumenthal of the Regiment of Manteuffel. Capt. Zitzewitz commanded the Rear Guard, consisting of the same number; and the rest of the aforesaid regiment, with a Squadron of Dragoons of Bareith under Capt. Chambaud, followed with the Baggage. General Laudohn summoned out Troops twice, by Sound of Trumpet, to lay down their Arms; which they not complying with, he ordered all his Cavalry to advance: Whereupon General Jacquemin fell upon the advance Guard, while General Laudohn himself attacked the Rear, and the Hussars, in Platoons, flanked the Baggage. The Captains Blumenthal and Zittzwitz formed their small Force in a Kind of Square, from whence they kept a continual fire. The enemy's Cavalry nevertheless advanced six Times on a Gallop, to within ten Paces of our Troops; but perceiving many fall on their Side, among whom were several Officers, they retreated in great Disorder... The Loss of the Austrians however greatly exceeds ours; they buried above 300 Men, in different Places, and sent 500 Wounded to Neustadt. Besides which we have taken 25 Prisoners, amongst whom are several Officers. We had 35 men killed, and four Officers and 65 private Men wounded, in Manteuffel's Regiment, as also one Lieutenant, with three Dragoons in Bareich's... The Officers, taken Prisoners, by our Troops, commend highly the Bravery of the Regiment of Manteuffel upon this Occasion."
In the subsequent years, the area developed into a significant centre of handcraft, in particular cloth production and shoe-making. In the 19th century, the surrounding factories continued the local tradition of handicraft. The indigenous Polish population was subject to Germanisation policies. Due to the lack of Polish schools, local Poles sent their children to schools in so-called Congress Poland in the Russian Partition of Poland. Local Polish activist, publicist and teacher , was investigated by the local Prussian administration and police for writing about this practice in the Gazeta Toruńska, a major Polish newspaper in the Prussian Partition of Poland.
Interbellum and World War II
Prudnik remained part of Germany after Poland regained independence in 1918, however, Polish organizations still operated in the town in the interbellum, including the Union of Poles in Germany and the Polish-Catholic School Society. Polish Prime Minister Ignacy Jan Paderewski proposed to incorporate Prudnik into Poland in his unrealized political concept of the United States of Poland, which was presented to the US President Woodrow Wilson. In a secret Sicherheitsdienst report from 1934, Prudnik was named one of the main centers of the Polish movement in western Upper Silesia. Nazi Germany increasingly persecuted local Polish activists since 1937, and carried out mass arrests in August and September 1939. On 7 September 1938, Prudnik was visited by Adolf Hitler along with Hermann Göring, Heinrich Himmler, Gerd von Rundstedt, Erhard Milch, Hans-Jürgen Stumpff, Josef Wagner and Hellmut Körner.
During World War II the Germans established four forced labour camps and four working units for British and Soviet prisoners of war. On 26 September 1944, a subcamp of the Auschwitz concentration camp was founded in the Schlesische Feinweberei AG textile mill (now ZPB "Frotex"). Around 400 women, mostly from German-occupied Hungary, were imprisoned in the subcamp, and some died. In January 1945, the prisoners of the subcamp were evacuated by the Germans to the Gross-Rosen concentration camp in a death march. During the final months of the war, the town was also a stopping place of death marches of thousands of prisoners of several other subcamps of Auschwitz, and of Allied prisoners-of-war transferred by the Nazis from all over Europe to stalags built in occupied Poland. About 30,000 PoWs were force-marched westward across Poland, Czechoslovakia and Germany in winter conditions, lasting about four months from January to April 1945. The Red Army captured Neustadt on 18 March 1945.
In modern Poland
After the end of the Second World War in 1945, Neustadt was transferred from Germany to Poland according to the Potsdam Conference, and given its original Polish name of Prądnik (changed to Prudnik in 1946). Prudnik became part of the Katowice Voivodeship from 1946 to 1950, after which it became part of the Opole Voivodeship. Unlike other parts of the so-called Recovered Territories, Prudnik and the surrounding region's indigenous population remained and was not forcibly expelled as elsewhere. Over one million Silesians who considered themselves Poles or were treated as such by the authorities due to their language and customs were allowed to stay after they were verified as Poles in a special verification process. It involved declaring Polish nationality and an oath of allegiance to the Polish nation. Many Polish settlers and refugees were transferred here from the Kresy in the former Polish eastern territories annexed by the Soviet Union.
In the later years however many of them left to West Germany to flee the communist Eastern Bloc (see Emigration from Poland to Germany after World War II). Today Prudnik, along with the surrounding region, is known as a centre of the German minority in Poland that recruits mainly from the descendants of the positively verified autochthons. In the city itself however only 1% of the inhabitants declared German nationality according to the last national census of 2002.
In September 1980, 1500 workers of ZPB "Frotex" and firefighters from Prudnik's fire brigade went on the biggest anti-communist strike in Opole Voivodeship. The strike lasted 5 days (5–10 September).
Historical population
German minority
Alongside German and Polish, many citizens of Prudnik before 1945 used a strongly German-influenced Silesian language (sometimes called wasserpolnisch or wasserpolak). Because of this, the post-war Polish state administration after the annexation of Silesia in 1945 did not initiate a general expulsion of all former inhabitants of Prudnik, as was done in Lower Silesia, for instance, where the population almost exclusively spoke the German language. Because they were considered "autochthonous" (Polish), the Wasserpolak-speakers instead received the right to remain in their homeland after declaring themselves as Poles. Some German speakers took advantage of this decision, allowing them to remain in Silesia, even when they considered themselves to be of German nationality. The city surroundings currently contain the largest German and Upper Silesian minorities in Poland. However, Prudnik itself is only 1% German.
Sights
Prudnik is a town rich in historic architecture from various periods. Among its sights are:
medieval Wok's Tower (Wieża Woka), a remnant of the castle
preserved parts of the medieval town walls with the Lower Gate (Brama Dolna) and the Katowska and Mała towers which are part of the local historical museum (Muzeum Ziemi Prudnickiej)
Baroque-Classicist Prudnik Town Hall
Baroque St. Michael's Church
Baroque Saints Peter and Paul Church
Park Miejski ("Town Park") with the Diana statue, a monument to local Polish activists fallen in the Silesian Uprisings and murdered in Nazi concentration camps, a monument commemorating the 1000th anniversary of the founding of the Polish State, etc.
Prudnik Culture Centre (Prudnicki Ośrodek Kultury)
public Town Bath (Łaźnia Miejska)
St. Joseph Church
World War II memorials, including a memorial to Polish children and youth, heroes and victims of the war at the Plac Szarych Szeregów ("Gray Ranks Square"), a monument to Polish soldiers fighting on various war fronts for Poland's freedom at the Plac Wolności ("Freedom Square"), and two mass graves of prisoners of the Nazi German Auschwitz concentration camp, murdered in the town in 1945
Baroque Marian column and Saint John of Nepomuk statue
Education
Preschools
Publiczne Przedszkole nr 1 (5 Mickiewicza Street)
Zespół Szkolno-Przedszkolny nr 2 (12 Szkolna Street)
Publiczne Przedszkole nr 3 (69 Piastowska Street)
Publiczne Przedszkole nr 4 (9 Mickiewicza Street)
Publiczne Przedszkole Specjalne nr 5 (1 Młyńska Street)
Publiczne Przedszkole nr 6 (9a Podgórna Street)
Publiczne Przedszkole nr 8 (1 Ogrodowa Street)
Niepubliczne Przedszkole "Skrzat" (66 Grunwaldzka Street)
Primary schools
Publiczna Szkoła Podstawowa nr 1 (9 Podgórna Street)
Zespół Szkolno-Przedszkolny nr 2 (12 Szkolna Street)
Publiczna Szkoła Podstawowa nr 3 (12 Szkolna Street)
Publiczna Szkoła Podstawowa nr 4 (2 Dąbrowskiego Street)
Publiczna Szkoła Podstawowa Specjalna nr 5 (1 Młyńska Street)
Secondary schools
Publiczne Gimnazjum nr 1 (1 Armii Krajowej Street)
Publiczne Gimnazjum nr 2 (2 Dąbrowskiego Street)
Publiczne Gimnazjum Specjalne nr 3 (1 Młyńska Street)
High schools
I Liceum Ogólnokształcące (2 Gimnazjalna Street)
II Liceum Ogólnokształcące (55 Kościuszki Street)
Liceum Ogólnokształcące dla dorosłych (5 Podgórna Street)
Zespół Szkół Medycznych (Medical School) (26 Piastowska Street)
Zespół Szkół Rolniczych (76 Kościuszki Street)
Zespół Szkół Zawodowych (5 Podgórna Street)
Państwowa Szkoła Muzyczna I st. (36 Traugutta Street)
Szkoła policealna dla dorosłych (26 Piastowska Street)
Religion
Catholic Church
Prudnik Deanery
Saint Michael the Archangel parish (Plac Farny 2)
Saint Michael the Archangel church (Plac Farny 2)
Saints Peter and Paul church (6 Piastowska Street)
Saint Joseph church (Prudnik-Las, 5 Józefa Poniatowskiego Street)
Divine Mercy parish (35 Skowrońskiego Street)
Divine Mercy church (35 Skowrońskiego Street)
Pentecostal Church
Zbór Syloe (40A Kolejowa Street)
Jehovah's Witnesses
zbór Prudnik (Kingdom Hall, 22A Piastowska Street)
Cemeteries
Cmentarz Komunalny (19 Kościuszki Street)
Jewish cemetery (40 Kolejowa Street)
Sport
Sports venues
Football pitch (Kolejowa 7)
Football pitch (Włoska 10)
Sports Hall "Obuwnik"
Orlik 2012 field
Summer swimming pool
Sports teams
KS Pogoń Prudnik (basketball)
MKS Pogoń Prudnik (football)
KS Obuwnik Prudnik (archery)
LKS Zarzewie Prudnik (karate, chess)
LKJ Olimp Prudnik (equestrianism)
Stowarzyszenie Sportowe "Tigers" Prudnik (football, parkour, freerunning)
SPPS Ro-Nat GSM Prudnik (volleyball)
Economy
The biggest corporations in Prudnik were Zakłady Przemysłu Bawełnianego "Frotex", which got closed in 2014 and Prudnickie Zakłady Obuwia "Primus", which got closed in 2007.
Currently, the major industrial plants in Prudnik are:
Steinpol Central Services (furniture industry)
Spółdzielnia "Pionier" (auto parts industry)
Artech Polska (printing cartridges industry)
Okręgowa Spółdzielnia Mleczarska (food industry)
Henniges Automotive (auto parts industry)
Notable people
Born in Prudnik
Nicholas Henel (1582–1656), historian, receiver, biographer and a chronicler
Matthäus Apelles von Löwenstern (1594–1648), psalmist, musician and statesman
Shmuel of Karov (c. 1735–1820), Polish Hasidic rebbe
Karl Dziatzko (1842–1903), scholar
Karl Heinisch (1847–1923), painter
Eugen Fraenkel (1853–1925), pathologist and bacteriologist
Max Pinkus (1857–1934), industrialist and a bibliophile
Otto von Garnier (1858–1947), German General of the Cavalry during World War I
Wilhelm Siegmund Frei (1885–1943), dermatologist
Ludwig Hardt (1886–1947), actor
Felice Bauer (1887–1960), fiancée of Franz Kafka
Hellmuth Reymann (1892–1988), officer in the German Army during World War II
Dietrich von Choltitz (1894–1966), German General, the last commander of Nazi-occupied Paris
Kurt Wintgens (1894–1916), German World War I pilot
Józef Wojaczek (1901–1993), Roman Catholic Priest, member of the Mariannhill Missionaries
Hans Hoffmann (1902–1949), lyrical tenor and musicologist
Karl Streibel (1903–1986), commander of the Trawniki concentration camp
Bernd Scholz (1911–1969), composer
Margarete Müller (born 1931), politician
Dietrich Unkrodt (1934–2006), classical and jazz tuba player
Jan Góra (1948–2015), youth activist
Joanna Helbin (born 1960), archer
Tadeusz Madziarczyk (born 1961), politician
Bogusław Pawłowski (born 1962), biologist
Maria Koc (born 1964), politician
Aleksandra Konieczna (born 1965), actress
Jarosław Wasik (born 1971), singer-songwriter
Peter Peschel (born 1972), football player
Krzysztof Szafrański (born 1972), racing cyclist
Grzegorz Kaliciak (born 1973), Colonel of Polish Armed Forces
Lukasz Gadowski (born 1977), entrepreneur and investor
Ewa Plonka (born 1982), operatic soprano
Michał "Z.B.U.K.U" Buczek (born 1992), rapper
Tomasz Pusz (born 1997), musician
Other residents
Friedrich Leopold von Gessler (1688–1762), field marshal
Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher (1742–1819), field marshal
Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff (1788–1857), poet
Samuel Fränkel (1801–1881), industrialist
(1841–1902), local Polish activist, publisher and teacher
Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915), Nobel Prize-winning physician and scientist
Paul Robert Kollibay (1863–1919), lawyer and ornithologist
Kazimierz Raszewski (1864–1941), lieutenant general of the Polish Army
Paul Heinrich Theodor Müller (1896–c. 1945), Concentration Camp Operational Leader at Auschwitz concentration camp
Stefan Wyszyński (1901–1981), archbishop
Franz Augsberger (1905–1945), SS commander
Władysław Lemiszko (1911–1988), Ice Hockey player, Olympian, football manager
Harry Thürk (1927–2005), writer
Anna Myszyńska (1931–2015), writer
Gerard Bernacki (1942–2018), bishop
Jadwiga Szoszler-Wilejto (born 1949), archer
Stanisław Szozda (1950–2013), Olympic cyclist
Andrzej Zając (born 1956), Paralympian
Krzysztof Pieczyński (born 1957), actor
Janusz Zarenkiewicz (born 1959), boxer
Jerzy Czerwiński (born 1960), politician
Józef Stępkowski (born 1970), politician
Lukas Klemenz (born 1995), association football player
Twin towns – sister cities
See twin towns of Gmina Prudnik.
References
External links
Municipal website
Parafia pw. Miłosierdzia Bożego
Jewish Community in Prudnik on Virtual Shtetl
Webcams
Radio
Opolskie – photogallery
Cities in Silesia
Cities and towns in Opole Voivodeship
13th-century establishments in Poland
Populated places established in the 1250s
Holocaust locations in Poland
Province of Upper Silesia
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386849
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Vestal
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USS Vestal
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USS Vestal (AR-4) was a repair ship in service with the United States Navy from 1913 to 1946. Before her conversion to a repair ship, she had served as a collier since 1909. Vestal served in both World Wars. She was damaged during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and received two battle stars for her World War II service.
Commissioning
The history of USS Vestal (AR-4) began when Erie (Fleet Collier No. 1) was authorized on 17 April 1904; but the ship was renamed Vestal in October 1905, well before her keel was laid down on 25 March 1907 at the New York Navy Yard, Brooklyn, New York. Launched on 19 May 1908, Vestal was placed in service as a fleet collier, with a civilian crew, at her builders' yard on 4 October 1909.
Atlantic service 1909–1927
Refitting
Vestal served the fleet as a collier, operating along the Atlantic coast and in the West Indies from the autumn of 1909 to the summer of 1910. After a voyage to Europe to coal ships of the Atlantic Fleet in those waters, the ship returned to the Philadelphia Navy Yard and was taken out of service at the Boston Navy Yard on 25 October 1912. The ship underwent nearly a year's worth of yard work and was commissioned as a fleet repair ship in 1913 under the command of Commander Edward L. Beach, Sr., USN (father of submariner Captain Edward L. Beach, Jr.).
After fitting out, Vestal departed her conversion yard on 26 October for Hampton Roads, Virginia, where she conducted her shakedown between 29 October to 10 November. After touching at Key West, Florida, for coal on 14 November, Vestal moved on to Pensacola, Florida, her base for operations as a repair ship for the Atlantic Fleet. She was attached to the Atlantic fleet and served along the east coast and in the West Indies until spring of 1914 when she was dispatched along with other ships for the occupation of the Mexican port of Vera Cruz. The auxiliary vessel provided repair services at Vera Cruz from 2 May to 20 September before she sailed for Boston, escorting the cruiser Salem to the navy yard there for overhaul. As of December 1914, Commander U.T. Holmes was the commanding officer and Lieutenant Commander L.J. Connelly performed as executive officer, Lieutenants E.G. Oberlin and F.M. Perkins serving as staff officers.
Vestal then operated off the Virginia Capes and in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, before she returned to the Boston Navy Yard on 10 June 1915, after calls at New York City and Newport, Rhode Island She took on stores and provisions at Boston and underwent repairs there before she rejoined the fleet at Narragansett Bay on 19 May 1916.
World War I
Following the U.S. entry into World War I, Vestal was deployed to Queenstown, Ireland, where she provided services for ships of the 1st Destroyer Flotilla. She stayed there for the duration of the war and beyond, finally returning in 1919. For the next six years Vestal served the Scouting Force and Battle Fleet. During the navy-wide assignment of alphanumeric hull numbers on 17 July 1920, Vestal was classified as a repair ship, AR-4.
In 1925 she underwent modification that changed her from a coal-powered ship to an oil-fired one. Soon thereafter, on 25 September, the submarine was rammed and sunk by SS City of Rome and Vestal was called to help recover the submarine. Vestal conducted her salvage operations from October to early December 1925 and again from 27 April to 5 July 1926. During the latter period, the submarine was raised from the bottom. Following the completion of recovery, Vestal was transferred to the Pacific Fleet in 1927.
Pacific service 1927–1946
The Pacific Fleet was shifted to a new base at Pearl Harbor following Fleet Problem XXI in the spring of 1940. Vestal also made the move. After returning from the west coast for an overhaul at the Mare Island Navy Yard, Vallejo, California, Vestal resumed her duties. On 6 December 1941, she was moored alongside , at berth F 7, off Ford Island, to provide services to the battleship during her scheduled period of tender upkeep between 6 and 12 December.
Pearl Harbor
On December 7 shortly before 08:00 Japanese carrier-based aircraft swept down upon Pearl Harbor. At 07:55, Vestal went to general quarters, manning every gun. At about 08:05, her gun commenced firing.
At about the same time, two bombs – intended for the more valuable battleship inboard on Battleship Row – hit the repair ship. One struck the port side, penetrated three decks, passed through a crew's space, and exploded in a storage hold, starting fires that necessitated flooding the forward magazines. The second hit the starboard side, passed through the carpenter shop and the shipfitter shop, and left an irregular hole about five feet in diameter in the bottom of the ship.
The gun jammed after three rounds, and the crew was working to clear the jam when an explosion blew Vestals gunners overboard. Thereafter, maintaining anti-aircraft fire became secondary to saving the ship.
At about 08:10, a bomb penetrated Arizonas deck near the starboard side of number 2 turret and exploded in the powder magazine below. The resultant explosion touched off adjacent main battery magazines, exploding the forward part of the battleship and literally clearing Vestals deck of her crew.
Among those blown overside was her commanding officer, Commander Cassin Young. He swam back to the ship, and countermanded an abandon ship order given by another officer by coolly saying, "Lads, we're getting this ship underway." Fortunately, the engineer officer still had the "black gang" getting up steam.
Oil from the ruptured tanks of the Arizona caught fire in the explosion, which in turn set Vestal ablaze aft and amidships. At 08:45 men forward cut her mooring lines with axes, freeing her from Arizona, and she got underway, steering by engines alone. The naval tug , whose tugmaster had served aboard Vestal just a few months before the attack, pulled Vestals bow away from the inferno engulfing Arizona and the repair ship, and the latter began to creep out of danger. In spite of slowly assuming a list to starboard and settling by the stern, she anchored in of water off McGrew's Point at 09:10.
Continued flooding caused Vestal to settle by the stern and increased the list to six and one-half degrees. At the direction of Commander Young, Vestal got underway again at 09:50, less than an hour after the Japanese attack ended. Vestal intentionally ran aground at Aiea Bay soon thereafter. Commander Young explained his order to run aground in his after-action report: "Because of the unstable condition of the ship...", Young explained in his after-action report, "...(the) ship being on fire in several places and the possibility of further attacks, it was decided to ground the ship." Commander Young was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in saving Vestal.
Despite being damaged herself Vestal participated in some of the post-attack salvage operations, sending repair parties to the overturned hull of the battleship so that welders could cut into the ship and rescue men trapped there after the battleship capsized.
In the days following the attack, Vestals men repaired their own ship because yard facilities were at a premium. Within a week of the raid Vestals crew had pumped out the oil and water that had flooded the compartments below the waterline and cleared out the damaged and gutted holds – all work that had to be completed before the rebuilding process could begin.
Tongatapu
After repairs and alterations and operations at Pearl Harbor Vestal received orders on 12 August 1942 to proceed to the South Pacific. She set sail for Tongatapu in the Tonga Islands. She arrived there two weeks later, on 29 August, less than a month after the launching of Operation Watchtower, the invasion of the Solomon Islands. Over the months that followed the Japanese would contest the Americans and their Australian and New Zealand allies with skill and tenacity.
During Vestals 60 days at Tongatapu she completed 963 repair jobs for some 58 ships and four shore activities. Included were repairs to warships such as (torpedoed by on 31 August); (damaged from grounding at Lahai Passage, Tonga Islands, on 6 September); and (torpedo damage suffered on 15 September).
Repairing USS South Dakota
One of the more difficult jobs was the one performed on South Dakota. The battleship had run aground on an uncharted reef and put into Tongatapu for emergency repairs. Vestals divers commenced their work at 16:00 on 6 September and began checking the ship's seams. With only six divers working, Vestals party operated until 02:00 on 7 September and reported the damage as a series of splits extending along some of the ship's bottom. By the next morning, 8 September, Vestals skilled repairmen, together with men of the battleship's crew, managed to mend the damage sufficiently to allow the ship to return to the United States for permanent repairs.
Repairing USS Saratoga
When Saratoga put into Tongatapu after being torpedoed by I-26 on 31 August, Vestals divers combined forces with to inspect the damage and later trim and brace the hole. Pumps managed to clear the water out of the flooded fire room and tons of cement were poured into the hole to patch the damaged area. Within 12 days of her arrival at Tongatapu, Saratoga was able to return to the United States.
Nouméa and the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands
Repairing USS Enterprise
Vestal subsequently sailed for the New Hebrides on 26 October, though a change of orders brought her to New Caledonian waters instead, and she reached Nouméa on 31 October. Her arrival could not have been more timely, as the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands had taken place just days before, from 25 to 27 October. South Dakota and , two of the most heavily damaged ships in the battle, were at Nouméa.
A bomb hit on the latter had buckled a section of the flight deck, aft, bulging it about four feet above deck level. In addition, the hit flooded the after elevator machinery room and blew out bulkheads and damaged furniture in "officer's country." Ordered to sea before the damage was completely repaired, the carrier took with her two Vestal officers and a large repair party of 75 Seabees, who continued work even when Enterprise went to battle stations. Those Vestal men were included in the Presidential Unit Citation awarded to Enterprise.
Repairing USS South Dakota
South Dakota, like Enterprise, had suffered major damage. She had taken a bomb hit on one of her gun turrets, had been torn by shrapnel, and had collided with the destroyer during the battle. The destroyer had not only holed the battleship's starboard side but had left an anchor in the wardroom. Even though Vestal repair parties were busy with Enterprises urgent repairs they also went to work on the damaged South Dakota, listing her over to patch the hole on the battleship's starboard side at the waterline. Her craftsmen repaired the wardroom (removing Mahans anchor in the process), patched shrapnel holes, and put sprung hatches and damaged fire mains in order. She was back in action in just five days.
Espiritu Santo
During her time at Nouméa, Vestal completed 158 jobs on 21 ships; she departed that port on 13 November; reached Espiritu Santo three days later; and began a year's schedule of repair service. During the next 12 months, Vestal tackled some 5,603 jobs on 279 ships and 24 shore facilities. Some of the outstanding repair jobs were on ships damaged during the bitter naval engagements in the Solomons in late 1942 and early 1943. There were: , ripped by heavy caliber hits during the night battle off Savo Island on 13 November 1942; and , the latter with a torpedo hole measuring 24 by , a flooded after engine room, and two propeller shafts broken; the New Zealand light cruiser - already famous for her part in the 1939 Battle of the River Plate and the subsequent sinking of the German pocket battleship Graf Spee - which, besides shrapnel and collision damage, had taken a direct hit on her after turret; and the torpedoed and fire-damaged cargo ship .
In addition, she performed repairs on the torpedoed light cruiser , the torpedoed Australian light cruiser ; the bomb-damaged transport ; and others, including and . She also corrected battle damage to and performed alterations on 12 LST's and a large number of miscellaneous lesser ships. Only once during that time, from 27 May to 2 June 1943, did the ship herself undergo repairs.
Repairing USS Pensacola
One of the most outstanding pieces of salvage work performed by Vestal was for the heavy cruiser , heavily damaged at the Battle of Tassafaronga. A torpedo had caused such extensive damage aft that her stern was barely attached to the rest of the ship and swayed gently with the current. A few frames, some hull plating, and one propeller shaft were practically all that still held the aftermost section to the rest of the ship. As Vestals commanding officer later recounted, "Never had an AR (repair ship) been presented with such a task; no records on how it should best be done were available."
By trial and error, and relying on previous experience, Vestal workers turned-to. The hole was plugged and braced for stability, compartments that could be were sealed and pumped out; three propellers of about seven tons each were pulled off to reduce drag. "One has to be something of an artificer", her commanding officer recounted, "... to realize the problems that came up to do with this job, such as underwater welding and cutting, which was still a fairly new thing." Vestal'''s force used a dynamite charge to jar one propeller loose and had to burn through the shaft of another to get it off.
After Pensacola came , torpedoed amidships and with of her bow missing. Vestal put her in shape, too, for a trip to a stateside yard where permanent repairs could be made. "So it went", continued the commanding officer, "... one broken, twisted, torpedoed, burned ship after another was repaired well enough to make a navy yard or put back on the firing line."
Funafuti
On 18 November 1943, Vestal departed Espiritu Santo, bound for the Ellice Islands, and reached her destination, Funafuti, on the 22nd. During her brief stay there the repair ship completed some 604 major repair tasks for 77 ships and for eight shore activities. Her outstanding job during that tour was her work on the light carrier .
Marshall Islands
Underway for Makin on 30 January 1944, Vestals orders were changed en route. The ship proceeded instead for the Marshall Islands, reaching Majuro atoll on 3 February. The big repair job awaiting her there was that for the battleship , which had suffered heavy collision damage forward with the . Although estimates called for it to be a 30-day job, Vestal, often working 24-hour shifts, completed the task in only 10 days. After that, Washington sailed for Pearl Harbor to receive permanent repairs.
In need of repairs herself, especially new evaporators, Vestal departed Majuro and sailed, via Pearl Harbor, for the Mare Island Navy Yard. Upon conclusion of those repairs, the addition of new equipment, alterations, a general overhaul, and a vari-colored paint job, Vestal departed Mare Island on 8 September, bound for the Carolines. Her voyage took her via Pearl Harbor and Eniwetok. There she picked up tows for the remainder of her voyage, a cement barge, Chromite, and the Navy ammunition barge YF-254. She reached Ulithi on 15 October 1944.
During the ship's sojourn at Ulithi, Vestal completed 2,195 jobs for 149 ships – including 14 battleships, nine carriers, five cruisers, five destroyers, 35 tankers, and other miscellaneous naval and merchant ships. Her biggest repair job of that time was the light cruiser , torpedoed off San Bernardino Strait by on the night of 3 November. Once again, Vestals workers performed their tasks quickly and efficiently, having Reno on her way in a short time for permanent repairs in a stateside yard.
Saipan and Okinawa
Underway for the Marianas on 25 February 1945, Vestal arrived at Saipan two days later, to commence what would be over two months of service there, principally repairing amphibious craft used for the Iwo Jima invasion. While Vestal lay at anchor at Saipan, the Okinawa invasion commenced on 1 April 1945. Less than a month later, Vestal sailed for Kerama Retto, a chain of islands off the southwestern tip of Okinawa, and arrived there on 1 May.
During May, Vestal went to general quarters 59 times as Japanese planes made suicide attacks on the ships engaged in the bitter Okinawa campaign. Experience proved that the best defense against the suiciders was a smoke or fog screen produced by all ships that blended into one gigantic mass of low-hanging clouds. For that purpose, Vestal had two boats equipped with fog generators and several barrels of oil. Besides the fog generators, smoke pots would be thrown over the bow of the ship to emit a dense, white, sickly-smelling smoke for about 15 minutes apiece. Besides the danger posed by suiciders, deck sentries kept a sharp lookout for any enemy who might attempt to swim out to the ships with mines or explosive charges.
At Kerama Retto, Vestals big job was repairing destroyers. Her jobs included the kamikaze-damaged and .Vestal remained at Kerama Retto through mid-June before she got underway on the 23d for Nakagusuku Wan, later renamed Buckner Bay, arriving there later that same day. The repair ship remained in that body of water for the remainder of the war. At 20:55 on 10 August 1945, a pyrotechnic display burst forth as word arrived telling that Japan was entertaining thoughts of surrender. "So great was the display of fireworks and so immense the feeling of victory that once the tension had been broken, the true peace announcement received at 0805, 15 August 1945, caused hardly a ripple of enthusiasm: nevertheless the spirit of victory was uppermost in the hearts and conversations of all hands."
Post-World War II service
The main danger to the fleet after Japan surrendered was typhoons. Vestal had sortied twice from Buckner Bay before "V-J Day" — once on 19 July and once on 1 August. On 16 September, Vestal sortied for the third time on typhoon evasion, returning to the harbor the next day after having ridden out winds and heavy seas.Vestal carried out storm-damage repairs over the ensuing days before another typhoon – the fourth for the Ryūkyūs that year – swirled in from the sea on the 28th. Upon receipt of orders from Commander, Service Division 104, Vestal weighed anchor and headed out to sea at 15:00, her stem sluicing seaward from Buckner Bay. "The glassy sea, humid atmosphere, and falling barometer portended the approaching engagement between ship and her relentlessly violent foes, sea and wind."
The merchantmen Fleetwood and Kenyan Victory took positions astern and in single file with Vestal leading the way, steaming westward and away from the threatening blackness massing to the east of Okinawa. Overhauling a four-ship convoy, Captain H. J. Pohl, Vestals commanding officer, assumed command of the now seven-ship group. The ships met the fierce winds head-on to lessen the roll and steered to take the surging seas on the quarter, maneuvering skillfully to prevent damage or, worse, loss. By late in the afternoon of the third day, Pohl, the convoy's commodore, had his ships back in Buckner Bay, safe and sound.
That particular storm-evasion sortie proved only to be a realistic exercise compared to what came next. On 6 October, Vestal received warnings of Typhoon Louise (1945) — a tropical storm in diameter with winds of near the center, moving west-northwest at .
At 00:15 on the 7th, Vestal and all ships present in Buckner Bay received word to prepare to execute typhoon plan "X-ray" upon one hour's notice. By mid-afternoon, those orders arrived; and the fleet began stirring itself to action for its survival. Among the first vessels to get underway was Vestal, the venerable repair ship clearing the harbor entrance at 16:00, steaming due east. Ultimately, and the merchantmen Hope Victory, Grey's Harbor, and Esso Rochester joined her.
Rising seas, increasing winds, and a plummeting barometer ushered in Monday, 8 October, but Vestal and her brood maintained their eastward course through the next day, 9 October – the day when the typhoon struck Okinawa with unparalleled force. At that time, Vestal was steering a "crazy-patch course", eluding the storm that included seas up to high and winds registering between 50 and . Hoping for a possible entry into Buckner Bay on Wednesday, 10 October, Vestal headed westerly, bucking strong head winds.
At 14:05 on 10 October, while Vestal headed back to Buckner Bay, a signalman on the flying bridge called out: "Life raft on port bow." "Second life raft on port beam", came another cry only a few moments later. Barely perceptible several thousand yards to port were tiny specks, rising with the waves – specks which turned out to be the survivors of the sunken that had gone down in the fury of the typhoon during the previous night.
Ordering the other ships to proceed independently, Vestal put about to port and shortly thereafter swung to windward of the nearest life raft. In the lee thus formed, the repair ship lowered a motor whaleboat; that craft picked up 17 men from the first raft. Ultimately, 15 more survivors clambered up the boarding nets to safety; a total of two officers and 30 men were recovered from the sea.
Entering Buckner Bay at dusk, Vestal witnessed the savage typhoon's aftermath with the dawn of the 11th. Once again, Vestal immediately turned to the task of repairing the battered ships of the fleet.
Subsequently, Vestal performed her vital service functions supporting the occupation of China and Japan, before she sailed back to the United States. Her disposal was delayed in order to allow the ship to perform decommissioning work on other ships referred to the 13th Naval District for disposal, Vestal was ultimately decommissioned at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard on 14 August 1946. Struck from the Navy List on 25 September of the same year, she lay inactive for the next two and one-half years before stripping began on 20 May 1949. Her hull was sold on 28 July 1950 to the Boston Metals Company, Baltimore, Maryland, and subsequently scrapped.Vestal'' (AR-4) received two battle stars for her World War II service.
References
External links
Naval History & Heritage Command - USS Vestal (Collier # 1, later Repair Ship # 4, AR-4), 1909-1950
Pearl Harbor Damage Report
Repair ships of the United States Navy
Colliers of the United States Navy
World War I auxiliary ships of the United States
Ships built in Brooklyn
1908 ships
Ships present during the attack on Pearl Harbor
Maritime incidents in December 1941
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobh
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Cobh
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Cobh ( ,), known from 1849 until 1920 as Queenstown, is a seaport town on the south coast of County Cork, Ireland. With a population of 14,418 inhabitants at the 2022 census, Cobh is on the south side of Great Island in Cork Harbour and home to Ireland's only dedicated cruise terminal. Tourism in the area draws on the maritime and emigration legacy of the town.
Facing the town are Spike and Haulbowline islands. On a high point in the town stands St Colman's, the cathedral church of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cloyne. It is one of the tallest buildings in Ireland, standing at 91.4 metres (300 ft).
Name
The village on Great Island was known as "Ballyvoloon", a transliteration of the Irish Baile Ui-Mhaoileoin (English: "O'Malone's town"), while the Royal Navy port, established in the 1750s, became known as "The Cove of Cork" or "Cove". The combined conurbation was renamed to "Queenstown", in 1849, during a visit by Queen Victoria. The name was changed to Cobh, during the Irish War of Independence, following the passing of a motion by the local administrative council on 2 July 1920. Cobh is a Gaelicisation of the English name Cove, and it shares the same pronunciation. It has no meaning in the Irish language.
In ancient times the area was known as Cuan an Neimheadh (the Harbour of Neimheidh), a figure in medieval Irish legend. Great Island was called Oileán Ard Neimheidh (the high or important island of Neimheidh).
History
Early history
According to legend, one of the first colonists of Ireland was Neimheidh, who landed in Cork Harbour over 1,000 years BC. He and his followers were said to have been wiped out in a plague, but the Great Island was known in Irish as Oilean Ard Neimheadh because of its association with him. Later it became known as Crich Liathain because of the powerful Uí Liatháin kingdom, who ruled in the area from Late Antiquity into the early 13th century. The island subsequently became known as Oilean Mor An Barra (the Great Island of Barry & Barrymore), after the Barry family who inherited it.
The village on the island was known in English as Ballyvoloon, overlooking "The Cove". In 1743 the British built a fort, later to become known as Cove Fort, to the east of the village. The settlement was first referred to as Cove village in 1750 by Smith the historian who said: "it was inhabited by seamen and revenue officials". The Cork directory of 1787 shows about thirty businesses in the town, including one butcher and one draper.
The Water Club established at Haulbowline in 1720 was the progenitor of the present Royal Cork Yacht Club (RCYC, now based in Crosshaven) and is the oldest yacht club in the world. The RCYC was based for many years in Cobh and the present Sirius Arts Centre used to be a clubhouse of the RCYC organisation. In 1966, the RCYC merged with the Royal Munster Yacht Club, retaining the name of the RCYC but moving its headquarters to those of the RMYC at Crosshaven at the other side of the harbour.
19th century
International upheaval led to Cobh undergoing rapid development in the early 19th century. Due to the natural protection of its harbour setting, the town became important as a tactical centre for naval military base purposes, never more so than at the time of the Napoleonic Wars. Today, the Irish Naval Service headquarters is on Haulbowline Island facing Cobh.
The wars against the French led to the town, then usually known as Ballyvoloon or The Cove of Cork, being developed as a British naval port assigned an admiral. Many of the present-day buildings date from this time of build-up. George Brodrick, 5th Viscount Midleton engaged the English architect Decimus Burton to improve the streetscape and buildings during the 1840s. The eventual cessation of hostilities dented Cobh's prosperity for a while, but it soon became known as a health resort; many patients stayed here for their health because of the temperate climate. Amongst their number was Charles Wolfe, who wrote "The Burial of Sir John Moore After Corunna". Wolfe's body is buried in the Old Church Cemetery outside the town.
The Titanic
One of the major transatlantic Irish ports, the town was the departure point for 2.5 million of the 6 million Irish people who emigrated to North America between 1848 and 1950. On 11 April 1912, as Queenstown, it was the final port of call for the Titanic before she set out across the Atlantic on the last leg of her maiden voyage. She was assisted by the P.S. America and the P.S. Ireland, two ageing White Star Line tenders, along with several other smaller boats delivering first-class passengers' luggage. Some sources and local lore suggest that a Titanic crew member, John Coffey, a native of Cobh, left the ship at this time, thereby saving his life. 123 passengers boarded at Cobh, with only 44 surviving the sinking.
Penal transportation
Cobh was earlier a major embarkation port for men, women and children who were deported to penal colonies such as Australia. The Scots Church has since 1973 housed the Cobh Museum which holds records of such deportations in ships' log books. The Scots Church (a Presbyterian church until its 1969 closure) overlooks the harbour from where so many departed.
Shipbuilding
A significant shipbuilding industry was developed in the town. The remnants of the Verolme Shipyard today maintain many of the original cranes and hoists now forming part of industrial and maritime heritage.
The age of steam brought Cobh association with several milestones, including the first steam ship to sail from Ireland to England (1821) and the first steamship to cross the Atlantic (Sirius 1838), which sailed from Passage West.
RMS Lusitania and the First World War
Another ship to be associated with the town, the Cunard passenger liner , was sunk by a German U-boat off the Old Head of Kinsale while en route from the US to Liverpool on 7 May 1915. 1,198 passengers died, while 700 were rescued. The survivors and the dead alike were brought to Queenstown, and the bodies of over 100 who perished in the disaster lie buried in the Old Church Cemetery just north of the town. The Lusitania Peace Memorial is located in Casement Square, opposite the arched building housing the Cobh Library and Courthouse.
During the First World War, Queenstown was a naval base for British and American destroyers operating against the U-boats that preyed upon Allied merchant shipping. Q-ships (heavily armed merchant ships with concealed weaponry, designed to lure submarines into making surface attacks) were called Q-ships precisely because many were, in fact, fitted out in Queenstown. The first division of American destroyers arrived in May 1917, and the sailors who served on those vessels were the first American servicemen to see combat duty in the war. When that first convoy arrived in port after enduring a rough passage in what were little more than open boats, its members were met by a crowd of sailors and townspeople, thankful for their anticipated help towards stopping the U-boats that were blockading western Europe. Admiral Sir Lewis Bayly, commander of the Coast of Ireland station, met the senior American officer, Commander Joseph Taussig, at the dock and inquired as to how soon the weatherbeaten American ships could be put to use. "We're ready now, sir!" was the widely quoted answer from the American.
The United States Navy established U.S. Naval Air Station Queenstown in February 1918. It operated flying boats during the last months of WW1, and closed in April 1919.
Due to its tactical military importance, under the terms of the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty, the port remained a UK sovereign base within the Irish Free State after 1922. Along with the other Treaty Ports, it was handed over to the government of the Irish Free State in 1938.
Economy and tourism
Tourism is a large employer in Cobh. Large cruise liners visit Cobh each year, mainly during the summer months, although many of the tourists are transported out of Cobh by bus to other tourist destinations. In all, almost 100,000 cruise liner passengers and crew arrive in the town each year when their ships berth right in the centre of the town at the Republic of Ireland's only dedicated cruise terminal. Tourist attractions are focused on the maritime and emigration legacy of the town and include the Queenstown Story at the Cobh Heritage Centre, Titanic Experience, Titanic Trail walking tour, Cobh Museum, Cobh Road Train, Spike Island tours and St Colman's Cathedral. The town has remained largely unchanged since RMS Titanic departed from Cork Harbour in 1912, with the streetscape and piers still much the same. Facing the town are Spike Island and Haulbowline Island. The latter is the headquarters of the Irish Naval Service, formerly a British naval base.
Cobh was home to Ireland's only steelworks, the former state-owned Irish Steel works which was closed by its buyer, Ispat International, in 2001. There is a controversy over the slag heap on the steelworks, where there are concerns that it may be leaching into the harbour. Another important employer in Cobh was the Dutch-owned Verolme Cork Dockyard, in Rushbrooke. It opened in 1960 but ceased operations in the mid-1980s. In 1981 the MV Leinster was built at Verolme for service on the Dublin – Holyhead route. The last ship built at Verolme was the Irish Naval Service's LÉ Eithne (P31). Ship repair work is still carried at Rushbrooke using the drydock and slip way carriages. The drydock pumps date from 1912.
In the 21st century, a number of new developments were completed, such as a new retail park at Ticknock in 2008, and a leisure centre (with 25m swimming pool) in August 2007. In 2010, tours of Spike Island commenced, with tours leaving from Kennedy Pier, near the town centre.
Transport
Rail
Outside of the Dublin metropolitan area, Cobh is one of the few towns in Ireland served by a commuter train service. The town is one of two termini for Cork Commuter Services. The other is Midleton. Regular commuter services run between Cork city and Cobh, calling at, among others, Fota railway station, Carrigaloe railway station, and Rushbrooke railway station, along the way. Trains run every day and the journey time to Cork is under 25 minutes.
Cobh railway station opened, as Queenstown station, on 10 March 1862 and was renamed .
Air
The nearest airport is Cork Airport, which can be reached in 20–30 minutes from Cobh via the R624 road and the N25 road.
Port
The Port Operations Centre for Cork Harbour is located in the town. The port's harbour pilot launches are based at the Camber - a pier and dock area at the eastern end of the town.
Roads
Currently there is only a single road (the R624) and road bridge that leads onto Great Island. This road bridge, Belvelly Bridge, was built at Belvelly in 1803 at one of the narrowest points in the channels around Great Island.
Cross River Ferry
In 1993 a Cross River Ferry was established which allowed cars and passengers to travel from Glenbrook near Monkstown to Carrigaloe on the Great Island. The crossing from Glenbrook to Carrigaloe takes four minutes and runs daily. Reservations are not required.
Local government and politics
In 1862, Queenstown Town Commissioners were established by a local act. In 1899, under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, this body became an urban district council. It was renamed Cobh Urban District in 1920. In 2002, under the Local Government Act 2001, it became Cobh Town Council.
In 2014, this local government body was abolished. Since then, the town has fallen within the responsibility of Cork County Council. Cobh Municipal District, one of eight municipal districts in the county, is represented by six elected councillors. As of the 2019 local election, these include 1 Labour Party, 2 Fine Gael, 1 Fianna Fáil, 1 Green Party and 1 independent councillor.
The town is part of the Dáil constituency of Cork East.
Arts and culture
The Sirius Arts Centre is a hub for the arts in Cobh and is located on the waterfront. It hosts cultural events and music concerts both in-house and around Cobh.
The Cobh Peoples Regatta is held every year around August, and includes onstage performances from local musicians and performers as well as a pageant to decide the 'Regatta Queen'. The festival typically ends with a fireworks display over the harbour.
Cobh was the setting for the 2009 Connor McPherson film The Eclipse, and also used as a filming location for the 1999 movie Angela's Ashes.
Education
Cobh has several primary and secondary schools, including Colaiste Muire secondary school and Carrignafoy Community College. Scoil Iosaef Naofa is a boys' primary school in the town, and has reached the Sciath na Scoil finals (in hurling and gaelic football) on several occasions.
Sport
Cobh GAA is the local GAA club, and has a centre for gaelic games at Carrignafoy.
Cobh Pirates RFC are the town's rugby union club, and compete at underage and other levels. The club celebrated its 125th anniversary in 2015. They play their home games at 'The Paddocks' in Newtown, where facilities include a gym, two playing pitches, a training pitch and a rubber training surface. The Cobh Pirates Ladies team was formed circa 2010.
The most noted football team in the area is Cobh Ramblers, where Roy Keane started-out before transferring to English side Nottingham Forest, and Stephen Ireland started his career with the club's underage, Springfield Ramblers. Cobh Ramblers play in the League of Ireland First Division, with home games at St Colman's Park. Another local football team, Springfield AFC, based at Pat O'Brien Park, Ballyleary, has both junior and senior football teams.
Cobh Golf Club has an 18-hole championship course at Marino on the main R624 road into the town. Cobh is also home to one of the oldest existing tennis clubs in Ireland, Rushbrooke Lawn Tennis & Croquet Club, founded in 1870.
There are two coastal rowing clubs in the area, Cobh Fishermen and Rushbrooke Rowing Club, with the latter established in 1989. Other events on the water include the "Escape from Spike Island" triathlon, which was first held in 2012 and organised by Cobh Triathlon Club. It takes place annually in late summer, with both Olympic distance and sprint distance courses. The first "Great Island 10" (a 10-mile road race) took place on 18 April 2010, to raise funds for the Irish Cancer Society.
People
Anne Elizabeth Ball (1808–1872) and Mary Ball (1812–1898), sisters and scientists in the history of phycology
Robert Ball (1802–1857) brother of Anne and Mary Ball, zoologist
Decimus Burton (1800–1881), English architect and designer of much of Cobh's streetscape
Nellie Cashman (1845–1925), gold prospector and philanthropist who was born near Cobh or at Midleton
Patsy Donovan (1865–1953), major league baseball player in the US
Charles Guilfoyle Doran (1835–1909), Fenian and clerk of works for the building of Cobh Cathedral, lived in the town most of his life
Jack Doyle (1913–1978), boxer, actor and singer
Frederick Edwards (1894–1964), recipient of the Victoria Cross
Joe English, round-the-world sailor and international yachtsman
Robert Forde (1875–1959), Antarctic explorer
Maeve Higgins, comedian
Stephen Ireland, former Manchester City and Republic of Ireland international footballer
Roy Keane, former Manchester United footballer, started his professional career with Cobh Ramblers
Sean McLoughlin, Hull City footballer
Elizabeth Louisa Moresby (1862–1931), fantasy writer
John O'Flynn, footballer
Fergus O'Rourke (1923–2010), zoologist resident in Cobh while Professor at University College Cork
Thomas H. O'Shea (1898–1962), Irish Volunteer and labour leader
Sonia O'Sullivan, silver medalist in the 5000 m race at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games
Fiona Shaw, actress, born here in 1958
Sinéad Sheppard, local councillor and former member of pop band Six
Sir Geoffrey Vavasour, 5th Baronet (1914–1997), first-class cricketer and Royal Navy officer
James Roche Verling (1787–1858), personal physician to Napoleon Bonaparte during his exile in St. Helena
Patrick Walsh, emeritus bishop of Down and Connor, originally from Cobh
Joseph Wheeler, 19th century founder of the Rushbrooke ship yard
Twin towns
Kolbuszowa, Poland
Ploërmel, France
Lake Charles, Louisiana, US
Pontarddulais, Wales
See also
List of towns and villages in Ireland
Cork Suburban Rail
Metropolitan Cork
References
External links
Cobh Tourism
Cobh Heritage Centre
– Passenger Lists are Organized by Date, Steamship Line, Steamship Class of Passengers and the route of the voyage.
Towns and villages in County Cork
Port cities and towns in the Republic of Ireland
Former urban districts in the Republic of Ireland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Monk
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The Monk
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The Monk: A Romance is a Gothic novel by Matthew Gregory Lewis, published in 1796. A quickly written book from early in Lewis's career (in one letter he claimed to have written it in ten weeks, but other correspondence suggests that he had at least started it, or something similar, a couple of years earlier), it was published before he turned twenty. It is a prime example of the type of Gothic that specialises in the aspect of horror. Its convoluted and scandalous plot has made it one of the most important Gothic novels of its time, often imitated and adapted for the stage and the screen.
Plot
The Monk has two main plotlines. The first concerns the corruption and downfall of the monk Ambrosio, and his interactions with the demon-in-disguise Matilda and the virtuous maiden Antonia. The subplot follows the romance of Raymond and the nun Agnes. The novel switches between the stories at moments of high suspense. At various points, the novel also includes several extended anecdotes of characters with Gothic backstories who tell their tales.
Ambrosio, the monk
Ambrosio was left at an abbey in Madrid as an infant and is now a famously celebrated monk. A beautiful and virtuous young woman, Antonia, goes to hear one of his sermons, and meets Lorenzo, who falls in love with her.
Ambrosio's closest friend among the monks, Rosario, reveals that he is a woman named Matilda, who disguised herself to be near Ambrosio. While picking a rose for her, Ambrosio is bitten by a serpent and falls deathly ill. Matilda nurses him. When he recovers, Matilda reveals that she sucked the poison from Ambrosio's wound and is now dying herself. At the point of her death, Matilda begs him to make love to her, and he agrees reluctantly. After having sex with Ambrosio, Matilda performs a ritual in the cemetery which cures her of the poison. She and Ambrosio continue to be secret lovers, but Ambrosio grows tired of her.
Ambrosio meets Antonia and is immediately attracted to her. He begins visiting Antonia's mother regularly, hoping to seduce Antonia. In the meantime, Lorenzo has secured his family's blessing for his marriage with Antonia. Matilda tells Ambrosio she can help him gain Antonia's charms, the same way she was healed of the poison: witchcraft. Ambrosio is initially horrified, but agrees. Matilda and Ambrosio return to the cemetery, where Matilda calls up Lucifer, who appears young and handsome. He gives Matilda a magic myrtle bough, which will allow Ambrosio to open any door, as well as rape Antonia without her knowing. Ambrosio uses the magic bough to enter Antonia's bedroom. He is on the point of raping her when Antonia's mother arrives and confronts him. In panic, Ambrosio murders her and returns to the abbey, unsatisfied in his lust and horrified that he has now become a murderer.
Antonia, grief-stricken at the death of her mother, sees her mother's ghost. She faints and Ambrosio is called to help. Matilda helps Ambrosio acquire a concoction that will put Antonia in a deathlike coma. While attending to Antonia, Ambrosio administers the poison, and Antonia appears to die. He takes Antonia to the crypt beneath the convent, where, she awakens from her drugged sleep and Ambrosio rapes her. Afterward, he is as disgusted with Antonia as he was with Matilda, who arrives to warn him that the convent is burning down due to a riot (caused by the events of Raymond and Agnes's story). Antonia attempts to escape, and Ambrosio kills her.
Ambrosio and Matilda are brought before the Inquisition. Matilda confesses her guilt and is sentenced to death. Before she is executed, she sells her soul to the devil in exchange for her freedom and her life. Ambrosio insists upon his innocence and is tortured. He is visited by Matilda, who tells him to yield his soul to Satan. Ambrosio again proclaims his innocence, but when faced with torture, he admits to his sins of rape, murder, and sorcery and is condemned to burn. In despair, Ambrosio asks Lucifer to save his life, who tells him it will be at the cost of his soul. Ambrosio is reluctant to give up the hope of God's forgiveness, but Lucifer tells him that there is none. After much resistance, Ambrosio signs the contract. Lucifer transports him from his cell to the wilderness. Lucifer informs him that Antonia's mother, whom he murdered, was also his mother, making Antonia his sister, adding to his crimes the sin of incest. Ambrosio then learns that he accepted Lucifer's deal only moments before he was to be pardoned. Lucifer reveals that it has long been his plan to gain Ambrosio's soul, and Matilda was a demon helping him. Finally, Lucifer points out the loophole in the deal Ambrosio struck: Ambrosio only asked to get out of his cell. Lucifer carries Ambrosio into the sky and drops him onto rocks below. Ambrosio suffers for six days before dying alone and damned for eternity.
Raymond and Agnes
Lorenzo's sister, Agnes, is a nun at the nearby abbey who is romantically involved with Raymond, son of a Marquis. Ambrosio hears the confession of the nuns at Agnes's convent. When Agnes confesses that she is pregnant with Raymond's child, Ambrosio turns her over to the Prioress of her abbey for punishment.
Lorenzo confronts Raymond about his relationship with his sister Agnes. Raymond tells their long history. Raymond was travelling in Germany when he was nearly killed by bandits. He avoided being killed, and rescued a Baroness who was also travelling. Visiting the Baroness afterward, Raymond fell in love with her niece Agnes. However, the Baroness was in love with Raymond; when he refused her advances, she made arrangements to send Agnes to a convent. Raymond and Agnes made plans to elope before Agnes left her aunt's castle for the convent. Agnes planned to dress as the Bleeding Nun, a ghost who haunted the castle and exited its gates at midnight. Raymond accidentally eloped with the real ghost of the real Bleeding Nun. Exorcising the ghost of the Bleeding Nun required assistance from the Wandering Jew. When Raymond was free, he found Agnes in the convent. There he seduced Agnes. When she discovered that she was pregnant, she begged him to help her escape.
When Raymond finishes his story, Lorenzo agrees to help him elope with Agnes. He acquires a papal bull releasing Agnes from her vows as a nun so that she may marry Raymond. However, when he shows it to the Prioress, she tells Lorenzo that Agnes died several days before. Lorenzo does not believe it, but after two months, there is no other word concerning Agnes. Eventually, to try to find Agnes, Raymond's servant disguises himself as a beggar and goes to the convent, where Mother St. Ursula sneaks him a note that tells Raymond to have the cardinal arrest the Prioress for Agnes's murder.
During a procession honouring Saint Clare, the Prioress is arrested. Mother St. Ursula publicly describes Agnes's death at the hand of the sisters. When the procession crowd hears that the Prioress is a murderer, they turn into a rioting mob. They kill the Prioress, attack other nuns, and set the convent on fire. In the confusion, Lorenzo finds a group of nuns and a young woman named Virginia hiding in the crypt. Lorenzo discovers a passage leading down into a dungeon, where he finds Agnes, alive and holding the dead body of the baby she had given birth to while abandoned in the dungeon. With Virginia's help, Lorenzo rescues Agnes and the other nuns from the crypt.
Virginia visits Lorenzo as he is recovering from his grief and the two become closer. Agnes tells the story of her miserable experience in the dungeon. Agnes and Raymond are married, and the couple leaves Madrid for Raymond's castle, accompanied by Lorenzo and Virginia, who are also eventually married.
Characters
Agnes is Don Lorenzo's younger sister and Don Raymond's lover. Her mother fell ill while pregnant with Agnes and vowed to send Agnes to the convent if she delivered her safely. She is a virtuous young lady who intends to marry Don Raymond but her parents want her to become a nun, so she decides to run away with him. Their plans are foiled and, thinking Don Raymond has abandoned her forever, she enters the convent.
Ambrosio is an extremely devout monk about 30 years old. He was found left at the Abbey doorstep when he was too young to tell his tale. The monks consider him a present from the Virgin Mary and they educate him at the monastery.
Antonia is a timid and innocent girl of 15. She was brought up in an old castle in Murcia with only her mother Elvira and is therefore very sheltered. She is the object of Don Lorenzo's attentions. The novel's evil characters are considered to be better written than the virtuous ones, and Antonia's character is so virtuous that some have found her "deadly dull".
Elvira is the mother of Antonia and Ambrosio. She married a young nobleman in secret. His family does not approve of her and because of this she and her husband escape to the Indies, leaving her 2-year-old son behind. After 13 years, when Antonia is very young, her husband dies and she returns to Murcia where she lives on an allowance given to her by her father-in-law.
Leonella is Elvira's sister and Antonia's spinster aunt. She takes an immediate dislike to Ambrosio after hearing his sermon. She believes Don Christoval's polite attentions are more significant than they actually are and is hurt when he fails to call at her house. She eventually marries a younger man and lives in Cordova.
Don Lorenzo de Medina is Agnes's older brother and friend of Don Raymond and Don Christoval. Immediately intrigued by Antonia after meeting her at Ambrosio's sermon, Don Lorenzo resolves to marry her.
Matilda is first known as Rosario, the young boy who looks up to Ambrosio "with a respect approaching idolatry". Rosario is brought to the Monastery by a well dressed rich stranger but not much more is known of his past. He always hides under his cowl and later reveals that he is actually Matilda, a beautiful young lady who loves Ambrosio. Matilda 'loved' Ambrosio even before she joined the monastery (as a boy), and therefore requested a painting of herself as Madonna to be given to Ambrosio, which hangs in his room. She seduces Ambrosio and aids in his destruction of Antonia with magic. The character of Matilda was highly praised by Coleridge as Lewis's masterpiece, and is said to be "exquisitely imagined" and "superior in wickedness to the most wicked of men." Though she is considered by some critics to be the most intelligent, articulate, and interesting, she is difficult to characterise. The plot of the novel relies on her being a supernatural force with magical powers, but she begins as a human. She tells Ambrosio she loves him when she thinks he is asleep and cries "involuntary" tears when she realises he no longer cares for her. These passages, together with the haste in which the novel was written, seem to indicate "that Lewis changed his mind in the course of the narrative".
The Prioress, also known as Mother St. Agatha, punishes Agnes severely to uphold the honour of the convent of St. Clare. "Viciously cruel in the name of virtue", she keeps Agnes prisoner in the dungeons beneath the convent with only enough bread and water to sustain her but not nourish her. The prioress circulates the story of Agnes's death to everyone, including Agnes's own relations. She is beaten to a bloody pulp by the crowd that gathers to honour St. Clare when they realise she is responsible for Agnes's supposed death. She is also the inspiration for the Abbess of San Stephano in Radcliffe's The Italian.
Don Raymond is the son of a Marquis and is also known as Alphonso d'Alvarada. He takes the name Alphonso when his father, by the urging of his friend the Duke of Villa Hermosa, advises him that taking a new name will allow him to be known for his merits rather than his rank. He travels to Paris, but finds the Parisians "frivolous, unfeeling and insincere" and sets out for Germany. Near Strasbourg he is forced to seek accommodations in a cottage after his chaise supposedly breaks down. He is the target of the robber Baptiste but with help from Baptiste's wife Marguerite, Raymond is able to save himself and the Baroness Lindenberg. Grateful, the Baroness invites Don Raymond to stay with her and her husband at their castle in Bavaria.
Donna Rodolpha, Baroness of Lindenburg meets Don Raymond while travelling to Strasbourg. She is in love with Don Raymond and becomes jealous when she finds out Don Raymond is in love with her niece, Agnes. She asks him to leave the Castle of Lindenberg and later speaks poorly of his character.
Mother St. Ursula assists in Agnes's rescue. She is a witness to the Prioress's crimes and without her, Don Lorenzo would not be able to accuse the Prioress.
Theodore is Don Raymond's page. He enjoys writing poetry and authors the poems "Love and Age" and "The Water King". After reading "Love and Age", Don Raymond points out the flaws in the piece, which may be flaws Lewis noticed in his own work. Far from being the unwaiveringly faithful servant stock character, Theodore plays a key role in moving the plot forward by helping with Don Raymond's plans to escape with Agnes. Theodore's character also provides foreshadowing through his poems. His poems parallel the action of the story. For instance, in his poem "The Water King", the lovely maid's fate foreshadows Antonia's. In addition, Theodore also bears a striking resemblance to other characters in other of Lewis's works, including Leolyn in One O'clock (1811) and Eugene in "Mistrust" from Romantic Tales (1808).
Virginia de Villa Franca, introduced late in the story, is a beautiful, virtuous young relation of the Prioress who represents St. Clare in the Procession. Virginia nurses the ill Agnes back to health and thus wins Lorenzo's affections. Like Isabella in The Castle of Otranto, she is introduced as an acceptable marriage partner for Lorenzo, but plays an unessential part in the plot.
Publication history
Composition
Lewis said he got his first inspiration for the novel from a short story by Richard Steele called "The History of Santon Barsisa," which was published in The Guardian in 1713. Lewis summarized the story as the tale of "a holy man led by the devil into seduction and murder and tricked at the point of death into forfeiting his soul."
First edition
The first edition of The Monk was published some time between 1795 and 1796. Older scholarship tended toward a 1795 publication year, but because no copies of the book so dated could be found, and because contemporary sources did not begin announcing or referencing the work until March 1796, the latter date began to be preferred. It was published anonymously, but for Lewis's initials after the preface and was highly praised by reviewers in The Monthly Mirror of June 1796 as well as the Analytical Review.
Second edition
The first edition sold well, and a second edition was published in October 1796. The good sales and reviews of the first had emboldened Lewis, and he signed the new edition with his full name, adding "M.P." to reflect his newly acquired seat in the House of Commons. The book continued to rise in popularity, but in a February 1797 review by a writer for the European Magazine, the novel was criticised for "plagiarism, immorality, and wild extravagance."
Fourth edition
Lewis wrote to his father on 23 February 1798, attempting to make reparations: the controversy caused by The Monk was a source of distress to his family. As recorded by Irwin: “twenty is not the age at which prudence is most to be expected. Inexperience prevented my distinguishing what should give offence; but as soon as I found that offence was given, I made the only reparation in my power: I carefully revised the work, and expunged every syllable on which could be grounded the slightest construction of immorality. This, indeed, was no difficult task, for the objection rested entirely on expressions too strong, and words carelessly chosen; not on the sentiments, characters, or general tendency of the work.”
The fourth edition of the novel was published in 1798, and, according to Peck, “contains nothing which could endanger the most fragile virtue... He expunged every remotely offensive word in his three volumes, with meticulous attention to lust. Ambrosio, formerly a ravisher, becomes an intruder or betrayer; his incontinence changes to weakness or infamy, his lust to desire, his desires to emotions. Having indulged in excesses for three editions, he committed an error in the fourth.” Lewis wrote an apology for The Monk in the preface of another work; as recorded by Peck:
“Without entering into the discussion, whether the principles inculcated in “The Monk” are right or wrong, or whether the means by which the story is conducted is likely to do more mischief than the tendency is likely to produce good, I solemnly declare, that when I published the work I had no idea that its publication could be prejudicial; if I was wrong, the error proceeded from my judgment, not from my intention. Without entering into the merits of the advice which it proposes to convey, or attempting to defend (what I now condemn myself) the language and manner in which that advice was delivered, I solemnly declare, that in writing the passage which regards the Bible (consisting of a single page, and the only passage which I ever wrote on the subject) I had not the most distant intention to bring the sacred Writings into contempt, and that, had I suspected it of producing such an effect, I should not have written the paragraph.”
Reviews
In the same month as the second edition was published, Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote a piece in The Critical Review, an important literary magazine of the day, in which he both praises and harshly criticises the novel. He acknowledges that it is "the offspring of no common genius," that the "underplot... is skilfully and closely connected with the main story, and is subservient to its development," that the story Lewis weaves in about the bleeding nun is "truly terrific" and that he cannot recall a "bolder or more happy conception than that of the burning cross on the forehead of the wandering Jew." Coleridge gives his highest praise to the character of Matilda, who he believes is "the author's master-piece. It is, indeed, exquisitely imagined, and as exquisitely supported. The whole work is distinguished by the variety and impressiveness of its incidents; and the author everywhere discovers an imagination rich, powerful, and fervid. Such are the excellencies" (7). Coleridge continues by saying that "the errors and defects are more numerous, and (we are sorry to add) of greater importance." Because "the order of nature may be changed whenever the author's purposes demand it" there are no surprises in the work. Moral truth cannot be gleaned because Ambrosio was destroyed by spiritual beings, and no earthly being can sufficiently oppose the "power and cunning of supernatural beings." Scenes of grotesquery and horror abound, which are a proof of "a low and vulgar taste." The character of Ambrosio is "impossible... contrary to nature." Coleridge argues that the most "grievous fault... for which no literary excellence can atone" is that "our author has contrived to make [tales of enchantments and witchcraft] ' ‘pernicious' ‘, by blending, with an irreverent negligence, all that is most awfully true in religion with all that is most ridiculously absurd in superstition," commenting with the immortal line that "the Monk is a romance, which if a parent saw in the hands of a son or daughter, he might reasonably turn pale." Coleridge finishes the piece by explaining that he was "induced to pay particular attention to this work, from the unusual success which it has experienced" and that "the author is a man of rank and fortune. Yes! the author of the Monk signs himself a LEGISLATOR! We stare and tremble."
Thomas James Mathias followed Coleridge's lead in The Pursuits of Literature, a poem in the 18th-Century satiric tradition, but takes a step farther than Coleridge by claiming that a specific passage made the novel indictable under law. The passage, found in Chapter Seven Volume II, discusses an interpretation of the Bible as too lewd for youth to read.
These two major pieces led the way for a multitude of other attacks on the novel, from such sources as the Monthly Review, the Monthly Magazine, and the Scots Magazine; the last of these attacked the novel six years after its publication. It was a general trend amongst those who criticised, however, to offer praise of some aspect of the novel. "It looked," writes André Parreaux, "as if every reviewer or critic of the book, no matter how hostile he was, felt compelled to at least pay lip-service to Lewis's genius."
The criticism of his novel, extending even into criticism of his person, never truly left Lewis, and an attack on his character was published by the Courier posthumously, calling itself a "just estimate of his character." As recorded by MacDonald: “He had devoted the first fruits of his mind to the propagation of evil, and the whole long harvest was burnt up ... There is a moral in the life of this man ... He was a reckless defiler of the public mind; a profligate, he cared not how many were to be undone when he drew back the curtain of his profligacy; he had infected his reason with the insolent belief that the power to corrupt made the right, and that conscience might be laughed, so long as he could evade law. The Monk was an eloquent evil; but the man who compounded it knew in his soul that he was compounding poison for the multitude, and in that knowledge he sent it into the world.”
There were those who defended The Monk as well. Joseph Bell, publisher of the novel, spent half of his essay Impartial Structures on the Poem Called “The Pursuits of Literature” and Particularly a Vindication of the Romance of “The Monk” defending Lewis; Thomas Dutton, in his Literary Census: A Satirical Poem, retaliated against Mathias and praised Lewis; Henry Francis Robert Soame compared Lewis to Dante in his The Epistle in Rhyme to M. G. Lewis, Esq. M. P.
“Assurances that The Monk was not as dangerous as its enemies maintained failed to dampen its success with the reading public,” writes Peck. “They had been told that the book was horrible, blasphemous, and lewd, and they rushed to put their morality to the test.” Indeed, the novel's popularity continued to rise and by 1800 there were five London and two Dublin editions.
Manuscripts
An original manuscript is in the collections of Wisbech & Fenland Museum, Isle of Ely.
The W&F Museum was awarded a grant of £7,222 in 2022 for the conservation and digitisation of the manuscript of The Monk by M.G. Lewis which is part of the Townshend Collection.
Major themes
Struggle with temptation
Ambrosio displays traces of hubris and lust very early in the novel. It is explained that "he [Ambrosio] dismissed them [the monks] with an air of conscious superiority, in which humility's semblance combated with the reality of pride. Similarly, "he fixed his eyes on the Virgin… Gracious God, should I then resist the temptation? Should I not barter for a single embrace the reward of my sufferings for thirty years?" Both passages explicitly show the conflicting forces, that is, the moral choices that rage within Ambrosio. His nature instructs him to exult himself above others and lust for the Virgin Mary, while his religious inclinations, or at least his awareness of his position within the church, command him to humility and chastity. Ambrosio begins to deviate from his holy conduct when he encounters Matilda, a character revealed at the end of the novel to be an emissary of Satan. All of these circumstances are consistent with the classic model of the morality tale, and, true to form, once Ambrosio is tempted into sin he enters into a tailspin of increasing desire, which leads him to transgression and culminates in the loss of his eternal salvation and his grisly murder at the hands of the devil.
This pattern of wicked actions leading to ill consequences is exactly what is expected in a morality tale and is reflected in other Gothic novels. For example, Lewis's work is often discussed in conjunction with that of Ann Radcliffe's. Robert Miles writes that "Ann Radcliffe and Matthew Lewis were the two most significant Gothic novelists of the 1790s, an estimate of their importance shared by their contemporaries.". Indeed, the repercussions of malevolent and self-serving actions are represented extraordinarily well in Radcliffe's The Romance of the Forest. The Marquis in the story was driven to murder for "the title of his brother… and riches which would enable him to indulge his voluptuous inclinations." Similar to Ambrosio, the Marquis was tempted and succumbed to sin, which sets him on a wicked path leading to his public shame and suicide.
The triumph of evil
Despite its outcome, The Monk does have some very marked discrepancies from the normal morality tale setup used in gothic novels. In most morality tales, both vice and virtue are represented equally, but in Lewis's work, the powers of evil are disproportionately represented. Technically speaking, Ambrosio is surrounded by virtue in the sense that he is always conscious that what he is doing is wrong and, until the end of the novel, never believes that he cannot repent. In fact, he tells Matilda that "the consequences [of witchcraft] are too horrible: I… am not so blinded by lust as to sacrifice for her enjoyment my existence both in this world and the next.” However, this general sense of right and wrong is a feeble, inefficacious defence for Ambrosio when he is confronted by the physical presence and influence of demons. There are no corresponding angels who appear before Ambrosio to counter the influence of the devil and try to dissuade him from his path of destruction. As a result, his depravity is accelerated and magnified from the minor character foibles that are congenital to him to the egregious evils that possess him by the end of the novel. The only apparition that is potentially heaven-sent is that of Elvira's ghost. She comes back from the grave to caution her daughter, Antonia that “yet three days, and we shall meet again!” While the apparition may seem to be trying to warn Antonia of her impending death, the ghost's appearance causes Jacintha to fetch Ambrosio to dispel the spirit, allowing him to drug Antonia and take her under his power, a chain of events ultimately leading to the demise of Antonia, which the ghost foretold. As a result of the ghost's intrusion, Antonia is put directly into harm's way, an action much more apropos for a demonic presence rather than a heavenly one.
Harm to innocents
Lewis also deviates from what is typically expected from morality tales when he includes the sacrifice of innocent people in the latter chapters of the novel. As a result of Ambrosio's personal vices, both Elvira and Antonia are slain. Elvira finds Ambrosio, "the man whom Madrid esteems a saint…at this late hour near the couch of my unhappy child" on the verge of committing rape and Ambrosio murders her to prevent her from revealing his crimes. Elvira was guilty of no crime and throughout the novel was committed to the welfare of her family and her daughter in particular. Likewise, Antonia is murdered to prevent her from alerting Officers of the Inquisition of Ambrosio's crimes. Antonia is also undeserving of her fate, as she was always a loyal daughter and honest woman throughout the novel.
Another Gothic novel in which one individual's quest for a gratification of the senses leads to the ruin of others is Vathek by William Beckford. In the novel, the Caliph Vathek attempts to sacrifice fifty children to a demon to gain his favour. Without mercy he "pushed the poor innocent into the gulph [open to hell]." Similarly, in The Necromancer by Lawrence Flammenberg, an entire village is sacrificed to a troop of banditti who are angered at their hideout being revealed. The leader of group explaining that "the villagers are not yet punished… for having assisted them, but they shall not escape their doom." Admittedly, Vathek can be more readily identified as a morality tale, but The Necromancer warns against the pernicious effects of a legal system that is bereft of mercy. A criminal declares during his confession that his life "will afford a useful lesson to judges, and teach the guardians of the people to be careful how they inflict punishments if they will not make a complete rogue of many a hapless wretch…"
Anti-Catholic themes
The Monk is one of many Gothic novels that criticises the Catholic Church and Catholic tradition. By the time of the Gothic novel, the English were, to some extent, institutionally anti-Catholic. Characters such as the wicked abbess, the unchaste nun, and the lascivious monk represent the naked anti-Catholicism projected by the Gothic. Lewis's condemnation of the Church is apparent throughout the novel in his characterisation of Catholic religious. Ambrosio and the Prioress represent all that is seen as wrong with the Catholic Church. The vow of celibacy, which many Protestant writers at the time condemned as unnatural, is presented as contributing significantly to Ambrosio's repressed sexuality, which in turn leads to the heinous acts he commits against Antonia. Agnes's breaking of her vow is seen by the Prioress as an unforgivable crime, which drives her to punish Agnes so severely. Blakemore argues that in England, the sexual demonization of the aberrant Catholic "Other" was part and parcel of the ideological formation of the English, Protestant national identity."
Lewis also appears to mock Catholic superstition through use of iconoclasm repeatedly over the course of the novel, such as when Lorenzo moves a statue of the virgin St. Clare to reveal the chamber in which Agnes is being kept prisoner. This demystification of idols makes light of Catholic superstition in relation to statues and sacred objects. Lewis's treatment of the Catholic Church clearly shows that he harbours negative sentiments about the Church's activities.
The lack of divinity shown throughout the novel is not unique to The Monk. John Moore's Zeluco focuses on the nefarious plots of a single man who cannot control his passions. Like Ambrosio, Zeluco's disposition is shown very early in the novel to be disagreeable. In his youth Zeluco "seized it [his pet sparrow] with his hand, and while it struggled to get free, with a curse he squeezed the little animal to death." Zeluco continually gratifies his vices much to his discredit and dishonor, and, as in The Monk, his sins compound upon themselves culminating in the infanticide of his only son. Unlike Ambrosio, however, Zeluco has no physical demons spurring him onwards, but rather his insatiable appetite for sin.
Sinful sexuality
The Bleeding Nun, who appears in the subplot of Raymond and Agnes, epitomises the sin of erotic desires. Raymond mistakes her for his lover, Agnes, because she is veiled and he cannot see her face. The veil that "conceals and inhibits sexuality comes by the same gesture to represent it." Both Antonia and Matilda are veiled to protect their virginity and innocence and it is expected that Agnes also covers her face for this reason when she meets Raymond. However, the removal of the veil reveals the Bleeding Nun, dead and punished because of her sins. While she was alive, she was a prostitute and a murderer before she was murdered by her lover. Her story is the first we receive of how giving in to sexual desires leads to death and eternal unrest. Raymond expects to find Agnes's beautiful, virgin face beneath the veil, but instead finds death. Her unveiling connects the loss of virginity and the giving in to sexual desires with death and punishment. Both the Bleeding Nun and Ambrosio begin pious, but then fall prey to their sexual desires. Ambrosio has already given into his desire for Matilda and the story of the Bleeding Nun told in the subplot foreshadows his further downfall with Antonia and his eternal punishment in the hands of the devil.
The reality of the supernatural
The Bleeding Nun also introduces the world of the supernatural into The Monk. The supernatural something "that is above nature or belonging to a higher realm or system than that of nature" This introduction brings another Gothic element into the book. Up until this point, the plot has relied on natural elements of the sublime to invoke the terror expected of a Gothic novel. The entrance of the Bleeding Nun transforms this natural world into a world where the supernatural is possible. When she gets into Raymond's carriage, "Immediately thick clouds obscured the sky: The winds howled around us, the lightning flashed, and the Thunder roared tremendously.” Nature is acknowledging the presence of a supernatural force.
When Agnes tells Raymond the story of how the Bleeding Nun's ghost haunts the Castle of Lindenberg, Raymond asks her whether she believes the story and she replies “How can you ask such a question? No, no, Alphonso! I have too much reason to lament superstition’s influence to be its Victim myself.” It is not until the Bleeding Nun appears to Raymond at night that the idea of the existence of the supernatural begins to be a reality. The Wandering Jew's appearance coincides with this first instance of the supernatural. He can see the Bleeding Nun, proving that she is not a figment of Raymond's imagination. His supernatural abilities give access to the Bleeding Nun's story and provide plausibility to the existence of the supernatural. He also has the power to free Raymond from her presence. The later confirmation of Raymond's uncle to the existence of the Wandering Jew allows the whole story to be taken for fact. This establishes the reality of the supernatural and lays the groundwork for Matilda's later use of magic and her and Ambrosio's interaction with evil spirits.
Adaptations
While not a direct adapation E. T. A. Hoffmann's Die Elixiere des Teufels (The Devil's Elixirs) is based on the basic idea of The Monk and draws heavily from its themes of the corruption of a monk of unknown descent, who is celebrated for his sermons, his involvement in an incestuous affair and temptation by the devil. Lewis' work is also mentioned at one point by a character, who talks about having read it.
Edward Loder used the work as the basis for his 1855 opera Raymond and Agnes.
La nonne sanglante (The Bloody Nun), freely based on The Monk, is a five-act opera by Charles Gounod to a libretto by Eugène Scribe and Germain Delavigne. Written between 1852 and 1854, it was first produced on 18 October 1854 at the Salle Le Peletier by the Paris Opéra. Soprano Anne Poinsot created the role of Agnès.
La nonne sanglante, a 5-act play by Auguste Anicet-Bourgeois and Julien de Mallian, which premiered on 16 February 1835 in Paris at the Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Martin, was very popular in its day. The legendary actress Mlle Georges created the role of Marie de Rudenz. The melodrama derives its title and certain images and motifs from The Monk.
The French writer Antonin Artaud's only full-length novel bears the same name and is a "loose translation" of Lewis's work.
Luis Buñuel and Jean-Claude Carrière attempted to film a version of The Monk in the 1960s, but the project was halted due to lack of funds. Buñuel's friend, the Greek director Ado Kyrou, used this script as the basis for his 1972 film version. Le Moine (English The Monk) boasted an international cast with Franco Nero in the title role. The film also starred Nathalie Delon, Eliana de Santis, Nadja Tiller and Nicol Williamson.
Maria de Rudenz is a tragic opera by Gaetano Donizetti (1797–1848). The libretto by Salvadore Cammarano is based on a 5-act French play (1835), La nonne sanglante, by Auguste Anicet-Bourgeois and Julien de Mallian, a drama informed by motifs and imagery from The Monk. The opera premiered at the Teatro La Fenice in Venice, 30 January 1838, with soprano Carolina Ungher (1803–1877) singing the eponymous role.
In 1990 The Monk was produced by Celtic Films. It starred Paul McGann as the title character, and was written and directed by Francisco Lara Polop.
Grant Morrison and Klaus Janson's 1990 DC Comics graphic novel Batman: Gothic relies heavily and overtly upon The Monk, combined with elements of Don Giovanni, as the inspiration for the plot.
A film adaption, The Monk, was made by French-German director Dominik Moll in 2011, it was shot in Santes Creus, Girona and Madrid and stars Vincent Cassel, Déborah François, Geraldine Chaplin, and Sergi López. Shooting began in mid-April and was set for 12 weeks.
A stage adaptation by Benji Sperring for Tarquin Productions ran at Baron's Court Theatre, London, from 16 October to 3 November 2012.
A musical comedy based on the novel is being developed, written and composed by Tug Rice. It was workshopped at Carnegie Mellon University, starring Grey Henson, Jessie Shelton and Corey Cott.
One of the three fictional films shown in the 2022 video game Immortality is an adaptation of the novel, called Ambrosio.
References
Works cited
Anderson, George K. The Legend of the Wandering Jew. Hanover: Brown University Press, 1991. Print.
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. "Review of The Monk by Matthew Lewis". The Norton Anthology of English Literature. 8th ed. Vol. D. Ed. Stephen *Greenblatt and M. H. Abrams. New York: W.W. Norton, 2006. Print.
Irwin, Joseph James. M.G. "Monk" Lewis. Boston: Twayne, 1976. Print.
Lewis, Matthew. The Monk. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.
Miles, Robert. "Ann Radcliffe and Matthew Lewis." A Companion to the Gothic. Ed. David Punter. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000. Print.
Macdonald, David Lorne. Monk Lewis: a Critical Biography. Toronto: University of Toronto, 2000. Print.
Peck, Louis F. A Life of Matthew G. Lewis. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1961. Print.
Parreaux, André. The Publication of The Monk; a Literary Event, 1796–1798. Paris: M. Didier, 1960. Print.
Railo, Eino. The Haunted Castle: A Study of the Elements of English Romanticism. London: Routledge & Sons, ltd, 1927. Print.
External links
The Monk at Internet Archive, as 1795 and "Gothic Horror Fiction Masterpiece – 1st Edition with Notes and alterations of the later editions"
1796 novels
1790s fantasy novels
Anti-Catholic publications
Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom
English Gothic novels
Novels set in monasteries
British novels adapted into films
Novels adapted into operas
British novels adapted into plays
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanchang
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Nanchang
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Nanchang (, ; ) is the capital of Jiangxi Province, People's Republic of China. Located in the north-central part of the province and in the hinterland of Poyang Lake Plain, it is bounded on the west by the Jiuling Mountains, and on the east by Poyang Lake. Because of its strategic location connecting the prosperous East and South China, it has become a major railway hub in Southern China in recent decades.
As the Nanchang Uprising in 1927 is distinctively recognized by the ruling Communist Party as "firing the first gunshot against the evil Nationalists", the current government has therefore named the city since 1949 "the City of Heroes", "the place where the People's Liberation Army was born", and the most widely known "place where the military banner of the People's Liberation Army was first raised". Nanchang is also a major city, appearing among the top 150 cities in the world by scientific research outputs, as tracked by the Nature Index and home to Nanchang University, the key national university of “Project 211” in the city.
History
The territories encompassing modern-day Jiangxi Province—including Nanchang—was first incorporated into China during the Qin dynasty, when it was conquered from the Baiyue peoples and organized as Jiujiang Commandery (). In 201 BC, during the Han dynasty, the city was given the Chinese name Nanchang and became the administrative seat of Yuzhang Commandery (), and was governed by Guan Ying, one of Emperor Gaozu of Han's generals. The name Nanchang means "southern flourishing", derived from a motto of developing what is now southern China that is traditionally attributed to Emperor Gaozu himself.
In AD 589, during the Sui dynasty, this commandery was changed into a prefecture named Hongzhou (), and after 763 it became the provincial center of Jiangxi, which was then beginning the rapid growth that by the 12th century made it the most populous province in China.
In 653 the Tengwang Pavilion was constructed, and in 675 Wang Bo wrote the classic "Tengwang Ge Xu", a poetic introductory masterpiece celebrating the building, making the building, the city, and the author himself known to literate Chinese-speaking population ever since. The Pavilion has been destroyed and rebuilt several times throughout history. Its present form was reconstructed in the 1980s after being destroyed in 1929 during the Chinese Civil War.
In 959, under the Southern Tang regime, Nanchang was made superior prefecture and the southern capital. After the conquest by the Song regime in 981 it was reverted to the name Hongzhou. In 1164 it was renamed Longxing prefecture, which name it retained until 1368. During the Yuan dynasty it was the capital of Jiangxi Province, an area that included Guangdong as well. At the end of the Yuan (Mongol) period (1279–1368), it became a battleground between Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), and the rival local warlord, Chen Youliang. At the beginning of the 16th century it was the power base from which Zhu Chenhao, the Prince of Ning, launched a rebellion against the emperor.
During the Yuan Dynasty, it might have been the centre of porcelain trade
During the reign of the Wanli Emperor of the Ming dynasty, it housed relatives of the emperor who had been exiled because they were potential claimants of the imperial throne, members of the imperial family constituting about one quarter of the city's population; as a result of this, Matteo Ricci came here when trying to gain entry to Beijing.
In the 1850s it suffered considerably as a result of the Taiping Rebellion (1850–64), and its importance as a commercial centre declined as the overland routes to Canton were replaced by coastal steamship services in the latter half of the 19th century. Nanchang has, however, remained the undisputed regional metropolis of Jiangxi.
On August 1, 1927, Nanchang was the site of one of a series of insurrections organized by the communists. The Nanchang Uprising, led by pro-communist Kuomintang officers under Soviet direction, succeeded in holding the city for only a few days, and provided a core of troops and a method of organization from which the People's Liberation Army (PLA) later developed.
In 1939, the Battle of Nanchang, a ferocious battle between the Chinese National Revolutionary Army and the Imperial Japan Army in the Second Sino-Japanese War took place.
By 1949 Nanchang was still essentially an old-style administrative and commercial city, with little industry apart from food processing; it had a population of about 275,000. Nanchang first acquired a rail connection in 1915, only connecting to the port city of Jiujiang by the Yangtze. Several other rail links have since been opened. After World War II a line was completed to Linchuan and Gongqi in the Ru River Valley to the south-southeast.
Since 1949 Nanchang has been extensively industrialized. It is now a large-scale producer of cotton textiles and cotton yarn. Paper making is also a major industry, as is food processing (especially rice milling). Heavy industry began to gain prominence in the mid-1950s. A large thermal-power plant was installed and uses coal brought by rail from Fengcheng to the south. A machinery industry also grew up, at first mainly concentrating on the production of agricultural equipment and diesel engines. Nanchang then became a minor centre of the automotive industry in China, producing trucks and tractors and also accessories such as tires. An iron-smelting plant helping to supply local industry was installed in the later 1950s. There is also a large chemical industry, producing agricultural chemicals and insecticides as well as pharmaceuticals.
Geography
Nanchang is located in inland southeastern China, south of the Yangtze River and is situated on the right bank of the Gan River just below its confluence with the Jin River and some southwest of its discharge into Poyang Lake.
Climate
Nanchang has a monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) with four
distinct seasons. Winters are short and cool with occasional frosts; it begins somewhat sunny and dry but becomes progressively wetter and more overcast. Spring begins especially gloomy, and from April to June, each month has more than of rainfall. Summer is long and humid, with amongst the highest temperatures of any Chinese provincial capital, and with the sun shining close to 60 percent of the time in July and August, is the sunniest time of year. Autumn is warm to mild with the lowest rainfall levels of the year. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from in January to in July, while the annual mean is . Annual precipitation stands at around ; with monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 27 percent in March to 56 percent in August, the city receives 1,809 hours of sunshine annually in average. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from on 29 December 1991 to on 23 July 1961.
Demographics
As of the 2020 Chinese census, Nanchang had a population of 6,255,007, of which 5,382,162 lived in built-up (urbanized) area consisting of 6 urban districts plus Nanchang County largely being urbanized. 37 ethnic groups were counted amongst its prefecture divisions.
Administration
Honggutan New District () is an economic management area and not a formal administrative division.
Economy
Nanchang is a regional hub for agricultural production in Jiangxi province with its grain yield being 16.146 million tons in 2000. Products such as rice and oranges are economic staples. The Ford Motor Company has a plant in Nanchang, assembling the Ford Transit van as part of the Jiangling Motor joint venture. Much of its industry revolves around aircraft manufacturing, automobile manufacturing, metallurgy, electro-mechanics, textile, chemical engineering, traditional Chinese medicine, pharmaceuticals and others. Nanchang has a rapid economic development and ranks 15th among the fastest growing 20 cities in the world. It is one of the cities with the most potential for development in China and the world in the future.
In 2017, the city's gross regional product (GDP) was 500.319 billion yuan(US$80.03 billion ), an increase of 9.0% over the previous year. The primary industry's added value was 19.213 billion yuan, an increase of 4.0%; the secondary industry's added value was 266.61 billion yuan, an increase of 8.4%; The added value of the three industries was 214.496 billion yuan, an increase of 10.2%. The per capita GDP of 81,598 yuan was converted to 12,285 US dollars according to the average annual exchange rate, and the total fiscal revenue for the year was 78.282 billion yuan, an increase of 14.3% over the previous year.
The GDP of Nanchang in 2008 was 166 billion Yuan (US$24.3 billion ). The GDP per capita was 36,105 Yuan (US$5,285). The total value of imports and exports was 3.4 billion US dollars.
The total financial revenue was 23 billion Yuan.
Industrial zones
National level development zones
Nanchang Export Processing Zone
Nanchang National Export Expressing Zone is located in Nanchang Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone, it was approved by the State Council on May 8, 2006, and passed the national acceptance inspection on Sep 7th, 2007. It has a planning area of 1 km2 and now has built 0.31 km2. It enjoys simple and convenient customs clearances, and special preferential policies both for Nanchang National Export Expressing Zone and NCHDZ.
Nanchang National High-tech Industrial Development Zone
Nanchang National High-tech Industrial Development Zone (NCHDZ for short hereafter) is the only national grade high-tech zoned in Jiangxi, it was established in Mar. 1991. The zone covers an area of , in which have been completed. NCHDZ possesses unique nature condition and sound industry foundation of accepting electronics industry. NCHDZ has brought 25 percent industrial added value and 50 percent industrial benefit and tax to Nanchang city by using only 0.4 percent land area.
Nanchang Economic and Technological Development Zone
Provincial level development zones
Jiangxi Shanghai Economic and Technological Development Zone
Nanchang Yingxiong Economic and Technological Development Zone
Special economic district
Honggutan New District GanJiang New District
Transportation
Nanchang has an advantageous geographic location and convenient transportation. It is praised as the “three rivers and five lakes, and the control of the finer and better lakes”. It relies on high-speed railways and aviation hubs to connect three important economic circles (Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, Inter-provincial traffic corridors in Haixi District). Nanchang is one of the country's comprehensive transportation hubs and one of the most important integrated transportation hubs in Jiangxi.
Rail
The Nanchang is an important rail hub for southeastern China. The Beijing–Kowloon (Jingjiu) Railway, Shanghai–Kunming railway (formerly Zhejiang–Jiangxi or Zhegan Railway), Xiangtang–Putian railway and Nanchang–Jiujiang intercity railway converge in Nanchang. Nanchang's Bureau of Railways operates much of the railway network in Jiangxi and neighbouring Fujian province.
The Nanchang railway station and the Nanchang West railway station are the primary passenger rail stations of the city. Nanchang is connected to Hangzhou, Changsha and Shanghai via CRH (China Railway High-speed) service.
Air
Nanchang Changbei International Airport (KHN) built in 1996 is the main international airport. It is situated in Lehua Town, 26 kilometres north of the CDB area. Changbei International Airport is the only one in Jiangxi Province which has an international air route. The airport is connected to major mainland cities such as Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Haikou, Shanghai and Beijing. There is a military/civilian airport near Liantang, Nanchang County.
Nanchang Changbei International Airport is the largest airport in Jiangxi Province. In 2014, Nanchang Changbei Airport opened up to 10 international destinations. The airport handled 7.25 million passengers in 2014, an increase of 6.3%. Among them, the Nanchang aviation port exceeded 280,000 passengers, an increase of nearly 40%, becoming the airport's traffic volume. The important force of growth, and will continue to maintain rapid development. On December 6, 2017, the annual passenger throughput of Nanchang Airport exceeded 10 million passengers, making it the nation's 31st “million-grade airport”. In 2017, passenger throughput reached 10.93 million, a year-on-year increase of 39.0%, a net increase of passenger throughput of 3.07 million passengers; flights took off and 89,000 vehicles, a year-on-year increase of 35.2%; and cargo and mail throughput of 52,000 tons, an increase of 3.3%. In order to cooperate with the construction of the Beijing-Kowloon high-speed railway and Nanchang North Station airport complex transportation hub, large-scale expansion and upgrades are being carried out recently.
Road
The road transport infrastructure in Nanchang is extensive. A number of national highways cross through the city. They are the National roads No.105 from Beijing to Zhuhai, No.320 from Shanghai to Kunming, and No.316 from Fuzhou to Lanzhou. The major transport companies that operate in Nanchang are the Chang'an Transport Company Limited, the Nanchang Long-distance Bus Station, and the Xufang Bus Station. National Highway G70 crosses through Nanchang. Nanchang also built its round-city highway G70_01 opening in 2007.
The Nanchang Long-distance Bus Station serves long-distance routes to Nanjing, Shenzhen, Hefei and other cities outside Jiangxi Province. The Xufang Bus Station operates routes to cities, towns and counties within Jiangxi Province.
Metro
Nanchang Rail Transit is the first rail transportation system in Jiangxi Province, the world's leading MRT system, the second batch of rail transit cities in China. It will connect Nanchang's main downtown area and each satellite city, the Nanchang Metro has been in service since 26th Dec 2015. Nanchang is the 25th city in mainland China to put into operation. The planning of Nanchang rail transit project started in 1999 and was officially started in 2009. The first phase of the No. 1 and No. 2 lines was 50,996 kilometers (the first line is the underground line). Line 1 was officially opened and operated at the end of 2015, and Line 2 of the “First Section” began trial operation on August 19, 2017.
Water
Nanchang is situated on the Gan River, the Fu River, Elephant Lake, Qingshan Lake, and Aixi Lake. Hence the water routes for Nanchang are critically important for the economy, trade and shipping. Nanchang Port is the biggest port on the Gan River. Passengers can take Nanchang Port and travel by boat to the Jinggang Shan and Tengwang Pavilion. There are passenger ships that also visit Poyang Lake, Stone Bell Hill, Poyang Lake Bird Protection Area, Dagu Hill and other attractions.
Landmarks
Tengwang Pavilion, a towering pavilion dating to 653, on the east bank of the Gan River and is one of "the Four Great Towers of China"
Poyang Lake, the largest fresh water lake in China, it is also called "the Migrator Birds Paradise".
Star of Nanchang, which was the world's tallest Ferris wheel from 2006 to 2008, in Honggutan District
Qiushui Square, established on 28 January 2004 with the largest music fountain group with music in Asia.
Jiangxi Provincial Museum and Bada Shanren Exhibition Hall
People's Park, the largest park in downtown Nanchang
Bayi Square and Memorial, at the center of Nanchang, commemorates the founding of the People's Liberation Army during the Nanchang Uprising of 1 August (Ba Yi in Mandarin) in 1927, which led to the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949.
Education
Colleges and universities (note that institutions without full-time bachelor programs are not listed):
Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics ()
Nanchang University ()
Jiangxi Normal University ()
Nanchang Hangkong University ()
Jiangxi Agricultural University ()
East China Jiaotong University ()
East China University of Technology, Nanchang Campus ()
Jiangxi Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine ()
Nanchang Institute of Technology ()
Jiangxi Science and Technology Normal University ()
Jiangxi Manufacturing and Vocational College ()
Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine ()
High schools:
Affiliated Middle School of Jiangxi Normal University ()
Nanchang No.2 Middle School ()
Nanchang No.1 Middle School ()
Nanchang No.3 Middle School ()
Nanchang No.10 Middle School ()
International schools:
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Sport
Nanchang is the site of Jiangxi International Women's Tennis Open.
References
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External links
Nanchang Government website
Map of Nanchang
Cities in Jiangxi
Prefecture-level divisions of Jiangxi
Provincial capitals in China
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Populated places established in the 1st century BC
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rorschach%20%28character%29
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Rorschach (character)
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Rorschach (Walter Joseph Kovacs) is a fictional antihero in the graphic novel limited series Watchmen, published by DC Comics in 1986. Rorschach was created by writer Alan Moore with artist Dave Gibbons; as with most of the main characters in the series, he was an analogue for a Charlton Comics character, in this case Steve Ditko's the Question. Moore also modeled Rorschach on Mr. A, another Steve Ditko creation on whom the Question was originally based.
While Watchmen has an ensemble cast, many consider Rorschach to be the protagonist as he drives most of the plot forward and serves as the series' narrator. In the beginning of the story, he is introduced as the only masked vigilante to remain active on his own terms and initiative, a criminal outlaw as opposed to other former superheroes now covertly employed by the U.S. government. A ruthless crime-fighter, Rorschach believes in moral absolutism—good and evil as pure ends, with no shades of gray—which compels him to seek to punish any evidence of evil at all costs. His mask displays a constantly morphing inkblot based on the ambiguous designs used in Rorschach inkblot tests, also his namesake, with the mask's black and white coloring consistent with his sense and view of morality.
The original character was positively received, with multiple references in other comic titles and appearances in other media. He reappears in the Before Watchmen comic book prequel including his own miniseries. Rorschach made his live-action debut in the 2009 film Watchmen, played by Jackie Earle Haley, who also voices him in the video game Watchmen: The End Is Nigh.
A successor to the Rorschach mantle, named Reggie Long, debuted in the sequel limited series Doomsday Clock, which connects the Watchmen universe with the mainstream DC Universe. Another incarnation of Rorschach, Wil Myerson, appears in the DC Black Label limited series Rorschach, a standalone sequel to Watchmen.
Publication history
As with the rest of the main characters of Watchmen, Alan Moore based Rorschach on Charlton Comics characters, using them as a "starting point". The characters Rorschach was specifically based on were the Question (a Charlton character) and Mr. A, two comic book characters created by Steve Ditko.
Ditko, who was inspired by the writings of Ayn Rand's personal philosophy of Objectivism, created both the Question and Mr. A as followers of the ideology. Regarding Rand's philosophy, Moore said he personally found it "laughable". In spite of this, Moore had a healthy respect for Ditko despite having different views politically. Moore recalled that Ditko's very right-wing agenda was quite interesting to him at the time, and that "probably led to me portraying Rorschach as an extremely right-wing character".
In trying to create Rorschach, Moore said he was trying to "come up with this quintessential Steve Ditko character—someone who's got a funny name, whose surname begins with a 'K,' who's got an oddly designed mask". On how he decided Rorschach's name, Moore recalls:
The Question was used as the prototype for creating Rorschach, while Mr. A, being a far more radical right-wing character than the mainstream-suited Question, served as the main inspiration for Rorschach's right-wing views as well as his black-and-white morality. Moore came to view Rorschach as a logical extension of both Mr. A and the Question. On the other hand, upon being asked whether he had seen Watchmen, Ditko himself described Rorschach as being "like Mister A, except Rorschach is insane."
Moore stated that Rorschach was created as a way of exploring what an archetypical Batman-type character—a driven, vengeance-fueled vigilante—would be like in the real world. He concluded that the short answer was "a nutcase". Moore also stated that the tone of Rorschach's diary was inspired by the Son of Sam letters David Berkowitz sent to the newspapers, and that his speech patterns were based on Herbie the Fat Fury.
While Moore came up with Rorschach's name and descriptions, Dave Gibbons was in charge of the character's appearance. In Gibbons' initial designs, Rorschach wore white clothing which had inkblots not only on his head but all over his body. He also wore a large blue trench-coat, red gloves, red-blue hat and items that look like jodhpurs or spats over his boots. When designing the characters of the series, Gibbons said Rorschach was his favorite to draw due to his relatively simpler features. He described:
Moore said he did not foresee the death of Rorschach until the fourth issue when he realized that his refusal to compromise would result in his not surviving the story. He claimed that initially he knew a lot about the character's surface mannerisms, but did not realize what was inside him until he "started to dig." Moore added that Rorschach had a "king-sized" deathwish due to his psychologically troubled life, and actively wanted to die but in his own dignified and honorable way, no matter how "twisted" it might have been. In response to why he chose to have Rorschach take off his mask to face death at the end, Moore said that he thought it "just felt right". He believed that it "is not the mask talking, it's not Rorschach, it's the actual human being [Walter Kovacs] that is somewhere under there".
Fictional character biography
Before Watchmen
Walter Joseph Kovacs was born on March 21, 1940, the son of Sylvia Kovacs, who was a prostitute, and an unknown father only known to Kovacs as "Charlie". His mother was frequently abusive and condescending towards him. In July 1951, at the age of 11, Kovacs became involved in a violent fight with two older bullies, and subsequently his living conditions were finally looked into. After his home was investigated, Kovacs was removed from his mother's care and put in "The Lillian Charlton Home for Problem Children" in New Jersey, where he rapidly seemed to improve, excelling at scholastics as well as gymnastics and amateur boxing. In 1956, after leaving the Charlton Home when he was 16, Kovacs took a job as a garment worker in a dress shop, which he found "bearable but unpleasant" partly because he had to handle women's clothing; it was here that he acquired a certain dress fabric that he would later fashion into the mask he wears as Rorschach. His mother was brutally murdered by her pimp, George Paterson, by forcing her to drink Drano cleaning fluid and dumped her body in the back alleyway. In 1962, Kovacs scavenged the material from a rejected dress that had been special-ordered by a young woman with an Italian name. Though Kovacs learned how to cut and fashion the material successfully with heated implements, he soon grew bored with it, as it served him no real purpose at the time.
Two years later when buying a newspaper on his way to work in March 1964, Kovacs read about the rape and murder of Kitty Genovese, who he believed was the Italian woman who had rejected the dress. Ashamed by what he read about the unresponsiveness of her neighbors, Kovacs became disillusioned with the underlying apathy that he saw as inherent in most people. Inspired by Genovese's fate, Kovacs returned home, made "a face [he] could bear to look at in the mirror" from the dress's fabric, and began fighting crime as the vigilante Rorschach. Initially, Kovacs left criminals alive, but bloodied, for the police to arrest, leaving a calling card in the form of a Rorschach test at every crime scene. In the mid 1960s, he teamed up with Nite Owl II, a partnership which proved highly successful at battling organized crime.
In 1975, an investigation into the kidnapping of a young girl named Blair Roche led to the transformation of the "soft" Kovacs into the ruthlessly uncompromising Rorschach. He tracked the kidnapping to a man named Gerald Grice. At Grice's shack, Kovacs found evidence Grice had killed the girl and had fed her remains to his dogs. Discovering this, Rorschach suffered a psychotic breakdown, killed the dogs with Grice's meat cleaver and waited for his arrival. When Grice returned, Rorschach hurled the corpses of the dogs through his windows, handcuffed him to a stove, and poured kerosene around him. Leaving Grice a hacksaw, Rorschach told him that his only chance to escape would be by cutting off his hand. Rorschach then set the shack on fire and left. No one emerged. During a later psychological evaluation, the vigilante stated that Kovacs went into the shack, but that Rorschach came out.
When the Keene Act was passed in 1977 to outlaw vigilantes, Rorschach responded by killing a wanted serial rapist and leaving his body outside a police station with a note bearing one word: "never!"
In Watchmen
By 1985 and the events of Watchmen, Rorschach is the vigilante who continues to operate in defiance of the Keene Act, the rest having retired or become government operatives. He investigates the murder of a man named Edward Blake, discovering that he is the Comedian. He believes that someone is picking off costumed superheroes, a view that strengthens when Doctor Manhattan is forced into exile and when Adrian Veidt, the former vigilante known as Ozymandias, is targeted in an assassination attempt. Rorschach questions Moloch, a former supervillain who unexpectedly attends Blake's funeral, who tells him what little he knows. Later, after reading a note written by Moloch telling him to come over for more information, Rorschach visits him again, only to find him dead, shot through the head. The police, tipped off anonymously over the phone, surround the house. Rorschach scolds himself for falling into such an obvious trap, and is arrested after a fight, in which Rorschach tries to escape by jumping through a window, but is unmasked. After the unmasking, Rorschach is revealed to be the red-haired man who, in addition to being the first character to appear in the series, was shown several times in the early chapters carrying a sign reading "THE END IS NIGH".
Rorschach is sent to a prison where many of its inmates are criminals he put away, including Big Figure, a dwarf crime boss who is hungry for Rorschach's blood. During his incarceration, he is interviewed by the prison psychologist Dr. Malcolm Long. Long believes he can help rehabilitate him; instead, Rorschach's explanation of his life and his justifications for his uncompromising worldview lead Long to question his own views.
One day during lunch, one of the inmates attempts to attack Rorschach with a shiv, whereupon Rorschach throws the boiling-oil contents of a deep-fryer into his face in self-defense. As the guards grab and begin to beat him, Rorschach hoarsely yells at the watching crowd, "None of you seem to understand. I'm not locked in here with you. You're locked in here with me." After the inmate dies, the prison breaks out in a riot. The Big Figure and two of his associates try to kill Rorschach, but he outwits and ultimately kills them all in rapid succession. Rorschach's two former colleagues, Nite Owl II and Silk Spectre II, begin to take his "mask killer" theory seriously and break him out of jail to follow up on it.
After the prison break, Dr. Manhattan comes back from his self-exile to transport Silk Spectre II to Mars. After acquiring a spare costume from his apartment, Rorschach, along with Nite Owl, enters underworld bars to find out who ordered the assassination attempt on Veidt. They obtain a name, a company called Pyramid Deliveries, and then break into Veidt's office. Nite Owl correctly deduces Veidt's password and finds that he runs Pyramid Deliveries. Rorschach, who has been keeping a journal throughout the duration of the novel, realizes that they may be no match for Veidt. He makes one last entry in his journal, stating his certainty that Veidt is responsible for whatever might happen next, and drops it into a mailbox.
Nite Owl and Rorschach fly out to Antarctica. There they learn the true nature of the conspiracy and Veidt's motivations: to unite the world against a perceived alien threat and stop the possibility of a nuclear holocaust. Veidt then reveals that he set his plan into motion well before they arrived. Doctor Manhattan and Silk Spectre II arrive at the base after viewing the carnage Veidt's false alien has wrought on New York City. Despite their mutual horror, Nite Owl, Silk Spectre II and Doctor Manhattan all agree to keep quiet about the true nature of the events when the United States surprisingly does enter into a peace accord with the Soviet Union.
Rorschach states the others must be joking, and leaves to tell the world. Dr. Manhattan confronts him outside, telling him he cannot allow Rorschach to reveal the truth. Refusing to compromise his principles, Rorschach understands he will be killed. He removes his mask and demands that Manhattan just "do it", which he does.
In the final scenes of the comic, Rorschach's journal has made it to the offices of the New Frontiersman, a right-wing newspaper. Outraged by the new accord between the Soviet Union and the United States, the editor pulls a planned two-page story. He leaves it to his assistant Seymour to decide how to fill that space, and Seymour begins to reach for the paper's "Crank File," which contains the journal. The outcome is ambiguous.
Events of Doomsday Clock
The events of Doomsday Clock begin with Robert Redford winning the 1992 election by using the details of Kovacs' journal, which he gained from the New Frontiersman, leading the citizens of New York to rally against Ozymandias, while the United States faces an inevitable nuclear war. Reggie Long, son of Kovacs's prison psychologist Dr. Malcolm Long, later takes on the Rorschach mantle after being driven insane by Veidt's monster and learning self-defense techniques from former Mothman Byron Lewis, and mistakenly believing that his father and Rorschach had been friends after reading parts of his reports on him.
Events of Rorschach
Thirty-five years after the death of Rorschach, right-wing vigilante Laura "The Kid" Cummings brainwashes two elderly comic book creators, Wil Myerson and Frank Miller, into believing that they are Rorschach's reincarnation, before attempting to assassinate Robert Redford's political opponent, being killed themselves in the process.
Characterization
Appearance
Rorschach is 5'6" tall and weighs 140 pounds, and, as Walter Kovacs (his "disguise"), he appears as a red-haired, expressionless, man who always carries with him a sign that reads "THE END IS NIGH". Most people who see Kovacs consider him ugly and Rorschach himself states that he cannot bear to look upon his own human face, considering his mask (or true "face") to be beautiful instead. His clothing then matches those of a homeless man, which seems to be his disguise when he has not donned his vigilante attire.
During Rorschach's nighttime patrols, he wears a striped purple business suit, similarly colored leather gloves, a grayed scarf, and heavily unpolished elevator shoes. More signature of his apparel is his brown trench coat with his matching fedora hat that has a light purple stripe. However, Rorschach's most defining feature of his costume is his ink-blotted mask.
Rorschach's mask, which he considers his true "face", is a piece of fabric made from a material derived from the technologies of Dr. Manhattan, and it is blank except on the front, where two viscous liquids, one black and one white, are between two layers of latex. The liquids continually shift in response to heat and pressure, which explains why the liquid only animates when Rorschach puts it on his face. The black liquids form symmetrical patterns like those of a Rorschach inkblot test while never mixing with the white color of the mask, thus never producing a gray color, much like Rorschach's view of morality and the world.
Personality
During his childhood, Walter Kovacs was described as bright, and excelled in literature, mathematics, political science, and religious education. Kovacs continues a one-man battle against crime long after superheroes have become both detested and illegal, eventually replacing his Kovacs identity with the persona of Rorschach. Rorschach considers his mask his true "face" and his unmasked persona to be his "disguise", refusing to answer to his birth name during his trial and psychiatric sessions. Moore depicted Rorschach as being extremely right-wing, and morally absolute, a viewpoint that has alienated him from the rest of society, even among other superheroes. Rorschach presents his views on right and wrong as starkly black and white with no room for compromise, with the exception of his respect for the Comedian, whose attempted rape of the first Silk Spectre he dismisses as a "moral lapse". He holds deep contempt for behavior he considers immoral and is openly derogatory toward heroes who do not share his unwavering views, deriding them as "soft".
Rorschach displays a discomfort with female sexuality as a result of his early childhood, although the crimes that most affected him spiritually were against women: the murders of Kitty Genovese and Blair Roche. Rorschach is often described as being mentally ill by other characters in the comic.
Skills and abilities
Like most characters in Watchmen, Rorschach has no obvious "superpowers". He merely has his strong will, peak-human physical strength, and finely-honed sense of timing and precision. Rorschach is very resourceful and creative, adapting ordinary household objects into tools or weapons, such as the use of a can of aerosol spray in combination with multiple matches to set fire to a police officer and throwing ground black pepper to blind another police officer, during a confrontation at Moloch's house. During the series he is shown to use cooking fat, a toilet bowl, a cigarette, a fork and his jacket all as weapons; he is also shown using a coat hanger as a makeshift measuring device. He owns a gas-powered grappling gun, which he uses to climb buildings (and once as a makeshift harpoon gun against a police officer), as seen in Chapter One, which was designed and built by Nite Owl II.
Rorschach is well versed in street combat, gymnastics, and boxing. He is also extremely stoic, as shown by his indifference to pain and discomfort. He even tolerated Antarctic temperatures while wearing only a trenchcoat over street clothes, without complaining or even commenting on the severe cold.
Despite his mental instability, Rorschach is extremely intelligent and was described as "tactically brilliant and unpredictable" by Nite Owl, and shows a marked affinity for detective work, as evidenced by his ability to locate the Comedian's costume in his apartment when the police could not. Much like Batman in the mainstream DC Universe, Rorschach is given the title of "World's Greatest Detective."
He is also skilled at lock picking (although a running gag throughout the series has him simply forcing Nite Owl's front door to talk to him).
Reception
The character of Rorschach has been received with critical acclaim by critics, reviewers, and readers; he has also been awarded. In 1988, the character won the "Character Most Worthy of Own Title" category in the American Section of the Eagle Awards for comics released during 1987. Rorschach has been labelled the "obvious fan favorite" and the "flagship" character of Watchmen, and is often regarded as the most iconic and popular character of the series. The misanthropic character's popularity has led author Alan Moore to proclaim Watchmens failure as literature.
Rorschach was named the 6th-greatest comic book character of all time by Wizard magazine in May 2008, with the magazine stating that "Rorschach still stands as one of the most compelling and frightening characters in comics' history." In July 2008, he was ranked as the 16th "Greatest Comic Book Character" by Empire magazine, which, when picking their top Watchmen character, proclaimed "from a purely iconic point of view, it had to be Rorschach" and described him as "taut, tortured, complex creation who, as well as being at the centre of some of Watchmens most memorable sequences [...], ends up being perhaps the most pure out of the graphic novel's characters." TopTenz placed Rorschach 3rd on their 2010 list of the "Top 10 Comic Book Anti-Heroes (Marvel & DC)" where he was described as "just one of many outstanding characters introduced during the landmark Watchmen series, but he is far and away the most popular and fascinating." In 2011, IGN ranked the character 16th on their "Top 100 Comic Book Heroes" list, noting that "One has to admire his determination, if not necessarily his methods." Rorschach's friendship with Nite Owl II was listed 10th on Fandomania's 2009 "Top 10 Sci-Fi/Fantasy Friendships" list, which commented that "even though they have contrasting world views, they have the same belief towards crime: it must be fought against."
In the making of the film adaptation, director Zack Snyder said "no character" was more important than Rorschach. The Los Angeles Times further added on Snyder's statement, claiming "The filmmaker said [Rorschach] 'is easily one of the greatest comic book characters ever' and that's a view shared by many fans and the press that serves them." When asked what he thought of the character, Jackie Earle Haley responded that Rorschach was "an awesome character. He is one twisted, sick individual but he's still a fascinating character."
Haley's performance as Rorschach in the Watchmen film has been acclaimed. Empire magazine remarked that the portrayals of Rorschach, along with Nite Owl, were the most successful and commented that Haley's performance would make the audience "half-wish Snyder might have stuck with Rorschach as [the sole] protagonist rather than spreading the net so wide." IGN praised Haley's performance, despite his face being obscured for most of the film, as one of the film's key highlights, proclaiming that "Haley IS Rorschach. It's not just a career-defining performance, it's one of the best this genre has seen other than Heath Ledger's Joker. He owns the screen whenever he's on it." Richard Corliss of Time praised Haley, "who does right by his grizzled role" and named him and Jeffrey Dean Morgan (The Comedian) as the standout actors of the film.
Other versions
Rorschach has been referred to, quoted, and parodied several times in various media. These include:
In Kingdom Come #2, a miniseries published by DC Comics in 1996, Rorschach appears as a background character breaking Brother Power's fingers. He is also seen standing between the Question and Obsidian, during a scene in which Superman visits a metahuman bar.
In 2007, Rorschach was featured in the promo artwork by Art Adams for the Countdown to Final Crisis: Arena miniseries by DC Comics, where he is being beaten by Batman from Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns. However, DC opted to omit Rorschach and the aforementioned Batman from the actual Countdown to the Final Crisis: Arena miniseries.
In other media
Television
Rorschach appears in Watchmen: Motion Comic, where he, along with every other character in the series, is voiced by actor Tom Stechschulte.
In Watchmen, after Rorschach's mysterious disappearance (in reality his death, as depicted at the end of the graphic novel), his journal was discovered. Published in a reactionary newspaper known for conspiracy theories, it was initially ignored. However, the journal was later appropriated by the "Seventh Kavalry", a white supremacist splinter terrorist group, who, given Rorschach's right-wing politics and description of morality as "black-and-white", misinterpreted it as a racist manifesto. Members of the Kavalry wear crude replicas of Rorschach's mask and attack members of the Tulsa police and their families for enforcing President Robert Redford's reparations to victims of racial injustices, and intend to acquire the powers of Doctor Manhattan for themselves and their masters, the secret white supremacist order "Cyclops" led by Senator Joseph Keene, Jr.
Film
Rorschach appears in Watchmen, portrayed by Jackie Earle Haley, with Eli Snyder, the son of the film's director Zack Snyder, playing the young Rorschach in flashbacks. While Rorschach in the film adaptation is relatively faithful to his graphic novel counterpart, there are still some differences in description and storyline. Rorschach's age in the film is 35, whereas in the graphic novel he is 45 years old (although this was most likely an error in production as his certificate marks him as forty-five). He is depicted in the film as being right-handed (justified by Jackie Earle Haley being right-handed) as opposed to left-handed. In the graphic novel, Rorschach consistently talks in a thudding pidgin while this is toned down in the film, with Rorschach talking in a more growling manner. His psychological instability in the film is downplayed, and he appears to be stronger than his graphic novel-self as he manages to ward off some attacking policemen, even after falling from an apartment window. He is also shown to openly disapprove of Nite Owl and Silk Spectre's relationship. In the film, rather than Rorschach, Nite Owl II is the one who warns Ozymandias of the possible mask-killer, although Rorschach was revealed to have visited him earlier. Rorschach's method of killing Grice differs also. In the film he uses the meat cleaver that killed Blair Roche to continuously hack the kidnapper, uttering after killing Grice, "Men get arrested. Dogs get put down!". The number of times Rorschach visits the criminal underworld, Nite Owl and Moloch are reduced, and some of these scenes are also altered. Rorschach's landlady, and anything concerning his apartment are left out; when obtaining his costume after the prison break, instead of wearing a spare one in his apartment, he regains his previous one in the prison. While Rorschach's meeting with Dr. Malcolm Long is shown, this has been reduced to one meeting; also, Long's dark subplot where Rorschach's story affects his personal life and philosophy are omitted. Snyder admitted that while he did not film the scene he "would have loved to." Rorschach's confrontation with Dr. Manhattan is extended. Unlike in the novel, Nite Owl is present for Rorschach's death, becoming enraged at Ozymandias after witnessing the spectacle. Snyder felt he "needed a moment at the end" and explained that he changed this scene because he wanted to show a glimpse of the "sweet" relationship between Rorschach and Nite Owl that was established in the film.
Video games
Rorschach appears as a playable character in Watchmen: The End Is Nigh, with Jackie Earle Haley reprising his role.
In popular culture
In The Question #17 published by DC Comics in 1988, the Question, on whom Rorschach was partly based, actually read a copy of the Watchmen trade paperback. Question is briefly inspired by the comic and the character of Rorschach, leading him to take a more physically aggressive style of crime fighting. At the end of the issue, having been overpowered in hand-to-hand combat by a pair of villains, he is asked if he has any final words, and Question remarks, "Rorschach sucks." Rorschach is also featured in a dream sequence experienced by the Question in that issue.
In Deadpool: Sins of the Past #4, a miniseries published by Marvel Comics in 1994, Deadpool's mask is forcibly removed by the Juggernaut, at which point Deadpool parrots Rorschach by screaming, "My face! Give me back my face!".
In Astonishing X-Men vol. 3 #6 published by Marvel Comics in 2004, Rorschach makes another appearance in one of the riot scenes, running across the panel.
In the 2009 one-shot comic Watchmensch released by Brain Scan Studios which parodies the Watchmen series, Rorschach is depicted as a lawyer who is known instead as "Spottyman" and is pretending to be Jewish.
In Uncanny X-Men #525 published by Marvel Comics in 2010, during the "Second Coming" storyline, Fantomex, while fighting a group of Nimrods from the future, imitates Rorschach's line from when he was in prison: "I'm not trapped in here with you... You're trapped in here with me" and then adds "That film was stupid."
During the Marvel storyline "Spider-Verse" when the master weaver shows the web of life to Solus, Morlun's father, to show where Morlun is, various Spider-men are seen, one of them dressed like Rorschach but with red instead of white and with the black spots as eyes with smaller spots around them.
The character Pastry Face II is used to represent Rorshach in the Simpsons Comics Spectacular #13 storyline "Who Splotches the Splotchmen?"
In The Simpsons 2007 episode "Husbands and Knives", infant versions of Rorschach along with Ozymandias, Dr. Manhattan, and Nite Owl II are shown riding a surfboard on the cover of a DVD of the fictional film Watchmen Babies in V for Vacation (a parody of Alan Moore's graphic novels Watchmen and V for Vendetta).
The Question, as voiced by Jeffery Combs in Justice League Unlimited, mimics Rorschach's speaking patterns and monotone voice and his reputation for being crazy by the other heroes. In the episode "Question Authority," after being beaten and tortured by Lex Luthor, the Question is rescued and unmasked, where it is revealed the ordeal has given him bruises resembling Kovacs' after his arrest; the Question additionally holds a sign reading "The End is Nigh", identical to the sign Walter Kovacs is seen holding throughout the graphic novel.
Rorschach, along with the other main characters of the graphic novel, are shown in Saturday Morning Watchmen, a 2009 Newgrounds and YouTube viral video which parodies the Watchmen series. In the video, Rorschach appears as a "nutty" character who usually is "clowning around". He is also a "friend to the animals", and is shown petting a pair of German Shepherds, in ironic contrast to the graphic novel.
In the first episode of the second season of Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated, Velma is dressed in an overcoat and fedora and asks Fred, "Who were you expecting, Rorschach?"
Rorschach was briefly portrayed in the documentary The Mindscape of Alan Moore, where he is voiced by Alan Moore himself.
In the Japanese manga Attack on Titan, the character Levi Ackerman was inspired by Rorschach, according to the series creator Hajime Isayama. In the same manga, the character Erwin Smith is inspired by Ozymandias, another character from Watchmen.
Rorschach appears in Laura Beatty's 2019 novel, Lost Property.
See also
List of DC Comics characters
List of fictional antiheroes
References
External links
Comics characters introduced in 1986
DC Comics martial artists
DC Comics male superheroes
Fictional boxers
Fictional characters from New York City
Fictional diarists
Fictional murdered people
Fictional murderers
Fictional private investigators
Fictional Republicans (United States)
Question (DC Comics)
Superhero detectives
Watchmen characters
Vigilante characters in comics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaucho
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Gaucho
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A gaucho () or gaúcho () is a skilled horseman, reputed to be brave and unruly. The figure of the gaucho is a folk symbol of Argentina, Uruguay, Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, southern part of Bolivia and the south of Chilean Patagonia. Gauchos became greatly admired and renowned in legend, folklore, and literature and became an important part of their regional cultural tradition. Beginning late in the 19th century, after the heyday of the gauchos, they were celebrated by South American writers.
The gaucho in some respects resembled members of other nineteenth century rural, horse-based cultures such as the North American cowboy ( in Spanish), of Central Chile, the Peruvian or , the Venezuelan and Colombian , the Ecuadorian , the Hawaiian , the Mexican , and the Portuguese .
According to the , in its historical sense a gaucho was a "mestizo who, in the 18th and 19th centuries, inhabited Argentina, Uruguay, and Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, and was a migratory horseman, and adept in cattle work". In Argentina and Uruguay today, gaucho can refer to any "country person, experienced in traditional livestock farming". Because historical gauchos were reputed to be brave, if unruly, the word is also applied metaphorically to mean "noble, brave and generous", but also "one who is skillful in subtle tricks, crafty". In Portuguese the word gaúcho means "an inhabitant of the plains of Rio Grande do Sul or the Pampas of Argentina of European and indigenous American descent who devotes himself to lassoing and raising cattle and horses"; gaúcho has also acquired a metonymic signification in Brazil, meaning anyone, even an urban dweller, who is a citizen of the State of Rio Grande do Sul.
Etymology
Many explanations have been proposed, but no-one really knows how the word "gaucho" originated. Already in 1933 an author counted 36 different theories; more recently, over fifty. They can proliferate because "there is no documentation of any sort that will fix its origin to any time, place or language".
Resemblance theories
Most seem to have been conjured up by finding a word that looks something like gaucho and guessing that it changed to its present form, perhaps without awareness that there are sound laws that describe how languages and words really evolve over time. The etymologist Joan Corominas said most of these theories were "not worthy of discussion". Of the following explanations, Rona said that only #5, #8 and #9 might be taken seriously.
The dialect frontier theory
A different approach is to consider that the word might have originated north of the Río de la Plata, where the indigenous languages were quite different and there is a Portuguese influence.
Two facts that any theory could usefully account for are:
The word actually exists in two forms: Port. gaúcho and Sp. gaucho, both long attested.
Gauchos are first mentioned by name in the Spanish colonial records for present-day Uruguay, often in connection with smuggling to Brazil (see below, Origins). Thus Azara wrote (around 1784):
Hence the Uruguayan sociolinguist José Pedro Rona thought the origin of the word was to be sought "on the frontier zone between Spanish and Portuguese, which goes from northern Uruguay to the Argentine province of Corrientes and the Brazilian area between them".
Rona, himself born on a language frontier in pre-Holocaust Europe, was a pioneer of the concept of linguistic borders, and studied the dialects of northern Uruguay where Portuguese and Spanish intermingle. Rona thought that, of the two forms — gaúcho and gaucho — the former probably came first, because it was linguistically more natural for gaúcho to evolve by accent-shift to gáucho, than the other way round. Thus the problem came down to explaining the origin of gaúcho.
As to that, Rona thought that gaúcho originated in northern Uruguay, and came from garrucho, a derisive word possibly of Charrua origin, which meant something like "old indian" or "contemptible person", and is actually found in the historical record. However in the Portuguese-based dialects of northern Uruguay the phoneme /rr/ is not easily pronounced, and so is rendered as /h/ (sounding rather like English h). Thus garrucho would be rendered as gahucho, and indeed the French naturalist Auguste de Saint-Hilaire, travelling in Uruguay during the Artigas insurgency, wrote in his diary (16 October 1820): The native Spanish-speakers of these borderlands, however, could not process the phoneme /h/, and would render it as a null, thus gaúcho. In sum, according to this theory, gaúcho originated in the Uruguay-Brazil dialect borderlands, deriving from a derisive indigenous word garrucho, then in Spanish lands evolved by accent-shift to gaucho.
History
The historical "gaucho" is elusive, because there has been more than one kind. Mythologisation has obscured the topic.
Origins
Itinerant horsemen, hunting wild cattle on the pampas, originated as a social class during the 17th century. "The great natural abundance of the pampa", wrote Richard W. Slatta,
The original gaucho was typically descended from unions between Iberian men and Amerindian women, although he might also have African ancestry. A DNA analysis study of rural inhabitants of Rio Grande do Sul, who style themselves gaúchos, has claimed to discern, not only Amerindian (Charrúa and Guaraní) ancestry in the female line but, in the male line, a higher proportion of Spanish ancestry than is usual in Brazil. However, gauchos were a social class, not an ethnic group.
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Gauchos are first mentioned by name in the 18th century records of the Spanish colonial authorities who administered the Banda Oriental (present-day Uruguay). For them, he is an outlaw, cattle thief, robber and smuggler. Félix de Azara (1790) said gauchos were "the dregs of the Rio de la Plata and of Brazil". Summarised one scholar: "Fundamentally [the gaucho of the time] was a colonial bootlegger whose business was contraband trade in cattle hides. His work was highly illegal; his character lamentably reprehensible; his social standing exceedingly low.
"Gaucho" was an insult; yet it was possible to use the word to refer, without animosity, to country people in general. Furthermore the gaucho's skills, though useful in banditry or smuggling, were just as useful for serving in the frontier police. The Spanish administration recruited its antismuggling Cuerpo de Blandengues from among the outlaws themselves. The Uruguayan patriot José Gervasio Artigas made precisely that career transition.
Wars of emancipation; independence
The gaucho was a born cavalryman, and his bravery in the patriot cause in the wars of independence, especially under Artigas and Martín Miguel de Güemes, earned admiration and improved his image. The Spanish General García Gamba, who fought against Güemes in Salta, said: Knowing "gaucho" to be an insult, the Spanish hurled it at the patriot militias; Güemes, however, picked it up as a badge of honour, referring to his troops as "my gauchos".
Visitors to the newly emergent Argentina and Uruguay perceived that a "gaucho" was a country person or herdsman: seldom was there a pejorative significance. Emeric Essex Vidal, the first artist to paint gauchos, noted their mobility (1820):
Vidal also painted visiting gauchos from up-country Tucumán. ("Their features are particularly Spanish, uncrossed by that mixture observable in the citizens of Buenos Ayres"). They are not horsemen: they are oxcart drivers, and may or may not have called themselves gauchos in their home province.
Charles Darwin observed life on the pampas for six months and reflected in his diary (1833):
Controlling the wandering gaucho
Argentina
As cattle estates grew bigger the freely wandering gaucho became a nuisance to landed proprietors, except when his casual labour was wanted e.g. at branding. Furthermore his services were needed in the armies that were fighting on the Indian frontiers, or in the frequent civil wars.
Hence in Argentina, vagrancy laws required rural workers to carry employment documents. Some restrictions on the gaucho's freedom of movement were imposed under Spanish Viceroy Sobremonte, but they were greatly intensified under Bernardino Rivadavia, and were enforced more vigorously still under Juan Manuel de Rosas. Those who did not carry the documentation could be sentenced to years in the military. From 1822 to 1873 even internal passports were required.
According to Marxist and other scholars the gaucho became "proletarianized", preferring life as a salaried peon on an estancia to forced enlistment, irregular pay and harsh discipline. However, some resisted. "In words and deeds, soldiers contested the state's disciplinary model", frequently deserting. Deserters often fled to the Indian frontier, or even took refuge with the Indians themselves. José Hernández described the bitter fate of just such a gaucho protagonist in his poem Martín Fierro (1872), a great popular success in the countryside. One estimate was that renegade gauchos comprised half of all Indian raiding parties.
Lucio Victorio Mansilla (1877) thought he could discern two types of gaucho in the soldiers under his command: The paisano gaucho (country worker) has a home, a fixed abode, work habits, respect for authority, on whose side he will always be, even against his better feelings.
But the gaucho neto (out-and-out gaucho) is the typical wandering criollo, here today, there tomorrow; gambler, quarreler, enemy of discipline; who flees military service when it is his turn, takes refuge among the Indians if he knifes someone, or joins the montonera (armed rabble) if it shows up.
The first has the instincts of civilization; he imitates the man of the cities in his dress, in his customs. The second loves tradition; he hates foreigners; his luxury is his spurs, his flash gear, his leather sash, his facón (dagger-sword). The first takes off his poncho to go into town, the second goes there flaunting his trappings. The first is a cultivator, oxcart driver, cattle drover, herdsman, a peon. The second hires himself out for cattle branding. The first has been a soldier several times. The second was once part of a squadron and as soon as he saw his chance he deserted.
The first is always federal, the second is no longer anything. The first still believes in something; the second believes in nothing. He has suffered more than the city slicker, and so has been disillusioned quicker. He votes, because the Commander or the Mayor tells him to, and with that universal suffrage is achieved. If he has a claim, he drops it because he thinks it is frankly a waste of time. In a word, the first is a useful man for industry and work — the second is a dangerous inhabitant anywhere. If he resorts to the courts, it is because he has the instinct to believe that they will do him justice out of fear – and there are examples, if they don't do it he takes revenge — he wounds or kills. The former makes up the Argentine social mass; the second is disappearing.
Already in 1845 a local dialect dictionary, by a knowledgeable compiler, gave "gaucho" as meaning any kind of rural worker, including one who cultivated the soil. To refer to the wandering sort, one had to specify further. Documentary research has shown the great majority of rural workers in Buenos Aires province were not herdsmen, but cultivators or shepherds. Thus, the gaucho that survives in today's popular imagination — the galloping horseman — was not typical.
Brazil and Uruguay
Gauchos north of the Río de la Plata were similar to their Argentine counterparts; however there were some differences, particularly in the region straddling Brazil and Uruguay.
The Portuguese Crown, in order to conquer southern Brazil — it was disputed with the Spanish Empire — distributed vast tracts of land to a few hundred families. Labour in this region was scarce, so great landowners acquired it by allowing a social class, called agregados, to settle on their land with their own animals. Values were martial and paternalistic, for the territory went back and forth between Portugal and Spain.
Brazilian inheritance laws compelled landowners to leave their lands in equal shares to their sons and daughters, and since they were numerous, and those laws were hard to evade, great landholdings fractured in a few generations. There were not the huge cattle estates of Buenos Aires province where, as an extreme example, the Anchorena family owned in 1864.
Unlike Argentina, cattlemen in Rio Grande do Sul did not have vagrancy laws to tie gaúchos to their ranches. However, slavery was legal in Brazil; in Rio Grande do Sul it existed until 1884; and perhaps a majority of permanent ranch workers were enslaved. Thus many horse-riding campeiros (cowboys) were black slaves. They enjoyed sharply better living conditions than the slaves who worked in the brutal xarqueadas (beef-salting plants). John Charles Chasteen explained why:
Land-hungry Rio Grande cattlemen bought up estates cheaply in neighbouring Uruguay until they owned about 30% of that country, which they ranched with their slaves and cattle. The border area was fluid, bilingual and lawless. Though slavery was abolished in Uruguay in 1846, and there were laws against human trafficking, weak governments poorly enforced those laws. Often Brazilian ranchers simply ignored them, even crossing and re-crossing the border with their slaves and cattle. An 1851 extradition treaty required Uruguay to return fugitive Brazilian slaves.
Governments found it hard to establish a monopoly of violence in the border area. In the Federalist Revolution of 1893 gaúcho-manned armies led by elite families fought each other with exceptional barbarity. Powerful Brazilian-Uruguayan families, like the Saraivas, led mounted insurrections in both countries, even in the 20th century. In the satirical cartoon (1904) Aparicio Saravia says it is time for "another little revolution": they have been at peace long enough and are starting to look ridiculous. This time, however, his mobile, lance-wielding horsemen were put down, and decisively, by Uruguayan troops armed with Mauser rifles and Krupp cannon, efficiently deployed by telegraph and rail.
European immigration; fencing the pampa
It was official government policy, enshrined in the Argentine Constitution of 1853, to encourage European immigration. The purpose, which was not concealed, was to supplant the "lower races" of the sparsely populated interior, including gauchos, whom the elite believed to be hopelessly backward. Famously, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, Argentina's second elected president, had written (in Facundo: Civilización y Barbarie) that gauchos, although audacious and skilled in country lore, were brutal, feckless, lived indolently in squalor, and — by upholding the caudillos (provincial strongmen) — were obstacles to national unity. The population was so thinly spread it was impossible to educate. They were barbarians, inimical to progress. Juan Bautista Alberdi, deviser of the Constitution, held that "to govern is to populate".
Once political stability was achieved the results were dramatic. From around 1875 a flood of immigrants altered the country's ethnic composition. In 1914, 40% of Argentina's residents were foreign-born. Today, Italian surnames are more common than Spanish.
Barbed wire, cheap from 1876, fenced the pampa "and thus eliminated the need for gaucho cowboys". Gauchos were forced off the land, drifting into rural towns to look for work, though a few were retained as peon labourers. Cunninghame Graham, after whom a Buenos Aires street is named, and who had lived as a gaucho in the 1870s, returned in 1914 to "his first love, Argentina" and found it had greatly changed. "Progress, which he constantly lambasted, had rendered the gaucho virtually extinct".
Wote S. Samuel Trifilo (1964): "The gaucho of today working on the pampas of Argentina is no more a real gaucho than is our own present-day cowboy the cowboy of the Wild West; both have gone forever."
Two-thirds of Uruguay lies south of the Río Negro, and this part was fenced most intensively in the decade 1870-1880. The gaucho was marginalised and was frequently driven to live in pueblos de ratas (rural slums, literally rat towns).
North of the Río Negro mobile gauchos survived rather longer. A Scottish anthropologist in the central region (1882) saw many of them as unsettled. European immigration to the countryside was smaller. The central government failed to consolidate its power over the countryside, and gaucho-manned armies continued to defy it until 1904. The turbulent gaucho leaders e.g. the Saravias had connections with the cattlemen over the Brazilian border, where there was much less European immigration; Wire fences did not become common in the borderland until the close of the 19th century.
The revolutionary battles in Brazil ended by 1930 under the dictatorship of Getúlio Vargas, who disarmed the private gaúcho armies and prohibited the carrying of guns in public.
The gaucho as an icon
Argentina
In the 20th century urban intellectuals promoted the gaucho as the Argentine national icon; it was a reaction to massive European immigration and a rapidly changing way of life. Jeane DeLaney has argued that the immigrant was being scapegoated for the problems of modernity; thus, the sentiment was antimodernistic, with a xenophobic, nationalistic edge.
Writers variously reflecting this tendency included José María Ramos Mejía, Manuel Gálvez, Rafael Obligado, José Ingenieros, Miguel Cané, and above all Leopoldo Lugones and Ricardo Güiraldes. Their answer was to go back to values that could be attributed to the old-time gaucho. However, the gaucho they chose was not the one who cultivated the land, but the one who galloped across it.
For Lugones (1913), to discern a people's true character, one had to read its epic poetry; and Martín Fierro was the Argentine epic poem par excellence. Far from being a barbarian, the gaucho was the hero who did what the Spanish Empire could not — civilise the pampa by subjugating the Indian. To be a gaucho demanded "composure, courage, ingenuity, meditation, sobriety, vigour; all this made him a free man". But in that case, asked Lugones, why did the gaucho disappear? Because, together with his virtues, he had inherited two defects from his Indian and Spanish ancestors: laziness and pessimism.
Lugones' lectures, where he canonised Martín Fierro with its quarreling gaucho protagonist, had official support: the president of the Republic and his cabinet attended them, as did prominent members of the traditional ruling classes.
However, wrote a Mexican scholar, in exalting this gaucho Lugones and others were not recreating a real historical character, they were weaving a nationalist myth, for political purposes. Jorge Luis Borges thought their choice of gaucho was a poor role model for Argentines.
Wrote musicologist Melanie Plesch:
The iconic gaucho gained traction in popular culture because he appealed to diverse social groups: displaced rural workers; European immigrants anxious to assimilate; traditional ruling classes wanting to affirm their own legitimacy. At a time when the elite was extolling Argentina as a "white" country, a fourth group, those who possessed dark skins, felt validated by the gaucho's elevation, seeing that his non-white ancestry was too well known to be concealed.
Today a popular movement celebrates gaucho culture.
Brazil
In Rio Grande do Sul the gaúcho has been mythified too, not in reaction to massive immigration as in Argentina, but to give the state a regional identity. The main celebration is the Semana Farroupilha, a week of festivities, mass horseback parades, churrasco, rodeos and dances. It refers to the Ragamuffin War (1835–45), an elite-led separatist war against the Brazilian Empire; politicians have reinterpreted it as democratic movement. Hence, wrote Luciano Bornholdt,
The Movimento Tradicionalista Gaúcho (MTG) has an active participation of two million people, and claims to be the largest popular culture movement in the Western world. Essentially urban, rooted in nostalgia for rural life, the MTG fosters gaúcho culture. There are 2,000 Centres for Gaúcho Traditions, not only in the state, but elsewhere, even Los Angeles and Osaka, Japan. Gaúcho products include television and radio programs, articles, books, dance halls, performers, records, theme restaurants, and clothing. The movement was founded by intellectuals, apparently sons of downwardly mobile small landowners who had moved to the cities to study. Since gaúcho culture was seen as male, only later were women invited to participate. Though the real gaúchos of history lived in the Campanha (plains region), some of the first to join were of German or Italian ethnicity from outside that area, a social class who had idealised the gaúcho rancher as a type superior to themselves.
Horsemanship
For many, an essential attribute of a gaucho is that he is a skilled horseman. Scottish physician and botanist David Christison noted in 1882, "He has taken his first lessons in riding before he is well able to walk". Without a horse the gaucho himself felt unmanned. During the wars of the 19th century in the Southern Cone, the cavalries on all sides were composed almost entirely of gauchos. In Argentina, gaucho armies such as that of Martín Miguel de Güemes, slowed Spanish advances. Furthermore, many relied on gaucho armies to control the Argentine provinces.
The naturalist William Henry Hudson, who was born on the Pampas of Buenos Aires province, recorded that the gauchos of his childhood used to say that a man without a horse was a man without legs. He described meeting a blind gaucho who was obliged to beg for his food yet behaved with dignity and went about on horseback. Richard W. Slatta, the author of a scholarly work about gauchos, notes that the gaucho used horses to collect, mark, drive or tame cattle, to draw fishing nets, to hunt ostriches, to snare partridges, to draw well water, and even—with the help of his friends—to ride to his own burial.
By reputation the quintessential gaucho Juan Manuel de Rosas could throw his hat on the ground and scoop it up while galloping his horse, without touching the saddle with his hand. For the gaucho, the horse was absolutely essential to his survival for, said Hudson: "he must every day traverse vast distances, see quickly, judge rapidly, be ready at all times to encounter hunger and fatigue, violent changes of temperature, great and sudden perils".
A popular was:
It was the gaucho's passion to own all his steeds in matching colours. Hudson recalled: The gaucho, from the poorest worker on horseback to the largest owner of lands and cattle, has, or had in those days, a fancy for having all his riding-horses of one colour. Every man as a rule had his tropilla — his own half a dozen or a dozen or more saddle-horses, and he would have them all as nearly alike as possible, so that one man had chestnuts, another browns, bays, silver- or iron-greys, duns, fawns, cream-noses, or blacks, or whites, or piebalds.
The Chacho Peñaloza described the low point of his life as "In Chile − and on foot!" ()
Extreme equestrianship
Richard W. Slatta collected instances of extreme equestrian sports practised by 19th century gauchos. To perform these required and developed skills and courage that helped gauchos to survive on the pampas.
Crowding. Two men would spur their horses to shove against each other, each man's object being to drive his opponent to a particular place. In a variant, they raced along a narrow track; if one man could crowd the other off it, he won.
Cinchada. An equestrian tug-of-war, tail to tail; the rope was tied to their saddles. "This contest grew out of the need for mounts strong enough to pull against a wild, lassoed steer".
Pechando. Two horsemen galloping at full speed charged each other head on. The shock of the collision tumbled the men and perhaps the horses. The object was to recover and charge again and again until prevented by exhaustion or injury. "Pechando provided an opportunity for a gaucho to exhibit his courage and indifference to death or injury."
Jumping the bar. A bar was placed above a corral gate with just enough headroom for a horse to pass. A gaucho galloped through, and as he did, he jumped over the bar and landed back in the saddle.
Maroma. A variant in which the gaucho jumped from the bar onto the back of a racing wild horse or wild steer. He had to stay on until the horse was broken or the steer was killed.
Recado. The horseman galloped across the pampa while he undid his recado (a multi-layered saddle), dropping the pieces as he went. He had to go back, snatch up the pieces and reassemble his saddle, all the time riding at full speed.
Pialar, a particularly dangerous sport. One man galloped through a group of gauchos who lassoed his horse's legs. This threw the horse, but the man had to land on his feet holding the reins. This skill was useful for survival because the pampa was riddled with vizcacha burrows that threw horses; loss of one's mount was probable death for a solitary rider.
Gauchos routinely maltreated their horses since these were plentiful. Even a poor gaucho usually had a tropilla of perhaps a dozen. Most of those sports were banned by the elite.
La sortija. Carrying a lance, a galloping horseman had to impale a small ring dangling from a thread. Introduced from Spain, this sport is still practised in Spanish-speaking countries.
Pato. A game resembling rugby football on horseback, but ranging over miles of terrain. Banned in its original form, pato was gentrified and is now Argentina's national sport.
The higher skills were lost as the gaucho was marginalised, wrote Slatta:
Culture
The gaucho plays an important symbolic role in the nationalist feelings of this region, especially that of Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The epic poem by José Hernández (considered by some the national epic of Argentina) used the gaucho as a symbol against corruption and of Argentine national tradition, pitted against Europeanising tendencies. Martín Fierro, the hero of the poem, is drafted into the Argentine military for a border war, deserts, and becomes an outlaw and fugitive. The image of the free gaucho is often contrasted to the slaves who worked the northern Brazilian lands. Further literary descriptions are found in Ricardo Güiraldes' .
Gauchos were generally reputed to be strong, honest, silent types, but proud and capable of violence when provoked. The gaucho tendency to violence over petty matters is also recognized as a typical trait. Gauchos' use of the —a large knife generally tucked into the rear of the gaucho's sash—is legendary, often associated with considerable bloodletting. Historically, the was typically the only eating instrument that a gaucho carried.
The gaucho diet was composed almost entirely of beef while on the range, supplemented by , an herbal infusion made from the leaves of yerba mate, a type of holly rich in caffeine and nutrients. The water for was heated short of boiling on a stove in a kettle, and traditionally served in a hollowed-out gourd and sipped through a metal straw called a .
Gauchos dressed and wielded tools quite distinct from North American cowboys. In addition to the lariat, gauchos used or ( in Portuguese)—three leather-bound rocks tied together with leather straps. The typical gaucho outfit would include a poncho, which doubled as a saddle blanket and as sleeping gear; a (dagger); a leather whip called a ; and loose-fitting trousers called or a poncho or blanket wrapped around the loins like a diaper called a , belted with a sash called a . A leather belt, sometimes decorated with coins and elaborate buckles, is often worn over the sash. During winters, gauchos wore heavy wool ponchos to protect against cold.
Their tasks were to move the cattle between grazing fields, or to market sites such as the port of Buenos Aires. The consists of branding the animal with the owner's sign. The taming of animals was another of their usual activities. Taming was a trade especially appreciated throughout Argentina and competitions to domesticate wild foal remained in force at festivals. The majority of gauchos were illiterate and considered as countrymen.
Modern influences
, a boy in the Argentine colors and a gaucho hat, was the mascot for the 1978 FIFA World Cup.
In popular culture
is a 2,316-line epic poem by the Argentine writer José Hernández on the life of the eponymous gaucho.
Way of a Gaucho 1952 film starring Gene Tierney and Rory Calhoun.
The Gaucho was a 1927 film starring Douglas Fairbanks.
was a 1942 Argentine film set during the Gaucho war against Spanish royalists in Salta, northern Argentina, in 1817. It is considered a classic of Argentine cinema.
The third segment of Disney's 1942 animated feature package film, , is titled "El Gaucho Goofy", where American cowboy Goofy gets taken mysteriously to the Argentine Pampas to learn the ways of the native gaucho.
Gaucho is the name of the 1980 album by American jazz fusion band Steely Dan, which featured a song by the same name.
Gauchos of El Dorado was a 1941 American Western Three Mesquiteers B-movie directed by Lester Orlebeck.
by Roberto Fontanarrosa is an Argentinean humor comics series about a gaucho.
Gaucho is the name of a song by the Dave Matthews Band on the 2012 album Away From the World.
The Gaucho is the University of California Santa Barbara mascot.
The Jewish Gauchos is a 1910 novel by Alberto Gerchunoff about Jewish gauchos in Argentina. It was adapted into a film, , in 1975.
Gaucho culture is often referred to by Borges
Gallery
See also
Stockman
Gaucho sheepdog
Criollo horse
Cowboy
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Animal husbandry occupations
Argentine folklore
Chilean folklore
Culture in Rio Grande do Sul
Pastoralists
Uruguayan folklore
Brazilian folklore
Latin American folklore
South American folklore
National symbols of Argentina
Horse history and evolution
Horse-related professions and professionals
Herding
Ethnic groups in Brazil
Transhumance
Gaucho culture
Obsolete occupations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Arcole
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Battle of Arcole
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The Battle of Arcole or Battle of Arcola (15–17 November 1796) was fought between French and Austrian forces southeast of Verona during the War of the First Coalition, a part of the French Revolutionary Wars. The battle saw a bold maneuver by Napoleon Bonaparte's French Army of Italy to outflank the Austrian army led by József Alvinczi and cut off its line of retreat. The French victory proved to be a highly significant event during the third Austrian attempt to lift the siege of Mantua. Alvinczi planned to execute a two-pronged offensive against Bonaparte's army. The Austrian commander ordered Paul Davidovich to advance south along the Adige River valley with one corps while Alvinczi led the main army in an advance from the east. The Austrians hoped to raise the siege of Mantua where Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser was trapped with a large garrison. If the two Austrian columns linked up and if Wurmser's troops were released, French prospects were grim.
Davidovich scored a victory against Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois at Calliano and threatened Verona from the north. Meanwhile, Alvinczi repulsed one attack by Bonaparte at Bassano and advanced almost to the gates of Verona where he defeated a second French attack at Caldiero. Leaving Vaubois' battered division to contain Davidovich, Bonaparte massed every available man and tried to turn Alvinczi's left flank by crossing the Adige. For two days the French assaulted the stoutly defended Austrian position at Arcole without success. Their persistent attacks finally forced Alvinczi to withdraw on the third day. That day Davidovich routed Vaubois, but it was too late. Bonaparte's victory at Arcole permitted him to concentrate against Davidovich and chase him up the Adige valley. Left alone, Alvinczi threatened Verona again. But without his colleague's support, the Austrian commander was too weak to continue the campaign and he withdrew again. Wurmser attempted a breakout, but his effort came too late in the campaign and had no effect on the result. The third relief attempt failed by the narrowest of margins.
Background
Armies
The second relief attempt of the siege of Mantua ended badly for Austria when General Napoleon Bonaparte routed Feldmarschall Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser's army at the Battle of Bassano. In the sequel, Wurmser marched for Mantua, evading French attempts to cut him off. He reached there with 16,000 soldiers on 12 September 1796, but was defeated and driven into the fortress by the French on the 15th. With Wurmser's Austrians and the original garrison crowded into the encircled city, disease and hunger began exacting a serious toll on the garrison. Emperor Francis II of Austria appointed Feldzeugmeister József Alvinczi to lead a reconstituted field army in the third attempt to relieve Mantua. Alvinczi, Feldmarschall-Leutnant Paul Davidovich, General-major Johann Rudolf Sporck, and Major Franz von Weyrother drew up plans for a two-pronged offensive. The Friaul Corps was assigned to Feldmarschall-Leutnant Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich and directed to move west toward Verona. The Tyrol Corps was entrusted to Davidovich and ordered to advance south from the Alps to join Quosdanovich. Wurmser would break out from Mantua and attack the French field armies in the rear.
Quosdanovich's 26,432-strong Friaul Corps was accompanied by Alvinczi as it moved west on Mantua from the Piave River. This force was formed into a 4,397-man Advance Guard under General-major Friedrich Franz Xaver Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, a 4,376-strong Reserve led by General-major Philipp Pittoni von Dannenfeld, and a Main corps supervised by Feldmarschall-Leutnant Giovanni Marchese di Provera. This last unit was subdivided into a 9,380-man First line consisting of the brigades of Generals-major Gerhard Rosselmini and Anton Lipthay de Kisfalud and an 8,279-strong Second line composed of brigades led by Generals-major Anton Schübirz von Chobinin and Adolf Brabeck. There were 54 line and 20 reserve artillery pieces with the Friaul Corps.
On 1 November 1796, Davidovich's Tyrol Corps numbered 18,427 infantry and 1,049 cavalry. The corps was split into six brigade-size columns under Generals-major Johann Loudon, Joseph Ocskay von Ocsko, Sporck, and Josef Philipp Vukassovich and Colonel Seulen. Loudon commanded 3,915 infantry and 362 cavalry in Column 1, Ocskay led 4,200-foot soldiers and 463 horsemen in Column 2, Sporck directed 2,560 infantry in Column 3, Vukassovich supervised both Column 4 with 3,772-foot and 30 horse and Column 5 with 2,958-foot and 120 horse, and Seulen led 1,022 infantry and 74 cavalry in Column 6. The Tyrol Corps counted 40 line and 20 reserve guns.
Wurmser commanded 23,708 soldiers within Mantua. However, only 12,420 were reported as capable of taking the field. In addition, General-major Anton Ferdinand Mittrowsky's brigade occupied the upper Brenta River, connecting the wings under Davidovich and Quosdanovich. Mittrowsky commanded about 3,000 men.
Bonaparte deployed a 10,500-man division under General of Division Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois at Lavis to watch Davidovich. At Bassano, General of Division André Masséna's 9,540 soldiers defended the line of the Brenta River. The 8,340 troops of General of Division Pierre Augereau covered the Adige River. General of Division Charles Edward Jennings de Kilmaine with 8,830 soldiers blockaded Wurmser's large garrison in Mantua. General of Division François Macquard's 2,750-man infantry reserve was posted at Villafranca di Verona while General of Division Thomas-Alexandre Dumas with 1,600 troopers of the cavalry reserve was stationed at Verona.
The Austrians went to a lot of trouble to conceal the strength of Davidovich's corps from their enemies. The ruse was so successful that Bonaparte ordered Vaubois to advance and defeat his opponent so that he could shift 3,000 troops to help fight Alvinczi. On 2 November, Vaubois attacked Davidovich near Cembra, inflicting 1,116 casualties before retiring. Though the French suffered only 650 killed and wounded, this included 280 soldiers of the 85th Line Infantry Demi Brigade. This loss seems to have seriously damaged the unit's morale. The next day, Vaubois pulled back to Calliano.
Second Bassano and Calliano
On 1 November, the Friaul Corps began crossing the Piave. Bonaparte elected to attack the Austrians on the Brenta and called Augereau and Macquard east to join Masséna. In the Second Battle of Bassano on 6 November, the Austrians held off Bonaparte's attacks. French losses numbered 3,000 killed, wounded, and missing, plus an additional 508 men and one howitzer captured. In this hard-fought engagement, the Austrians lost 534 killed, 1,731 wounded, and 558 captured for a total of 2,823 casualties. Bonaparte quickly pulled back to Verona.
Davidovich attacked Vaubois at the Battle of Calliano on 6 November but was repulsed after hard fighting. He renewed his assault at daybreak on the 7th. After holding out all day, French morale collapsed in the late afternoon and Vaubois' men fled the battlefield in a panic. Between 2 and 7 November, Vaubois' division suffered 4,400 killed, wounded, and missing and lost six artillery pieces. The Austrians also lost heavily, with 2,000 killed and wounded plus a further 1,500 taken prisoner. In a public announcement, Bonaparte vented his fury at the poor performance of the 39th and 85th Line Infantry Demi Brigades.
Poor communications plagued the Austrian commanders throughout the campaign. This was a consequence of the wide separation between the two wings. Furthermore, many of Alvinczi's men were indifferently equipped raw recruits who straggled badly. The Austrians also suffered from a serious shortage of officers. After Alvinczi sent him a mistaken report that Masséna was reinforcing Vaubois, Davidovich became very cautious. The report was sent on 9 November but only reached its recipient on the 11th, which was typical of the Austrian communications problems. Alvinczi also repeatedly urged Davidovich to speed up his march toward Verona.
Alvinczi's advance guard under GM Friedrich of Hohenzollern-Hechingen pressed toward Verona. Near that city, he encountered Masséna on 11 November and was forced to pull back after losing 400 men in a sharp combat. In a sleet storm on the 12th, Hohenzollern fought off the attacks of Masséna and Augereau in the Battle of Caldiero. When reinforcements under Brabeck, Schübirz, and Provera arrived later in the day, Bonaparte called off the futile attacks and drew his troops back within the walls of Verona. The Austrians reported losses of 1,244 officers and men. French losses were estimated at 1,000 killed and wounded, plus an additional 800 men and two guns captured.
Maneuver
After two sharp defeats, even Bonaparte "became very despondent about his chances of survival." He deployed Macquard and 3,000 men to hold Verona. A slightly reinforced Vaubois clung to a strong position with about 8,000 troops, keeping Davidovich's 14,000 soldiers bottled up in the Adige valley. To blockade Wurmser's garrison within Mantua, Kilmaine could count only 6,626 men after providing reinforcements to other commands. This left Bonaparte a field force consisting of Masséna's 7,937, Augereau's 6,000, a reserve of 2,600 infantry plus cavalry, for a total of 18,000 soldiers. By this time, Alvinczi's main force numbered about 23,000 men. Historian David G. Chandler wrote,
Like a juggler keeping three balls in the air at once, Bonaparte had to balance the dangers of the three sectors against each other, keeping them in clear relative perspective. Although he had singled out Alvinczi as his main target, it was only too clear that an aggressive move on the part of Davidovich or even by Wurmser might compel the French to abandon their operations against the main Austrian army and move every available man to reinforce the threatened area. Defeat on any sector could well spell catastrophe and the destruction of the Army of Italy.
Unknown to the French, Alvinczi planned to throw a pontoon bridge across the Adige below Verona at Zevio on 15 November at nightfall. Meanwhile, Bonaparte determined on an audacious strategy. He force-marched Masséna and Augereau along the west bank of the Adige to a bridging site at Ronco all'Adige, behind Alvinczi's left flank. Once he moved his army across the river, he planned to move north to cut the Austrian line of retreat and seize the enemy's trains and artillery park.
On the far bank was an area of marshy land that troops could not penetrate, which meant that all movement was limited to the causeways or dikes on the banks of the river Adige, and the causeways on the banks of a small tributary called the Alpone River that flowed into it from the north. The Alpone was only wide and deep. In the difficult terrain, the French soldiers might have an advantage. Further, the Austrians would not be able to use their superior numbers in the restricted battlefield.
From Ronco, the north-bound road followed a dike for about to a bridge, on the east side of which was the village of Arcole. From there, the road continued going north on the east bank of the stream to San Bonifacio near the main highway. The dikes along the Alpone near Arcole were "26 feet high, and had very steep faces." Another road followed a dike from Ronco northwest to Belfiore and on to Caldiero.
Battle
First day
By dawn on 15 November, Bonaparte's troops reached the intended crossing, and soon afterward Chef de brigade (Colonel) Antoine-François Andréossy's engineers had a pontoon bridge in operation. Augereau's division crossed first and headed east and north toward Arcole. Masséna's soldiers followed and, to cover the left flank, took a causeway leading north and west toward Belfiore di Porcile.
Alvinczi posted Oberst (Colonel) Wenzel Brigido's four battalions in the area; of these, two battalions and two cannons defended Arcole. These troops repulsed Augereau's leading demi-brigade under General of Brigade Louis André Bon. Before long, most of the French soldiers were lying in the lee of the causeway to shelter from the searing fire. Brigido pulled every available man into the combat. Augereau threw in demi-brigades led by Generals of Brigade Jean-Antoine Verdier and Pierre Verne. At mid-day, Austrian reinforcements led by General-Major Anton Ferdinand Mittrowsky began arriving to help the defenders. Soon, Bon, Verdier, Verne and General of Brigade Jean Lannes were all wounded and the attack completely stalled.
On the western flank, Alvinczi sent the brigades of Oberstleutnant (Lieutenant Colonel) Alois von Gavasini and General-Major Adolf Brabeck to seize the French pontoon bridge. They collided with Masséna near Bionde, midway between Belfiore and Ronco. Initially successful, the Austrians were soon driven back beyond Belfiore after Brabeck's troops accidentally fired on Gavasini's men, causing a panic. Once they reached Belfiore, the French watched as the Austrian trains rolled east on the main highway, out of their reach.
Attempting to break the stalemate near Arcole, Bonaparte ordered General of Brigade Jean Joseph Guieu with two demi-brigades to boat across the Adige below its confluence with the Alpone at Albaredo d'Adige. He also sent a French battalion across the Alpone by boat near its mouth. The latter unit fought its way north along the east bank dike.
Trying to inspire his men to attack, Bonaparte grabbed a flag and stood in the open on the dike "about 55 paces" from the bridge. He remained miraculously untouched, but several members of his staff were hit by the intense fire and his aide-de-camp, Jean-Baptiste Muiron, was killed. An unknown officer dragged Bonaparte out of the line of fire and the commanding general ended up in the muddy ditch.
Adding to the confusion, the Austrians launched a sortie from Arcole and defeated the French battalion on the east bank. In the evening, Guieu crossed at Albaredo and eventually managed to flush the Austrian defenders out of Arcole. At midnight, worried that Davidovich was about to fall upon his rear, Bonaparte withdrew Guieu from Arcole and pulled most of his troops back across the Adige. He left a garrison on the Austrian side of the river to hold his bridgehead.
Second day
Alvinczi left Hohenzollern's troops near Verona to guard against an attack from that city. The Austrian leader ordered Provera with six battalions to attack from Belfiore. Alvinczi reinforced Mittrowsky to a total of 14 battalions, including the brigades of Schübirz and Oberst Franz Sticker, and instructed him to advance south from Arcole. The two forces would march at dawn on 16 November and converge on the French bridgehead. Alvinczi sent two battalions to guard Albaredo against a repetition of Guieu's attack.
Provera's effort came to grief when he ran into Masséna. Brabeck was killed during the encounter and the Austrians were chased back to Belfiore with the loss of five cannons. During the morning, Mittrowsky and Augereau engaged in a see-saw battle that ended when the Austrians fell back to Arcole.
Mittrowsky positioned Sticker's four battalions on the western dike, lined the eastern dike with four battalions under Brigido, and packed the rest of his troops into Arcole. These intelligent dispositions blocked Bonaparte's repeated attempts to seize the village during the day. French attempts to cross the Adige at Albaredo and the Alpone near its mouth both failed. At nightfall, Bonaparte withdrew Masséna and Augereau toward the bridgehead, but sizable forces stayed on the Austrian side of the Adige.
The former slave Joseph Hercule Domingue, French cavalry lieutenant, was promoted to captain and given a ceremonial sword by Bonaparte for his actions in executing a surprise attack on the Austrian cavalry on this day of the battle.
Third day
On 17 November, Alvinczi withdrew Hohenzollern to Caldiero, closer to his main body. Again, Provera held Belfiore while Mittrowsky defended Arcole. During the night, Bonaparte's engineers floated some pontoons into the Alpone where they built a bridge near its mouth. Augereau's division crossed the bridge and began fighting its way along the eastern dike. A French battalion and some cavalry also set out from Legnago and joined Augereau later in the day. Meanwhile, two of Masséna's demi-brigades led by General of Brigade Jean Gilles André Robert attacked along the western dike.
By early afternoon, Masséna drubbed Provera near Belfiore again. Alvinczi recalled both Provera and Hohenzollern toward the east and began feeding some of the latter's troops into the combat at Arcole. There, the battle went back and forth all day. At 3:00 PM, a large column of Austrian reinforcements surged out of Arcole and drove back the troops under Robert. Augereau's men on the east bank saw this development and also fell back. By 4:00 PM, Augereau's rattled division pulled back across the pontoon bridge to the west bank.
Just when the day seemed lost, Masséna appeared with reinforcements from the western flank. With these, he ambushed the Austrians on the western dike and sent them reeling back toward Arcole. Heartened, Augereau's men recrossed to the east bank of the Alpone and renewed the fight. Masséna and Augereau finally battled their way into Arcole around 5:00 PM. A lieutenant and 25 Guides aided the final attack by riding into the Austrian rear area and blowing several bugles to create the impression of a large force. The French followed up their success by advancing north and threatening to block the main east-west highway. Alvinczi threw in Schübirz's brigade to hold off the French, and this allowed Provera's division to escape to the east.
Aftermath
French losses at Arcole numbered 3,500 dead and wounded, plus 1,300 captured or missing. The Austrians suffered only 2,200 dead and wounded, but lost 4,000 men and 11 guns to capture. On the French side, General Jean Gilles André Robert was mortally wounded, while Austrian General-Major Gerhard Rosselmini died in Vicenza on 19 November. On 17 November, Davidovich finally attacked Vaubois at Rivoli. Ocskay's brigade from Monte Baldo met Vukassovich's brigade from the Adige gorge, and together they drove the French soldiers steadily back. After resisting all morning the French troops stampeded in the afternoon. Again, the 85th Line was among the first units to panic. The French lost 800 killed and wounded, plus 1,000 captured including Generals of Brigade Pascal Antoine Fiorella and Antoine Valette. Austrian casualties were 600. Vaubois pulled back toward Peschiera del Garda while Davidovich pursued as far as Castelnuovo del Garda. Bonaparte sent his cavalry to watch Alvinczi's retreat, while turning the bulk of his forces toward Davidovich. On 19 November, Davidovich heard of the Austrian defeat at Arcole and detected signs that Bonaparte was about to fall upon him in full force. The Austrian pulled back to Rivoli on the 20th and began to fall back farther the next morning. At this moment, he received an encouraging note from Alvinczi and halted his retreat. But the French caught up with him at Rivoli. In the ensuing clash, the French suffered 200 casualties while inflicting losses of 250 killed and wounded. An additional 600 Austrians, three guns and a bridging train fell into French hands. Davidovich hastily fell back north. Altogether, Davidovich's retreat from Rivoli cost him as many as 1,500 men and nine guns.
After Arcole, Alvinczi pulled back to Olmo where he held a council of war on the morning of 18 November. At this meeting, the Austrian generals gamely decided to return to the field with their 16,000 remaining troops. By 21 November, Alvinczi occupied Caldiero again but could go no farther. While there, he heard of Davidovich's defeat on 23 November. That evening the Austrian field army began its retreat to the Brenta. During the three days that the battle of Arcole raged, cannon fire could be heard in Mantua. Observers in the fortress even noticed that some of the French camps seemed to be empty, yet Wurmser unaccountably failed to act. On 23 November, Wurmser assaulted the siege lines, capturing 200 Frenchmen and demolishing some earthworks. The Austrians suffered almost 800 casualties. When he learned that Davidovich was in full retreat, Wurmser withdrew into the city. In November 1796, the French seized Venice and two 44-gun frigates that were being built in the shipyard. One of the warships was named the Muiron in honor of Bonaparte's aide who was killed at his side on 15 November. When Bonaparte returned from Egypt in 1799, he escaped to France on the Muiron.
Footnotes
References
Further reading
Anders Fager's short story "Under the bridge at Arcole" published 2014 by Paradox Entertainment. An alternative history-story about what would have happened had Napoleon been killed at Arcole.
External links
The French Army 1600–1900
Photos of sites of the 1796 campaign
Paintings of the 1796 campaign
Obscure Battles: Arcola 1796
Conflicts in 1796
Battles of the French Revolutionary Wars
Battles of the War of the First Coalition
Battles involving Austria
Battles involving France
Battles in Veneto
1796 in Italy
1796 in the Habsburg monarchy
1796 in France
Arcole
Battles inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas%20Gage
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Phineas Gage
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Phineas P. Gage (18231860) was an American railroad construction foreman remembered for his improbable survival of an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and for that injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior over the remaining 12 years of his lifeeffects sufficiently profound that friends saw him (for a time at least) as "no longer Gage".
Long known as the "American Crowbar Case"once termed "the case which more than all others is to excite our wonder, impair the value of prognosis, and even to subvert our doctrines"Phineas Gage influenced 19th-century discussion about the mind and brain, debate on cerebral , and was perhaps the first case to suggest the brain's role in , and that damage to specific parts of the brain might induce specific mental changes.
Gage is a fixture in the curricula of neurology, psychology, and neuroscience, one of "the great medical curiosities of all time" and "a living part of the medical folklore" frequently mentioned in books and scientific papers; he even has a minor place in popular culture. Despite this celebrity, the body of established fact about Gage and what he was like (whether before or after his injury) is small, which has allowed "the fitting of almost any theory [desired] to the small number of facts we have"Gage acting as a "Rorschach inkblot" in which proponents of various conflicting theories of the brain all saw support for their views. Historically, published accounts of Gage (including scientific ones) have almost always severely exaggerated and distorted his behavioral changes, frequently contradicting the known facts.
A report of Gage's physical and mental condition shortly before his death implies that his most serious mental changes were temporary, so that in later life he was far more functional, and socially far better adapted, than in the years immediately following his accident. A social recovery hypothesis suggests that his work as a stagecoach driver in Chile fostered this recovery by providing daily structure that allowed him to regain lost social and personal skills.
Life
Background
Gage was the first of five children born to Jesse Eaton Gage and Hannah Trussell (Swetland) Gage of Grafton County, New Hampshire. Little is known about his upbringing and education beyond that he was literate.
Physician John Martyn Harlow, who knew Gage before his accident, described him as "a perfectly healthy, strong and active young man, twenty-five years of age, nervo-bilious temperament, five feet six inches [] in height, average weight one hundred and fifty pounds [], possessing an iron will as well as an iron frame; muscular system unusually well developedhaving had scarcely a day's illness from his childhood to the date of [his] injury". (In the pseudoscience of phrenology, which was then just ending its vogue, nervo-bilious denoted an unusual combination of "excitable and active mental powers" with "energy and strength [of] mind and body [making] possible the endurance of great mental and physical labor".)
Gage may have first worked with explosives on farms as a youth, or in nearby mines and quarries. In July 1848 he was employed on construction of the Hudson River Railroad near Cortlandt Town, New York, and by September he was a blasting foreman (possibly an independent contractor) on railway construction projects. His employers' "most efficient and capable foreman ... a shrewd, smart business man, very energetic and persistent in executing all his plans of operation", he had even commissioned a custom-made tamping irona large iron rodfor use in setting explosive charges.
Accident
On September 13, 1848, Gage was for the south of the village of . Setting a blast entailed boring a hole deep into an of rock; adding and a fuse; then using the tamping iron to pack ("tamp") sand, clay, or other inert material into the hole above the powder in order to contain the blast's energy and direct it into surrounding rock.
As Gage was doing this around 4:30 p.m., his attention was attracted by his men working behind him.
Looking over his right shoulder, and bringing his head into line with the blast hole and tamping iron, Gage opened his mouth to speak; in that same instant the tamping iron sparked against the rock and (possibly because the sand had been omitted) the powder exploded. Rocketed from the hole, the tamping iron in diameter, long, and weighing entered the left side of Gage's face in an upward direction, just forward of the angle of the lower jaw. Continuing upward outside the upper jaw and possibly fracturing the cheekbone, it passed behind the left eye, through the left side of the brain, then completely out the top of the skull through the frontal bone.
Despite 19th-century references to Gage as the "American Crowbar Case", his tamping iron did not have the bend or claw with the term crowbar; rather, it was simply a pointed cylinder something like a javelin, round and fairly smooth:
The tamping iron landed point-first some away, "smeared with blood and brain".
Gage was thrown onto his back and gave some brief convulsions of the arms and legs, but spoke within a few minutes, walked with little assistance, and sat upright in an oxcart for the ride to his lodgings in town.
(A possibly apocryphal contemporary newspaper report claimed that Gage, while en route, made an entry in his time-bookthe record of his crew's hours and wages.)
About 30 minutes after the accident, physician Edward H. Williams found Gage sitting in a chair outside the hotel and was greeted with "one of the great understatements of medical history":
Harlow took charge of the case around 6 p.m.:
Gage was also swallowing blood, which he regurgitated every 15 or 20 minutes.
Treatment and convalescence
With Williams' assistance Harlow shaved the scalp around the region of the tamping iron's exit, then removed coagulated blood, small bone fragments, and "an ounce or more" of protruding brain. After probing for foreign bodies and replacing two large detached pieces of bone, Harlow closed the wound with adhesive straps, leaving it partially open for drainage; the entrance wound in the cheek was bandaged only loosely, for the same reason. A wet compress was applied, then a nightcap, then further bandaging to secure these dressings. Harlow also dressed Gage's hands and forearms (which along with his face had been deeply burned) and ordered that Gage's head be kept elevated.
Late that evening Harlow noted, "Mind clear. Constant agitation of his legs, being alternately retracted and extended... Says he 'does not care to see his friends, as he shall be at work in a few days.
Despite his own optimism, Gage's convalescence was long, difficult, and uneven. Though recognizing his mother and unclesummoned from Lebanon, New Hampshire, 30 miles (50km) away on the morning after the accident, on the second day, he "lost control of his mind, and became decidedly delirious". By the fourth day, he was again "rational ... knows his friends", and after a week's further improvement Harlow entertained, for the first time, the thought "that it was possible for Gage to recover ... This improvement, however, was of short duration."
Beginning 12 days after the accident, Gage was semi-comatose, "seldom speaking unless spoken to, and then answering only in monosyllables", and on the 13th day Harlow noted, "Failing strength ... coma deepened; the globe of the left eye became more protuberant, with ["fungus"deteriorated, infected tissue] pushing out rapidly from the internal canthus [as well as] from the wounded brain, and coming out at the top of the head." By the 14th day, "the exhalations from the mouth and head [are] horribly fetid. Comatose, but will answer in monosyllables if aroused. Will not take nourishment unless strongly urged. The friends and attendants are in hourly expectancy of his death, and have his coffin and clothes in readiness."
Galvanized to action, Harlow "cut off the fungi which were sprouting out from the top of the brain and filling the opening, and made free application of caustic [i.e. crystalline silver nitrate] to them. With a scalpel I laid open the and immediately there were discharged eight ounces [250 ml] of ill-conditioned pus, with blood, and excessively fetid." ("Gage was lucky to encounter Dr. Harlow when he did", writes Barker. "Few doctors in 1848 would have had the experience with cerebral abscess with which Harlow left and which probably saved Gage's life." See § Factors favoring Gage's survival, below.)
On the 24th day, Gage "succeeded in raising himself up, and took one step to his chair". One month later, he was walking "up and down stairs, and about the house, into the piazza", and while Harlow was absent for a week Gage was "in the street every day except Sunday", his desire to return to his family in New Hampshire being "uncontrollable by his friends ... he went without an overcoat and with thin boots; got wet feet and a chill". He soon developed a fever, but by mid-November was "feeling better in every respect [and] walking about the house again". Harlow's prognosis at this point: Gage "appears to be in a way of recovering, if he can be controlled".
By November 25 (10 weeks after his injury), Gage was strong enough to return to his parents' home in Lebanon, New Hampshire, traveling there in a "close carriage" (an enclosed conveyance of the kind used for transporting the insane). Though "quite feeble and thin ... weak and childish" on arriving, by late December he was "riding out, improving both mentally and physically", and by the following February he was "able to do a little work about the horses and barn, feeding the cattle etc. [and] as the time for ploughing came [i.e. about May or June] he was able to do half a day's work after that and bore it well". In August his mother told an inquiring physician that his memory seemed somewhat impaired, though slightly enough that a stranger would not notice.
Injuries
In April 1849, Gage returned to Cavendish and visited Harlow, who noted at that time loss of vision, and ptosis, of the left eye, a large scar on the forehead (from Harlow's draining of the abscess) and
Gage's rearmost left upper molar, adjacent to the point of entry through the cheek, was also lost.
Though a year later some weakness remained, Harlow wrote that "physically, the recovery was quite complete during the four years immediately succeeding the injury".
New England and New York (18491852)
In November 1849 Henry Jacob Bigelow, the Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School, brought Gage to Boston for several weeks and, after satisfying himself that the tamping iron had actually passed through Gage's head, presented him to a meeting of the Boston Society for Medical Improvement and (possibly) to the medical school class.
Unable to reclaim his railroad job Gage was for a time "a kind of living museum exhibit" at Barnum's American Museum in New York City. (This was not the later Barnum's circus; there is no evidence Gage ever exhibited with a troupe or circus, or on a fairground.) Advertisements have also been found for public appearances by Gagewhich he may have arranged and promoted himselfin New Hampshire and Vermont, supporting Harlow's statement that Gage made public appearances in "most of the larger New England towns". (Years later Bigelow wrote that Gage had been "a shrewd and intelligent man and quite disposed to do anything of that sort to turn an honest penny", but gave up such efforts because "[that] sort of thing has not much interest for the general public".)
For about 18 months, he worked for the owner of a stable and coach service in Hanover, New Hampshire.
Chile and California (18521860)
In August 1852, Gage was invited to Chile to work as a long-distance stagecoach driver there, "caring for horses, and often driving a coach heavily laden and drawn by six horses" on the ValparaísoSantiago route. After his health began to fail in mid-1859, he left Chile for San Francisco, arriving (in his mother's words) "in a feeble condition, having failed very much since he left New Hampshire ... Had many ill turns while in Valparaiso, especially during the last year, and suffered much from hardship and exposure." In San Francisco he recovered under the care of his mother and sister, who had relocated there from New Hampshire around the time he went to Chile. Then, "anxious to work", he found employment with a farmer in Santa Clara.
In February 1860, Gage began to have epileptic seizures. He lost his job, and (wrote Harlow) as the seizures increased in frequency and severity he "continued to work in various places [though he] could not do much".
Death and exhumation
On May 18, 1860, Gage "left Santa Clara and went home to his mother. At 5 o'clock, A.M., on the 20th, he had a severe . The family physician was called in, and bled him. The were repeated frequently during the day and night," and he died in status , in or near San Francisco,
late on May 21, 1860. He was buried in San Francisco's Lone Mountain Cemetery.
In 1866, Harlow (who had "lost all trace of [Gage], and had well nigh abandoned all of ever hearing from him again") somehow learned that Gage had died in California, and made contact with his family there. At Harlow's request the family had Gage's skull exhumed, then personally delivered it to Harlow, who was by then a prominent physician, and civic leader in Woburn, Massachusetts.
About a year after the accident, Gage had given his tamping iron to Harvard Medical School's Warren Anatomical Museum, but he later reclaimed it and made what he called "my iron bar" his "constant companion during the remainder of his life";
now it too was delivered by Gage's family to Harlow. (Though some accounts assert that Gage's iron had been buried with him, there is no evidence for this.) After studying them for a triumphal 1868 retrospective paper on Gage Harlow redeposited the ironthis time with the skullin the Warren Museum, where they remain on display today.
The tamping iron bears the following inscription, commissioned by Bigelow in conjunction with the iron's original deposit in the Museum (though the date given for the accident is one day off):
The date Jan 6 1850 falls within the period during which Gage was in Boston under Bigelow's observation.
In 1940 Gage's headless remains were moved to Cypress Lawn Memorial Park as part of a mandated relocation of San Francisco's cemeteries to outside city limits .
Mental changes and brain damage
Gage may have been the first case to suggest the brain's role in determining personality and that damage to specific parts of the brain might induce specific personality changes, but the nature, extent, and duration of these changes have been difficult to establish. Only a handful of sources give direct information on what Gage was like (either before or after the accident), the mental changes published after his death were much more dramatic than anything reported while he was alive, and few sources are explicit about the periods of Gage's life to which their various descriptions of him (which vary widely in their implied level of functional impairment) are meant to apply.
Early observations (1849–1852)
Harlow ("virtually our only source of information" on Gage, according to psychologist Malcolm Macmillan) described the pre-accident Gage as hard-working, responsible, and "a great favorite" with the men in his charge, his employers having regarded him as "the most efficient and capable foreman in their employ"; he also took pains to note that Gage's memory and general intelligence seemed unimpaired after the accident, outside of the delirium exhibited in the first few days. Nonetheless these same employers, after Gage's accident, "considered the change in his mind so marked that they could not give him his place again":
This description ("now routinely quoted", says Kotowicz) is from Harlow's observations set down soon after the accident, but Harlowperhaps hesitant to describe his patient negatively while he was still alivedelayed publishing it until 1868, after Gage had died and his family had supplied "what we so much desired to see" (as Harlow termed Gage's skull).
In the interim, Harlow's 1848 report, published just as Gage was emerging from his convalescence, merely hinted at psychological symptoms:
But after Bigelow termed Gage "quite recovered in faculties of body and mind" with only "inconsiderable disturbance of function", a rejoinder in the American Phrenological Journal
was apparently based on information anonymously supplied by Harlow. Pointing out that Bigelow gave extensive verbatim quotations from Harlow's 1848 papers, yet omitted Harlow's promise to follow up with details of Gage's "mental manifestations", Barker explains Bigelow's and Harlow's contradictory evaluations (less than a year apart) by differences in their educational backgrounds, in particular their attitudes toward cerebral localization (the idea that different regions of the brain are specialized for different functions) and phrenology (the nineteenth-century pseudoscience that held that talents and personality can be inferred from the shape of a person's skull):
A reluctance to ascribe a biological basis to "higher mental functions" (functionssuch as language, personality, and moral judgmentbeyond the merely sensory and motor) may have been a further reason Bigelow discounted the behavioral changes in Gage which Harlow had noted.
Later observations (18581859)
In 1860, an American physician who had known Gage in Chile in 1858 and 1859 described him as still "engaged in stage driving [and] in the enjoyment of good health, with no impairment whatever of his mental faculties". Together with the fact that Gage was hired by his employer in advance, in New England, to become part of the new coaching enterprise in Chile, this implies that Gage's most serious mental changes had been temporary, so that the "fitful, irreverent ... capricious and vacillating" Gage described by Harlow immediately after the accident became, over time, far more functional and far better adapted socially.
Macmillan writes that this conclusion is reinforced by the responsibilities and challenges associated with stagecoach work such as that done by Gage in Chile, including the requirement that drivers "be reliable, resourceful, and possess great endurance. But above all, they had to have the kind of personality that enabled them to get on well with their passengers." A day's work for Gage meant "a 13-hour journey over 100 miles [160km] of poor roads, often in times of political instability or frank revolution. All thisin a land to whose language and customs Phineas arrived an utter strangermilitates as much against permanent disinhibition [i.e. an inability to plan and self-regulate] as do the extremely complex sensory-motor and cognitive skills required of a coach driver." (An American visitor wrote: "The departure of the coach was always a great event at Valparaisoa crowd of ever-astonished Chilenos assembling every day to witness the phenomenon of one man driving six horses.")
Social recovery
Macmillan writes that this contrastbetween Gage's early, versus later, post-accident behaviorreflects his "[gradual change] from the commonly portrayed impulsive and uninhibited person into one who made a reasonable 'social recovery, citing persons with similar injuries for whom "someone or something gave enough structure to their lives for them to relearn lost social and personal skills":
According to contemporary accounts by visitors to Chile, Gage would have had to
En route (Macmillan continues):
Thus Gage's stagecoach work"a highly structured environment in which clear sequences of tasks were required [but within which] contingencies requiring foresight and planning arose daily"resembles rehabilitation regimens first developed by Soviet neuropsychologist Alexander Luria for the reestablishment of self-regulation in World War II soldiers suffering frontal lobe injuries.
A neurological basis for such recoveries may be found in emerging evidence "that damaged [neural] tracts may re-establish their original connections or build alternative pathways as the brain recovers" from injury. Macmillan adds that if Gage made such a recoveryif he eventually "figured out how to live" (as Fleischman put it) despite his injurythen it "would add to current evidence that rehabilitation can be effective even in difficult and long-standing cases"; and if Gage could achieve such improvement without medical supervision, "what are the limits for those in formal rehabilitation programs?" As author Sam Kean put it, "If even Phineas Gage bounced backthat's a powerful message of hope."
Exaggeration and distortion of mental changes
Macmillan's analysis of scientific and popular accounts of Gage found that they almost always distort and exaggerate his behavioral changes well beyond anything described by anyone who had direct contact with him, concluding that the known facts are "inconsistent with the common view of Gage as a boastful, brawling, foul-mouthed, dishonest useless drifter, unable to hold down a job, who died penniless in an institution". In the words of Barker, "As years passed, the case took on a life of its own, accruing novel additions to Gage's story without any factual basis". Even today (writes Zbigniew Kotowicz) "Most commentators still rely on hearsay and accept what others have said about Gage, namely, that after the accident he became a psychopath"; Grafman has written that "the details of [Gage's] social cognitive impairment have occasionally been inferred or even embellished to suit the enthusiasm of the story teller";
and Goldenberg calls Gage "a (nearly) blank sheet upon which authors can write stories which illustrate their theories and entertain the public".
For example, Harlow's statement that Gage "continued to work in various places; could not do much, changing often, and always finding something that did not suit him in every place he tried" refers only to Gage's final months, after convulsions had set in. But it has been misinterpreted as meaning that Gage never held a regular job after his accident, "was prone to quit in a capricious fit or be let go because of poor discipline", "never returned to a fully independent existence", "spent the rest of his life living miserably off the charity of others and traveling around the country as a sideshow freak", and ("dependent on his family" or "in the custody of his parents") died "in careless dissipation". In fact, after his initial post-recovery months spent traveling and exhibiting, Gage supported himselfat a total of just two different jobsfrom early 1851 until just before his death in 1860.
Other behaviors ascribed, by various authors, to the post-accident Gage that are either unsupported by, or in contradiction to, the known facts include the following:
None of these behaviors are mentioned by anyone who had met Gage or even his family,
and as Kotowicz put it, "Harlow does not report a single act that Gage should have been ashamed of." Gage is "a great story for illustrating the need to go back to original sources", writes Macmillan, most authors having been "content to summarize or paraphrase accounts that are already seriously in error".
Nonetheless (write Daffner and Searl) "the telling of [Gage's] story has increased interest in understanding the enigmatic role that the frontal lobes play in behavior and personality", and Ratiu has said that in teaching about the frontal lobes, an anecdote about Gage is like an "ace [up] your sleeve. It's just like whenever you talk about the French Revolution you talk about the guillotine, because it's so cool."
Benderly suggests that instructors use the Gage case to illustrate the importance of critical thinking.
Extent of brain damage
In addition, Ratiu et al. noted that the hole in the base of the cranium (created as the tamping iron passed through the sphenoidal sinus into the brain) has a diameter about half that of the iron itself; combining this with the hairline fracture beginning behind the exit region and running down the front of the skull, they concluded that the skull "hinged" open as the iron entered from below, then was pulled closed by the resilience of soft tissues once the iron had exited through the top of the head.
Van Horn et al. concluded that damage to Gage's white matter (of which they made detailed estimates) was as or more significant to Gage's mental changes than cerebral cortex (gray matter) damage. Thiebaut de Schotten et al. estimated white-matter damage in Gage and two other case studies ("Tan" and "H.M."), concluding that these patients "suggest that social behavior, language, and memory depend on the coordinated activity of different [brain] regions rather than single areas in the frontal or temporal lobes."
Factors favoring Gage's survival
Harlow saw Gage's survival as demonstrating "the wonderful resources of the system in enduring the shock and in overcoming the effects of so frightful a lesion, and as a beautiful display of the recuperative powers of nature", and listed what he saw as the circumstances favoring it:
For Harlow's description of the pre-accident Gage, see § Background, above.
Despite its very large diameter and mass (compared to a weapon-fired projectile) the tamping iron's relatively low velocity drastically reduced the energy available to compressive and concussive "shock waves".
Harlow continued:
Barker writes that "[Head injuries] from falls, horse kicks, and gunfire, were well known in preCivil War America [and] every contemporary course of lectures on surgery described the diagnosis and treatment" of such injuries. But to Gage's benefit, surgeon Joseph Pancoast had performed "his most celebrated operation for head injury before Harlow's medical class, to drain the pus, resulting in temporary recovery. Unfortunately, symptoms recurred and the patient died. At autopsy, reaccumulated pus was found: granulation tissue had blocked the opening in the dura." By keeping the exit wound open, and elevating Gage's head to encourage drainage from the cranium into the sinuses (through the hole made by the tamping iron), Harlow "had not repeated Professor Pancoast's mistake".
Finally,
Precisely what Harlow's "several reasons" were is unclear, but he was likely referring, at least in part, to the understanding (slowly developing since ancient times) that injuries to the front of the brain are less dangerous than are those to the rear, because the latter frequently interrupt vital functions such as breathing and circulation. For example, surgeon James Earle wrote in 1790 that "a great part of the cerebrum may be taken away without destroying the animal, or even depriving it of its faculties, whereas the cerebellum will scarcely admit the smallest injury, without being followed by mortal symptoms."
Ratiu et al. and Van Horn et al. both concluded that the tamping iron passed left of the superior sagittal sinus and left it intact, both because Harlow does not mention loss of cerebrospinal fluid through the nose, and because otherwise Gage would almost certainly have suffered fatal blood loss or air embolism.
Harlow's moderate (in the context of medical practice of the time) use of emetics, purgatives, and (in one instance) bleeding would have "produced dehydration with reduction of intracranial pressure [which] may have favorably influenced the outcome of the case", according to Steegmann.
As to his own role in Gage's survival, Harlow merely averred, "I can only say ... with good old Ambroise Paré, I dressed him, God healed him", but Macmillan calls this self-assessment far too modest. Noting that Harlow had been a "relatively inexperienced local physician ... graduated four and a half years earlier", Macmillan's discussion of Harlow's "skillful and imaginative adaptation [of] conservative and progressive elements from the available therapies to the particular needs posed by Gage's injuries" emphasizes that Harlow "did not apply rigidly what he had learned", for example forgoing an exhaustive search for bone fragments (which risked hemorrhage and further brain injury) and applying caustic to the "fungi" instead of excising them (which risked hemorrhage) or forcing them into the wound (which risked compressing the brain).
Early medical attitudes
Skepticism
"A distinguished Professor of Surgery in a distant city", Harlow continued, had even dismissed Gage as a "Yankee invention".
According to the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal (1869) it was the 1850 report on Gage by BigelowHarvard's Professor of Surgery and "a majestic and figure on the medical scene of those times"that "finally succeeded in forcing [the case's] authenticity upon the credence of the as could hardly have been done by any one in whose sagacity and surgical knowledge his confrères had any less confidence". Noting that, "The leading feature of this case is its This is the sort of accident that happens in the pantomime at the theater, not elsewhere", Bigelow emphasized that though "at first wholly skeptical, I have been personally convinced".
Nonetheless (Bigelow wrote just before Harlow's 1868 presentation of Gage's skull) though "the nature of [Gage's] injury and its reality are now beyond doubt ... Ihave received a letter within a month [purporting] to prove that ... the accident could not have happened."
Standard for other brain injuries
As the reality of Gage's accident and survival gained credence, it became "the standard against which other injuries to the brain were judged", and it has retained that status despite competition from a growing list of other unlikely-sounding brain-injury accidents, including encounters with axes, bolts, low bridges, exploding firearms, a revolver shot to the nose, further tamping irons, and falling Eucalyptus branches.
For example, after a miner survived traversal of his skull by a gas pipe in diameter (extracted "not without considerable difficulty and force, owing to a bend in the portion of the rod in his skull"), his physician invoked Gage as the "only case comparable with this, in the amount of brain injury, that I have seen reported".
Often these comparisons carried hints of humor, competitiveness, or both. The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, for example, alluded to Gage's astonishing survival by referring to him as "the patient whose cerebral organism had been comparatively so little disturbed by its abrupt and intrusive visitor"; and a Kentucky doctor, reporting a patient's survival of a gunshot through the nose, bragged, "If you Yankees can send a tamping bar through a fellow's brain and not kill him, I guess there are not many can shoot a bullet between a man's mouth and his brains, stopping just short of the medulla oblongata, and not touch either."
Similarly, when a lumbermill foreman returned to work soon after a saw cut into his skull from just between the eyes to behind the top of his head, his surgeon (who had removed from this wound "thirty-two pieces of bone, together with considerable sawdust") termed the case "second to none reported, save the famous tamping-iron case of Dr. Harlow", though apologizing that "I cannot well gratify the desire of my professional brethren to possess [the patient's] skull, until he has no further use for it himself."
As these and other remarkable brain-injury survivals accumulated, the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal pretended to wonder whether the brain has any function at all: "Since the antics of iron bars, gas pipes, and the like skepticism is discomfitted, and dares not utter itself. Brains do not seem to be of much account now-a-days." The Transactions of the Vermont Medical Society was similarly facetious: The times have been,' says Macbeth , 'that when the brains were out the man would die. But now they rise again.' Quite possibly we shall soon hear that some German professor is exsecting it."
Theoretical misuse
Though Gage is considered the "index case for personality change due to frontal lobe damage", the uncertain extent of his brain damage and the limited understanding of his behavioral changes render him "of more historical than neurologic interest". Thus, Macmillan writes, "Phineas' story is [primarily] worth remembering because it illustrates how easily a small stock of facts becomes transformed into popular and scientific myth", the paucity of evidence having allowed "the fitting of almost any theory [desired] to the small number of facts we have". A similar concern was expressed as early as 1877, when British neurologist David Ferrier (writing to Harvard's Henry Pickering Bowditch in an attempt "to have this case definitely settled") complained that, "In investigating reports on diseases and injuries of the brain, I am constantly being amazed at the inexactitude and distortion to which they are subject by men who have some pet theory to support. The facts suffer so frightfully ..."
More recently, neurologist Oliver Sacks refers to the "interpretations and misinterpretations [of Gage] from 1848 to the present",
and Jarrett discusses the use of Gage to promote "the myth, found in hundreds of psychology and neuroscience textbooks, plays, films, poems, and YouTube skits[:] Personality is located in the frontal lobes... and once those are damaged, a person is changed forever."
Cerebral localization
In the 19th-century debate over whether the various mental functions are or are not localized in specific regions of the brain , both sides managed to enlist Gage in support of their theories. For example, after Eugene Dupuy wrote that Gage proved that the brain is not localized (characterizing him as a "striking case of destruction of the so-called speech centre without consequent aphasia") Ferrier replied by using Gage (along with the woodcuts of his skull and tamping iron from Harlow's 1868 paper) to support his thesis that the brain is localized.
Phrenology
Throughout the 19th century, adherents of phrenology contended that Gage's mental changes (his profanity, for example) stemmed from destruction of his mental "organ of Benevolence"as phrenologists saw it, the part of the brain responsible for "goodness, benevolence, the gentle character ... [and] to dispose man to conduct himself in a manner conformed to the maintenance of social order"and/or the adjacent "organ of Veneration"related to religion and God, and respect for peers and those in authority. (Phrenology held that the organs of the "grosser and more animal passions are near the base of the brain; literally the lowest and nearest the animal man [while] highest and farthest from the sensual are the moral and religions feelings, as if to be nearest heaven". Thus Veneration and Benevolence are at the apex of the skullthe region of exit of Gage's tamping iron.)
Harlow wrote that Gage, during his convalescence, did not "estimate size or money accurately[,] would not take $1000 for a few pebbles" and was not particular about prices when visiting a local store; by these examples Harlow may have been implying damage to phrenology's "Organ of Comparison".
Psychosurgery and lobotomy
It is frequently asserted that what happened to Gage played a role in the later development of various forms of psychosurgeryparticularly lobotomyor even that Gage's accident constituted "the first lobotomy". Aside from the question of why the unpleasant changes usually (if hyperbolically) attributed to Gage would inspire surgical imitation, there is no such link, according to Macmillan:
Somatic marker hypothesis
Antonio Damasio, in support of his somatic marker hypothesis (relating decision-making to emotions and their biological underpinnings), draws parallels between behaviors he ascribes to Gage and those of modern patients with damage to the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala. But Damasio's depiction of Gage has been severely criticized, for example by Kotowicz:
As Kihlstrom put it, "[M]any modern commentators exaggerate the extent of Gage's personality change, perhaps engaging in a kind of retrospective reconstruction based on what we now know, or think we do, about the role of the frontal cortex in self-regulation."
Macmillan gives detailed criticism of Antonio Damasio's various presentations of Gage (some of which are joint work with Hannah Damasio and others).
Portraits
Two daguerreotype portraits of Gage, identified in 2009 and 2010, are the only of him known other than a plaster head cast taken for Bigelow in late 1849 (and now in the Warren Museum along with Gage's skull and tamping iron).
The first portrait shows a "disfigured yet still-handsome" Gage with left eye closed and scars clearly visible, "well dressed and confident, even proud" and holding his iron, on which portions of its inscription can be made out. (For decades the portrait's owners had believed that it depicted an injured whaler with his harpoon.)
The second portrait, copies of which are in the possession of two branches of the Gage family, shows Gage in a somewhat different pose, wearing the same waistcoat and possibly the same jacket, but with a different shirt and tie.
Authenticity of the portraits was confirmed by overlaying the inscription on the tamping iron, as seen in the portraits, against that on the actual tamping iron, and matching the subject's injuries to those preserved in the head cast. However, about when, where, and by whom the portraits were taken nothing is known, except that they were created no earlier than January 1850 (when the inscription was added to the tamping iron), on different occasions, and are likely by different photographers.
The portraits support other evidence that Gage's most serious mental changes were temporary . "That [Gage] was any form of vagrant following his injury is belied by these remarkable images", wrote Van Horn et al. "Although just one picture," Kean commented in reference to the first image discovered, "it exploded the common image of Gage as a dirty, disheveled misfit. This Phineas was proud, well-dressed, and disarmingly handsome."
See also
Notes
References
For general readers
For younger readers
For researchers and specialists
Other sources cited
External links
Phineas Gage information page by the Center for the History of Psychology at the University of Akron
Case of Phineas Gage at the Center for the History of Medicine
Skull, life cast, and tamping iron of Phineas Gage at the Warren Anatomical Museum of the Harvard Medical School
Skull of Phineas Gage at the National Institutes of Health 3D print exchange
1823 births
1860 deaths
American builders
American expatriates in Chile
American people in rail transportation
Burials at Cypress Lawn Memorial Park
Deaths from epilepsy
People with epilepsy
Frontal lobe
History of neuroscience
People from Grafton County, New Hampshire
People from Windsor County, Vermont
People with ptosis (eyelid)
People with traumatic brain injuries
Burials at Laurel Hill Cemetery (San Francisco)
Famous patients
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suwa%C5%82ki
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Suwałki
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Suwałki is a city in northeastern Poland with a population of 69,206 (2021). It is the capital of Suwałki County and one of the most important centers of commerce in the Podlaskie Voivodeship. Suwałki is the largest city and the capital of the historical Suwałki Region. Until 1999 it was the capital of Suwałki Voivodeship. Suwałki is located about from the southwestern Lithuanian border and gives its name to the Polish protected area known as Suwałki Landscape Park. The Czarna Hańcza river flows through the city.
Etymology
The name derives from Lithuanian su- (near) and valka (creek, marsh), with the combined meaning "place near a small river or swampy area".
History
The area of Suwałki had been populated by local Yotvingian and Prussian tribes since the early Middle Ages. However, with the arrival of the Teutonic Order to Yotvingia, their lands were conquered and remained largely depopulated in the following centuries.
17th century
The village was founded by Camaldolese monks, who in 1667 were granted the area surrounding the future town by the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the King of Poland John II Casimir. Soon afterwards the monastic order built its headquarters in Wigry, where a monastery and a church were built.
The new owners of the area started rapid economic exploitation and development of the forests; they brought enough settlers (mainly from overpopulated Masovia) to build several new villages in the area. Also, production of wood, lumber, tar and iron ore was started. The village was first mentioned in 1688; two years later it was reported to have just two houses.
18th century
However, the growth of the village was fast and by 1700 it was split into Lesser and Greater Suwałki. The village was located almost exactly in the center of Camaldolese estates and lay on the main trade route linking Grodno and Merkinė with Königsberg.
In 1710 King Augustus II the Strong granted the village a privilege to organize fairs and markets. Five years later, in 1715, the village was granted town rights by the grand master of the order, Ildefons. The town was divided into 300 lots for future houses and its inhabitants were granted civil rights and exempted from taxes for seven years. In addition, the town was granted of forest that was to be turned into arable land. On May 2, 1720, the town rights were approved by King August II, and the town was allowed to organize one fair a week and four markets a year. In addition, a coat of arms was approved, depicting Saint Roch and Saint Romuald.
After the Partitions of Poland in 1795, the area was annexed by Prussia. In 1796 the monastery in Wigry was dissolved and its property confiscated by the Prussian government. The following year a seat of local powiat authorities was moved to the town, as well as a military garrison. By the end of the 18th century, Suwałki had 1,184 inhabitants and 216 houses. A large part of the population was Jewish.
19th century
In 1807 Suwałki became a salient of the newly formed Duchy of Warsaw and one of the centres of the department of Łomża. After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte and the Congress of Vienna, the area was incorporated into the Congress Poland ("Russian Poland"), as a part of the Russian Empire (Russian partition). The status of a powiat capital was briefly withdrawn, but it was reintroduced on January 16, 1816, when the Augustów Voivodeship was created and its government was gradually moved to Suwałki. Soon afterwards the older town hall was demolished and replaced with a new one, and General Józef Zajączek financed the paving of most of the town's streets. The cemetery was moved to the outskirts from the town centre, and that area became a town park. Also, the Russian authorities built the Saint Petersburg–Warsaw Railway, which added to the town's prosperity.
In 1820 a new church was built. In 1821 the first synagogue was opened. In 1829 a permanent post office was opened in Suwałki. Between 1806 and 1827 the town's population almost tripled and reached 3,753 people living in 357 houses. During the November Uprising of 1831, the town's population took part in the struggles against Russia, but the town was pacified by the Russian army on February 11, 1830. In 1835 the government of Tsar Nicholas I decided not to move the capital of the voivodeship to Augustów. Two years later the Voivodeships of Poland were re-designated as gubernias, and the town became the capital of the Augustów Gubernia.
In 1826 the Russians passed an investment plan and authorities initiated the construction of new public buildings. In 1835 a police station was built, in 1844 a new town hall and Orthodox and Protestant churches were completed. Soon afterwards a new marketplace was opened, as well as St. Peter's and Paul's hospital and a gymnasium. In addition, between 1840 and 1849 the main Catholic church was refurbished by many of Poland's most notable architects of the era, including Piotr Aigner, Antonio Corazzi and Enrico Marconi. To change the town's architecture and break with its rural past, in 1847 the town council passed a decree banning the construction of new wooden houses.
The town's population continued to grow rapidly. In 1857 it had 11,273 inhabitants and in 1872 almost 20,000. Newly built factories needed workers and these were brought from workers recruited widely in Europe. The mixed Polish-Jewish-Lithuanian population was soon joined by people of almost all denominations that worshipped in the Russian Empire.
Soon Suwałki became the fourth-most populous town in Congress Poland. After the January Uprising of 1863, administration reform was passed to unify the Polish lands with Russia completely. In 1866 the gubernia of Augustów was renamed to Suwałki Gubernia. However, the route of the newly built Saint Petersburg-Warsaw railway bypassed Suwałki, adversely affecting its prosperity. It was not until the early 20th century that the establishment of a new Russian army garrison revived the economy. Also, a railway line linking Suwałki with Grodno was finally completed.
20th century to present
After the spring of 1905, when the Russians were forced to accept a limited liberalization, the period of Polish cultural revival started. Although the Polish language was still banned from official use, new Polish schools were opened, as well as a Polish-language Tygodnik Suwalski weekly and a library. After World War I broke out, heavy fights for the area erupted. Finally in 1915, the Germans broke the Russian front and Suwałki was under German occupation. The town and surrounding areas were detached from the rest of the Polish lands and were directly administered by the German military commander of the Ober-Ost Army. Severe laws imposed by the German military command and the tragic economic situation of the civilians led to the creation of various secret social organisations. Finally, in 1917, local branches of the Polska Organizacja Wojskowa were created.
After the collapse of the Central Powers in November 1918, the local commander of the Ober-Ost signed an agreement with the Temporary Council of the Suwałki Region and de facto allowed for the region to be incorporated into Poland. However, the German army remained in the area and continued its economic exploitation. In February 1919 the local inhabitants took part in the first free elections to the Polish Sejm, but soon afterwards the German commanders changed their mind. They expelled the Polish military units from the area and in May passed the territory to Lithuanian authority.
Independent Poland
By the end of July 1919, the Paris Peace Conference granted the town to Poland. As the newly-established border was disapproved of by the Polish government, it organised the Sejny Uprising on August 23, 1919. The Polish-Lithuanian War erupted and for several days fights were fought for the control over Suwałki, Sejny and other towns in the area. The war ended on the insistence of the Entente in mid-September. Negotiations took place in Suwałki in early October. During the Polish-Bolshevik War, the town was captured by the Communists and, after the Battle of Warsaw, it was again passed to the Lithuanians. It was retaken by the Polish Army.
In the inter-war period, Suwałki became an autonomous town within the Białystok Voivodeship (1919-1939). This resulted in another period of prosperity, with the town's population rising from 16,780 in 1921 to almost 25,000 in 1935. The main source of income shifted from agriculture to trade and commerce. Also, in 1931 the new water works and a power plant were built. Also, Suwałki continued to serve as one of the biggest garrisons in Poland, with two regiments of the Polish 29th Infantry Division and almost an entire Suwałki Cavalry Brigade stationed there. Beginning in 1928, Suwałki was established as the headquarters of one of the battalions of the Border Defence Corps.
Second World War
During the later stages of the Polish Defensive War of 1939, the town was briefly captured by the Red Army. However, on October 12 of the same year, the Soviets withdrew and transferred the area to the Germans, in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The city was renamed Sudauen and annexed directly into Nazi Germany's province of East Prussia. Germans carried out mass arrests of Poles as part of Intelligenzaktion in the fall of 1939 and spring of 1940. Arrested Poles were deported to a transit camp in Działdowo or murdered on the spot. Nazi German severe laws and terrorism led to the creation of several resistance organisations in response. Although most initially destroyed by the Gestapo, by 1942 the area had one of the strongest ZWZ and AK networks. In the Szwajcaria district there are mass graves of members of the Polish resistance movement murdered by the Germans on April 26, 1940 and April 1, 1944.
Despite the resistance, almost all of the town's once 7,000-strong Jewish community was deported and murdered, beginning in December 1939, when German troops brought the elderly, sick, and disabled into a nearby forest and machine-gunned them en masse. The Germans, with help from local collaborators, deported the community's surviving Jews to ghettos in other towns. Nearly all either perished there or were murdered in Nazi concentration camps. The occupying Germans also systematically destroyed all traces of Jewish history and culture in the town, demolishing synagogues and desecrating Suwałki's Jewish cemetery, where a memorial and wall of gravestone fragments stand today.
Also, in Suwałki's suburb of Krzywólka, the Germans established a POW camp for almost 120,000 Soviet prisoners of war. On October 23, 1944, the town was captured by the forces of the Soviet 3rd Belarusian Front. The fights for the town and its environs lasted for several days and took the lives of almost 5,000 Soviet soldiers before they defeated the Germans. The anti-Soviet resistance of former Armia Krajowa members lasted in the forests surrounding the town until the early 1950s.
Suwałki did not suffer much damage during World War II, most of the historic buildings survived the war, and the damage to the city was estimated at only 5-10%, which was quickly rebuilt.
Polish People's Republic
The apparatus subordinate to the Polish Committee of National Liberation took power in Suwałki without major problems. Immediately after the city's liberation by units of the Red Army, on October 23, 1944, at 3:00 PM Stanisław Łapot, a member of the former Communist Party of Poland, one of the organizers of the Polish Workers' Party in Bialystok, came from Sejny to Suwałki, as well as the representative of the Provincial National Council in Bialystok in the Suwałki District and his Starosta. He was accompanied by several officials previously organized in Sejny of poviat authorities with the deputy head of Edmund Przybylski, as well as Tadeusz Sobolewski - the president of the interim (hull) Poviat Council. On the same day, at Mickiewicz Square, supposedly spontaneously organized, so with the participation of new authorities and over five thousand inhabitants of the city, and then in the "Rusałka" cinema hall a meeting of representatives of the population with the envoys of the Polish Committee of National Rebirth. Actions aimed at organizing the Suwałki authorities were taken shortly after the liberation. The Starosta handed over the power in the city to the temporary mayor Tadeusz Sobolewski on October 24, 1944, who earlier in Sejny was a member of the City Council, City Board, and also the mayor. The commissariat of Suwałki was established. In turn, on November 7, a conference of representatives of provincial authorities with local authorities was held. As agreed, the first meeting of the Suwałki City Council took place the next day. On November 20, 1944, the board decided to locate its office in a private, Jewish building, partly abandoned, at 62/64 Kościuszki street (occupied by German offices during the war), as the town hall building was severely damaged. In December 1944, the City Board did not gather, and its functions were performed by President T. Sobolewski.
The transitional state in the organization and functioning of the Suwałki authorities was properly completed in January 1945. Most probably then or at the beginning of February the staroste S. Łapot issued an oral but very important order to subordinate Suwałki to the administration of the poviat level. In this way, he deprived them of the status they had until September 1939, a city separated from the poviat municipal association. Over the next few years, this matter was dealt with by various authorities, from municipal to central. This controversial problem appeared on March 27, 1945, on the initiative of the mayor Tadeusz Sobolewski, at the third meeting of the City National Council. The governor Wacław Kraśko, who was present at it, was rather reluctant to propose separating the city from the poviat and pointed to the need to improve, first and foremost, the situation and condition of municipal enterprises. The Council decided to postpone the case.
Another politician calling for restoring Suwałki to the legal status of before September 1, 1939 was mayor Wacław Rudzki. At the Municipal National Council meeting on March 25, 1946, he submitted the first motion to separate the city from the poviat, which was motivated by prestigious, historical and financial considerations. The Council shared the submitted arguments and decided, through the Poviat National Council, to apply to the Voivodeship National Council in Bialystok with a request to include the city separated from poviat self-government associations. Much more radical decisions, undoubtedly also under the influence of W. Rudzki, MRN made at its meeting on May 27, 1946. She decided that the rescript of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of December 1919 about the separation of Suwałki from the poviat remains in force, therefore she is the council of the separated city and reports to the Provincial National Council in Bialystok. The Council also elected, without discussion and by acclamation, the incumbent mayor of the city, mayor W. Rudzki.
After this revolt, the reaction of the superior authorities was swift. Already in mid-June 1946, the voivode demanded that the chairman of the Suwałki Poviat Department (staroste) suspend the implementation of the Municipal National Council resolutions of 27 May, while informing that in the matter of restoring Suwałki's rights as a separate city, he turned to the Ministry of Public Administration. And indeed the voivode, writing favorably about Suwałki, their development and the achievements of the authorities, mainly W. Rudzki, asked the ministry for guidelines and a suggestion of a positive resolution of the case, although the relevant regulations did not allow it, mainly because the number of inhabitants of the city did not reach 25,000. After the lapse of the month, Rudzki not only did not become president, but also resigned from the position of mayor. Nevertheless, on July 25, 1946, the MRN decided to send a delegation of councilors composed of Leon Bracławski, Józef Wiszniewski and Antoni Zalewski to the Ministry of the Interior to support current activities and accelerate the restoration of Suwałki's rights of a separated city.
Martial law
During the period of martial law in Poland and rise of Solidarność in the early 1980s, Solidarność demanded that the buildings of the Polish United Workers' Party and the Citizens' Militia be handed over to be used for social infrastructure, primarily schools, kindergartens and hospitals. This position was taken by the Inter-Enterprise Founding Committee of the Solidarity Independent Trade Union in Giżycko and Suwałki in regards to the party complex in 83 Noniewicza street. The first round of talks on this matter with representatives of authorities (including central authorities) took place on January 28, 1981. Solidarność emphasized that the new buildings could be turned into medical clinics, a community center for youth and a music school. It strengthened its position with over 18 thousand signatures from the inhabitants of the region. No agreement was reached, because the authorities did not want to hand over the building.
Before the next round of talks on the night of February 14–15, under the cover of the Citizens' Militia and Security Service, the PZPR KW was moved to new buildings. This action caused widespread indignation in the whole province, not only among the members of Solidarity.
After the war, Suwałki was retained as the capital of the powiat. However, the heavily damaged town recovered very slowly, and the Communist economic system could not support the reinvestment needed. In 1975 new administrative reform was passed; Suwałki was designated as the capital of a separate Suwałki Voivodeship. The number of inhabitants rose rapidly, and by the end of the 1970s, the population was over 36,000. Large factories were built in the town, and it became one of the important industrial and commercial centres of Eastern Poland.
Following the end of Communist rule in 1989, Suwałki had a difficult period in transitioning to a new economic system. Most of the town's major factories were inefficient and went bankrupt. Creation of the Suwałki Special Economic Zone and the proximity of the Russian and Lithuanian borders opened new possibilities for local trade and commerce. In addition, the region began to attract many tourists from all around the world. In the 21st century, residents of Suwałki frequently travel across the Russian and Lithuanian borders for shopping trips as well as to make use of the various attractions both countries offer.
According to the 2002 census, the city had a Lithuanian community of 326 people.
To the military planners of NATO, an area of the Lithuania–Poland border area is known as the Suwałki Gap because it represents a military difficulty. It is a flat narrow piece of land, a gap, that is between Belarus and Russia's Kaliningrad exclave and that connects the three NATO-member Baltic States to Poland and the rest of NATO.
Demographics
Climate
Suwałki has a climate that is characterised by changeable weather patterns. The city has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb) and, relatively to the rest of Poland, the city's climate has markedly continental characteristics even though there is some moderation from the Baltic Sea. Suwałki has among the greatest record temperature amplitudes in Poland: the lowest temperature was recorded on 12 January 1950 (), while the highest was , on 11 July 1946. It also holds the record for the highest atmospheric pressure ever registered in the country, at on 23 January 1907.
The weather changes are common due to the fact that, like in the rest of Poland, weather fronts generated by low-pressure areas come along frequently. Due to its northerly location and the relatively little moderation of the Baltic, the growing season around the city is the shortest in Poland; according to the data from 1995-2019, the period of sustained average daily temperatures exceeding was only 200 days long, about 20–30 days shorter than in central and southern Poland. Suwałki is often called the "Polish pole of cold" (polski biegun zimna) because it has the lowest average temperature of the major cities in Poland, excepting mountainous areas (the actual "pole of cold" is located about north of the city, in the village of Wiżajny).
Winters are just cold enough, if the isotherm is accepted, not to be classified as oceanic (Köppen: Cfb). The skies are often overcast and snow is frequent in the season, but there is much less precipitation in the winter months than in the sunnier summer months. Nights with temperatures below sometimes occur, and temperatures below are not unheard of. According to the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management (IMGW), the snow stays there for the longest time in non-mountainous areas of Poland. The city is so cold that before 2015, Suwałki was only one of the four cities in Poland to have experienced winter conditions in every period from December to February (defined as the daily mean temperature of the month going below ); the extremely anomalous winter of 2019/2020 was the first in which Suwałki did not experience such conditions.
Summers are pleasant, warm and often sunny, with the maximum daily temperatures sometimes exceeding , though the season is still somewhat cooler in the city, as compared to the rest of Poland.
Tourist attractions
Kościuszko street with classicist architecture
Romantic 19th-century park
St. Alexander's Church
St. Peter's and Paul's Church
Chłodna Street pedestrian zone
District Museum at the former Resursa (trading point)
Town Hall (Ratusz)
Former gymnasium building
Museum of Polish poet Maria Konopnicka at her childhood home
Monument to Maria Konopnicka
Andrzej Strumiłło Gallery
19th century brewery of Wacław Kunc
Childhood home of Polish painter Alfred Kowalski
Cemetery complex on Bakałarzewska street (Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Jewish and Muslim)
Suwałki Plaza, a shopping mall and cinema complex that opened in 2010. The mall contains stores with various products such as groceries, books, clothing, shoes and accessories.
Education
Wyższa Szkoła Służby Społecznej im. Ks. Franciszka Blachnickiego
Wyższa Szkoła Suwalsko-Mazurska im. Papieża Jana Pawła II
Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa w Suwałkach
Sport
The volleyball team Ślepsk Suwałki is based in Suwałki. It plays in the PlusLiga, Poland's top division. The football club Wigry Suwałki is based in the town. They currently play in the IV liga, the fifth tier of the Polish football league system. They dropped from II liga in 2022 for financial reasons.
Notable people
Over the centuries Suwałki has produced a number of persons who have provided unique contributions to the fields of science, language, politics, religion, sports, visual arts and performing arts. A list of recent notable persons includes, but is not limited to:
Maria Andrejczyk (born 1996), javelin thrower
Zalman Gradowski (1910–1944), secret diarist at Auschwitz-Birkenau
Maria Konopnicka (1842–1910), poet and novelist, author of the poem Rota
Alfred Kowalski (1849–1915), painter
Henryk Minkiewicz (1880–1940), general, killed in the Katyn Massacre
Avraham Stern (1907–1942), Zionist paramilitary leader, codename 'Yair' founder of Lehi
Edward Szczepanik (1915–2005), economist and the last Polish Prime Minister in Exile
Andrzej Wajda (1926–2016), film director and recipient of an Honorary Oscar
Pinchas Sapir (1906–1975), Minister of Finance of Israel
International relations
Twin towns – sister cities
Suwałki is twinned with:
See also
Augustów Canal
Lithuania–Poland border
Suwałki Region
Notes
References
External links
Suwalki Town Webpage
Kurier Suwalski
Information and Links on Suwalki
Local media Suwałki
Cities and towns in Podlaskie Voivodeship
City counties of Poland
17th-century establishments in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Populated places established in the 17th century
Trakai Voivodeship
Suwałki Governorate
Białystok Voivodeship (1919–1939)
Holocaust locations in Poland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82awiec
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Bolesławiec
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Bolesławiec (pronounced , , ) is a historic city situated on the Bóbr River in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in western Poland. It is the administrative seat of Bolesławiec County, and of Gmina Bolesławiec (being an urban gmina in its own right). As of June 2021, it has a population of 38,280. Founded in the 13th century, the city is known for its long-standing pottery-making tradition and heritage Old Town.
History
The name Bolesławiec is derived from the Silesian duke Bolesław I the Tall. The castellany of Bolezlauez in Lower Silesia was first mentioned in a 1201 deed. According to tradition, its citizens took part in the Battle of Legnica during the first Mongol invasion of Poland in 1241. Bolesławiec celebrated its 750th anniversary in 2001.
Middle Ages
In the Early Middle Ages the region was inhabited by the Bobrzanie tribe, one of the Polish tribes, and it became part of the emerging Polish state under its first historic ruler Mieszko I around 990. A Slavic stronghold was erected in present-day Bolesławiec in the late 9th century. It is now an archaeological site. As a result of the 12th-century fragmentation of Poland into smaller duchies still ruled by the founding Piast dynasty, it formed part of the duchies of Silesia, Legnica and Jawor until 1392. Following the 1241 Mongol invasion, a walled town began to take shape. In 1251, mention is made of Boleslawiec's town charter. Then a part of the Silesian Duchy of Legnica under Bolesław II the Bald, the town from 1297 belonged to the Duchy of Jawor under Bolko I the Strict. In 1316, in order to better protect the townspeople from hostile incursion, new walls were constructed around the town. The city seal, still used today, was also first used in 1316.
In 1346, the town joined seven other urban centers in forming the Silesian Association of Fortified Towns. In that same year, the Duchy of Jawor with Bolesławiec was inherited by Duke Bolko II the Small of Świdnica, and upon his death in 1368, it was inherited by Emperor Charles IV, who had married Duke Bolko's niece Anna of Świdnica. After the dissolution of the Duchy of Jawor in 1392, the town was incorporated into the Kingdom of Bohemia, itself a state of the Holy Roman Empire.
The year 1422 was of particular importance, because in that year, the town was granted beer-brewing privileges. The walls surrounding Bunzlau, now more than a century old, in 1429 failed to prevent a Hussite army from sacking the town. Further tribulations transpired in 1462 when the Bóbr river flooded the lower-lying sections of the town. From 1469 to 1490 it was under the rule of Hungary, before falling back to Bohemia, then ruled by the Jagiellonian dynasty. In 1479, the old defenses were replaced by a new double ring of walls.
Early modern period
1523 marked the start of the religious wars between Catholics and Protestants, with the majority of the town's residents converting to the new break-away faith — Bunzlau became an important center of the Protestant Reformation. Through all of it, the town kept growing: in 1525, the architect Wendel Roskopf began a rebuilding of the town hall in the new Renaissance style. 1531 saw the completion of town's first sewage and water supply system; the first apothecary opened its doors in 1558; a post station was established in 1573. In 1596, Bunzlau found itself a stop along the new Via Regia trade route connecting Wrocław (Breslau) with Leipzig. This was a major factor in promoting the growth of trade and the distribution of products, such as the locally produced pottery.
In 1642, during the Thirty Years' War, Bunzlau experienced another hostile event, this time a pillaging by Swedish forces under General Lennart Torstenson, which reduced the castle, church, and much of the housing to ruins. In the 18th century, one of two main routes connecting Warsaw and Dresden ran through the town, and Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland often traveled that route. After the First Silesian War in 1742, the town, along with most of Silesia, found itself in the expanding Kingdom of Prussia. During the 18th century, a much-esteemed Royal Orphanage was established, a church for Protestant worship erected, and the town hall underwent yet another face lift, this time in the Baroque manner.
Late modern period
From 1815 onwards, Bunzlau belonged to the Prussian Province of Silesia. The demolition of the old ring of defensive walls began around 1820, allowing for the physical expansion of the town out from its medieval center. Beginning in 1844, work commenced on a railway viaduct across the Bober River. Much admired for its engineering, the Bober (Bóbr) Viaduct stretched . In 1871 the town became part of the German Empire. In 1897, Bunzlau was selected as the site for a technical college devoted to the ceramics industry. In 1907 the town council resolved to open a museum devoted to the history of pottery making. During 1920, a concrete motorcar bridge was constructed across the Bober.
During World War II, the Germans established two subcamps of the Gross-Rosen concentration camp in the town. The prisoners of AL Bunzlau I were mainly Jews, and the prisoners of AL Bunzlau II were mainly Poles and citizens of the Soviet Union. On February 11, 1945, prisoners able to walk were evacuated by the Germans in a death march to the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp, while sick prisoners from both subcamps were left in AL Bunzlau I and eventually liberated by the Soviet troops. The war left 60% of the town in ruins, when it was captured by the Red Army on 12 February 1945. After Germany's defeat in the war, Bolesławiec became again part of Poland. Despite considerable damage, the Old Town with its central marketplace and medieval town hall have been preserved.
Between 1945 and 1948, an Autonomous Jewish District in Lower Silesia, centered on Bolesławiec, was established for the incoming Holocaust survivors. It was not favoured by the Communist authorities, and most of its supporters or advocates subsequently moved to Israel when the district was disbanded. A Polish school and library was founded in 1945. During the 1960s, the ceramic workshops were reopened and then expanded to be joined by a chemical plant, a factory for the production of vials and ampules, and a mining works. The market square was rebuilt in keeping with its historic past, and a new museum dedicated to the town's rich ceramic heritage was opened. Bolesławiec emerged as a significant regional cultural center with an international reputation for hosting a variety of imaginative festivals and events.
Bolesławiec was previously in Jelenia Góra Voivodeship (1975–1998).
Transport
The Polish National road 94, and the Voivodeship roads 297, 350, 363 run through Bolesławiec, and the east–west A4 motorway, which is part of the European route E40, runs nearby, north of the town.
Pottery
The town of Bolesławiec and its satellite communes Nowogrodziec, Ołdrzychów, and Bolesławice have a long ceramic history. The pottery is also identified with the German name for the town: Bunzlau. Bunzlauer ware (Ceramika bolesławiecka) evolved from a folk tradition into a distinct ceramic category distinguishable by form, fabric, glaze, and decoration. The term "Bunzlauer ware" may also be used to describe stylistically-related pottery produced in the neighboring districts of Lusatia and Saxony. Taken as a whole, Bunzlauer ware ranks among the most important folk pottery traditions in Europe.
The area around Bolesławiec is rich in clays suited to the potter's wheel. Typically, utilitarian Bunzlauer pottery was turned on a kick wheel, dried leather-hard, dipped in a slip glaze and then burnt in a rectangular, cross-draft kiln. Although fired at temperatures of up to and often classified as stoneware, the clay actually does not vitrify and Bunzlauer pottery is better categorized as high-fired earthenware. In order to make their pottery watertight, Bunzlauer potters applied a coating of liquid clay, or slip. When fired, the slip glaze varied from a chocolate to dark brown. Since the fabric of Bunzlauer ware retains some porosity, the pottery conveniently has been suited for cooking over an open fire or for baking in an oven, as well as for storage.
Origins
There is archaeological evidence for pottery being turned in the region as early as the 7th century. Documentary evidence demonstrates potting activity in Bolesławiec itself by the 14th century. High-fired earthenware covered in brown and yellow lead glazes was being produced in Bolesławiec from the late 15th century. By 1473, five separate potteries were at work in the city, and in 1511 they came together to form a guild in order to enforce their monopoly of pottery making.
Early Bunzlauer pottery is exceedingly rare today. The majority of a potshop's production would have been intended for farm and kitchen use: kraut containers, cheese sieves, pickling and preserve jars, baking forms, food molds, storage vessels, and so forth. Most of these stock-in-trade storage or cooking items have either disappeared or go unrecognized and undated today.
What has survived is the "fancy ware" intended for display on the table or in the parlor and used with care. In addition to their utilitarian items, the Bunzlauer potteries of Silesia turned out elegant tankards, pitchers and containers, all bathed in the brown slip "glaze" that characterized this early phase of the Bunzlauer style. The tankards and pitchers often received pewter mountings. The first examples of a distinctive Bunzlauer style are ball-shaped jugs and screw-lidded jars, often decorated with applied cartouches filled with intricate floral design. At first the entire pot, including the decorations, was covered in the same brown slip. Later examples used a yellowish lead glaze for the applied decorations which then stood out against the darker surface of the vessel (Adler, 95). A famous example of Bunzlauer pottery from this period is the hexagonal travel bottle with applied pewter mounts, originally belonging to Pastor Merge and dating to 1640–45.
A type of round-bodied jug with spiraling ribs called a "melon jug" attained popularity in the last quarter of the 17th century and continued to be produced on into the next century. Some examples gave up the application of slip in favor of colored lead glazes. After leaving the potshop, many of these melon jugs received pewter lids made by a tinsmith before being shipped off by wagon or on the back of peddlers to customers in Prussia, Bohemia, and Poland, even as far away as Russia.
Once Silesia had come under the control of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1742, the Prussian government took an active interest in promoting the pottery industry and intervened in favor of increased production. It did not take long before there was an influx of potters from Franconia, Saxony, Lusatia, and Bavaria eager to work the fine Bunzlauer clays. The old restrictive guild system was ignored as new potteries came into existence. Finally, in 1762, the guild system was abolished.
Among the German potters who moved to the town was the master potter Johann Gottlieb Joppe, who arrived in Bunzlau in 1751. Two years later, he presented the town with the "Great Pot." Standing some tall, this double-handled storage jar was placed in the town square as a symbol of the technical prowess of Bunzlauer potters.
At about the same time that the wave of German potters arrived, so did a new type of pot. It was designed for a very specific purpose: to contain a newly fashionable beverage. Coffee had been introduced as the drink of choice among the European elite. Since the Bunzlauer clays tolerated rapid changes in temperature they were well-suited in the making of coffee pots. These coffee pots were often accompanied sugar bowls, jam jars and milk pitchers to complete the coffee service, all covered in a coffee-colored slip.
Initially, the Bunzlauer coffee pots were elongated and egg-shaped, their small size emphasizing the preciousness of the contents (Adler, 96). Many of these new forms were covered with delicate sprig-molded reliefs whose white glazing set them off against the chocolate-brown surface of the pot. Coats-of-arms, flowers, angels, stags, and neo-classical figure were common decorative additions to these special vessels. Their appearance is reminiscent of the well-known Jasperware contemporaneously being produced in England by Josiah Wedgwood.
Industrialisation
Under the auspices of the Prussian kings, who encouraged the growth of the Silesian ceramic industry, Bunzlauer ware achieved a widespread recognition and was shipped throughout the states of Germany. Bunzlauer ware's popularity increased even more after 1828, when the potter Johann Gottlieb Altmann produced a feldspar substitute for the dangerous lead glaze that previously had been used on the interior of the vessels. Altmann also turned his attention to the production of a line of Biedermeier inspired porcelain vessels which were cast rather than wheel turned.
So valued had the pottery of the Bunzlauer region become that it was shipped not only throughout the German states but exported into Russia and Austria. The 19th-century heyday for Bunzlauer ceramics came in the 1870s, when close to 20 different family-run pottery shops were in operation in Bunzlau itself, and some 35 in the neighboring town of Naumburg am Queis (Nowogrodziec). A large number of potters were apprenticed during this period and many of them succeeded in opening their own shops. This resulted in a near doubling of the number of pottery-producing firms in Bunzlau by the mid-1890s.
By the end of the 19th century, however, changes in lifestyle, increasing urbanization, and growing competition from new products such as enameled metalware and glass began to constrict sales. Many of the firms were forced to close. Faced with this threat, the remaining Bunzlauer potters, while continuing to meet an agrarian demand for traditional undecorated brown slip vessels, introduced new lines of smaller wares intended for display in the parlors and dining rooms of middle-class consumers. They began to experiment with colored glazes and application (spongeware) techniques, all aimed at catching the eye of an increasingly urban and urbane public. In their survival effort, the local artisans were aided by professors at the government-sponsored Keramische Fachschule (Ceramic Technical Training School), which had been established in Bunzlau in 1898 under the leadership of the Berlin ceramicist Wilhelm Pukall (1860–1936).
The simple blue-on-white spongeware and swirlware productions of the 1880s and 1890s with their clear feldspathic glazes were successful initially, but something still more colorful and forceful was needed if modern customers were to be attracted. This demand was met when, at the turn of the century, Bunzlauer pottery underwent a colorful transformation and a new chapter in its history was opened.
During the first decades of the 20th century, pot shops throughout Silesia and neighboring Lusatia began to decorate their wares with imaginative organic motifs derived from the contemporary Jugendstil aesthetic and applied by brush or, more often, with the aid of cut sponges. Floral designs were common embellishments, but the most popular was the Pfauenauge (peacock's eye) design inspired by the Jugendstil decorators' fascination with the peacock's rich plumage. The Pfauenauge motif became the unofficial, but universally recognized, signature trademark for this category of German spongeware.
By the beginning of the second decade of the new century, many of the potteries throughout the region had evolved into sophisticated ceramic studios, generally continuing to turn out the old utilitarian brown-slip production but giving ever-increasing attention to their new line of colorful ware. Although new designs, many based upon the orientalizing forms popular at the time, were introduced, traditional shapes for coffee pots, bowls, and pitchers were retained but with their surfaces now brightened with a wide variety of popular Jugendstil patterns, particularly, that of the Pfauenauge.
Even in the studio wares, the blend of folk art and high art is curious and charming, with many of the new and decorative elements taking on a decidedly "country" appearance. This is true for the production of the art potter, Friedrich Festersen (1880–1915), born in northern Schleswig, who opened his Kunsttöpferei Friedrich Festersen in Berlin in 1909 at about the same time that the peacock's eye motif was beginning to embellish the ceramics of Bunzlau. Festersen's connection with the Bunzlauer potteries is uncertain but the peacock's eye motif is to be found throughout the production of his studio. There is no evidence that Festersen turned himself and the potters he employed may have come from Bunzlau, bringing the fashionable new designs with them. Although Festersen was a casualty of the First World War, his art pottery survived until 1922 under the leadership of his widow Sonja.
Increasingly, individual potters and workshops began to mark their wares. Among the prominent names were those of Robert Burdack (who introduced a unique technique of ceramic intarsia inlay), Julius Paul, Hugo Reinhold, and Edwin Werner from Bunzlau and from the surrounding towns of Tillendorf (Bolesławice), Ullersdorf (Ołdrzychów), and Naumburg am Queis came Karl Werner, Gerhard Seiler, Hugo Reinwald, Max Lachmann, Bruno Vogt, and Hermann Kuehn.
So popular did the new Bunzlauer style become that several of the firms, using the technical advice offered by the Bunzlau Keramische Fachschule, transformed their pot shops into large-scale, slip-casting ceramic factories. Leading the way in this manufacturing conversion was the pottery company of Julius Paul & Sohn which was founded in 1893 and continued in operation until 1945. This company was rivaled in quality and innovative design by the firms of Hugo Reinhold, and Edwin Werner. While most of the potteries in Bunzlau and in the surrounding communities continued to utilize the forms by now traditional to Bunzlauer ware, these three "high style" firms experimented with Jugendstil aesthetics and such decorative additions as gold gilding.
All of these commercializing developments encouraged a flourishing export trade which brought shipments of Bunzluer pottery not only to all parts of Europe but into the United States as well, where it competed with similar but recognizably distinct wares produced in neighboring Saxony and Lusatia by such potters as Paul Schreier of Bischofswerda. In the United States, Bunzlauer ware was often marketed under the labels of "Blue Mountain Pottery" or "Erphila," the acronym of the Philadelphia retailer Eberling & Reuss.
The economic collapse of Germany following World War I was hard on the potters of Bunzlau. They responded by banding together in order to minimize total cost and to market their wares more effectively. The Vereinigte Topfwarenfabrikanten Bunzlau (Bunzlau Pottery Manufacturers Association) was formed in 1921 and lasted until 1929. Shortly before World War II, six of the potteries agreed to cooperate under the name Aktion Bunzlauer Braunzeug (Bunzlauer Brown Ware Action Group) assuming a new mission to revive the historical traditions of the region's pottery. Much of the ware produced was based upon the elegant examples of the early 19th century.
During the 1920s, the Bunzlauer potters also began to borrow design elements from the postwar Art Deco style. In Art Deco, the naturalistic curves of Jugendstil gave way to geometric patterns and the streamlined aerodynamics appropriate to the machine age and the concept of mass production. The Art Deco style, as it developed in Germany, was significantly influenced by Cubism and its offshoot Suprematism. The Suprematist style of pure, geometric abstraction had developed in Russia and was introduced into the famous Bauhaus Design School in Dessau in the 1920s. It was probably from the Bauhaus that this modernist aesthetic was transmitted initially to the
Ceramic Technical Training in Bunzlau and then into the design repertoire of those decorating Bunzlauer pottery in the years between the two world wars. The geometric patterns of these new designs were well suited to application utilizing the newly invented airbrush canister and stencil patterns. The Bunzlauer potteries, however, continued to use the ever-popular peacock's eye motif on their spongeware production; they simply added new design lines offering an alternative to a new generation of buyer.
Post-war era
The defeat of Germany in World War II and the transfer of the bulk of Lower Silesia to Poland, with the subsequent expulsion of the German population, threatened to end the Bunzlauer ceramic tradition, but it managed to survive in the shops established by displaced potters in the ceramic centers of West Germany, where Bunzlauer style pottery continued to be produced, long celebrated for their native earthenwares or salt-glazed and cobalt-decorated stonewares. Gerhard Seiler from Naumburg am Queis relocated to Leutershausen in Bavaria. Paul Vogt, also from Naumburg settled in Pang near Rosenheim. Max and Wilhelm Werner from Tillendorf initially moved to Höhr-Grenzhausen in the Westerwald range before setting up a shop in nearby Hilgert in 1960. Höhr-Grenzhausen also attracted Georg and Steffi Peltner as well as the firm of Alois Boehm. Georg Greulich opened his pottery in Fredelsloh. The Buchwald brothers relocated to Bayreuth, while Hans Wesenberg founded a studio in Ludwigsburg. Several of these master potters from the Bunzlau district took on fellow Silesian apprentices who went on to open shops of their own in western Germany. Thus, hundreds of miles to the west of Silesia, the Bunzlauer tradition remained alive and well.
The Bunzlauer style also has survived in the continuously functioning pot shops of former East Germany in the potting communities of Neukirch/Lausitz, Bischofswerda, Pulsnitz, and Königsbrück. The Upper Lusatian town of Königsbrück is home to the Frommhold Pottery, founded in 1851, the last survivor of 21 potteries once active in the community. The town of Neukirch has contained three active potteries to continue the tradition, that of the Kannegiesser family begun in 1824, that of Karl Louis Lehmann established in 1834, and the Heinke Pottery producing ware since 1866. Pulsnitz is the home of the Juergel Pottery, thought to have been responsible for first introducing the sponging technique and the peacock-eye motif into Lusatia.
Meanwhile, back in Bolesławiec, a new and Polish chapter in the pottery's history was opening, after the city had been severely damaged in the war and its German population expelled. The Polish population that moved in found the surviving ceramic manufacturies stripped of machinery and equipment. Nevertheless, despite the lack of technical expertise in ceramic production in post-war Poland, one of the old factories was back in operation as early as 1946. But it was not until two years later that the first simple pots were being turned out.
Ceramic specialist Professor Tadeusz Szafran was dispatched to oversee the reconstruction of the potteries which also received guidance from the Wrocław Academy of Fine Arts. Szafran supervised the reopening of one of the most significant of the old factories, that of Hugo Reinhold and in 1950 the former firm of Julius Paul reopened under the name Center of Folk and Artistic Industry 'Cepelia'. In 1951, Izabela Zdrzalka became the artistic director of Cepelia, holding that position until 1957. During her tenure, the pottery produced ware decorated with traditional spongeware designs but also experimented with more contemporary forms and decorations, but always with the intent of preserving an aesthetic memory of the old Bunzlauer folk-pottery tradition, known now as "bunzloki". By the 1960s production was once again flourishing. In 1964, Bronislaw Wolanin joined the Cepelia firm as its artistic director. It was Wolanin who largely was responsible for establishing the designs typifying today's production; this is based upon the continued use of the popular peacock's eye motif. The Cepelia operation moved into greatly enlarged and modernized quarters in 1989 in keeping with increasing demand throughout Europe, the United States and Australia.
The largest producer of Bolesławiec Polish pottery is Bolesławiec Artistic Ceramic. Most of its production is destined for export. It can be recognized by its trademark stamp based upon the three-tower Bolesławiec coat-of-arms below the letter "B". This mark was used until 1996, when it was replaced by the letter "B" enclosed within the outline of a typical Bunzlauer coffee pot set above the castle. Bolesławiec pottery shipped to the United States will have "Hand Made in Poland" stamped on the base of each piece of crockery.
With the collapse of Communism, the two large state-owned ceramic manufacturies on the outskirts of Bolesławiec were privatized and several smaller private potteries were opened. In these smaller workshops, the potters turn each piece on the wheel but the larger manufacturies mold-cast their ceramics which are then hand finished, fired, hand decorated using either brush or sponge stamp, glazed and refired. The shapes and patterns found in the ceramic showrooms of Bolesławiec today and which are offered for sale, worldwide, at a number of outlet stores and internet sites, are staggering in variety: coffee pots, tea pots, cups, mugs, pitchers, platters, breakfast and dinner services, sets of bowls, candle holders, butter dishes cast in the shape of full-skirted peasant women, Christmas tree ornaments, all painted or sponge decorated in cheerful and colorful, folkloric patterns.
The Bolesławiec pottery that is most recognizable today is the white or cream colored ceramic with dark blue, green, brown, and sometimes red or purple motifs. Some of the designs used in this modern Polish pottery rendition of the older Bunzlauer ware harkens back to the German decorative motifs of the pre-war period but the new ceramic artisans of Bolesławiec have not hesitated to invent their own decorations, many of which are designed to have an especial appeal to the pottery's growing international clientele. The most common designs in today's production include sponge-stamped dots, abstract florals, speckles, windmills, and, of course, the famous "peacock's eye."
A growing appreciation for this ceramic category has been stimulated by a number of public exhibitions. The initial one, in which more than900 pieces were on display, was entitled "Bunzlauer Geschirr: Gebrauchsware zwischen Handwerk und Industrie" was held at three venues in Germany in 1986–88: the Museum fuer Deutsche Volkskunde in Berlin, the Hetjens-Museum in Düsseldorf and the Altonaer Museum in Hamburg. The catalogue to this exhibition has become the standard reference work for those interested in Bunzlauer pottery. Additional presentations of Bunzlauer pottery in Germany have included "Guter Ton aus Bunzlau" on view in 2004–05 at the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg featuring examples from that institution's extensive collection; "Bunzlauer Keramik: Schlesisches Kunsthandwerk" at the Keramik-Museum Berlin in 2008; "Bunzlauer Tippel nach 1945" at the Bunzlauer Heimatstube in Siegburg in 2009; and "Bunzlauer Keramik – Gestern und Heute" at the Haus des Deutschen Ostens in Munich in 2011
-12. Polish museums also have contributed to the increasing public awareness of Bunzlauer pottery. In 1995, the Ceramics Museum in Boleslaweic collaborated with the Muzeum Narodowe, Wrocław (National Museum, Wrocław) in presenting "Artystyczna Kamionka Bolesławiecka," utilizing the holdings of both museums. In 2008, Bolesławiec's Ceramic Museum organized a show centered around one of the most prominent of the town's pre-war potteries, that of Hugo Reinhold. "Vom Kunsthandwerk zur Kunst – Bunzlauer Keramik aus dem Haus Reinhold" was also exhibited in Germany at the Schlesisches Museum in Görlitz. Another of Bunzlau's accomplished ceramic producers was celebrated in Austria when "Art Deco Keramik Bunzlau: die Feinsteinzeugfabrik Julius Paul & Sohn 1893–1945" was presented at the Oesterreiches Postsparkasse in Vienna. In addition to these European exhibitions, there have been three showings of Bunzlauer ceramics in the United States. The first took place at the McKissick Museum of the University of South Carolina in Columbia, South Carolina in 1998 as part of an exhibit called "Two Traditions in Transition: Folk Potters of Eastern Germany and the American South." This was followed by "Bunzlauer Style: German Pottery from Jugendstil to Art Deco," presented in 2002 by the Georgia Museum of Art in Athens, Georgia. Bunzlauer Pottery also was featured in an exhibit at the Columbia Museum of Art in Columbia, South Carolina in 2005–06.
Older, pre-war examples of Bunzlauer pottery are avidly sought by collectors today. Private collections abound, especially in Germany but also abroad, including the United States where some individuals have amassed collections of more than 100 pieces of the pre-1945 pottery, most of which had been imported during the period between the two world wars. Extensive public collections of Bunzlauer ceramics are to be found in Poland at the Muzeum Ceramiki in Bolesławiec (with over 2000 pieces) and the National Museum in Wrocław; in Germany at the Schlesisches Museum in Görlitz, the permanent exhibition Keramik des Bunzlauer Töpfergebietes at Antik Leonhardt, Görlitz, at the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg, at the Keramik-Museum and at the Museum Europäischer Kulturen in Berlin, at the Haus der Begegnung of the Bundesheimatgruppe Bunzlau in Siegburg, at the Heimatmuseums in Neukirch/Lausitz and Pulsnitz, at the Museum für Sächsische Volkskunst in Dresden, and at the Sorbian Museum in Bautzen; and in the United States at the Columbia Museum of Art in Columbia, South Carolina which houses a collection of 110 pieces.
Notable people
Martin Opitz (1597–1639), German baroque poet, Polish royal secretary and historiographer of King Władysław IV Vasa
Carl Ferdinand Appun (1820–1872), German naturalist
Reinhold Röhricht (1842–1905), German historian
Fritz Schulz (1879–1957), German jurist and writer
Hermann Schey (1895–1981), bass-baritone
Dieter Hildebrandt (1927–2013), German cabaret artist
Frederick Kawerau (1817–), Australian architect
Łukasz Kubot (born 1982), Polish tennis player
Monika Sozanska (born 1983), Polish–German épée fencer
Field Marshal Prince Mikhail Kutuzov died at Bunzlau on 28 April 1813 during the War of the Sixth Coalition, in 1819 King Frederick William III of Prussia had a cast iron memorial erected, designed by Karl Friedrich Schinkel.
Twin towns – sister cities
Bolesławiec is twinned with:
Acuto, Italy
Česká Lípa, Czech Republic
Mariagerfjord, Denmark
Molde, Norway
Nogent-sur-Marne, France
Pirna, Germany
Prnjavor, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Siegburg, Germany
Vallecorsa, Italy
Zbarazh, Ukraine
References
Adler, Beatrix. Early Stoneware Steins from the Les Paul Collection. Petersburg: Imhof, 2007.
Banas, Pawel and Jolania Sozanska, et al. Ceramika boleslawiecka z wytworni Reinolda = Bunzlauer Keramik aus dem Hause Reinhold. (exh. cat) Boleslawiec-Jelenia Gora: Moniatowicz, 2008.
Bober, Anna et al. Sladami Boleslawieckiej Kamionki. Boleslawiec: Muzeum Ceramiki, 2003.
Bober, Anna and Teresa Wolanin. Muzeum Ceramiki w Boleslawcu. Przcwodnik = Fuehrer durch das Bunzlauer Keramikmuseum. Boleslawiec-Jelenia Gora: Moniatowicz, 2001.
Boleslawiec." Bydgoszcz, PL: Wydawnictwo Telst, 2001.
Endres, Werner et al. Beitraege zur Bunzlauer Keramik (Nearchos 5). Innsbruck: Universitaet Innsbruck, 1997.
Gorecki, Bogdan. Artistic Ceramics Boleslawiec, 1950–2000. Boleslawiec, 2000.
Lippert, Inge, Werner Endres. Bunzlauer Keramik: Die Feinsteinzeugfabrik Julius Paul & Sohn in Bunzlau (1893–1945). Stuttgart: Arnoldische Verlag, 2001.
Mack, Charles R. & Ilona S. "Bunzlauer Geschirr: A German Pottery Tradition." Southeastern College Art Conference Review, 13, 2 (1997), 121–131.
Mack, Charles R. & Ilona S. "The Bunzlau Pottery of Germany and Silesia." The Magazine Antiques 152 (July 1997), 88–95.
Mack, Charles R. Bunzlauer Style: German Pottery from Jugenddtil to Art Deco.(exh. cat.) Athens, GA: Georgia Museum of Art, 2002.
Mueller, Heidi. Bunzlauer Geschirr: Gebrauchsware zwischen Handwerk und Industrie. Berlin: Reimer Publishing for the Museum fuer Volkskunde, 1986.
Reinheckel, Guenter. Oberlausitzer Töpferware. Husum, 2007.
Ristow, Imke. "Die Staatliche Keramische Fachschule Bunzlau und die Bunzlauer Betriebe Avantgarded und Töpfertradition," in Joanna Flawia Figiel, et al., Revolution der Muster: Spritzdekor-Keramik um 1930.Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz Publishing for the Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe, 2006, pp. 135–45.
Schoene Sally. Brenn/Punkte: Keramische Fachschulen seit 1875, Landshut/Hoehr/Bunzlau. Düsseldorf: Hetjens-Museum, 2001.
Spaeth, Kristine. Töpferei in Schlesien: Bunzlau und Umgebung. Munich: Delp, 1981.
Spindler, Konrad. Bunzlauer Keramik im Germanischen National Museum. Nuernberg, 2004.
Starzewska, Maria & Teresa Wolanin Artystyczna Kamionla Boleslawiecka. Wroclaw: Katalogi Zbiorow Muzeum Narodowego we Wroclawiu, 1995.
Steinitz, Kurt. "Die Töpferei des Kreises Bunzlau" in Schriften des Vereins fuer Socialpolitik 12.Leipzig, 1895, 167–229.
Theis, Heinz-Joachim, Kunsttöpferei Friedrch Festersen (Berlin 1909–1922).Berlin: Keramik-Museum Berlin, 2009.
Weinhold, Rudolf. Töpferwerk in der Oberlausitz. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1958
Wernicke, Ewald. Chronik der Stadt Bunzlau von den Aeltesten Zeiten bis zur Gegenwart. Bunzlau 1884.
Zak, Katarzna. Boleslawiec : Miasto Ceramiki.'' Boleslawiec: Moniatowicz Foto Studio,2004
External links
Official Site of Bolesławiec
Local news service and newspaper (in Polish)
Local companies and organizations
Jewish Community in Bolesławiec on Virtual Shtetl
Local news service and newspaper (in Polish)
Bolesławiec.org/Istotne Informacje – Local News Service (in Polish)
PKP Bolesławiec – railway station
Cities and towns in Lower Silesian Voivodeship
Bolesławiec County
Cities in Silesia
Archaeological sites in Poland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jelenia%20G%C3%B3ra
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Jelenia Góra
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Jelenia Góra (pron. ; Polish: ; ; Exonym: Deer Mountain) is a historic city in southwestern Poland, within the historical region of Lower Silesia. Jelenia Góra is situated in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship, close to the Karkonosze mountain range running along the Polish-Czech border – ski resorts such as Karpacz and Szklarska Poręba are situated from the city. Jelenia Góra constitutes a separate urban gmina as well as being the seat of surrounding Karkonosze County (formerly Jelenia Góra County). In 2021 the population of Jelenia Góra was 77,366. The area, including the oldest spa district of Cieplice Śląskie-Zdrój, is one of the most valued recreational and leisure spots in Poland.
The city's history dates back to as early as the 10th century, but the settlement was granted town rights under Polish rule in 1288. Jelenia Góra was founded on important trade routes linking the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia with Eastern Europe. The region flourished as a result of trade privileges that became the basis for the establishment of weaving and mining industries during the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance periods. Jelenia Góra witnessed many historical conflicts such as the Thirty Years' War and the decisive Silesian Wars. During World War II, the city was miraculously saved from destruction.
The central suburb of Jelenia Góra possesses many historical and architectural structures of great significance, including the 17th-century town hall, baroque churches and a restored central marketplace as well as parks and gardens. The nearby Karkonosze National Park, visited by over 1.5 million tourists annually, has its headquarters in Jelenia Góra.
Toponymy
The name of the city as mentioned in historical sources, seems to be consistent: German-named Hirschberg but written differently through the centuries (e.g. Hyrzberc 1281, Hyrspergk 1305 and 1355 Hirssbergk, Hirsberg 1521). In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Latin names appear in different records, for example, Mons Cervi, Cervimontia, Monscervinus, Cervigera. The Polish name Jelenia Góra together with Hyrszberg is mentioned in the book Krótki rys jeografii Szląska dla nauki początkowej published in Głogówek in 1847 by writer Józef Lompa. The 19th-century Geographical Dictionary of the Kingdom of Poland mentioned the city as Jeleniagóra. The Polish name Jelenia Góra was confirmed official, when the city became again part of Poland after World War II ended in 1945.
History
Human settlement in the area dates back to prehistoric times, and cemeteries of the Lusatian culture were discovered within the city limits during archaeological excavations.
Middle Ages
In the Early Middle Ages, the area was inhabited by the Bobrzanie, one of the old Polish tribes. In the 7th century it was part of the short-lived Samo's Empire, and in around 990 it became part of the emerging Polish state under Mieszko I.
The city's origins officially date back to the legendary founding of the settlement by the Polish duke Bolesław III Wrymouth of the Piast dynasty in 1108, and in 2008 the city celebrated its 900th anniversary. Jelenia Gora is also mentioned as having been used as a staging point by Bolesław III for his military campaigns against the Czechs in 1110. The original fortified hilltop gród over time developed into a sizable trading settlement, which expanded outside of the old fortifications, forming a suburb around the original settlement. The Piast gród has been preserved as an archeological site – now the Bolesław Wrymouth Hill. In 1242, Duke Bolesław II the Horned expanded the city's fortifications.
In 1281, the city was given an urban charter by the Polish duke Bolko I the Strict when German settlers migrated to the region. In 1281 the settlement was first mentioned as Hyrzberc, and in 1288 in Latin as Hyrsbergensium. The city flourished in the 14th century, and became a center of crafts and trade. Weaving developed, and the citizens were exempt from tolls in trade with Wrocław and Bohemia. In 1317, the Corpus Christi Hospital was first mentioned in documents, although it possibly was founded in the 13th century. In 1345 a city council was established. In 1348 an earthquake struck the city, and Duke Bolko II the Small granted it new privileges. In 1361 the city was allowed to build a winery, market stalls and was given the privilege of minting its own gold and silver coins. When the Silesian Piasts lost inheritance and Agnes of Habsburg, the last duchess of Świdnica-Jawor died in 1392, the city passed to Bohemia, ruled by the House of Luxembourg.
In 1426 and 1427 the city was invaded by the Hussites. From 1469 to 1490 it was part of Hungary and afterwards it was part of Bohemia, ruled by the Jagiellonian dynasty.
Modern era
In 1502 King Vladislaus II issued a privilege extending the city's autonomy and in 1519 King Louis II granted the right to an annual fair.
The town was inherited by Habsburg Austria in 1526, two years after the town adopted the Protestant faith. In 1533, all old privileges of the city were confirmed. In 1539, a second annual fair was established. In 1540 the municipal school suffered a fire. In 1548, the city refused to support Charles V in the religious Schmalkaldic War, for which he fined the city and deposed the mayor. A Protestant school was built in 1566. In 1560 a fire destroyed large parts of the city and stopped the economic development, which until then had been characterized by linen-weaving. The city recovered when Joachim Girnth, a shoemaker on a return journey from Holland, introduced veil-weaving. The first "light veils" were offered in 1625, and five years later the city received an imperial privilege by Ferdinand II for these veils.
During the Thirty Years' War the city suffered badly. It was beleaguered by troops of both parties, paid high contributions, and during a siege in 1634 the city burned down again. Two more sieges followed in 1640 and 1641. The town needed several years to recover. One reason for the new boost was the creation of a merchant society 1658, which secured Hirschberg's position as the most important center of linen and veil trade in the Silesian mountains during the 17th and 18th centuries.
The Protestants of the city were oppressed during the Counter-Reformation, but the second Treaty of Altranstädt, which allowed a Protestant community center and church to be established outside the medieval city walls, brought relief. Great sacrifices by the merchant society, especially its most prominent member Christian Menzel, made the construction of a large church, modelled after Church of Catherine in Stockholm, possible. The cemetery of the church was the preferred burial place for most merchant families.
Hirschberg was annexed with Lower Silesia by the Kingdom of Prussia during the Silesian Wars. The city was again partly destroyed, had to pay contributions and was seized several times. The detachment from Austria and the new border in the mountains to the south badly damaged the economy as the merchants lost a large part of their customers. Although Prussia took on substantial efforts to revive the economy, they never recovered completely and finally lost their position during the industrial revolution.
In 1800, John Quincy Adams, ambassador in Berlin at that time and future President of the United States, visited Hirschberg and said: "Nothing can be more beautiful than the location of Hirschberg, a beautifully built city with numerous splendid buildings, in a valley surrounded by hills on all sides, with the magnificent view of the Giant Mountains".
In 1871 the town became part of the German Empire with the Prussian-led unification of Germany, as one of the largest towns in the Province of Silesia. In 1889 the Deutsche Riesengebirgsverein (German Giant Mountains Club), an organization to protect the environment of the Giant Mountains (Karkonosze) and to promote tourism, was founded by Theodor Donat and 47 other dignitaries of the region.
20th century
After World War I, the town became part of the Prussian Province of Lower Silesia in 1919, and in 1922 became a separate city. On September 1, 1939, the day of the German invasion of Poland and the outbreak of World War II, Luftwaffe used the airport in Hirschberg to conduct air raids on Poland. In April 1940, the first transport of 2,000 Poles deported from Sosnowiec, Będzin and Olkusz for forced labor arrived to the city. In the city, the Germans organized 19 labor camps in which they imprisoned mainly Poles, Czechs, Frenchmen and Belgians, but also Luxembourgers, Russians, Ukrainians, Greeks, Estonians, including women. They also established four prisoner-of-war camps: two for French, one for Jews from different countries and one for Soviets. French POWs organized a secret resistance movement and cooperated with Poles from other camps. There were also two subcamps of the Gross-Rosen concentration camp, whose prisoners were mostly Poles and Jews from various German-occupied countries, chiefly Poland, the Netherlands, Belgium and Hungary. In 1943 and 1944 there was a significant influx of Germans from the bombed German cities, and in 1944, after the crushing of the Warsaw Uprising, Poles deported from Warsaw were temporarily imprisoned there. When the Red Army captured the city, as a result of the influx of people in the last years of the war, there were 160,000 people in the city.
According to the decisions of the Potsdam Conference, the city became again part of Poland, athough with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which stayed in power until the 1980s. It became officially known by its Polish name of Jelenia Góra, which was first recorded in 1847. All remaining German inhabitants were expelled westward in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement and Polish settlers came to the city. In the 1950s also Greeks, refugees of the Greek Civil War, settled in Jelenia Góra.
A local unit of the Freedom and Independence Association was formed in 1945 by former Home Army partisans. From October 1945, the Polish underground newspaper Wolność ("Freedom") was issued and distributed in Jelenia Góra. In mid-1946, the communists carried out arrests of local resistance leaders, however, some managed to escape arrest.
The city was not destroyed in the war, but the state of its buildings and infrastructure declined over the next decade. The communist authorities dismantled the neglected tenements around the Old Town until 1965 and destroyed the cemetery of the former German Protestant church. Since then the buildings around the market place have been reconstructed in simpler 18th-century historical forms.
From 1975 to 1998, it was the capital of the Jelenia Góra Voivodeship. In 1976, the city was enlarged through the incorporation of Sobieszów, Maciejowa and the spa town of Cieplice Śląskie-Zdrój.
Politics
Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Jelenia Gora-Legnica constituency in Polish parliamentary election 2011 included: Grzegorz Schetyna PO, Ewa Drozd PO, Norbert Wojnerowski PO, Zofia Czernow PO, Robert Kropiwnicki PO, Adam Lipiński PIS, Elżbieta Witek PIS, Marzena Machałek PIS, Wojciech Zubowski PIS, Ryszard Zbrzyzny SLD, Małgorzata Sekuła-Szmajdzińska SLD, Henryk Kmiecik RP.
Geography
The city is located in the northern part of the Jelenia Góra Valley. From the west, the city is surrounded by mountains and foothills of Izera Mountains, north Kaczawskie Mountains, east Rudawy Janowickie Mountains and in the south Karkonosze Mountains. The center is located about east from the place where the two rivers Bóbr (Beaver River) and Kamienna (Stone River) connects.
Climate
Jelenia Góra has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) using the isotherm or a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfb) using the isotherm.
Population
The first written records from the mid-sixteenth century mention a population of approximately 3.5 thousand residents. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the population was about six thousand people, to rise up to about 20 thousand in the early twentieth century. The population of Hirschberg/Jelenia Gora in 1939 increased to over 35 thousand people and after World War II, the city had a population of 39 thousand residents, including more than 35 thousand Germans. During the period 1945–1947, the German population was mostly expelled from Jelenia Góra in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement. After the creation of Jelenia Góra Voivodeship in 1975 and connection to the city surrounding towns, including Cieplice Śląskie-Zdrój, Population increased to 80 thousand. In subsequent years, the city's population grew, but mainly as a result of joining other nearby villages. The population rose to 93,570 inhabitants by 1996, but after the administrative reform in 1998 and the establishment of Lower Silesia voivodeship, the population of Jelenia Gora is steadily decreasing. By December 2004 it was only 87,643, and by June 2010 it had fallen to 84,306 people. As of 2022, the city's population is 75,794.
Transmitter
In 1957, a broadcasting station for mediumwave radio was inaugurated in Jelenia Góra at ul. Sudecka 55. Until 1967, it used a 47-metre-tall wooden tower, which may have been the only wooden radio tower built in Poland after 1945. In 1967 it was replaced by a 72-metre-tall steel mast. Since the shutdown of the medium wave transmitter in 1994, this mast has been used for FM broadcasting.
Culture
Jelenia Góra has a wide range of cultural institutions, including theaters, a concert hall, and cinema and art exhibitions offices. Festivals such as the International Film Festival "Zoom Zbliżenia", International Street Theatre Festival, and the International Festival of Organ Music "Silesia Sonans" take place.
The "Silesia Sonans" European Organ Music Festival takes place annually in autumn. Other cultural and entertainment events include concerts, art shows, exhibitions, fairs, and events geared for children and families. The"Silesia Sonans" Festival is particularly noteworthy. Outstanding Polish and foreign artists gather to play pieces of famous composers inside the Garrison Church.
The Cyprian Norwid Theatre first opened as early as in 1904, with performance staged ceremoniously. The building was designed in the Art Nouveau style with features typical for 19th-century theatre edifices. Theatre remains active to this day with new performances staged regularly. The same building features a restaurant "OldPub" with live music.
Open Air Museum of the Polish Army Armament – the largest open-air museum of this type in Lower Silesia. It is located on a former military unit. Since 2005 Łomnica has an open-air exhibition, which presents the radar equipment from entire Poland.
Lower Silesian Philharmonic in Jelenia Góra (pl) is the concert hall of the Lower Silesian Philharmonic hosts many famous artists and the Jelenia Góra symphonists give concerts in Poland and abroad, participate in international festivals accompanying known persons from the art world and also support young talents. Concerts for the local audience, regional projects and educational activity are another vital part of the Philharmonic's undertakings.
Zdrojowy Animation Theatre was built between 1833 and 1836 in the neoclassical style, it can accommodate up to 270 spectators. Founded by Schaffgotsch family, one of the three puppet theaters in Lower Silesia. Currently scene belongs to the Zdrojowy Animation Theater in the Zdrojowy Park which aside from its primary activity also organizes the cultural life of Cieplice.
Natural History Museum is located in the Norweski Park in Cieplice. It was built in 1909 on the basis of a draft Frognersteren restaurant situated just below Oslo. Collections are mainly based on the now-defunct Schaffgotsch collection. It includes Poland's largest exhibition of birds.
Jelenia Góra Cultural Center works with many events in the city (League of Rock, charity event WOŚP, September Jeleniogórski, Krokus Jazz Festival, Comedy Film Festival "Barejada", International conference on new educational techniques) also runs a number of workshops.
Karkonosze Museum – The museum collects exhibits related to the history, ethnography, crafts and regional art. Particularly interesting exhibits include the largest artistic glass collection in Poland, ample 18th- and 19th-century glass painting collections, collections of tinwork and an ethnographic exposition – a Lusatian-built wooden cottage equipped with traditional equipment used in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Karkonosze Light Festival – During the Light Festival the city gains a special kind of charm owing to colorful, professionally designed illuminations. The aim of the project is to present the most modern technologies and products used to illuminate cities, while maintaining care for the environment.
ZOOM – ZBLIŻENIA International Film Festival is a festival promoting independent films. The format of the competition is open, anyone willing can challenge the silver screen with their piece.
Antique and curio fair for a few days in September revives Jelenia Góra commercial roots. The local fair is one of the largest in Poland, it is attended by collectors from all of Europe. At the fair, you can buy old furniture and practical items, numismatic collections, books, trinkets and plenty of other things.
International street theatre Festival – In August the Jelenia Góra Town Square for a brief period transforms into a stage for incoming artistic groups. Actors are not confined by the closed space of theatre building and the unique scenery and the scale of the plays provide unforgettable thrills.
Education
The city is the educational hub for Jelenia Góra County and even further regions. Along with many primary and secondary schools, there are three higher education institutions in Jelenia góra:
Karkonoska Państwowa Szkoła Wyższa,
Wrocław University of Economics (faculty in Jelenia Góra),
Wrocław University of Science and Technology (faculty in Jelenia Góra).
Landmarks
The Wojanowska gate and tower were part of the medieval defence complex that protected the road to Wojanów. Dungeons served as a prison. In 1480, the tower due to strong wind collapsed burying five people. Quickly it was rebuilt by adding the clock and the dome with a lantern, and this state has survived to this day. Coats of arms have been placed on the pillars: Prussian, Silesia, urban and inscription. In 1869, the gate was dismantled and moved to the barracks at Obrońców Pokoju street. After the renovation in 1998, returned to its former place. Located inside the medieval bastion was the St. Anne Chapel of the Wojanowska gate. In the portal above the entrance to the chapel there is an inscription: " „HonorI Magnae ChrIstI aVlae DIVae Annae ereCta”"(built for the glory of the great grandmother of Christ, St. Anna) with a hidden date of 1715.
The Basilica of St. Erasmus and St. Pancras built in the 14th century features the chapel dedicated to the Patrons of Jelenia Gora; however, it got its present form in the next century. The church was built of stone in the form of a three-nave basilica topped with a tower. Even today, you can admire numerous Gothic stone details best preserved in portals and window frames. The southern portal is exceptionally rich and interesting. Two sepulchral chapels (from the 17th and 18th century) were built into the church's walls; over 20 epitaphs and tombstones from the 16th and 18th century were placed on the two chapels. The main entrance to the chapel is located on the west, on the ground floor. The interior is also Gothic, but the fittings come from Renaissance and Baroque. The incredibly rich and monumental altar from the 18th century dominates the interior. The temple also houses priceless organs from the same period made in the workshop of an Italian organ builder – Adam Casparini. The 16th-century pulpit and the intarsiated (made of different wood types) choir stalls are a little older. There are also two 18th century figures on the church grounds – the Marian column is near the main entrance, and on the northern side, there is a sculpture of St. John of Nepomuk. It used to be located on one bridge over the Młynowka river; however, after it was damaged and then reconstructed in 1886, it was moved to its present place.
The Feast of the Holy Cross Church was erected as a proof of the grace of the Catholic Emperor of Austria for the Silesian evangelicals. Under the arrangement concluded in Altranstadt after a religious war they were granted the right to build six churches in Silesia which at that time was under Austrian rule. The design of the temple was prepared by the architect, Martin Frantz of Tallinn. The construction works lasted nine years (1709–1718) and the newly built church was deceptively similar to its prototype – St. Catherine's Church in Stockholm (the work of the same designer). The structure was erected on the plan of a cross and topped with a dome. The interior was equipped with a three-storey matronea which can accommodate more than two thousand members of the congregation. The railings were adorned with citations and paintings displaying scenes from the Old and New Testament. The altar together with the organ front placed over it make up an extended, beautifully adorned architectural form.
The town hall is the central point of the market square. The building was erected between 1744 and 1749. The entire square is surrounded by Baroque tenement houses with arcades, which originally used to serve the merchants to sell their goods. At the beginning of the 20th century, the tenement houses near the City Hall were bought and adjoined to the town hall (the so-called "Seven-Houses"). Right next to the town hall there is a fountain with a sculpture of Neptune – god of the seas. The sculpture is to commemorate old trade relations with overseas lands.
The Schaffgotsch family ruling vast lands around Karkonosze settled in Cieplice in 1675. Their previous seat was Chojnik Castle, burned down due to lightning strike. Their Schaffgotsch Palace's greatest ornament are the two semi-circular finished porticos with richly ornamented cartouches carrying the family crest of the owners. The interiors boasts early classicistic fittings. Since 1975, the palace has been housing a branch of the Wrocław University of Technology.
Jelenia Góra trams – Tram communication operated in Jelenia Góra in the years 1897–1969. Today there isn't much left of it – fragments of the tram line and a plaque can be found near town hall. One of the old tram carriages can be found by the north entrance to the town hall and serves as a souvenir kiosk (the other two trams are placed in front of the tram depot, in Wolności Street and at the bus terminal in Podgórzyn).
Jelenia Góra districts
Cieplice Śląskie-Zdrój
Known from the 13th century owing to warm, curative springs that gave it their name. Owing to the old owners of these lands, the Silesian Schaffgotsch family, at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries its fame extended far beyond Silesia and managed to attract flocks of patients, including many eminent persons. Modern analysis shows that water therapeutic effectiveness is due to sulphur, silicon and fluorine compounds together with the high temperature reaching 90 Celsius degrees. Therapeutic sessions used to be based mainly on baths, today a wide range of treatments in the field of hydrotherapy, inhalation therapy as well as phototherapy, physiotherapy, kinesiotherapy, and electrotherapy.
Zdrojowy and Norwegian Parks
These two parks are located close to the main pedestrian street of Cieplice. Zdrojowy Park main avenue was created already in 1796, however, the entire park was created in the first half of the 19th century when the Schaffgotschs reconstructed part of the garden into an English garden and made a part of it available to the residents of Cieplice and patients.
At the beginning of the 20th century, owner of paper machine factory Eugen Fülner made several investments towards the spa. One investment was creating a picturesque park, called the Norwegian Park. Norwegian Park owes its name to a wooden building erected in 1909, whose finishing resembles Viking boats.
The Gallery and Zdrojowy Animation Theatre was built in 1797–1800 and designed by the architect Carl Gottlieb Geissler from Wroclaw. Inside there is still a functioning restaurant, a cigar lounge, a reading room and a large concert hall. Theatre was built between 1833 and 1836, it can accommodate up to 270 spectators. Founded by Schaffgotsch family built in the neoclassical style. Currently scene belongs to the Zdrojowy Animation Theater in the Zdrojowy Park.
Sobieszów
Sobieszów is located along the stream of Wrzosówka and nearby is the Chojnik castle. From the fourteenth century to 1945, the village belonged to the Schaffgotsch family. Karkonosze National Park management is established in Sobieszów. Location area creates favorable conditions for starting here hiking in the Karkonosze Mountains.
Chojnik Castle
Chojnik Castle – a castle located near Jelenia Góra-Sobieszów on the top of the Chojnik mountain in Karkonosze Mountains. This mountain rises to a height of 627 meters above sea level, and from the southeast side is a 45-meter cliff plunging into the so-called Hell Valley. The fort is located in a nature reserve, which is the exclave of Karkonosze Mountains National Park.
"Chojnik Golden Bolt" Knight's crossbow tournament – Once a year the picturesque ruins of Chojnik play host to the struggles of knight fellowships. The tournament is accompanied by shows of medieval customs, dances, crafts and warfare.
Jagniątków
Jagniątków – a district of Jelenia Góra (since 1998). From here leads many trails in the mountains, both pedestrians and cyclists. It is the highest district of Jelenia Gora, and has good communication with the city bus (lines 15 and late-night course line 9).
Divine Mercy Church in Jagniątków
The church was erected in the years 1980–1986. Its shape was inspired by the architecture of Podhale. Thanks to this shape the church perfectly inscribes itself into the mountainous landscape.
Jagniątkowski Black Cauldron
Jagniątkowsk Black Cauldron – glacial cauldron in the Western Sudetes in the Karkonosze Mountains and is located in south-western Poland, in the Western Sudetes in the western part of the band Karkonosze Mountains, in the Karkonosze National Park, north of the Black Pass, on the north-eastern slope of Śmielca and north-western slope of the Czech Stones.
Sports
Aviation
Owing to natural factors the Jelenia Góra Valley boasts exceptionally good conditions for gliding and hand-gliding. Consequently, the Jelenia Góra airport and the local flying club enjoys much popularity among flying aficionados from Poland and abroad alike.
Cycling
Jelenia Góra offers many and varied cycling routes like "Bóbr valley trail" (ER-6) or the biking ring road of Jelenia Góra, the Jelenia Góra- Łomnica biking trail. City organizes biking events:
Jelenia Góra trophy – Maja Włoszczowska MTB Race – a biking race involving the top contenders of the amateurs of the world MTB scene.
Bike Parade – an entertainment event propagating biking, a healthy lifestyle and active outdoor leisure.
Dirt Town – bike stunts performed on the Town Hall square and a biking contest on a specially prepared obstacle course.
In the years 1952–1956, 1979, 1986 and 1999–2007 by the city ran the route of Tour de Pologne, and in 2012 this event has returned to Jelenia Gora.
The FISU selected Jelenia Góra to host the 2014 World University Cycling Championship.
Sport clubs
Vitaral Jelfa Jelenia Góra – women's handball team playing in Polish Ekstraklasa Women's Handball League: 3rd place in 2003/2004 season.
KPR Jelenia Góra – Women's handball team playing in Polish Ekstraklasa Women's Handball League and in Polish First League
Karkonosze Jelenia Gora – Polish football club based in Jelenia Góra. In the season 2013/2014 playing in the fourth division.
Kayaks
Kayakers may admire Jelenia Góra from their favourite perspective, using the water route on the Bóbr river. More informations at PTTK site.
Hiking Trail
Majestic mountains surrounding the city, offers many great trails for visitors, including a route to the highest peak of the Karkonosze – Śnieżka 1602 meters above the sea. During the mountain expeditions, visitors can stay overnight in mountain shelters like "Strzecha Akademicka", "Samotnia", "Odrodzenie" or "Dom Śląski".
Twin towns – sister cities
Jelenia Góra is twinned with:
Bautzen, Germany
Boxberg, Germany
Cervia, Italy
Changzhou, China
Erftstadt, Germany
Jablonec nad Nisou, Czech Republic
Randers, Denmark
Sievierodonetsk, Ukraine
Tequila, Mexico
Tyler, Texas, United States
Valkeakoski, Finland
Former twin towns:
Vladimir, Russia (terminated in 2022 due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine)
Notable people
Sylwia Bogacka (born 1981), Olympic rifle shooter, silver medalist in London
Ruth Bré (1862–1911), writer, women's rights advocate
Babette von Bülow (1850–1927), writer
Otto Finsch (1839–1917), ethnographer
Hanna Foltyn-Kubicka (born 1950), politician
Felix Funke (1865–1932), admiral
Philipp Gotthard von Schaffgotsch, born and buried here.
Georg Heym (1887–1912), early expressionist writer
Wilhelm Iwan (1871–1958), author, historian, and theologian
Karl Joel (1864–1934), philosopher
Janusz Kudyba (born 1961), footballer
Dawid Kupczyk (born 1977), bobsledder
Omenaa Mensah (born 1979), TV presenter
Carl Püchler (1894–1949), Wehrmacht general
Hanna Reitsch (1912–1979), test pilot
Christian Jakob Salice-Contessa (1767–1825), merchant, politician and writer
Ryszard Skowronek (born 1949), decathlete
References
Citations
Sources
External links
jelenia.pl – news from the city
jeleniagora24 – news from the city
Jewish Community in Jelenia Góra on Virtual Shtetl
Dolny Śląsk na fotografii – extensive collection of old and new views of the city
art1900.info Art Nouveau in Jelenia Góra
Jelenia Góra past and present presented on the old, and modern photographs, postcards, maps and plans.
City counties of Poland
Cities and towns in Lower Silesian Voivodeship
Cities in Silesia
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387093
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrzan%C3%B3w
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Chrzanów
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Chrzanów () is a town in southern Poland with 35,651 inhabitants as of December 2021. It is situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship (since 1999) and is the seat of Chrzanów County.
History
History to 1809
It is impossible to establish a reliable date for the foundation of the town. A stronghold existed on the site, which was later raised to the rank of a castellany. The earliest documents which corroborate the existence of Chrzanów castellany come from the late 12th century when, in around 1178, Chrzanów castellany was annexed to Silesia by order of Duke Casimir II the Just. In the second half of the 13th century it was reunited with the Duchy of Kraków. In 1241 the wooden stronghold of Chrzanów was put to the torch by Mongol hordes invading Poland from the east. The town of Chrzanów was rebuilt according to the Magdeburg Law in the mid-14th century under the reign of King Casimir III the Great. However it seems that it was not surrounded by defence walls. It is believed that Chrzanów was an open town. The local church was mentioned for the first time in documents in the tax-register of Peter's Pence, 1325-1328. From the time of its construction in the 14th century until 1640 the town was the property of the Ligęza family of the Półkozic coat of arms. In the mid-15th century Chrzanów had c. 430 residents and in the 17th century some 650. At least from the early 15th century a parish school existed next to Chrzanów's Church of St Nicholas.
In the 16th century King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland bestowed a new privilege on the town, allowing for four extra fairs. Various guilds were active in the town: weavers', tailors', shoemakers', smiths', butchers' and others. Ancient Chrzanów's speciality was trading cattle, as here was a customs house for exports of cattle to Silesia and ore trade which was mined and smelted by Chrzanów's burghers. In 1640 Chrzanów was taken over by Andrzej Samuel Dembiński. Then in 1649 it was inherited by his granddaughter Katarzyna Grudzińska, and in 1675 by the Stadnicki family. In 1731 it went to Józef Kanty Ossoliński. In 1654 King John II Casimir bestowed upon Chrzanów the privilege of holding extra fairs and in 1781 a similar privilege was bestowed on the town by King Stanislaus II Augustus. The second half of the 17th century was a particularly hard period for Chrzanów. As a result of wars waged at the time the town was looted on several occasions by the Swedes (1655–1657), the Austrians who fought against them (1657), by Transylvanian troops of Prince George Rákóczi and by Polish troops as well. During the Great Northern War Chrzanów was plundered and put to the torch by Swedish troops of King Charles XII. During the Polish-Russian war which broke out in 1792, Chrzanów was occupied by Russian (1792–1793) and Prussian troops (1793–1795). In 1795, following the third partition of Poland-Lithuania, Chrzanów was annexed to Galicia in the Habsburg Empire.
1809-1918
In the period 1795-1809 Chrzanów was a part of Austrian Galicia. In 1809, as a result of the war between Austria and the Duchy of Warsaw, West Galicia with Chrzanów was annexed to the Duchy of Warsaw. During this period ownership of the town also changed. From 1804 to 1822 Chrzanów was owned by Duke Albert Casimir of Saxe-Cieszyn, son of the late King of Poland, Augustus III of Saxony. Following the fall of Napoleon, a treaty among Austria, Prussia and Russia was concluded during the Congress of Vienna resulting in creation of the Free City of Kraków on 3 May 1815. Chrzanów and the surrounding areas are annexed to the newly created state. In 1838 Chrzanów had 4078 residents: 2009 of the Roman-Catholic and 2069 of the Jewish faith. The period of the Free City of Cracow was a time of prosperity and rapid development for Chrzanów and its residents. In this period ownership of the town changed again. The former owner, Duke Albert Casimir of Saxe-Cieszyn, bequeathed the town to Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria (1822), who in turn sold it to the Cracovian Senator and MP from Chrzanów Jan Mieroszewski. In 1856 Mieroszewski decided to sell his Chrzanów estate to a group of Wrocław entrepreneurs, one of whom, Emanuel Loewenfeld, soon became the sole owner.
In 1846 a revolt broke out in Kraków. Outside Cracow Austrian troops were also engaged in battle at Chrzanów where in February 1846 a 15-troop squad commanded by the owner of Kwaczała estate, Józef Patelski, victoriously attacked Austrian troops forcing them to withdraw. The revolt was doomed, however, and in September 1846 Chrzanów with the entire Free City of Cracow was annexed to the Austrian Kingdom of Galicia. In 1853/54 Galicia was divided into counties (powiaty) and Chrzanów became a seat of a county. In 1847 the first part of the railway running through Chrzanów County was built: from Cracow to Silesia with railway stations in Krzeszowice, Trzebinia and Szczakowa. In 1856 another section was built joining Cracow with Vienna and this one ran through Chrzanów. In 1852 a zinc and lead ore mine "Matilda" was opened in the direct vicinity. Chrzanów entered the age of rapid industrialization. With it the number of residents grew. In 1870 the town had 6,323 inhabitants, 7,712 in 1890, 10,000 in 1900 and 11,572 in 1910. Henry Avenue (Aleja Henryka) was built in 1893 following a purchase of land situated between modern Henry Avenue and Oświęcimska St. from the Lowenfeld family. This initiated dynamic development of the town in S-W direction and intensive urbanization of the neighbourhood continued in the interwar period. In 1911 Chrzanów Secondary School was founded. Following Austria-Hungary's collapse in 1918 Chrzanów with the rest of Galicia was reunited with the Republic of Poland.
1918-1945
In the years 1919-1939 Chrzanów and Chrzanów County belonged to the Province of Cracow (Voivodeship) in the Second Polish Republic. In the interwar years further industrialization of the town followed. In the 1920s Stella ceramic works and Fablok, the First Locomotive Factory in Poland, were founded. Many residents found employment there. The interwar years was the period of dynamic urbanization. A number of public buildings were constructed then (the Józef Piłsudski County Hospital, the Józef Piłsudski Children's House, a new building of Chrzanów Secondary School etc.), a residential area between Henry Avenue and Oświęcimska St. and housing estates at Kolonia Fabryczna and Rospontowa constructed for the employees of Fablok works. The population of the town in 1921 was 12,244 and 18,106 according to the 1931 census. In 1939 the number of residents was 22,000.
With the outbreak of World War II (1 September 1939) the town was flooded with refugees from Upper Silesia. In the morning of 3 September Polish local government was evacuated from the town, as well as many residents. The following day, after a number of short skirmishes with the Polish troops, the town was occupied by German troops. In November 1939 when the town with the western half of the county was annexed directly to Nazi Germany, Chrzanów was made a county town in the Katowice region of the Province of Upper Silesia.
In 1940 the German authorities began expropriating Polish families from better houses in the town. These were given to German officials, military, policemen and German settlers from Romania. The Nazis started removing any Polish traces in the town with particular pettiness. Public buildings and shops had all signs written in Polish removed and all streets received German names. In 1941 the town itself was renamed Krenau. Jewish residents were resettled to a ghetto, created in 1941. It was not surrounded by walls, like in other Polish towns, nevertheless the Jews were not allowed to venture outside the ghetto. From 1942 Germans started sending Chrzanów's Jews to the death camp in Auschwitz-Birkenau. The last transport of Jews from Chrzanów to Birkenau was organized by the Germans in February 1943.
On April 29, 1942, the Germans hanged seven Jews in Krzyska Street in Chrzanow. The seven Jews were accused of illegally baking bread. The victims were Israel Gerstner (bakery owner), Chaim Gerstner, Szymszen Gerstner, Szaja Szpangelet, Fajwel Waloman, Israel Frisz and an unknown man from Olkusz.
German occupation was terminated on 24 January 1945 when Chrzanów was taken over by Soviet troops of the 1st Ukrainian Front. The town escaped serious damage in this last chapter of its war history (about one-fourth of the town was damaged). The population decreased by almost half. From 30 January 1945 the town was administered first by the Town Council and then by the National Town Council. Due to ruthless political methods, local administration was soon seized by the local and incoming communists, although the communists themselves constituted a tiny fraction of the politically active residents.
Since 1945
In 1949 Chrzanów had almost 15,000 residents, increasing to 20,000 in 1960, to over 30,000 in 1975 and to 53,000 in 1993. After 1945 new enterprises were created in the town (e.g. a dairy, a cold storage plant, a slaughterhouse) and new residential areas (housing estates Północ - from 1961, Południe - from 1979, Trzebińska and so on) and cultural centres (e.g. County Cultural Centre, the construction of which was initiated in 1959, and Chrzanów Museum founded in 1960). In 1970-71 a new town centre was constructed focusing around the Millennium Square (Plac Tysiąclecia) and the Victory and Liberty Monument. In 1975, following an administrative reform abolishing counties (powiaty), Chrzanów ceased to be a county seat. Further, the town was detached from its original Province of Cracow, to which it belonged since restoration of Poland's independence after World War I, and annexed to the Province of Katowice until 1999. Since 1999 Chrzanów has been a county seat in Małopolskie, or Lesser Poland Voivodeship.
Demographics
Detailed data as of 31 December 2021:
Number of inhabitants by year
Main sights
Church of St Nicholas, most probably constructed at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries Its final architectural shape - as it then seemed, as it survived only until 1912 - had been created in the 15th century and shortly afterwards by adding annexes. A detached belfry was erected next to the church most probably around the same time. The present church was created by extensive reconstruction in 1912-1914. The interior decoration consist of several interesting altars with old paintings, arrestingly beautiful stained glass windows from 1914, grand chandelier from the 1930s and many other interesting historic objects.
The Loewenfeld Mausoleum, built in 1898-1900 in Neo-Classical style on the Greek cross plan, according to a design of Teodor Talowski from Kraków. The chapel was raised as the mausoleum of the last owners of Chrzanów, the Loewenfelds.
Market Square with residences from the late 18th and 19th centuries. Probably the most interesting of those is a 1905-1907 two-storey, Art-Nouveau house at nr 13 (previously nr 22). It has a façade of glazed bricks opulently decorated with miscellaneous ornaments (mostly chestnut foliage).
The Victory and Liberty Monument at the Tysiąclecia Sq. (locally known as "The Eagle") by the Chrzanovian sculptor Marian Konarski. It was raised in 1971 in memory of the residents of Chrzanów who fell during World War II.
The castle granary from the 16th century, now the seat of the Chrzanów Museum. The building was originally a part of the manor assembly (called the Castle), which in turn was the residence of the owners of Chrzanów. Since 1960 the building has housed collections of the Chrzanów Museum, including mementos of the last owners, the Loewenfelds. The Museum has an interesting collections on local history divided into several sections.
The Church of St John the Baptist in Kościelec had been built probably in the 14th century in Gothic style and it was preserved as such until 1843/45 when a decision was made for a general reconstruction of the church due to its rather poor shape. Among other interesting furnishings of the church is the 19th-century high altar and black Dębniki marble epitaphs of the former owners of Kościelec, which until the recent renovation used to be on the walls of the presbytery. The church has a richly adorned bell of 1484.
The Building of the Credit Society (1895) in Henry Avenue, with rich eclectic details including two porches with column porticos which make the whole structure look quite handsome.
Jewish cemetery (c. 1763) with 19th- and 20th-century tombstones. Initially it had consisted of two cemeteries, the small one (which was destroyed by the Germans in 1941) and the big one which has been preserved down to our own days (small part of which, however, was destroyed by the Germans during World War II).
World War I cemetery behind / adjacent to the Jewish cemetery of 1914/15 with approx. 170 interred, mainly Austro-Hungarian soldiers who died in the Chrzanów military hospitals. The site has been cleaned, a simple cross with the names of the interred erected in 2014, and restoration is envisaged to be completed by 2018.
Flag and coat of arms
The ancient coat of arms of Chrzanów, the St Nicholas, was created perhaps in the 14th century simultaneously with granting the Magdeburg Rights to Chrzanów. The oldest preserved seals of the town of Chrzanów are charged with an effigy of St Nicholas, the patron-saint of the local church, who holds a crosier in his right hand and a book in his left and wears bishop's vestments and a bishop's mitre on his head. Next to St Nicholas the Półkozic crest is seen which was the arms of the Ligęza Family, the former owners of Chrzanów. This coat of arms had been used by the town until c. 1809, when the authorities of the Duchy of Warsaw to which Chrzanów belonged to then, annulled all municipal coats-of-arms. Following the fall of the Duchy of Warsaw (1815) the arms of the Duchy was adopted as the arms of Chrzanów. It is unclear why the ancient and traditional arms were not restored. The arms of the Duchy of Warsaw, adopted after 1815 as the arms of Chrzanów, were a shield divided in half and placed under a royal crown. In the right field of the shield were the arms of Saxony (black and golden stripes divided by a green crown-shaped half-wreath). In the left field were the coat of arms of Poland.
In 1964 the flag of Chrzanów was adopted. During the session of the City Council on 21 May 1964 it was decided that the city colours would be blue and red put in two horizontal stripes, exactly like the colours of the Polish national flag. It seems quite probable that the choice of colours had been determined by the dominant colours in the old arms of Chrzanów featuring St Nicholas, and that is why such colours were adopted. In 2009 a new flag of Chrzanów was introduced. It consists of 3 vertical stripes: a broad white one, centrally located and featuring the city's arms and two narrower pale blue stripes flanking the central stripe on both sides.
Transport
Main road connections from the town include connection with Kraków (to the east) and Katowice (to the west) via the A4 highway or via the national road number 79. There are also two voivodeship roads starting from Chrzanów: road number 933 (going south-west) to Oświęcim, Pszczyna and Jastrzębie-Zdrój and road number 781 (going south-east) to Andrychów.
Rail connection links Chrzanów to Kraków (to the east), Oświęcim and Czechowice-Dziedzice (south-west). There are two rail stops in the town.
Education
Chrzanów has, among others, seven primary schools, two secondary schools, a secondary technical school, a music school and the Academy of Business and Marketing (Wyższa Szkoła Przedsiębiorczości i Marketingu).
Sport
The town has a number of sports venue, including a large sport hall. The main sports club is Fablok Chrzanów, founded in 1926 and sponsored by the locomotive company Fablok.
Notable people
Dovid Halberstam (1821-1894), Jewish religious leader
Ignacy Schwarzbart (1888–1961), Zionist, member of the National Council of the Republic of Poland
Klemens Stefan Sielecki (1903–1980), technical director of Fablok
Isaac Deutscher (1907-1967), Jewish Marxist
Mascha Kaléko (1907-1975), Poet
Henryk Tauber Fuchsbrunner (1917-2000), Auschwitz worker and escapee, gave famous testimony; longest known survivor of the
Nathan Wasserberger (1928-2013), painter
Janusz Szrom (born 1968), jazz singer
Michał Gajownik (1981–2009), Olympic canoeist
International relations
Twin towns — sister cities
Chrzanów is twinned with:
Harnes, France
Nyékládháza, Hungary
Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine
References
Notes
Bibliography
Jan Pęckowski: Chrzanów miasto powiatowe w województwie krakowskiem, Chrzanów 1934
Ziemia chrzanowska i Jaworzno, Kraków 1969
Chrzanów, studia z dziejów miasta i regionu, Chrzanów 1998,
Chrzanów and its Neighbourhood. Tourist Guide, Chrzanów 2008,
External links
Chrzanow; the Life and Destruction of a Jewish Shtetl
Jewish Community in Chrzanów on Virtual Shtetl
Kraków Voivodeship (14th century – 1795)
Free City of Kraków
Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
Kraków Voivodeship (1919–1939)
Holocaust locations in Poland
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387114
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donghak%20Peasant%20Revolution
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Donghak Peasant Revolution
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The Donghak Peasant Revolution () was a peasant revolt that took place between 11 January 1894 and 25 December 1895 in Korea. The peasants were primarily followers of Donghak, a Neo-Confucian movement that rejected Western technology and ideals.
The Revolution began in the province of Gobu-gun. In the early 1890s, , who was nominated magistrate of the gun in 1892, enforced a series of harsh, oppressive polices upon the local peasant population. Correspondingly, in March 1894, a horde of peasants led by Jeon Bong-jun and began an uprising against local authorities. The initial revolt was suppressed under Yi Yong-tae, and Jeon Bong-jun fled to nearby Taein. Jeon gathered an army in Mount Paektu and recaptured Gobu in April. The rebels then proceeded to defeat governmental forces in Battle of Hwangtojae and Battle of the Hwangryong River. Jeon then captured Jeonju Fortress and fought in a siege against Hong Gye-hun's government forces. In May, the rebels agreed on a truce through the Treaty of Jeonju (全州和約). However, an unstable peace continued throughout the summer.
The alarmed government requested the Qing dynasty for military intervention, which the Qing responded with a deplyoment of 2,700 soldiers. Japan, angered that the Qing government had not informed Japan (as promised in the Convention of Tientsin), started the First Sino-Japanese War. The war resulted in an expulsion of Chinese influence in Korea and also signaled an end for the Self-Strengthening Movement in China itself.
Growing Japanese dominance in the Korean Peninsula caused anxiety amongst the rebels. From September to October, the Southern and Northern leaders negotiated the plans for the future in Samrye. On 12 October, a coalition army of Northern and Southern Jeobs were formed, and the army, numbering 25,000~200,000 (records differ), went on to attack Gongju. After a number of battles, the rebel army was decisively defeated in the Battle of Ugeumchi, and the rebels were again defeated in the Battle of Taein. Hostility continued deep into the spring of 1895. The rebel leaders were captured in various locations in the Honam Region, and most were executed by a mass hanging in March.
Background
Korean society during the late 19th century was extremely unstable, due to a series of rebellions which began with the Gwanseo Peasant War and effectively ended with the Donghak Peasant Revolution.
Gwanseo Peasant War
The first major revolt was the Gwanseo Peasant War (1811–1812). Rebel leader Hong Gyeong-rae had prepared for the rebellion since 1801. By September 1811, Hong Gyeong-rae had gathered an army in Chudo Island, gathering support from the rich landowners.
The revolt began on 18 December, with the writing of the following message in Jeongju Fortress:
Hong Gyeong-rae captured most of the Gwanseo Region in ten days. However, his army was defeated in the Battle of Songnim, and by January 1812 was isolated in Jeongju Fortress. Governmental forces finally collapsed the walls of Jeongju by using eleven tons of explosives dug under the wall. All male rebels above the age of ten were executed.
Imsul Peasant Revolt
Another large-scale revolt was the Imsul Peasant Revolts (1862), in which 71 towns simultaneously revolted. The government often taxed dead people or infants, although only those over fifteen were legally eligible to be taxed. Moreover, most of the remainder were given to the landowner. The revolt began on 10 February in Jinju. The people of Jinju captured the magistrate Baek Nakshin, and burned landlords Jeong Namseong, Seong Buin, and Choe Jinsa at the stake. Their sons were killed as well while attempting to save their fathers. The revolts soon spread throughout most of Southern Korea, and continued until January 1863. The people of Gwangju even rode to Seoul. The revolts were most severe in Jeolla Province, the later site of the Donghak Revolution, in which 38 of 54 towns actively revolted.
Founding of Donghak
Various secret societies formed, apart from the rebellions, including the Salbangye, 'Association of the killers of the Yangban (aristocrats)', the Saljugye, 'Association of the killers of the (slave's) masters', the Salryakgye, 'Association of killers and robbers', the Geomgye, 'Sword association', the Judogye, 'Association of the drunk', the Yudan, 'League of Wanderers', and the Nokrimdang, 'Group of the Green Woods' (Nokrimdang were 'noble thieves', who stole from the rich and gave to the poor).
It was in this turbulent age that the Donghak religion was formed. Its founder, Choe Je-u, described the founding of the religion, which was later transcribed by Choe Sihyeong, the second Donghak leader:
Donghak was a mixture of various religions. Its core tenets and beliefs (monotheism, sacred book, organized religion) are similar to Christianity. Choe himself said that "the meanings [between Christianity and Donghak] are the same; only the words are different". The Donghak conversion rite, in which hundreds of people gathered in an open place and knelt before a cup of clean water, was partly influenced by the Christian baptism ritual.
However, many direct influences were from shamanism and folk beliefs. Witnesses record that Choe Je-u participated in animistic rituals to mountain deities. His incantations and the Sword Dance were also derived from shamanism.
Certain beliefs were unique to Donghak. Choe Je-u said that "All humans are Hanulnim". Choe promoted human equality, and created certain ideologies such as the belief that the world was a cycle of 5,000 years (Jeoncheon and Hucheon), and that this cycle was ending to make way for a new world. This made Donghak potentially dangerous to the Joseon Dynasty, which banned the religion and executed Choe in 1864 for 'Tricking and Lying to the Foolish People'.
Nevertheless, Donghak spread all across Gyeongsang Province by the 1870s, causing need for a better organization. Donghak was organized into 'Jeob' and 'Po'. A 'Jeobju' administered a 'Jeob'. For example, Jeon Bong-jun, the leader of the revolution, was Jeobju of Gobu. Under a Jeobju was a 'Myeonjeobju'. In large towns (such as Taein or Jeonju) were a 'Great Jeobju', as Kim Gae-nam was the Great Jeobju of Taein. Various Jeobs were organized into a 'Po', and a 'Poju' led a Po. The 'Gyoju', at the time Choe Sihyeong, led the whole Donghak religion.
Yi Pil-je's Revolt
In 1871, Yi Pil-je, Jeobju of Yeonghae, revolted using the Donghak infrastructure. The revolt failed, but proved that Donghak was a danger to the feudalistic Korean society.
Yi Pil-je's Revolt seriously undermined Donghak in Gyeongsang Province, causing Choe Sihyeong to spread the religion to the populous provinces of Chungcheong and Jeolla. Choe wandered around these two provinces, spreading Donghak. was one of the first to convert in 1881, and he converted Jeon in 1891. Son Byong-hi was converted in 1882 by Choe himself, as was Kim Gae-nam in 1890. As seen below, he claimed conversion in 1891.
Gyojo Shinwon movement
By the 1890s, Donghak believers began a petition to overturn the 1863 Choe Je-u's execution charges. By this time, the religion was split into the 'Northern Jeob' and the 'Southern Jeob'. Seo Inju, leader of the Southern Jeob, asked Choe Sihyeong, the Gyoju, for a petition. Choe did not answer the request, presumably remembering the effects of Yi Pil-je's Revolt on Donghak in Gyeongsang. Seo Inju and the Southern Jeob independently held a petition to free imprisoned Donghak believers and to restore the honor of Choe Je-u, which was not easily granted. In November 1892, Jeon Bong-jun led the Samrye Petition, petitioning for:
Do not ban Donghak.
Expel all Western missionaries and merchants.
Kill corrupt officials.
In December, there was another petition in the market of Boeun. Many Southern Jeob believers thought they should march into Seoul and petition before the king, but Choe Sihyeong finally quelled the Boeun petition, instead penning a letter to King Gojong:
In response, Gojong ordered the Northern messengers to "go to your homes. If you do, I may grant your plea". Meanwhile, Seo Inju and the Southern Jeob were threatening Westerners and Japanese with bodily harm, saying "If you do not flee by March the seventh, we shall all kill you. You are causing injustice in a foreign land." This was attached to American, French, and Japanese legations, Christian churches and schools, and districts with a large number of foreigners taking residence.
Jeon Bong-jun, meanwhile, led his followers into Boeun, which became the most violent and revolutionary petition in the Gyojo Shinwon Movement. His followers all wore blue clothes with red gloves. About 80,000 believers, with the flags "Expel Westerners and Japanese", gathered in the market and built an earthen fortress. Revolutionary thoughts, such as "In other countries, the people hold councils and decide upon the government. This petition is like that. Why suppress it?" formed. The petition was also more extreme. The requests were:
Reclaim the honour of founder Choe Je-u.
Cease the persecution of Donghak believers.
Chase away colonial powers.
Cease all imports of foreign merchandise, and wear cotton and use necessities made in Korea.
Dispose the Min family of oligarchical power.
Lower taxes.
Ban the inflation-causing Dangojeon coin.
Stop illegal taxation.
Northern Jeob leaders, such as Choe Sihyeong and Son Byong-hi, feared that the government would execute Donghak believers, and stopped the petition within three days. Jeon Bong-jun returned to Gobu.
Gobu Revolt
The rebellion's immediate cause was the conduct of , the ruling official of Gobu. After his capture, Jeon gave a detailed account of Jo's misdeeds:
He built Manseokbo reservoir under the already existing Min Reservoir (now Yedeung Reservoir) and took water taxes from the peasants, two sacks of rice for using the upper reservoir and a sack of rice for using the lower reservoir. He collected seven hundred sacks of rice in total.
He promised that peasants who farmed abandoned land would be exempt from taxes for five years, but he forced them to pay taxes in the autumn of 1893.
He fined affluent peasants for dubious crimes, including 'infidelity', 'lack of harmony', 'adultery', and 'needless talents', by which he collected 20,000 nyang (nyang was a unit of Korean currency, equivalent to seventy US dollars, making 20,000 nyang equivalent 1.4 million U.S. dollars).
He taxed a thousand nyang (the equivalent of 700 thousand US dollars) to build a monument to his father, Jo Hugyun, who had been the magistrate of Taein.
For sacks of rice to send to the government, he sent only sacks of spoiled rice to Seoul, taking unspoiled sacks for himself.
While he was building the reservoir, he heedlessly cut down trees centuries old and did not give any wages to the workers.
Of these, the construction of Manseokbo reservoir caused the most fury. Yedeung Reservoir had caused the Baedeul fields to not suffer from starvation ever since Yedeung was built. However, the construction of the new reservoir blocked creeks in the region, causing widespread damage through flooding.
Donghak believers and angered peasants began forming a rebel army. They used the Sabal Tongmun, in which names were written around a circular cone as to form a circle. The Sabal Tongmun made the leader of the writers unclear (because it was impossible to know who had signed their name first). On 10 January 1894, a thousand rebels gathered in an abandoned horse ranch. Splitting into two armies, they destroyed three of the four gates of Gobu and occupied the government office. Jo fled Gobu to Jeonju (he was exiled after the war ended, and returned from his exile to become a judge).
For a week, the rebels destroyed prisons and freed innocent prisoners, armed themselves with weapons from the local armory, punished corrupt officials who had been captured, returned taxed and fined property to original owners, and destroyed Manseokbo Reservoir. However, the crisis ended when Jo was replaced by Park Won-myeong, who convinced rebels to disband.
First revolt
Jeon and Kim went south to Mujang, where they met Son Hwa-jung. The rebels properly organized in Mujang, and on 20 March the 4,000 rebels of Mujang turned towards Mount Baek, Gobu. While camped in Mount Baek, the army grew to tens of thousands. Choe Deokyeong's 300 peasants joined them from the north. Here, the aphorism came: "When sitting, a white mountain; when standing, a bamboo mountain". (rebels mostly wore white, and used bamboo spears. The term may have appeared earlier, however, as Mount Juk, meaning 'bamboo mountain', could only be seen when standing, as it was covered by smaller Mount Baek, 'white mountain'.) On 22 March the rebels destroyed the reservoir and burned down governmental offices and storages.
The rebels camped for four days in Gobu, and new rebels joined them every day. After making Jeon Bong-jun as the leader and Kim Gae-nam and Son Hwa-jung as generals, the rebels occupied Taein (1 April) and Buan (4 April). The leaders also ordered the rebels to follow the four guidelines:
Do not kill the innocent and refrain from eating farm animals.
Open the Hucheon through loyalty and piety and appease the people.
Defeat every single barbarians of Japan and purify the holy land.
Drive the army into Seoul and kill every member of the Min family.
The rebels also "did not seek alcohol and women and did not smoke tobacco". They did not forcefully take food, but paid for them in money.
The government sent Yi Gyeonghyo to quell the rebellion, and made an emergency army of 700 soldiers and 600 merchants. The 10,000 rebels lured governmental forces into Hwangto Pass. In the dawn of April the 7th, the governmental soldiers charged into the rebel camp, but found it empty. Soldiers were in chaos. Suddenly, the rebels, moving under the cover of fog, emerged from the mountains and attacked the governmental forces, killing a thousand soldiers. Most of the rebels were unharmed in the thus concluded Battle of Hwangtojae.
By 17 April, however, Jeon turned south to Yeonggwang, where Hong Gyehun's governmental troops were waiting. Jeon attempted to lure the troops to Jangseong, and the general Yi Hakseung chased after them. Yi Hakseung attacked while the rebels were camped on the Hwangryong River, eating lunch. The rebel leader Yi Bangeon envisioned a new strategy. The rebels fled to the mountains, then ran downhill rolling thousands of Jangtae, or chicken cages. The Jangtae blocked most bullets, thus rendering the government's superior weapons useless. Moreover, Jeon placed the rebel army so that they would divide Yi Hakseung's troops into three separate divisions. Yi Hakseung ordered the troops to use their cannons, but they did not work because the pro-rebel villagers had put water inside the cannons (following the incident, rumours spread throughout the government forces that a ghost had destroyed the cannons). More than 300 governmental forces but only two rebels died in the Battle of the Hwangryong River.
After the Hwangryong, a royal messenger came to Jeon with bribes to quell the rebellion. Jeon killed the messenger, but took the needed money. Jeon then turned north and occupied Jeonju, the largest city in Jeolla province at the time. not choosing to take Naju to the south. Hong Gyehun quickly returned north, beginning the Siege of Jeonju Fortress.
On 1 May, Hong Gyehun began to fire cannons into Jeonju, killing and burning civilians and civilian properties. On 2 May however, King Taejo of Joseon's portrait was burned down by Hong's incessant bombing, ceasing the attack. In the morning of 3 May, Jeon led an attack on Hong's camp, but was defeated by superior firepower. The Jangtae only hindered the rebels in Jeonju's mountainous location. Jeon himself had a shrapnel lodged in his shoulder from this attack.
Meanwhile, on 29 April, the administrator of Jeonju, Kim Mun-hyeon, had appeared in Gongju and told the government of the fall of Jeonju. Unable to control the rebellion, the government of Joseon formally requested the military assistance from both Japan and China. On 3 May, 1,500 Qing Dynasty forces appeared in Incheon. The same day, 6,000 Japanese forces also landed in Incheon. The Japanese inquired why Qing had not notified the Japanese government in accordance to the Convention of Tientsin, and soon caused the First Sino-Japanese War.
On 7 May, Kim Hak-jin, the new administrator of Jeonju, ordered Hong to make peace with the rebels. The rebels, suffering from lack of food, accepted. This came to be called the Treaty of Jeonju (全州和約) or Jeonju Truce. Hong accepted twelve rebel requests:
Accept the Donghak religion.
Punish corrupt officials.
Punish those who became illegally rich.
Punish corrupt Yangban and Seonbi.
Free all slaves.
Free the Cheonmin class, and cease the branding of butchers.
Legalize the remarriage of widows.
Lower taxes.
Pick politicians based on qualities, not families.
Punish those who cooperate with the Empire of Japan.
Illegalize debts.
Give their land to all peasants.
Following the truce, the rebels climbed out of the fortress using ladders, and Hong entered the empty fortress.
Both sides celebrated their 'victory'. Hong held a feast with his soldiers inside Jeonju Fortress, while the rebels sang the Geomgyeol, a Donghak religious hymn which begins:
Summer of 1894
The summer of 1894 was marked by rebel rule over most of Southwest Korea. Jeon Bong-jun established the Jeollajwaudo Daedoso (Great Capital of the Two Jeolla Provinces) in Jeonju, and built Jibgangso in most towns. In Naju, Namwon, and Unbong, however, the rebels met fierce resistance from landowners. Jeon had not subdued these southern cities, as he went north after the Battle of the Hwangryong. attacked Naju with 3,000 rebels, and the landowners of Naju began to fortify Naju against rebel attacks. Jeon himself met the Naju landowners and convinced them to allow Jibgangso construction in Naju. However, Naju was still not under complete rebel control, and later became the center for rebel persecution. In Namwon, Kim Kaenam also battled landowners with 3,000 rebels, took the fortress, and hanged Kim Yongheon, the anti-rebel leader. Unbong surrendered at the sight of the rebels. Remaining Jibgangso include Daechang High School in Yecheon, Jinnam Office in Yeosu, Geumseong Office in Naju, Mujang Hall in Mujang (preserved by Mujang magistrates as a historical relic), and Yeosan Office in Yeosan (now a town hall).
The Jeobju of the town and his assistant, the Jeobsa, administered a Jibgangso agency. Under the Jeobju were the Seogi, the Seongchal, the Jibsa, the Posa, and the Dongmong. For deciding on matters, there was a council, with the Jeobjang and Jeobsa at its head, who voted on town matters. Yi Yihwa sees this as rudimentary democracy.
Among the Seogi, Seongchal, the Jibsa, and the Dongmong, the Seogi were scribes who kept records of the activities and decisions of the Jibgangso. They also reprinted orders and publications from the rebel leaders, and displayed them on marketplaces and gave them to the people. Most Seogi were progressive Yangban, as the scribes had to have literacy.
Meanwhile, the Seongchal were town police, who administered the law and reported corrupt officials or Yangban to the Dongmong and Posa. Most Seongchal were killed in the Second Revolt.
Dongmong were young men who arrested, imprisoned, or even flogged those reported by the Seongchal. They also had a powerful hatred for Yangban, often castrating them and using Yangban women to light candles or pour water. Dongmong also led to a curious marriage practice called 'three-day marriage'. Dongmong, searching for partners, hung white scarves on the door of a house of a Yangban who had an unmarried daughter. This meant that the daughter had to marry the Dongmong. To escape the forced marriage, fathers often found another suitable young man and made the daughter marry him within three days in secret. By November, three-day marriage had become so prevalent that the only virgins left were girls under fourteen years of age. Posa, tiger hunters who served effectively as soldiers, cooperated with the Seongchal and Dongmong to fight against Yangban resistance.
The rebels referred to their cause as the Dongdo (another name for 'Donghak') and to their army as the Dongdo Euibyeong, the "Righteous army of Donghak". Rebels called themselves 'Hajeob', after the lowest Donghak initiate, and called any other person, even children, 'Jeobjang', a rendering of Jeobju.
Second revolt
While the First Sino-Japanese War raged on, Japanese troops occupied Seoul and made a pro-Japanese government there. Before the Battle of Pyongyang, Jeon's strategy seems to have been that he would crush the fleeing Japanese from the south while the Chinese soldiers chased them from the north. However, his prediction proved wrong, with a major Chinese defeat in Pyongyang. Jeon decided that he should defeat the Japanese by taking control of Korea and severing Japanese supply lines. However, he knew he would have to get the support of the Northern Jeob, who commanded all Donghak outside Jibgangso-controlled areas.
Choe Sihyeong was staunchly anti-rebel, as he feared that a large-scale rebellion based on the Donghak religion would end with the destruction of Donghak. To escape persecution, the Northern Jeob had to fight against the largely Southern Jeob rebels. Here is an excerpt of his words:
On 14 September, Northern and Southern leaders gathered in Samrye. It is said that Jeon rode a white horse in this meeting. The Northern flags said 'Conquer the South', while Southern ones said 'Conquer the Foreigners' or 'Protect the Nation'. After a month of negotiations, on 12 October, Choe Sihyeong finally cried out to the Northern Jeob: "Shall we die while seated?".
The Northern leader Son Byong-hi led 10,000–100,000 Northern Jeob followers as the General of the Northern Jeob. Jeon also led 12,000–100,000 Southerners as the General of the Southern Jeob (most recent estimates give a total army of about 50,000) However, Kim Kaenam was not present; he was leading 5,000 rebels in an attack of Cheongju. Together, they marched north to Gongju, the capital of Chungcheong Province. As they marched, Jeon said:
Although the army had started with 200,000 rebels, when they camped at Non Stream, 12 kilometers south of Gongju, the army was 220,000; peasants had joined them as they marched. There were also 50 Chinese soldiers, who had fled from the Sino-Japanese War. Inside the Fortress of Gongju were perhaps 3,000 governmental forces led by Gu Sangjo, Seong Hayeong, Jang Yongjin, and Yi Gidong, and some 400 Japanese soldiers led by Colonel Moriya.
The Donghak army's strategy was to surround Gongju from Buyeo and Nonsan. On 23 October, a rebel battalion took Yiyin and Hyopyo, four kilometers south of Gongju.
On 24 and 25 October, the Battle of Ung Pass, or Ungchi, occurred between rebels and a coalition army of Japanese soldiers, governmental forces, and anti-rebel guerrillas. Ungchi was a pass that led straight to Gongju, and a crucial location for the rebels. However, the rebels were not able to take Ungchi. Most were armed with only bows and arrows, spears, swords and seventeenth-century style muskets, which could not defeat the superior firepower of the coalition. The Northern Jeob experienced severe casualties in Ungchi, because they lacked proper training in war.
The rebels retreated south to Nonsan. Jeon and Son decided that they would capture Gongju through a different pass; Ugeum Pass, or Ugeumchi.
On 8 November, two battalions lured governmental forces, so that the major rebel forces would not meet a large governmental army in Ugeumchi. At 3:00 in the afternoon, the rebels concentrated the governmental forces in Yiyin and Hyopyo, where 10,000 rebels were. The other 200,000 rebels were crossing Ugeumchi. However, they encountered a Japanese battalion of 280 soldiers. The Japanese gathered the Korean forces into Ugeumchi. After night passed, the two armies clashed in Ugeumchi in the dawn of 9 November.
Jeon placed his army so that the rebels stretched sixteen kilometers, from Panchi to Mount Bonghwang. Jeon was at the center of this line, surrounded by flags and riding on his white horse. The government forces defended the sides (Hyopyo, Ungchi, Mount Bonghwang), while the Japanese were stationed in Ugeumchi proper. At 10:00 am, the rebels charged at Ugeumchi.
Because of their weak weapons, they were unable to cross Ugeumchi. The Japanese used cannons and rifles, and had proper military training. Although small groups of rebels crossed the 'death line' more than forty times, they were all shot down. After one charge at the Japanese, only 10,000 of the original 200,000 rebels were left. After the following charge, there were 3,000 rebels left. When the rebels finally retreated on 10 November, only 500 rebels out of an army of 200,000 remained.
Meanwhile, in Hyopyo, the 10,000 rebels captured various peaks, but whenever the governmental forces seemed to break, they were instantly reinforced by the Japanese. By 10 November, both armies retreated to Nonsan. The Battle of Ugeumchi was over. The battle was expressed by a spectator of the battle:
Jeon led the 500 remainder south into Taein, the rebel center. There, he gathered an army of 8,000 rebels. On 25 November, the Japanese caught up with the rebels, camped in Mount Gumi. Despite rebel strategic superiority, the Japanese firepower annihilated both the rebels and the city of Taein. A historian, Park Eunsik, recorded that there was "nothing left in Taein for 40 kilometers". 40 civilian houses, along with perhaps 400 rebels, were killed.
After the Battle of Taein, on 28 November 1894, Jeon formally dissolved the Donghak Army. The rebels cried: "We thought Jeon Nokdu (Jeon's nickname) would save us, but now we are all going to die". Jeon answered: "War is a game of luck. Why is it that you blame me". He then dressed up as a peasant and headed east.
Battles outside the main front
Jeolla
Jeolla Province was the revolution's center, and were completely seized by the rebels. They formed the core of the Anti-Japanese Frontier, and often aided Gyeongsang and Chungcheong rebels. Kim Inbae of Gwangyang and Yi Bangeon of Jangheung formed the core of South Jeolla rebels.
Namwon and Unbong
Namwon and Unbong were ruled by Kim Gae-nam's rebels. However, Kim Gae-nam had gone to attack Cheongju far to the north, and with his absence, the governmental soldiers attacked Namwon. On 13 November, the rebels were driven away from the outskirts of Namwon in a small battle. The 3,000 rebels fled to Namwon Fortress. Jo Byeongho, the governmental leader, led 2,000 soldiers armed with modern weapons to besiege Namwon. Although the fortress was bombed and shelled, the rebels did not come out. Finally, the governmental troops stacked hay around the east, west, and south walls, and burned the hay. The wooden doors burned along, and the rebels fled through the north door. Hundreds of rebels were killed in the Siege of Namwon.
Jindo
In Jindo, the third largest island of Korea (after Jeju and Geoje), Na Chihyeon of Naju converted the population to Donghak in January 1892. After the fall of Jeonju Fortress, the Jindo magistrate Yi Heuiseung (who, like Jo, built two monuments to himself) fled. However, Confucian scholars maintained order in the island through an army called Suseonggun.
In July, Son Haenggwon assaulted Susseonggun bases, taking matchlock rifles, swords, bullets, gunpowder, and tridents. At a similar time, Park Jungjin attacked the Suseonggun at Shimijang village. He was killed, and his daughter captured; descendants destroyed the family tree and burned down the house.
After arrivals of new officials, the Jindo rebels joined the Naju rebels. Most were captured and sent back to Jindo. On 10 October, 1,322 soldiers, composed mainly of slaves and lower officials, were sent to defend Jindo against possible rebel attacks.
In December, rebels who had fought under Yi Bangeon hid into Jindo after the Battle of Seokdae Fields. However, the rebels had lost all military power, and were captured and imprisoned. On 27 December, Japanese soldiers executed fifty rebels. Cheondoism remained in Jindo until the 1950s.
Gyeongsang
Gyeongsang Province had a strong Confucian influence, and the casualties of Yi Pil-je's Revolt in 1871 were still fresh. It took until August for Gyeongsang rebels to begin revolting. Suppression of revolts were an organized effort, with Toposa officials specializing in anti-rebel campaigns.
Jinju
The forces of the Southwest coasts of Korea were special in that the forces of Jeolla and Gyeongsang Provinces cooperated to attack Jinju Fortress. They are collectively termed under the name 'Jinju Rebels'.
On 7 May, Kim Inbae, the Great Jeobju of Geumgu, built a Jibgangso in Suncheon, Jeolla Province. On 1 September, Kim crossed the Gyeongsang-Jeolla boundary. His strategy was to charge through the southern coastline to Busan, and thus grasp the Japanese-Korean borderline.
Meanwhile, Hadong and Jinju, which were Kim's target, were experiencing rebel activities. Hadong rebels were chased west by the government, joining Kim Inbae. With the guidance of the Hadong rebels, Kim Inbae captured Hadong on 7 September.
In Jinju, the leadership recruited rebels by sending out public documents in major markets. On 8 September 1894, 7,000 rebels gathered in Sugok Market and established the Chungyeong Daedoso, a center of rebel activities. By 17 September, a joint army of Suncheon and Jinju rebels had captured Jinju fortress.
The rebels held flags signaling their own Po and Jeob, and spread manifestos titled To the People of the Towns of Gyeongsang throughout nearby villages. The manifesto said the following.
The state is the people, and the people are the state.
We have had a council in Jinju in order to punish the Japanese invasion.
All believers in Donghak must rise up and punish corrupt officials who support the Japanese.
Report anti-rebel armies to the Chunggyeong Daedoso.
In response to the fall of Jinju Fortress, the government sent Ji Seokyeong as Toposa of Jinju, a government official who specialized in the suppression of Donghak revolutions.
On 10 October, 400 rebels gathered in Mount Geumo, a few kilometers west of Jinju, where they were ambushed by Japanese forces. Although the rebels lost more than seventy men in the consequent Battle of Mount Geumo, the rebels still held Jinju Fortress.
On 14 October, 5,000 rebels defended Mount Goseong Fortress against the Japanese. The rebels, using the fortress, fought fiercely against Colonel Suzuki's Japanese battalion, but were ultimately defeated by Japanese firepower. 187 rebels were killed, causing Mount Goseong to be called Mount Gosireong, after the sound that a decomposing corpse makes when it rains. The remnants of the rebels fled to Mount Jiri, where they became the Righteous Army.
Chungcheong
Chungcheong rebels were under the command of Son Byong-hi, who led the Northern Jeob into battle at Ugeumchi. After defeat at Ugeumchi, Son continued the rebellion until the Battle of Jonggok, 18 December. Chungcheong was the location of the December battles.
Cheongju
On 9 October, before the Council of Samrye had reached its conclusion, there was a minor skirmish in Daejeon, at the time a small village called Hanbat, between rebels and governmental forces. This came to be called the Daejeon Massacre. 78 governmental soldiers were given alcohol by rebels, then killed while drunk.
Meanwhile, the city of Cheongju was the Donghak division commanded by the Great Jeobju, Son Cheonmin. Kim Gae-nam and Son Cheonmin cooperated to attack Cheongju in the Battle of Cheongju, 9 December 1894. Because Kim did not fight at Ugeumchi, his army of 25,000 was still strong.
When Jeon and Son gathered the rebel forces in Samrye, Kim did not cooperate. He began his own attack only after the Battle of Ugeumchi, and by 9 December reached Cheongju Fortress.
Kim's opponent was Kuwabara Eiziro and his Japanese battalion, along with governmental troops with little morale. Kim's 15,000 men attacked from south, while Son Cheonmin's 10,000 men attacked from the north. The defenders of Cheongju lacked morale due to the Daejeon Massacre, and Kim nearly broke through the south door. Eiziro suddenly assaulted the rebels, and Kim retreated to Muneui.
200 rebels were killed in the Battle of Cheongju. The rebels also lost large amounts of weaponry, including many rebel banners, thousands of bows and arrows, 140 rifles, 2,000 flintlock muskets, 150 kilograms of gunpowder, 2 cannons, and 50 horses.
After the Battle of Cheongju, Kim went south to Muneui, but were defeated once more. He went in hiding, just as Jeon Bong-jun did.
Northern Chungcheong
Although Choe Sihyeong had banned rebel activities among the Northern Jeob during the spring of 1894, many Chungcheong rebels were Northern Jeob. By 22 March, rebels of Hoenggang, Yeongdeung, Cheongsan, Boeun, Okcheon, Jinjam, Muneui, Goesan, and Yeongpung were already giving the wealth of the rich to the poor, and beat and castrated corrupt Yangban. However, the Chungju rebels temporarily stopped activities due to the beginning of the Sino-Japanese War.
The Battle of Pungdo and the Battle of Seonghwan were both fought in Chungcheong Province, and the war sparked anti-Japanese sentiment among the former rebels. In July, 1,000 rebels wandered through various towns, building earthen fortresses in preparation for a Japanese invasion of Chungcheong. The rebels took weaponry from the governmental storages and trained themselves. In August, there was a small battle between the Northern and the Southern Jeob.
On 12 October, Choe Sihyeong ordered the Northern Jeob to revolt. The rebels of Northern Chungcheong organized under the Jeob and Po, and began active revolts.
There were more than a hundred battles that took place in Northern Chungcheong in this period. The Gwandong Po won against a Japanese battalion in the Battle of Goesan under the leadership of Sim Songhak. The rebels then reached Boeun, thus severing all direct roads between Seoul and Jeolla. The revolt flared even greater when Son Byong-hi joined the Northern Chungcheong rebels. Survivors among the Battle of Taein joined the rebels as well.
On 18 December, 2,600 rebel forces gathered in Jonggok. The rebels included the great Northern leader Son Byeonghui, whose family lived near Jonggok, and the patriarch of Donghak, Choe Sihyeong. Japanese sources report that the rebels were cooking meals when the Japanese attacked them. Because of the surprise attack, the rebels were not able to put up a suitable defense, leading to 2,500 rebels out of 2,600 being killed. (Some scholars prefer the term Jonggok Massacre.) Both Choe and Son survived, but fled towards the south. Minor skirmishes continued in this region until 28 December.
Battle of Mount Seseong
The rebels of Cheonan, Hongseong, and northwestern Chungcheong were defeated in the Battle of Mount Seseong. This battle was also the key to Jeon Bong-jun's plan to capture Seoul.
In August, 1,500 rebels revolted in Cheonan, and took governmental weapons. After organizing their army in Mount Soto, the rebels camped in Mount Seseong with their newfound weaponry. Mount Seseong was more of a low hill, 22 meters high, defended by a low wall, which was in use since the Proto-Three Kingdoms Age. The rebel leaders were Kim Yongheui, Kim Hwaseong, Kim Seongji, Kim Bokyong, Kim Yeongu, and Won Keumok.
On 18 November, two Japanese platoons were located in the northern slopes, another platoon to the northeast, and another to the southeast. At dawn, the southeast platoon ambushed the rebels, who resisted for two hours, aided by their superior knowledge of the terrain. However, they were forced to retreat to the west, where they were ambushed again by the two northern platoons.
370 rebels were killed, 770 were wounded, and 17 were captured. The rebels also lost 140 guns, 2 trumpets, 228 spears, 26,500 Chinese bullets, 30 flags, 226 sacks of rice, and 13 sacks of barley. Kim Bokyong was captured and executed on the spot, and the other leaders were executed on 24 and 27 November. The hill was known as Mount Siseong, meaning 'Mountain washed with blood'.
Gyeonggi
Because Gyeonggi was very close to Seoul, rebel activities in Gyeonggi were few. The largest Gyeonggi rebel groups, numbering 1,000 rebels, were in Yicheon, Yeoju, Anseong, and other parts of Southeastern Gyeonggi. The Gyeonggi rebels retreated south to Chungcheong, joining the rebels of Northern Chungcheong. Most were killed in the Battle of Jonggok (see above).
Gangwon
Gangwon rebels can be divided into two groups: the rebels of Gangneung and the rebels of Hoengseong and Wonju. Rebels from Northern Chungcheong or Gyeonggi occasionally crossed into Wonju. Gangwon rebels were especially marked by guerrilla warfare.
Gangneung and Pyeongchang
In these regions, rebels would occupy Gangneung, then flee to mountainous locations such as Pyeongchang, then return to Gangneung.
In September, more than 1,000 rebels attacked Gangneung, which lacked defenses. The rebels gave one sack of rice to each peasant by taking the wealth of the rich, and built strongholds in most marketplaces. The rebels formed their own court, lowered taxes, and punished corrupt Yangban and rich Sangmin.
On 7 September, an anti-rebel battalion led by Yi Hoewon assaulted the sleeping rebels in the rainy dawn. 20 rebels were killed, and Yi's forces took 7 guns, 157 spears, and 2 horses. The rebels passed the Daegwanryeong Pass into Pyeongchang.
By late September, the rebels had reorganized and recaptured Gangneung. they also occupied Pyeongchang, Yeongweol, and Jeongseon. In response, the Japanese army sent Captain Ishimori against the Gangneung rebels on 3 November. On 5 November, 10,000 rebels had a two-hour-long battle against Ishimori's troops, but were ultimately defeated. The rebels fled to Jeongseon.
On 6 November, the governmental troops killed 10 rebels in Jeongseon and burned down 70 houses. The rebels again fled to Pyeongchang.
Ishimori fought against 3,000 rebels in Pyeongchang on 1 December 1894. The rebels scattered after an hour of battle. 70 rebels were instantly killed, 30 died from their wounds, and 10 prisoners were killed for attempted rebellion. The Gangneung rebels ceased to exist after this battle.
Hoengseong, Wonju, and Hongcheon
Rebels of these regions were mostly guerrillas in a mountainous terrain. The rebel leader was the legendary Cha Giseok, the Great Jeobju of the Gwandong Region. He led 1,000 rebels, who punished corrupt Yangban and collected taxes from merchants. It is said that Cha killed hundreds of Yangban.
On 13 October, Cha attacked Dongchang, where the taxes collected in Gangwon were brought to Seoul by boat. He burned down Dongchang and gave the taxes to the peasants. The magistrate of Hongcheon reports that after the destruction of Dongchang, more and more people joined Cha's army.
The government asked Maeng Yeongjae, a Confucian scholar, to conquer Cha's 'crowd of roving thieves'. Maeng, who was suppressing the rebels of Yicheon at the time, gladly obliged. On 21 October, Maeng and Cha battled in the Jangya Fields, in which more than 30 rebels were killed. The rebels fled to Seoseok, into a pass called 'Seonang Pass'. It was so named because there was an altar to the deity Seonangshin in the pass.
On 22 October, 2,000 rebels were killed in the consequent Battle of Jajak Pass, the largest battle in Gangwon Province before the Korean War. The rebels lacked guns, and they used birch branches as weapons. They also lacked pots, and cooked rice over cattle hide. Because of the narrowness of the pass, the rebels were crowded, and it was easy for Maeng's troops to fire into the camp and kill rebels. Maeng himself reports that "it was impossible to see how many died", but descendants have given an estimate of 1,800~2,000. Descendants also report that the battle continued for three or four days. The Seonang Pass was renamed Jajak Pass, because the blood made a 'Jajak' sound as it rolled down the pass.
On 26 October, the survivors, including Cha, regathered. On 11 November, they began the Battle of Mount Odae, in which Maeng's soldiers surrounded Mount Odae and began to climb it and defeat the rebels inside. 100 rebels were killed, and 40 houses were burned. Cha was captured on 14 November, and beheaded for treason in Chuncheon.
Hwanghae
In 1893, the Joseon Dynasty banned gold mining in Hwanghae Province. Although Hwanghae leaders, such as Kim Gu the 'Baby Jeobju' (Kim Gu was eighteen at the time, compared to the 40-year-old Jeon Bong-jun or the 32-year-old Son Byong-hi), were believers in Donghak, most of the rebels were gold miners. Lieutenant Suzuku classified Hwanghae rebels in three ways:
True Donghak, "who mutter incantations and believe that their faith shall cure diseases, bring wealth, and lengthen life"
Temporary Donghak, "who do not believe the teachings... but join the Donghak religion"
False Donghak, "those... who hate foreigners... are suppressed by local magistrates, suffer from inflation, or can no longer mine for gold. Most are gold miners, and that is because... gold mining was banned last year, and... they no longer have money, and they wish for revenge".
Haeju
Haeju was one of the two provincial capitals to fall to the rebels (the other being Jeonju). The defeat of the Haeju rebels are documented in Lieutenant Suzuku's Conquest of the Donghak of Hwaghae.
By 27 November, the rebels had captured most of the Hwanghae coast, including Haeju, without a major battle. However, in the dawn of 27 November 400 rebels camped on Pyeongsan were assaulted by governmental forces, and fled south to Nucheon. Knowing that the Japanese and the government troops were chasing them, they hurriedly fled Nucheon as well. Suzuku captured many Donghak food supplies in Nucheon, including "hundreds of sacks of millet".
On 29 November, Suzuku captured the town of Gajichon. However, there were no men in Gajichon. When the women of Gajichon were interrogated, they revealed that all grown men had been ordered to go to the town of Onjeong. Suzuku's soldiers burned four sacks of rice cakes in Gajichon.
The Japanese reached Onjeong, only to find it empty. The magistrate of Onjeong said that the rebels had never come, and that they were to go to Haeju, rather than Onjeong. Haeju, too, was completely empty. The governor of Hwanghae said that "every town outside of Haeju is full of thieves... two-thirds of all towns in Hwanghae are full of the Donghak raiders".
With the guidance of the officials of Haeju, the Japanese defeated hundreds of rebels in the hour-long Battle of Gohyeonjang, killing "tens of thieves".
They also captured and beheaded a number of rebels, and burned five houses.
Kim Gu and his rebels sought to reoccupy Haeju, and attacked Japanese scouts at 6:00 am of 2 December 1894. The battle continued until 8:00, when the rebels finally fled. Tens of rebels were again killed, and many were captured. From the captured rebels, Suzuku discovered a manifesto written by Choe Sihyeong, the Donghak patriarch. The manifesto proved that the Haeju rebels were under the command of Choe Sihyeong and the Northern Jeob leaders.
The rebels gathered in Cheongdan, 2.5 kilometers away from Haeju. 7,000 rebels were camped on the east and the south, and 400 were additionally hidden in the pine forests. 10,000 were camped 400 meters away, and 14,000 were camped a kilometer away. Because the rebels lacked rifles and other modern weaponry, they were crushed after three Japanese strikes. However, the rebels did not retreat. Because the Japanese also lacked ammunitions due to the large number of rebels, they finally directly charged at the rebels. Although the rebels only had old-fashioned muskets, the superior numbers of the rebels wore out the Japanese soldiers. The rebels fled, and were chased for 600 meters. Minor skirmishes continued until January 1895, and Kim Gu hid in the house of An Taehun, a Catholic and the father of An Junggeun, until 1896.
Pyongan and Hamgyong
Pyongan Province had little rebel activity. It suffered extreme casualties in the First Sino-Japanese War, especially at the Battle of Pyongyang. There were occasional reports of rebels killing magistrates or attacking Japanese support lines, but such instances were rare. Also, there were only two Jeobju for all of Pyongan, compared with seven for Hwanghae and Gyeonggi, ten for Gangwon, seventeen for Chungcheong, nineteen for Gyeongsang, and twenty-five for Jeolla.
There were minor incidents of rebellions in Hamgyong:
Fall
Although Jeon Bong-jun officially disbanded the rebel army after the Battle of Taein, many of the other commanders did not disband their respective armies until December. On 1 December, Son Hwa-jung and Choe Gyeong-seon disbanded their rebel armies in Gwangju and went in hiding. The same day, the great rebel leader Kim Gae-nam was captured. Kim had been betrayed by a friend named Yim Byeongchan, and captured by 80 governmental soldiers who surrounded the house of Kim's brother-in-law. Kim was dragged to Naju. On 13 December, he was put to death by beheading, and his corpse was ripped apart in five. The magistrate of Naju ate Kim's intestines and liver.
On 2 December, Jeon Bong-jun was also captured in a village called Pinori in modern Sunchang (see left), betrayed by his lieutenant Kim Gyeongcheon. Jeon suspected that Kim had betrayed him, and leaped out of the two-story house holding his musket. However, the house was surrounded by governmental soldiers, and he was hit many times with large sticks, causing him to break his legs. Jeon was imprisoned and taken to Seoul. Kim Gyeongcheon went into hiding, because he feared that the rebels would kill him. Trials were not held because the government wanted to put Jeon, Son Hwa-jung, Choe Gyeong-seon, and Kim Deokmyeong to trial all at once. (these four, along with Kim Gae-nam, are known as the Five Donghak Generals)
Also by December, the Anti-Japanese Frontier had been pushed down to the southern coast of Korea. On 7 December, the Japanese finally killed Kim Inbae, the Great Jeobju of Geumgu who had aided the Jinju rebels, in the Battle of Gwangyang Fortress. Kim Inbae's head was tied to a pole and displayed in Gwangyang. However, in Jangheung, the rebel leader Yi Bangeon captured Gangjin on 7 December. On 11 December, Son Hwa-jung was also captured.
Meanwhile, the Japanese were attacking Yi Bangeon and the Jangheung rebels, which formed the last organized rebel army in the region. On 15 December, the last major battle in Jeolla Province, the Battle of the Seokdae Fields, was fought between Yi Bangeon's rebels and Japanese. This battlefield is now one of the Four Battlefields of the Donghak Revolution. 30,000 rebels were present, and 2,000 were killed. As the 800 Japanese soldiers moved through Yeongam, Gangjin, Haenam, and Jindo Island, they engaged in a scorched-earth strategy, killing 600 civilians and burning villages and sacks of rice. Yi Bangeon was finally captured in Christmas 1894 and beheaded with his son in Seoul. With the death of Yi Bangeon, the rebels had been completely exterminated, except for 30 rebels who hid in Mount Daedun.
Sometime in December, Choe Gyeong-seon was also captured. On 1 January 1895, the last rebel leader remaining, Kim Deokmyeong, was captured in Wonpyeong. The four leaders were put to trial, and Jeon Bong-jun's testimony during the trials forms the Testimony of Jeon Bong-jun. In his testimony, Jeon emphasized his views that Donghak believers formed only a small fragment of the rebels, the majority being peasants seeking vengeance. However, he also explained the theology of Donghak to the court. He also denied connections with the Great Regent Heungseon.
On 29 March, the four leaders were hanged for treason. Later, Confucian scholars stole the bodies, beheaded them, and displayed the heads on public. Only Choe Gyeong-seon's body has been identified, and the locations of the other three are unknown.
The last battle in the Donghak Revolution was the Battle of Mount Daedun, 17 February. The 30 rebels held the mountain for three days, until a Japanese battalion attacked them by climbing up the rocky cliffs. Only a young child survived. However, rebels were still killed into 1895 in various ways. Those included:
Chaining rebels together, then burying them alive in a pit
Chaining rebels together, then drowning them in the sea. The coast was said to be littered with corpses.
Piercing the skull with a sharp wooden stick, then burning the stick so that the brain would explode.
Ripping apart rebels by using horses or cows
Shredding a rebel to parts using a chariot
Piercing the stomach with a bamboo stick
Cutting open the chest and eating the liver and intestines
The Northern leaders Choe Sihyeong and Son Byong-hi, meanwhile, had fled after the defeat at Jonggok. In January 1898, Choe and Son escaped arrest because Kim Yeonguk had been misidentified for Choe Sihyeong. In April 1898, however, Choe was captured and put on trial. Because the government wished to execute Choe before he died of disease, the trials were speedily done. Son Byong-hi and a group of other believers attempted to free Choe by bribing the judges with land, but Choe was executed after a month. He was buried in the cemetery with a small marker saying 'Donghak Ringleader Choe Sihyeong'. That night, Son and the others secretly entered the cemetery and took Choe's body. Choe was reburied in Gwangju.
Legacy
A part of the rebel requests, including the remarriage of widows and the freeing of slaves, was included in the Gabo Reform. However, the reform was not supported because it did not include land reform, which was the peasants' greatest need.
Many rebels later joined the Righteous Army. The 1895 Righteous Army was led by Confucian scholars who killed rebels when they attempted to join. However, the Righteous Armies of 1905 and 1907 were almost entirely composed of rebels. For example, Yu Eunshik of Chungju killed his lieutenant when he revealed himself as a former rebel. Jeon Haesan, the most famous of the Jeolla Righteous Army leaders, was often called the 'son of Jeon Bong-jun', and participated in more than 70 battles from 1905 to 1910 against the Japanese before he was hanged in 1910. However, in his War Diary of Jeon Haesan, Jeon Haesan says that he "did not like to be called the 'son of Jeon Nokdu'(Jeon Bong-jun's nickname)", presumably meaning he was not Jeon Bong-jun's son. However, the current edition of the North Korean history textbook claims that 'the patriotic line' descends from Jeon Changhyeok (Jeon Bong-jun's father and Gyojo Shinwon leader) through Jeon Bong-jun to Jeon Haesan. The South Korean Ministry of Education claims that this is North Korean textbook revisionism, in order to glorify Kim Il Sung by comparing the Kim family to the Jeon family.
Many former rebels became nationalists and independence activists. The tiger hunter Hong Beomdo, who was influenced by Donghak, became a guerrilla leader of Manchuria. Kim Gu the 'Baby Jeobju', who fought at the Battle of Haeju, became a profound nationalist and one of the most respected Korean leaders.
The Donghak religion also experienced a profound change. With the death of Choe Sihyeong, Son Byong-hi became the third patriarch. In order to escape persecution as 'rebels', he renamed Donghak 'Cheondoism' and fully established the 'Human is Hanulnim' doctrine, thus making Cheondoism a fully pantheistic religion (Choe Je-u seems to have been a panentheist). Cheondoism was legalized in 1905, but Son was imprisoned in 1919 for leading the March 1st Movement and died in prison. Son's son-in-law, Bang Jeonghwan, was also a Cheondoist who became a famous child activist, and founded the Children's Day in Korea. The artist Suh Yong-sun drew a work titled Donghak Peasant Revolution on canvas using acrylic paint.
Controversies
Role played by Donghak
There is an ongoing controversy about the naming of the revolution, connected to the exact role that the Donghak religion played in the revolution. Theories include:
The revolution was fundamentally based on the Donghak religion, and should thus be called the 'Donghak Rebellion' or the 'Donghak Revolution'. This argument is based on that every pre-1922 source called the rebellion 'Donghak Rebellion', and on that every major leader was a Jeobju or Poju. This was the stance made by South Korea when it was ruled under a military junta.
The revolution was fundamentally based on the peasants who were suppressed by the government, and should thus be called the 'Peasant Rebellion of 1894', the 'Peasant Revolution of 1894', or the 'Peasant War of 1894'. This argument is based on Jeon Bong-jun's testimony: "There were many angered peasants and few Donghak". This is the official stance made by North Korea.
The rebel leaders were Donghak believers, but the actual armies were aggravated peasants, and should thus be called the 'Donghak Peasant Revolution', 'Donghak Peasant Rebellion', 'Donghak Peasant War', or the 'Donghak Peasant Movement'. Jeon said on his testimony: "Our leaders were Donghak, but the army were peasants". This is the current South Korean position.
Role played by the Great Regent Heungseon
The role played by King Gojong's father, the Great Regent Heungseon, is open to controversy. Jeon Bong-jun first met Heungseon in 1890 in Unhyeon Palace. Jeon actually lived with the Great Regent Heungseon from 1890 to 1892, and revisited him in February 1893. In the meeting, Jeon said to the Heungseon: "I wish to die for the country and the people". There were many rumours that the Heungseon had secretly caused the rebellion in this meeting.
It is also said that the Heungseon (or occasionally Gojong himself) sent a messenger to Jeon after the Jeonju Truce, asking him to drive out the Japanese. This has not been confirmed. For evidence, the message of Mikhail Hitrovo, the Russian envoy to Japan who sent his message to the Russian envoy to Korea a month before the start of the revolution, is often cited:
In A History of Donghak, Oh Jiyeong claims that the Great Regent attempted a massacre of pro-Japanese politicians in August 1894, simultaneous with the time when Jeon had planned an attack on Seoul.
During his execution, Kim Gae-nam testified that Jeon had been secretly meeting the Great Regent Heungseon. However, the other four leaders refused to connect the Great Regent with the revolution.
Connections with Genyosha
The Japanese historian Seito argued that the Donghak Peasant Revolution had been backed by a Samurai group named Genyōsha, who landed in Busan on 27 June 1894. The claim is however heavily contended by Korean historians.
Seito's account is generally regarded as pseudohistorical by Korean historians. Jeon only had 20 followers in the beginning of the Gobu Revolt, compared with 600 in Seito's account. Also, Seito's list of battles and Jeon Bong-jun's account in the Jeon Bong-jun Gongcho are different. Additionally, Seito records that an alliance of rebels and Genyosha defeated governmental forces from June to August, in which Jeon would be installing Jibgangso agencies. However, certain Korean historians such as Yi Yihwa and Japanese historians generally regard Saito's account to be partially valid, especially as there were a large body of Japanese soldiers in Korea at the time.
In The Founding of Cheondoism, it is recorded that two Japanese men named Danaka Jiro and Dakeda Hanshi and their fifteen followers, holding dynamite, gave Jeon a gold watch and a horse, and had a council with Jeon, which was done not with translation but by using written sentences (both knew Chinese characters). The Japanese asked Jeon to ally with Japan and drive out China to make Korea truly independent. Later in 1895, Danaka attempted to free the imprisoned Jeon and take him to Japan, but Jeon refused, calling Japan "my enemy" and saying "It is not my purpose to seek my petty life through the hands of an enemy". He also said that "I am your enemy and you are my enemy".
However, Jeon also asked the Genyosha to attempt to protect the rebels from execution.
The Great Regent Heungseon is known to have hired ronin, or former Samurai, in order to kill political enemies. It has also been speculated that it were Genyosha members who killed Empress Myeongseong, the last queen of Korea.
In popular culture
Folk songs
The Donghak Peasant Revolution gave way for various folk songs. The most famous is the Oh Bird, Oh Bird, Oh Roller (the 'roller' being mentioned is the oriental dollarbird).
In this song, the 'roller' are the Japanese soldiers (who wore blue uniforms). The 'Nokdu fields' is Jeon Bong-jun, and 'when the Nokdu flower falls' is the execution of Jeon Bong-jun. The 'jelly seller' are the peasants of Korea. 'Summer' refers to the Hucheon, the Donghak concept of Paradise, and 'winter' refers to the persecution of the rebels. 'Why did you come out' refers to the anger of the peasants at foreign intervention. This song is sung all over Korea, and seems to have been first sung at the execution of Jeon. There are many versions of this song, with different lyrics.
Another song was sung in September, at the revolution's zenith, but was soon forgotten after the fall of the rebels. This is in contrast to the Oh Bird, Oh Bird, Oh Roller above.
This is a word play. The first line, 'Gabo', can mean both 'Let us go' and '1894'. 'Eulmi' refers to 'slow' and '1895', and 'Byeongshin' refers to 'Destruction' and '1896'. This song's literal meaning is 'Let us go in 1894, for if we do not win by 1895, we shall be destroyed by 1896.'
Son Hwa-jung and the Buddha's Navel
The Dosol Cliff Buddha has been connected to Son Hwa-jung and the rebels, and the legend surrounding it appears in the 1940 History of Donghak, meaning that the legend was already existent at the time. It is one of the few legends relating to the Donghak Peasant Revolution.
Later stories claim that the parchment in question was a secret guideline on revolutions that was written by Jeong Yakyong, a Silhak scholar, and that Jeon Bong-jun modeled the revolution after the book. Others claim that the parchment's destiny was to bring the downfall of the Joseon Dynasty.
The current Dosol Cliff Buddha has a squarely shaped hole in place of the navel.
Film
Fly High Run Far, a 1991 South Korean film directed by Im Kwon-taek, tells about the Revolution.
Nokdu Flower, a historical drama of SBS in 2019, directed and written by Shin Kyung-soo, Jung Hyun-Min, tell about Baek Yi-kang (this is an unreal character in history) join in Donghak Peasant Revolution.
Further reading
Biography of Jeon Bong-jun, Sin Bokryong, 1996
Donghak Peasant Rebellion and the Gabo Reform, Il Jogak, 10 November 1998
Donghak Revolution and Novels, Chae Gilsun, 2006
Folk Movements of the Late Joseon Dynasty and the Causation of the Donghak Peasant War, Bae Hangseob, 5 July 2002
Political and Societal Movements of Donghak, Jang Yeongmin, 30 December 2004
An Understanding of the Donghak Ideology, Sin Ilcheol, 1995
See also
Donghak Peasant Revolution Museum
History of Korea
Boxer Rebellion – similar event
Taiping Rebellion – similar event
Notes
References
Bibliography
Books are sorted by author family name, the last part in English names and the first part of a Korean name.
Specific books
Surveys
Other books
Manhwa (만화) and Books for Children
External links
Donghak Peasant Revolution pages at the official website of Jeongeup City, in North Jeolla Province, South Korea.
Donghak Peasant Revolution Informative System
Conflicts in 1894
Rebellions in Asia
19th-century revolutions
1894 in Korea
Protests in Korea
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn%20%28rocket%20family%29
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Saturn (rocket family)
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The Saturn family of American rockets was developed by a team of former German rocket engineers and scientists led by Wernher von Braun to launch heavy payloads to Earth orbit and beyond. The Saturn family used liquid hydrogen as fuel in the upper stages. Originally proposed as a military satellite launcher, they were adopted as the launch vehicles for the Apollo Moon program. Three versions were built and flown: the medium-lift Saturn I, the heavy-lift Saturn IB, and the super heavy-lift Saturn V.
The Saturn name was proposed by von Braun in October 1958 as a logical successor to the Jupiter series as well as the Roman god's powerful position.
In 1963, President John F. Kennedy identified the Saturn I SA-5 launch as being the point where US lift capability would surpass the Soviets, after having been behind since Sputnik. He last mentioned this in a speech given at Brooks AFB in San Antonio on the day before he was assassinated.
To date, the Saturn V is the only launch vehicle to transport human beings beyond low Earth orbit. A total of 24 humans were flown to the Moon in the four years spanning December 1968 through December 1972. No Saturn rocket failed catastrophically in flight.
Summary of variants
All the Saturn family rockets are listed here by date of introduction.
History
Early development
In the early 1950s, the US Navy and US Army actively developed long-range missiles with the help of German rocket engineers who were involved in developing the successful V-2 during the Second World War. These missiles included the Navy's Viking, and the Army's Corporal, Jupiter and Redstone. Meanwhile, the US Air Force developed its Atlas and Titan missiles, relying more on American engineers.
Infighting among the various branches was constant, with the United States Department of Defense (DoD) deciding which projects to fund for development. On November 26, 1956, Defense Secretary Charles E. Wilson issued a memorandum stripping the Army of offensive missiles with a range of or greater, and turning their Jupiter missiles over to the Air Force. From that point on, the Air Force would be the primary missile developer, especially for dual-use missiles that could also be used as space launch vehicles.
In late 1956, the Department of Defense released a requirement for a heavy-lift vehicle to orbit a new class of communications and "other" satellites (the spy satellite program was top secret). The requirements, drawn up by the then-unofficial Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), called for a vehicle capable of putting 9,000 to 18,000 kilograms into orbit, or accelerating 2,700 to 5,400 kg to escape velocity.
Since the Wilson memorandum covered only weapons, not space vehicles, the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) saw this as a way to continue the development of their own large-rocket projects. In April 1957, von Braun directed Heinz-Hermann Koelle, chief of the Future Projects design branch, to study dedicated launch vehicle designs that could be built as quickly as possible. Koelle evaluated a variety of designs for missile-derived launchers that could place a maximum of about 1,400 kg in orbit, but might be expanded to as much as 4,500 kg with new high-energy upper stages. In any event, these upper stages would not be available until 1961 or 1962 at the earliest, and the launchers would still not meet the DoD requirements for heavy loads.
In order to fill the projected need for loads of 10,000 kg or greater, the ABMA team calculated that a booster (first stage) with a thrust of about thrust would be needed, far greater than any existing or planned missile. For this role they proposed using a number of existing missiles clustered together to produce a single larger booster; using existing designs they looked at combining tankage from one Jupiter as a central core, with eight Redstone diameter tanks attached to it. This relatively cheap configuration allowed existing fabrication and design facilities to be used to produce this "quick and dirty" design.
Two approaches to building the Super-Jupiter were considered; the first used multiple engines to reach the mark, the second used a single much larger engine. Both approaches had their own advantages and disadvantages. Building a smaller engine for clustered use would be a relatively low-risk path from existing systems, but required duplication of systems and made the possibility of a stage failure much higher (adding engines generally reduces reliability, as per Lusser's law). A single larger engine would be more reliable, and would offer higher performance because it eliminated duplication of "dead weight" like propellant plumbing and hydraulics for steering the engines. On the downside, an engine of this size had never been built before and development would be expensive and risky. The Air Force had recently expressed an interest in such an engine, which would develop into the famed F-1, but at the time they were aiming for and the engines would not be ready until the mid-1960s. The engine-cluster appeared to be the only way to meet the requirements on time and budget.
Super-Jupiter was the first-stage booster only; to place payloads in orbit, additional upper stages would be needed. ABMA proposed using either the Titan or Atlas as a second stage, optionally with the new Centaur upper-stage. The Centaur had been proposed by General Dynamics (Astronautics Corp.) as an upper stage for the Atlas (also their design) in order to quickly produce a launcher capable of placing loads up to into low Earth orbit. The Centaur was based on the same "balloon tank" concept as the Atlas, and built on the same jigs at the same diameter. As the Titan was deliberately built at the same size as well, this meant the Centaur could be used with either missile. Given that the Atlas was the higher priority of the two ICBM projects and its production was fully accounted for, ABMA focused on "backup" design, Titan, although they proposed extending it in length in order to carry additional fuel.
In December 1957, ABMA delivered Proposal: A National Integrated Missile and Space Vehicle Development Program to the DoD, detailing their clustered approach. They proposed a booster consisting of a Jupiter missile airframe surrounded by eight Redstones acting as tankage, a thrust plate at the bottom, and four Rocketdyne E-1 engines, each having of thrust. The ABMA team also left the design open to future expansion with a single engine, which would require relatively minor changes to the design. The upper stage was the lengthened Titan, with the Centaur on top. The result was a very tall and skinny rocket, quite different from the Saturn that eventually emerged.
Specific uses were forecast for each of the military services, including navigation satellites for the Navy; reconnaissance, communications, and meteorological satellites for the Army and Air Force; support for Air Force crewed missions; and surface-to-surface logistics supply for the Army at distances up to 6400 km. Development and testing of the lower stage stack were projected to be completed by 1963, about the same time that the Centaur should become available for testing in combination. The total development cost of $850 million during the years 1958-1963 covered 30 research and development flights.
Sputnik stuns the world
While the Super-Jupiter program was being drawn up, preparations were underway for the first satellite launch as the US contribution to the International Geophysical Year in 1957. For complex political reasons, the program had been given to the US Navy under Project Vanguard. The Vanguard launcher consisted of a Viking lower stage combined with new uppers adapted from sounding rockets. ABMA provided valuable support on Viking and Vanguard, both with their first-hand knowledge of the V-2, as well as developing its guidance system. The first three Vanguard suborbital test flights had gone off without a hitch, starting in December 1956, and a launch was planned for late 1957.
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union surprised the world with the launch of Sputnik I. Although there had been some indications that the Soviets were working towards this goal, few in the U.S. military and scientific establishment considered these efforts seriously.
When asked in November 1954 about the possibility of the Soviets launching a satellite, Defense Secretary Wilson replied: "I wouldn't care if they did." The public did not see it the same way, however, and the event was a major public relations disaster for the US. Vanguard was planned to launch shortly after Sputnik, but a series of delays pushed this into December, when the rocket exploded in spectacular fashion. The press was harsh, referring to the project as "Kaputnik" or "Project Rearguard". As Time magazine noted at the time:
But in the midst of the cold war, Vanguard's cool scientific goal proved to be disastrously modest: the Russians got there first. The post-Sputnik White House explanation that the U.S. was not in a satellite "race" with Russia was not just an after-the-fact alibi. Said Dr. Hagen ten months ago: "We are not attempting in any way to race with the Russians". But in the eyes of the world, the U.S. was in a satellite race whether it wanted to be or not, and because of the Administration's costly failure of imagination, Project Vanguard shuffled along when it should have been running. It was still shuffling when Sputnik's beeps told the world that Russia's satellite program, not the U.S.'s, was the vanguard.
Von Braun responded to Sputnik I's launch by claiming he could have a satellite in orbit within 90 days of being given a go-ahead. His plan was to combine the existing Jupiter C rocket (confusingly, a Redstone adaptation, not a Jupiter) with the solid-fuel engines from the Vanguard, producing the Juno I. There was no immediate response while everyone waited for Vanguard to launch, but the continued delays in Vanguard and the November launch of Sputnik II resulted in the go-ahead being given that month. Von Braun kept his promise with the successful launch of Explorer I on 1 February 1958. Vanguard was finally successful on March 17, 1958.
ARPA selects Juno
Concerned that the Soviets continued to surprise the U.S. with technologies that seemed beyond their capabilities, the DoD studied the problem and concluded that it was primarily bureaucratic. As all of the branches of the military had their own research and development programs, there was considerable duplication and inter-service fighting for resources. Making matters worse, the DoD imposed its own Byzantine procurement and contracting rules, adding considerable overhead. To address these concerns, the DoD initiated the formation of a new research and development group focused on launch vehicles and given wide discretionary powers that cut across traditional Army/Navy/Air Force lines. The group was given the job of catching up to the Soviets in space technology as quickly as possible, using whatever technology it could, regardless of the origin. Formalized as Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) on February 7, 1958, the group examined the DoD launcher requirements and compared the various approaches that were currently available.
At the same time that ABMA was drawing up the Super-Jupiter proposal, the Air Force was in the midst of working on their Titan C concept. The Air Force had gained valuable experience working with liquid hydrogen on the Lockheed CL-400 Suntan spy plane project and felt confident in their ability to use this volatile fuel for rockets. They had already accepted Krafft Ehricke's arguments that hydrogen was the only practical fuel for upper stages, and started the Centaur project based on the strength of these arguments. Titan C was a hydrogen-burning intermediate stage that would normally sit between the Titan lower and Centaur upper, or could be used without the Centaur for low-Earth orbit missiles like Dyna-Soar. However, as hydrogen is much less dense than "traditional" fuels then in use, especially kerosene, the upper stage would have to be fairly large in order to hold enough fuel. As the Atlas and Titan were both built at 120" diameters it would make sense to build Titan C at this diameter as well, but this would result in an unwieldy tall and skinny rocket with dubious strength and stability. Instead, Titan C proposed building the new stage at a larger 160" diameter, meaning it would be an entirely new rocket.
In comparison, the Super-Jupiter design was based on off-the-shelf components, with the exception of the E-1 engines. Although it too relied on the Centaur for high-altitude missions, the rocket was usable for low-Earth orbit without Centaur, which offered some flexibility in case Centaur ran into problems. ARPA agreed that the Juno proposal was more likely to meet the timeframes required, although they felt that there was no strong reason to use the E-1, and recommended a lower-risk approach here as well. ABMA responded with a new design, the Juno V (as a continuation of the Juno I and Juno II series of rockets, while Juno III and IV were unbuilt Atlas- and Titan-derived concepts), which replaced the four E-1 engines with eight H-1s, a much more modest upgrade of the existing S-3D already used on the Thor and Jupiter missiles, raising thrust from 150,000 to 188,000 lbf (670 to 840 kN). It was estimated that this approach would save as much as $60 million in development and cut as much as two years of R&D time.
Happy with the results of the redesign, on August 15, 1958, ARPA issued Order Number 14-59 that called on ABMA to:
Initiate a development program to provide a large space vehicle booster of approximately 1 500 000-lb. thrust based on a cluster of available rocket engines. The immediate goal of this program is to demonstrate a full-scale captive dynamic firing by the end of CY 1959.
This was followed on September 11, 1958, with another contract with Rocketdyne to start work on the H-1. On September 23, 1958, ARPA and the Army Ordnance Missile Command (AOMC) drew up an additional agreement enlarging the scope of the program, stating "In addition to the captive dynamic firing..., it is hereby agreed that this program should now be extended to provide for a propulsion flight test of this booster by approximately September 1960". Further, they wanted ABMA to produce three additional boosters, the last two of which would be "capable of placing limited payloads in orbit."
By this point, many in the ABMA group were already referring to the design as Saturn, as von Braun explained it as a reference to the planet after Jupiter. The name change became official in February 1959.
NASA involvement
In addition to ARPA, various groups within the US government had been considering the formation of a civilian agency to handle space exploration. After the Sputnik launch, these efforts gained urgency and were quickly moved forward. NASA was formed on July 29, 1958, and immediately set about studying the problem of crewed space flight, and the launchers needed to work in this field. One goal, even in this early stage, was a crewed lunar mission. At the time, the NASA panels felt that the direct ascent mission profile was the best approach; this placed a single very large spacecraft in orbit, which was capable of flying to the Moon, landing and returning to Earth. To launch such a large spacecraft, a new booster with much greater power would be needed; even the Saturn was not nearly large enough. NASA started examining a number of potential rocket designs under their Nova program.
NASA was not alone in studying crewed lunar missions. Von Braun had always expressed an interest in this goal, and had been studying what would be required for a lunar mission for some time. ABMA's Project Horizon proposed using fifteen Saturn launches to carry up spacecraft components and fuel that would be assembled in orbit to build a single very large lunar craft. This Earth orbit rendezvous mission profile required the least amount of booster capacity per launch, and was thus able to be carried out using the existing rocket design. This would be the first step towards a small crewed base on the moon, which would require several additional Saturn launches every month to supply it.
The Air Force had also started their Lunex Project in 1958, also with a goal of building a crewed lunar outpost. Like NASA, Lunex favored the direct ascent mode, and therefore required much larger boosters. As part of the project, they designed an entirely new rocket series known as the Space Launcher System, or SLS (not to be confused with the Space Launch System part of the Artemis program), which combined a number of solid-fuel boosters with either the Titan missile or a new custom booster stage to address a wide variety of launch weights. The smallest SLS vehicle consisted of a Titan and two strap-on solids, giving it performance similar to Titan C, allowing it to act as a launcher for Dyna-Soar. The largest used much larger solid-rockets and a much-enlarged booster for their direct ascent mission. Combinations in-between these extremes would be used for other satellite launching duties.
Silverstein Committee
A government commission, the "Saturn Vehicle Evaluation Committee" (better known as the Silverstein Committee), was assembled to recommend specific directions that NASA could take with the existing Army program. The committee recommended the development of new, hydrogen-burning upper stages for the Saturn, and outlined eight different configurations for heavy-lift boosters ranging from very low-risk solutions making heavy use of existing technology, to designs that relied on hardware that had not been developed yet, including the proposed new upper stage. The configurations were:
Saturn A
A-1 – Saturn lower stage, Titan second stage, and Centaur third stage (von Braun's original concept).
A-2 – Saturn lower stage, proposed clustered Jupiter second stage, and Centaur third stage.
Saturn B
B-1 – Saturn lower stage, proposed clustered Titan second stage, proposed S-IV third stage and Centaur fourth stage.
Saturn C
C-1 – Saturn lower stage, proposed S-IV second stage (similar to the actual Saturn I).
C-2 – Saturn lower stage, proposed S-II second stage, proposed S-IV third stage.
C-3, C-4, and C-5 – all based on different variations of a new lower stage using F-1 engines, variations of proposed S-II second stages, and proposed S-IV third stages (with C-5 being similar to the actual Saturn V).
Contracts for the development of a new hydrogen-burning engine were given to Rocketdyne in 1960 and for the development of the Saturn IV stage to Douglas the same year.
Launch history
Apollo program
The challenge that President John F. Kennedy put to NASA in May 1961 to put an astronaut on the Moon by the end of the decade put a sudden new urgency on the Saturn program. That year saw a flurry of activity as different means of reaching the Moon were evaluated.
Both the Nova and Saturn rockets, which shared a similar design and could share some parts, were evaluated for the mission. However, it was judged that the Saturn would be easier to get into production, since many of the components were designed to be air-transportable. Nova would require new factories for all the major stages, and there were serious concerns that they could not be completed in time. Saturn required only one new factory, for the largest of the proposed lower stages, and was selected primarily for that reason.
The Saturn C-5 (later given the name Saturn V), the most powerful of the Silverstein Committee's configurations, was selected as the most suitable design. At the time the mission mode had not been selected, so they chose the most powerful booster design in order to ensure that there would be ample power. Selection of the lunar orbit rendezvous method reduced the launch weight requirements below those of the Nova, into the C-5's range.
At this point, however, all three stages existed only on paper, and it was realized that it was very likely that the actual lunar spacecraft would be developed and ready for testing long before the booster. NASA, therefore, decided to also continue development of the C-1 (later Saturn I) as a test vehicle, since its lower stage was based on existing technology (Redstone and Jupiter tankage) and its upper stage was already in development. This would provide valuable testing for the S-IV as well as a launch platform for capsules and other components in low earth orbit.
The members of the Saturn family that were actually built were:
Saturn I – ten rockets flew: five development flights, and five launches of boilerplate Apollo spacecraft and Pegasus micrometeoroid satellites.
Saturn IB – nine launches; a refined version of the Saturn I with a more powerful first stage (designated the S-IB) and using the Saturn V's S-IVB as a second stage. These carried the first Apollo flight crew, plus three Skylab and one Apollo-Soyuz crews, into Earth orbit.
Saturn V – 13 launches; the Moon rocket that sent Apollo astronauts to the Moon, and carried the Skylab space station into orbit.
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
NASA History Series Publications (many of which are on-line)
Rocket families
NASA space launch vehicles
1958 in science
1961 in spaceflight
Wernher von Braun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMS%20Kaiser%20%281911%29
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SMS Kaiser (1911)
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SMS was the lead ship of the of dreadnought battleships of the Imperial German Navy. was built by the Imperial Dockyard at Kiel, launched on 22 March 1911 and commissioned on 1 August 1912. The ship was equipped with ten guns in five twin turrets, and had a top speed of . was assigned to III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of World War I.
In 1913, and her sister conducted a cruise to South America and South Africa. The ship participated in most of the major fleet operations during the war. She fought at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916, during which she was hit twice and suffered negligible damage. The ship was also present during Operation Albion in the Baltic Sea in September and October 1917, and at the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in November 1917.
During peace negotiations after the end of the war in 1918, she was interned with other ships of the High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow. On 21 June 1919 the commander of the interned fleet, Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter, ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships. The wreck was raised in 1929 and broken up in Rosyth in 1930.
Design
The ship was long overall and displaced a maximum of at full load. She had a beam of and a draft of forward and aft. was powered by three sets of Parsons turbines, supplied with steam by sixteen coal-fired water-tube boilers. The powerplant produced a top speed of . She carried of coal, which enabled a maximum range of at a cruising speed of .
was armed with a main battery of ten 30.5 cm SK L/50 guns in five twin turrets. The ship dispensed with the inefficient hexagonal arrangement of previous German battleships; instead, three of the five turrets were mounted on the centerline, with two of them arranged in a superfiring pair aft. The other two turrets were placed en echelon amidships, so that both could fire on the broadside. The ship was also armed with a secondary battery of fourteen SK L/45 guns in casemates amidships. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried eight SK L/45 guns in casemates. The ship was also armed with four 8.8 cm L/45 anti-aircraft guns. The ship's armament was rounded out by five torpedo tubes, all mounted in the ship's hull; one was in the bow, and the other four were on the broadside.
Her main armored belt was thick in the central citadel, and was composed of Krupp cemented armor (KCA). Her main battery gun turrets were protected by of KCA on the sides and faces. s conning tower was heavily armored, with sides.
Service history
Ordered under the contract name as a replacement for the obsolete coastal defense ship , was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel in September 1909. The hull was completed by 22 March 1911, when the ship was launched; this date was specifically chosen, as it was the birthday of (Emperor) Wilhelm I. His grandson, Wilhelm II, attended the launching ceremony, where German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg gave a speech while (Empress) Augusta Victoria christened the ship. Fitting-out work then began, which was completed by the end of July 1912. On 1 August, the ship was commissioned for sea trials. These were concluded by 7 December; the following day joined the fleet as the flagship of V Division. Her crew consisted largely of men who had been transferred from the recently decommissioned battleships and .
After joining the active fleet in December 1912, was stationed in Kiel. The ship then conducted individual training. In February 1913, was transferred to Wilhelmshaven, along with her sister ship . She then took part in several training exercises with the rest of the High Seas Fleet. These included maneuvers in the North Sea in March and April, artillery drills in the Baltic at the end of the month, and further fleet maneuvers in May. In June, took part in the Kiel Week regatta. Kaiser Wilhelm II and Italian King Victor Emmanuel III inspected the ship. The annual summer cruise to Norway was conducted in July and August, followed immediately by the autumn maneuvers in August and September. In September 1913, Captain Adolf von Trotha became the ship's commanding officer, a post he held until January 1916.
was selected to participate in a long-distance cruise to test the reliability of the new turbine propulsion system. The ship was joined by her sister and the light cruiser in a special "Detached Division". The trio departed Germany on 9 December 1913 and proceeded to the German colonies in western Africa. The ships visited Lomé in Togoland, Duala and Victoria in Kamerun, and Swakopmund in German South-West Africa. From Africa, the ships sailed to St. Helena and then on to Rio de Janeiro, arriving on 15 February 1914. was detached to visit Buenos Aires, Argentina before returning to meet the two battleships in Montevideo, Uruguay. The three ships sailed south around Cape Horn and then north to Valparaiso, Chile, arriving on 2 April and remaining for over a week.
On 11 April, the ships departed Valparaiso for the long journey back to Germany. On the return trip, the ships visited several more ports, including Bahía Blanca, Argentina, before returning to Rio de Janeiro. On 16 May the ships left Rio de Janeiro for the Atlantic leg of the journey; they stopped in Cape Verde, Madeira, and Vigo, Spain while en route to Germany. , , and arrived in Kiel on 17 June 1914. In the course of the voyage, the ships traveled some . A week later, on 24 June, the Detached Division was dissolved and returned to III Squadron. then participated in squadron exercises in July. joined the High Seas Fleet for its annual summer cruise to Norway in July 1914, about two weeks after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. As a result of rising international tensions, the cruise was cut short and the German fleet was back in Wilhelmshaven by 29 July. At midnight on 4 August, the United Kingdom declared war on Germany.
World War I
The High Seas Fleet, including , conducted a number of sweeps and advances into the North Sea. The first occurred on 2–3 November 1914, though no British forces were encountered. Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl, the commander of the High Seas Fleet, adopted a strategy in which the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper's I Scouting Group raided British coastal towns to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet. The raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby on 15–16 December 1914 was the first such operation. On the evening of 15 December, the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts—including and her four sisters—and eight pre-dreadnoughts came to within of an isolated squadron of six British battleships. However, skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet. Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily, Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battlefleet back toward Germany.
Following the loss of at the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915, the Kaiser removed Ingenohl from his post on 2 February. Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet. Pohl conducted a series of fleet advances in 1915 in which took part; in the first one on 29–30 March, the fleet steamed out to the north of Terschelling and return without incident. Another followed on 17–18 April, where and the rest of the fleet covered a mining operation by II Scouting Group. Three days later, on 21–22 April, the High Seas Fleet advanced towards the Dogger Bank, though again failed to meet any British forces. was in dock in Kiel for periodic maintenance during the operation on 17–18 May, but she was back with the fleet for the sortie on 29–30 May, during which the fleet advanced as far as Schiermonnikoog before being forced to turn back by inclement weather. On 10 August, the fleet steamed to the north of Helgoland to cover the return of the auxiliary cruiser . A month later, on 11–12 September, the fleet covered another mine-laying operation off the Swarte Bank. The last operation of the year, conducted on 23–24 October, was an advance without result in the direction of Horns Reef.
On 12 January 1916, Admiral Reinhard Scheer replaced Pohl as the fleet commander. was present during the fleet advance on 5–7 March, though this too ended without action. While in port in Kiel, the old pre-dreadnought accidentally collided with , though neither ship was seriously damaged. Scheer continued the series of fleet operations practiced by his predecessors; the fleet conducted sweeps of the North Sea on 26 March, 2–3 April, and 21–22 April. The battlecruisers conducted another raid on the English coast on 24–25 April, during which and the rest of the fleet provided distant support. Scheer planned another raid for mid-May, but the battlecruiser had struck a mine during the previous raid and the repair work forced the operation to be pushed back until the end of the month.
Battle of Jutland
Almost immediately after the Lowestoft raid, Scheer began planning another foray into the North Sea. He had initially intended to launch the operation in mid-May, by which time the mine damage to was scheduled to be repaired—Scheer was unwilling to embark on a major raid without his battlecruiser forces at full strength. On 9 May, however, several battleships developed problems with their engines, which delayed the operation further, to 23 May. On 22 May, was still not fully repaired, and the operation was again postponed, this time to 29 May. At noon on 29 May, the repairs to were finally completed, and the ship returned to I Scouting Group. The plan called for Hipper's battlecruisers to steam north to the Skagerrak, with the intention of luring out a portion of the British fleet so it could be destroyed by Scheer's waiting battleships.
and the rest of III Battle Squadron were the leading unit of the High Seas Fleet; the four s led the line. , the flagship of H. Nordmann, was directly astern of the four s. I Battle Squadron, composed of the eight - and s, followed III Squadron, with the six elderly pre-dreadnoughts of II Battle Squadron bringing up the rear. Hipper's five battlecruisers left the Jade estuary at 02:00 on 31 May; Scheer, with the High Seas Fleet, followed an hour and a half later.
Shortly before 16:00 CET, the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron, under the command of David Beatty. The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of , shortly after 17:00, and , less than half an hour later. By this time, the German battlecruisers were steaming south in order to draw the British ships towards the main body of the High Seas Fleet. At 17:30, s crew spotted both I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching. The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard, while the British ships steamed to port. At 17:45, Scheer ordered a two-point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers, and a minute later at 17:46, the order to open fire was given.
Between 17:48 and 17:52, , , , and all eight battleships of I Squadron opened fire on several ships of the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron; , , and engaged , though only managed to score a hit on the cruiser. In the span of eight minutes, fired eleven salvos at Southampton without success. The 2nd LCS then moved back out of range, having largely escaped unscathed. At 17:58, Scheer ordered the fleet to maximum speed; the greater speed of the s caused the distance between and to rapidly increase. At 18:05, Southampton again came into range, and opened fire. fired four salvos at a range of , though again without scoring any hits. After three minutes of firing, s guns again fell silent.
Starting at 18:10, began firing on the 5th Battle Squadron battleship ; in the span of 25 minutes, fired 27 salvos at an average range of . The British destroyers and , which had been disabled earlier in the engagement, lay directly in the path of the advancing High Seas Fleet. Shortly before 18:30, and her three sister ships opened fire on Nomad with their secondary batteries. The hail of 15-cm shells smothered the ship; a fire was started and one shell detonated the ship's forward ammunition magazine. Nomad sank stern first at 18:30. Nestor was meanwhile destroyed by the battleships of I Squadron.
Shortly after 19:00, the German cruiser had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser ; Rear Admiral Behncke in attempted to maneuver III Squadron to cover the stricken cruiser. Simultaneously, the British 3rd and 4th Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line; while advancing to torpedo range, they smothered with fire from their main guns. The eight III Squadron battleships fired on the British cruisers, but even sustained fire from the battleships' main guns failed to drive off the British cruisers. The armored cruisers , , and joined in the attack on the crippled . Between 19:14 and 19:17, and several other battleships and battlecruisers opened fire on Defence and Warrior. Defence was struck by several heavy caliber shells from the German dreadnoughts. One salvo penetrated the ship's ammunition magazines and, in a massive explosion, destroyed the cruiser.
As Warrior limped away to the west, the s of the 5th Battle Squadron joined the Grand Fleet as it entered the battle from the north. However, was forced to haul out of line to the south, towards the oncoming German fleet. Warspite came under intense fire from the approaching German battleships; scored a hit on Warspite that damaged her steering gear and forced her to steam in a circle, out of control. After completing two full circles and sustaining 13 heavy hits, Warspite came back under control and rejoined the squadron. However, by 20:00 the steering gear had again failed, so the ship was forced to withdraw from the engagement.
By 20:15, the German fleet had faced the Grand Fleet for a second time and was forced to turn away; in doing so, the order of the German line was reversed. was now the fifth ship from the rear of the German line, ahead of only the four -class battleships. was hit twice in quick succession by heavy-caliber shells, at 20:23 and three minutes later. The Common Pointed, Capped, shells came from the guns of . One shell penetrated the upper deck and landed in a hammock stowage compartment below the No. 7 casemate; the shell failed to explode and instead broke up on impact, starting a small fire that was quickly put out. The other shell probably exploded outside the ship.
Shortly before 21:30, , , and spotted British light forces approaching. The German ships opened fire at a range of around with both their main and secondary armament. The light cruiser was badly damaged, which forced the British ships to withdraw. At around 23:30, the German fleet reorganized into the night cruising formation. was the twelfth ship, in the center of the 24-ship line.
After a series of night engagements between the leading battleships and British destroyers, the High Seas Fleet punched through the British light forces and reached Horns Reef by 04:00 on 1 June. The German fleet reached Wilhelmshaven a few hours later; the I Squadron battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead and , , , and stood ready just outside the entrance to Wilhelmshaven. The remainder of the battleships and battlecruisers entered Wilhelmshaven, where those that were still in fighting condition replenished their stocks of coal and ammunition. The two shell hits suffered by had been largely ineffectual, wounding only one crewmember.
Subsequent operations
On 18 August, Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the 31 May operation; the two serviceable German battlecruisers— and —supported by three dreadnoughts, were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty's battlecruisers. The rest of the fleet, including , would trail behind and provide cover. The British were aware of the German plans and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them, leading to the action of 19 August 1916. By 14:35, Admiral Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet's approach and, unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just eleven weeks after the decidedly close call at Jutland, turned his forces around and retreated to German ports.
Another fleet advance followed on 18–20 October, though it ended without encountering any British units. Two weeks later, on 4 November, took part in an expedition to the western coast of Denmark to assist two U-boats— and —that had become stranded there. On 1 December, the High Seas Fleet was reorganized; and her sisters were transferred to the newly created IV Battle Squadron, with as the flagship. In 1917, the policy of unrestricted submarine warfare was reinstated; the surface units of the German navy were therefore tasked with covering the departures and arrivals of the U-boats. As a result, spent most of the year on picket duty in the German Bight. In May 1917, went into the dock for periodic maintenance.
Operation Albion
In early September 1917, following the German Army's conquest of the Russian port of Riga, the Navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga. The (the Navy High Command) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel, and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe peninsula. On 18 September, the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon islands; the primary naval component was organized into a Special Unit, which comprised the flagship, , along with IV Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet. IV Squadron was composed of V and VI Divisions. V Division included the four -class ships, and was by this time augmented with the new battleship . VI Division consisted of the five -class battleships. Along with 9 light cruisers, 3 torpedo boat flotillas, and dozens of mine warfare ships, the entire force numbered some 300 ships, supported by over 100 aircraft and 6 zeppelins. The invasion force amounted to approximately 24,600 officers and enlisted men. Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre-dreadnoughts and , the armored cruisers , , and , 26 destroyers, and several torpedo boats and gunboats. The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14,000 men.
On 24 September, left Kiel, bound for the Putziger Wiek, where she rendezvoused with several other battleships. From there, the ship went to Libau, which she reached on 10 October. Two days later, on the morning of 12 October, , joined by her sisters and , opened fire on the Russian shore batteries at Cape Hundsort. On 14 October engaged the Russian destroyer and disabled the ship's engine with a single hit. was captured and taken in tow, but she quickly foundered. then bombarded Russian positions on Cape Toffri on 16 October.
By 20 October, the fighting on the islands was winding down; Moon, Ösel, and Dagö were in German possession. The previous day, the had ordered the cessation of naval actions and the return of the dreadnoughts to the High Seas Fleet as soon as possible. On 31 October and the rest of the Special Unit were detached from the operation and sent back to Kiel, which they reached by 2 November. was back in the North Sea on 7 November.
Final operations
and were assigned to security duty in the Bight on 17 November; they were tasked with providing support to II Scouting Group (II SG) and several minesweepers. Two British light cruisers, and , attacked the minesweepers and II SG in the Second Battle of Helgoland Bight. and her sister intervened and hit one of the light cruisers. The two ships briefly engaged the battlecruiser , but neither side scored any hits and the German commander failed to press the attack.
On 2 February 1918, the light cruiser struck a mine; was among those ships that sortied to escort the damaged cruiser back to port. The ship was also present during the fleet advance on 23–24 April. The operation was intended to intercept a heavily escorted British convoy to Norway on 23–25 April, though the operation was canceled when the battlecruiser suffered mechanical damage. In the final months of the war, Captain Hermann Bauer took command of the ship; his period in command lasted from August to November.
was to have taken part in a final fleet action days before the Armistice, an operation which envisioned the bulk of the High Seas Fleet sortieing from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet. In order to retain a better bargaining position for Germany, Admirals Hipper and Scheer intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy, whatever the cost to the fleet. Consequently, on 29 October 1918, the order was given to depart from Wilhelmshaven to consolidate the fleet in the Jade roadstead, with the intention of departing the following morning. However, starting on the night of 29 October, sailors on mutinied. The unrest spread to other battleships, which forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation.
Fate
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918, most of their fleet ships were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter. Prior to the departure of the German fleet, Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships, under any conditions. The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow. The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British, American, and French warships. Once the ships were interned, their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks. The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty.
A copy of The Times informed Reuter that the Armistice was to expire at noon on 21 June 1919, the deadline by which Germany was to have signed the peace treaty. Reuter came to the conclusion that the British intended to seize the German ships after the Armistice expired. Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd, Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk. On the morning of 21 June, the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers, and at 11:20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships. sank at 13:24; the ship was raised in 1929 and broken up for scrap in Rosyth starting in 1930.
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
Further reading
Kaiser-class battleships
1911 ships
World War I battleships of Germany
Ships built in Kiel
World War I warships scuttled at Scapa Flow
Maritime incidents in 1919
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landsat%20program
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Landsat program
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The Landsat program is the longest-running enterprise for acquisition of satellite imagery of Earth. It is a joint NASA / USGS program. On 23 July 1972, the Earth Resources Technology Satellite was launched. This was eventually renamed to Landsat 1 in 1975. The most recent, Landsat 9, was launched on 27 September 2021.
The instruments on the Landsat satellites have acquired millions of images. The images, archived in the United States and at Landsat receiving stations around the world, are a unique resource for global change research and applications in agriculture, cartography, geology, forestry, regional planning, surveillance and education, and can be viewed through the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) "EarthExplorer" website. Landsat 7 data has eight spectral bands with spatial resolutions ranging from ; the temporal resolution is 16 days. Landsat images are usually divided into scenes for easy downloading. Each Landsat scene is about 115 miles long and 115 miles wide (or 100 nautical miles long and 100 nautical miles wide, or 185 kilometers long and 185 kilometers wide).
History
In 1965, William T. Pecora, the then director of the United States Geological Survey, proposed the idea of a remote sensing satellite program to gather facts about the natural resources of our planet. Pecora stated that the program was "conceived in 1966 largely as a direct result of the demonstrated utility of the Mercury and Gemini orbital photography to Earth resource studies." While weather satellites had been monitoring Earth's atmosphere since 1960 and were largely considered useful, there was no appreciation of terrain data from space until the mid-1960s. So, when Landsat 1 was proposed, it met with intense opposition from the Bureau of Budget and those who argued high-altitude aircraft would be the fiscally responsible choice for Earth remote sensing. Concurrently, the Department of Defense feared that a civilian program such as Landsat would compromise the secrecy of their reconnaissance missions. Additionally, there were geopolitical concerns about photographing foreign countries without permission. In 1965, NASA began methodical investigations of Earth remote sensing using instruments mounted on planes. In 1966, the USGS convinced the Secretary of the Interior, Stewart Udall, to announce that the Department of the Interior (DOI) was going to proceed with its own Earth-observing satellite program. This savvy political stunt coerced NASA to expedite the building of Landsat. But budgetary constraints and sensor disagreements between application agencies (notably the Department of Agriculture and DOI) again stymied the satellite construction process. Finally, by 1970 NASA had a green light to build a satellite. Remarkably, within only two years, Landsat 1 was launched, heralding a new age of remote sensing of land from space.
The Hughes Aircraft Company from Santa Barbara Research Center initiated, designed, and fabricated the first three Multispectral Scanners (MSS) in 1969. The first MSS prototype, designed by Virginia Norwood, was completed within nine months, in the fall of 1970. It was tested by scanning Half Dome at Yosemite National Park. For this design work Norwood was called "The Mother of Landsat".
Working at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Valerie L. Thomas managed the development of early Landsat image processing software systems and became the resident expert on the Computer Compatible Tapes, or CCTs, that were used to store early Landsat imagery. Thomas was one of the image processing specialists who facilitated the ambitious Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment, known as LACIE — a project that showed for the first time that global crop monitoring could be done with Landsat satellite imagery.
The program was initially called the Earth Resources Technology Satellites Program, which was used from 1966 to 1975. In 1975, the name was changed to Landsat. In 1979, President of the United States Jimmy Carter's Presidential Directive 54 transferred Landsat operations from NASA to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), recommended development of a long term operational system with four additional satellites beyond Landsat 3, and recommended transition to private sector operation of Landsat. This occurred in 1985 when the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT), a partnership of Hughes Aircraft Company and RCA, was selected by NOAA to operate the Landsat system with a ten-year contract. EOSAT operated Landsat 4 and Landsat 5, had exclusive rights to market Landsat data, and was to build Landsats 6 and 7.
In 1989, this transition had not been fully completed when NOAA's funding for the Landsat program was due to run out (NOAA had not requested any funding, and U.S. Congress had appropriated only six months of funding for the fiscal year) and NOAA directed that Landsat 4 and Landsat 5 be shut down.
The head of the newly formed National Space Council, Vice President Dan Quayle, noted the situation and arranged emergency funding that allowed the program to continue with the data archives intact.
Again in 1990 and 1991, Congress provided only half of the year's funding to NOAA, requesting that agencies that used Landsat data provide the funding for the other six months of the upcoming year.
In 1992, various efforts were made to procure funding for follow on Landsats and continued operations, but by the end of the year EOSAT ceased processing Landsat data. Landsat 6 was finally launched on 5 October 1993, but was lost in a launch failure. Processing of Landsat 4 and 5 data was resumed by EOSAT in 1994. NASA finally launched Landsat 7 on 15 April 1999.
The value of the Landsat program was recognized by Congress in October 1992 when it passed the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act (Public Law 102-555) authorizing the procurement of Landsat 7 and assuring the continued availability of Landsat digital data and images, at the lowest possible cost, to traditional and new users of the data.
Satellite chronology
Timeline
Spatial and spectral resolution
Landsat 1 through 5 carried the Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS). Landsat 4 and 5 carried both the MSS and Thematic Mapper (TM) instruments. Landsat 7 uses the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) scanner. Landsat 8 uses two instruments, the Operational Land Imager (OLI) for optical bands and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) for thermal bands. The band designations, bandpasses, and pixel sizes for the Landsat instruments are:
* Original MSS pixel size was 79 x 57 meters; production systems now resample the data to 60 meters.
* TM Band 6 was acquired at 120-meter resolution, but products are resampled to 30-meter pixels.
* ETM+ Band 6 is acquired at 60-meter resolution, but products are resampled to 30-meter pixels.
* TIRS bands are acquired at 100 meter resolution, but are resampled to 30 meter in delivered data product.
An advantage of Landsat imagery, and remote sensing in general, is that it provides data at a synoptic global level that is impossible to replicate with in situ measurements. However, there are tradeoffs between the local detail of the measurements (radiometric resolution, number of spectral bands) and the spatial scale of the area being measured. Landsat imagery is coarse in spatial resolution compared to using other remote sensing methods, such as imagery from airplanes. Compared to other satellites, Landsat's spatial resolution is relatively high, yet revisit time is relatively less frequent.
MultiSpectral Scanner (MSS)
The Landsat program incorporated the Multispectral Scanner (MSS) from its first mission up to its fifth. The MSS, gave the United States an advantage in satellite imaging, facilitating the launch of Landsat ahead of the French SPOT satellite.
The MSS was unique in its design. Rather than a static camera, it employed a moving mirror, capturing Earth's images in four distinct spectral bands. This capability allowed the MSS to record variations in sunlight reflected from the Earth. Notably, Landsat 3's MSS was further advanced, with an added capability to detect heat radiation.
One of the prominent features of the MSS was its consistent imaging. Each captured frame represented an area on the Earth's surface approximately 83 meters in length and 68 meters in width. Additionally, the system was designed to ensure a continuous image sweep across a swath equivalent to 185 km on the Earth's surface. The MSS's design also emphasized precision; by precisely timing the mirror's movements, it ensured that consecutive images did not overlap.
However, by the 1980s, the cost dynamics shifted. Accessing Landsat's imagery became substantially more expensive, making the French SPOT satellite's images a more cost-effective alternative for many users. The rise in Landsat's prices can be attributed to U.S. policy shifts, initiated under President Carter's leadership and finalized during President Reagan's administration.
Uses of Landsat imagery
Landsat data provides information that allows scientists to predict the distribution of species, as well as detecting both naturally occurring and human-generated changes over a greater scale than traditional data from field work. The different spectral bands used on satellites in the Landsat program provide many applications, ranging from ecology to geopolitical matters. Land cover determination is a common use of Landsat imagery around the world.
Landsat imagery provides one of the longest uninterrupted time series available from any single remote sensing program, spanning from 1972 to present. Looking to the future, the successful launch of Landsat-9 in 2021 shows that this time series will be continued forward.
In 2015, the Landsat Advisory Group of the National Geospatial Advisory Committee reported that the top 16 applications of Landsat imagery produced savings of approximately 350 million to over 436 million dollars each year for federal and state governments, NGO's, and the private sector. That estimate did not include further savings from other uses beyond the top sixteen categories. The top 16 categories for Landsat imagery use, listed in order of estimated annual savings for users, are:
U.S. Department of Agriculture risk management
U.S. Government mapping
Agricultural water use monitoring
Global security monitoring
Support for fire management
Detection of forest fragmentation
Detection of forest change
World agriculture supply and demand estimates
Vineyard management and water conservation
Flood mitigation mapping
Agricultural commodities mapping
Waterfowl habitat mapping and monitoring
Coastal change analysis
Forest health monitoring
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency global shoreline mapping
Wildfire risk assessment
Further uses of Landsat imagery include, but are not limited to: fisheries, forestry, shrinking inland water bodies, fire damage, glacier retreat, urban development, and discovery of new species. A few specific examples are explained below.
Natural resources management
Fisheries
In 1975, one potential application for the new satellite-generated imagery was to find high yield fishery areas. Through the Landsat Menhaden and Thread Investigation, some satellite data of the eastern portion of the Mississippi sound and another area off the coast of the Louisiana coast data was run through classification algorithms to rate the areas as high and low probability fishing zones, these algorithms yielded a classification that was proven with in situ measurements – to be over 80% accurate and found that water color, as seen from space, and turbidity significantly correlate with the distribution of menhaden – while surface temperature and salinity do not appear to be significant factors. Water color – measured with the multispectral scanners four spectral bands, was used to infer Chlorophyll, turbidity, and possibly fish distribution.
Forestry
An ecological study used 16 ortho-rectified Landsat images to generate a land cover map of Mozambique's mangrove forest. The main objective was to measure the mangrove cover and above ground biomass on this zone that until now could only be estimated, the cover was found with 93% accuracy to be 2909 square kilometers (27% lower than previous estimates). Additionally, the study helped confirm that geological setting has a greater influence on biomass distribution than latitude alone - the mangrove area is spread across 16° of latitude but it the biomass volume of it was affected more strongly by geographic conditions.
Climate change and environmental disasters
Shrinking of the Aral Sea
The shrinking of the Aral Sea has been described as "One of the planet's worst environmental disasters". Landsat imagery has been used as a record to quantify the amount of water loss and the changes to the shoreline. Satellite visual images have a greater impact on people than just words, and this shows the importance of Landsat imagery and satellite images in general.
Fires in Yellowstone National Park
The Yellowstone fires of 1988 were the worst in the recorded history of the national park. They lasted from 14 June to 11 September 1988, when rain and snow helped halt the spread of the fires. The area affected by the fire was estimated to be 3,213 square kilometers – 36% of the park. Landsat imagery was used for the area estimation, and it also helped determine the reasons why the fire spread so quickly. Historic drought and a significant number of lightning strikes were some of the factors that created conditions for the massive fire, but anthropogenic actions amplified the disaster. On images generated previous to the fire, there is an evident difference between lands that display preservation practices and the lands that display clear cut activities for timber production. These two type of lands reacted differently to the stress of fires, and it is believed that that was an important factor on the behavior of the wildfire. Landsat imagery, and satellite imagery in general, have contributed to understanding fire science; fire danger, wildfire behavior and the effects of wildfire on certain areas. It has helped understanding of how different features and vegetation fuel fires, change temperature, and affect the spreading speed.
Glacier retreat
The serial nature of Landsat missions and the fact that is the longest-running satellite program gives it a unique perspective to generate information of Earth. Glacier retreat in a big scale can be traced back to previous Landsat missions, and this information can be used to generate climate change knowledge. The Columbia glacier retreat for example, can be observed in false-composite images since Landsat 4 in 1986.
Urban development
Landsat imagery gives a time-lapse like series of images of development. Human development specifically, can be measured by the size a city grows over time. Further than just population estimates and energy consumption, Landsat imagery gives an insight of the type of urban development, and study aspects of social and political change through visible change. In Beijing for example, a series of ring roads started to develop in 1980s following the economic reform of 1970, and the change in development rate and construction rate was accelerated in these time periods.
Ecology
Discovery of new species
In 2005, Landsat imagery assisted in the discovery of new species. Conservation scientist Julian Bayliss wanted to find areas that could potentially become conservation forests using Landsat generated satellite images. Bayliss saw a patch in Mozambique that until then had no detailed information. On a reconnaissance trip, he found great diversity of wildlife as well as three new species of butterflies and a new snake species. Following his discovery, he continued to study this forest and was able to map and determine the forest extent.
Recent and future Landsat satellites
Landsat 8 launched on 11 February 2013. It was launched on an Atlas V 401 from Vandenberg Air Force Base by the Launch Services Program. It will continue to obtain valuable data and imagery to be used in agriculture, education, business, science, and government. The new satellite was assembled in Arizona by Orbital Sciences Corporation.
Landsat 9 launched on September 27, 2021. During FY2014 financial planning "appropriators chided NASA for unrealistic expectations that a Landsat 9 would cost US$1 billion, and capped spending at US$650 million" according to a report by the Congressional Research Service. United States Senate appropriators advised NASA to plan for a launch no later than 2020. In April 2015, NASA and the USGS announced that work on Landsat 9 had commenced, with funding allocated for the satellite in the president's FY2016 budget, for a planned launch in 2023. Funding for the development of a low-cost thermal infrared (TIR) free-flying satellite for launch in 2019 was also proposed, to ensure data continuity by flying in formation with Landsat 8.
In the future, there may also be more collaboration between Landsat satellites and other satellites with similar spatial and spectral resolution, such as the ESA's Sentinel-2 constellation.
Landsat NeXt is planned to be launched in 2029. NeXt will measure 25 spectral bands; current Landsat's 8 and 9 can measure only 11.
Gallery
See also
Earth observation satellite
Geographic information system
Orthophoto, corrected for uniform scale like a map
Remote sensing
References
External links
Landsat USGS homepage
Landsat NASA homepage
Landsat imagery from GLOVIS and Global Land Cover Facility
Landsat mosaic imagery from the WELD project.
Articles containing video clips
Earth observation satellites of the United States
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NASA programs
United States Geological Survey
Satellite imagery
1966 introductions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-language%20editions%20of%20The%20Hobbit
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English-language editions of The Hobbit
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This list contains only complete, printed English-language editions of The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien. It is not for derived or unprinted works such as screenplays, graphic novels, or audio books.
Introduction
For this list, a printing is a separate edition if any of the following criteria is met:
The publisher declares it to be a new edition.
Substantial changes to the text have been introduced beyond correcting typographical errors.
A publisher prints the basic design for the first time.
The dust jacket or cover design has changed appreciably.
The height or width of the book has changed.
The binding materials have changed.
For this list, a printing is a variant of a separate edition if both it is not a separate edition itself and also any of the following criteria is met:
Inconspicuous marks or annotations declare it to be from a different publisher than an edition it is otherwise identical to (e.g., book club edition).
Some internal illustrations appear as color instead of black-and-white, or vice versa.
Some small change has been made in the design of the book or its binding or dust jacket without affecting the whole design.
A printing is 'not' a separate edition or variant solely because of any of the following:
Binding color changed.
Dust jacket color scheme changed but design remained the same.
Typographical errors were corrected.
Numbered pages means the page number of the last page of the story itself, regardless of whether the page number actually appears on the page. It does not include end papers or advertisement pages, even if they are numbered.
List of editions
Early American editions
The early United States editions of The Hobbit were published by the Houghton Mifflin Company of Boston and New York City and are particularly collectible but difficult to identify. Tolkien's publisher was George Allen & Unwin of London (A&U). Houghton Mifflin of Boston and New York arranged to publish Tolkien's books in the United States. Houghton Mifflin printed sheets for the first edition from plates etched from a photo-enlargement of the Allen & Unwin first edition. For the second edition they imported sheets directly from A&U. However, they bound their own volumes, usually distinctly from their British counterparts. The American versions differed from the British in one respect crucial to the collectibles market: beyond the first printing, most of Houghton Mifflin's impressions did not identify which printing run they came out of or even a copyright date. This failure caused confusion in the collectibles market, as few people can identify the Houghton Mifflin second editions, which were extant from 1951 to 1966.
Very roughly, earlier printings are valued more than later. In particular, the first edition, with its different account of Riddles in the Dark, is in great demand. However, the fifth overall impression, or the first printing of the second edition, seems to be garnering prices as high as the British fourth printing, which was the cheapest and most common of the first edition printings. Later second edition printings are valued much less than first edition printings or the first printing of the second edition. The presence of the matching dust-jacket often doubles the value of any of these printings, particularly if it is in good shape. However, because the second American edition changes its binding color from printing to printing, they gain considerable charm displayed in array without their jackets.
The first edition
Houghton Mifflin published the first American edition of The Hobbit in spring of 1938 following its September, 1937 debut in the United Kingdom. For this first edition Houghton Mifflin printed the sheets in the United States. They chose to print it in a larger size and on heavier stock than Allen & Unwin's first edition, and they included four color plates of Tolkien's original artwork. Margins are ample and the typesetting well crafted for readability. The lettering on the tan cloth cover is printed in deep blue. The bowing hobbit emblem on the front and the dwarf's hood emblem on the spine are filled with bright red. The end-paper maps were printed in red only, instead of the black and red chosen by Allen & Unwin. The publisher mistakenly put the Wilderland map in front and the Lonely Mountain map in back, the reverse of the description in the text.
Surviving dust-jackets on the first edition are rare. It is not known whether that is because of attrition, because some printings were not jacketed, or because lots directed to some markets did not come with jackets. What is known is that jackets have been reported on more than one of the printings and most commonly on the first printing. The jacket is a medium blue field all around. The front announces the title in white, beneath which appears, in color and framed in red, Tolkien's illustration of Hobbiton. The reverse displays Tolkien's illustration of Smaug on his trove, also in color.
A series of changes to the book suggest Houghton Mifflin printed the first edition several times. The earliest copies show the same bowing hobbit emblem on the title page as is visible on the cover, but in outline. The first printing appeared on March 1, 1938.This earliest printing also has no half-title page. At some point the publisher replaced the emblem on the title page with a seated flautist. The first two printings mistakenly identify Chapter VII as Chapter VI on page 118, a defect corrected in the third. The binding's cloth changes slightly in color and texture in step with other changes. The first printing's table of illustrations lists Thrór's map as the front endpaper, in accordance with the text (page 30) but contradicting the actual order. The later printings of the first edition list the Wilderland map as the front endpaper, in accordance with the actual order but contradicting the text.
(Regarding the bowing Hobbit emblem, some say the boots the hobbit wears conflicted with the text's description of a bare-footed hobbit, prompting the publisher to replace it. Yet the device comes directly from Tolkien's picture of Bilbo bowing to Smaug on his horde of treasure. Tolkien defended the boots to an astute reader by explaining that Bilbo had acquired them along the way.)
Hammond & Anderson refer to these variations as "states" within the "first printing", and recorded only two: one with the bowing hobbit on the title page, and one with the seated flautist. Houghton Mifflin's practice was to place the publication year at the foot of the title page for the first printings of its first editions. All first edition Hobbit copies, of all variations, with or without the bowing hobbit of the first printing, show "1938" as the date on the title page, perhaps discouraging bibliographers from ascribing different printings to them.
Other library bindings have been reported. A red library binding with yellow title and a simple geometric design in black, and including free-leaf maps, has been seen with the stamp "New Method Book Bindery", a company well known in the trade at the time (later becoming "Bound to Stay Bound Books Inc.").
All printings of the first edition measure 15.0 x 21.0 cm. They contain 310 numbered pages.
First edition identifier
†Note the explanation below: this is not the order the maps appear, but, rather, the order stated in the List of Illustrations. In all first editions the Wilderland map appears as the front paste-down.
††Earliest confirmed date as seen in publisher's records, owner's inscriptions, or library stamps.
emblem
hobbit: Center of title page shows a bowing hobbit emblem.
flautist: Center of title page shows a seated flautist emblem.
half-title
none: Volume has no half-title page.
present: Volume has a half-title page.
binding
book cloth A: Yellowish-tan with slight greenish cast. Even color, tight weave in both directions.
book cloth B: Neutral light tan, the lightest amongst the group. Tight weave.
book cloth C: Slightly darker than book cloth B; very faint pinkish cast in some light. Even weave.
book cloth D: Variegated darker tan, lacking any greenish or yellowish pall. Linen-like weave.
book cloth E: Similar to book cloth A, but more intensely yellow.
library: Deep orange with jacket design silk-screened in black.
page 118
Chapter VI: The chapter title is mislabeled.
Chapter VII: The chapter title is correct.
map order
Thrór front: The List of Illustrations mistakenly states Thrór's map is the front endpaper.
Thrór back: The List of Illustrations correctly states Thrór's map is the rear endpaper.
map stock
smooth: The paper the maps are printed on is smoothly calendered.
rough: The paper the maps are printed on is no smoother than the text block.
map leaves
paste-down: The outside leaf of each map is pasted down onto the inside of the cover.
free: The outside leaf of each map is a free leaf.
type flaws
clean
None of the flaws listed below.
broken A
p. 193: Line 8, the "t" in "into" is broken.
p. 193: Line 10, the "o" of "of" is broken.
p. 205: Line 5, the "e" of "else" is broken.
p. 237: Last paragraph, there may be spots of thin ink toward the left, especially the two (s)s of "darkness" as well as "the" below.
broken B
All of broken A plus:
p. 81: Line 16, the comma after "blade," is light, and so is the opt left of the "o" just below.
p. 119: Line 3, the "o" in "below" is broken at the bottom.
p. 125: Line 4, the "o" in "to see" is broken at the bottom.
p. 125: Line 13, the "ea" in "mean" is slightly clipped at the top.
p. 145: Line 16, the "he" in the first "the" is lightened.
broken B/C
All of broken B plus:
p. 213: Line 13, the right stem of "n" in "nor" is broken in the middle.
p. 217: Line 1, the hump of the "h" in "the" has a hairline crack.
broken C
All of broken B/C plus:
p. 17: Line 2, the upper half of the left stem of the "w" in "well" is lightened slightly.
The second edition
Basics
Tolkien began work on The Lord of the Rings in the years after The Hobbit's publication. As the story evolved, Tolkien realized he needed to change how Bilbo and Gollum interacted in The Hobbit to suit the plot of The Lord of the Rings. He also wrote a new version of the introductory note to explain an apparent discrepancy between the map saying that Thrain had been king under the mountain despite Thorin's father Thrain never having held that title. This was explained as the map referring to a distant ancestor, Thrain I. However, this introduced contradictions with the text, such as statements that Erebor had been founded in the time of Thorin's grandfather, thus precluding an ancient Thrain I having ruled there, which were eventually addressed with changes for the third edition. Allen & Unwin prepared a new edition of The Hobbit for release in 1951, and Houghton Mifflin followed suit. These American impressions from the 5th through the 14th were bound from sheets printed in Great Britain, corresponding to the same George Allen & Unwin printings of the second edition. Unlike the AU printings, the American copies do not state the printing until the 18th in the second edition, making them very difficult to identify in isolation. The only exceptions are the 11th, 12th, and one of the two variants of the 5th impression, each of which states the full printing history. The following list of "points" was developed by Strebe by comparing unknown American printings to known British printings. Steve Frisby untangled the 9th printing, which differs from its Allen & Unwin counterpart on page 315. (This divergence likely resulted from the cancel title pages AU was obliged to supply when they converted 9th printing sheets intended for British domestic use into Houghton Mifflin sets.) Information regarding the print run sizes of the Second American Edition of the Hobbit is held by the University of Reading Special Collections Service.
The American second editions from the 5th through 14th printings measure 12.7 x 19.0 cm, contain 315 numbered pages, and have end-paper maps printed in black, white, and red. The frontispiece is printed in color, but the remaining color plates of the first edition have been eliminated. With the exception of the 5th printing, the cover design is similar to the American first edition, only smaller, differently colored, and lacking the bowing hobbit emblem on the front board. Both variants of the 5th printing, on the other hand, are bound identically to the British printings, with the only distinction being the notation "Houghton Mifflin Company" at the base of the book's spine.
Printing runs
The following table lists the printing dates, export dates, and number of sheets exported from George Allen & Unwin to Houghton Mifflin across the second edition, as determined from George Allen & Unwin records. The Stated date is the date listed in the corresponding UK impression's printing history on the copyright page.
5th printing variants
Houghton Mifflin issued two distinct variants corresponding to the British 5th printing.
The earlier variant (5a) is constructed in a similar style to the subsequent American printings of the second edition. That is, the title page states "Houghton Mifflin Company - Boston, The Riverside Press - Cambridge", and the book lacks the printing history and colophon entirely. Even so, the sheets for the text body came from A&U and thus are identical to the British 5th printing.
The later variant (5b) is identical to the British 5th printing in every regard except for the "Houghton Mifflin" notation at the base of the spine. In particular, the title page states "London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, Museum Street"; the colophon shows the A&U St. George and the Dragon insignia and the addresses of the publishers offices worldwide; and the title page verso shows the full printing history.
Dust-jackets
American second edition dust-jackets are nearly identical to British, except that Houghton Mifflin is printed at the bottom of the spine instead of George Allen Unwin. The design is basically unchanged from the original 1937 edition of The Hobbit. Dust-jackets declare the impression and often may be used to ascertain at least the approximate printing of the book. Sometimes, however, the publisher put dust-jackets from one printing onto books of a neighboring printing. Also lost, damaged or discarded dust-jackets are sometimes replaced with ones acquired elsewhere. Hence the jacket cannot be considered definitive.
Collation
The 5th and 6th impression signature marks are at the bottom center:
[B] on page 17, henceforth incrementing one letter every 16 pages.
[*] on page 307.
The 7th, 8th, and 9th impression signature marks start with [B] on page 17, henceforth incrementing one letter every 32 pages.
[*] on page 307.
Signature marks change on the 10th impression: [A*] at the bottom of the Table of Contents; [B] at bottom left of page 33 etc. These signature marks remain unchanged through the 14th impression.
Paper
Paper weight varies from printing to printing. Generally the earlier impressions are thinner than the later. Measurements exclude the binding and end papers; they start from the half-title page and extend to the last story page. The leaves should be pressed tightly when measuring. Measurements are rounded to the nearest half millimeter.
Binding
The 5th through 14th impressions come in a variety of colors. Generally all the books from one printing are bound in the same color, but exceptions may have been found, perhaps when bindings intended for one printing were left over and found use at the beginning of the next printing. Hence the color of the covers cannot conclusively identify a book.
Advertisements
Commencing with the 7th impression, the final page of the story advertises The Lord of the Rings. The distance between the advertisement and the main body of the text varies from impression to impression. Here the distance is measured from the baseline of the last line of the story's text down to the baseline of the first line of the advertisement.
The 5th impression advertises Farmer Giles of Ham on the reverse of the half-title page.
The 6th impression advertises The Lord of the Rings on the reverse of the half-title page but not on the last page of the text.
The 6th through 13th impressions advertise Farmer Giles of Ham and Lord of the Rings* on the reverse of the half-title page.
The 14th impression advertises The Adventures of Tom Bombadil, Farmer Giles of Ham, and Lord of the Rings on the reverse of the half-title page.
The 15th impression of the Allen & Unwin British edition advertises The Adventures of Tom Bombadil, Farmer Giles of Ham, (The) Lord of the Rings, and Tree and Leaf on the reverse of the half-title page. Houghton Mifflin probably did not issue a printing from these sheets.
* The advertisement for The Lord of the Rings on the half-title page is missing 'The' until the 24th printing.
Printing flaws
Starting with the 7th impression, the first "o" on page 22 is broken at 5:00 o'clock.
The 13th impression, on the bottom of page 315, displays an illegible "ab" in "you will learn a lot more 'about them". The 7th through 12th impressions, on the other hand, are clean. The illegible "ab" persists throughout remaining printings of the second edition, both British and American.
Later printings of second edition
Houghton Mifflin enlarged the book to 14.0 x 21.0 cm commencing with the 15th printing, probably in 1964. At that point they abandoned importing sheets from George Allen and Unwin. Parallel to the single British 15th printing, Houghton Mifflin reprinted The Hobbit nine times from their own plates until the advent of the third edition. They dropped the red color from the maps and removed the color frontispiece so that no color remained in the book's interior. The 15th and remaining printings of the second edition are bound in light green with lettering in dark blue. Beginning with the 18th impression the volumes state the printing number on the reverse of the title page. The 23rd impression is the final impression of the second edition.
The 24th printing belongs to the third edition: it replaces the second edition's description of the revised edition with a description of runes; the type is completely reset; and the page count increases to 317.
While the Allen and Unwin sheets appear to have been printed from Linotype plates, clues suggest that Houghton Mifflin opted to filmset the later printings of the second edition. They did not phototypeset new plates; rather they seem to have photographed the 14th impression. While the sheets are larger, the type block itself is identical. All the print surface flaws that the Allen and Unwin plates had accumulated up to that point were faithfully reproduced in film for the remaining printings. Because any number of copies of the film can be made and stored for future use, the type does not degrade from printing to printing the way it would with Linotype. If the film tears or loses its crispness, it may simply be replaced with a duplicate. Indeed, the 23rd impression's type block is effectively identical.
By settling on a single binding color and dropping all color from the interior, Houghton Mifflin cheapened later printings of the second edition, making them less 'collectible'.
The third edition
In 1965, finding a grey area in copyright law and irregularities in Houghton Mifflin's copyright and import compliance, publisher Ace Books issued a paperback edition of The Lord of the Rings against Tolkien's wishes. Already aware of potential copyright weakness and now having learned of Ace's plans, that same year George Allen & Unwin asked Tolkien to prepare a list of revisions to The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings so that their copyrights could be renewed. Several dozen short changes were then introduced in the next few impressions of The Hobbit, starting with the 24th printing in 1966 and being complete by 1968. These changes were primarily minor stylistic variations (e.g. "They hadn't been riding..." to "They had not been riding...") and revisions to bring the story more in line with Tolkien's latest ideas about the broader mythology of his Middle-earth stories. Collectively, these changes are considered the third edition. The printings of the standard third edition are not marked as such. Instead, they list their printing on the reverse of the title page in the original succession dating all the way back to first UK printing. They are bound identically to the later printings of the second edition. The first impression of the third edition is the one marked as the 24th printing with a copyright date of 1966. Second editions contain the original description of the revised edition, beginning with, "In this reprint several minor inaccuracies...". The third edition's foreword, on the other hand, describes the runic characters seen on the maps and in the text. It commences with, "This is a story of long ago." Also, third editions contain 317 numbered pages, as compared to the 315 of the second edition.
Other known English-language editions
English language edition annotated for Russian students of English.
BCA Publishing edition of 1992. Quarterbound with gilded lettering on spine and raised ribbing.
Alan Lee illustrations, 60th anniversary edition, 1997
HarperCollins Alan Lee illustrations, 2000, published for Dealerfield Ltd. Pictorial laminated boards. Almost certainly just a variant of 1997 Alan Lee.
Michael Hague illustrations, hardcover
Unwin 4th edition
Del Rey paperback with cover matched to Peter Jackson's films
1999 HarperCollins DeLuxe edition
"Collins Modern Classics", Title on front shifted left of center
Thorndike Press Large Print Basic Series, 483 pages.
Unwin early 80s mass-market paperback with Smaug on his hoard, "The Hobbit" over a rust-colored background rectangle
Harper Collins Limited Editions Collectors' Box with CD, fold-out map, etc. 2000.
Unwin Hyman 1987 50th anniversary
Black softcover with red dragon at bottom on front and runes in circle in middle
Ballantine 1987 paperback 50th anniversary edition (with or without 50th anniversary note); Bilbo and Gollum on cover, cover illustration by Michael Herring.
Ballantine 1978 film art edition, softcover edition of HA1977 Rankin/Bass animation.
Late 1990s Ballantine softcover with "natural" scene of Gandalf in foreground, bridge in background, river flowing to foreground, forest on the right.
3D pop-up edition illustrated by John Howe
Houghton Mifflin hardcover 4th edition, 255 pages, with Tolkien illustrations, but dust jacket shows Smaug on his hoard and vases, cups, and chalices in the foreground.
1970 The Hobbit "Pleasure in Reading" edition. 279 pages. Australian edition? Complete?
Ballantine paperback edition with "The Greatest Epic Fantasy of Our Time" on green background; Gandalf approaching Bag End; 305 pages.
1972 English edition printed in Taiwan.
Newer version of EB1990 with new cover art
References
Further reading
Hobbit
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal%20%28character%29
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Crystal (character)
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Crystal (Crystalia Amaquelin) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Crystal first appeared in Fantastic Four #45 (Dec. 1965) and was created by writer Stan Lee and artist Jack Kirby.
Within the Marvel Universe, Crystal is a member of a fictional human subspecies known as Inhumans, who (due to genetic modifications performed by the Kree) became capable of developing superhuman abilities once exposed to the Terrigen Mist. Exposure to the Terrigen Mist grants abilities to psionically control the four classical elements: earth, wind, fire, and water and, by extension, can also grant the ability to manipulate various other natural materials and phenomena such as metals and electricity. Crystal was the first character to be identified as an Inhuman, and is one of the most prominent Inhuman characters. Crystal is a princess of the Inhuman Royal Family and sister to Medusa, Queen of the Inhumans. She often appears with her giant super-powered canine companion, Lockjaw.
The character has regularly appeared as a main character in several comic book titles, including various incarnations of the Inhumans as well as the Fantastic Four and the Avengers. The character is unique in her affiliation with all three of these groups. Earlier in her history, she was romantically involved with the Human Torch from the Fantastic Four. In later stories, she becomes more associated with the X-Men family of characters due to her short-lived marriage to Quicksilver, which resulted in the conception of their daughter, Luna. Crystal has also appeared in various other Marvel media such as television series and video games, as well as merchandise such as trading cards and action figures.
Crystal has been described as one of Marvel's most notable and powerful female heroes.
She made her live action debut in the 2017 Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) television series Inhumans, portrayed by Isabelle Cornish.
Publication history
Crystal first appeared in Fantastic Four #45 (Dec. 1965), written by Stan Lee and illustrated by Jack Kirby, titled "Among Us Hide...The Inhumans". When asked, "Who created the Inhumans, you or Stan Lee?" in a 1968 interview for Excelsior magazine, Jack Kirby replied, "I did." Like other early Fantastic Four characters, there is debate about how much Stan Lee and Jack Kirby each contributed to the characters' creation.
Throughout her many appearances, Crystal has been depicted as brave, intelligent, and compassionate. While she is undoubtedly very kind and emotional, this is in stark contrast to her remarkable power, and she is more than capable of defending herself and others.
Fantastic Four (1965–1973)
Crystal was first introduced, along with the rest of the Inhuman Royal Family and the Inhuman race as a whole, in the pages of Fantastic Four. Upon their first meeting, she and Johnny Storm fell in love with one another, a fact that led to her continued presence among the team. From this time, she would become a mainstay of the team for the duration of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby's stint on the series. She was the first character to join the Fantastic Four, outside of its original members, when she officially joined the team as a replacement for Sue Richards, who was pregnant with Franklin Richards. She remained a member of the team, even after Sue's return. During her time with the team, she became very close to its members, particularly Ben Grimm and accompanied them on many adventures. Crystal was written out of Fantastic Four in issue #105, the first story arc after Jack Kirby's departure. At this time, the character returned to her family in Attilan due to her apparent inability to survive long-term in Earth's polluted atmosphere. Her time with the team and her status as a friend and ally would continue to be part of her identity as a character, up to the present.
Quicksilver and Luna (1973–1990)
After her return to Attilan, Crystal meets and falls in love with Quicksilver, Pietro Maximoff. During this time, Crystal is mostly featured alongside Quicksilver in a number of different series including Inhumans and Vision and the Scarlet Witch, along with guest appearances in Fantastic Four, Avengers, and other titles. In addition to her marriage to Quicksilver, this time period saw the introduction of Luna, the daughter of Crystal and Pietro and the development of close friendship between Crystal and Pietro's twin sister, Scarlet Witch (Wanda Maximoff), and her then-husband, Vision. In Steve Englehart's series, Vision and the Scarlet Witch vol. 2 (1986), Crystal has an affair with Vision and Wanda's "regular Joe" neighbor, Norm Webster. Crystal is purported to have committed this betrayal as a result of her mistreatment by Pietro. A few months later in X-Factor Annual #2 (October 1987), it is revealed that the behavior exhibited by both Crystal and Pietro was the result of mind control orchestrated by Maximus. From 1987 to 1988, Crystal again rejoins the eponymous team in Fantastic Four, which was also being written by Steve Englehart, at the time. Crystal departs the team abruptly in Fantastic Four Annual #21 after being convinced to do so by her king and brother-in-law, Black Bolt. The artwork at the end of the issue features character pages for the Fantastic Four and many supporting characters. Despite this being Crystal's last issue, her character page reads "It's great to be back with the Fantastic Four! I'll never leave again!"
Avenger (1991–1998)
Crystal has also appeared as a member of the Avengers. She was a prominent member of the main Avengers team for the term of Bob Harras' time as writer for the title, but declined in prominence shortly after he left to become Editor-in-Chief of Marvel Comics. In addition to starring in Avengers, the character also appeared in the solo books of her Avengers teammates during these years such as Captain America, Invincible Iron Man, and The Vision. While serving on the team, the character lived in Avengers Mansion with Luna and her nanny, Marilla. During this time period, the character would attempt to reconcile with Quicksilver off-and-on. Crystal was featured as an Avenger through many important storylines and events including Operation: Galactic Storm, Infinity War, Infinity Crusade, Bloodties, Onslaught, and Heroes Return. Crystal proved invaluable to the team many times during her tenure and was well-loved by her teammates. The character also featured prominently in the series Quicksilver toward the end of her tour as an active Avenger.
Return to Attilan (1998–2007)
This time period was a departure from Crystal's previous appearances because it marked the first time the character had returned to Attilan by her own choice for a significant amount of time since she first encountered the Fantastic Four. Crystal appeared in Inhumans vol. 2 (1998–1999), a limited series by Paul Jenkins and Jae Lee. The series, which was part of the Marvel Knights line, was critically acclaimed, popular with readers, and earned Jenkins an Eisner Award. From 2000 to 2005, the character mostly made guest appearances in Avengers, Fantastic Four, and other titles. Son of M (2006) and Silent War (2007), written by David Hine would bring the next major arc for Crystal. These books chronicled Quicksilver's betrayal of Crystal and the Inhumans in an attempt to use the Terrigen Mist to restore the mutants depowered during the events of House of M and the resulting conflict between Attilan and a fictional version of the United States.
Cosmic Inhumans (2008–2013)
This time period marked another new development for Crystal's character as she and her fellow Inhumans became involved in intergalactic conflicts. Secret Invasion: Inhumans (2008–2009) by Joe Pokaski marked the beginning as it was discovered that Black Bolt had been replaced by a Skrull. This revelation leads to a series of events that eventually sees the Inhumans ascend to become sovereigns of the Kree Empire and Crystal betrothed to Ronan the Accuser. Crystal was then featured through a series of books by Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning including War of Kings (2009), Realm of Kings: Inhumans (2010), and The Thanos Imperative (2010). During this time, Crystal showed her prowess not only as a warrior, but as a leader, as she and her family navigated political and military conflicts, particularly against Vulcan and the Shi'ar Imperium. From 2010 to 2013, her story continues in the pages of Fantastic Four and FF, in which she is forcibly separated from Ronan against both of their wishes. Although present in Infinity (2013) and Inhumanity (2013–2014), which, under new authorship, continue the events portrayed in Abnett and Lanning's aforementioned series, she does not play a major part in these books.
All-New, All-Different Marvel (2015–)
Despite her unexplained absence in Charles Soule's Marvel NOW! series Inhuman (2014–2015), Marvel has indicated that Crystal will be returning to the spotlight as a part of their All-New, All-Different Marvel initiative. She has been announced to appear in the upcoming Uncanny Inhumans series, and leaked information indicated the character would be featured in a starring role in All-New Inhumans, both also written by Charles Soule. The character has also appeared on the teaser image for All-New All-Different Marvel Point One, which is to be an introduction to the new series that are being launched as a part of All-New, All-Different Marvel. On August 19, 2015, it was officially announced that Crystal would be the leader of a team of Inhumans in All-New Inhumans, which will be co-written by Charles Soule and James Asmus with art by Stefano Caselli. "These stories follow a diplomatic mission/covert strike team effort led by Crystal," relates Asmus. "She's been at the center of the Inhumans, but also served as an Avenger, alongside the Fantastic Four, and even dabbled with the X-Men when she was married to Quicksilver. She's been a constant presence in the Marvel Universe, but leading this faction of NuHumans is her stepping up in a big way." The character's appearance has been significantly changed, having an updated costume and a pixie cut.
Fictional character biography
Crystal is the daughter of Inhumans Quelin and Ambur, and lived in Attilan with the other Inhumans, until the Inhuman Royal Family was forced out of the Great Refuge by Maximus. Her first encounters with the outside world were via the Fantastic Four. She encountered the Human Torch, and brought him to the Inhumans' secret New York base. She left New York with her family members to escape the Seeker, but became trapped inside Maximus' "negative zone" barrier dome around the Great Refuge. She fell in love with the Human Torch, although their romance was blocked by a literal barrier, around the Inhumans' city. The Inhumans were eventually freed from the "negative zone" barrier, and left the Great Refuge along with the Royal Family to visit the outside world. She brought Triton to rescue Mister Fantastic from the real Negative Zone and aided the Fantastic Four in battle against Blastaar.
Joining the Fantastic Four
Crystal would later leave the city for a brief career with the Fantastic Four. Soon after joining, she battled the Wizard, and helped defeat Maximus. She also fought Doctor Doom alongside the Fantastic Four. She was temporarily blinded by the Mole Man, but helped the Fantastic Four defeat him. She was abducted by Medusa and reunited with the Torch in Attilan. She revealed how she had used her powers to save Black Bolt's life, and then rejoined the Fantastic Four. She fell under the mental control of Diablo, but soon regained her free will and returned to the Great Refuge.
Marriage
It was later revealed how she had rescued a dying Quicksilver (Pietro Maximoff). She chose Quicksilver over the Torch as the man she loved. Not long after that, she married Quicksilver. She later gave birth to their daughter, Luna, and accompanied the Inhumans when Attilan was relocated to Earth's Moon. During the time when the Inhumans lived on the Moon, Crystal defied the power structure of her society and fled with many Inhumans to an isolated part of Earth. They were there to help Medusa, their queen, give birth in secret. Crystal used her powers to eliminate the pollution from a wide area around their hideout, a mistake which led to even worse consequences.
Quicksilver and Crystal have had a rocky marriage. Pietro has always had a quick temper and Crystal had once had an affair with a real estate agent named Norman Webster. She and the Human Torch still had feelings for each other during his marriage to the supposed Alicia Masters (later revealed to be a Skrull named Lyja merely pretending to be Alicia). She also developed feelings for Dane Whitman, the Black Knight, but nothing physical came from it. These reasons have caused them to separate several times, egged on by Maximus the Mad taking credit for Pietro's descent into madness. One such reconciliation attempt occurred in a small town, in a rented cabin, where Crystal had to urge Quicksilver to "go slow". Unfortunately, even this was affected by outside forces.
Joining the Avengers
At one point, Crystal summoned the Avengers to help battle the Brethren. Soon after, she joined the Avengers as a provisional member. Shortly after that, she became a full Avengers member. During Crystal's time with the Avengers, Magneto's Acolytes kidnapped her daughter, causing great damage to the mansion. Luna ended up in Genosha under the control of the Acolytes. The Avengers teamed up with the X-Men and managed to recover her safely.
Decimation
After the events of House of M, Crystal was reunited with her depowered husband, only for him to steal the Terrigen Mist from Attilan, in an attempt to use it to restore the depowered mutants. He also kidnapped Luna and exposed her to the mists, granting her various abilities. Luna had previously been baseline human, thought of by some as an affront to her mutant heritage.
Silent War
When the Inhumans located Quicksilver, he allowed Black Bolt to beat him, in response to his betrayal. Crystal and Quicksilver's marriage was annulled and she participated in a series of battles against S.H.I.E.L.D. and the Mighty Avengers when the Inhumans declared war on United States.
Secret Invasion
Crystal and her sister Medusa are called upon by Iron Man to a meeting where he reveals Black Bolt has been replaced by a Skrull. When the Skrulls invade Attilan, Crystal uses her abilities to defeat a Skrull who possesses the powers of Colossus, Cyclops, and Wolverine, and a Skrull who is an amalgam of Captain America and Spider-Man. After an attack on Attilan by the Skrulls, the Royal Family travel into Kree space, seeking an alliance against the invading Skrulls. Ronan the Accuser welcomes this alliance, but only on the condition that Crystal becomes his bride. Medusa agrees, much to Crystal's chagrin.
In an attempt to crack the Skrull communication network, the Inhumans split up. Crystal and Medusa infiltrate Thundra's tribe as fellow tribeswomen. However, when they argue, per the tribe's laws, their squabble is moved to the arena. In their fight, Crystal gets Medusa to treat her more like an adult and allow her to speak to Thundra. She negotiates the release of a captured Skrull communications officer, enabling them to track down Black Bolt's prison.
War of Kings
Crystal's marriage to Ronan proceeds, even following Black Bolt's decision to usurp the throne of the Kree. She comes to accept the idea of the marriage, defending it to her sister-in-law Polaris as a matter of statecraft (though there are indications that Ronan wishes for more). The wedding proceedings are interrupted by the Shi'ar Imperial Guard, who attack as part of Emperor Vulcan's invasion of the Kree Imperium. Ronan is beaten nearly to death in this attack. While visiting Ronan in recuperation, Crystal inadvertently helps rally the Kree people when she shows compassion towards a ward filled with injured Kree commoners, acts which (thanks to her sister in law Polaris) were eventually broadcast over the Kree networks. This has led to her being referred to as the "people's princess" among some of the Kree people.
When Black Bolt attempted to set off an explosion that would spread the Terrigen Mists across the galaxy, reasoning that this action would render all equal, Crystal defied his orders and risked her life to take Lockjaw to confront him, disabling the Terrigen qualities of the explosion and convincing Black Bolt that the powers that would be created by his plan would cause more harm than good. Although Black Bolt acknowledged her wisdom, an attack by Vulcan meant that Black Bolt was kept too busy to accompany Crystal and Lockjaw when they were forced to flee before the bomb — now a simple explosive device — went off, apparently killing Black Bolt and Vulcan. After some time with Medusa ruling in Black Bolt's stead, he is resurrected and returns to the throne. Shortly thereafter, Black Bolt makes a decree that the Inhumans would return to Earth, leaving Ronan the Accuser in charge of the empire; Crystal is given the choice to leave with the royal family or stay by her husband. She decides to stay with family.
During the Civil War II storyline, Crystal and Medusa introduce the Inhuman Ulysses to Captain Marvel, War Machine, and Black Panther. Crystal was present when Iron Man infiltrated New Attilan to claim Ulysses. Iron Man managed to defeat Crystal. She later joined Medusa, Karnak, and the other Inhumans with them in their trip to Stark Tower to reclaim Ulysses. During the confrontation with Iron Man, Crystal was present when Ulysses' latest vision projected to everyone present showing a rampaging Hulk standing over the corpses of the superheroes.
During the Inhumans vs. X-Men storyline, Crystal and Gorgon are ambushed by Magneto.
Powers and abilities
Crystal is often described in her appearances as an elemental due to her unique ability to psionically control the four classical elements: air, earth, fire, and water. The character's proficiency in controlling these "elements" allows her to achieve a variety of effects and additional abilities. Her psionic powers are a result of exposure to the Terrigen Mists, which coupled with genetic engineering of the Inhumans by the Kree in the distant past, grant Inhumans abilities beyond the capabilities of an ordinary Inhuman that are unique to each individual.
Inhuman physiology
As a member of the fictional offshoot of humanity, Inhumans, Crystal possesses physical strength, durability, speed, endurance, and reflexes significantly greater than the maximum potential attainable by humans. Her physical prowess, coupled with combat training received from her cousin, Karnak, and the Avengers make her a formidable hand-to-hand combatant.
Air manipulation
Crystal can control oxygen atoms and oxygen-containing molecules to create atmospheric disturbances of various kinds. By intermingling air with earth she can cause a dust storm, air with water a typhoon, and air with fire a firestorm. She is able to create a wind of tornado intensity, approximately 115 miles per hour. She has demonstrated the ability to control air as far away as within a 30-mile radius. Using this ability, Crystal can summon wind currents strong enough to support her weight and others' and elevate herself to fly at high altitudes and speeds. By controlling air molecules, Crystal is able to bind them together psionically and compact them into a boundary to such a degree that matter cannot pass through. She uses this ability to various effects, including creating a field around her, allowing her to breathe while submerged in water and molten lava. She has also used this ability to deflect attacks and contain the atmosphere when the hull of a spaceship was compromised. She has demonstrated the ability to determine what may or may not pass through the barrier.
Earth manipulation
Crystal can control the various substances that make up common bedrock (earth: iron, granite, shale, limestone, etc.), creating seismic tremors of up to 6.7 on the Richter scale (greater if tectonic plate fault lines are nearby) by causing a sudden shifting of the earth. The upper limit of this power is unknown, although she has demonstrated the ability to lift the entire fictional city of Attilan for a significant amount of time. Her ability to control earth extends to many metals which are naturally occurring, including iron.
Fire manipulation
Crystal possesses the psionic ability to manipulate fire, cause it to grow in size and intensity, and take any form that she desires. She can also douse any oxidizing flame by altering the ionization potential of the outer electron shells of oxygen atoms. By accelerating oxygen molecules in the air, she is able to cause fire to spontaneously ignite.
Water manipulation
Further, Crystal can control the movement of water to a certain extent, via manipulation of inter-atomic van der Waals force controlling surface tension, divining water from the ground, and causing it to flow in designated directions. The maximum volume is unknown, although she has demonstrated the ability to create a maelstrom large and powerful enough to trap at least a dozen individuals, including Namor, and brought down what was described as "a sea from the sky," at least several thousand gallons. The character's control of water molecules extends to all of its forms, including ice. She is able to instantly freeze water to create ice blasts. She can also cause hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the air to recombine and form water molecules, summoning these atoms from a volume of atmosphere within a radius of approximately two miles. This allows her to spontaneously create water, even in a dry environment, provided oxygen and hydrogen are present.
Other elemental effects
Crystal possesses the ability to rearrange and manipulate the individual atoms of the elements that she controls to various effects. She is able to affect the elements she controls on an atomic level, giving them an electrical charge. Once the molecules are charged, she retains her control over them, allowing her to control the flow of the current, including the ability to summon lightning bolts. Her control over the elements at the atomic level also allows her to increase or decrease their molecular movement. This effectively allows her to instantly heat or cool the elements which she psionically controls. For example, she can instantly freeze water or ignite oxygen. By heating or cooling her surroundings, she is able to survive in environments of extreme heat or cold. She has demonstrated a limited capacity to manipulate the magnetic polarity of the metals she can psionically control. By combining her abilities to manipulate air, water, electricity, ice, and temperature, the character is able to effectively control the weather within a 30-mile radius. Also, because of her psionic connection to the elements around her, she has the ability to sense things an ordinary human or Inhuman would not, such as sensing how much moisture is contained within the air or other matter, being aware of movement in the air or water around herself, and being able to determine that a soil sample was not "native" to a particular area.
Reception
Critical reception
Steve Morris of ComicsAlliance asserted, "Crystal's elemental powers offer infinite possibility, but her most important trait may be her pragmatism. She's the most aware and self-conscious member of the Inhumans, with a better handle on how to interact with other species than the rest of her family. As a result, she offers a fascinating counterpoint to the bigger-name Inhumans, and drives a more empathetic perspective for readers. She's smart, composed, and understanding; of course she was the one to drive the forging of relationships with the Fantastic Four and the Avengers." Sara Century of Syfy stated, "We like Crystal a lot because she is a character who tries to choose her own happiness, only to get shunted off into politically convenient arranged marriages off-planet at the drop of a hat by the people closest to her. ...For Crystal, the real love story is learning to love herself enough to say "no" to the demands of others."
Accolades
In 2015, Entertainment Weekly ranked Crystal 62nd in their "Let's rank every Avenger ever" list.
In 2015, Gizmodo ranked Crystal 49th in their "Every Member Of The Avengers" list.
In 2016, ComicsAlliance ranked Crystal 5th in their "Marvel’s Royal Inhumans, Ranked From Worst To Best" list.
In 2016, Screen Rant ranked Crystal 3rd in their "10 Most Powerful Inhumans In The Marvel Universe" list.
In 2017, Screen Rant ranked Crystal 7th in their "Every Member Of The Fantastic Four, Ranked Worst To Best" list.
In 2018, CBR.com ranked Crystal 7th in their "20 Most Powerful Inhumans" list.
In 2018, Paste ranked Crystal 6th in their "20 Members of the Fantastic Four" list.
In 2019, Screen Rant ranked Crystal 4th in their "15 Strongest Female Marvel Characters" list.
In 2020, Scary Mommy included Crystal in their "These 195+ Marvel Female Characters Are Truly Heroic" list.
In 2021, CBR.com ranked Crystal 8th in their "20 Most Powerful Female Members Of The Avengers" list.
In 2021, Screen Rant ranked Crystal 1st in their "10 Best Alternate Members Of The Fantastic Four" list and ranked Crystal and Quicksilver 9th in their "10 Best Relationships in Avengers Comics" list.
In 2022, CBR.com ranked Crystal 2nd in their "10 Best Fantastic Four Substitute Members" list, 6th in their "10 Inhumans Who Should Join The Avengers" list, and 10th in their "10 Best Sisters In Comics" list.
Other versions
Amalgam Comics
In the Amalgam Comics continuity, Dream Crystal, a combination of DC Comics' Beautiful Dreamer and Marvel's Crystal, is a member of the superhero group the Un-People in the Amalgam Comics universe.
Marvel Zombies
In the original Marvel Zombies miniseries, Crystal appeared in one panel as one of the many infected heroes. Later, she is seen as part of the Inhumans Royal Family, all of whom are infected.
Secret Wars
Crystal appears as a member of A-Force on the domain of Arcadia.
Ultimate Marvel
Crystal appeared in the Ultimate Marvel Universe within the Ultimate Fantastic Four Annual #1 story "Inhuman". In this story, she is being forced to marry Black Bolt's brother Maximus whom she does not like. She flirts with Johnny Storm during the issue, but ultimately leaves with the other Inhumans when they go to their new city. She later appears in Ultimate Fantastic Four #30 talking to Sue, who wants her to ask Black Bolt for help with a parasite that is eating Johnny and could kill everyone on Earth. Crystal replies that Black Bolt could not help, even if they were at risk. She reminds Sue that Black Bolt moved the entire city simply because the Fantastic Four breathed their air.
In other media
Television
Crystal made her animated debut in The New Fantastic Four. She's seen along with the other Inhumans in the episode "Medusa and the Inhumans".
Crystal also appeared in Fantastic Four, voiced by Kathy Ireland. She is seen along with the other Inhumans in the three-part episode "Inhumans Saga". After escaping the Negative Barrier, Crystal went on to become the girlfriend of the Human Torch.
Crystal appears in the Inhumans motion comic, voiced by Kelly Sheridan.
Crystal appears in Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H., voiced by Mary Faber. In the episode "Inhuman Nature", A-Bomb developed a crush on her while enjoying a day at a beach and the latter's feelings was shown to be mutual. Later, she is brought back to Attilan by Triton and Lockjaw, and A-Bomb decides to go for her. After meeting with A-Bomb, Crystal first discovers that Maximus secretly builds a weapon that will wipe out all of humanity, but would be ineffective against the Inhumans. Only Crystal is aware of this weapon, before going to notify her family. After Maximus is finally discovered and defeated by his betrayal, he reactivates the barrier that protects the city Attilan, from the rest of the world, causing Crystal to separate from A-Bomb. In the end the barrier is destroyed by Black Bolt, and Crystal reunites with A-Bomb, being together.
Crystal appears in Ultimate Spider-Man. In the episode "Agent Web", she is with the Inhuman Royal Family where they confronted Spider-Man and Triton outside the abandoned Inhuman city of Atorag, but it was only to send them back to the Triskelion.
Crystal appears in Guardians of the Galaxy, voiced by Vanessa Marshall. In the episode "Crystal Blue Persuasion", Crystal is among the Inhumans that were affected by a Terrigen Plague that caused crystals to grow on their bodies. Crystal appears at the end of the episode where Medusa thanks the Guardians of the Galaxy on Black Bolt's behalf. In the episode "Inhuman Touch" Star-Lord officially meets Crystal and tries to romance her to no avail. She later helps the Guardians of the Galaxy when Maximus tricks the way out of prison.
Crystal appears in Avengers Assemble, voiced by Stephanie Sheh. In the episode "The Inhuman Condition", she is seen as one of the Inhumans held hostage by Ultron. Crystal is later seen when the Royal Family thank the Avengers for Ultron's defeat. In the episode "Mists of Attilan", Crystal greets Black Panther and Ms. Marvel when they arrive in Attilan. She has also become a fan of Ms. Marvel. While Black Bolt and Medusa argue over what to do with the key fragment in case the Shadow Council shows up, Crystal helps Black Panther and Ms. Marvel obtain it only for that Crystal to be Princess Zanda of Narobia in disguise who is after the fragment that the Shadow Council is after. The real Crystal was found in the same pit trap that Zanda trapped Black Panther and Ms. Marvel in and eventually helps the two Avengers deal with Princess Zanda.
Crystal appears in the live-action Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) television series Inhumans, portrayed by Isabelle Cornish. Upon learning of Maximus' coup, Crystal sends Lockjaw to teleport her family away while she stays behind after Pulssus stuns Lockjaw. While under house arrest, Maximus tries to persuade Crystal to side with him. One of these attempts has Auran purposely losing her communicator in a scuffle with Crystal so that he can track the rest of the Inhuman Royal Family. She eventually manages to escape with Lockjaw after coming up with a trick to get away from Maximus. Upon arriving in Hawaii, Lockjaw is injured by a passing motorist named Dave and Crystal forces him to take Lockjaw to a medic. She meets Dave's ex-girlfriend Audrey who helps treat Lockjaw. Later, Dave takes Crystal to the beach to teach her to relax every now despite the severity of her situation. At the suggestion of Dave, Crystal uses her powers to contact her family by causing lightning to strike nearby her and is reunited with Black Bolt and Medusa. However, Audrey contacts the police and reports Lockjaw's existence. Using Lockjaw's powers, Crystal and her family escape while Dave and Louise, a human ally Medusa meets, pretend that Audrey was jealous. The family returns to Attilan where Crystal confides in Medusa that she loved being on Earth and wished to have a normal life among the humans. She is soon tasked with helping the city of Attilan evacuate, and later leaves with her family using Lockjaw. She is last seen with the evacuated Inhumans as Medusa gives a speech about them finding a new home on Earth.
Crystal appears in Marvel Future Avengers, voiced by Yuka Iguchi in Japanese and Stephanie Sheh in English.
Video games
Crystal is a playable character in the 1995 arcade game Avengers in Galactic Storm.
Crystal is featured as a non-player character in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, voiced by Kim Mai Guest. She tells the heroes that Medusa went down to Earth to search for the Ultimate Nullifier. After Medusa is discovered to be transformed into one of Doctor Doom's servants, Gorgon mentions that Crystal will accompany him and Triton to fight Doom and make him change Medusa back while the heroes head to the Skrull homeworld. She is presumably beaten and transformed by Doctor Doom along with Gorgon and Triton as she is not heard from for the rest of the game. She has special dialogue with the Fantastic Four.
Crystal is a playable character in the Facebook game Marvel: Avengers Alliance, introduced in Special Operations 23 – Inhumans.
Crystal is a playable character in the Lego Marvel's Avengers video game voiced by Gwendoline Yeo.
Crystal is a playable character in the mobile game Marvel: Future Fight.
Crystal appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2.
Crystal appears as a playable character in Marvel Powers United VR, voiced by Vanessa Marshall.
Crystal appears as a playable character in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced again by Mary Faber.
Crystal appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest.
References
Avengers (comics) characters
Characters created by Jack Kirby
Characters created by Stan Lee
Comics characters introduced in 1965
Fantastic Four characters
Fictional characters with weather abilities
Fictional characters with metal abilities
Fictional characters with air or wind abilities
Fictional characters with earth or stone abilities
Fictional characters with electric or magnetic abilities
Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities
Fictional characters with ice or cold abilities
Fictional characters with water abilities
Fictional princesses
Inhumans
Marvel Comics characters who have mental powers
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
Marvel Comics female superheroes
Marvel Comics television characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls-Royce%20RB211
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Rolls-Royce RB211
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The Rolls-Royce RB211 is a British family of high-bypass turbofan engines made by Rolls-Royce. The engines are capable of generating of thrust. The RB211 engine was the first production three-spool engine and turned Rolls-Royce from a significant player in the aero-engine industry into a global leader.
Originally developed for the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar, it entered service in 1972 and was the exclusive engine to power the L-1011. Mismanagement of the initial development and consequent cost issues led to the effective nationalisation of Rolls-Royce Limited, to save the workforce and the engine businesses important to the UK and many other aerospace and aircraft operating companies.
In the early 1970s, the engine was reckoned by the company to be capable of at least 50 years of continuous development. Within 20 years the RB211 was superseded, in 1989, by the Rolls-Royce Trent family of engines when the RB211-524L was renamed the Trent.
History
Background
In 1966, American Airlines announced a requirement for a new short-medium range airliner with a focus on low-cost per-seat operations. While it was looking for a twin-engined plane, aircraft manufacturers needed more than one customer to justify developing a new airliner. Eastern Airlines had expressed interest, but required greater range and needed to operate long routes over water. At the time, this demanded three engines to provide redundancy. Other airlines also favored three engines. Lockheed and Douglas responded with designs, the L-1011 TriStar and DC-10 respectively. Both had three engines, transcontinental range and seated around 300 passengers in a widebody layout with two aisles.
The wide-body McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 was representative of the innovative aircraft and aero-engine technologies which were then being adopted by US and European airframe manufacturers to provide airlines with aircraft of very large carrying capacity and short/medium to long range. These very large capacity aircraft were needed to address the significant increases in passenger numbers and air traffic which were then being forecast by the industry. In Europe, large capacity airliner concept studies had been carried out by both private and government organisations since the late 1950s and early 1960s. Many of the studies conducted by the aviation companies were weighted towards a 200 to 300 seat aircraft, with a high cycle performance that was based on the utilisation of the game-changing new technology of the high by-pass ratio aero-engine.
Between 1964 and 1967, Hawker Siddeley's examination of British European Airways (BEA)'s requirements produced the 160-seat HS.132 and the 185-seat HS.134; both offered the prospect of a 25–30% reduction in seat mile costs over aircraft then in service. Both of the designs would have used two new-technology Rolls-Royce RB.178 aero-engines of 30,000lbf to provide superior operating performance over the first generation three-engine jets.
According to Cownie, Gunston, Hayward and the UK Department of Trade & Industry (DTI), the roots of the advanced RB.178 go back to 1961 when Rolls-Royce officially initiated work on a high by-pass ratio aero-engine as a replacement for the Conway. The company went ahead with the project and under the leadership of Adrian Lombard built the twin-spool demonstrator. Overall development costs of the RB.178 was £2.6 million. As a comparison, the GE and P&W companies were awarded nearly $20 million by the US DoD ( Department of Defense) to develop and build the TF39 and STF200 technology demonstrators.
The RB.178 was built on the reliable and economic advantages inherent in the Conway and, given that engine's heritage, the new engine's performance looked certain. The RB.178 (designated the 16 series) appears to have been the engine proposed for the Vickers Superb DB.265 (VC10), with four engines powering the high capacity transatlantic airliner.
There are perhaps many reasons why the RB.178 failed. Chief among them was Boeing declining to offer the Rolls-Royce engine on the 747.
The RB.178 was cancelled in May 1966 and in June 1966 Rolls-Royce indicated it did not want to battle with P&W over the Boeing 747. In September 1966 Rolls-Royce revealed its decision to launch an Advanced Technology Engine (A.T.E) family covering thrusts ranging from 10,000lbf (RB.203) through to 60,000lbf. (RB.207). The A.T.E family introduced new technologies such as the triple-shaft architecture, an annular combustor and a structurally integrated power-plant (nacelle).
Both planes also required new engines. Engines were undergoing a period of rapid advance due to the introduction of the high bypass concept, which provided for greater thrust, improved fuel economy and less noise than the earlier low-bypass designs. Rolls-Royce had been working on an engine of the required 45,000 lbf (200 kN) thrust class for an abortive attempt to introduce an updated Hawker Siddeley Trident as the RB178. This work was later developed for the 47,500 lbf (211 kN) thrust RB207 to be used on the Airbus A300, before, with the withdrawal of the UK from the Airbus programme, it was cancelled in favour of the RB211 programme.
Rolls-Royce was also working on a series of triple-spool designs as replacements for the Conway, which promised to deliver higher efficiency. In this configuration, three groups of turbines spin three separate concentric shafts to power three sections of the compressor area running at different speeds. In addition to allowing each stage of the compressor to run at its optimal speed, the triple-spool design is more compact and rigid, although more complex to build and maintain. Several designs were being worked on at the time, including a 10,000 lbf (44 kN) thrust design known as the RB203 intended to replace the Spey. Work started on the Conway replacement engine in July 1961 and a twin-spool demonstrator engine to prove the HP compressor, combustor, and turbine system designs, had been run by 1966. Rolls-Royce chose the triple-spool system in 1965 as the simplest, lowest cost solution to the problem of obtaining lower fuel consumption and reduced noise levels at a constant power setting. Work on the RB211 as essentially a scaled-down RB207 began in 1966-7 with the first certificated engines being scheduled to be available by December 1970 at 33,260lb take-off thrust and at a price of $511,000 each.
In February 1968, American Airlines had chosen the Rolls-Royce RB.211 to power its order for up to 50 McDonnell-Douglas DC-10s. On 7 March 1968, the Washington correspondent of The Times wrote of an attempt being made by Congress to block Rolls-Royce's bid to supply engines for the projected United States airbus. Representative Robert Taft Jr. of Ohio had marshalled opposition because of a report that Rolls-Royce had won approval for the engine. On 9 March 1968, The Times reported that President Lyndon Johnson had received written protests from six senators and five representatives, from Ohio and New Mexico – states that would benefit if a US manufacturer was selected. Their complaint was that 'not adequately balanced information was given during talks between representatives of airlines and the British Government concerning the American Government's position on buying foreign engines'. The US Congress was concerned that the import of foreign engines would result in a US payments deficit of $3,800 million and the loss of 18,000 to 20,000 jobs.
Finalisation of design
On 23 June 1967, Rolls-Royce offered Lockheed the RB211-06 for the L-1011. The new engine was to be rated at thrust and combined features of several engines then under development: the large high-power, high-bypass design from the RB207 and the triple-spool design of the RB203. To this was added one new piece of technology, a fan stage built of a new carbon fibre material called Hyfil developed at the RAE Farnborough. The weight saving was considerable over a similar fan made of titanium, and gave the RB211 an advantage over its competitors in terms of power-to-weight ratio. Despite knowing that the timetable was challenging for an engine incorporating these new features, Rolls-Royce committed to putting the RB211 into service in 1971.
Lockheed felt that the new engine enabled the L-1011 to offer a distinct advantage over the otherwise similar DC-10 product. However, Douglas had also requested proposals from Rolls-Royce for an engine to power its DC-10, and in October 1967 the response was a thrust version of the RB211 designated RB211-10. There followed a period of intense negotiation between airframe manufacturers Lockheed and Douglas, engine suppliers Rolls-Royce, General Electric and Pratt & Whitney, and the major US airlines. During this time prices were negotiated downwards and the required thrust ratings were increased. By early 1968, Rolls-Royce was offering a thrust engine designated RB211-18. On 29 March 1968 Lockheed announced that it had received orders for 94 TriStars, and placed an order with Rolls-Royce for 150 sets of engines designated RB211-22.
RB211-22 series
Development and testing
The RB211's complexity required a lengthy development and testing period. By Autumn 1969 Rolls-Royce was struggling to meet the performance guarantees to which it had committed: the engine had insufficient thrust, was over weight and its fuel consumption was excessive. The situation deteriorated further when in May 1970 the new Hyfil (a carbon fibre composite) fan stage, after passing other tests, shattered when a chicken carcass was fired into it at high speed as part of the bird ingestion test. The company had been developing a titanium blade as an insurance against difficulties with Hyfil, but this meant extra cost and more weight. It also brought its own technical problems when it was discovered that only one side of the titanium billet was of the right metallurgical quality for blade fabrication.
In addition, the project suffered a setback with the death of Chief Engineer Adrian "Lom" Lombard in July 1967, a loss that was described as Rolls-Royce having been "deprived of one of the finest trouble-shooting engineers in the industry".
"It was all too obvious that the Derby engineers, normally proud and self-confident to the point of arrogance, had slid from bad to worse when their great leader, Lombard, had been so suddenly plucked from them in 1967. His death had left a vacuum which nobody could fill ... " – Stanley Hooker
In September 1970, Rolls-Royce reported to the government that development costs for the RB211 had risen to £170.3 million – nearly double the original estimate. The estimated production costs now exceeded the £230,375 selling price of each engine. The project was in crisis.
Insolvency and aftermath
By January 1971 Rolls-Royce had become insolvent, and on 4 February 1971 was placed into receivership, seriously jeopardising the L-1011 TriStar programme. Because of its strategic importance, the company was nationalised by the Conservative government of Edward Heath, allowing development of the RB211 to be completed.
As Lockheed was itself in a vulnerable position, the British government required that the US government guarantee the bank loans that Lockheed needed to complete the L-1011 project. If Lockheed (which was itself weakened by the difficulties) had failed, the market for the RB211 would have evaporated. Despite some opposition, the US government provided these guarantees. In May 1971, a new company called "Rolls-Royce (1971) Ltd." acquired the assets of Rolls-Royce from the Receiver, and shortly afterwards signed a new contract with Lockheed. This revised agreement cancelled penalties for late delivery, and increased the price of each engine by £110,000.
Hugh Conway (managing director RR Gas Turbines), persuaded Stanley Hooker to come out of retirement and return to Rolls-Royce. As technical director he led a team of other retirees - including Cyril Lovesey and Arthur Rubbra - to fix the remaining problems on the RB211-22. The engine was finally certified on 14 April 1972, about a year later than originally planned, and the first TriStar entered service with Eastern Air Lines on 26 April 1972. Hooker was knighted for his role in 1974.
Speaking of a famous banker in relation to the RB211:
"We (Rolls-Royce) added a zero to his stature; he used to think £5 million a lot of money, but after a few weeks on the RB211 he came to understand that £50 million is peanuts." – Stanley Hooker.
The RB211's initial reliability in service was not as good as had been expected because of the focus of the development programme on meeting the engine's performance guarantees. Early deliveries were of the RB211-22C model, derated slightly from the later -22B. A programme of modifications during the first few years in service improved matters considerably, and the series has since matured into a highly reliable engine.
RB211-524 series
Although originally designed for the L-1011-1, Rolls-Royce knew that the RB211 could be developed to provide greater thrust. By redesigning the fan and the IP compressor, Hooker's team increased the engine's thrust to . The new version, which first ran on 1 October 1973, was designated RB211-524, and would be able to power new variants of the L-1011, as well as the Boeing 747.
Rolls-Royce tried unsuccessfully to sell the RB211 to Boeing in the 1960s, but the new -524 offered significant performance and efficiency improvements over the Pratt & Whitney JT9D which Boeing had originally selected to power the 747. In October 1973 Boeing agreed to offer the RB211-524 on the 747-200, and British Airways became the first airline to order this combination which entered service in 1977. Flight International stated in 1980:
"The importance placed on fuel saving by airlines is emphasised by Qantas' adoption of RB.211-524 power for its new Boeing 747s – the only aircraft on which all big three fans are available. Qantas found that British Airways' Boeing 747s fitted with RB211s burnt roughly 7% less fuel than its JT9D-equipped fleet, a saving of about $1 million a year per aircraft, at today's prices."
Rolls continued to develop the -524, increasing its thrust through with the -524C, then in the -524D which was certificated in 1981. Notable airline customers included Qantas, Cathay Pacific, Air New Zealand, Cargolux and South African Airways. When Boeing launched the heavier 747-400 more thrust was required, and Rolls responded with the -524G rated at thrust and then the -524H with 60,600, both introducing a full cowl nacelle with deep-chute forced mixer as already present on the -535E4. These were the first versions to feature FADEC. This was later adopted by GE and Pratt & Whitney for their engines. The -524H was also offered as a third engine choice on the Boeing 767, and the first of these entered service with British Airways in February 1990.
These would have been the final developments of the -524, but when Rolls developed the successor Trent engine, it was found it could fit the Trent 700's improved HP system to the -524G and -524H. These variants were lighter and offered improved fuel efficiency and reduced emissions; they were designated -524G-T and -524H-T respectively. It was also possible to upgrade existing -524G/H engines to the improved -T configuration, and a number of airlines did this.
The -524 became increasingly reliable as it was developed, and the -524H achieved 180-minute ETOPS approval on the 767 in 1993. An RB211 may have a thrust specific fuel consumption around 0.6 lb/(lbf·h).
The -524L, begun in 1987 to allow further growth in the A330 and 777 market, was more extensively redesigned, the considerable differences incorporated leading to the engine eventually receiving the name Trent, under which name development has continued.
RB211-535 series
RB211-535C
In the mid 1970s, Boeing was considering designs for a new twin-engined aircraft to replace its successful 727. As the size of the proposed plane grew from 150 passengers towards 200, Rolls-Royce realised that the RB211 could be adapted by reducing the diameter of the fan and removing the first IP compressor stage to produce an engine with the necessary thrust. The new version was designated RB211-535. On 31 August 1978 Eastern Airlines and British Airways announced orders for the new 757, powered by the -535. Designated RB211-535C, the engine entered service in January 1983. This was the first time that Rolls-Royce had provided a launch engine on a Boeing aircraft. Eastern Airlines president Frank Borman called the -535C "The finest airline engine in the world".
RB211-535E, RB211-535E4
In 1979 Pratt & Whitney launched its PW2000 engine, claiming 8% better fuel efficiency than the -535C for the PW2037 version. Boeing put Rolls-Royce under pressure to supply a more competitive engine for the 757, and using the more advanced -524 core as a basis, the company produced the thrust RB211-535E4 which entered service in October 1984. While not as efficient as the PW2037, it was more reliable and quieter. Visible differences include a long cowl with no jet nozzle protruding beyond the bypass duct. Partial mixing of hot and cold airflows takes place in the integrated or common nozzle. It was also the first to use a wide chord fan blade which increases efficiency, reduces noise and gives added protection against foreign object damage.
Probably the most important single -535E order came in May 1988 when American Airlines ordered 50 757s powered by the -535E4 citing the engine's low noise as an important factor: this was the first time since the TriStar that Rolls-Royce had received a significant order from a US airline, and it led to the -535E4's subsequent market domination on the 757. Unusually, at the time of the announcement made by American, selection of the -535E4 was made public prior to the selection of the 757, though this was welcome news to both Rolls-Royce and Boeing.
After being certified for the 757, the E4 was offered on the Russian Tupolev Tu-204-120 airliner, entering service in 1992. This was the first time a Russian airliner had been supplied with western engines. The -535E4 was also proposed by Boeing for re-engining the B-52H Stratofortress, replacing the aircraft's eight TF33s with four of the turbofans. Further upgrading of the -535E4 took place in the late 1990s to reduce emissions, borrowing technology developed for the Trent 700.
The -535E4 is considered by many to be an extremely reliable engine, and achieved 180-minute ETOPS approval on the 757 in 1990.
Industrial RB211
When Rolls-Royce was developing the -22, it realised that it would be straightforward to develop a version of the engine for land-based power generation, and in 1974 the industrial RB211 was launched. When the -524 arrived shortly afterwards, its improvements were incorporated in the industrial RB211 which was designated RB211-24. The generator was gradually developed over the following years and is still marketed today as a range of generators producing 25.2–32 MW. Many of its installations have been in the offshore oil and gas production industries.
Marine WR-21
An advanced 25 MW class WR-21 Intercooled Recuperated (ICR) gas turbine was derived for marine propulsion.
Variants
Engines on display
An RB211-22B and RB211-524G are on display at the Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust Collection, Derby.
An RB211-535C is displayed at the South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum, Doncaster
Specifications
The -535E4 was the first engine to incorporate a hollow wide-chord unsnubbered fan to improve efficiency. It used advanced materials, including titanium in the HP compressor and carbon composites in the nacelle. Later engines incorporate some features (e.g. FADEC) from improved models of the -524.
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Gunston, Bill. Development of Piston Aero Engines. Cambridge, England. Patrick Stephens Limited, 2006.
Hooker, Sir Stanley. Not Much of an Engineer, Airlife Publishing, 1985. .
Newhouse, John. The Sporty Game: The High-Risk Competitive Business of Making and Selling Commercial Airliners. 1982.
Keith, Hayward. Government and British civil aerospace: a case study in post-war technology. 1983.
Porter, Andrew. Transatlantic Betrayal. The RB.211 and the Demise of Rolls-Royce Limited. Amberley Publishing, 2013.
External links
Official Rolls-Royce RB211-524 site
Official Rolls-Royce RB211-535 site
Official Rolls-Royce Industrial RB211 site
The Rolls-Royce RB.211 Turbofan – Flight Archive
"Rolls-Royce 50,000-Pounder" a Flight article on the RB.211-524
"RB.211-535: Rolls-Royce's Boeing 757 fan" a 1980 flight article on the RB.211-535
"RB.211 – Big Fan Broadens Appeal" a 1988 Flight article on the RB.211 series
High-bypass turbofan engines
RB211
1960s turbofan engines
Three-spool turbofan engines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyak%20language
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Eyak language
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Eyak was a Na-Dené language, historically spoken by the Eyak people, indigenous to south-central Alaska, near the mouth of the Copper River. The name Eyak comes from a Chugach Sugpiaq name (Igya'aq) for an Eyak village at the mouth of the Eyak River.
The closest relatives of Eyak are the Athabaskan languages. The Eyak–Athabaskan group forms a basic division of the Na-Dené language family, the other being Tlingit.
Numerous Tlingit place names along the Gulf Coast are derived from names in Eyak; they have obscure or even nonsensical meanings in Tlingit, but oral tradition has maintained many Eyak etymologies. The existence of Eyak-derived Tlingit names along most of the coast towards southeast Alaska is strong evidence that the prehistoric range of Eyak was once far greater than it was at the time of European contact. This confirms both Tlingit and Eyak oral histories of migration throughout the region.
Current status and revival
The last surviving native speaker was Marie Smith Jones (May 14, 1918 – January 21, 2008) of Cordova.
The spread of English and suppression of aboriginal languages are not the only reasons for the decline of the Eyak language. The northward migration of the Tlingit people around Yakutat in precontact times encouraged the use of Tlingit rather than Eyak along much of the Pacific Coast of Alaska. Eyak was also under pressure from its neighbors to the west, the Alutiiq people of Prince William Sound, as well as some pressure from the people of the Copper River valley. Eyak and Tlingit culture began to merge along the Gulf Coast, and a number of Eyak-speaking groups were absorbed by the Gulf Coast Tlingit populations. This resulted in the replacement of Eyak by Tlingit among most of the mixed groups after a few generations, as reported in Tlingit oral histories of the area.
Revival
In June 2010, the Anchorage Daily News published an article about Guillaume Leduey, a French college student with an unexpected connection to the Eyak language. Beginning at age 12, he had taught himself Eyak, utilizing print and audio instructional materials he obtained from the Alaska Native Language Center. During that time, he never traveled to Alaska or conversed with Marie Smith Jones, the last native speaker.
The month that the article was published, he traveled to Alaska and met with Dr. Michael Krauss, a noted linguist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. Dr. Krauss assisted Leduey with proper Eyak phonological pronunciation and assigned further instruction in grammar and morphology—including morphemic analyses of traditional Eyak stories.
In June 2011, Leduey returned to Alaska to facilitate Eyak language workshops in Anchorage and Cordova. He is now regarded as a fluent speaker, translator, and instructor of Eyak. Despite his fluency, Eyak remains classified as "dormant" as there are no native speakers. On the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) Eyak is graded a 9 (dormant); the language serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency. Currently, Leduey provides instruction and curriculum assistance to the |Eyak Language Project from France.
The Eyak Preservation Council received an Alaska Humanities Forum Grant that enabled them to start a website devoted to the preservation of the Eyak Language. Other funding supports the annual Eyak Culture Camp every August in Cordova. The Project provides countless language resources including immersion workshops, an online dictionary with audio samples, and a set of eLearning lessons, among others.
In June 2014, the Eyak Language Revitalization Project announced an online program called "dAXunhyuuga'", which means "the words of the people."
Language family
Eyak is a part of the Eyak-Athabaskan language family and Na-Dené larger grouping, which includes Eyak-Athabaskan and Tlingit with a controversial but possible inclusion of Haida. The Athabaskan family covers three distinct geographic areas, forming three subgroups: Northern Athabaskan in Alaska and the Yukon; Pacific Coast Athabaskan in California and Oregon; and Southern Athabaskan, also called Apache, spoken mainly in the American Southwest, which includes Navajo. There has been extensive comparative reconstruction of a Proto-Athabaskan-Eyak (PAE). A recent proposal of a Dené–Yeniseian stock has been widely well received by linguists, linking the Dené languages to the Yeniseian languages of central Siberia. If it proves correct, it will be the first validated genetic link between Old and New World languages. Far less accepted is a possible Dené–Caucasian stock that has been pursued for decades.
Phonology
The following charts are based on the material in Krauss (1965); IPA equivalents are shown in square brackets. The orthography used by Krauss is also used by the Eyak people. An alternative version uses < ə ł x̣ g̣ > instead of < A L X G > for /ə ɬ χ q/, and < j č š c cʼ > instead of < dj ch sh ts tsʼ > for / t͡ʃ t͡ʃʱ ʃ t͡s t͡sʼ/ respectively.
Consonants
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
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! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | Labial
! colspan="3" | Alveolar
! rowspan="2" | Palato-alveolar
! colspan="2" | Velar
! rowspan="2" | Uvular
! rowspan="2" | Glottal
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! rowspan="3" | Stop
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Aspirated stops contrast with unaspirated stops only before vowels.
All consonants may be found stem-initially, except /h/, which is interpreted as zero. /h/ has the allophone [h] only word-initially or directly following a vowel.
Vowels
Eyak has five vowel qualities /ɪ e a ə ʊ/, three of which also distinguish duration, nasalization, creaky voice (i.e. glottalization), and breathy voice (‘aspiration’ in Krauss's terminology). The vowel /ə/ only occurs as short and in modal voice, without nasalization. /a/ can also vary between [a] or [ɔ], and /e/ can vary between [e], [ɛ], or [æ]. Breathy voice vowels are all short /ɪ̤ e̤ a̤ ʊ̤/, although most of them can also be nasalized /ɪ̤̃ ã̤ ʊ̤̃/.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
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!
! colspan="2" | Front
! colspan="2" | Central
! colspan="2" | Back
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!
!Oral
!Nasal
!Oral
!Nasal
!Oral
!Nasal
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! Close
| ɪː ɪ̰ ɪ̰ː ɪ̤
|ɪ̃ ɪ̃ː ɪ̰̃ ɪ̰̃ː ɪ̤̃
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| ʊː ʊ̰ ʊ̰ː ʊ̤
|ʊ̃ ʊ̃ː ʊ̰̃ ʊ̰̃ː ʊ̤̃
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! Mid
| eː ḛ ḛː e̤
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Writing vowels in Eyak
In the system developed to represent Eyak in writing, long vowels are represented by characters following the basic vowel: a colon <:> for long vowels, an apostrophe < ’> for glottalized (or creaky voice) vowels, an <h> for breathy voiced (“aspirated”) vowels and an <n> for nasalized vowels.
Suprasegmentals
All syllables begin with an onset, so that no two vowels may occur consecutively. Only vowels can be the nuclei of syllables. Stems are heavy syllables, whereas affixes tend to be light.
Unlike many of the Athabascan languages to which it is related, Eyak is not tonal. It does not use variations in fundamental frequency (i.e. ‘pitch accents’) to convey contrast. Lexical stress usually falls on stems and/or heavy syllables. In sequences of heavy syllables, the stress falls on the penultimate syllable, as in qʼahdiʼlah /qʼa̤ˈtɪ̰la̤/ “goodbye”.
Morphology
Eyak is an agglutinative, polysynthetic language.
Nouns
With few exceptions, Eyak nouns are morphophonemically invariable. Kinship and anatomical stems are the only noun stems that may take pronominal possessive prefixes, which are as follow:
First person singular: si- (siya:q’e’, "my aunt [mother's sister]")
Second person singular: ’i- (’ita:’, "your (sg.) father")
Third person singular and plural: ’u-
First person plural: qa:-
Second person plural: lAX-
Indefinite: k’u-
Reciprocal: ’Ad-
Preverbals
Preverbals in Eyak are the category of words made up of preverbals and postpositions. The two are grouped together because one morpheme may often be used as the stem in both categories. Preverbals are individual words that occur in conjunction with the verb. These combinations may almost be said to form lexemes, especially due to the fact that preverbals are rarely if ever used in isolation in natural speech. Preverbals are nearly always unbound and are phonologically separate from the verb, contrasting with the corresponding class in Athabaskan which may be incorporated or not. One preverbal is most common, but combinations of two are equally possible, as in ’uya’ ’Adq’Ach’ k’udAdAGu’ "hot water bottle" (in it onto self something/someone is kept warm). There are more than 100 Eyak basic preverbal morphemes.
Postpositions relate directly to an object outside of the verb. Current analysis by Krauss has been phonological rather than semantic, but there is at least one semantically grouped category of postpositions to consider, that of comparatives. This grouping includes P-ga’ "like P", P-’u’X "less than P", and P-lAX "more than P" where P is any postpositional phrase. Eyak lacks conjunctions and many postpositions assume a similar function, creating subordinate clauses. These postpositions attach to the verb, the most common example being -da:X "and" or "if, when".
Verbs
Eyak verb stems take many affixes: there are nine prefix positions before the verb (many of which may be subdivided) and four suffix positions after. All positions may be filled with zero, except the stem, which can be filled by any of several hundred morphemes but not zero.
Affix position
Object
Direct object: xu (1 sg.), ’i (2 sg.), ø~A (3 sg. and pl.), lAXi: (2 pl.), ’Ad(A)~’Ad(u) (reflexive), ’i~’i(dA) (indeterminate)
Indefinite subject or object: k’u’
The indeterminate is used where there is no specific object (such as in intransitive verbs), while the indefinite is used where there is a specific but unspecified subject or object.
Mark of semitransitive: ’~:
Tense/aspect/mood A (inceptive imperfect): qu’~qa’~qe’~qi’
’i:lih ~ :lih
This position is filled only in a few verbs of thought or emotion, such as ilih
Plurality emphasizer: qA (subject and object)
Classificatory (nominal) and thematic (verbal) qualifiers: the most variable and characteristically Eyak affix position. gu, XA, lAXA, dA, yA, and lA may occur singly, the rest occur in combinations of two or three.
GA, gu XA qi:, lAXA, ti:, ku:n, k’ush, tsin, tsi: dA, yA lA~:n Only in position C. do the morphemes have specified meaning, and only nominally, for example: lAXA, "berry-like, ball-like, eye" or qi: + dA "foot". The other morphemes have unlimited, much broader meanings, but tend to concentrate in certain areas. They may be nominal classificatory or verbal thematic.
gu+lA is nominally classificatory and refers to liquid or viscous matter; when gu appears by itself it refers nominally to basket-roots, thread, or hair, (but not rope), as well as thematically with -L-qu, "chase".
XA+dA may nominally refer to matches or logs (but not sticks) or to clouds, among others. dA alone thematically refers to an unusually broad selection including but not limited to hunger, sleds, arrows, noises (only certain types), and non-solid round objects (including eggs, severed heads, and hearts).
This is a very limited sampling of the breadth of the meanings of the possible morphemes in position 5.
Tense/aspect/mood B1: GA, ø ~ A, : ~ A Subject: xw (1 sg.), ø ~ y(i) (2 sg.), lAX (2 pl.), ø (all else)
Tense/aspect/mood B2: sA ~ s (perfective), (y)i ~ ø (inconclusive function)
Verb voice classifier: ø, dA~di, L, LA~Li Verb stem
Derivational: g (habitual action), X ~ ø (progressive)
Aspectival: L (perfective); Derivational: k’ (customary)
Negative: G Human subject or object of third person: inh (sg.), inu: (pl.); non-human object of imperative: uhAn artificial but grammatical example presents near-maximum affixal positions filled: dik’ lAXi:qAqi’dAxsLXa’Xch’gLG "I did not tickle your (plural, emphatically) feet." This gives:
dik’, negative particle
Prefix position 1: lAXi:, direct object, you pl.
Position 4: qA, emphasizing plurality
Positions 5C & D: qi’ + dA, pertaining to feet
Position 6: ø, negative active perfective
Position 7: x, 1st pers. sg. subject
Position 8: s, perfective
Position 9: L Stem: Xa’Xch’, tickle
Suffix position 1: g, repetitive
Position 2: L, perfective
Position 3: G', negative
Tense, mood, and aspect
There are two moods, optative and imperative, and two aspects, perfective and imperfective. Verbs may be inceptive, 'active,' or 'neuter', such that the possibilities are as follows:
Morphemes in prefix position 2 modify the inceptive imperfective; in position 6 the perfective, optative, and imperative in inceptive, active and neuter; in position 8 the inceptive optative, active perfective and optative, and neuter perfective, imperfective, optative, and imperative; in suffix position 2 the inceptive, active, and neuter perfective; and in suffix position 3, negativity.
There are also three derivational modes, a repetitive, a customary, and a progressive. The infinitive takes approximately the same form as the imperative, with some variation.
Syntax
The majority of the Eyak corpus is narrative, with very little spontaneous conversation (and that only when embedded in the narratives). There is a better understanding therefore of the syntax of Eyak narrative style and performance than of natural speech. The basic word order of Eyak is subject-object-verb, or SOV, as in "Johnny ’uyAqa’ts’ sALxut’L" "Johnny shot his (own) hand." Relatively few sentences, however, follow this exact pattern; it is far more common to find SV or OV. The full word order of a transitive sentence is I S O [[C P] V]:
I, introductory sector: consists of two parts, a connective (e.g. 'and so,' 'then,' etc.) and one or more adverbs, especially temporal and spatial adverbs.
S, subject
O, object
V, verb sector: includes two subsectors in addition to the verb.
C, complement subsector: in Eyak syntax a complement is a noun or noun phrase (e.g. not a demonstrative pronoun) and does not have the same meaning as the usual use of 'complement' in ordinary syntax. This is due to traditional classifications of Eyak.
P, preverbal subsector: includes preverbals (preverbs and postpositions) and pronouns.
The subject and object categories can consist of a noun, a noun phrase, or a demonstrative phrase. All constituents may be filled by zero, excepting the verb.
References
Bibliography
Hund, Andrew. "Eyak". 2004. Encyclopedia of the Arctic. Taylor and Francis Publications.
Krauss, Michael E. 1965. Eyak: a preliminary report. University of Alaska.
Krauss, Michael E., ed. 1982. In Honor of Eyak: The Art of Anna Nelson Harry. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center.
Krauss, Michael E. 2004. Athabaskan tone. Pp. 51–136 in Sharon Hargus & Keren Rice (eds) Athabaskan Prosody. (Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 269). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. . Based on an unpublished manuscript dated 1979.
Krauss, Michael E., and Jeff Leer. Athabaskan, Eyak, and Tlingit Sonorants. Alaska Native Language Center Research Papers No. 5. Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska, P.O. Box 757680, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7680, 1981.
New Yorker, June 6, 2005: "Last Words, A Language Dies" by Elizabeth Kolbert
External links
dAXunhyuu Eyak Language Project
Overview of Eyak Language at the Alaska Native Language Archive
Native Village of Eyak (official homepage of the Tribe)
An Eyak speaker
Alaska Native Language Center
Wrangell's 1839 Comparative Word-List of Alaskan languages (includes Eyak)
Eyak basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
BBC News article about death of last native speaker, with her picture. (Article date January 24, 2008).
Eyak Preservation Council
From Stewards to Shareholders: Eyaks Face Extinction (interview).
The Eyak Corporation (ANSCA Corporation)
Extinct Alaska Native language draws French student's interest
"In Alaska, a Frenchman Fights to Revive the Eyak's Dead Tongue" Jim Carlton, The Wall Street Journal'', 10 August 2010
Extinct languages of North America
Indigenous languages of the Pacific Northwest Coast
Indigenous languages of Alaska
Na-Dene languages
Non-tonal languages in tonal families
Northern Northwest Coast Sprachbund (North America)
Northwest Coast Sprachbund (North America)
2008 disestablishments in Alaska
Languages extinct in the 2000s
Eyak
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal%20gas
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Coal gas
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Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped distribution system. It is produced when coal is heated strongly in the absence of air. Town gas is a more general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for sale to consumers and municipalities.
The original coal gas was produced by the coal gasification reaction, and thus the burnable component consisted of mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen in roughly equal quantities by volume. Thus, coal gas is highly toxic. Other compositions contain additional calorific gases such as methane, produced by the Fischer–Tropsch process, and volatile hydrocarbons together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
Prior to the development of natural gas supply and transmission—during the 1940s and 1950s in the United States and during the late 1960s and 1970s in the United Kingdom and Australia—almost all gas for fuel and lighting was manufactured from coal. Town gas was supplied to households via municipally owned piped distribution systems. Sometimes, this was called syn gas, in contrast to natural gas. At the time, a popular method of committing suicide was the inhalation of gas from an unlit oven. With the head and upper body placed inside appliance, the concentrated carbon monoxide would kill quickly. Sylvia Plath famously ended her life with this method.
Originally created as a by-product of the coking process, its use developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries tracking the industrial revolution and urbanization. By-products from the production process included coal tars and ammonia, which were important raw materials (or "chemical feedstock") for the dye and chemical industry with a wide range of artificial dyes being made from coal gas and coal tar. Facilities where the gas was produced were often known as a manufactured gas plant (MGP) or a gasworks.
The discovery of large reserves of natural gas, or sea gas as it was known colloquially, in the Southern North Sea off the coasts of Norfolk and Yorkshire in 1965 led to the expensive conversion or replacement of most of Britain's gas cookers and gas heaters, from the late 1960s onwards.
The production process differs from other methods used to generate gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas, syngas, Dowson gas, and producer gas. These gases are made by partial combustion of a wide variety of feedstocks in some mixture of air, oxygen, or steam, to reduce the latter to hydrogen and carbon monoxide although some destructive distillation may also occur.
Manufacturing processes
Manufactured gas can be made by two processes: carbonization or gasification. Carbonization refers to the devolatilization of an organic feedstock to yield gas and char. Gasification is the process of subjecting a feedstock to chemical reactions that produce gas.
The first process used was the carbonization and partial pyrolysis of coal. The off gases liberated in the high-temperature carbonization (coking) of coal in coke ovens were collected, scrubbed and used as fuel. Depending on the goal of the plant, the desired product was either a high quality coke for metallurgical use, with the gas being a side product, or the production of a high quality gas, with coke being the side product. Coke plants are typically associated with metallurgical facilities such as smelters or blast furnaces, while gas works typically served urban areas.
A facility used to manufacture coal gas, carburetted water gas (CWG), and oil gas is today generally referred to as a manufactured gas plant (MGP).
In the early years of MGP operations, the goal of a utility gas works was to produce the greatest amount of illuminating gas. The illuminating power of a gas was related to amount of soot-forming hydrocarbons ("illuminants") dissolved in it. These hydrocarbons gave the gas flame its characteristic bright yellow color. Gas works would typically use oily bituminous coals as feedstock. These coals would give off large amounts of volatile hydrocarbons into the coal gas, but would leave behind a crumbly, low-quality coke not suitable for metallurgical processes.
Coal or coke oven gas typically had a calorific value between ; with values around being typical.
The advent of electric lighting forced utilities to search for other markets for manufactured gas. MGPs that once produced gas almost exclusively for lighting shifted their efforts towards supplying gas primarily for heating and cooking, and even refrigeration and cooling.
Gas for industrial use
Fuel gas for industrial use was made using producer gas technology. Producer gas is made by blowing air through an incandescent fuel bed (commonly coke or coal) in a gas producer. The reaction of fuel with insufficient air for total combustion produces carbon monoxide (CO); this reaction is exothermic and self-sustaining. It was discovered that adding steam to the input air of a gas producer would increase the calorific value of the fuel gas by enriching it with CO and hydrogen (H2) produced by water gas reactions. Producer gas has a very low calorific value of ; because the calorific gases CO/H2 are diluted with much inert nitrogen (from air) and carbon dioxide (CO2) (from combustion)
2C (s) + O2 → 2 CO (exothermic producer gas reaction)
C (s) + H2O (g) → CO + H2 (endothermic water gas reaction)
C + 2 H2O → CO2 + 2 H2 (endothermic)
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (exothermic water gas shift reaction)
The problem of nitrogen dilution was overcome by the blue water gas (BWG) process, developed in the 1850s by Sir William Siemens. The incandescent fuel bed would be alternately blasted with air followed by steam. The air reactions during the blow cycle are exothermic, heating up the bed, while the steam reactions during the make cycle, are endothermic and cool down the bed. The products from the air cycle contain non-calorific nitrogen and are exhausted out the stack while the products of the steam cycle are kept as blue water gas. This gas is composed almost entirely of CO and H2, and burns with a pale blue flame similar to natural gas. BWG has a calorific value of .
Blue water gas lacked illuminants; it would not burn with a luminous flame in a simple fishtail gas jet as existed prior to the invention of the gas mantle in the 1890s. Various attempts were made to enrich BWG with illuminants from gas oil in the 1860s. Gas oil (an early form of gasoline) was the flammable waste product from kerosene refining, made from the lightest and most volatile fractions (tops) of crude oil.
In 1875 Thaddeus S. C. Lowe invented the carburetted water gas process. This process revolutionized the manufactured gas industry and was the standard technology until the end of manufactured gas era. A CWG generating set consisted of three elements; a producer (generator), carburettor and a super heater connected in series with gas pipes and valves.
During a make run, steam would be passed through the generator to make blue water gas. From the generator the hot water gas would pass into the top of the carburettor where light petroleum oils would be injected into the gas stream. The light oils would be thermocracked as they came in contact with the white hot checkerwork fire bricks inside the carburettor. The hot enriched gas would then flow into the superheater, where the gas would be further cracked by more hot fire bricks.
Gas in post-war Britain
New manufacturing processes
Following the Second World War the slow recovery of the British coal mining industry led to shortages of coal and high prices.
The decline of coal as a feedstock for town gas production using carbonisation is demonstrated in this graph.
Coal-based town gas production, millions of thermsNew technologies for manufacturing coal gas using oil, refinery tail gases, and light distillates were developed. Processes included the Lurgi Process, catalytic reforming, the catalytic rich gas process, steam reforming of rich gas, and the gas recycle hydrogenator process. The catalytic rich gas process used natural gas as a feedstock to manufacture town gas. These facilities utilised the chemical reaction processes described above.
The rise of oil as a feedstock to manufacture town gas is shown on the graph below. The peak usage in 1968/9 and subsequent decline coincides with the availability of North Sea gas which, over the next few years, displaced town gas as a primary fuel and led to the decline of oil as a feedstock for gas making, as shown.
Oil-based town gas production, millions of therms
Domestic heating
By the 1960s, manufactured gas, compared with its main rival in the energy market, electricity, was considered "nasty, smelly, dirty and dangerous" (to quote market research of the time) and seemed doomed to lose market share still further, except for cooking where its controllability gave it marked advantages over both electricity and solid fuel. The development of more efficient gas fires assisted gas to resist competition in the market for room heating. Concurrently a new market for whole house central heating by hot water was being developed by the oil industry and the gas industry followed suit. Gas warm air heating found a market niche in new local authority housing where low installation costs gave it an advantage. These developments, the realignment of managerial thinking away from commercial management (selling what the industry produced) to marketing management (meeting the needs and desires of customers) and the lifting of an early moratorium preventing nationalised industries from using television advertising, saved the gas industry for long enough to provide a viable market for what was to come.
Natural gas as feedstock
In 1959 the Gas Council in Great Britain demonstrated that liquid natural gas (LNG) could be transported safely, efficiently and economically over long distances by sea. The Methane Pioneer shipped a consignment of LNG from Lake Charles, Louisiana, US, to a new LNG terminal on Canvey Island, in the Thames estuary in Essex, England. A long high-pressure trunk pipeline was built from Canvey Island to Bradford. The pipeline and its branches provided Area Gas Boards with natural gas for use in reforming processes to make town gas. A large-scale LNG reception plant was commissioned on Canvey in 1964, which received LNG from Algeria in two dedicated tankers, each of 12,000 tonnes.
Conversion to natural gas
The slow decline of the town gas industry in the UK was driven by the discovery of natural gas by the drilling rig Sea Gem, on 17 September 1965, some forty miles off Grimsby, over below the seabed. Subsequently, the North Sea was found to have many substantial gas fields on both sides of the median line defining which nations should have rights over the reserves.
In a pilot scheme customers on Canvey Island were converted from town gas to natural gas supplied from the LNG plant on Canvey.
The Fuel Policy White Paper of 1967 (Cmd. 3438) pointed the industry in the direction of building up the use of natural gas speedily to 'enable the country to benefit as soon as possible from the advantages of this new indigenous energy source'. As a result, there was a 'rush to gas' for use in peak load electricity generation and in low grade uses in industry.
The growth in availability of natural gas is shown in the graph below. Until 1968 this was from supplies of LNG from Algeria, until North Sea gas was available from 1968.
Natural gas available, millions of therms
The exploitation of the North Sea gas reserves, entailing landing gas at Easington, Bacton and St Fergus made viable the building of a national distribution grid, of over , consisting of two parallel and interconnected pipelines running the length of the country. This became the National Transmission System. All gas equipment in Great Britain (but not Northern Ireland) was converted (by the fitting of different-sized burner jets to give the correct gas/air mixture) from town gas to natural gas (mainly methane) over the period from 1967 to 1977 at a cost of about £100 million, including writing off redundant town gas manufacturing plants. All the gas-using equipment of almost thirteen million domestic, four hundred thousand commercial, and sixty thousand industrial customers were converted. Many dangerous appliances were discovered in this exercise and were taken out of service.
The UK town gas industry ended in 1987 when operations ceased at the last town gas manufacturing plants in Northern Ireland (Belfast, Portadown and Carrickfergus; Carrickfergus gas works is now a restored gasworks museum). The Portadown site has been cleared and is now the subject of a long-term experiment into the use of bacteria for the purpose of cleaning up contaminated industrial land.
As well as requiring little processing before use, natural gas is non-toxic; the carbon monoxide (CO) in town gas made it extremely poisonous, accidental poisoning and suicide by gas being commonplace. Poisoning from natural gas appliances is only due to incomplete combustion, which creates CO, and flue leaks to living accommodation. As with town gas, a small amount of foul-smelling substance (mercaptan) is added to the gas to indicate to the user that there is a leak or an unlit burner, the gas having no odour of its own.
The organisation of the British gas industry adapted to these changes, first, by the Gas Act 1965 by empowering the Gas Council to acquire and supply gas to the twelve area gas boards. Then, the Gas Act 1972 formed the British Gas Corporation as a single commercial entity, embracing all the twelve area gas boards, allowing them to acquire, distribute and market gas and gas appliances to industrial commercial and domestic customers throughout the UK. In 1986, British Gas was privatised and the government no longer has any direct control over it.
During the era of North Sea gas, many of the original cast iron gas pipes installed in towns and cities for town gas were replaced by plastic.
As reported in the DTI Energy Review 'Our Energy Challenge' January 2006 North Sea gas resources have been depleted at a faster rate than had been anticipated and gas supplies for the UK are being sought from remote sources, a strategy made possible by developments in the technologies of pipelaying that enable the transmission of gas over land and under sea across and between continents. Natural gas is now a world commodity. Such sources of supply are exposed to all the risks of any import.
In popular culture
Monty Python parodied the conversion from coal to North Sea gas, and the jumping through hoops some encountered, in their "New Cooker Sketch," as part of the episode that began its second series in 1970.
Coal gas was used to power several historic balloon ascents in the 19th century (see The Aeronauts).
Gas production in Germany
In many ways, Germany took the lead in coal gas research and carbon chemistry.
With the labours of August Wilhelm von Hofmann, the whole German chemical industry emerged.
Using the coal gas waste as feedstock, researchers developed new processes and synthesized
natural organic compounds such as Vitamin C and aspirin.
The German economy relied on coal gas during the Second World War as petroleum shortages forced
Nazi Germany to develop the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis to produce synthetic fuel for aircraft and tanks.
Issues in gas processing
Tar aerosols (tar extractors, condensers/scrubbers, Electrostatic precipitators in 1912)
Light oil vapors (oil washing)
Naphthalene (oil/tar washing)
Ammonia gas (scrubbers)
Hydrogen sulfide gas (purifier boxes)
Hydrogen cyanide gas (purifier)
WWI-interwar era developments
Loss of high-quality gas oil (used as motor fuel) and feed coke (diverted for steelmaking) leads to massive tar problems. CWG (carburetted water gas) tar is less valuable than coal gasification tar as a feed stock. Tar-water emulsions are uneconomical to process due to unsellable water and lower quality by products.
CWG tar is full of lighter polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, good for making pitch, but poor in chemical precursors.
Various "back-run" procedures for CWG generation lower fuel consumption and help deal with issues from the use of bituminous coal in CWG sets.
Development of high-pressure pipeline welding encourages the creation of large municipal gas plants and the consolidation of the MG industry. Sets the stage for rise of natural gas.
Electric lighting replaces gaslight. MG industry peak is sometime in the mid-1920s.
1936 or so. Development of Lurgi gasifier. Germans continue work on gasification/synfuels due to oil shortages.
The Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935, in the US, forces break up of integrated coke and gas companies in the United States.
Fischer–Tropsch process for synthesis of liquid fuels from / gas.
Haber-Bosch ammonia process creates a large demand for industrial hydrogen.
Post WWII: the decline of manufactured gas
Development of natural gas industry. Natural gas has an energy content of 37 MJ/m3, compared to the 10-20 MJ/m3 of town gas.
Petrochemicals kill much of the value of coal tar as a source of chemical feed stocks. (BTX, Phenols, Pitch)
Decline in creosote use for wood preserving.
Direct coal/natural gas injection reduces demand for metallurgical coke. 25 to 40% less coke is needed in blast furnaces.
BOF and EAF processes obsolete cupola furnaces. Reduce need for coke in recycling steel scrap. Less need for fresh steel/iron.
Cast iron & steel are replaced with aluminum and plastics.
Phthalic anhydride production shifts from catalytic oxidation of naphthalene to the o-xylol process.
Post WWII positive developments
Catalytic upgrading of gas by use of hydrogen to react with tarry vapours in the gas
The decline of coke making in the US leads to a coal tar crisis since coal tar pitch is vital for the production of carbon electrodes for EAF/aluminium. US now has to import coal tar from China
Development of process to make methanol via hydrogenation of CO/H2 mixtures.
Mobil M-gas process for making petrol from methanol
SASOL coal process plant in South Africa.
Direct hydrogenation of coal into liquid and gaseous fuels
Dankuni Coal Complex is the only plant in India that is producing coal gas (town gas) in Kolkata using the Continuous Vertical Retort Technology of Babcock-Woodall Duckham (UK), constructed on the recommendation of GoI's Fuel Policy Committee of 1974 after the crippling 1973 Oil Crisis. The plant uses a modified low temperature carbonisation to produce the town gas and soft coke. The plant in the 1990s produced various chemicals like xylenol, cresol and phenol.
By-products
The by-products of coal gas manufacture included coke, coal tar, sulfur and ammonia and these were all useful products. Dyes, medicines such as sulfa drugs, saccharine, and dozens of organic compounds are made from coal tar.
The coal used, and the town gas and by-products produced, by the major three gas companies of London are summarised in the table.
Coke
Coke is used as a smokeless fuel and for the manufacture of water gas and producer gas.
Coal tar
Coal tar was subjected to fractional distillation to recover various products, including
tar, for roads
benzole, a motor fuel
creosote, a wood preservative
phenol, used in the manufacture of plastics
cresols, disinfectants
Sulfur
Used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid
Ammonia
Used in the manufacture of fertilisers
Structure of the UK coal gas industry
Coal gas was initially manufactured by independent companies but in the United Kingdom many of these later became municipal services. In 1948 there was a total of 1,062 gas undertakings. Both the private companies, about two-thirds of the total, and the municipal gas undertakings, about one-third, were nationalised under the Gas Act 1948. Further restructuring took place under the Gas Act 1972. For further details see British Gas plc.
Apart from in the steel industry's coke ovens' by-products plants, coal gas is no longer made in the UK. It was replaced first by gas made from oil and later by natural gas from the North Sea.
See also
Damp (mining)
Environmental remediation
Gas lighting
Gas Works Park
Gasifier
Gasometer
Gasworks
History of manufactured gas
Illuminating gas
Mond gas
Wood gas
References
Notes
Sources
Everard, Stirling (1949). The History of the Gas Light and Coke Company 1812–1949. London: Ernest Benn Limited. (Reprinted 1992, London: A&C Black (Publishers) Limited for the London Gas Museum. .)
Further reading
Coal
Fuel gas
Industrial gases
Synthetic fuel technologies
Synthetic fuels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorgal
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Thorgal
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Thorgal is a fantasy adventure Franco-Belgian comics series by Belgian writer Jean Van Hamme and Polish graphic artist Grzegorz Rosiński. Debuting in 1977, it has incorporated elements of Norse mythology, the legend of Atlantis as well as science fiction and horror.
In 2002, it was adapted as an adventure video game, Thorgal: Curse of Atlantis, by Cryo Interactive Entertainment.
Development
The comic first appeared in serial form in Tintin magazine in 1977, with the story La Magicienne Trahie. Originally a stand-alone 30-page project, its early success encouraged turning it into a longer series.
It has subsequently been published in hardcover volumes by Le Lombard from 1980 on. Translations have appeared in among others, English, Dutch, German, Polish, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, Tamil, Norwegian and Greek.
Covers for all albums are drawn by Rosiński, even for the spin-off albums which sometimes are drawn by other artists.
Reception and significance
Thorgal is critically acclaimed and one of the most popular French language comics, with more than 11 million Thorgal books in print. There are currently three ongoing successful spin-off series, in addition to the continuation of the main Thorgal series.
It has been called the most popular series published by Le Lombard.
D. Aviva Rothschild in his 1995 book Graphic Novels: A Bibliographic Guide to Book-length Comics praised the series, stating that it is "better than an American swords-and-sorcery comic" when it comes to both art and stories. Commenting on The Archers volume, Rothschild described it as "one of the finest pieces of heroic fantasy I have ever set my eyes on".
The series has also been credited with popularizing the comics in Poland.
Main characters
Thorgal Aegirsson: Son of Varth and Haynee, grandson of Xargos – a captain of a spaceship on a way to Earth in search of energy. He is raised by Vikings after his ship crash-lands. He possesses character traits and morality that many Vikings consider a sign of weakness. Thorgal is still a courageous and skillful warrior and an archer of phenomenal skill. His life's goal is to find a place for his family to live in peace. For a time, he is stripped of his memory, and becomes the pirate lord Shaigan, though his compassion remained unaltered.
Aaricia: Thorgal's wife and the daughter of Gandalf the Mad, a Viking leader. She is bound to Thorgal from the moment of her birth by a magic object named Tjahzi's Tears. Aaricia is a spirited and strong-willed woman, who loves her family dearly despite all the mishaps Thorgal's fate brings to their lives.
Jolan: Thorgal's son. He possesses supernatural powers as the heritage of Thorgal's mysterious ancestry. For most of the series his power is limited to molecular agitation (usually the ability to disintegrate objects). He gradually learns to hone his ability.
Louve: Thorgal and Aaricia's daughter, who has the ability to communicate with animals.
Kriss of Valnor: A young, beautiful, unscrupulous and deadly warrior, and also a skilled archer. She first appears in Les Archers, and then intermittently in the following stories. She is in some ways Thorgal's greatest nemesis, and repeatedly tries to hurt him and his family, but occasionally shows hints of admiration and even secret love for Thorgal. When Thorgal loses his memory, she tricks him into believing that they are married, and convinces Thorgal that he is the ruthless pirate lord Shaigan. She becomes pregnant with his son Aniel, whom her father Kahaniel of Valnor wished to reincarnate himself, but Thorgal eventually regains his memory and leaves to find his true family. Later, she ends up as a slave in Byzantium and apparently sacrifices her life to help Thorgal's family escape from the same slave pits, but is later revealed to be alive and queen in the northern lands.
Aniel: the young son of Thorgal and Kriss of Valnor, conceived while Thorgal lived as the pirate lord Shaigan. He and his mother fall prey to Byzantian slavers, and his vocal cords are cut to forestall crying, leaving him mute. Later, Kriss and Aniel escape the slave pits with Aaricia, Jolan and Louve, who had also been brought there. When Kriss is wounded by her pursuers and prepared to make her last stand, she asks Aaricia to take care of Aniel. Aaricia agrees and takes Aniel in as one of her own children. Aniel is later kidnapped to serve as a host body for Kahlim, grand master of the Red Mages of the oriental city of Bag Dadh (Le Feu écarlate). With the help of Armenos the Mage, both Kahaniel and Kahlim are exorcised from him, but having become hateful of Thorgal, he leaves with his mother.
Other characters
Ogotai (also known as Varth): the war-loving, merciless "god" brought by the sea into the land of Qâ (a presumably South American pre-Columbian civilization). He leads his people into countless conquests of the neighboring tribes and orders endless human sacrifices to himself. He has superior intelligence, knowledge of highly advanced technology, and supernatural powers, which he uses to trick people into believing he is a true god. In reality, he is a grief-stricken, crazed man, driven by the vengeance against the planet he believes responsible for the death of his beloved wife and son.
Tanatloc (also known as Xargos): another "god" living in the land of Qâ. He is the nemesis of Ogotai, with whom he shares a secret past. He is kept hidden from his people.
Darek and Lehla: brother and sister children of banished Vikings who met Aaricia and her family after they had been banished from their village following Shaigan's raids against their people. They joined Thorgal and his family on their journey, but after a few adventures they decided to stay behind on an island Thorgal and Louve had just liberated from a tyrant (Arachneà). However, Lehla later turns up a slave in the northern lands, where she is liberated by Thorgal and taken along for his search for Aniel (Le bateau-sabre). They later recover Darek from slavery in the jungle kingdom of Zhari (Aniel), and they subsequently join Thorgal's extended family.
The Key Guardian: a powerful magician, who is (or maybe just assumes the form of) a beautiful woman. The gods have entrusted her with the task of guarding the passages between worlds. She walks between the worlds, wearing nothing but a golden girdle that grants her powers and immortality. She has (like many other female characters appearing in the series) a crush on Thorgal, but she respects his loyalty to his family. Because of her love, she is eventually dismissed as a Guardian, cast out into the mortal world, and adopts the name Cleo (Louve #6: "La Reine des Alfes noirs").
Tjall (called by some people Tjall-The-Fiery): the young, hot-headed nephew of Treefoot and friend of Thorgal. An excellent archer with a good heart and a silly mind, who has a crush on Kriss. He later dies while accompanying Thorgal to the City of the Lost God (La Cité du Dieu Perdu), saving him from a raging mob.
Argun Treefoot: He's uncle of Tjall. He's a warrior past his prime and with a pegleg, but still an exceptional archer and bowmaker. One of Thorgal's few friends.
Solveig: she is a Viking who is the best friend of Aaricia. Devoted friend she will help the family Aegirsson.
Shaniah: a teenage girl from a village enamored in the adult and married Thorgal. Out of jealousy she causes a great tragedy in Thorgal's life, but later redeems herself by giving her own life to save Aaricia.
Gandalf the Mad: Aaricia's father and king of the Vikings of the North. He became the leader of his tribe after Thorgal's adoptive father's death. Greedy, cruel and mad, he makes repeated attempts at Thorgal's life, whom he perceives a threat to the legitimacy of his own rule.
Tiago and Ileniya: brother and sister descendants of a group of space-farers who had landed on Midgard and formed the fabled kingdom of Atlantis. They foiled their elders' plan to enslave the world and travelled together with Thorgal and his family. Soon afterwards, however, they were all taken as slaves to a Byzantinian governor and his sadistic son Heraclius, who made Ilyena his personal 'pet". When Tiago tried to stop Heraclius from abusing his sister, the nobleman murdered him; in revenge, Ileniya killed Heraclius later on and, facing imminent death, joined her brother by throwing herself off a cliff.
Snake Nidhogg: a powerful, mythological monster creature, which Thorgal dared to go against in his youth with the help of the goddess Frigg. Based on Níðhöggr from Norse mythology.
Volsung of Nichor: A cunning, treacherous schemer. He first appears as Thorgal's competitor in Three Elders of Aran, but apparently dies in the tests they have to face. Actually, Nidhogg saves him to be her servant; his mission is to gain the Girdle of Immortality from the Guardian of the Keys. For betraying her, she transforms Volsung into a toad and keeps him with her trapped in the neverness.
Muff: A dog that belongs to Jolan & Louve. He appears for the last time in "The Blue Sickness", when he stayed on the island of Our Ground, together with Darek de Svear and his sister Lehla, because he was too old to travel any further.
Alinoë: Appeared in the volume of the same name as a violent, primitive boy with green hair, later revealed to be part of Jolan's imagination. He vanished when Jolan's mysterious bracelet was removed by Thorgal.
Manthor: a Viking Half-God who cures Thorgal in "Sacrifice". He is the son of Kahaniel of Valnor and the half-brother of Kriss of Valnor.
Vigrid: One of the lesser Gods of Asgard who is indebted towards Aaricia for having helped him after having gone blind. He repays this debt by helping her husband reach Manthor and bringing her back to her ancestral home. However, his love for Aaricia eventually made him abandon a task set by the gods, compelling Frigg to banish him from Asgard to Svartalfheim (Louve #5: "Skald"). However, he finally earns his eventual pardon by taking the recalcitrant Niddhog's destined place as the guardian of Yggdrasil (Louve #7: "Niddhog").
The Kingdom of Zhar (first featured in Le Mal Bleu)
Zarkaj and Zajkar: The twin princes of Zhar. To avoid dynastic disputes, Zajkar was chosen to be killed right after birth, but survived and was taken in by the Myrms. After growing to manhood, and with Thorgal's help, he reclaims his rightful place and reconciles with his brother, with whom he rules the realm as a diarchy.
Armenos: A reclusive mage and inventor. He first saves Thorgal and his family from the Blue Death disease, and later Aniel from his dual possession (Aniel).
Zim: A member of the Myrms, Zharians afflicted with dwarfism and made outcast swamp-dwellers. Zim falls in love with Thorgal upon his first visit, but respects his faithfulness to his family. When Thorgal returns to Zhar after completing his search for Aniel, Zim loses her life in the last decisive battle against a horde of Amazons.
Gilli and Ava: The children of Grimur from the village of Mikladalur, a henchman of the sysselmann of Kalsoy. While Gilli is a normal human boy, Ava is half selkie, the result of Grimur having captured himself one of the seal-folk as his wife. When Grimur kidnapped Louve to rear her as a new wife, Thorgar and Jolan went to her rescue, which set off a chain of events which lifted a curse bestowed on the islanders by the selkies; Grimur is killed in an uprising against the tyrannical sysselmann, while Ava's mother recovers her pelt and returns into the sea. With their parents gone, the two children are taken in as part of Thorgal's family (La selkie).
Fictional character biography
After of being lost at sea, the ship of Viking leader Leif Haraldson suddenly finds its way home, guided by a mysterious light in the fog. To the superstitious Vikings, the light is seen as a sign from the gods. Once on shore, they find a sort of capsule, which appears to be the source of the mysterious light. Leif opens the capsule and finds a newborn baby boy. He names the child Thor-gal Aegirs-son, after Thor, the Norse God of Thunder, and Aegir, the ruler of the sea, because he considers Thorgal to be a gift from the Gods. Leif takes Thorgal under his care as his adoptive son.
As Thorgal grows up, he is curious about his origins and often ostracized by his peers for not being a "real" Viking. On his sixth birthday, Leif gives him two strange artifacts taken from the capsule he was found in. One is a jewel made from "the metal that doesn't exist". The jewel brings Thorgal on his first adventure, and binds his fate forever with that of Aaricia (his future wife). When Thorgal is twelve, the other gift prompts him to visit an old wiseman, who reveals to Thorgal his origins and true identity. He tells him that he's one of the last survivors of a group of technologically advanced space-farers who came to the planet in search of new energy sources. His people have great supernatural powers like changing the molecular composition of matter with their mind; powers that Thorgal himself seems not to have. Thorgal learns about his real parents and grandfather, and the events that preceded his birth. The old man decides to erase Thorgal's memory of their encounter and the knowledge he just learned, believing that it will be better for Thorgal to grow up as a "normal" Viking boy with no supernatural powers. Thorgal, however, continues to grow up as curious and conflicted about his true identity as ever.
Soon after this event Leif Haraldson dies and Gandalf the Mad is chosen as his successor. Gandalf repeatedly tries to get rid of Thorgal, because -– as he constantly reminds everyone – Thorgal is an outsider and not of Viking blood. In reality, Gandalf feels threatened because Thorgal is Leif's heir. In the meantime, Thorgal's relationship with Aaricia, Gandalf's daughter, develops and strengthens. While her wishes do not have much influence on her father, she is able to save Thorgal from certain death (by her father's hand) through her determination and ingenuity.
The first album of the series starts some years later, when Thorgal is already an adult, and Gandalf devises a plan to kill him after realizing how deep the love his daughter has for Thorgal really is.
Collected French language editions
The albums consist of several story arcs and many stand-alone stories.
Mainline series
Jean Van Hamme (story) and Grzegorz Rosiński (art)
1. La Magicienne Trahie (1980)
2. L'Ile des Mers gelées (1980)
3. Les Trois Vieillards du pays d'Aran (1981)
4. La Galère Noire (1982) (start of the Brek Zarith story arc)
5. Au-delà des Ombres (1983)
6. La chute de Brek Zarith (1984) (end of the Brek Zarith story arc)
7. L'enfant des étoiles (1984) (3 short stories from Thorgal's youth)
8. Alinoë (1985)
9. Les Archers (1986)
10. Le Pays Qâ (1986) (start of the Qâ story arc)
11. Les Yeux de Tanatloc (1986)
12. La Cité du Dieu Perdu (1987)
13. Entre Terre et Lumière (1988) (end of the Qâ story arc)
14. Aaricia (1989) (4 short stories from Aaricia's youth)
15. Le Maître des Montagnes (1989)
16. Louve (1990)
17. La Gardienne des Clés (1991)
18. L'épée-soleil (1992)
19. La Forteresse Invisible (1993) (start of the Shaigan story arc)
20. La Marque des Bannis (1994)
21. La Couronne d'Ogotaï (1995)
22. Géants (1996)
23. La Cage (1997) (end of the Shaigan story arc)
24. Arachnéa (1999)
25. Le Mal Bleu - (1999)
26. Le Royaume sous le Sable (2001)
27. Le Barbare (2002)
28. Kriss de Valnor (2004)
29. Le Sacrifice (2006)
Notes
The 29th volume, The Sacrifice, was the final volume scripted by Jean Van Hamme. Here, Thorgal escapes the curse of Odin. He finds peace in the only home he knows: the Viking village of his adopted father, but then must make a choice.
Danish translation of the series appeared in a different order, beginning with the chronicles of Thorgal's youth.
The first album in the series La Magicienne Trahie is number 22 in the Danish series.
In Denmark numbers 22-23 (#1-2) were first published by the publisher Interpresse under the name "Cormak", probably to capitalize upon the popular series Conan. The name was soon changed back to "Thorgal" when Carlsen Comics took over the series.
Yves Sente (story) and Grzegorz Rosiński (art)
30. Moi, Jolan (2007)
31. Le bouclier de Thor (2008)
32. La bataille d'Asgard (2010)
33. Le bateau-sabre (2011)
34. Kah-Aniel (2013)
Notes
Following the 29th volume, the series was written by Yves Sente. These albums initially focussed on Jolan rather than Thorgal.
Xavier Dorison (story) and Grzegorz Rosiński (art)
35. Le Feu écarlate (2016)
Yann (story) and Grzegorz Rosinski (art)
36. Aniel (2018)
Yann (story) and Fred Vignaux (art)
37. L'Ermite de Skellingar (2019)
38. La Selkie (2020)
39. Neokóra (2021)
40. Tupilaks (2022)
Les Mondes de Thorgal - Kriss de Valnor ("The Worlds of Thorgal – Kriss of Valnor")
Yves Sente (story) and Giulio De Vita (art)
1. Je n'oublie rien! (I Forget Nothing!, 2010)
2. La sentence des Walkyries (The Valkyries' Judgement, 2012)
3. Digne d'une reine (Worthy of a Queen, 2012)
4. Alliances (Alliances, 2013)
5. Rouge comme le Raheborg (Red as the Raheborg, 2014)
Xavier Dorison and Mathieu Mariolle (story) and Roman Surzhenko (art)
6. L'Île des enfants perdus (The Island of Lost Children, 2015)
Xavier Dorison and Mathieu Mariolle (story) and Fred Vignaux (art)
7. La Montagne du temps (The Mountain of Time, 2017)
8. Le Maître de justice (The Master of Justice, 2018)
Spin-off Les Mondes de Thorgal - Louve (Thorgal - Wolf)
Yann Le Pennetier (story) and Roman Surzhenko (art)
1. Raïssa (Raissa, 2011)
2. La Main coupée du dieu Tyr (The Severed Hand of the God Tyr, 2012)
3. Le Royaume du chaos (The Realm of Chaos, 2013)
4. Crow (Crow, 2014)
5. Skald (Skald, 2015)
6. La Reine des Alfes noirs (The Queen of the Dark Elves, 2016)
7. Nidhogg (Nidhogg, 2017)
Spin-off Les Mondes de Thorgal - La Jeunesse de Thorgal (Thorgal - The Youth of Thorgal)
Yann Le Pennetier (story) and Roman Surzhenko (art)
1. Les Trois Sœurs Minkelsönn (The Three Minkelsönn Sisters, 2013)
2. L'Œil d'Odin (Odin's Eye, 2014)
3. Runa (Runa, 2015)
4. Berserkers (Berserkers, 2016)
5. Slive (Slivia, 2017)
6. Le Drakkar des glaces (The Frozen Drakkar, 2018)
7. La dent bleue (2019)
8. Les deux bâtards (2020)
9. Les larmes de Hel (2021)
10. Sydönia (2022)
Supplementary print publications
Multimedia releases by publisher Seven Sept; concerns background information books elaborating on historical settings and characters of the Thorgal series, enhanced with artwork by Rosinski, interviews, and an included DVD showing the artist at work on the covers of the releases
Entre les faux dieux ("Amidst false gods", , 2005) - dealing with The Land of Qa story-cycle
Dans les griffes de Kriss ("In the talons of Kriss", , 2006) - dealing with the Kriss of Valnor story-cycle
Aux Origines des mondes ("Thorgal: Origins of worlds", , 2012) - a collection of interviews about the creation of spin-off Thorgal series, interviews by with Grzegorz Rosiński, Giuliano de Vita, Yves Sente, Roman Surzhenko and Yann Le Pennetier.
Rosinski artbook - Thorgal 40 ans ("Rosinski artbook - 40 years of Thorgal", , 2017) - a 224-page art book that also features other Rosinski's comics artwork besides Thorgal alone.
English releases
All English-language Thorgal album releases have to date adhered to the approximately standard European A4-format, a book format US and UK readerships have historically not been accustomed to, they instead being born and bred with the much smaller, standard US comic book format. The closest format resembling the European one US and UK readership are traditionally familiar with is that of the US graphic novel format, though it too is somewhat smaller.
Donning Company Publishers (US) had the earliest three English-language titles published in the 1980s
Thorgal, Child of the Stars hardcover was published in 1986 with
The Archers hardcover was published in 1987 with (a softcover version was a year later published under the company's "Schiffer Pub" imprint with
The Sorceress Betrayed a 96 page softcover omnibus collecting the series' first two volumes La Magicienne Trahie and L'Ile des Mers gelées, was published in 1988 with under the company's "Ink Publishing Company" imprint
Cinebook Ltd (UK) released the English-language (main) series up until volume 24 in the softcover print format starting with Child of the Stars and Aaricia in 2007. Europe Comics, partnered with Cinebook along with other publishers, took over the English language publications following their formation in 2015 and released the main series (including rereleases of older titles) plus the spin-off series in digital format only. They started in 2019 with the digital release of the main series, starting with volume 21 which was as the only one released under the same ISBN for both formats. With volume 22 digital releases had from 2020 onward overtaken Cinebook's print releases, which from then on was lagging far behind with their print releases, aside from the circumstance that Cinebook did none of the spin-off series.
Mainline series
note: Where two ISBNs are mentioned, the first one concerns the digital release whereas the second one concerns the print release by Cinebook.
0. The Betrayed Sorceress () - Collects La Magicienne Trahie and L'Ile des Mers gelées [1 and 2])
Child of the Stars () - (collects Child of the Stars and Aaricia [7 and 14])
The Three Elders of Aran () - (collects The Three Elders of Aran and The Black Galley [3 and 4])
Beyond the Shadows () - (collects Beyond the Shadows and The Fall of Brek Zarith [5 and 6])
The Archers () - (collects Alinoë and Les Archers [8 and 9])
The Land of Qa () - (collects Le Pays Qâ and Les Yeux de Tanatloc [10 and 11])
City of the Lost God () - (collects La Cité du Dieu Perdu and Entre Terre et Lumière [12 and 13])
The Master of the Mountains () - (contains Le Maître des Montagnes [15])
Wolf Cub () - (contains Louve [16])
The Guardian of the Keys () - (contains La Gardienne des Clés [17])
The Sun Sword () - (contains L'épée-soleil [18])
The Invisible Fortress () - (contains La Forteresse Invisible [19])
The Brand of the Exiles () - (contains La Marque des Bannis [20])
Ogotai's Crown () - (contains La Couronne d'Ogotaï [21])
Giants () - (Contains Géants [22])
The Cage () - (Contains La Cage [23])
Arachnea () - (Contains Arachnéa [24])
The Blue Plague () - (Contains The Blue Plague [25])
The Kingdom Beneath the Sand () - (Contains The Kingdom Beneath the Sand [26])
The Barbarian () - (Contains The Barbarian [27])
Kriss of Valnor () - (Contains Kriss de Valnor [28])
The Sacrifice () - (Contains Le Sacrifice [29])
I, Jolan () - (Contains Moi, Jolan [30])
Thor's Shield () - (Contains Le Bouclier de Thor [31])
The Battle of Asgard ( - (Contains La Bataille D'Asgard [32])
The Blade Ship - (Contains Le Bateau Sabre [33])
Kah-Aniel - (Contains Kah-Aniel [34])
The Scarlet Fire - (Contains Le Feu écarlate [35])
Aniel - (Contains Aniel [36])
The Hermit of Skellingar - (Contains L'Ermite de Skellingar [37])
The Selkie - (Contains La Selkie [38])
Neokora - (Contains Neokóra [39])
Tupilaqs - (Contains Tupilaks [40])
Kriss of Valnor
I Forget Nothing! - (Contains Je n'oublie rien!)
The Valkyries' Judgement - (Contains La sentence des Walkyries)
Worthy of a Queen - (Contains Digne d'une reine)
Alliances - (Contains Alliances)
Red as a Raheborg - (Contains Rouge comme le Raheborg)
The Island of Lost Children - (Contains L'Île des enfants perdus)
The Mountain of Time - (Contains La Montagne du temps)
The Master of Justice - (Contains Le Maître de justice)
Wolfcub
Raissa - (Contains Raïssa)
The Severed Hand of the God - (Contains Tyr La Main coupée du dieu Tyr)
The Realm of Chaos - (Contains Le Royaume du chaos)
Crow - (Contains Crow)
Skald - (Contains Skald)
The Queen of the Dark Elves - (Contains La Reine des Alfes noirs)
Nidhogg - (Contains Nidhogg)
The Early Years
The Three Minkelson Sisters - (Contains Les Trois Sœurs Minkelsönn)
Odin's Eye - (Contains L'Œil d'Odin)
Runa - (Contains Runa)
Berserkers - (Contains Berserkers)
Slivia - (Contains Slive)
The Frozen Drakkar - (Contains Le Drakkar des glaces)
Other media
In 2002 Le Lombard published a video game for Microsoft Windows, entitled Thorgal: Curse of Atlantis and developed by Cryo Interactive Entertainment.
In 2016 there is announced that the comic is going to be a series directed by Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck. In 2018 von Donnersmarck said that the project is "at the top of his list".
An elaborate and multi-national (physical) board-game was in 2023 under development by Portal Games. A crowd funding drive was organized to finance the development of the game. The popularity of Thorgal was once again amply demonstrated when the crowd funding netted the company nearly nine times the funding goal, which was reached within one-and-a-half hour after the start of the drive.
References
External links
English publisher of Thorgal - Cinebook Ltd
List of comics, cover gallery
Comics about extraterrestrial life
Comics adapted into video games
Comics by Jean Van Hamme
Drama comics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleocene%E2%80%93Eocene%20Thermal%20Maximum
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Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum
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The Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum (PETM), alternatively (ETM1), and formerly known as the "Initial Eocene" or "", was a time period with a more than 5–8 °C global average temperature rise across the event. This climate event occurred at the time boundary of the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs. The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago (Ma).
The associated period of massive carbon release into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted from 20,000 to 50,000 years. The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years. Global temperatures increased by 5–8 °C.
The onset of the Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum has been linked to volcanism and uplift associated with the North Atlantic Igneous Province, causing extreme changes in Earth's carbon cycle and a significant temperature rise. The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope () records from around the globe; more specifically, there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon. Paired , , and data suggest that of carbon (at least e) were released over 50,000 years, averaging per year.
Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes. Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers. For example, in the marine realm, a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera, a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates, and an appearance of excursion, planktic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM. On land, modern mammal orders (including primates) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America.
Setting
The configuration of oceans and continents was somewhat different during the early Paleogene relative to the present day. The Panama Isthmus did not yet connect North America and South America, and this allowed direct low-latitude circulation between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. The Drake Passage, which now separates South America and Antarctica, was closed, and this perhaps prevented thermal isolation of Antarctica. The Arctic was also more restricted. Although various proxies for past atmospheric levels in the Eocene do not agree in absolute terms, all suggest that levels then were much higher than at present. In any case, there were no significant ice sheets during this time.
Earth surface temperatures increased by about 6 °C from the late Paleocene through the early Eocene. Superimposed on this long-term, gradual warming were at least two (and probably more) "hyperthermals". These can be defined as geologically brief (<200,000 year) events characterized by rapid global warming, major changes in the environment, and massive carbon addition. Though not the first within the Cenozoic, the PETM was the most extreme of these hyperthermals. Another hyperthermal clearly occurred at approximately 53.7 Ma, and is now called ETM-2 (also referred to as H-1, or the Elmo event). However, additional hyperthermals probably occurred at about 53.6 Ma (H-2), 53.3 (I-1), 53.2 (I-2) and 52.8 Ma (informally called K, X or ETM-3). The number, nomenclature, absolute ages, and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of considerable current research. Whether they only occurred during the long-term warming, and whether they are causally related to apparently similar events in older intervals of the geological record (e.g. the Toarcian turnover of the Jurassic) are open issues.
Global warming
A study in 2020 estimated the Global mean surface temperature (GMST) with 66% confidence during the latest Paleocene (c. 57 Ma) as , PETM (56 Ma) as and Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO) (53.3 to 49.1 Ma) as . Estimates of the amount of average global temperature rise at the start of the PETM range from approximately 3 to 6 °C to between 5 and 8 °C. This warming was superimposed on "long-term" early Paleogene warming, and is based on several lines of evidence. There is a prominent (>1‰) negative excursion in the of foraminifera shells, both those made in surface and deep ocean water. Because there was little or no polar ice in the early Paleogene, the shift in very probably signifies a rise in ocean temperature. The temperature rise is also supported by the spread of warmth-loving taxa to higher latitudes, changes in plant leaf shape and size, the Mg/Ca ratios of foraminifera, and the ratios of certain organic compounds, such as TEXH86.
Proxy data from Esplugafereda in northeastern Spain shows a rapid +8 °C temperature rise, in accordance with existing regional records of marine and terrestrial environments.
TEXH86 values indicate that the average sea surface temperature (SST) reached over in the tropics during the PETM, enough to cause heat stress even in organisms resistant to extreme thermal stress, such as dinoflagellates, of which a significant number of species went extinct. Oxygen isotope ratios from Tanzania suggest that tropical SSTs may have been even higher, exceeding 40 °C. Low latitude Indian Ocean Mg/Ca records show seawater at all depths warmed by ~4-5 °C. In the Pacific Ocean, tropical SSTs increased by about 4-5 °C. TEXL86 values from deposits in New Zealand, then located between 50°S and 60°S in the southwestern Pacific, indicate SSTs of to , an increase of over from an average of to at the boundary between the Selandian and Thanetian. The extreme warmth of the southwestern Pacific extended into the Australo-Antarctic Gulf. Sediment core samples from the East Tasman Plateau, then located at a palaeolatitude of ~65 °S, show an increase in SSTs from ~26 °C to ~33 °C during the PETM. In the North Sea, SSTs jumped by 10 °C, reaching highs of ~33 °C.
Certainly, the central Arctic Ocean was ice-free before, during, and after the PETM. This can be ascertained from the composition of sediment cores recovered during the Arctic Coring Expedition (ACEX) at 87°N on Lomonosov Ridge. Moreover, temperatures increased during the PETM, as indicated by the brief presence of subtropical dinoflagellates, and a marked increase in TEX86. The latter record is intriguing, though, because it suggests a 6 °C (11 °F) rise from ~ before the PETM to ~ during the PETM. Assuming the TEX86 record reflects summer temperatures, it still implies much warmer temperatures on the North Pole compared to the present day, but no significant latitudinal amplification relative to surrounding time.
The above considerations are important because, in many global warming simulations, high latitude temperatures increase much more at the poles through an ice–albedo feedback. It may be the case, however, that during the PETM, this feedback was largely absent because of limited polar ice, so temperatures on the Equator and at the poles increased similarly. Notable is the absence of documented greater warming in polar regions compared to other regions. This implies a non-existing ice-albedo feedback, suggesting no sea or land ice was present in the late Paleocene.
Precise limits on the global temperature rise during the PETM and whether this varied significantly with latitude remain open issues. Oxygen isotope and Mg/Ca of carbonate shells precipitated in surface waters of the ocean are commonly used measurements for reconstructing past temperature; however, both paleotemperature proxies can be compromised at low latitude locations, because re-crystallization of carbonate on the seafloor renders lower values than when formed. On the other hand, these and other temperature proxies (e.g., TEX86) are impacted at high latitudes because of seasonality; that is, the "temperature recorder" is biased toward summer, and therefore higher values, when the production of carbonate and organic carbon occurred.
Carbon cycle disturbance
Clear evidence for massive addition of 13C-depleted carbon at the onset of the PETM comes from two observations. First, a prominent negative excursion in the carbon isotope composition () of carbon-bearing phases characterizes the PETM in numerous (>130) widespread locations from a range of environments. Second, carbonate dissolution marks the PETM in sections from the deep sea.
The total mass of carbon injected to the ocean and atmosphere during the PETM remains the source of debate. In theory, it can be estimated from the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion (CIE), the amount of carbonate dissolution on the seafloor, or ideally both. However, the shift in the across the PETM depends on the location and the carbon-bearing phase analyzed. In some records of bulk carbonate, it is about 2‰ (per mil); in some records of terrestrial carbonate or organic matter it exceeds 6‰.
Carbonate dissolution also varies throughout different ocean basins. It was extreme in parts of the north and central Atlantic Ocean, but far less pronounced in the Pacific Ocean.
With available information, estimates of the carbon addition range from about 2,000 to 7,000 gigatons.
Timing of carbon addition and warming
The timing of the PETM excursion is of considerable interest. This is because the total duration of the CIE, from the rapid drop in through the near recovery to initial conditions, relates to key parameters of our global carbon cycle, and because the onset provides insight to the source of 13C-depleted .
The total duration of the CIE can be estimated in several ways. The iconic sediment interval for examining and dating the PETM is a core recovered in 1987 by the Ocean Drilling Program at Hole 690B at Maud Rise in the South Atlantic Ocean. At this location, the PETM CIE, from start to end, spans about 2 m. Long-term age constraints, through biostratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy, suggest an average Paleogene sedimentation rate of about 1.23 cm/1,000yrs. Assuming a constant sedimentation rate, the entire event, from onset though termination, was therefore estimated at 200,000 years. Subsequently, it was noted that the CIE spanned 10 or 11 subtle cycles in various sediment properties, such as Fe content. Assuming these cycles represent precession, a similar but slightly longer age was calculated by Rohl et al. 2000. If a massive amount of 13C-depleted is rapidly injected into the modern ocean or atmosphere and projected into the future, a ~200,000 year CIE results because of slow flushing through quasi steady-state inputs (weathering and volcanism) and outputs (carbonate and organic) of carbon. A different study, based on a revised orbital chronology and data from sediment cores in the South Atlantic and the Southern Ocean, calculated a slightly shorter duration of about 170,000 years.
A ~200,000 year duration for the CIE is estimated from models of global carbon cycling.
Age constraints at several deep-sea sites have been independently examined using 3He contents, assuming the flux of this cosmogenic nuclide is roughly constant over short time periods. This approach also suggests a rapid onset for the PETM CIE (<20,000 years). However, the 3He records support a faster recovery to near initial conditions (<100,000 years) than predicted by flushing via weathering inputs and carbonate and organic outputs.
There is other evidence to suggest that warming predated the excursion by some 3,000 years.
Some authors have suggested that the magnitude of the CIE may be underestimated due to local processes in many sites causing a large proportion of allochthonous sediments to accumulate in their sedimentary rocks, contaminating and offsetting isotopic values derived from them. Organic matter degradation by microbes has also been implicated as a source of skewing of carbon isotopic ratios in bulk organic matter.
Effects
Precipitation
The climate would also have become much wetter, with the increase in evaporation rates peaking in the tropics. Deuterium isotopes reveal that much more of this moisture was transported polewards than normal. Warm weather would have predominated as far north as the Polar basin. Finds of fossils of Azolla floating ferns in polar regions indicate subtropic temperatures at the poles. Central China during the PETM hosted dense subtropical forests as a result of the significant increase in rates of precipitation in the region, with average temperatures between 21 °C and 24 °C and mean annual precipitation ranging from 1,396 to 1,997 mm. Very high precipitation is also evidenced in the Cambay Shale Formation of India by the deposition of thick lignitic seams as a consequence of increased soil erosion and organic matter burial. Precipitation rates in the North Sea likewise soared during the PETM. In Cap d'Ailly, in present-day Normandy, a transient dry spell occurred just before the negative CIE, after which much moister conditions predominated, with the local environment transitioning from a closed marsh to an open, eutrophic swamp with frequent algal blooms. Precipitation patterns became highly unstable along the New Jersey Shelf. In the Rocky Mountain Interior, precipitation locally declined, however, as the interior of North America became more seasonally arid. East African sites display evidence of aridity punctuated by seasonal episodes of potent precipitation, revealing the global climate during the PETM not to be universally humid. Evidence from Forada in northeastern Italy suggests that arid and humid climatic intervals alternated over the course of the PETM concomitantly with precessional cycles in mid-latitudes, and that overall, net precipitation over the central-western Tethys decreased.
Ocean
The amount of freshwater in the Arctic Ocean increased, in part due to Northern Hemisphere rainfall patterns, fueled by poleward storm track migrations under global warming conditions. The flux of freshwater entering the oceans increased drastically during the PETM, and continued for a time after the PETM's termination.
Anoxia
The PETM generated the only oceanic anoxic event (OAE) of the Cenozoic. In parts of the oceans, especially the North Atlantic Ocean, bioturbation was absent. This may be due to bottom-water anoxia or due to changing ocean circulation patterns changing the temperatures of the bottom water. However, many ocean basins remained bioturbated through the PETM. Iodine to calcium ratios suggest oxygen minimum zones in the oceans expanded vertically and possibly also laterally. Water column anoxia and euxinia was most prevalent in restricted oceanic basins, such as the Arctic and Tethys Oceans. Euxinia struck the epicontinental North Sea Basin as well, as shown by increases in sedimentary uranium, molybdenum, sulphur, and pyrite concentrations, along with the presence of sulphur-bound isorenieratane. The Gulf Coastal Plain was also affected by euxinia.
It is possible that during the PETM's early stages, anoxia helped to slow down warming through carbon drawdown via organic matter burial. A pronounced negative lithium isotope excursion in both marine carbonates and local weathering inputs suggests that weathering and erosion rates increased during the PETM, generating an increase in organic carbon burial, which acted as a negative feedback on the PETM's severe global warming.
Sea level
Along with the global lack of ice, the sea level would have risen due to thermal expansion. Evidence for this can be found in the shifting palynomorph assemblages of the Arctic Ocean, which reflect a relative decrease in terrestrial organic material compared to marine organic matter.
Currents
At the start of the PETM, the ocean circulation patterns changed radically in the course of under 5,000 years. Global-scale current directions reversed due to a shift in overturning from the Southern Hemisphere to Northern Hemisphere. This "backwards" flow persisted for 40,000 years. Such a change would transport warm water to the deep oceans, enhancing further warming. The major biotic turnover among benthic foraminifera has been cited as evidence of a significant change in deep water circulation.
Acidification
Ocean acidification occurred during the PETM, causing the calcite compensation depth to shoal. The lysocline marks the depth at which carbonate starts to dissolve (above the lysocline, carbonate is oversaturated): today, this is at about 4 km, comparable to the median depth of the oceans. This depth depends on (among other things) temperature and the amount of dissolved in the ocean. Adding initially raises the lysocline, resulting in the dissolution of deep water carbonates. This deep-water acidification can be observed in ocean cores, which show (where bioturbation has not destroyed the signal) an abrupt change from grey carbonate ooze to red clays (followed by a gradual grading back to grey). It is far more pronounced in North Atlantic cores than elsewhere, suggesting that acidification was more concentrated here, related to a greater rise in the level of the lysocline. Corrosive waters may have then spilled over into other regions of the world ocean from the North Atlantic. Model simulations show acidic water accumulation in the deep North Atlantic at the onset of the event. Acidification of deep waters, and the later spreading from the North Atlantic can explain spatial variations in carbonate dissolution. In parts of the southeast Atlantic, the lysocline rose by 2 km in just a few thousand years. Evidence from the tropical Pacific Ocean suggests a minimum lysocline shoaling of around 500 m at the time of this hyperthermal. Acidification may have increased the efficiency of transport of photic zone water into the ocean depths, thus partially acting as a negative feedback that retarded the rate of atmospheric carbon dioxide buildup. Also, diminished biocalcification inhibited the removal of alkalinity from the deep ocean, causing an overshoot of calcium carbonate deposition once net calcium carbonate production resumed, helping restore the ocean to its state before the PETM. As a consequence of coccolithophorid blooms enabled by enhanced runoff, carbonate was removed from seawater as the Earth recovered from the negative carbon isotope excursion, thus acting to ameliorate ocean acidification.
Life
Stoichiometric magnetite () particles were obtained from PETM-age marine sediments. The study from 2008 found elongate prism and spearhead crystal morphologies, considered unlike any magnetite crystals previously reported, and are potentially of biogenic origin. These biogenic magnetite crystals show unique gigantism, and probably are of aquatic origin. The study suggests that development of thick suboxic zones with high iron bioavailability, the result of dramatic changes in weathering and sedimentation rates, drove diversification of magnetite-forming organisms, likely including eukaryotes. Biogenic magnetites in animals have a crucial role in geomagnetic field navigation.
Ocean
The PETM is accompanied by significant changes in the diversity of calcareous nannofossils and benthic and planktonic foraminifera. A mass extinction of 35–50% of benthic foraminifera (especially in deeper waters) occurred over the course of ~1,000 years, with the group suffering more during the PETM than during the dinosaur-slaying K-T extinction. At the onset of the PETM, benthic foraminiferal diversity dropped by 30% in the Pacific Ocean, while at Zumaia in what is now Spain, 55% of benthic foraminifera went extinct over the course of the PETM, though this decline was not ubiquitous to all sites; Himalayan platform carbonates show no major change in assemblages of large benthic foraminifera at the onset of the PETM; their decline came about towards the end of the event. A decrease in diversity and migration away from the oppressively hot tropics indicates planktonic foraminifera were adversely affected as well. The Lilliput effect is observed in shallow water foraminifera, possibly as a response to decreased surficial water density or diminished nutrient availability. The nannoplankton genus Fasciculithus went extinct as a result of increased surface water oligotrophy; the genera Sphenolithus, Zygrhablithus, Octolithus suffered badly too. Contrarily, the dinoflagellate Apectodinium bloomed. The fitness of Apectodinium homomorphum stayed constant over the PETM while that of others declined.
The deep-sea extinctions are difficult to explain, because many species of benthic foraminifera in the deep-sea are cosmopolitan, and can find refugia against local extinction. General hypotheses such as a temperature-related reduction in oxygen availability, or increased corrosion due to carbonate undersaturated deep waters, are insufficient as explanations. Acidification may also have played a role in the extinction of the calcifying foraminifera, and the higher temperatures would have increased metabolic rates, thus demanding a higher food supply. Such a higher food supply might not have materialized because warming and increased ocean stratification might have led to declining productivity and/or increased remineralization of organic matter in the water column, before it reached the benthic foraminifera on the sea floor. The only factor global in extent was an increase in temperature. Regional extinctions in the North Atlantic can be attributed to increased deep-sea anoxia, which could be due to the slowdown of overturning ocean currents, or the release and rapid oxidation of large amounts of methane.
In shallower waters, it's undeniable that increased levels result in a decreased oceanic pH, which has a profound negative effect on corals. Experiments suggest it is also very harmful to calcifying plankton. However, the strong acids used to simulate the natural increase in acidity which would result from elevated concentrations may have given misleading results, and the most recent evidence is that coccolithophores (E. huxleyi at least) become more, not less, calcified and abundant in acidic waters. No change in the distribution of calcareous nanoplankton such as the coccolithophores can be attributed to acidification during the PETM. Extinction rates among calcareous nannoplakton increased, but so did origination rates. Acidification did lead to an abundance of heavily calcified algae and weakly calcified forams. The calcareous nannofossil species Neochiastozygus junctus thrived; its success is attributable to enhanced surficial productivity caused by enhanced nutrient runoff. Eutrophication at the onset of the PETM precipitated a decline among K-strategist large foraminifera, though they rebounded during the post-PETM oligotrophy coevally with the demise of low-latitude corals.
A study published in May 2021 concluded that fish thrived in at least some tropical areas during the PETM, based on discovered fish fossils including Mene maculata at Ras Gharib, Egypt.
Land
Humid conditions caused migration of modern Asian mammals northward, dependent on the climatic belts. Uncertainty remains for the timing and tempo of migration.
The increase in mammalian abundance is intriguing. Increased global temperatures may have promoted dwarfing – which may have encouraged speciation. Major dwarfing occurred early in the PETM, with further dwarfing taking place during the middle of the hyperthermal. The dwarfing of various mammal lineages led to further dwarfing in other mammals whose reduction in body size was not directly induced by the PETM. Many major mammalian clades – including hyaenodontids, artiodactyls, perissodactyls, and primates – appeared and spread around the globe 13,000 to 22,000 years after the initiation of the PETM.
The diversity of insect herbivory, as measured by the amount and diversity of damage to plants caused by insects, increased during the PETM in correlation with global warming. The ant genus Gesomyrmex radiated across Eurasia during the PETM. As with mammals, soil-dwelling invertebrates are observed to have dwarfed during the PETM.
A profound change in terrestrial vegetation across the globe is associated with the PETM. Across all regions, floras from the latest Palaeocene are highly distinct from those of the PETM and the Early Eocene.
Geologic effects
Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval. During the PETM, sediments are enriched with kaolinite from a detrital source due to denudation (initial processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and plate tectonics). Increased precipitation and enhanced erosion of older kaolinite-rich soils and sediments may have been responsible for this. Increased weathering from the enhanced runoff formed thick paleosoil enriched with carbonate nodules (Microcodium like), and this suggests a semi-arid climate. Unlike during lesser, more gradual hyperthermals, glauconite authigenesis was inhibited.
The sedimentological effects of the PETM lagged behind the carbon isotope shifts. In the Tremp-Graus Basin of northern Spain, fluvial systems grew and rates of deposition of alluvial sediments increased with a lag time of around 3,800 years after the PETM.
At some marine locations (mostly deep-marine), sedimentation rates must have decreased across the PETM, presumably because of carbonate dissolution on the seafloor; at other locations (mostly shallow-marine), sedimentation rates must have increased across the PETM, presumably because of enhanced delivery of riverine material during the event.
Possible causes
Discriminating between different possible causes of the PETM is difficult. Temperatures were rising globally at a steady pace, and a mechanism must be invoked to produce an instantaneous spike which may have been accentuated or catalyzed by positive feedback (or activation of "tipping or points"). The biggest aid in disentangling these factors comes from a consideration of the carbon isotope mass balance. We know the entire exogenic carbon cycle (i.e. the carbon contained within the oceans and atmosphere, which can change on short timescales) underwent a −0.2 % to −0.3 % perturbation in , and by considering the isotopic signatures of other carbon reserves, can consider what mass of the reserve would be necessary to produce this effect. The assumption underpinning this approach is that the mass of exogenic carbon was the same in the Paleogene as it is today – something which is very difficult to confirm.
Eruption of large kimberlite field
Although the cause of the initial warming has been attributed to a massive injection of carbon ( and/or CH4) into the atmosphere, the source of the carbon has yet to be found. The emplacement of a large cluster of kimberlite pipes at ~56 Ma in the Lac de Gras region of northern Canada may have provided the carbon that triggered early warming in the form of exsolved magmatic . Calculations indicate that the estimated 900–1,100 Pg of carbon required for the initial approximately 3 °C of ocean water warming associated with the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum could have been released during the emplacement of a large kimberlite cluster. The transfer of warm surface ocean water to intermediate depths led to thermal dissociation of seafloor methane hydrates, providing the isotopically depleted carbon that produced the carbon isotopic excursion. The coeval ages of two other kimberlite clusters in the Lac de Gras field and two other early Cenozoic hyperthermals indicate that degassing during kimberlite emplacement is a plausible source of the responsible for these sudden global warming events.
Volcanic activity
To balance the mass of carbon and produce the observed value, at least 1,500 gigatons of carbon would have to degas from the mantle via volcanoes over the course of the two, 1,000 year, steps. To put this in perspective, this is about 200 times the background rate of degassing for the rest of the Paleocene. There is no indication that such a burst of volcanic activity has occurred at any point in Earth's history. However, substantial volcanism had been active in East Greenland for around the preceding million years or so, but this struggles to explain the rapidity of the PETM. Even if the bulk of the 1,500 gigatons of carbon was released in a single pulse, further feedbacks would be necessary to produce the observed isotopic excursion.
On the other hand, there are suggestions that surges of activity occurred in the later stages of the volcanism and associated continental rifting. Intrusions of hot magma into carbon-rich sediments may have triggered the degassing of isotopically light methane in sufficient volumes to cause global warming and the observed isotope anomaly. This hypothesis is documented by the presence of extensive intrusive sill complexes and thousands of kilometer-sized hydrothermal vent complexes in sedimentary basins on the mid-Norwegian margin and west of Shetland. Volcanic eruptions of a large magnitude can impact global climate, reducing the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface, lowering temperatures in the troposphere, and changing atmospheric circulation patterns. Large-scale volcanic activity may last only a few days, but the massive outpouring of gases and ash can influence climate patterns for years. Sulfuric gases convert to sulfate aerosols, sub-micron droplets containing about 75 percent sulfuric acid. Following eruptions, these aerosol particles can linger as long as three to four years in the stratosphere. Further phases of volcanic activity could have triggered the release of more methane, and caused other early Eocene warm events such as the ETM2. It has also been suggested that volcanic activity around the Caribbean may have disrupted the circulation of oceanic currents, amplifying the magnitude of climate change.
Mercury isotope shifts show intense volcanism was concurrent with the beginning of the PETM. Osmium isotopic anomalies in Arctic Ocean sediments dating to the PETM have been interpreted as evidence of a volcanic cause of this hyperthermal.
A 2017 study noted strong evidence of a volcanic carbon source (greater than 10,000 gigatons of carbon), associated with the North Atlantic Igneous Province. A 2021 study found the PETM was directly preceded by volcanism.
Orbital forcing
The presence of later (smaller) warming events of a global scale, such as the Elmo horizon (aka ETM2), has led to the hypothesis that the events repeat on a regular basis, driven by maxima in the 400,000 and 100,000 year eccentricity cycles in the Earth's orbit. Cores from Howard's Tract, Maryland indicate the PETM occurred as a result of an extreme in axial precession during an orbital eccentricity maximum. The current warming period is expected to last another 50,000 years due to a minimum in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit. Orbital increase in insolation (and thus temperature) would force the system over a threshold and unleash positive feedbacks. The orbital forcing hypothesis has been challenged by a study finding the PETM to have coincided with a minimum in the ~400 kyr eccentricity cycle, inconsistent with a proposed orbital trigger for the hyperthermal.
Comet impact
One theory holds that a 12C-rich comet struck the earth and initiated the warming event. A cometary impact coincident with the P/E boundary can also help explain some enigmatic features associated with this event, such as the iridium anomaly at Zumaia, the abrupt appearance of a localized kaolinitic clay layer with abundant magnetic nanoparticles, and especially the nearly simultaneous onset of the carbon isotope excursion and the thermal maximum.
A key feature and testable prediction of a comet impact is that it should produce virtually instantaneous environmental effects in the atmosphere and surface ocean with later repercussions in the deeper ocean. Even allowing for feedback processes, this would require at least 100 gigatons of extraterrestrial carbon. Such a catastrophic impact should have left its mark on the globe. A clay layer of 5-20m thickness on the coastal shelf of New Jersey contained unusual amounts of magnetite, but it was found to have formed 9-18 kyr too late for these magnetic particles to have been a result of a comet's impact, and the particles had a crystal structure which was a signature of magnetotactic bacteria rather than an extraterrestrial origin. However, recent analyses have shown that isolated particles of non-biogenic origin make up the majority of the magnetic particles in the clay sample.
A 2016 report in Science describes the discovery of impact ejecta from three marine P-E boundary sections from the Atlantic margin of the eastern U.S., indicating that an extraterrestrial impact occurred during the carbon isotope excursion at the P-E boundary. The silicate glass spherules found were identified as microtektites and microkrystites.
Burning of peat
The combustion of prodigious quantities of peat was once postulated, because there was probably a greater mass of carbon stored as living terrestrial biomass during the Paleocene than there is today since plants in fact grew more vigorously during the period of the PETM. This theory was refuted, because in order to produce the excursion observed, over 90 percent of the Earth's biomass would have to have been combusted. However, the Paleocene is also recognized as a time of significant peat accumulation worldwide. A comprehensive search failed to find evidence for the combustion of fossil organic matter, in the form of soot or similar particulate carbon.
Enhanced respiration
Respiration rates of organic matter increase when temperatures rise. One feedback mechanism proposed to explain the rapid rise in carbon dioxide levels is a sudden, speedy rise in terrestrial respiration rates concordant with global temperature rise initiated by any of the other causes of warming.
Methane clathrate release
Methane hydrate dissolution has been invoked as a highly plausible causal mechanism for the carbon isotope excursion and warming observed at the PETM. The most obvious feedback mechanism that could amplify the initial perturbation is that of methane clathrates. Under certain temperature and pressure conditions, methane – which is being produced continually by decomposing microbes in sea bottom sediments – is stable in a complex with water, which forms ice-like cages trapping the methane in solid form. As temperature rises, the pressure required to keep this clathrate configuration stable increases, so shallow clathrates dissociate, releasing methane gas to make its way into the atmosphere. Since biogenic clathrates have a signature of −60 ‰ (inorganic clathrates are the still rather large −40 ‰), relatively small masses can produce large excursions. Further, methane is a potent greenhouse gas as it is released into the atmosphere, so it causes warming, and as the ocean transports this warmth to the bottom sediments, it destabilizes more clathrates.
In order for the clathrate hypothesis to be applicable to PETM, the oceans must show signs of having been warmer slightly before the carbon isotope excursion, because it would take some time for the methane to become mixed into the system and -reduced carbon to be returned to the deep ocean sedimentary record. Up until the 2000s, the evidence suggested that the two peaks were in fact simultaneous, weakening the support for the methane theory. In 2002, a short gap between the initial warming and the excursion was detected. In 2007, chemical markers of surface temperature (TEX86) had also indicated that warming occurred around 3,000 years before the carbon isotope excursion, although this did not seem to hold true for all cores. However, research in 2005 found no evidence of this time gap in the deeper (non-surface) waters. Moreover, the small apparent change in TEX86 that precede the anomaly can easily (and more plausibly) be ascribed to local variability (especially on the Atlantic coastal plain, e.g. Sluijs, et al., 2007) as the TEX86 paleo-thermometer is prone to significant biological effects. The of benthic or planktonic forams does not show any pre-warming in any of these localities, and in an ice-free world, it is generally a much more reliable indicator of past ocean temperatures. Analysis of these records reveals another interesting fact: planktonic (floating) forams record the shift to lighter isotope values earlier than benthic (bottom dwelling) forams. The lighter (lower ) methanogenic carbon can only be incorporated into foraminifer shells after it has been oxidised. A gradual release of the gas would allow it to be oxidised in the deep ocean, which would make benthic foraminifera show lighter values earlier. The fact that the planktonic foraminifera are the first to show the signal suggests that the methane was released so rapidly that its oxidation used up all the oxygen at depth in the water column, allowing some methane to reach the atmosphere unoxidised, where atmospheric oxygen would react with it. This observation also allows us to constrain the duration of methane release to under around 10,000 years.
However, there are several major problems with the methane hydrate dissociation hypothesis. The most parsimonious interpretation for surface-water forams to show the excursion before their benthic counterparts (as in the Thomas et al. paper) is that the perturbation occurred from the top down, and not the bottom up. If the anomalous (in whatever form: CH4 or ) entered the atmospheric carbon reservoir first, and then diffused into the surface ocean waters, which mix with the deeper ocean waters over much longer time-scales, we would expect to observe the planktonics shifting toward lighter values before the benthics. Moreover, careful examination of the Thomas et al. data set shows that there is not a single intermediate planktonic foram value, implying that the perturbation and attendant anomaly happened over the lifespan of a single foram – much too fast for the nominal 10,000-year release needed for the methane hypothesis to work.
An additional critique of the methane clathrate release hypothesis is that the warming effects of large-scale methane release would not be sustainable for more than a millennium. Thus, exponents of this line of criticism suggest that methane clathrate release could not have been the main driver of the PETM, which lasted for 50,000 to 200,000 years.
There has been some debate about whether there was a large enough amount of methane hydrate to be a major carbon source; a 2011 paper proposed that was the case. The present-day global methane hydrate reserve was once considered to be between 2,000 and 10,000 Gt C (billions of tons of carbon), but is now estimated between 1500 and 2000 Gt C. However, because the global ocean bottom temperatures were ~6 °C higher than today, which implies a much smaller volume of sediment hosting gas hydrate than today, the global amount of hydrate before the PETM has been thought to be much less than present-day estimates. In a 2006 study, scientists regarded the source of carbon for the PETM to be a mystery. A 2011 study, using numerical simulations suggests that enhanced organic carbon sedimentation and methanogenesis could have compensated for the smaller volume of hydrate stability. A 2016 study based on reconstructions of atmospheric content during the PETM's carbon isotope excursions (CIE), using triple oxygen isotope analysis, suggests a massive release of seabed methane into the atmosphere as the driver of climatic changes. The authors also state that a massive release of methane hydrates through thermal dissociation of methane hydrate deposits has been the most convincing hypothesis for explaining the CIE ever since it was first identified, according to them. In 2019, a study suggested that there was a global warming of around 2 degrees several millennia before PETM, and that this warming had eventually destabilized methane hydrates and caused the increased carbon emission during PETM, as evidenced by the large increase in barium ocean concentrations (since PETM-era hydrate deposits would have been also been rich in barium, and would have released it upon their meltdown). In 2022, a foraminiferal records study had reinforced this conclusion, suggesting that the release of CO2 before PETM was comparable to the current anthropogenic emissions in its rate and scope, to the point that that there was enough time for a recovery to background levels of warming and ocean acidification in the centuries to millennia between the so-called pre-onset excursion (POE) and the main event (carbon isotope excursion, or CIE). A 2021 paper had further indicated that while PETM began with a significant intensification of volcanic activity and that lower-intensity volcanic activity sustained elevated carbon dioxide levels, "at least one other carbon reservoir released significant greenhouse gases in response to initial warming".
It was estimated in 2001 that it would take around 2,300 years for an increased temperature to diffuse warmth into the sea bed to a depth sufficient to cause a release of clathrates, although the exact time-frame is highly dependent on a number of poorly constrained assumptions. Ocean warming due to flooding and pressure changes due to a sea-level drop may have caused clathrates to become unstable and release methane. This can take place over as short of a period as a few thousand years. The reverse process, that of fixing methane in clathrates, occurs over a larger scale of tens of thousands of years.
Ocean circulation
The large scale patterns of ocean circulation are important when considering how heat was transported through the oceans. Our understanding of these patterns is still in a preliminary stage. Models show that there are possible mechanisms to quickly transport heat to the shallow, clathrate-containing ocean shelves, given the right bathymetric profile, but the models cannot yet match the distribution of data we observe. "Warming accompanying a south-to-north switch in deepwater formation would produce sufficient warming to destabilize seafloor gas hydrates over most of the world ocean to a water depth of at least 1900 m." This destabilization could have resulted in the release of more than 2000 gigatons of methane gas from the clathrate zone of the ocean floor. The timing of changes in ocean circulation with respect to the shift in carbon isotope ratios has been argued to support the proposition that warmer deep water caused methane hydrate release. However, a different study found no evidence of a change in deep water formation, instead suggesting that deepened subtropical subduction rather than subtropical deep water formation occurred during the PETM.
Arctic freshwater input into the North Pacific could serve as a catalyst for methane hydrate destabilization, an event suggested as a precursor to the onset of the PETM.
Recovery
Climate proxies, such as ocean sediments (depositional rates) indicate a duration of ~83 ka, with ~33 ka in the early rapid phase and ~50 ka in a subsequent gradual phase.
The most likely method of recovery involves an increase in biological productivity, transporting carbon to the deep ocean. This would be assisted by higher global temperatures and levels, as well as an increased nutrient supply (which would result from higher continental weathering due to higher temperatures and rainfall; volcanoes may have provided further nutrients). Evidence for higher biological productivity comes in the form of bio-concentrated barium. However, this proxy may instead reflect the addition of barium dissolved in methane. Diversifications suggest that productivity increased in near-shore environments, which would have been warm and fertilized by run-off, outweighing the reduction in productivity in the deep oceans. Another pulse of NAIP volcanic activity may have also played a role in terminating the hyperthermal via a volcanic winter.
Comparison with today's climate change
Since at least 1997, the Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum has been investigated in geoscience as an analog to understand the effects of global warming and of massive carbon inputs to the ocean and atmosphere, including ocean acidification. Humans today emit about 10 Gt of carbon (about 37 Gt CO2e) per year, and will have released a comparable amount in about 1,000 years at that rate. A main difference is that during the Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum, the planet was ice-free, as the Drake Passage had not yet opened and the Central American Seaway had not yet closed. Although the PETM is now commonly held to be a "case study" for global warming and massive carbon emission, the cause, details, and overall significance of the event remain uncertain.
Rate of carbon addition
Model simulations of peak carbon addition to the ocean–atmosphere system during the PETM give a probable range of 0.3–1.7 petagrams of carbon per year (Pg C/yr), which is much slower than the currently observed rate of carbon emissions. One petagram of carbon is equivalent to a gigaton of carbon (GtC); the current rate of carbon injection into the atmosphere is over 10 GtC/yr, a rate much greater than the carbon injection rate that occurred during the PETM. It has been suggested that today's methane emission regime from the ocean floor is potentially similar to that during the PETM. Because the modern rate of carbon release exceeds the PETM's, it is speculated the a PETM-like scenario is the best-case consequence of anthropogenic global warming, with a mass extinction of a magnitude similar to the Cretaceous-Palaeogene extinction event being a worst-case scenario.
Similarity of temperatures
Professor of Earth and planetary sciences James Zachos notes that IPCC projections for 2300 in the 'business-as-usual' scenario could "potentially bring global temperature to a level the planet has not seen in 50 million years" – during the early Eocene. Some have described the PETM as arguably the best ancient analog of modern climate change. Scientists have investigated effects of climate change on chemistry of the oceans by exploring oceanic changes during the PETM.
Tipping points
A study found that the PETM shows that substantial climate-shifting tipping points in the Earth system exist, which "can trigger release of additional carbon reservoirs and drive Earth's climate into a hotter state".
Climate sensitivity
Whether climate sensitivity was lower or higher during the PETM than today remains under debate. A 2022 study found that the Eurasian Epicontinental Sea acted as a major carbon sink during the PETM due to its high biological productivity and helped to slow and mitigate the warming, and that the existence of many large epicontinental seas at that time made the Earth's climate less sensitive to forcing by greenhouse gases relative to today, when much fewer epicontinental seas exist. Other research, however, suggests that climate sensitivity was higher during the PETM than today, meaning that sensitivity to greenhouse gas release increases the higher their concentration in the atmosphere.
See also
Abrupt climate change
Azolla event
Canfield ocean
Clathrate gun hypothesis
Climate sensitivity
Eocene
Eocene Thermal Maximum 2
Paleocene
Paleogene
Runaway greenhouse effect
References
Further reading
External links
BBC Radio 4, In Our Time, The Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, 16 March 2017
Global Warming 56 Million Years Ago: What it Means for Us (Video)
History of climate variability and change
Paleocene
Eocene
Paleogene events
Paleoclimatology
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Physical oceanography
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Physical oceanography is the study of physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean, especially the motions and physical properties of ocean waters.
Physical oceanography is one of several sub-domains into which oceanography is divided. Others include biological, chemical and geological oceanography.
Physical oceanography may be subdivided into descriptive and dynamical physical oceanography.
Descriptive physical oceanography seeks to research the ocean through observations and complex numerical models, which describe the fluid motions as precisely as possible.
Dynamical physical oceanography focuses primarily upon the processes that govern the motion of fluids with emphasis upon theoretical research and numerical models. These are part of the large field of Geophysical Fluid Dynamics (GFD) that is shared together with meteorology. GFD is a sub field of Fluid dynamics describing flows occurring on spatial and temporal scales that are greatly influenced by the Coriolis force.
Physical setting
Roughly 97% of the planet's water is in its oceans, and the oceans are the source of the vast majority of water vapor that condenses in the atmosphere and falls as rain or snow on the continents. The tremendous heat capacity of the oceans moderates the planet's climate, and its absorption of various gases affects the composition of the atmosphere. The ocean's influence extends even to the composition of volcanic rocks through seafloor metamorphism, as well as to that of volcanic gases and magmas created at subduction zones.
From sea level, the oceans are far deeper than the continents are tall; examination of the Earth's hypsographic curve shows that the average elevation of Earth's landmasses is only , while the ocean's average depth is . Though this apparent discrepancy is great, for both land and sea, the respective extremes such as mountains and trenches are rare.
Temperature, salinity and density
Because the vast majority of the world ocean's volume is deep water, the mean temperature of seawater is low; roughly 75% of the ocean's volume has a temperature from 0° – 5 °C (Pinet 1996). The same percentage falls in a salinity range between 34 and 35 ppt (3.4–3.5%) (Pinet 1996). There is still quite a bit of variation, however. Surface temperatures can range from below freezing near the poles to 35 °C in restricted tropical seas, while salinity can vary from 10 to 41 ppt (1.0–4.1%).
The vertical structure of the temperature can be divided into three basic layers, a surface mixed layer, where gradients are low, a thermocline where gradients are high, and a poorly stratified abyss.
In terms of temperature, the ocean's layers are highly latitude-dependent; the thermocline is pronounced in the tropics, but nonexistent in polar waters (Marshak 2001). The halocline usually lies near the surface, where evaporation raises salinity in the tropics, or meltwater dilutes it in polar regions. These variations of salinity and temperature with depth change the density of the seawater, creating the pycnocline.
Circulation
Energy for the ocean circulation (and for the atmospheric circulation) comes from solar radiation and gravitational energy from the sun and moon. The amount of sunlight absorbed at the surface varies strongly with latitude, being greater at the equator than at the poles, and this engenders fluid motion in both the atmosphere and ocean that acts to redistribute heat from the equator towards the poles, thereby reducing the temperature gradients that would exist in the absence of fluid motion. Perhaps three quarters of this heat is carried in the atmosphere; the rest is carried in the ocean.
The atmosphere is heated from below, which leads to convection, the largest expression of which is the Hadley circulation. By contrast the ocean is heated from above, which tends to suppress convection. Instead ocean deep water is formed in polar regions where cold salty waters sink in fairly restricted areas. This is the beginning of the thermohaline circulation.
Oceanic currents are largely driven by the surface wind stress; hence the large-scale atmospheric circulation is important to understanding the ocean circulation. The Hadley circulation leads to Easterly winds in the tropics and Westerlies in mid-latitudes. This leads to slow equatorward flow throughout most of a subtropical ocean basin (the Sverdrup balance). The return flow occurs in an intense, narrow, poleward western boundary current. Like the atmosphere, the ocean is far wider than it is deep, and hence horizontal motion is in general much faster than vertical motion. In the southern hemisphere there is a continuous belt of ocean, and hence the mid-latitude westerlies force the strong Antarctic Circumpolar Current. In the northern hemisphere the land masses prevent this and the ocean circulation is broken into smaller gyres in the Atlantic and Pacific basins.
Coriolis effect
The Coriolis effect results in a deflection of fluid flows (to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern Hemisphere). This has profound effects on the flow of the oceans. In particular it means the flow goes around high and low pressure systems, permitting them to persist for long periods of time. As a result, tiny variations in pressure can produce measurable currents. A slope of one part in one million in sea surface height, for example, will result in a current of 10 cm/s at mid-latitudes. The fact that the Coriolis effect is largest at the poles and weak at the equator results in sharp, relatively steady western boundary currents which are absent on eastern boundaries. Also see secondary circulation effects.
Ekman transport
Ekman transport results in the net transport of surface water 90 degrees to the right of the wind in the Northern Hemisphere, and 90 degrees to the left of the wind in the Southern Hemisphere. As the wind blows across the surface of the ocean, it "grabs" onto a thin layer of the surface water. In turn, that thin sheet of water transfers motion energy to the thin layer of water under it, and so on. However, because of the Coriolis Effect, the direction of travel of the layers of water slowly move farther and farther to the right as they get deeper in the Northern Hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. In most cases, the very bottom layer of water affected by the wind is at a depth of 100 m – 150 m and is traveling about 180 degrees, completely opposite of the direction that the wind is blowing. Overall, the net transport of water would be 90 degrees from the original direction of the wind.
Langmuir circulation
Langmuir circulation results in the occurrence of thin, visible stripes, called windrows on the surface of the ocean parallel to the direction that the wind is blowing. If the wind is blowing with more than 3 m s−1, it can create parallel windrows alternating upwelling and downwelling about 5–300 m apart. These windrows are created by adjacent ovular water cells (extending to about deep) alternating rotating clockwise and counterclockwise. In the convergence zones debris, foam and seaweed accumulates, while at the divergence zones plankton are caught and carried to the surface. If there are many plankton in the divergence zone fish are often attracted to feed on them.
Ocean–atmosphere interface
At the ocean-atmosphere interface, the ocean and atmosphere exchange fluxes of heat, moisture and momentum.
Heat
The important heat terms at the surface are the sensible heat flux, the latent heat flux, the incoming solar radiation and the balance of long-wave (infrared) radiation. In general, the tropical oceans will tend to show a net gain of heat, and the polar oceans a net loss, the result of a net transfer of energy polewards in the oceans.
The oceans' large heat capacity moderates the climate of areas adjacent to the oceans, leading to a maritime climate at such locations. This can be a result of heat storage in summer and release in winter; or of transport of heat from warmer locations: a particularly notable example of this is Western Europe, which is heated at least in part by the north atlantic drift.
Momentum
Surface winds tend to be of order meters per second; ocean currents of order centimeters per second. Hence from the point of view of the atmosphere, the ocean can be considered effectively stationary; from the point of view of the ocean, the atmosphere imposes a significant wind stress on its surface, and this forces large-scale currents in the ocean.
Through the wind stress, the wind generates ocean surface waves; the longer waves have a phase velocity tending towards the wind speed. Momentum of the surface winds is transferred into the energy flux by the ocean surface waves. The increased roughness of the ocean surface, by the presence of the waves, changes the wind near the surface.
Moisture
The ocean can gain moisture from rainfall, or lose it through evaporation. Evaporative loss leaves the ocean saltier; the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf for example have strong evaporative loss; the resulting plume of dense salty water may be traced through the Straits of Gibraltar into the Atlantic Ocean. At one time, it was believed that evaporation/precipitation was a major driver of ocean currents; it is now known to be only a very minor factor.
Planetary waves
Kelvin Waves
A Kelvin wave is any progressive wave that is channeled between two boundaries or opposing forces (usually between the Coriolis force and a coastline or the equator). There are two types, coastal and equatorial. Kelvin waves are gravity driven and non-dispersive. This means that Kelvin waves can retain their shape and direction over long periods of time. They are usually created by a sudden shift in the wind, such as the change of the trade winds at the beginning of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.
Coastal Kelvin waves follow shorelines and will always propagate in a counterclockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere (with the shoreline to the right of the direction of travel) and clockwise in the Southern hemisphere.
Equatorial Kelvin waves propagate to the east in the Northern and Southern hemispheres, using the equator as a guide.
Kelvin waves are known to have very high speeds, typically around 2–3 meters per second. They have wavelengths of thousands of kilometers and amplitudes in the tens of meters.
Rossby Waves
Rossby waves, or planetary waves are huge, slow waves generated in the troposphere by temperature differences between the ocean and the continents. Their major restoring force is the change in Coriolis force with latitude. Their wave amplitudes are usually in the tens of meters and very large wavelengths. They are usually found at low or mid latitudes.
There are two types of Rossby waves, barotropic and baroclinic. Barotropic Rossby waves have the highest speeds and do not vary vertically. Baroclinic Rossby waves are much slower.
The special identifying feature of Rossby waves is that the phase velocity of each individual wave always has a westward component, but the group velocity can be in any direction. Usually the shorter Rossby waves have an eastward group velocity and the longer ones have a westward group velocity.
Climate variability
The interaction of ocean circulation, which serves as a type of heat pump, and biological effects such as the concentration of carbon dioxide can result in global climate changes on a time scale of decades. Known climate oscillations resulting from these interactions, include the Pacific decadal oscillation, North Atlantic oscillation, and Arctic oscillation. The oceanic process of thermohaline circulation is a significant component of heat redistribution across the globe, and changes in this circulation can have major impacts upon the climate.
La Niña–El Niño
and
Antarctic circumpolar wave
This is a coupled ocean/atmosphere wave that circles the Southern Ocean about every eight years. Since it is a wave-2 phenomenon (there are two peaks and two troughs in a latitude circle) at each fixed point in space a signal with a period of four years is seen. The wave moves eastward in the direction of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.
Ocean currents
Among the most important ocean currents are the:
Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Deep ocean (density-driven)
Western boundary currents
Gulf Stream
Kuroshio Current
Labrador Current
Oyashio Current
Agulhas Current
Brazil Current
East Australia Current
Eastern Boundary currents
California Current
Canary Current
Peru Current
Benguela Current
Antarctic circumpolar
The ocean body surrounding the Antarctic is currently the only continuous body of water where there is a wide latitude band of open water. It interconnects the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans, and provide an uninterrupted stretch for the prevailing westerly winds to significantly increase wave amplitudes. It is generally accepted that these prevailing winds are primarily responsible for the circumpolar current transport. This current is now thought to vary with time, possibly in an oscillatory manner.
Deep ocean
In the Norwegian Sea evaporative cooling is predominant, and the sinking water mass, the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), fills the basin and spills southwards through crevasses in the submarine sills that connect Greenland, Iceland and Britain. It then flows along the western boundary of the Atlantic with some part of the flow moving eastward along the equator and then poleward into the ocean basins. The NADW is entrained into the Circumpolar Current, and can be traced into the Indian and Pacific basins. Flow from the Arctic Ocean Basin into the Pacific, however, is blocked by the narrow shallows of the Bering Strait.
Also see marine geology about that explores the geology of the ocean floor including plate tectonics that create deep ocean trenches.
Western boundary
An idealised subtropical ocean basin forced by winds circling around a high pressure (anticyclonic) systems such as the Azores-Bermuda high develops a gyre circulation with slow steady flows towards the equator in the interior. As discussed by Henry Stommel, these flows are balanced in the region of the western boundary, where a thin fast polewards flow called a western boundary current develops. Flow in the real ocean is more complex, but the Gulf stream, Agulhas and Kuroshio are examples of such currents. They are narrow (approximately 100 km across) and fast (approximately 1.5 m/s).
Equatorwards western boundary currents occur in tropical and polar locations, e.g. the East Greenland and Labrador currents, in the Atlantic and the Oyashio. They are forced by winds circulation around low pressure (cyclonic).
Gulf stream
The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension, North Atlantic Current, is a powerful, warm, and swift Atlantic Ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico, exits through the Strait of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland to the northeast before crossing the Atlantic Ocean.
Kuroshio
The Kuroshio Current is an ocean current found in the western Pacific Ocean off the east coast of Taiwan and flowing northeastward past Japan, where it merges with the easterly drift of the North Pacific Current. It is analogous to the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean, transporting warm, tropical water northward towards the polar region.
Heat flux
Heat storage
Ocean heat flux is a turbulent and complex system which utilizes atmospheric measurement techniques such as eddy covariance to measure the rate of heat transfer expressed in the unit of or petawatts. Heat flux is the flow of energy per unit of area per unit of time. Most of the Earth's heat storage is within its seas with smaller fractions of the heat transfer in processes such as evaporation, radiation, diffusion, or absorption into the sea floor. The majority of the ocean heat flux is through advection or the movement of the ocean's currents. For example, the majority of the warm water movement in the south Atlantic is thought to have originated in the Indian Ocean. Another example of advection is the nonequatorial Pacific heating which results from subsurface processes related to atmospheric anticlines. Recent warming observations of Antarctic bottom water in the Southern Ocean is of concern to ocean scientists because bottom water changes will effect currents, nutrients, and biota elsewhere. The international awareness of global warming has focused scientific research on this topic since the 1988 creation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Improved ocean observation, instrumentation, theory, and funding has increased scientific reporting on regional and global issues related to heat.
Sea level change
Tide gauges and satellite altimetry suggest an increase in sea level of 1.5–3 mm/yr over the past 100 years.
The IPCC predicts that by 2081–2100, global warming will lead to a sea level rise of 260 to 820 mm.
Rapid variations
Tides
The rise and fall of the oceans due to tidal effects is a key influence upon the coastal areas. Ocean tides on the planet Earth are created by the gravitational effects of the Sun and Moon. The tides produced by these two bodies are roughly comparable in magnitude, but the orbital motion of the Moon results in tidal patterns that vary over the course of a month.
The ebb and flow of the tides produce a cyclical current along the coast, and the strength of this current can be quite dramatic along narrow estuaries. Incoming tides can also produce a tidal bore along a river or narrow bay as the water flow against the current results in a wave on the surface.
Tide and Current (Wyban 1992) clearly illustrates the impact of these natural cycles on the lifestyle and livelihood of Native Hawaiians tending coastal fishponds. Aia ke ola ka hana meaning . . . Life is in labor.
Tidal resonance occurs in the Bay of Fundy since the time it takes for a large wave to travel from the mouth of the bay to the opposite end, then reflect and travel back to the mouth of the bay coincides with the tidal rhythm producing the world's highest tides.
As the surface tide oscillates over topography, such as submerged seamounts or ridges, it generates internal waves at the tidal frequency, which are known as internal tides.
Tsunamis
A series of surface waves can be generated due to large-scale displacement of the ocean water. These can be caused by sub-marine landslides, seafloor deformations due to earthquakes, or the impact of a large meteorite.
The waves can travel with a velocity of up to several hundred km/hour across the ocean surface, but in mid-ocean they are barely detectable with wavelengths spanning hundreds of kilometers.
Tsunamis, originally called tidal waves, were renamed because they are not related to the tides. They are regarded as shallow-water waves, or waves in water with a depth less than 1/20 their wavelength. Tsunamis have very large periods, high speeds, and great wave heights.
The primary impact of these waves is along the coastal shoreline, as large amounts of ocean water are cyclically propelled inland and then drawn out to sea. This can result in significant modifications to the coastline regions where the waves strike with sufficient energy.
The tsunami that occurred in Lituya Bay, Alaska on July 9, 1958 was high and is the biggest tsunami ever measured, almost taller than the Sears Tower in Chicago and about taller than the former World Trade Center in New York.
Surface waves
The wind generates ocean surface waves, which have a large impact on offshore structures, ships, Coastal erosion and sedimentation, as well as harbours. After their generation by the wind, ocean surface waves can travel (as swell) over long distances.
See also
Climate change (general concept)
CORA dataset temperature and salinity oceanographic dataset
Downwelling
Geophysical fluid dynamics
Global Sea Level Observing System
Global warming
Hydrothermal circulation
List of ocean circulation models
List of Oceanic Landforms
Marginal sea
Mediterranean Sea
Ocean
Oceanography
Thermohaline circulation
Upwelling
World Ocean Atlas
World Ocean Circulation Experiment
References
Further reading
Samelson, R. M. (2011) The Theory of Large-Scale Ocean Circulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511736605.
External links
NASA Oceanography
Ocean Motion and Surface Currents
Ocean World (digital book)
National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration
University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System
Pacific Disaster Center
Pacific Tsunami Museum Hilo, Hawaii
Science of Tsunami Hazards (journal)
NEMO academic software for oceanography
History of Salinity Determination
Physical geography
[category; physicist of the lunar
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1in%20B%C3%B3%20C%C3%BAailnge
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Táin Bó Cúailnge
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(Modern ; "the driving-off of the cows of Cooley"), commonly known as The Táin or less commonly as The Cattle Raid of Cooley, is an epic from Irish mythology. It is often called "The Irish Iliad", although like most other early Irish literature, the Táin is written in prosimetrum, i.e. prose with periodic additions of verse composed by the characters. The Táin tells of a war against Ulster by Queen Medb of Connacht and her husband King Ailill, who intend to steal the stud bull Donn Cuailnge. Due to a curse upon the king and warriors of Ulster, the invaders are opposed only by the young demigod, Cú Chulainn.
The Táin is traditionally set in the 1st century in a pagan heroic age, and is the central text of a group of tales known as the Ulster Cycle. It survives in three written versions or "recensions" in manuscripts of the 12th century and later, the first a compilation largely written in Old Irish, the second a more consistent work in Middle Irish, and the third an Early Modern Irish version.
The Táin has been influential on Irish literature and culture. It is often considered Ireland's national epic.
Synopsis
The Táin is preceded by a number of remscéla, or pre-tales, which provide background on the main characters and explain the presence of certain characters from Ulster in the Connacht camp, the curse that causes the temporary inability of the remaining Ulstermen to fight and the magic origins of the bulls Donn Cuailnge and Finnbhennach. The eight remscéla chosen by Thomas Kinsella for his 1969 translation are sometimes taken to be part of the Táin itself, but come from a variety of manuscripts of different dates. Several other tales exist which are described as remscéla to the Táin, some of which have only a tangential relation to it.
The first recension begins with Ailill and Medb assembling their army in Cruachan; the purpose of this military build-up is taken for granted. The second recension adds a prologue in which Ailill and Medb compare their respective wealths and find that the only thing that distinguishes them is Ailill's possession of the phenomenally fertile bull Finnbhennach, who had been born into Medb's herd but scorned being owned by a woman so decided to transfer himself to Ailill's. Medb determines to get the equally potent Donn Cuailnge from Cooley to equal her wealth with her husband. She successfully negotiates with the bull's owner, Dáire mac Fiachna, to rent the animal for a year. However, her messengers, while drunk, reveal that Medb intends to take the bull by force if she is not allowed to borrow him. The deal breaks down, and Medb raises an army, including Ulster exiles led by Fergus mac Róich and other allies, and sets out to capture Donn Cuailnge.
The men of Ulster are disabled by an apparent illness, the ces noínden (literally "debility of nine (days)", although it lasts several months). A separate tale explains this as the curse of the goddess Macha, who imposed it after being forced by the king of Ulster to race against a chariot while heavily pregnant. The only person fit to defend Ulster is seventeen-year-old Cú Chulainn, and he lets the army take Ulster by surprise because he is off on a tryst when he should be watching the border. Cú Chulainn, assisted by his charioteer Láeg, wages a guerrilla campaign against the advancing army, then halts it by invoking the right of single combat at fords, defeating champion after champion in a stand-off lasting months. However, he is unable to prevent Medb from capturing the bull.
Cú Chulainn is both helped and hindered by supernatural figures from the Tuatha Dé Danann. Before one combat the Morrígan, the goddess of war, visits him in the form of a beautiful young woman and offers him her love, but Cú Chulainn spurns her. She then reveals herself and threatens to interfere in his next fight. She does so, first in the form of an eel who trips him in the ford, then as a wolf who stampedes cattle across the ford, and finally as a heifer at the head of the stampede, but in each form, Cú Chulainn wounds her. After he defeats his opponent, the Morrígan appears to him in the form of an old woman milking a cow, with wounds corresponding to the ones Cú Chulainn gave her in her animal forms. She offers him three drinks of milk. With each drink he blesses her, and the blessings heal her wounds. Cú Chulainn tells the Morrígan that had he known her real identity, he would not have spurned her.
After a particularly arduous combat Cú Chulain is visited by another supernatural figure, Lug, who reveals himself to be Cú Chulainn's father. Lug puts Cú Chulainn to sleep for three days while he works his healing arts on him. While Cú Chulainn sleeps the youth corps of Ulster come to his aid but are all slaughtered. When Cú Chulainn awakes he undergoes a spectacular ríastrad or "distortion", in which his body twists in its skin and he becomes an unrecognisable monster who knows neither friend nor foe. Cú Chulainn launches a savage assault on the Connacht camp and avenges the youth corps sixfold.
After this extraordinary incident, the sequence of single combats resumes, although on several occasions Medb breaks the agreement by sending several men against Cú Chulainn at once. When Fergus, his foster-father, is sent to fight him, Cú Chulainn agrees to yield to him on the condition that Fergus yields the next time they meet. Finally, Medb incites Cú Chulainn's foster-brother Ferdiad to enter the fray, with poets ready to mock him as a coward, and offering him the hand of her daughter Finnabair, and her own "friendly thighs" as well. Cú Chulainn does not wish to kill his foster-brother and pleads with Ferdiad to withdraw from the fight. There follows a physically and emotionally gruelling three-day duel between the hero and his foster-brother. Cú Chulainn wins, killing Ferdiad with the legendary spear, the Gáe Bolga. Wounded too sorely to continue fighting, Cú Chulainn is carried away by the healers of his clan.
The debilitated Ulstermen start to rouse, one by one at first, then en masse. King Conchobar mac Nessa vows, that as the sky is above and the Earth is beneath, he will return every cow back to its stall and every abducted woman back to her home. The climactic battle begins.
At first, Cú Chulainn sits it out, recovering from his wounds. Fergus has Conchobar at his mercy, but is prevented from killing him by Cormac Cond Longas, Conchobar's son and Fergus' foster-son, and in his rage cuts the tops off three hills with his sword. Cú Chulainn shrugs off his wounds, enters the fray and confronts Fergus, whom he forces to make good on his promise and yield before him. Fergus withdraws, pulling all his forces off the battlefield. Connacht's other allies panic and Medb is forced to retreat. Cú Chulainn comes upon Medb having her period ( "Then it was that the issue of blood came upon Medb" ). She pleads for her life and he not only spares her, but guards her retreat.
Medb brings Donn Cuailnge back to Connacht, where the bull fights Finnbhennach, kills him, but is mortally wounded, and wanders around Ireland dropping pieces of Finnbhennach off his horns and thus creating placenames before finally returning home to die of exhaustion.
Text
Oral tradition
The Táin is believed to have its origin in oral storytelling and to have only been written down during the Middle Ages.
Although Romanas Bulatovas believes that the Táin was originally composed at Bangor Abbey between 630 and 670 AD, there is evidence that it had a far older oral history long before anything was written down. For example, the poem Conailla Medb michuru ("Medb enjoined illegal contracts") by Luccreth moccu Chiara, dated to , tells the story of Fergus mac Róich's exile with Ailill and Medb, which the poet describes as having come from sen-eolas ("old knowledge"). Two further 7th-century poems also allude to elements of the story: in Verba Scáthaige ("Words of Scáthach"), the warrior-woman Scáthach prophesies Cú Chulainn's combats at the ford; and Ro-mbáe laithi rordu rind ("We had a great day of plying spear-points"), attributed to Cú Chulainn himself, refers to an incident in the Boyhood Deeds section of the Táin.
The high regard in which the written account was held is suggested by a ninth-century triad, that associated the Táin with the following wonders: "that the cuilmen [apparently a name for Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae] came to Ireland in its stead; the dead relating it to the living, viz. Fergus mac Róich reciting it to Ninníne the poet at the time of Cormac mac Faeláin; one year's protection to him to whom it is related."
Various versions of the epic have been collected from the oral tradition over the centuries since the earliest accounts were written down. Most recently, a version of the Táin was taken down in Scottish Gaelic by folklore collector Calum Maclean from the dictation of Angus Beag MacLellan, a tenant farmer and seanchaidh from South Uist, in the Outer Hebrides. A transcription was published in 1959.
Manuscripts
Despite the date of the surviving manuscripts, a version of the Táin may have been put to writing already in the eighth century.
Táin Bó Cúailnge has survived in three recensions. The first consists of a partial text in Lebor na hUidre (the "Book of the Dun Cow"), a late 11th-/early 12th-century manuscript compiled in the monastery at Clonmacnoise, and another partial text of the same version in the 14th-century manuscript called the Yellow Book of Lecan. These two sources overlap, and a complete text can be reconstructed by combining them. This recension is a compilation of two or more earlier versions, indicated by the number of duplicated episodes and references to "other versions" in the text. Many of the episodes are superb, written in the characteristic terse prose of the best Old Irish literature, but others are cryptic summaries, and the whole is rather disjointed. Parts of this recension can be dated from linguistic evidence to the 8th century, and some of the verse passages may be even older.
The second recension is found in the 12th-century manuscript known as the Book of Leinster. This appears to have been a syncretic exercise by a scribe who brought together the Lebor na hUidre materials and unknown sources for the Yellow Book of Lecan materials to create a coherent version of the epic. While the result is a satisfactory narrative whole, the language has been modernised into a much more florid style, with all of the spareness of expression of the earlier recension lost in the process.
The Book of Leinster version ends with a colophon in Latin which says:
An incomplete third recension is known from twelfth-century fragments.
In translation and adaptation
19th century translations of the work include Bryan O'Looney's translation made in the 1870s, as Tain Bo Cualnge, based on the Book of Leinster in Trinity College Library, Dublin. John O'Daly's also translated the work in 1857, but it is considered a poor translation. No published translation of the work was made until the early 20th century – the first English translation was provided L. Winifred Faraday in 1904, based on the Lebor na hUidre and the Yellow Book of Lecan; a German translation by Ernst Windisch was published at around the same time based on the Book of Leinster.
Translated sections of the text had been published in the late 19th century, including one from on the Book of Leinster by Standish Hayes O'Grady in The Cuchullin Saga (ed. Eleanor Hull, 1898), as well as extracts, and introductory text. Lady Gregory's Cuchulain of Muirthemne (1903) also contains a paraphrased version of the tale. There were also several works based on the tale published in the very late 19th and early 20th century often with a focus on the hero Cú Chulainn, such as Cuchulain, the Hound of Ulster (E.Hull, 1911); Dun Dealgan, Cuchulain's Home Fort (H.G. Tempest, 1910); Cuchulain of Muirtheimhne (A.M. Skelly, 1908); The Coming of Cuculain (S. O'Grady, 1894); and several others; additionally a number of prose works from the same period took the tale as basis or inspiration, including works by W.B. Yeats, Aubrey Thomas de Vere, Alice Milligan, George Sigerson, Samuel Ferguson, Charles Leonard Moore, Fiona Macleod, as well as ballad versions from Scotland. Peadar Ua Laoghaire adapted the work as a closet drama, serialized in the Cork Weekly Examiner (1900–1).
In 1914 Joseph Dunn authored an English translation The Ancient Irish Epic Tale Táin Bó Cúalnge based primarily on the Book of Leinster. Cecile O'Rahilly published academic editions/translations of both recensions, Táin Bó Cúalnge from the Book of Leinster (1967), and Táin Bó Cúailnge Recension 1 (1976), as well as an edition of the later Stowe Version, The Stowe version of Táin Bó Cuailnge (1961).
two translations by Irish poets are available in mass-market editions: Thomas Kinsella's The Táin (1969) and Ciarán Carson's The Táin (2007). Both are based primarily on the first recension with passages added from the second, although they differ slightly in their selection and arrangement of material. Kinsella's translation is illustrated by Louis le Brocquy (see Louis le Brocquy Táin illustrations) and also contains translations of a selection of remscéla.
Victorian era adapters omitted some aspects of the tale, either for political reasons relating to Irish Nationalism, or to avoid offending the sensibilities of their readers with bodily functions or sex. , focusing on translations and adaptation of "The Táin", analysed how 19th- and 20th-century writers used the original texts in creating Irish myths as part of the process of decolonization (from the United Kingdom), and so redacted elements that did not show Cuchulain in a suitably heroic light. Not only was sex, and bodily functions removed, but also humor. The version by took on a more 'folkish' aspect, whereas in O'Grady's version (see ) the protagonists more resembled chivalrous medieval knights.
Several writers bowdlerized the source: for example the naked women sent to attempt to placate Cú Chulainn were omitted by most adapters of the Victorian period, or their nakedness reduced. Others interpreted the tale to their own ends - One of Peadar Ua Laoghaire's adaptations of the work, the play "Méibh", included a temperance message, blaming the conflict over the bull on the drunkenness of the Connacht messengers. In Ua Laoghaire's serialization Medb retains her role as a powerful woman, but her sexuality, exploitation of her daughter Fionnabhair, and references to menstruation are heavily euphemized. Slightly later works such as Stories from the Táin and the derived Giolla na Tána were more accurate.
The version by is considered to be the first (English) translation that accurately included both grotesque and sexual aspects of the tale; however the German translation by is considered to be complete, and lacks alterations and omissions due to conflicts of interests in the mind of contemporary Irish scholars.
Remscéla
The story of the Táin relies on a range of independently transmitted back-stories, known as remscéla ('fore-tales'). Some may in fact have been composed independently of the Táin and subsequently linked with it later in their transmission. As listed by Ruairí Ó hUiginn, they are:
De Faillsigud Tána Bó Cuailnge (How the Táin Bó Cuailnge was found), recounting how the story of the Táin was lost and recovered.
Táin Bó Regamna (The cattle raid of Regamain)
Táin Bó Regamon (The cattle raid of Regamon)
Táin Bó Fraích ('The cattle Raid of Froech'): Froech mac Idaith is a Connacht warrior, killed by Cú Chulainn in the Táin; this tale gives him some back-story.
Táin Bó Dartada (The cattle raid of Dartaid)
Táin Bó Flidhais ('The cattle raid of Flidais'), a relatively late story drawing on older material
Echtrae Nerai ('The Adventure of Nera')
Aislinge Oengusa ('The Dream of Oengus'). Oengus Mac ind Óc, son of the Dagda has no part in the Táin Bó Cúailnge as we have it, but this tale relates how the otherworld woman Caer Ibormeith came to him in a vision how Oengus found her through the aid of Medb and Ailill. According to the story, this is why he helped them in their cattle-raid.
Compert Con Culainn ('The Conception of Cú Chulainn')
De Chophur in Dá Mucado (Of the cophur of the two swineherds)
Fochann Loingsi Fergusa meic Róig (The cause of Fergus mac Róich's exile), only the beginning of which survives, apparently explaining how Fergus came to be part of the army of Connacht
Longas mac nUislenn ('The Exile of the Sons of Uisliu'), explaining how Fergus and various other Ulster exiles came to be in the army of Connacht
Tochmarc Ferbe (The wooing of Ferb).
Ces Ulad (The debility of the Ulstermen), not actually considered one of the remscéla, but providing an important account of why Macha curses the Ulaid: they made her race against the king's horses while she was pregnant. The tale's primary purpose, however, is to provide an etiology for the place-name Emain Machae.
Cultural influence
See Irish mythology in popular culture
In 2004, indie rock band The Decemberists released a five-part single named The Tain, which recounts loosely the story of Táin Bó Cúailnge.
See also
Táin Bó
Táin Bó Flidhais
References
Bibliography
, a paraphrase of the tale and others based on an oral translation
, in Roman type with English introduction and glossary
, in Gaelic type, same text as
Texts and Translations
, with illustrations by John Patrick Campbell
Translation
Translation :
Further reading
Gene C. Haley, Places in the Táin: The Topography of the 'Táin Bó Cúailnge' Mapped and Globally Positioned (2012-).
External links
Timeless Myths: Ulaid Cycle
Táin Bó Cúailnge (Ernst Windisch's Irish transcription & Joseph Dunn's translation)
Narratives of the Ulster Cycle
Medieval literature
Early Irish literature
Irish-language literature
Texts in Irish
Ireland in fiction
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The La's
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The La's were an English rock band from Liverpool, originally active from 1983 until 1992. Fronted by singer, songwriter and guitarist Lee Mavers, the group are best known for their hit single "There She Goes". The band was formed by Mike Badger in 1983 and Mavers joined the next year, although for most of the group's history, the frequently changing line-up revolved around the core duo of Lee Mavers (vocals, guitar) and John Power (bass, backing vocals) along with numerous other guitarists and drummers including Paul Hemmings, John "Timmo" Timson, Peter "Cammy" Cammell, Iain Templeton, John "Boo" Byrne, Chris Sharrock, Barry Sutton and Neil Mavers.
After the departure of Badger in late 1986, the band signed to Go! Discs in 1987 and started recording their debut album. Following the release of singles "Way Out" (1987), "There She Goes" (1988) and "Timeless Melody" (1990) and having aborted several recording sessions with different producers, the band released their debut album The La's in 1990 to critical acclaim and modest commercial success. John Power left The La's to form Cast and the group entered a prolonged hiatus in 1992. The group later reformed briefly in the mid-1990s, 2005 and 2011. However, no new recordings have been released.
History
1983–1986: Formation and early years
The La's formed in 1983, with original member Mike Badger stating that the band name occurred to him in a dream, as well as it being Scouse for "lads", and having obvious musical connotations. The band existed briefly as an arthouse/skiffle-type outfit with a few tracks released on local compilations. Lee Mavers joined in 1984 as rhythm guitarist, eventually gaining songwriting prominence and emerging as the band's enduring figurehead. Bernie Nolan, accomplished musician formerly of The Falcons, The Russian Rockabillys and The Swampmen was the original bassist. John Power joined the group in 1986, having met Badger on a local council-run musicianship course. Badger however left the group in late 1986 to form The Onset.
The band attracted the attention of several record labels after a series of performances in their hometown in 1986, and demo tapes copied from a session at the Flying Picket rehearsal studio in Liverpool began circulating. One of these demo tapes was sent to Underground Magazine. A journalist there with the task of reviewing unsigned bands gave the cassette to Andy McDonald at Go Discs. Several record labels later became interested in signing the band. The band chose to sign with Go! Discs.
1987–1990: Record deal and The La's album
The band's first single "Way Out" was mixed with producer Gavin MacKillop. When it was released in October 1987, it broke into the top 100 and was praised by The Smiths' frontman Morrissey in the music magazine Melody Maker, but attracted little notice. The band continued to perform around the UK and gained success as a live act, drawing comparisons to The Beatles due to their origins, vaguely Merseybeat sound, and Mavers' expressive lyrics. "There She Goes" was released in 1988 with the B-sides "Come in Come Out" and "Who Knows". The song garnered moderate attention and airplay, but performed poorly in the charts. The music video for "There She Goes" features the La's scampering through run-down Liverpool streets and was filmed in an afternoon on a hand-held camera. It was later re-released a number of times, the earliest being 1990's Steve Lillywhite mix. After working with producer Jeremy Allom at the Pink Museum Studio in Liverpool in May 1989, the band were set to release "Timeless Melody" as a single. While test pressings had been sent out for review, and was awarded "single of the week" in Melody Maker, Mavers was reportedly unhappy with the production and the single release was scrapped.
The La's then spent two years fruitlessly recording and re-recording their intended debut album, with a constantly changing band line-up, where only the core of Mavers and Power remained the same. Discarded producers included The Smiths' producer John Porter, as well as John Leckie and Mike Hedges. Both Leckie and Hedges have nevertheless spoken positively in interviews about the band's songs and their respective sessions. The previously volatile band line-up settled in 1989 with Lee's brother, Neil Mavers on drums, and Peter "Cammy" Cammell as lead guitarist. The group then entered London's Eden Studios in December 1989 to again record their debut album with Simple Minds and U2 producer Steve Lillywhite. Despite this line-up being arguably the most stable, and press interviews from the time painting them as extremely confident, the sessions still did not satisfy Mavers. In one instance Mavers was reported to have rejected a vintage mixing desk, claiming it did not have the right sound because "it hasn't got original Sixties dust on it", although this claim has since been revealed as apocryphal. The Eden sessions with Lillywhite would become the band's final attempt at recording the album. The frustration of not achieving the right sound and mood in their songs, as well as increasing friction with Go! Discs, who had spent a considerable sum of money on recording sessions for the album, led to them simply giving up on the sessions. Lillywhite pieced together the recordings he had made with the group into what became the eventually released album. The band, particularly Lee Mavers, were not pleased with this decision. Among the band's complaints were that Lillywhite used vocal guide tracks on the LP and that he did not "understand" their sound. In an October 1990 NME interview with Stuart Maconie, Mavers said that he "hated" the album because of the sound, which was "All f---ed up like a snake with a broken back".
However, recognition, at least critically, came for the La's in 1990 when the self-titled album, The La's, was released. The album reached No. 30 in the UK charts and received a Silver certification, but the album did not fare as well overseas. The album only reached No. 196 on the Billboard 200 and to date has sold fewer than 50,000 copies in the U.S. The album included, among new material, re-recorded versions of all the previous singles, including a remixed version of "There She Goes" which was then re-released as a single. This time around, the song reached number 13 in the UK singles chart and remains the most visible and enduring of all the band's songs. Additional singles from the album included the LP versions of "Timeless Melody" and "Feelin'". Both sold reasonably well, reaching chart placings around the top 40. A short promotional tour proceeded, accompanied by television appearances on shows such as Top of the Pops.
1991–2003: John Power's departure and hiatus
1991 promotional tour dates were fulfilled in the UK and Europe including a few festivals, and a US tour. Bassist John Power left the group on 13 December 1991, frustrated with having played essentially the same set of songs since 1986, and resurfaced a year later with his band Cast. The remainder of the 1991 concerts were performed with James Joyce on bass as well as a handful of 1992 dates. The band stopped touring and rehearsing in 1992 until further short-lived reunions, with various line-ups, throughout the 1990s and 2000s.
The La's reunited sporadically for a series of live performances throughout 1994 and 1995. The comeback was brought about due to a merchandising debt from the 1991 U.S. tour and the band played support slots to artists such as Oasis, Paul Weller and Dodgy. The reformed band consisted of differing line-ups for each concert and as well as Lee Mavers other performers included several former members such as Barry Sutton, Lee Garnett, John "Boo" Byrne, James Joyce, Peter "Cammy" Cammell and Neil Mavers.
In 1996, Mavers began recording at The Arch studio in Kew, London owned by ex-The Damned drummer Rat Scabies. Initially working alone, he was later joined in the studio by ex-The Stairs frontman Edgar Jones, Lee Garnett and Neil Mavers. The sessions ended because of damp in the studio, however Mavers and Summertyme continued to rehearse and record in Liverpool for a year. After the collapse of Go! Discs, Mavers recording contract with the label was acquired by PolyGram and eventually expired in 1998. In 1998, Mavers began rehearsing with the then unsigned Liverpool band The Crescent. A bootleg recording of one of these rehearsals known as The Crescent Tape would later leak on to the Internet.
In the late 1990s, Mavers renewed contact with founder member Mike Badger and subsequently two compilation albums of early demos and home recordings were released by The Viper Label (founded by ex-La's Badger and Hemmings), Lost La's 1984–1986: Breakloose (1999) and Lost La's 1986–1987: Callin' All (2001). A Japan only compilation album Singles Collection (2001) was released by Universal Music Japan containing all of the band's singles and b-sides released from 1987 to 1991. A biography about the band In Search of The La's: A Secret Liverpool by MW Macefield was published in 2003. The book contained interviews with many former members of the La's including Lee Mavers, John Power, Mike Badger, Paul Hemmings, Barry Sutton, Peter "Cammy" Cammell and Neil Mavers.
2004–present: Reformations
Following a reunion between Mavers and John Power, The La's reformed in June 2005 with a line-up of Lee Mavers (vocals, guitar), John Power (bass, backing vocals), ex-Cracatilla frontman Jay Lewis (guitar) and Nick Miniski (drums), playing dates in England and Ireland ahead of an appearance at the Summer Sonic festival in Japan as well as a spot at the 2005 Glastonbury Festival and other UK festivals. After three concerts, Miniski was replaced as drummer by roadie Jim "Jasper" Fearon, who was Mavers' school friend and one time bass player for the La's. The set lists were mostly the same as in the late 1980s, although certain encores contained some previously unheard songs such as "Gimme the Blues" and "Sorry". Since the reunion gigs it has been rumoured that Mavers has continued working on the La's' elusive second album. When interviewed in August 2006, John Power explained that Mavers was still "tinkering with something that's majestic" and of the release date, "I can’t tell you where and when...' cos whatever he does, whether it’s in this lifetime or the next, it can’t be rushed".
A compilation of the La's' live radio sessions BBC in Session was released on 18 September 2006. In 2008, a new deluxe edition of The La's was released containing the lost Mike Hedges album, alternate recordings and live recordings for radio and television including previously unreleased songs "I Am the Key" and a Buddy Holly cover "That'll Be the Day". Also Lost Tunes (2008) was released as a download only EP of studio out-takes and alternate recordings.
After being introduced to each other by Gary Murphy of The Bandits, Lee Mavers began jamming with Pete Doherty in 2008 and appeared on stage with Doherty during his 2009 tour. Mavers then started performing live with artists such as Drew McConnell and Jon McClure in London in April 2009. In 2009 Babyshambles drummer Adam Ficek revealed plans of the La's' second album to be recorded with the Babyshambles as backing band and Drew McConnell revealed plans for him to join The La's as bassist; however, this supposed lineup did not materialise and live appearances were cancelled. In 2010, a four-disc box-set of singles, b-sides, studio out-takes, alternate recordings and live material Callin' All (2010) was released by Polydor which collected most of the band's still unreleased recordings produced whilst signed to Go! Discs.
In June 2011 Lee Mavers, accompanied by Gary Murphy on bass guitar, played a surprise concert in Manchester under the name Lee Rude & The Velcro Underpants. Following this Mavers and Murphy reformed the La's and played a series of "stripped back" shows across the UK and Europe including a performance at Rock en Seine festival in France in August 2011.
Musical style and legacy
Lee Mavers has described their sound as "rootsy" and "raw and organic", whilst AllMusic have noted the band's "simple, tuneful, acoustic-driven arrangements". The La's were also noted for their distinctly different style to other popular British bands in the late 1980s, such as The Stone Roses and Happy Mondays, who were part of the Madchester movement.
The sound of The La's has been compared to that of Merseybeat and 1960s British rock music, and the band received comparisons with the earlier Liverpudlian band The Beatles. Founding member Mike Badger has named Captain Beefheart as the La's' main influence; the band have also cited artists such as Bo Diddley, Bob Dylan, Louis Armstrong, The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Who, The Kinks, Bob Marley, Pink Floyd, Jimi Hendrix, Duke Ellington, and Ella Fitzgerald as influences.
Noel Gallagher of Oasis named The La's as one of his 13 favourite albums.
The La's have been cited as influences by Oasis, The Courteeners, The Stone Roses, The Charlatans, The Libertines and The 1975.
Pitchfork would name The La’s as one of the best Britpop albums as part of their 50 Best Britpop Albums list, placing the album at #14.
Post-La's activities
Bassist John Power went on to form Cast in 1992, releasing 4 studio albums before splitting in 2001. Guitarists Barry Sutton and Peter Cammell featured in an early lineup of the band. Cast reformed in 2010. In 2016, Jay Lewis who performed with the band in 2005, later joined Cast as bassist.
Mike Badger and Paul Hemmings later played together in The Onset and started The Viper Label, releasing many early recording compilations by the La's.
In the mid-90s, Neil Mavers joined Liverpool group Bullit, featuring David McDonnell, later of The Sand Band.
In 1998, Cammell and drummer Neil Mavers continued to work together after the La's' breakup under the name "Cami". The band was managed by former La's and then-current Cast manager, Rob Swerdlow. The band recorded a nine-track album with future Coldplay producer Ken Nelson at Parr Street Studios in October 1999. However, the band split up leaving the album unreleased. The album tapes re-surfaced in October 2015, with plans for a near-future release. The tapes required "baking" to remove layers of oxide that had formed on the tapes after twenty years; this was carried out at London's FX Copyroom.
Neil Mavers and Cammell briefly reunited once more in 2002, performing with another former La's member, guitarist Barry Sutton in Heavy Lemon. The band played three shows in 18 months before disbanding. Cammell also went on perform with Sutton again in his jam-style project Beatnik Hurricane in 2015, playing dates in Liverpool, including residencies at The Everyman Bistro and a tour of Ireland, most notably a sold-out show in Dublin.
In 2015, previous recordings and demos by Cammell's band surfaced online (most notably the song "Make A Chain") which led to Cammell forming a new band named Cami & The Reverbs, managed by La's associate Chris Parkes. The band consisted of Mick Marshall (guitar, The Joneses) Phil Murphy (drums, The Red Elastic Band) Leon De Sylva (drums, Electrafixion) Daniel Lunt (bass) David 'Swee' Sweeney (drums, The Bandits) and Mark McInnes (bass, The Levons). Cami & The Reverbs played sporadic shows across Liverpool including a support slot with Liverpool group Rain and a Christmas Show at The Zanzibar.
In 2018, a BBC TV comedy-drama series entitled There She Goes features a cover version of the La's song of that name.
Members
Lee Mavers – guitar, vocals (1984–1992, 1994–1995, 2005, 2011)
Mike Badger – guitar, vocals (1983–1986)
Sean Eddleston - guitar (1984)
John "Timmo" Timson – drums (1984–1985, 1986–1987)
Phil Butcher – bass (1984)
Jim "Jasper" Fearon – bass, drums (1985, 2005)
Bernie Nolan – bass (1985–1986)
Tony Clarke – drums (1985–1986)
Paul Rhodes – drums (1986)
Mark Degnan 1984-85 Bass Player (Originally signed with Mike Badger)
John Power – bass, vocals (1986–1991, 2005)
Barry Walsh – drums (1986)
Paul Hemmings – guitar (1987)
Mark Birchall – drums (1987)
Peter "Cammy" Cammell – guitar, bass (1988, 1989–1992, 1994–1995)
Iain Templeton – drums (1988; died 2022)
John "Boo" Byrne – guitar (1988, 1995)
Chris Sharrock – drums (1988–1989)
Barry Sutton – guitar (1988–1989, 1991)
Neil Mavers – drums (1989–1992, 1994–1995)
James Joyce – bass (1991–1992, 1994)
Lee Garnett – guitar (1994–1995)
Jay Lewis – guitar (2005)
Nick Miniski – drums (2005)
Gary Murphy – bass (2011)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Compilation albums
Lost La's 1984–1986: Breakloose (1999)
Singles Collection (2001)
Lost La's 1986–1987: Callin' All (2001)
BBC in Session (2006)
Lost Tunes (2008)
De Freitas Sessions '87 (2010)
Callin' All (2010)
There she goes: the collection (2015)
The La's 1986-1987 (2017)
The La's Live (1986-1987) (2021)
Singles
Other appearances
A Secret Liverpool (1984) "I Don't Like Hanging Around"
Elegance, Charm and Deadly Danger (1985) "My Girl (Sits Like a Reindeer)" and "Sweet 35"
Unearthed: Liverpool Cult Classics, Vol. 1 (2001) "Don't Lock Me Out"
Lo-Fi Acoustic Excursions (2004) "Cool Water"
Lo-Fi Electric Excursions (2006) "Midnight Shift", "Painting Dub", "Space Rocketry"
References
Further reading
External links
the-las.com (forum)
The La's VEVO
English alternative rock groups
British indie rock groups
English rock music groups
British indie pop groups
Jangle pop groups
Britpop groups
Musical groups established in 1983
Musical groups disestablished in 1992
British musical quartets
Musical groups from Liverpool
1983 establishments in England
1992 disestablishments in England
Go! Discs Records artists
Polydor Records artists
The Viper Label artists
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Cast (band)
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Cast are an English indie rock band formed in Liverpool in 1992 by John Power (vocals, guitar) and Peter Wilkinson (backing vocals, bass) after Power left The La's and Wilkinson's former band Shack had split. Following early line-ups with different guitarists and drummers, Liam "Skin" Tyson (guitar) and Keith O'Neill (drums) joined Cast in 1993.
Emerging from the Britpop movement of the mid-1990s, Cast signed to Polydor Records and their debut album All Change (1995) became the highest selling debut album for the label. Further commercial success continued with the albums Mother Nature Calls (1997) and Magic Hour (1999), however a departure in sound on the band's fourth album Beetroot (2001) was met by a poor critical and commercial reaction and contributed to the band's split two weeks after its release.
The band re-formed in November 2010 and released their fifth album Troubled Times in November 2011. Bassist Peter Wilkinson confirmed his departure from the band in March 2015, after abruptly leaving a previous tour in December 2014. He was replaced on that tour and in the band by Power's frequent collaborator Jay Lewis, who would also feature on their sixth album Kicking Up the Dust, which was released on 21 April 2017.
Noel Gallagher of Oasis described watching the band live as being like a "religious experience" and they were labelled "The Who of the 90s". It has been suggested that the name "Cast" was taken from the final word on The La's eponymous album (the song "Looking Glass" ends with the repeated line "The change is cast"); John Power has since confirmed this to be true, despite previously playing the link down to coincidence.
History
1992–1994: formation and early years
John Power was previously the bass player, backing vocalist and only constant member along with Lee Mavers in The La's. He left the band on 13 December 1991 after becoming frustrated with the ever-increasing number of aborted studio sessions, having played essentially the same set of songs since 1986 and emerging as a songwriter in his own right. Power later commented that by that point he was more interested in his own songs "than anyone else’s".
Having switched from bass to rhythm guitar whilst residing at Brucklay House – a near derelict squat in Mossley Hill, where the seeds of legendary dance label 3 Beat Records were sown, Power began jamming with friends and with an ever-changing line-up began to form Cast. The first addition to the band was ex-Shack bassist Peter Wilkinson who had seen Power performing acoustically at a free festival in Liverpool, and who Power had seen around town.". Embryonic lineups of the band, featuring several guitarists including Ged Malley, ex-La's members Barry Sutton and Cammy and drummer Russell Brady started gigging in mid 1992 and supported the likes of Pele and The Stairs. Power would later state that he was never happy with these lineups. Unhappy with the band and the demos recorded with Who sound engineer Bob Pridden, he split the band up and extricated himself from his Go! Discs contract in Summer 1993, with whom he was still signed to following his departure from The La's and set about forming a new lineup with Wilkinson.
The first new member to be recruited was Keith O'Neill who had previously played in The Empty Hours, The Windmills and Tommy Scott's pre-Space band The Australians and who Power had seen playing in local band The Windmills, fronted by Howie Payne later of The Stands and then guitarist Liam 'Skin' Tyson, who Wilkinson knew from college and had previously played in Pyramid Dream. When approached to join the band, Tyson initially declined as he had sold all of his musical equipment to teach canoeing at an outdoor centre in Alston in Cumbria. Tyson, who witnessed one of the band's early London shows and commented that "John had these songs, but not the band", joined the band in November 1993 and the new lineup played their first gig in Hull in January 1994.
Within months the band secured high-profile support slots with Elvis Costello on two UK tours, including 2 nights at the Royal Albert Hall and Oasis. It was during the tour with Oasis that Polydor head of A&R Paul Adam, surprised that the band had not already been snapped up, approached the band to sign them. The band signed to Polydor on 13 December 1994, three years to the day that Power left The La's.
1995–1998: record deal and success
The band released their debut single "Finetime" in July 1995, which went straight in at No. 17. The follow-up single "Alright", a song originally written and performed a handful of times whilst still in The La's under the original title "Fly On" became the band's first Top 15 hit in the UK, peaking at No. 13 in the singles chart.
The band's debut album All Change, released October 1995 was produced by John Leckie who had previously worked with The Stone Roses and The Verve and had also previously worked with Power in The La's. The album shot to No. 7 in the UK charts, reaching double platinum and went on to become the fastest selling debut album in the history of the Polydor label, outselling the likes of The Jimi Hendrix Experience, The Who and The Jam. A further two singles were taken from the album in "Sandstorm" (#8) and "Walkaway" (#9), both top ten hits.
A stand-alone single was released in October 1996 titled "Flying", which reached No. 4 on the UK singles chart, giving the band their highest chart position in the UK yet.
With their second album Mother Nature Calls, released April 1997 the "rockier material was now sounding looser and cockier in a Stonesy or Faces-ish way and the moodier tracks awash with melancholic atmosphere". The band worked again with John Leckie. The album peaked at No. 3, reaching platinum and stayed in the Top 40 for over 6 months. The album spawned three top ten hits in "Free Me" (#7), "Guiding Star" (#9), "Live the Dream" (#7) and one top twenty hit with the 4th single from the album "I'm So Lonely" (#14), a ballad written during a period of bleak loneliness in a Japanese hotel room.
Power revealed that the album title was supposed to be tongue in cheek, because Mother Nature is always calling because of man's mortality, but also because he was on the toilet at the time he came up with the name. Although The Daily Telegraph proclaimed "Employing the spiritual terms of Power's lyrics, Cast may be the perfect Taoist band. They don't seem to try. Cast just are.", the album received largely mixed reviews in the press, Power later blamed this on the fact that it was more of a slow burner than the more instant All Change and claimed that a number of critics later told him that repeated listens had changed their perceptions of the album.
1999–2001: Post-Britpop and split
By the time the band set to work on their third album, Magic Hour, released May 1999 the Britpop movement was faltering – a number of Cast's contemporaries, such as Kula Shaker and The Seahorses had disbanded, Suede and Mansun were experiencing a drop in record sales from their previous efforts and label mates Shed Seven and Medal had been dropped by Polydor. Amid the changing musical climate, the band enlisted Gil Norton who had previously produced The Pixies and the band moved towards a heavier riff based sound. Power described the album as "21st century rock'n'roll" and "Walt Disney doing Quadrophenia".
The first single from "Magic Hour" was "Beat Mama", with the band using loops and samples on the record for the first to give the material a more modern feel, Power described the song as "a call to everyone, a beat for everyone to move to, like the old Kia-Ora advert with the dog and the crows". The song became the band's last top ten hit, peaking at No. 9. In a chart now awash with teen pop the album shot to No. 6. A second and final single was taken from the album "Magic Hour", which stalled at No. 28. Momentum was lost due to a lack of touring and Power also later criticised the choice of single, suggesting the band should have gone with something more uptempo. A planned third single was scrapped after disagreements between the band and label. Following the release and short lived promotion of the album, Power stated that he believed with three albums under Cast's belt that a chapter had finished.
Power began writing in early 2000 for the follow-up, Beetroot, released July 2001. Although the band were initially set to work with John Leckie, Power met producer and programmer Tristin Norwell who he was interested in working with, as he was "up on now, the sounds of now and someone who I can talk to with an acoustic". The pair worked on the album together for 3 months before moving to another studio, where other members of the band contributed. Bassist Peter Wilkinson was not present for much of the recording due to the birth of his son, guitarist Skin Tyson mostly featured only as rhythm guitarist and most of the drums were cut up and looped. The album was based largely on loops and featured heavy use of horns and flutes and deliberately moved away from the bands guitar sound, as Power claimed the band "wanted to come back with something that feels fresh and enticing", describing the material as being groovier and talked of having a desire of "combining this sort of Marley and funkadelic stuff or Sly and the Family that I’ll get into as much as I get into Townshend and Lennon".
Only one single was released from the album, "Desert Drought" which stalled at No. 45 in the charts. The album fared worse, crawling to No. 78. Following the cancellation of a planned UK Autumn tour due to "internal band circumstances", Cast split in August 2001 just one month after the release of the album. It had been rumoured in the UK tabloid press that the band had been dropped by Polydor and that Power had walked out of the band. However, a spokesman for the band at the time denied the band were splitting, that they were merely taking time out to work on solo projects. John Power released a statement to deny any rifts in the band and that this was "just the beginning of a new musical chapter", but would later admit that there were many internal differences in the band by the end, that “some of the band didn’t like it (the album Beetroot) and looking back, it should have been a solo album" and that half of the band didn't want to be involved any more. In 2013, Power admitted that the album was "still a slight bone of contention with the rest of the band. They’ve never got over it".
Power revealed that "when Cast split, it was the same as when The La's fell apart. You pretend everything is okay, but it's not. I was really down, really depressed".
2001–2009: After split
Following the split, John Power released a solo album entitled Happening For Love in 2003 through Eagle Rock Entertainment and 2 further solo albums more in the acoustic folk vein through Tanuki Tanuki, a label set up by former La's A&R man and his then manager Jona Cox. He has toured regularly as The John Power Band (which has featured Steve Pilgrim of The Stands and Jay Lewis and Nick Miniski of the 2005 lineup of The La's) as well as performing solo acoustic shows. In 2005, Power played a series of gigs with newly re-formed The La's. The band didn't showcase any new material and have not been heard from again.
Peter Wilkinson, along with the band's live keyboardist Paul Ellison joined Echo & The Bunnymen and appeared on the 2005 album Siberia before leaving shortly after to rejoin the re-formed Shack. In 2002 he released a solo album via The Viper Label under the guise of Aviator with help from O'Neill, Paul Ellison and former La's guitarist Paul Hemmings. In 2003 Wilkinson and O'Neill briefly joined Kealer with Manchester singer-songwriter Jason Kelly and then set to work with ex-Stairs guitarist Carl Cook on a follow-up to the first Aviator album in early 2004 which was seemingly shelved. He then formed the short lived DC-10.
Wilkinson has also recorded and toured with a number of other artists including Ian McCulloch and The Hours and more recently has started composing music for TV commercials.
Keith O'Neill, following stints with Aviator and Kealer went on to work as part of the management team at Deltasonic Records before going on to work as a tour and production manager with bands such as the now-defunct Liverpool band Dead 60s, Babyshambles, Art Garfunkel, Lostprophets. and Foals.
Liam Tyson joined Robert Plant's band, Strange Sensation in early 2002, touring Plant's album Dreamland before appearing on and co-writing the follow-up Mighty ReArranger. He then set about working on his Men From Mars project in 2004, originally set to feature Wilkinson and O'Neill, with others members of Strange Sensation.
2010–present: reunion
Power undertook a "Cast Acoustic Show" tour in June 2010, where he played a set of Cast songs along with new tracks written over the past year for a potential new Cast album. On 22 June, it was officially announced by NME that the band were to re-form, with plans to work on new material. The band toured the UK in November and December to mark the 15th anniversary of All Change. A deluxe edition of All Change was released on 25 October that year, to tie in with the re-union and 15th anniversary of the album, containing the original album re-mastered plus b-sides, outtakes, demos and live recordings.
On 6 November, John Power appeared on British TV show Soccer AM, and stated that Cast would be starting work on a new album in early 2011, and that it would be released via Pledgemusic.
Cast released their fifth studio album, Troubled Times, produced by John Leckie, initially as a download to pledgers through Pledgemusic on 2 November 2011, with a physical release in March 2012. The album featured drummer Steve Pilgrim, who also completed a short tour with the band in December 2011. The future of original drummer O'Neill is uncertain with the band, as he is regularly unable to take part in recording and touring due to work commitments as a tour manager. In response to a fan's query on Twitter, he stated that a tour in early 2012 should feature the original line-up unless he is "called upon by a major client".
The band released new song Baby Blue Eyes as a free download on 13 November 2014 from an as yet unrecorded and untitled album due for release in 2015. The band embarked on a UK tour in December 2014, with drummer Steve Pilgrim replacing Keith O'Neill. Peter Wilkinson abruptly left the tour after the first night of the tour in Hull due to "personal reasons", and was replaced the following night by former La's guitarist Jay Lewis. Keith O'Neill re-joined the band on the tour on 14 December, following the cancellation of the remainder of Johnny Marr's US tour which he was tour managing. During the tour, Power commented that Wilkinson "won't be back for a while he has some personal issues".
In March 2015, Wilkinson confirmed he had left the band and therefore wouldn't be working on their forthcoming album or touring with the band, stating that "without going into too much detail, I don't really want to do it any more" and added that "they play the same set we were playing twenty years ago and I just thought "I can't do that any more - I can't engage with it". Power responded, stating that "we can all breathe easier in the knowledge that all those moments of second guessing and all them feelings of negativity. The toxic and uncreative atmosphere where everyone was feeling something's not quite right were indeed actually quite right. So the weight of carting a problem from room to room has been lifted and Pete can liberate himself and liberate the rest of us from what was becoming a drag and we can get on with being a band and recording new material as opposed to trying placate someone whose body language was telling us something right from the off and that was Pete had bigger issues to deal with other than dealing with Cast."
Despite Wilkinson's departure from Cast, he would still involve his former band-mates in his project Aviator, with O'Neill on drums for live shows and Tyson contributing guitar on "The Gift". In May 2017, Wilkinson also tweeted that he had spent a couple of hours with Power, and Power confirmed the amicable nature of their encounter. Meanwhile, Cast resumed recording and touring with Jay Lewis as a full member of the band, with Power crediting Lewis as helping the band regain its creativity.
In November 2015, the band set up a Pledge Music campaign to fund the recording of their next studio album which was due for release in April 2016. The same year, the band signed to Creation Management, the newly formed music management company run by Alan McGee and Simon Fletcher. The album was delayed due to scheduling conflicts and continued work in the studio, and the band's sixth studio album Kicking Up the Dust was eventually released 21 April 2017. A band member had incorrectly claimed the main reason for the delay was that they had signed a major label record deal with Warner Music Group, but in fact they had self-financed the distribution of the album using Warners owned distribution network Alternative Distribution Alliance and remain unsigned.
Due to Tyson's touring commitments with Robert Plant to promote the latter's latest album Carry Fire (which includes several songs co-written by Tyson), he was unable to participate in Cast's U.K. shows from late November to mid-December 2017. In his absence, Lewis switched from bass to lead guitar, and filling in on bass was Martyn Campbell, best known as a member of The Lightning Seeds and a close friend of O'Neill's who had toured together with the drummer as part of Kealer's backing band. Campbell had also played bass on Power's debut solo album Happening for Love and on Richard Ashcroft albums. After fulfilling his duties with Robert Plant, Tyson returned to Cast halfway through their tour, in which they were the opening act for Shed Seven.
On 2 May 2018, Cast announced the November release of the compilation Singles 1995-2017, coinciding with a month-long, 13-date Greatest Hits Tour across the U.K. from 23 November to 22 December.
Band members
Current
John Power – vocals, guitar (1992–2001, 2010–present)
Liam "Skin" Tyson – guitar (1993–2001, 2010–present)
Keith O'Neill – drums (1993–2001, 2010–present)
Jay Lewis – bass (2015–present)
Former
Ged Malley – guitar (1992)
Barry Sutton – guitar (1992)
Peter "Cammy" Cammell – guitar (1993)
Russell Brady – drums (1992–1993)
Peter Wilkinson – bass, backing vocals (1992–2001, 2010–2014)
Former live
Paul Ellison – keyboards
Discography
Studio albums
Compilation albums
The Collection (2004)
The Complete BBC Sessions (2007)
Singles 1995–2017 (2018)
Singles
References
External links
English pop music groups
English alternative rock groups
Britpop groups
Polydor Records artists
Musical groups established in 1992
Musical groups disestablished in 2001
Musical groups reestablished in 2010
English musical quartets
Musical groups from Liverpool
Live Here Now artists
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387468
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bis%20%28Scottish%20band%29
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Bis (Scottish band)
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Bis ( , stylised as bis) are a Scottish indie pop band composed of Steven Clark (Sci-Fi Steven), John Clark (John Disco), and Amanda MacKinnon (Manda Rin), formed in 1994. The band's name, rhyming with 'this', derives from "black iron skyline", a lyric from the song "Twilight of a Champion" by The The. After releasing numerous cult EPs and three studio albums (1997's The New Transistor Heroes, 1999's Social Dancing, and 2001's Return To Central) the band broke up in 2003, but re-formed briefly in 2007 for a series of concerts. In 2009 they once again re-formed (adding a bass player and a drummer to the band lineup) and released the album data Panik etcetera in 2014. The album Slight Disconnects was released in February 2019 with the band lineup returning to the original core three-piece. An archival album, Music For Animations, consisting of music recorded in 2004 for CBBC kids TV show BB3B, was released in 2020. In 2021 the band self-released a cassette-only live album entitled The Fan Club Tapes Vol. 1 - Live In Toulouse 1997 (their second self-released live album after Play Some Real Songs in 2001). Low Level (A Return To Central Travel Companion) - a CD consisting of previously unreleased material recorded during the Return To Central sessions - was also released in 2021. In October 2022 Systems Music For Home Defence was released, which Sci-Fi Steven has described as the band's "rave" album.
History
1994–1997: Formation and early history
The three musicians formed Bis in late 1994 while Rin and Disco were in secondary school, Woodfarm High School, and Steven who had recently finished there. After releasing their first singles Transmissions On The Teen-C Tip! and Disco Nation 45 the following year, they appeared on BBC Television's Top of the Pops in 1996 performing "Kandy Pop" from their The Secret Vampire Soundtrack EP ahead of its release. Additionally in 1996 Steven contributed drums and keyboards to post-rock band Ganger’s 12-inch EP Half Nelson.
Bis were the first unsigned band ever on Top of the Pops. Kandy Pop came 49th in a reader poll of the 50 Greatest Britpop Songs Ever (https://www.nme.com/photos/50-greatest-britpop-songs-ever-as-voted-by-you-1434108)
Bis released a number of EPs (The Secret Vampire Soundtrack, Bis vs. The D.I.Y Corps, Atom-Powered Action! and This Is Teen-C Power!), three of which entered the UK Singles Chart in 1996, followed by several singles between 1997 and 1999. They contributed a song to the Gary Numan tribute album Random in 1997. Two of the band's early releases (Disco Nation 45 and The Secret Vampire Soundtrack) were on Glasgow's Chemikal Underground label, run by the Delgados, and the band released one EP (Bis Vs. The D.I.Y Corps) on their own Teen-C Recordings label, before they transferred to Wiiija where labelmates included Cornershop. In the United States, their records appeared on the underground label K Records, and on the Beastie Boys' Grand Royal label. They toured extensively both in the UK and abroad, their diverse influences reflected in the kinds of acts they appeared with; Foo Fighters, Garbage, Luscious Jackson, Gary Numan, and Pavement amongst them. The group became a favourite of the likes of Blur, John Peel and Green Day, despite a particularly hostile review by Steven Wells in the New Musical Express entitled "The Sinking of the Bis Lark".
The Teen-C Revolution
Sleeve artwork for the band's early releases featured a consistent "cut’n’paste" visual aesthetic and typewritten text in line with the band's interests in zine culture, DIY and punk. The band produced the fanzines Funky Spunk and Paper Bullets and advertised these in record liner notes. Manda Rin's manga-influenced artwork adorned early record sleeves contributing to a defiantly "twee" and self-consciously "cute" aesthetic. Lyrical content frequently covered juvenile or lowbrow topics (such as candy, vampires, 80s cinema, disco and school) as well as more overtly political subject matter with songs addressing feminism, body image, cynicism towards the music industry, homophobia and the experience of the outsider. The band was heavily influenced by the approach of cult punk band The Nation Of Ulysses. Liner notes often made reference to "The Teen-C Tip" and outlined the band's vision for a "Teen-C Revolution" involving various factions in the Bis canon such as the "Disco Nation", "Secret Vampires", "Atom-Powered Action Gang", "Icky-Poo Air Raiderz", "Sweet Shop Avengerz", "New Transistor Heroes" and the "D.I.Y Corps". The Teen-C Revolution (and its adherents, the "Teen-C Nation") effectively advocated for self-empowerment, independence and perpetual adolescence (as well as the right to enjoy both disco and punk) - in part it was an embrace of "deceptively dangerous" cuteness, the positive energy of youthful exuberance, a knee-jerk rejection of enforced maturity and the dour responsibilities of adulthood, and a rallying cry against blandness, normality and "yr geetarawk".
Songs that directly mention Teen-C include "Teen-C Power", "Team Theme", "Tell It To The Kids", "Sweet Shop Avengerz", "Rebel Soul", "Ninja Hi Skool" and "Cliquesuck".
1997–2003: Rise to fame and breakup
From 1997 to 2001, Bis released three mainstream albums: The New Transistor Heroes (1997), Social Dancing (1999), and Return to Central (2001). A compilation of non-album tracks entitled Intendo was released in 1998. That same year Manda Rin contributed vocals to the J Church album Cat Food. The band enjoyed a period of success in Japan, selling nearly 100,000 copies of their debut album in its first week of release, but future releases failed to match its success in Japan. The single "Eurodisco", from Social Dancing, became a minor success for the band in Australia as well as the UK. Their single "Detour" was also given some radio airplay in the U.S. and was included in the 2000 film Bring It On. The six-track EP Music For A Stranger World was released in 2000 and featured increasing electronic elements which would later become more prominent on Return To Central. Also in 2000 Sci-Fi Steven (adopting the pseudonym "Marco Stiletto") formed the duo Italian Electro with partner "Angelino Vampyro" - Catmobile Records released their sole output (the track "Don’t Come Back Alone") that year on a split 7-inch with Kumari.
Bis gained some American popularity in 1998, when they recorded the closing credits theme to the animated series The Powerpuff Girls. They also did a punk version of the theme for 2002's The Powerpuff Girls Movie. The four-song EP Fukd I.D. #5 was released in 2001 through Chemikal Underground. Bis contributed a remix of their song "Statement of Intent" to the 2002 game Jet Set Radio Future. The four-song 12-inch EP Fact 2002 paying tribute to Factory Records was released in 2002 through Optimo Singles Club and featured cover versions of Joy Division, New Order, A Certain Ratio and Section 25. The band broke up in March 2003, after playing a farewell show at King Tut's Wah Wah Hut.
2003–2009: Solo projects
The band members remained active in the local music scene. Steven and John Disco produced music together as the duo Dirty Hospital (releasing multiple 12-inchs on their own label Rottenrow Records) and Rin acted as a DJ. Disco (with Ally Christie) formed Kempston, Protek & Fuller who released the 12-inch Fukd I.D. #8 - 12k Boost Boost in 2003 on Chemikal Underground. Rin was also in a duo called The Kitchen with Ryan Seagrist of Discount (debut album Foreign Objects released on Damaged Goods in 2004), whilst Disco joined the ska band, The Amphetameanies, which included members of Belle & Sebastian, Franz Ferdinand and Pink Kross. Also in 2004 Rin contributed vocals to the album I Met The Music by Meister.
In 2005, the band announced on the official Bis website that together they had formed a new band called data Panik, with Stuart Memo on bass and drummer Graham Christie. After releasing two 7-inch singles, however, this band split up. Also in 2005, Bis performed in animated form on the CBBC children's cartoon BB3B.
As of 2006 Rin was working on solo material. In 2007 she teamed up with the Scottish electro-pop outfit, Juno!, and has collaborated on their independently released singles, "Smoke & Mirrors" and "These Boys Are Athletes", as well as regularly appearing live with the band, most recently at the Rock Ness 2008 Festival.
To celebrate the 10-year anniversary of the release of their debut album The New Transistor Heroes, Bis reformed in April 2007 for three shows in Glasgow, Manchester, and London. A greatest hits compilation, titled We Are Bis from Glasgow, Scotland, was released on compact disc to coincide with these shows.
In August 2008, Rin released the solo single "DNA", which she followed up with the release of her debut album, My DNA with This Is Fake DIY in September 2008.
In 2009, Disco (using the moniker John Hospital) released a digital-only solo EP The Truant on Pest Control Records.
2009–2017: Reunion and fourth album
In November 2009, Rin announced that the band would reform to play at the Primavera Festival in May 2010, returning this time with a bassist and drummer, former data Panik members, Stuart Memo and Graham Christie, respectively.
Rin made two guest appearances on the BBC music quiz programme Never Mind the Buzzcocks (on 18 November 2010 and 19 January 2011). She also teamed up with Hyperbubble on a track for their 2011 album Drastic Cinematic. Rin would go on to work with Hyperbubble again on the 2013 EP Hyperbubble + Manda Rin. Around 2011 John Disco began releasing solo electronic material under the moniker Debukas, with his debut solo LP I Am Machinery appearing in 2013 on the label 20:20 Vision.
In 2013 Rin contributed lead vocals to the track "Crack On, Have A Booze" which appeared on the album Why Do Birds Suddenly Appear by punk rock/oi! band Hard Skin.
In February 2014, Bis announced they would release their fourth album, data Panik etcetera, on 15 May on Rough Trade Records. The album was made available for streaming at NME on 28 April.
The same year, the band's first three albums were re-released as double CD deluxe editions by the Do Yourself In label.
Circa 2014, Rin provided the artwork for an iPhone game called "All Fridges Are Psychotic".
In 2015 Sci-Fi Steven began releasing solo material under the moniker Batteries with Do Yourself In Records releasing the self-titled debut album Batteries in 2015 and sophomore album The Finishing Line in 2016.
2017–present: Fifth album and beyond
In October 2017, the band announced that they were working on their fifth album. Slight Disconnects was released in February 2019 on Last Night From Glasgow. They also returned to a three piece with only Manda, John and Steven being in the lineup.
In 2020 Last Night From Glasgow released Music For Animations, an archival album consisting of the music recorded for the CBBC kids cartoon BB3B.
In 2021 the band self-released a cassette-only live album The Fan Club Tapes Vol. 1 - Live In Toulouse 1997 and Komponist released Low Level (A Return To Central Travel Companion) - a collection of previously unreleased material recorded parallel to Return To Central.
In October 2022 the album Systems Music For Home Defence was released on Last Night From Glasgow.
Members
Manda Rin – vocals, keyboards, drums (1994–2003; 2007; 2009–present)
Sci-Fi Steven – vocals, guitar, keyboards (1994–2003; 2007; 2009–present)
John Disco – vocals, guitar, bass guitar (1994–2003; 2007; 2009–present)
Stuart Memo – bass guitar (2009–2014)
Graham Christie – drums (2009–2014)
Discography
Studio albums
Live albums
Play Some Real Songs: A Bis Live CD (2001, only sold through the Bis website)
The Fan Club Tapes Vol. 1 - Live In Toulouse 1997 (2021, self-released, cassette only, limited to 100 copies)
Compilation albums
Icky-Poo Air Raid (1997, Rock)
Intendo (1998, Grand Royal)
I Love Bis (2001, Micro Inc.)
Plastique Nouveau (2002, spinART)
We Are Bis from Glasgow, Scotland (2007, Cherry Red)
The Anthology - 20 Years of Antiseptic Poetry (2014, Do Yourself In Records)
Low Level (A Return To Central Travel Companion) (2021, Komponist)
Soundtrack albums
Music For Animations (2020, Last Night From Glasgow)
Extended plays
Transmissions on the Teen-C Tip! (1995, Acuarela)
Disco Nation 45 (1995, Chemikal Underground)
The Secret Vampire Soundtrack (1996, Chemikal Underground) UK No. 25, SCO No. 16
Bis vs. the D.I.Y. Corps (1996, teen-c recordings) UK No. 45, SCO No. 47
Atom-Powered Action! (1996, Wiiija) UK No. 54, SCO No. 29
This Is Teen-C Power! (1996, Grand Royal)
Techno Disco Lovers (1998, V2 & PIAS)
Music for a Stranger World (2000, Wiiija, Lookout! & V2)
fukd ID No. 5 (2001, Chemikal Underground)
Fact 2002 (2001, Optimo Singles Club and Other Related Recordings)
Plastique 33 (2002, spinART)
Mechanical Love (2014, Do Yourself In Records)
You Wrecked My Christmas (2017, Last Night From Glasgow, Snowflake)
John Peel Session 14.10.95 (2023, Precious Recordings Of London)
John Peel Session 16.06.96 (2023, Precious Recordings Of London)
Singles
"Sweet Shop Avengerz" (1997, Tristar/Sony) – (1997, Wiiija) UK No. 46, SCO No. 37
"Everybody Thinks That They're Going to Get Theirs" (1997, Wiiija & Shock) – (1997, Tristar/Sony) UK No. 64, SCO No. 56
"Tell It to the Kids" (1997, Sony Japan)
"Kid Cut (Demo Version)" (1997) (One-sided 7-inch single given out at gigs in Glasgow and London)
"Eurodisco" (1998, Wiiija, Grand Royal/Capitol) UK No. 37, AUS No. 54, BE No. 41, SCO No. 27
"Action and Drama" (1999, Wiiija, Shock) UK No. 50, SCO No. 45
"Detour" (1999, Wiiija & Grand Royal) UK No. 80, SCO No. 72
"What You're Afraid Of" (2001, spinART)
"Protection" (2001, Tilt)
"The End Starts Today" (2002, Artful)
"Rulers and the States" (2014, Rough Trade)
"Keep Your Darkness" (2014, Do Yourself In Records)
"Minimum Wage" (2014, Do Yourself In Records)
"Twilight Cafe" (2014, Do Yourself In Records)
Split singles
Ché Trading Limited Presents… Bis and The Golden Mile versus The Delgados and Merzbow 2×7″: "In Stealth" – The Golden Mile b/w "I’ve Only Just Started To Breathe" – The Delgados and "Icky-Poo Air Raid" – Bis b/w "Iro Moyo" – Merzbow (1995, Ché Trading)
"Trophy Girlfriend" – Heavenly b/w "Keroleen" – Bis (1996, K)
"Pop Song" / "Clockwork Punk" – Bis b/w "Rococo Neggro" / "Harrap Ageing Fast" – Lugworm (1997, Guided Missile)
"Signal in the Sky (Let's Go)" – The Apples in Stereo b/w "The Powerpuff Girls (End Theme)" – Bis (2000, Kid Rhino)
"Minimum Wage" – Bis b/w "Hair Metal Shame" – Ghosts of Dead Airplanes (2014, Do Yourself In Records)
"Boredom Could Be Good For You" – Bis b/w "Tear It Up And Start Again" – Big Zero (2016, Do Yourself In Records)
Various artist compilations
Disco Sucks (1996, Ché Trading) – "Icky-Poo Air Raid"
Songs About Plucking (1996, Fierce Panda) – "Super James"
The Smiths Is Dead (1996, Small Records) – "The Boy with the Thorn in His Side"
Casper: A Spirited Beginning: The Soundtrack (1997, EMI-Capitol) – "Kandy Pop"
Random (1997, Beggars Banquet) – "We Are So Fragile"
Uproar - 17 Indie Essentials (1998, BBC Radio 1/MCI) – "Kill Yr Boyfriend (Live)"
At Home with the Groovebox (2000, Grand Royal) – "Oh My"
The Powerpuff Girls – Heroes and Villains (2000, Rhino Entertainment) – "Fight the Power" and "The Powerpuff Girls (End Theme)"
The Powerpuff Girls – The City of Soundsville (2001, Rhino Entertainment) – "Super Secret City of Soundsville Song"
The Powerpuff Girls – Power Pop (2003, Rhino Entertainment) – "Powerpunk End Theme"
Last Night From Glasgow Isolation Sessions - March and April 2020 (2020, Last Night From Glasgow) – "Dial Up Internet Is The Purest Internet"
Music videos
"Kandy Pop" (1996)
"This Is Fake D.I.Y" (1996)
"Starbright Boy" (1997)
"Sweet Shop Avengerz" (1997)
"Tell it to the Kids" (1997)
"Everybody Thinks That They're Going to Get Theirs" (1997)
"Eurodisco" (1998)
"Action and Drama" (1999)
"Detour" (1999)
"The End Starts Today (Single Edit)" (2001)
"Sound Of A Heartbreak" (2019)
"There Is No Point (Other Than The Point That There Is No Point)" (2019)
"Lucky Night" (2022)
References
External links
Bis Nation (official website)
Muuma 2008 interview (English and Spanish) with Manda Rin
Audiojunkies Interview with Manda Rin
Bis interview, July 1997
Flag Hippo All Fridges Are Psychotic website
1994 establishments in Scotland
Scottish indie pop groups
British synth-pop groups
Musical groups established in 1994
Sibling musical groups
Musical groups from Glasgow
Scottish pop music groups
Chemikal Underground artists
SpinART Records artists
Scottish pop punk groups
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387507
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%20water%20wars
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California water wars
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The California Water Wars were a series of political conflicts between the city of Los Angeles and farmers and ranchers in the Owens Valley of Eastern California over water rights.
As Los Angeles expanded during the late 19th century, it began outgrowing its water supply. Fred Eaton, mayor of Los Angeles, promoted a plan to take water from Owens Valley to Los Angeles via an aqueduct. The aqueduct construction was overseen by William Mulholland and was finished in 1913. The water rights were acquired through political fighting and, as described by one author, "chicanery, subterfuge ... and a strategy of lies".
Water from the Owens River started being diverted to Los Angeles in 1913, precipitating conflict and eventual ruin of the valley's economy. By the 1920s, so much water was diverted from the Owens Valley that agriculture became difficult. This led to the farmers trying to destroy the aqueduct in 1924. Los Angeles prevailed and kept the water flowing. By 1926, Owens Lake at the bottom of Owens Valley was completely dry due to water diversion.
The water needs of Los Angeles kept growing. In 1941, Los Angeles diverted water that previously fed Mono Lake, north of Owens Valley, into the aqueduct. Mono Lake's ecosystem for migrating birds was threatened by dropping water levels. Between 1979 and 1994, David Gaines and the Mono Lake Committee engaged in litigation with Los Angeles. The litigation forced Los Angeles to stop diverting water from around Mono Lake, which has started to rise back to a level that can support its ecosystem.
Owens Valley context
The Paiute natives were the inhabitants of the valley in the early 1800s, and used irrigation to grow crops.
In 1833, Joseph Reddeford Walker led the first known expedition into the central California area that would later be called the Owens Valley. Walker saw that the valley's soil conditions were inferior to those on the other side of the Sierra Nevada range, and that runoff from the mountains was absorbed into the arid desert ground. After the United States gained control of California in 1848, the first public land survey conducted by A.W. von Schmidt from 1855 to 1856 was an initial step in securing government control of the valley. Von Schmidt reported that the valley's soil was not good for agriculture except for the land near streams, and stated that the "Owens Valley [was] worthless to the White Man."
In 1861, Samuel Bishop and other ranchers started to raise cattle on the luxuriant grasses that grew in the Owens Valley. The ranchers came into conflict with the Paiutes over land and water use, and most of the Paiutes were driven away from the valley by the U.S. Army in 1863 during the Owens Valley Indian War.
Many settlers came to the area for the promise of riches from mining. The availability of water from the Owens River made farming and raising livestock attractive. The Homestead Act of 1862 gave pioneers five years to claim and take title of their land for a small filing fee and a charge of $1.25 per acre. The Homestead Act limited the land an individual could own to in order to create small farms.
The amount of public land settled by the late 1870s and early 1880s was still relatively small. The Desert Land Act of 1877 allowed individuals to acquire more area, up to , in hopes of drawing more settlers by giving them enough land to make their settlement and land expenses worthwhile, but "included no residency requirements". By 1886, rapid acquisition of land had begun and by the mid-1890s, most of the land in the Owens Valley had been claimed. The large number of claims made by land speculators hindered the region's development because speculators would not participate in developing canals and ditches.
Before the Los Angeles Aqueduct, most of the of canals and ditches that constituted the irrigation system in the Owens Valley were in the north, while the southern region of the valley was mostly inhabited by people raising livestock. The irrigation systems created by the ditch companies did not have adequate drainage and as a result oversaturated the soil to the point where crops could not be raised. The irrigation systems also significantly lowered the water level in the Owens Lake, a process that was intensified later by the diversion of water through the Los Angeles Aqueduct. At the start of the 20th century, the northern part of the Owens Valley turned to raising fruit, poultry and dairy.
Los Angeles Aqueduct
Frederick Eaton and William Mulholland were two of the more visible principals in the California water wars. They were friends, having worked together in the private Los Angeles Water Company in the 1880s. In 1886, Eaton became City Engineer and Mulholland became superintendent of the Water Company. In 1898, Eaton was elected mayor of Los Angeles and was instrumental in converting the Water Company to city control in 1902. When the company became the Los Angeles Water Department, Mulholland continued to be superintendent, due to his extensive knowledge of the water system.
Eaton and Mulholland had a vision of a Los Angeles that would become far larger than the Los Angeles of the start of the 20th century. The limiting factor of Los Angeles's growth was water supply. "If you don't get the water, you won't need it," Mulholland famously remarked.
Eaton and Mulholland realized that the Owens Valley had a large amount of runoff from the Sierra Nevada, and a gravity-fed aqueduct could deliver the Owens water to Los Angeles.
Obtaining water rights 1902–1907
At the start of the 20th century, the United States Bureau of Reclamation, at the time known as the United States Reclamation Service, was planning on building an irrigation system to help the farmers of the Owens Valley, which would block Los Angeles from diverting the water.
From 1902 to 1905, Eaton and Mulholland used underhanded methods to obtain water rights and block the Bureau of Reclamation. The regional engineer of the Bureau, Joseph Lippincott, was a close associate of Eaton; Eaton was a nominal agent for the Bureau through Lippincott, so Eaton had access to inside information about water rights and could recommend actions to the Bureau that would be beneficial to Los Angeles. In return, while Lippincott was employed by the Bureau, he also served as a paid private consultant to Eaton, advising Los Angeles on how to best obtain water rights.
To help acquire water rights in 1905, Eaton made high offers to purchase land in Owens Valley. Eaton's eagerness aroused suspicion in a few local Inyo County people. Eaton bought land as a private citizen, hoping to sell it back to Los Angeles at a tidy profit. Eaton claimed in an interview with the Los Angeles Express in 1905 that he turned over all his water rights to the City of Los Angeles without being paid for them, "except that I retained the cattle which I had been compelled to take in making the deals ... and mountain pasture land of no value except for grazing purposes". Eaton moved to the Owens Valley to become a cattle rancher on the land he purchased. Eaton always denied that he acted in a deceptive manner.
Mulholland misled Los Angeles public opinion by dramatically understating the amount of water locally available for Los Angeles's growth. Mulholland also misled residents of the Owens Valley: he indicated that Los Angeles would only use unused flows in the Owens Valley, while planning on using the full water rights to fill the aquifer of the San Fernando Valley.
By 1907, Eaton was busy acquiring key water rights and traveling to Washington to meet with advisers of Theodore Roosevelt to convince them that the water of the Owens River would do more good flowing through faucets in Los Angeles than it would if used on Owens Valley fields and orchards.
The dispute over the Owens River water became a political dispute in Washington. Los Angeles needed rights of way across federal land to build the aqueduct. California Senator Frank Flint sponsored a bill to grant the rights of way, but Congressman Sylvester Smith of Inyo County opposed the bill. Smith argued that irrigating Southern California was not more valuable than irrigating Owens Valley. While a compromise was being negotiated, Flint appealed to President Roosevelt. Roosevelt met with Flint, Secretary of the Interior Ethan A. Hitchcock, Bureau of Forests Commissioner Gifford Pinchot, and Director of the Geological Survey Charles D. Walcott. In this meeting, Roosevelt decided in favor of Los Angeles.
Several authors, such as Rolle and Libecap, argue that Los Angeles paid an unfairly low price to the farmers of Owens Valley for their land. Gary Libecap of the University of California, Santa Barbara observed that the price that Los Angeles was willing to pay to other water sources per volume of water was far higher than what the farmers received. Farmers who resisted the pressure from Los Angeles until 1930 received the highest price for their land; most farmers sold their land from 1905 to 1925, and received less than Los Angeles was actually willing to pay. However, the sale of their land brought the farmers substantially more income than if they had kept the land for farming and ranching. None of the sales were made under threat of eminent domain.
The aqueduct was sold to the citizens of Los Angeles as vital to the growth of the city. Unknown to the public, the initial water would be used to irrigate the San Fernando Valley to the north, which was not at the time a part of the city. From a hydrological point of view, the San Fernando Valley was ideal: its aquifer could serve as free water storage without evaporation. One obstacle to the irrigation was the Los Angeles City Charter, which prohibited the sale, lease, or other use of the city's water without a two-thirds approval by the voters. This charter limitation would be avoided through the annexation of a large portion of the San Fernando Valley to the city. The annexation would also raise the debt limit of Los Angeles, which allowed the financing of the aqueduct.
The San Fernando land syndicate were a group of wealthy investors who bought up large tracts of land in the San Fernando Valley with secret inside information from Eaton. The syndicate included friends of Eaton, such as Harrison Gray Otis and Henry E. Huntington. This syndicate made substantial efforts to support passage of the bond issue that funded the aqueduct. These efforts are reported to have included the dumping of water from Los Angeles reservoirs into the sewers (thereby creating a false drought) and by publishing scare articles in the Los Angeles Times, which Otis published. Remi Nadeau, a historian and author, disputed that water was dumped from reservoirs, because the sewer system may not have been connected to the reservoirs.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nadeau|first=Remi A.|title=The Water Seekers|url=https://archive.org/details/waterseekers00naderich|page=34|location=New York|publisher=Doubleday|year=1950|isbn=978-0962710452}}</ref> The syndicate did unify the business community behind the aqueduct, and its purchases were public by the time the vote on the aqueduct was taken.
The building and operation of the aqueduct 1908–1928
From 1907 through 1913, Mulholland directed the building of the aqueduct. The Los Angeles Aqueduct, inaugurated in November 1913, required more than 2,000 workers and the digging of 164 tunnels. Mulholland's granddaughter has stated that the complexity of the project was comparable to the building of the Panama Canal. Water from the Owens River reached a reservoir in the San Fernando Valley on November 5, 1913. At a ceremony that day, Mulholland spoke his famous words about this engineering feat: "There it is. Take it."
After the aqueduct was completed in 1913, the San Fernando investors demanded so much water from the Owens Valley that it started to transform from "The Switzerland of California" into a desert. Mulholland was blocked from obtaining additional water from the Colorado River, so decided to take all available water from the Owens Valley.
In 1923, farmers and ranchers formed an irrigation cooperative headed by Wilfred and Mark Watterson, owners of the Inyo County Bank. By exploiting personal bitterness of some of the farmers, Los Angeles managed to acquire some of the key water rights of the cooperative. After these water rights were secured, inflows to Owens Lake were heavily diverted, which caused the lake to dry up by 1924.
By 1924, farmers and ranchers rebelled. A series of provocations by Mulholland were, in turn, followed by corresponding threats from local farmers, and the destruction of Los Angeles property. Finally, a group of armed ranchers seized the Alabama Gates and dynamited part of the system, letting water return to the Owens River.
In August 1927, when the conflict was at its height, the Inyo County bank collapsed, which massively undermined valley resistance. An audit revealed that there were shortages in both cash in the vault and amounts shown on the books. The Watterson brothers were indicted for embezzlement, then tried and convicted on thirty-six counts. Since all local business had been transacted through their bank, the closure left merchants and customers with little more than the small amount of money they had on hand. The brothers claimed that the fraud was done for the good of the Owens Valley against Los Angeles, and this excuse was generally believed to be true in Inyo County. The collapse of the bank wiped out the lifetime savings of many people, including payments gained from the sale of homes and ranches to Los Angeles.
In the face of the collapse of resistance and of the Owens Valley economy, the attacks on the aqueduct ceased. The City of Los Angeles sponsored a series of repair and maintenance programs for aqueduct facilities that stimulated some local employment, and the Los Angeles water employees were paid a month in advance to bring some relief. But it was impossible to prevent many businesses from closing their doors.
The City of Los Angeles continued to purchase private land holdings and their water rights to meet the increasing demands. By 1928, Los Angeles owned 90 percent of the water in Owens Valley and agriculture interests in the region were effectively dead.
The second Owens Valley Aqueduct, 1970–present
In 1970, LADWP completed a second aqueduct. In 1972, the agency began to divert more surface water and pumped groundwater at the rate of several hundred thousand acre-feet a year (several cubic meters per second). Owens Valley springs and seeps dried and disappeared, and groundwater-dependent vegetation began to die.
Because LADWP had never completed an Environmental Impact Report (EIR) addressing the impacts of groundwater pumping, Inyo County sued Los Angeles under the terms of the California Environmental Quality Act. Los Angeles did not stop pumping groundwater, but submitted a short EIR in 1976 and a second one in 1979, both of which were rejected as inadequate by the courts.
In 1991, Inyo County and the city of Los Angeles signed the Inyo-Los Angeles Long Term Water Agreement, which required that groundwater pumping be managed to avoid significant impacts while providing a reliable water supply for Los Angeles. In 1997, Inyo County, Los Angeles, the Owens Valley Committee, the Sierra Club, and other concerned parties signed a Memorandum of Understanding that specified terms by which the lower Owens River would be re-watered by June 2003 as partial mitigation for damage to the Owens Valley.
In spite of the terms of the Long Term Water Agreement, studies by the Inyo County Water Department from 2003 onward showed that impacts to the valley's groundwater-dependent vegetation, such as alkali meadows, continue. Likewise, Los Angeles did not re-water the lower Owens River by the June 2003 deadline. In December, 2003, LADWP settled a lawsuit brought by California Attorney General Bill Lockyer, the Owens Valley Committee, and the Sierra Club. Under the terms of the settlement, deadlines for the Lower Owens River Project were revised and LADWP was to return water to the lower Owens River by 2005. This deadline was missed, but on December 6, 2006, a ceremony was held at the same site where William Mulholland had ceremonially opened the aqueduct which had closed the flow through the Owens River, to restart it down the river. David Nahai, president of the L.A. Water and Power Board, countered Mulholland's words from 1913 and said, "There it is ... take it back."
Nevertheless, groundwater pumping continues at a higher rate than the rate at which water recharges the aquifer, resulting in a long-term trend of desertification in the Owens Valley.
Mono Lake
By the 1930s, the water requirements for Los Angeles continued to increase. LADWP started buying water rights in the Mono Basin (the next basin to the north of the Owens Valley). An extension to the aqueduct was built, which included such engineering feats as tunneling through the Mono Craters (an active volcanic field). By 1941, the extension was finished, and water in various creeks (such as Rush Creek) were diverted into the aqueduct. To satisfy California water law, LADWP set up a fish hatchery on Hot Creek, near Mammoth Lakes, California.
The diverted creeks had previously fed Mono Lake, an inland body of water with no outlet. Mono Lake served as a vital ecosystem link, where gulls and migratory birds would nest. Because the creeks were diverted, the water level in Mono Lake started to fall, exposing tufa formations. The water became more saline and alkaline, threatening the brine shrimp that lived in the lake. Increases in salinity decreased adult size, growth rates, and brood sizes, and increased female mortality during their reproductive cycle. Changing levels in salinity as a result of water diversion put this species at risk, as well as the birds that nested on two islands (Negit Island and Paoha Island) in the lake. Falling water levels started making a land bridge to Negit Island, which allowed predators to feed on bird eggs for the first time.
In 1974, David Gaines started to study the biology of Mono Lake. In 1975, while at Stanford, he started to get others interested in the ecosystem of Mono Lake. This led to a 1977 report on the ecosystem of Mono Lake that highlighted dangers caused by the water diversion. In 1978, the Mono Lake Committee was formed to protect Mono Lake. The committee (and the National Audubon Society) sued LADWP in 1979, arguing that the diversions violated the public trust doctrine, which states that navigable bodies of water must be managed for the benefit of all people. The litigation reached the California Supreme Court by 1983, which ruled in favor of the committee. Further litigation was initiated in 1984, which claimed that LADWP did not comply with the state fishery protection laws.
Eventually, all of the litigation was adjudicated in 1994, by the California State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB). The SWRCB hearings lasted for 44 days and were conducted by Board Vice-chair Marc Del Piero acting as the sole Hearing Officer. In that ruling (SWRCB Decision 1631), the SWRCB established significant public trust protection and eco-system restoration standards, and LADWP was required to release water into Mono Lake to raise the lake level above the then-current level of below the 1941 level. As of 2022, the water level in Mono Lake has risen only of the required . Los Angeles made up for the lost water through state-funded conservation and recycling projects.
Central Valley
In February 2014, after three consecutive years of below-normal rainfall, California faced its most severe drought emergency in decades with fish populations in the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta in unprecedented crisis due to the decades of large-scale water exports from Northern California to south of the Delta via state and federal water projects. Half a million acres of Central Valley farmland supposedly was in danger of going fallow due to drought. On 5 February 2014 the House passed a bill to increase flows from the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta to the Central Valley, the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley Emergency Water Delivery Act (H.R. 3964; 113th Congress). This would suspend the very recent efforts to restore the San Joaquin River since 2009, won after 18 years of litigation, with increased releases from the Friant Dam east of Fresno. Democratic Senators Dianne Feinstein and Barbara Boxer proposed emergency drought legislation of $300 million aid, and to speed up environmental reviews of water projects, so state and federal officials have "operational flexibility" to move water south, from the delta to San Joaquin Valley farms.
On February 14, 2014, President Barack Obama visited near Fresno and announced $170 million worth of initiatives, with $100 million for ranchers facing livestock losses and $60 million to help food banks. Obama joked about the lengthy and incendiary history of water politics in California, saying, "I'm not going to wade into this. I want to get out alive on Valentine's Day."
Documentaries and fiction
The California water wars were among the subjects discussed in Cadillac Desert, a 1984 nonfiction book by Marc Reisner about land development and water policy in the western United States. The book was made into a four-part documentary of the same name in 1997.
The 1974 film Chinatown'' was inspired by the California water wars and features a fictionalized version of the conflict as a central plot element.
See also
Water conflicts
Water in California
California State Water Project
Central Valley Project
Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
San Joaquin River
Sacramento River
Drought in the United States
Water scarcity
Atmospheric water generator
Desalination
Hydropolitics
References
Further reading
External links
Inyo County Water Department
Los Angeles Aqueduct Slideshow
19th-century conflicts
20th-century conflicts
19th century in Los Angeles
20th century in Los Angeles
Environmental issues in California
Environmental issues with water
Los Angeles Aqueduct
Water conflicts
History of Inyo County, California
Owens River
Owens Valley
Sierra Nevada (United States)
Agriculture in California
Water in California
Water and politics
Water resource management in the United States
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