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how do dreams work in the visual cortex of the brain?
|
when i was coming out of a dream this morning. my eyes wandered about and i could see the images of the dream literally superimposed on my visual field as i moved my eyes around. it looked like a sticker or something stuck to the lens of a camera. that's the best way i can put it. the actions of rapid eye movements suddenly made perfect sense, and i realize now the brain is literally projecting these images onto our actual visual field, not just in our "imagination" part of the brain. i wonder if any scientific research has been done on this projecting of images directly into the visual processing part of the brain. it almost felt as if my optic nerve was being triggered in reverse by literal internal images. i was absolutely fascinated by this experience this morning. the images did eventually fade out like a television set being turned off and i went about my usual day. is this my imagination playing tricks on me, or is there validity to this? what's going on in the visual cortex during dreaming?
|
please don't take this as gospel, this is all a bit fuzzy as the mechanics of dreams remain very poorly understand. the optic nerve and most of the visual stream is a one way system feeding into the visual cortex. so nothing is sent to the retina. what you're expecting originates in the occipital lobe at the rear of the brain. what's generally believed is that in rem sleep the hippocampus (the main hub for memory encoding and retieval) is processing memories. short term memories recorded that day day are encoded for long term storage in the cortex and old memory traces are reactivated to strengthen their imprinting. memory modifications and therefore learning technically occur during rem. cellular recordings of the mouse hippocampus have indicated that during this process 'memories' (or more precisely specific patterns of cell firing encoding a memory) are effectively running in fast forward. theyre being replayed much faster than they were recorded. it may be that this is why our dreams can feel like days or weeks. now a memory is essentially stored in a compressed and encoded format and requires specialist brain areas to decode. during rem the visual cortex is partially brought online to decode visual elements of stored memories. sensory areas of the brain don't just process incoming data when awake, they're also used to process recorded data during rem. what you likely experienced is waking up in the middle of a rem cycle while your visual cortex was currently being used to decode something the hippocampus was working on.
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why does the pitch of music drop while yawning?
|
when listening to music, if i yawn, the pitch drops noticeably for the duration of the "meaty" part of the yawn. i am musically trained, and i am definitely perceiving a drop in pitch (about one semitone), not just a decrease in volume.
|
are you sure it is not just a change in timbre? when i yawn i mostly hear a change in timbre, which can sound a bit like a change in pitch..
| 6 |
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] |
why can't we add more lenses in a telescope?
|
i was wondering why the telescope aren't just a long array of lenses, what is the problem? wouldn't a lot of lenses magnify an object indefinitely? and if i put a camera with the maximum zoom in front of a telescope would i be able to record anything or would it be all blurred out?
|
the problem isn't making it longer, but wider. the resolution of a telescope depends on how much light it can get from a given source, so telescope with wider apertures have higher resolution. adding more lenses would just focus and unfocus the light.
| 10 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
water vapor is earth's primary greenhouse gas both in quantity and effect. what prevents the cycle of the atmosphere heating, thus able to hold more water, thus heating the atmosphere even more, and so on?
|
good question! it's a positive feedback loop, but the "gain" is less than 100% so it eventually reaches an equilibrium. to put rough numbers on it, if some factor like co2 increases temperature by 1 degree, that will allow the atmosphere to hold more water vapor, enough to cause a further greenhouse warming of about 1/2 degree. that will increase water vapor enough to cause a further warming of 1/4 degree, which causes 1/8 degree of warming, and so on. so the total warming is 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + .... which [adds up to](_url_0_) 2 degrees. the water vapor feedback loop doubles the sensitivity of the atmosphere to co2, but it doesn't cause infinite warming. however, the 1/2 factor i gave is for the current earth atmosphere. if earth were closer to the sun and thus hotter, you'd get a lot more water vapor from a given amount of warming. you could potentially have a situation where 1 degree of warming gets you 2 degrees gets you 4 and so on, which would lead to a "runaway greenhouse effect".
| 11 |
[] |
[] |
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_series"
] |
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|
is the asteroid belt going to become a planet eventually?
|
well, [ceres](_url_0_) is by far the biggest object in the asteroid belt and makes up about one third of the total mass of the asteroid belt. ceres has a mass of about 1.3% of our moon. so the asteroid belt in total has a mass of roughly 4% of the moon. that is obviously not enough to make a planet similar to earth or even mars. and the asteroid belt is too far spread out and has too little mass to ever clump together to form a single body. ceres is considered a dwarf planet, but it hasn't cleared its orbit, so it can't be called a planet in t he same way that earth or mars, etc. can. another reason why the asteroid belt will not form a planet is jupiter. jupiter has such a big influence, it has flung a lot of asteroids out of their orbit, e.g. kirkwood gaps.
| 10 |
[] |
[] |
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)"
] |
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] |
|
why is lead so much more abundant than gold?
|
they are so close on the periodic table, yet lead is something like 3000x more abundant. i know that gold isn't unstable, so why is there so much less of it?
|
lead stable isotopes are near a closed nuclear shell. that makes their production in stars much more likely. also, all of those heavy actinides decay down into lead. so even if it was produced at the same rate in stars as gold was, it will still have more due to the decay of actinides and other heavy nuclei.
| 10 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
are saturn's rings uniform? or are they more dense at some point?
|
if saturn's rings were formed by a moon being ripped apart, does that mean they're more dense where the moon was? or are they old enough to have spread out evenly? sorry if this question doesn't make sense. i'm reading about astrophysics while drunk....again
|
[the rings of saturn:](_url_0_) it was expected that collisions between ring particles would tend to make the rings uniform, but voyager i found changing structures in the radial direction that are termed "spokes". some of this structure is shown in the adjacent animation. here is a smoother and longer movie of the same phenomenon. it is thought that gravitational forces alone cannot account for the spoke structure, and it has been proposed that electrostatic repulsion between ring particles may play a role. > the voyagers found that the rings were not necessarily circular, and even found rings that appeared to be braided (adjacent image). they found further that the outer ring was kept in place by the gravitational interaction of two small "shepherd moons" lying just inside and outside it, and that at least some of the other rings are kept narrow by similar small shepherding satellites. generally, although we have increased immensely our knowledge of the rings of saturn over the last 2 decades, we still do not fully understand their structure, dynamics, or origin.
| 2 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/saturn/rings.html"
] |
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] |
why does squinting improve my far vision?
|
this question has [come up before](_url_0_). to sum up, there are two effects people cite: (1) that squinting changes the shape of your lens and (2) that squinting lets your eyelids/eyelashes act as a pinhole to screen out stray light.
| 17 |
[] |
[] |
[
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/33426a/why_does_your_vision_improve_when_you_squint/"
] |
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] |
|
what are we sensing when we register a metallic taste? can metals actually have a flavour?
|
wikipedia says alkaline earth metals register as salty, is the "metalic taste" just an extension of this?
|
this reminded me of an article i read about the origin of the metallic smell [nature summary](_url_1_) , [journal article](_url_0_) basically, that distinctive coin 'smell' is actually the smell of organic molecules from your skin (and anyone else's!) that react with the metal. the last paragraph of the nature article says that a similar effect may occur when you have a piece of metal in your mouth.
| 218 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.200602100/abstract",
"http://www.nature.com/news/2006/061023/full/news061023-7.html",
"http://chemse.oxfordjournals.org/content/30/3/185",
"http://ajpregu.physiology.org/content/293/2/R626"
] |
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] |
what is "metallic" taste?
|
when you touch iron or copper (and to a lesser extent zinc and some other metals) and then smell or taste metal on your hands, you're sensing a chemical called [1-octen-3-one](_url_2_). the role of 1-octen-3-one in the taste of metal was only determined recently (2006). full paper: _url_1_ this chemical is formed by "skin lipid peroxide reduction and decomposition by low valence metal ions". so you're not tasting metal but a chemical formed from human skin oils/sweat in the presence of metal. it's theorised that this smell is related to our ability to smell blood which forms the same chemical in contact with skin. however... tasting metal is a common symptom which may be caused by colds, dental problems, nutrient deficiencies, problems with medication or a large range of conditions that cause distortions in your sense of taste: _url_0_
| 159 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysgeusia",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.200602100/full",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oct-1-en-3-one"
] |
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] |
|
a cube is to a tesseract as sphere is to a _____? what is the four-dimensional model of a sphere?
|
i remember reading a description a tesseract as a kind of "shadow" of a four-dimensional object (in much the same way as a two-dimensional shadow is a representation of a three-dimensional object). is it possible to construct a visual model of what this concept might look like when applied to a sphere?
|
anything higher than n=2 and they're just generally called n-spheres (with n=2 being our usual 3-dimensional sphere). however a 3-sphere is called a [glome](_url_0_)
| 24 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-sphere"
] |
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] |
is there a 4 dimensional analog to a sphere like a tesseract is for a cube?
|
yes, the sphere *s*^(3), which is the *three-dimensional* sphere (embedded in euclidean four-dimensional space), is the set of points (*x**_1_*, *x**_2_*, *x**_3_*, *x**_4_*) such that *x**_1_*^2 + *x**_2_*^2 + *x**_3_*^2 + *x**_4_*^2 = 1 similarly for higher number of dimensions.
| 39 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
|
why do the batteries in, say, an rc car only last a few hours, but it feels like the batteries in my tv remote have been in there for a lifetime?
|
there are two key elements when you're talking about electricity: current and voltage. voltage is the force pushing the electricity through the circuit, and current is the actual rate that electric charge is flowing through the circuit. the two are related--through the same circuit, a higher voltage will lead to a higher current. in simplified terms, a battery contains a certain amount of charge and a certain amount of "pressure" (voltage), due to the chemicals inside. when you "open" the battery by connecting it to the circuit, the charge gets pushed out of the battery by this voltage and through the circuit. different devices, even ones that need the same voltage, can require different amounts of current. a tv remote requires almost nothing--it sits around not requiring almost any current most of the time, with < 1 second flashes of a tiny infrared led when you press a button. an rc car, on the other hand, requires a lot of charge moving through it to operate an electric motor strong enough to move it at pretty high speeds.
| 14 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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1.5850459337234497,
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] |
|
is there any plant that can grow on mars
|
i understand temperature on mars is very low, but there are tree which can withstand such temperature, also as i understand mars has co2 in its atmosphere, and not all part of mars is the same. so my question is, "is there any region on mars which can support any plant life?"
|
from [wiki](_url_0_) "actual temperature measurements from the viking landers range from −17.2 °c (1.0 °f) to −107 °c (−161 °f)." which suggests that it very rarely makes it above zero. i'm guessing the answer is therefore no. but it would be interesting to know whether, if placed in a "greenhouse" like structure, possibly with heating, could earth's plants survive in the atmosphere of mars? (and therefore be able to produce oxygen for us to live)
| 11 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Mars#Temperature",
"http://aem.asm.org/content/75/3/735"
] |
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] |
was there an evolutionary advantage to different hair colors in humans?
|
basically what the title says, and i know how different hair colors are a result of different proteins and melanin, but how do the did the different range of colors help humans in earlier time periods adapt to their environments and have higher survival rates?
|
they probably didn't. it was more likely either sexual selection, or a series of genes that assisted survival with different hair colors as a side effect. check out how domestic foxes changed when bred for tameness. the behaviors for tameness came with loads of phenotypical changes that were neither bred for nor expected. so different hair color could have been something like that.
| 24 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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why can radio waves and x-rays go through walls but visible light cannot?
|
since visible light is in between radio and x-rays on the em spectrum, what makes it different? is there a specific cutoff point where certain frequencies go through and then after that they are blocked (and then after a point they are unblocked again)? is there a 2-slit experiment for radio waves?
|
yes, and it is easier to perform than for visible light because you can use much larger slits and you can use an antenna as light source. it just needs more space, and no one questioned the wave properties of radio waves so the experiment is not very popular with them. sometimes. one such threshold is ionization: if the energy of a single photon is sufficient to kick out an electron, the probability of an interaction is larger than for a photon that doesn't have enough energy. in solid materials things are more complicated and there are tons of transitions between different energy levels that can play a role. in general radio waves don't have enough energy to do anything like that, so they pass through. visible light has enough energy in most solid materials but not in air for example: most solids are opaque if they are not too thin, but air is not. somewhere in the ultraviolet range the energy gets high enough to be absorbed in air. at very high energies (x-rays, gamma rays) the probability of an interaction goes down again.
| 2 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
how could a gun fire in space?
|
from this r/askhistorians [thread](_url_0_)
|
all various chemical formulas that we refer to as "gunpowder" all have oxygen atoms as part of their molecule, which is what would allow it to burn in space. there's no air inside a brass casing (it's packed pretty tightly with powder and primer), but the powder still burns, so there's no reason it wouldn't burn in space.
| 4 |
[] |
[
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/2jf5pf/during_the_cold_war_did_nasa_have_a_plan_for/"
] |
[
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=gun+in+space&restrict_sr=on&sort=relevance&t=all"
] |
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] |
how does bleach work?
|
how does bleach remove pigment from things like clothing and hair?
|
dyes and pigments are usually organic compounds, including those in clothing and hair. these compounds often have a part that is responsible for reflecting the wavelength of light corresponding to its color, this is called the chromophore. there are two types of bleach: - oxidizing: contains chlorine, basically destroys the bonds that make up the chromophore, or creates a new chromophore that reflects a wavelength that isn't visible to the naked eye. - reducing: contains sulfur dioxide, converts any double bonds in chromophores into single bonds. this changes the structure of the chromophore and changes the wavelength of light its able to reflect. hope that helps.
| 8 |
[] |
[] |
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodamine"
] |
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] |
why do i always get attacked by the shower curtain?
|
one of the funny things about fluid mechanics is that, for these kinds of complex systems, it is frustratingly hard to get a definitive answer. people have studied this problem, and as far as i know it has not been conclusively answered. the "cause" of the shower curtain sucking inwards is trivial - the air pressure inside is lower than the outside pressure at some point on the curtain. several mechanisms could possibly explain this. the bernoulli effect would imply that the high velocity of water coming from the showerhead lowers the pressure inside. also, the hot steam rising out of the shower could suck air under the bottom of the curtain, and it would be pulled inward due to boundary layer effects. [there is actually a pretty decent wikipedia article on all the various theories](_url_0_).
| 6 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shower-curtain_effect",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/j9r13/why_do_shower_curtains_attack/",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/15/weekinreview/15RAMI.html",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=why-does-the-shower-curta",
"reddit.com/r/askscience",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shower_curtain_effect",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/fivpi/why_does_the_shower_curtain_bulge_inward_during_a/"
] |
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|
why are planetary rings not all around planets and instead just form a like like saturn?
|
if gravity is omni-directional and debris floats around in space all the time why has none of the planets with rings have other things formed in different directions or even separate spaces on the planet never intersecting?
|
rings are expected to be short-living: over time their material agglomerates to moons. to have rings a planet needs something that constantly refills them or it had to have some collision in the recent past. things don't just randomly enter orbits around other things. if an object is not bound to a planet and approaches that planet it will either impact the planet or fly away again unless something slows it down enough to enter orbit.
| 3 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
is baldness in males really passed down from your mother's father?
|
i've always heard this is true. is it? and if so, is it a hard and fast rule, or is it a mere propensity or increased likelihood of baldness?
|
one type of male pattern baldness is sex-linked, affecting the x chromosome. females have two x chromosomes and males have an x and a y chromosome. if mother's father had male pattern baldness, then your mother has at least one copy of a defective x chromosome, giving you a 50% chance of being bald. if your father's father had male pattern baldness, the y chromosome that gets passed to your father is unaffected. this is only for male pattern baldness, but it accounts for most of the balding that occurs.
| 123 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgenic_alopecia#Hair_loss_and_genetics",
"23andme.com"
] |
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] |
what is the cause of stuttering? is it neurological?
|
i've dealt with stuttering ever since i was a little kid, and i was wondering what was the cause. i heard from some people that it was neurological. so.... what's the cause of stuttering?
|
yes, the cause of stuttering is very likely neurological. i can't imagine what else it would be. certainly not muscular. several studies have showed a genetic predisposition to stuttering exists, and a few genes have even been found to play a role in stuttering: _url_0_ it is also clear that there are differences in brain structure between people who stutter and those who do not. these differences can be found in both higher level brain regions controlling language and in brain regions controlling movement. however, how exactly those differences contribute to stuttering is not known. _url_1_ _url_2_
| 2 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://children.webmd.com/news/20100210/genetic-mutations-linked-to-stuttering",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2492392/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2731627/"
] |
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] |
why does staring at a bright light help me sneeze?
|
for my whole life, any time i've felt the urge to sneeze but couldn't get it out i've looked at the brightest light i could find. this almost always helps, but i've never know why. how does photo-receptor stimulation lead to a sinus cavity response?
|
this is known as the [photic sneeze reflex](_url_0_), and it occurs in about a quarter of people. however, the reason for it is not currently well understood - the linked article discusses a few of the current theories.
| 3 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_sneeze_reflex"
] |
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if one cask of wine, or other aged spirit were to be constantly agitated over the course of it's aging, how would it differ from a normally aged cask, if at all?
|
hopefully my wording isn't confusing.
|
well there are lots of things in play here. if you're aging something that has been fermented but not distilled (cider, wine, and beer fall into this category), keeping the cask still during it's aging period will allow yeast and any other sediment to settle out of solution and end up clearer. so by agitating the cider/wine/beer constantly before serving it, you will not allow these particulates to settle out and end up with a cloudy liquid. it will likely taste different too as yeast adds a different flavor to the palate. another thing that would come into play is oxygen leeching into the liquid. barrels aren't perfectly impervious to oxygen; they do let a small amount of oxygen in over time. sometimes depending on what you're making, the flavors can be complimentary. as far as beer goes, generally oxidative flavors are bad and will ruin the flavor of the beer. i'm not as well-versed in wine and cider, but i believe that they parallel beer similarly (although likely not to the same extent. the oils/compounds that hops add to beer are what are oxidized and give off flavors like rotten vegetables (vegetal) and cardboard). agitating a barrel constantly during aging will most definitely introduce more oxygen into the liquid. another thing to consider is if the barrel has been inoculated (whether intentionally or not) with some sort of bacteria (malolactic cultures, brettanomyces, lactobacillus, pediococcus, etc.). this is recipe dependent and is common with sour beers, although for most wine production is heavily considered as flawed. you can speed up their biological mechanisms if their agitated constantly just by allowing the bacteria to come into contact with more of the liquid. combined with increased chances of oxidation, you'll see a change in flavor profile as some of these cultures will eat up any dissolved oxygen to do their job. distilled liquids are a bit more impervious to some of these possible outcomes. since the liquid has been distilled, there is no yeast going into the barrel and therefore no clarity issues to worry about. the distilling process (which is usually done multiple times) will leave plenty of impurities behind in the still, meaning there is less of a variety of compounds into the distillate (vodka/whiskey/whatever your spirit would be). this means less compounds to be oxidized (if they would be oxidized at all, i don't know nearly as much about distilled spirits as i do beer). the alcohol content will (most likely) kill off any bacterial or fungal infection it may come into contact with. since barrel-aged spirits derive a good portion of their flavor from the wood they are aged on, constant agitation will probably allow the spirit to absorb these flavors more readily, although i have no idea as far as how quickly this would be (it may be so negligible that it would be a waste of time to do so).
| 4 |
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do animals suffer from mental illness the same way humans do? can a dog have schizophrenia?
|
animal models of mental illness are commonly used in research. it's certainly possible to provoke some of the observable signs in an animal. (indeed, part of testing novel antidepressants is being really mean to mice.) pathological behaviors are also noticed in healthy animals, suggesting that something's mentally wrong. unfortunately, there's no way to diagnose an animal with mental illness, because all we have is observable signs, rather than subjective symptoms. (for that matter, we actually can't confirm whether dogs have migraines.) dogs can't tell us what's on their minds. it's reasonable to think that similar mechanisms to human mental illness might be at play, but we don't know how animals think.
| 6 |
[] |
[] |
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] |
|
do animals have mental illnesses? are there sociopath animals?
|
[removed]
|
from an earlier reply i've made to a similar question ( _url_0_ ): > in short, animals can certainly exhibit symptoms associated with most human mental illnesses.
| 2 |
[] |
[] |
[
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/39kl55/slug/cs4e5tu"
] |
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] |
if our sun is a 3rd generation star, what is the most advanced generation of star we have observed, and what composition of elements are those stars made from?
|
our sun is considered a population i star. slightly older stars (with lower metallicity) are called population ii. and there should be a (nearly) zero metallicity group of very old stars called population iii. common sense might say that should go the other way, but we astronomers are a bit crazy and don't like giving up old archaic names or units of measure. :coughmagnitudescough: now i bring up the populations because those are the three major categories we have. our sun is fairly young in the cosmic sense of the word. we don't have a population of stars that are so radically different in terms of metallicity to need a new name yet. as for what elements are inside of stars? you have primarily hydrogen and helium. the remaining amount (~2%) have a large number of trace elements, but carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are relatively more abundant than others. this is because those are formed quite regularly as stars evolve, so the star can create its own supply (if it is massive and old enough) and get some from its surroundings when it is first collapsing down into a star.
| 4 |
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[] |
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] |
|
why do clouds turn grey when it storms?
|
it is the thickness, or height of clouds, that makes them look gray. clouds are made of tiny droplets of water or ice. they are formed when water vapor condenses within pockets of rising air. under the right conditions, the air continues to be uplifted, causing the cloud to build higher and higher. the tiny water droplets and ice crystals in clouds are just the right size to scatter all colors of light, compared with the smaller molecules of air that scatter blue light most effectively. when light contains all colors, we perceive it as white. when clouds are thin, they let a large portion of the light through and appear white. but like any objects that transmit light, the thicker they are, the less light makes it through. as their thickness increases, the bottoms of clouds look darker but still scatter all colors. we perceive this as gray. if you look carefully, you will notice that the relatively flat bottoms of clouds are always a little grayer than their sides. the taller the clouds become, the grayer their bottoms look.
| 5 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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|
why do we start having a running nose when we are crying?
|
because your tears drain through a sort of downspout embedded in your face that empties into your nose. if you look closely at the nose side of your eyelids, you should see a couple of pinholes called puncta. those are the drains, and behind them are thin tubes called canaliculi, that in turn empty into the lachrymal sac along the side of your nose and finally into the lachrymal duct and on into your nasal passages. tears and mucus are generated at the outside edges of your eyelids and are swept across your eyes by your blinks. your eyelids don't just blink open and shut like a bear trap; they seal from the outside in like closing a ziploc bag, and this action sweeps gunk towards the drainage ducts where if it is thin liquid it will drain into your nose or if it's goopy it will ball up and fall out or removed manually. i'm sure you've had to pick out lumps of partially dried mucus from the inner corners of your eyes when you've been sick or had allergies. you can confirm this by putting eye drops in your eyes and blinking. your nose will run and if it runs down the back of your throat you should be able to taste the eyedrops too, since your nasal passages are connected to your mouth as well. some people can perform a sort of valsalva maneuver and force air or liquids back up through the drainage ducts. _url_1_ _url_0_ this, however, is not recommended.
| 5 |
[] |
[] |
[
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G_o9KDb_igY",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wCID4BLfQbY"
] |
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|
why are red and blue wavelengths of light most useful to photosynthesis?
|
why is this? using my own knowledge of wavelengths of light, it would be logical to conclude that indigo/violet would be the most useful because they have the shortest wavelengths.
|
look [here](_url_0_) notice how on the left side of the total absorption graph everything is absorbed? if you are a plant, you don't want to be absorbing things in that region... so violet is less efficient than things to the right of it.
| 5 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atmospheric_Transmission.png"
] |
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] |
do all life supporting planets have a similar ratio of the distance from their nearest star to the size of that star as that of earth?
|
if the earth is just the right distance from the sun to support life does that mean that all planets that can support life would also have a similar ratio of the distance to the star and the size of the start itself? for example if a star is 1.5 times bigger than the sun does that mean that any life supporting planets would have to be about 1.5 times the distance from the sun to the earth away to support life?
|
well, right now we know of one life supporting planet: earth. there is a region called a [habitable zone](_url_0_) around a star in which water can remain liquid. because bigger stars are hotter, objects have to be farther away from them in order to be cool enough. so, where this region is depends on how big the star is, but it's not necessarily linear. [this diagram](_url_1_) from that page gives you a sense of how it changes with mass. whether water is necessary for life is a different discussion.
| 7 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Gliese_581_-_2010.jpg"
] |
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] |
is there a limit to how small a star can be? if so, what is the theoretically smallest star possible and why?
|
about 80 times the mass of jupiter. below that, they don't have enough mass to get the intense heat and pressure in the core required to fuse hydrogen. these objects are called "brown dwarfs", and generally look more like ~~a enormous~~ jupiter than a star. the line between a small brown dwarf and a large gas giant is actually a bit fuzzy.
| 1,112 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonoluminescence"
] |
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] |
|
why does sleep paralysis cause people to have terrifying visions instead of just visions?
|
you may have it backwards: during rem sleep the brain is pretty much acting out the movements you're dreaming, but also [blocking the actions](_url_1_). a [part of the brain](_url_2_) is associated with the blocking. in other words, *every* time you're dreaming, your body is paralyzed. at least some theory suggests that during sleep paralysis you're having a stressful or frightening dream and your brain is waking up in the wrong order: you're conscious, but the chemical signals produced by the pontine tegmentum [haven't worn off yet](_url_0_).
| 42 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://health.msn.com/health-topics/sleep-disorders/sleep-paralysis-wide-awake-and-dreaming",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REM_atonia#Physiology",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontine_tegmentum",
"http://psychology.about.com/od/statesofconsciousness/a/SleepStages.htm"
] |
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] |
|
when the universe expands and the galaxys move away from each other quite fast, how can it be that andromeda and milky way will collide anyways?
|
both the milky way and andromeda are part of the local group, a cluster of over fifty galaxies. the galaxies are close enough to be gravitationally bound together. as the galaxies orbit the center of gravity of the local group, some of them are moving toward each other because that's the path of their orbits. the milky way and andromeda just happen to be on a collision course. the local group is itself part of the virgo supercluster, which is also gravitionally bound. at greater distances, gravitational attraction between galaxies is much weaker, so it is believed that dark energy takes over. the existence of dark energy is not yet proven but the evidence is very strong. it is believed that dark energy is driving the accelerating expansion of the universe. tl;dr over large scales, dark energy is causing galaxies to move away from each other, while gravity is more dominant at smaller (but still mid-bogglingly large) scales, causing some closely neighboring galaxies to move towards each other.
| 14 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
|
why do scars never heal?
|
if the body replaces all of its cells over a period of a few years why do scars stay with a person for life and never look like normal skin afterwards?
|
this is my understanding. the difference in texture you notice between your regular skin and scar tissue is because of the way that the collagen is deposited by the fibroblasts that are healing the deep wound. normally it is random, but in the case of scar tissue all of the fibres are aligned in the same direction. even if cells are replaced they are still constrained by the extracellular matrix that has been laid down. but sometime scars do fade a bit, even collagen slowly gets altered by the various cell movements that keep epidermises intact throughout an organisms life.
| 11 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why do scars never heal?
|
i have a few scars and stitches on my forehead since i was a child and they look the same year after year! :(
|
the way scars heal is different than the formation of regular skin. the wound is filled with a dense connective tissues and elastic tissues that creates a scar. it does not have the same layers as normal skin which are epithelial tissue and will never grow into regular skin. i have had a scar on my knee for 22 years that still looks the exact same, just a little lighter in color. the body does this in order to further protect the damaged area.
| 63 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
what is the .01% of germs that can't be killed by most cleaning products?
|
it seems every soap or cleaning products boast that they kill 99.99% of germs. what are the ones that get away?
|
i read somewhere that these kind of products actually kill all germs, but manufacturers say that they only kill 99.99% to cover themselves should something bad happen like a bacterial infection to someone who washed his hands with such a product. that person can't go and sue the company then because the company could then say that it was the .01% that it does not kill.
| 19 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15019221",
"http://epa.gov/oppad001/chemregindex.htm",
"http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/b/bfaq.htm",
"http://www.infectioncontroltoday.com/news/2012/11/hospital-cleaning-protocol-ineffective-against-acinetobacter-baumannii.aspx"
] |
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] |
why can't i teach my dog language?
|
my dog learned how to distinguish different phrases such as 'shake my hand!', 'speak!', 'sit!', 'good boy!', and 'no!' all in a matter of a couple of weeks, and he has remembered what those phrases meant for almost three years now. what's stopping me from, slowly, teaching my dog an actual language? tl;dr: my dog is smart enough to distinguish individual commands, why not language?
|
dogs only respond to those commands because they've learned they'll get a reward when they hear that particular sound. they don't actually know what they mean. you might as well ring a bell to get them to sit provided you give them a treat when they do. language involves understanding multiple contexts and levels of abstraction that are way above the cognitive capacities of our canine comrades. there are some extraordinary dogs that can learn ~100s of commands, but it's still just about responding to a familiar sound that reminds the dog that a treat is about to follow (even if you don't give it up, they still hope).
| 11 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why is it that sunsets never contain the color green, yet the aurora borealis has such a vibrant green color?
|
what causes the refractions of light to be different for these such that there are entirely different visible spectra in each?
|
first off, the color of the sunset isn't green because of how the raleigh scattering works. the sunset and sunrise are typically red because as light travels through more atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths get scattered more, leaving the longer, red, wavelengths to reach your eye. there is actually something called a green flash that sometimes occurs right after sunset or right before sunrise when the sun is just below the horison. northern and southern lights is not scattering of sunlight, but solar winds hitting the magnetic field set up by the earth. the solar wind is a stream of charged particles, mainly protons, electrons and alpha particles (helium core) being flung out from the sun. when these particles hit the earth's magnetic field, they travel along the field lines and start interacting with other particles in the atmosphere. this is why the phenomenon is most notable close to the magnetic poles. the interaction causes the atmospheric particles to excite, followed by a de excitation, or putting it differently, they absorb energy from the solar wind and emits the same amount of energy as visible light. the amount of energy a particle can absorb and emit is highly dependent on the particle itself. for instance, nitrogen will emit blueish light whereas oxygen emits yellow light. where the two meet, the color becomes greenish.
| 11 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/4D.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwus2nqU0SY",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_flash"
] |
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] |
if earth is moving, the sun is moving, and our galaxy is moving.. are we not closer to the speed of light than we think?
|
so i did the research, and it's actually not as much as i thought when i came up with the idea. the speed of light is 299,792,458 m/s. if you want to travel that speed, you'd consider yourself to be starting at 0 m/s, but then you realise that the earth is moving at 30,000 m/s, the sun is moving at 220,000 m/s and the galaxy is moving at 600,000 m/s. so if you consider yourself to be starting at 0, when actually you're part of the momentum of all of these movements - 850,000 m/s, surely in order to travel at the speed of light you need to increase your speed to 298,942,458 m/s?
|
relative to what? there's no such thing as absolute speed. to high-energy cosmic particles we are moving very close to the speed of light indeed.
| 10 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation#CMBR_dipole_anisotropy"
] |
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] |
which plant is the most effective at converting co2 to oxygen?
|
[photosynthetic efficiency](_url_0_) is the proper term for this and it's actually measured as sunlight to biomass. the reason is because the same amount of co2 + (other stuff^1 ) = o2 + (other stuff^1 ), so efficient is always 1-to-1 ratio if you measure co2 to o2 conversion. in any case, the most efficient plant is sugar cane at around 7%. however, plants are put to same by algae have efficiency rations of up to 30%. ^1 i know "other stuff" this is not very scientifically accurate but i'm trying to simplify things.
| 336 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/kamal_meattle_on_how_to_grow_your_own_fresh_air.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gmn7tjSNyAA"
] |
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] |
|
why can't i cleanly wipe the condensation off my bathroom mirror after a shower?
|
condensation is caused by the relatively cool surface of the mirror pulling moisture out of the air. the water vapor in the air essentially loses energy, that is, cools off and phase changes into water, when it encounters this surface. when you wipe it, you get rid of the droplets that have formed on the surface of the mirror. what you haven't addressed is whats causing it in the first place - the cool mirror. so a new layer of droplets quickly forms. if you take a hairdryer on hot and blast the mirror then wipe it, it will no longer form condensation. this is known as the female solution. you can also spit on the mirror and wipe it around. the body temperature phlegm should slow/stop the condensation. this is known as the male solution. some fancy hotels actually have mirror heaters to avoid this problem altogether.
| 11 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
|
why hasn't the solar system expanded in proportion to the expansion of the universe?
|
the difference in distance between two distant galaxies between now and when the solar system formed (over 4 billion years abgo) is *x* (i don't know the actual number), but the difference in distance between the sun and the planets in our solar system is not in proportion; it's effectively zero. why isn't it *x*?
|
first, expansion of the universe is not really an expansion. it is just that you use formula called "metric" to calculate distance between two points. you plug in coordinates of the two points and you get the distance. the formula in our universe simply happens to contain time in it. that means, that the distance of the two points can be different today and tomorrow. it changes continuously with time and we call it "expansion of the universe". motions of all objects in gravitational field are a result of a local metric of spacetime. that means, that when you have two clusters of galaxies, that almost don't affect each other gravitationaly, their "motion" is affected only by overall metric of spacetime. but when you have gravitationaly bound system (like solar sytem or galaxy), then motions of its objects are affected mainly by matter of the other objects in the system. or you can say, that the matter of those other objects creates metric on top of the metric of the entire universe. motions of planets in solar system are result of local metric in solar system. _in a way, you can say that existing motions of the planets already account for the overall metric of the universe + they are mainly moving in the metric of our sun. the result is motion along orbit that keeps its semi-major axis unchanged_ i.e. solar system does not expand. edit: another formulation - metric in solar system is a result of effects of all the matter in the universe and the matter in our solar system. when you calculate motions in the metric, you'll get that planets move along non-expanding orbits.
| 2 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why do we dream?
|
what is the brain doing that causes dreams, and what is our body doing in the different stages (rem, etc.). also, why can some people lucid dream? and why do we have nightmares?
|
the [prevailng theories](_url_1_) of dreaming are a neurocognitive approach. in rem sleep, differing areas of your brain are lowered and differed (tonic) in functioning. different brain areas are activated. emotional sections (e.g. amygadala = fear center) give emotional content to dreams. those emotions are associated with people, places and contexts (some of which are also randomly activated). these come from the hippocamus, which has pyramidal cells = place and context, as well as mirror neurons which is what makes you feel the pain of other people when they're getting hurt, it kind of goes in reverse when dreaming, implanting aspects of the dreamer into dream characters). furthermore, the secondary visual cortex produces the imagery and visual associations to those concepts. lately, non-rem dreaming has been illustrated as having less emotionally salient content. so thats what happens when we dream. as for why, the strict neurocognitive model would illustrate a random firing of neurons re-igniting memory and imaginative-based, emotional and visual experiences during sleep. others assert that emotionally important issues do come up, as well as random ones. but if all of your life is to be randomly presented to you, of course some of it will be special/powerful. the evolutionary model brings up a clever point; that we dream as a preparation for future events. this would explain why we have nightmares, as a threat simulation to keep up on our toes. as for lucid dreaming, this is my favorite subject, which i aim to immerse myself in graduate school (just sent applications, wish me luck). lucid dreaming is self awareness within the dream. voss has measured lucid dreaming at an frontal lobe (executive functioning/decision making) activation level between regular rem and waking consciousness. some people are natural lucid dreamers, their minds can access that point without training. everyone can (and i believe we all do, but not all recall) lucid dream, especially with a bit of training. lucid dreaming is highly correlated with nightmares, as many people cannot dreamily accept that a nightmare is happening and become lucid, thereby being able to fight the nightmare off (watch nightmare on elm street). so too that depressed individuals, who oversleep and dream alot, or are insomniacs who dive right into dreams upon rem rebound, may also experience greater lucid dream recall, as their ruminatory brains continue to focus on the issues at hand, even while dreaming. in this sense, we may have evolved to become lucid by chance (frontal lobe activation), and also by mental health necessity, to fight the nightmares and solve our depression (though i need to conduct further research to back this last statement up). i hope this answers your questions, i always love talking about dreams, come say hi over at [r/dreamihad](_url_0_) and [r/luciddreaming](_url_2_). i applaud your quest for the science of dreaming, as i aim to discover the hard science to this fascinating field! dream on!
| 3 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://www.reddit.com/r/dreamihad",
"http://www.culturacientifica.org/textosudc/sueno_01.pdf",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/luciddreaming"
] |
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] |
why do animal eyes (like dogs, cats, spiders, sheep etc.) reflect bright direct light at night but human eyes don't seem to?
|
also does the colour they reflect mean anything?
|
nocturnal animals (and deep-sea animals) have a layer of reflective tissue behind the retina called the tapetum lucidum. it's purpose is to act like a mirror and send light back through the retina, giving it twice the chance to hit it.... and thus making the eye twice as sensitive. we don't have it because we're not nocturnal.
| 7 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
when free helium rises into the upper atmosphere, does it escape earth's gravity and go out into space?
|
seems to me the answer must be no, because it wouldn't achieve escape velocity. that being the case, when we eventually have a helium shortage, wouldn't it make sense to reclaim it from the upper atmosphere, rather than e.g. trying to mine it on the moon as i recently read has been proposed?
|
it helps to think of buoyancy as molecules of a fluid "pushing" on an object in order to return to its previous form. because of gravity, there tends to be more molecules of the fluid at the "bottom" (i.e., the surface of the earth), than there are at the "top". this means that there are more molecules of fluid "pushing" on the object upward than downward and if that upward force is strong enough to counteract gravity, the object rises. however, as the object rises up, there are less and less molecules of fluid available to push it, resulting in less upward force. eventually, there will be an equilibrium of the upward buoyant force and the downward gravitational force, where the helium molecule will remain if left alone. however, there are forces at work that can allow helium to escape the atmosphere. the main one seems to be heat from the sun. obviously, the sun heats the atmosphere. on the ground level, these molecules start moving rapidly, but they can't really go anywhere since they are constantly bumping into each other. however, at the edge of the atmosphere, where there are very few molecules, it is much easier for a molecule of gas to gain enough energy to reach escape velocity. i'm definitely no expert in engineering, but i don't think that extracting helium from the atmosphere would be plausible. it might be possible, mind you, but too difficult to justify the cost. while there may be a lot of helium molecules in the atmosphere, they're heavily diluted in a huge mixture of other gases. i'd imagine that it would actually be easier to mine moon rocks than to extract a gas that makes up less than a thousandth of a percent of the atmosphere.
| 3 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_escape"
] |
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] |
what are the physics behind different baseball pitches?
|
what factors are involved that allow a pitcher to change the course of the ball so much?
|
in sports, most of the deviation from expected flight path (wind aside) is from the magnus effect (linky at bottom). one way to look at the magnus effect is that when you have a spinning ball moving through the air, the part of the ball spinning in the direction of travel has higher velocity relative to the air than the part of the ball spinning away. these creates a pressure difference, which creates a force on the ball from high (spinning into the air) to low (spinning away) pressure areas. this force will cause the ball to deflect from a 'plain' parabola. in baseball, this accounts for most stuff like curve balls and sliders and breaking balls in general. basically, the pitcher controls the amount and direction of spin relative to forward velocity, as well as release point to get the desired movement. knuckleballs on the other hand are thrown with as little spin as possible. the seams then create vortices which then create unpredictable forces, resulting in the unpredictable movement of a knuckleball. _url_0_
| 13 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_effect"
] |
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] |
what are the physics behind different baseball pitches?
|
what makes a sinker sink? a curveball curve? a fastball straight?
|
my time to shine! there are really extensive posts on the net about it if you just google magnus force baseball, but considering i had something to do with the matter recently, i may as well give you a tl;dr. essentially, when you throw a ball-like object without any spin, the ball (theoretically) is under an equal drag on all the sides which simply slows it down based on the ball's speed and the drag coefficient of the ball (0.47 for a sphere) and cross-sectional area (which, being a sphere, is equal to pi*r²) (plus other stuff like viscosity of the fluid, but this doesn't really matter for the sake of this discussion). most of this has been discovered experimentally (even the drag coefficient of many shapes has to be experimentally tested before, because it's pretty hard to calculate without any experiment to back you up), but drag is mostly due to two factors: form drag and skin friction. the form drag is due to the air "hitting" the front of the object and having to "move away" (and, as such, it's at his max for an object with a flat surface); the skin friction is regular friction between the sides of the object and air. if, however, the ball is spinning, there's a main difference: the spinning of the ball increases skin friction on one side (the one moving against the flow of air), but decreases on the other side. this causes the air to apply a force on the ball from the side with the most friction to the one with the least friction (the air "hit" from the side with the most friction tries to get back up, pushing the ball). i hope it was clear enough: aerodynamics is a pretty complicated matter, and going into details would have definitely made this overkill.
| 33 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
if a disc is spinning near the speed of light at the furthest edge, would the innermost portion exist at a different time due to its spinning at a slower speed?
|
i'm an idiot at science.
|
time would pass differently on the edge, yes. you're not an idiot at science, at all. this is an excellent question to ask and one not a lot of laymen/laywomen would think to ask. trying to reconcile spinning discs and special relativity were one of the things that led to the general theory of relativity, which upended three centuries of gravitational thought. keep thinking these thought experiments, and don't put yourself down!
| 65 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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why does squinting help us to see things at longer distances (or smaller objects)?
|
or, alternatively, does it have an effect at all?
|
best answer - almost all vision problems are do do a mishapen eyeball, which makes for a mishapen cornea. the cornea does about 85% of the refrection done in vision. that is to say 85% of the light bending done by everything in your eye is done by your cornea, which is the clear opaqued outer covering of your eye. squinting changes the shape of your cornea, by sqeezing your eyeball. changing the shape of your cornea changes the shaped of the (cornea, the better part of your "lens" if not the actual anatomical lens) ... and thus you see better. when you squint it has no effect on your pupil size (i.e apperature). so i don't support above. edit - this is why lasik can correct for 95% of vision problems, and done only via changing the shape of your cornea, non - invasive surgery.
| 2 |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why did a massive hole in the ozone layer form over antarctica as opposed to places where excessive amounts of pollution are being given off?
|
to add a bit to [ruleofmildlyintrsting's link](_url_0_), the important thing to consider is the mechanisms of chemistry in the atmosphere which serve to deplete ozone. ozone is rapidly depleted in the stratosphere due to catalytic reaction pathways which are bolstered by the accumulation of chlorofluorocarbons and other species containing nox/noy/brox and other families. the basic destruction mechanism of ozone was originally thought to proceed via the chapman mechanism, whereby ozone and chlorine radicals would produce clo and molecular oxygen, and the clo would react with o1(d) generated from photolysis to produce a new cl radical. however, reactions with the hox family tends to sequester chlorine in reservoir species, like clono2, which tempers the previous cycle. these reservoir families are hugely bolstered when the atmosphere becomes cold enough for nitric acid and water to freeze homogeneously and produce "polar stratospheric clouds". the conditions necessary for these clouds happen annually in the antarctic, but rarely in the arctic and never anywhere outside of the poles. the droplets in pscs create sites for heterogeneous chemistry to very efficiently proceed (the previous reactions are somewhat slow in the gas phase). then, at the beginning of the austral spring, photolysis breaks up these reservoir species, creating a large infusion of chlorine radicals and a steroid-boost to the catalytic cycle destroying ozone. the reason that you don't see a massive hole in the ozone layer elsewhere in the world has to do with the budget for producing ozone, but most importantly, with the meteorology that controls the onset of pscs and thereby sets a clock for the rapid and nearly-complete destruction of ozone. in atmospheric chemistry, many problems are non-local because of the ability for "bad" chemicals to remain relatively inert in a reservoir, then be transported very far away from their emission source before being released to act petulantly.
| 11 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1cwgyd/why_did_a_massive_hole_in_the_ozone_layer_form/c9kmqa7",
"http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/ASK/ozonehole.html"
] |
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] |
|
what, if any, plants could survive on mars?
|
either completely on their own, or with slight human interference (watering, fertilizer).
|
no known species of plants would be able to survive direct exposure to the martian conditions, such as extremely low temperature, thin air, high levels of solar radiation, and low amount of minerals and nutrients in the martian soil. however, scientists are working on removing useful genes from extremophiles through gene splicing and adding them to plants, which could then be housed in little greenhouses on mars. see more [here.](_url_0_)
| 23 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2005/mars_plants.html",
"http://thewe.cc/weplanet/poles/antarcti/planlife.html"
] |
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] |
when can a plant be officially considered dead?
|
with humans (and other animals), there seem to be a specific set of standards that are considered before declaring someone dead. when a person dies, there are still plenty cells that are still alive. however, when can plants be considered dead, if there even is a set of standards for such a thing? is it when a majority or a certain percentage of its cells are dead?
|
what you have here is an interesting question because science doesn’t have a concrete definition of life. biology is “the study of life” but a more accurate definition would be “the study of the physical and chemical processes of life”. we can study the processes, like a heart beat or brain wave function. we can determine when they have ceased, to declare someone dead. but we cannot study the life as it leaves them. we can only study the signs that tell is that the life is leaving them. plants have a few processes that i could think of that could be determinate like that. xylem and phloem tissue activity, photosynthesis activity. it could be dead when these stop, but sometimes the plant could be brought back after these processes have stopped. i’m not sure if anyone has officially issued a definition of plant death. probably not because it’s not a very lucrative definition to propose.
| 18 |
[] |
[] |
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information-theoretic_death"
] |
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] |
could humans still breath our atmosphere if there was no nitrogen?
|
so i know that earth's atmosphere is something like 78% nitrogen, but obviously humans breathe oxygen, so i'm wondering exactly how that works. do humans need literal air(our atmosphere's makeup) to breathe, or if our atmosphere was mainly composed of oxygen would we still be able to breathe? i know that pure oxygen gets us high right? so the concentration would have to be the same as it is now.
|
yes, any gas mixture is fine as long as the partial pressure of oxygen is correct and the other gases are inert. pure oxygen is fine, but it would have to be at lower pressure than the atmosphere. some spacecraft have used pure oxygen. scuba divers sometimes use mixes of helium with oxygen to avoid nitrogen narcosis.
| 7 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why do some people sneeze when they look at the sun?
|
genetics! photic sneeze reflex occurs in around a quarter of the population, and thought to be autosomal dominant. in fact, it is listed in [disease databases](_url_0_) as "achoo (autosomal-dominant compelling helio-ophthalmic outburst) syndrome". a [recent published study](_url_1_) found genetic variants near the genes *zeb2* and *nr2f2* are associated with the trait, at least in europeans. these genes have been also been shown to be associated with seizure disorders (e.g. rett syndrome and mowat-wilson syndrome), suggesting perhaps there is a link between photosensitive epileptic seizures and photic sneeze reflex.
| 3 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/?term=achoo",
"http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1000993"
] |
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] |
|
can one fall into coma while being asleep (directly transitioning from sleep to a comatic state)?
|
you can fall into a coma while being asleep. a common cause is diabetes. according to the article it can be reversible. _url_0_
| 12 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_coma"
] |
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|
why don´t planets orbit the sun like electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom?
|
hey /r/askscience, i've been watching "cosmos" by carl sagan and i'm on the third one, "harmony of the worlds", and it got me thinking, why does our solar system's planets revolve around the sun as if it were flat on a table? why dont the planets revolve around the earth like electrons around a nucleus? it seems to me if a planet could orbit the sun horizontally, that another could orbit it vertically. sorry if its a silly question, but i am starting to love science and am super curious!
|
well as far as we can tell, electrons -don't- orbit the nucleus, in a classical sense; rather, there's a probability of an electron being in any one 'orbital' at any one point. but the answer you're looking for is because the electron has very, very little mass, while a planet is uh. quite a bit bigger
| 17 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://www.reddit.com/r/sciencefaqs/comments/fui70/why_do_all_the_planets_in_our_solar_system_rotate/"
] |
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] |
if a mosquito bites my eye, would it be able to suck up any blood? would it itch?
|
i mean, there are little blood vessels i can see in my eye, but i've always been afraid to get bitten there. does the answer change depending on which part of the eye gets bitten?
|
this is a great question (because there may not be a complete answer)! . first, an aside: when using pubmed to search for another unpleasant insect-eye interaction there are quite a few results... case studies of bees stinging people's cornea (the transparent part of the globe of the eye, through which you can appreciate someone's iris and pupil) and sclera (the white of the eye)([see this drawing](_url_6_)). so far, we haven't learned much, except (1) bees are jerks, (2) this is the sort of thing that doctors would publish ... i.e. there should be case-studies for something common like mosquito bites. . doesn't give anything useful. weird. nada. zilch. maybe the search is a bit too narrow. removing the word "bite" from the above searches just gives a bunch of results for eye symptoms of mosquito-born illnesses. but, maybe people report bee stings because you can identify the stinger, but a mosquito bite leaves no definitive trace... let's try ...well, we're back to a bunch of bee/[hymenoptera](_url_11_) stuff. scrolling through, i see examples of [ticks latching onto the inside of the eyelid](_url_16_)... [huh, didn't even know walkingsticks *had* venom](_url_17_)... [fire ants](_url_7_) biting the eye of a child with "neurological compromise". . ok. this gives an interesting thought: maybe bees are commonly reported because they're *fast*. mosquitoes are quite slow... if one landed on your eye, you'd blink, rub your eye, etc., etc. it wouldn't get a chance to bite your eye unless something unusual is already happening (e.g. being unconscious with an open eye). another result from "insect bite, eye" was [this one](_url_4_) about eye injuries in motorcyclists, caused by colliding with beetles at speed. . so far, i've come up with no results. this is very odd, since we have results for ticks, beetles, walkingsticks, and tons of stinging insects. now i start wondering what the mosquito would actually do if it got a chance to bite your eye. the sclera is *very* tough tissue. not sure if a mosquito's proboscis could penetrate very deep. [most of the blood vessels are superficial](_url_8_), too... which leads me [here](_url_10_): **part 1a of my answer: there's a nice, superficial set of blood vessels below the [conjunctiva](_url_5_). i'm betting a mosquito could penetrate that small distance, and from there could feed on the blood.** **part 1b: a healthy cornea is [avascular](_url_9_). so, if the mosquito bites you there, it couldn't withdraw blood.** . but, anyways, i'm thinking about conjunctiva... back to pubmed! ...and we get results referring to [filariasis](_url_0_) and [dirofilariasis](_url_1_), in particular. unfortunately, most of these case reports are written in a foreign language, and/or are behind a paywall. but, there's [this](_url_13_)([google translate version](_url_2_)): **important** this *doesn't* mean that the woman was bitten on the eye. instead, the nematode probably migrated there. . i'm really surprised by this. i can plenty of examples of eye symptoms caused by insect bites elsewhere on the body. i can find examples of motorcyclists hitting their eyes into beetles. i can even find examples of eye disease caused by insects that don't bite, but just feed off of eye secretions: [thelaziasis](_url_15_), which wikipedia says can be found in the eyeball itself... and unlike the filariasis example above, is apparently from direct exposure of the eye tissues to the parasite, as described here from a 'critical comment' by shen et al., 2006, j. parasitol., 92(4), "human thelaziosis—a neglected parasitic disease of the eye" . ...anyways, **i am stumped by your question, (esp. the "will it itch" part) because i can't find any literature examples of someone being** *bit* **by a** *mosquito* **on the eye**. i know that the cornea's immune responses (e.g. to infection) are different than in other tissues, because (1) it's avascular, and (2) retaining transparency is a priority, so e.g. swelling would be very maladaptive. i suppose this means that a mosquito bite would be different, *somehow*, if it were on some part of the eye than elsewhere, but we don't know until it happens. the stunning lack of anything in the literature makes me think that mosquitoes are either too slow to bite the eye itself, or don't cause a reaction when a bite happens (hence, no reports). so, when you say, i wouldn't worry about it. ...bee stings on the other hand...
| 13 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filariasis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirofilariasis",
"http://translate.google.com/translate?js=n&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=2&eotf=1&sl=fr&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.em-consulte.com%2Farticle%2F219055&act=url",
"http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=9898",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20657212",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctiva",
"http://www.thirdeyehealth.com/images/sclera-1.jpg",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9503321",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclera",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornea",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episclera",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymenoptera",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=mosquito%2C%20conjunctiva",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19769873",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=bee%20sting%2C%20eye",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thelaziasis#cite_note-3",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9467462",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11150287"
] |
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] |
can water be compressed to a solid?
|
the 'normal' solid form of water is crystal, leading to a lot of 'negative' space and the common trivia about ice being more voluminous than liquid water. it seems like though, the crystallization is almost just getting in the way of what could be a more normal (to other molecules) solidification process. so is it possible to either compress water until it's solid, or cool it in such a way that its viscosity increases to solid?
|
keeping it at room temperature, you'd have to compress it to a pressure of about 10,000 atmospheres before it solidified. it wouldn't form regular ice, it would form something called ice-vi with a different structure.
| 31 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/05/070517-hot-planet_2.html"
] |
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] |
can water be compressed into a solid?
|
would it create ice? if it did would it be cold?
|
yes it can. look at [the phase diagram of water](_url_0_). as you can see, at any temperature lower than the critical point a solid phase of ice will be thermodynamically stable, which means that you can solidify liquid water by just increasing the pressure sufficiently. note, however that this phase while solid would be different from the type of ice you obtain by cooling down water at atmospheric pressure below 0c. as for the ice being "cold," well, that depends on what temperature you keep the solid at. there is nothing inherently "cold" about ice.
| 21 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Phase_diagram_of_water.svg/700px-Phase_diagram_of_water.svg.png",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Phase_diagram_of_water.svg"
] |
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is time truly another dimension or is it a description of the other three?
|
what i mean is: we tend to percieve time as a line or something that we're travelling through, and different events happen at different plottable points on this chart. but all the ways we measure time are based on repeatable events/the movement of things through the universe, e.g. years, days, seasons, and if nothing moved, there would be no time. time-travel is impossible because you'd have to rewind every atom etc to the position it was in whenever you're travelling to. so, my questions are: is time it's own direction, or just a description? is this why time and space are connected? is this even a valid question? please rid me of my ignorance. there is a possibility also that it is the words we use to describe time that's causing my problem here: "forwards" in time, time "travel", "timeline" etc.
|
yes, time is a dimension just like the other three, with the exception of one small, technical difference in its mathematical description. spacetime is a four-dimensional surface on which all physics takes place, and depending on your speed through spacetime, which directions correspond to time and which to space will vary and become intermingled, much how when you rotate a sphere, the new latitude coordinate is a combination of the old latitude and longitude coordinates.
| 15 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension",
"PhysOrg.com",
"http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/51806",
"http://www.physorg.com/news170586562.html"
] |
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] |
is time really a dimension?
|
it's possible to move in one dimension without moving in another. however, it isn't possible to move through space without moving through time. so what gives?
|
this isn't part of the core mathematical concept of dimension. (edit: additionally, as adamsolomon discusses in another [comment](_url_0_), the whole idea of "moving" requires reference to time, making this claim rather ill-formed in any case.) in fact, it's generally not safe to talk about "a dimension" at all, unless you're working in a space that comes equipped with that information. for example, without reference to time, space is three-dimensional, but there's no natural way to choose what each of those three dimensions is. the reason space is said to be three-dimensional instead of four- or two- or whatever is that three is the maximum number of different directions you can point before any other direction is just a "linear combination" of those three; in other words, once you pick a set of three non-coplanar directions, you can give directions by saying "go three miles that way, then six miles that way, then negative four miles that way" without needing any more than those three original directions. however, no matter what three spatial directions you pick, you can never specify timewards information in terms of them. therefore, you need a fourth direction to incorporate time. therefore, space-time is four-dimensional. one nice way to interpret all of this in a relativistic context is that everything is moving through space-time at a fixed speed, which we call *c*. what can vary is the direction each object moves with that speed. different directions in terms of the space vectors aren't so important, but since time looks different from space, it really does matter how you're oriented with respect to time. a couple of interesting things come out of this: 1. if your velocity's spacewards component is *c*, its timewards component must be 0. this is why people sometimes say things like "time stops at the speed of light". 2. if you vary the spacewards component of your velocity, the timewards component changes too. this explains the time-dilation relativistic effects experienced by fast-moving objects. 3. if you vary the timewards component of your velocity, it changes the way space looks to you. this explains space-distorting relativistic effects experienced by fast-moving objects.
| 179 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1154yo/is_time_really_a_dimension/c6jfcb5",
"http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2012/07/the-universe-is-timeless-a-radical-theory-weekend-feature.html"
] |
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] |
does heat change the taste of food?
|
i’m not quite sure about food but heat affects the taste of drinks for sure. the colder the drink, the more your tastebuds become suppressed. imagine an ice cold beer vs a room temperature beer. same beer, but one goes down a little bit easier. so to answer your question, i would assume heat only affects the way that the food is perceived by your tastebuds. could there be a potential chemical difference within food at different temperatures? i’m not sure. maybe someone more knowledgeable would be able to answer that
| 5 |
[] |
[] |
[
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK236241/",
"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00018-006-6384-0"
] |
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|
is there any difference between water boiled in the microwave vs boiled on stove top?
|
when i microwave water in a coffee cup, then add a tea bag, i feel the tea tastes different then water boiled on stove top then transferred to coffee cup, then add tea bag.
|
it's possible that the pot/kettle is imparting some taste to the water. it's also possible that the average temperature in the water is different using the two methods; when i make tea using the microwave, i find it's impossible to heat the water uniformly. our sensitivity to flavors does change with temperature.
| 6 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
is there a difference between water that was heated in a microwave and water that was heated on the stove?
|
a lot of people swear that microwaved water has a different taste and makes worse tea than its stove heated counterpart. is there any science to back this up? i know the myth about microwaved water killing plants is false, but is there any, even minor, differences?
|
probably not. the heating of the water is absolutely not going to impact how it tastes. if there is a taste change, that indicates a change in the chemical makeup of the water. the only way that i can think of that happening is if you heat the water in the microwave with some really thin, cheap plastic container that wasn't suitable for use in a microwave. in that case, it is possible for plasticizing agents like phthalates to leach into the water, but even then i doubt that you would be able to taste them. as long as you use a container that is microwave-appropriate, there should be no change in the taste of the water. --edit-- actually, /u/twistentoo is probably right.
| 6 |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why do my eyeballs feel sore when i come out of the dark into the sunlight?
|
there are two sets of muscles in your iris(the colored part of your eye), one to dialate(in response to low light) and another to constrict(in response to bright light) to ensure the approriate amount of light reaches the retina. as these are muscles, an abrupt change in brightness will force then to rapidly constrict which puts strain on them, and can be painful.
| 5 |
[] |
[] |
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] |
|
in all the star gazing we have been doing in the last few hundred years, have any stars mysteriously appeared or disappeared?
|
i realize dust clouds and black holes might account for some, but are there any that we have no explanations for? edit: sorry for disappearing; daughter needed me. i was really looking for stars disappearing for unexplained reasons, rather than known reasons, such as supernova, but thanks for all the interesting replies.
|
enough dust to fill an entire solar system mysteriously disappeared around star [tyc 8241 2652](_url_0_). there is no definitive explanation for the disappearance because current theories suggest that planets form over millions of years. the current theories as to the disappearance are not sound.
| 115 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/WISE/news/wise20120705.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kardashev_scale",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NN_Serpentis",
"http://i.imgur.com/Ulzy4.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN1987A",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crab_nebula",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u_gggKHvfGw"
] |
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] |
is there a difference in the quality of gas based on where it's sold. is exxon gas better than walmart gas,etc.?
|
i refer to cartalk hosts, the tappet brothers. "is there a difference in the gas between the big names, and the el-cheapo gasoline at my local costco or stupey-mart? there is. a number of years ago, some of the major auto manufacturers were ticked off with the deposits from gas that met epa detergent standards. in other words, they were afraid they'd take the heat for problems, when their customer's engines clogged up from the twigs and dirt that was getting deposited on their fine handiwork. so, they set their own guidelines, which they call "tier 2." all of the gas from the major gas companies meets the tier 2 standards. the gas at your local quickie mart probably does not. the difference? in some tests, after about 10,000 miles, there was a minor amount of crud built up on engine components that ran exclusively on quickie-mart gas. do we think this is an issue? not really. but, would we advise running your car for 100,000 miles only on quickie-mart gas? not if you're concerned about the longevity of your vehicle. we recommend switching back and forth between tier 1 and tier 2 - maybe every other tank full - to keep your engine running clean." _url_0_
| 107 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://www.cartalk.com/content/premium-vs-regular-0",
"http://www.toptiergas.com/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylcyclopentadienyl_manganese_tricarbonyl",
"http://www.meca.org/galleries/default-file/Sierra%20Research%20Auto%20Industry%20MMT%20Report%20August%202008.pdf"
] |
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|
why do some gas stations advertise gas at a higher/lower price? does it have to do with different additives or just where they get their oil?
|
typically the price of gas starts at what they think it will cost to replace that gas (not necessarily what that particular tank of gas cost) plus a few cents per gallon. from there it is all economics and not dependent on the grade of gas. the most dominant factor is the proximity of another competing station. the least expensive stores will be those that make their money selling food/snacks/groceries. these kinds of places keep their gas prices the most competitive to get people into the store. the most expensive gas will typically be found at some old gas station in the middle of a nice neighborhood which won't allow another gas station anywhere near it. having a local monopoly, they will proceed to stick it to the people who didn't think about filling up until they were all the way home.
| 2 |
[] |
[] |
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] |
|
can someone fully explain why an orange led appears to change color when placed in liquid nitrogen? (video inside)
|
_url_0_
|
the light from an led is generated when an electron moves from a high energy state to a lower energy state. this difference in energies between these two states is referred to as the band gap. the larger this gap, the more energy an emitted photon has when an electron makes the transition. the higher energy the photon is, the more "blue" it will appear. from low energy to high, the visible spectrum runs from red as the temperature decreases, the gap becomes larger, and the photons become more energetic as a result. in this case, the shift is quite dramatic, and we see the wavelength shift from ~600 nm to ~550 nm.
| 6 |
[] |
[
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=4w1HifFayNU"
] |
[] |
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] |
why does led glow brighter in liquid nitrogen but only for a moment?
|
seeking input from some led experts... we were fooling around with some liquid nitrogen at work and noticed when we submerged a red led, the brightness increased dramatically but only until a certain point. once the bulb cooled to (seemingly) the same temp as the ln2 (-320f), its brightness dropped off. i'm including a video for your reference. you can see that once the bulb is pulled from the ln2, it's brightness begins to increase once again. there's plenty of experiments detailing how the color changes, but none seem to mention brightness. we know that there is far less resistance when items are cooled so brightness would increase. can anyone explain why the brightness decreases once the bulb is sufficiently cooled? video: _url_0_ thanks!
|
first you made a faulty assumption. that all objects have less resistance as the temperature decreases. semiconductors don't do this. they have less resistance at higher temperatures. this is because at higher temperatures more charge carriers go from the valence band to the conduction band because they have more energy. it's an exponential relationship. the current is proportional to e^(ev/kt) - 1 _url_2_ _url_3_ _url_1_ ok, so what are we seeing? notice the color of the led changes form red to yellow. as the led cools, the crystal shrinks and that changes the band gap which changes the color. human eyes are more sensitive to yellow so this is probably part of the reason it appears brighter even though its intensity might decrease. eventually it gets so cold that the current drops enough that it appears dimmer. _url_0_
| 6 |
[] |
[
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O8FT9EVxJVI&list=UUXFtgGG86NQXQa39B5cYfrw"
] |
[
"http://www.ecse.rpiscrews.us/~schubert/Reprints/2005%20Chhajed%20et%20al%20%28SPIE%20Photonics%20West%29%20Junction%20temperature%20in%20LEDs.pdf",
"http://www.isb.ac.th/HS/JoP/vol4iss1/Papers/1LEDTemp.pdf",
"http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/pn-junction/diode-equation",
"http://www.cliftonlaboratories.com/1n400x_diode_family_forward_voltage.htm#Forward_Drop_versus_Temperature_and_Current",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity#Temperature_dependence",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_diode#Diode_law",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_diode#Forward_bias"
] |
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] |
if all the planets stopped revolving around the sun and if they all were the same distance from the sun, would they all fall towards the sun at the same rate?
|
actually, no. although mass doesn't matter on the small scale, it does on the large scale. acceleration of a golf ball on earth is practically the same as a bowling ball on earth because there's pretty much no difference between the mass of earth+golf ball and earth+bowling ball. however, jupiter+sun would have a much greater mass pulling each other together than say mars+sun
| 4 |
[] |
[] |
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] |
|
is there any known correlation between smell or flavor (bitter, sweet, etc) and nutritional value?
|
curious as to what taste buds are detecting, chemical composition?
|
yes, that’s the whole point of taste buds (evolutionarily). small carbohydrates (sugars) bind to sweet-tastebuds, signalling the brain that ’this must be good nutrition’. the weird thing is that most lipids (fat, oil) don’t taste that good even though they are extremely nutritious. also, animals have during their evolution learnt to associate bad tastes with toxic compounds. for example, bacterial and fungi toxins taste extremely bad (e.g. milk gone bad or moldy bread).
| 10 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
can humans actually smell "sweetness" or is it an association with an already learned smell thatakes something smell sweet?
|
you can't smell sweet. things also don't smell sour, bitter, salty, or umami. these five cardinal tastes are things that we perceive with our tastebuds. our nose, however, is picking up aromatics that we may associate with certain tastes. so...no you can’t but you can smell things that can be associated with sweetness. hope this helps.
| 6 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
|
why are gases more soluble in cold liquid, but solids are more soluble in warm liquid?
|
ex: carbonated drinks stay fizzy when refrigerated, salt dissolves in water better when the water is hot.
|
great question. gas molecules tend to fly around and bump into each other. if you add heat to a gas, which is in a ballon, the volume of the balloon increases because gases expand when you heat them. as you add the heat, the gas molecules move faster and collide with more force. solids, on the other hand, are in relatively fixed position. say you have a pot of boiling water with the lid on, water molecules are constantly being shot out of the liquid and being shot back into it. the amount the leaves and enters depends on pressure, temperature, and volume of the container. the more heat inside the water, the faster the water molecules will shoot out. a hot gas in a liquid will have a lot of energy and be able to escape the liquid, but a colder gas will have less energy to escape and be more likely to remain in the liquid making it more soluble. the atoms in solids are in fixed positions and bound together by either ionic or covalent bonding. let's assume the liquid in this case is water and the dissolvable substance is salt, which has ionic bonds. when you had heat to water the molecules will move faster and with more energy. water molecules with more kinetic energy will slam into salt particles with more energy which allows it to break apart the salt particles with more ease. simply imagine throwing a baseball really fast, then really slow, at a lego structure. the faster you throw the baseball, the farther the legos will fly.
| 210 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why is it that water becomes a better solvent for solids at higher temperature, but a better solvent for gases at lower temperature?
|
for example, if you cool water saturated with sugar, sugar will come out of solution, but if you heat water saturated with co2, carbon dioxide will come out of solution. why is this?
|
i'll take a shot, due to the fact that this is going unanswered for some time. my understanding of this, coming from years of homebrewing and no particular scientific rigor (although i am a trained mechanical engineer), is that the solubility of water does in fact increase with warmer temperatures and decrease with cooler ones. this explains the solid solute situation. the difference between that case and the gaseous one, however, is that gas dissolution is driven to an even larger extent by their vapor pressure, which changes more over the range of temperatures than the solubility of the water. in other words, when you cool down water, its solubility decreases, but the vapor pressure of co*_2_* decreases _even more_, which means that the co*_2_* has a lower evaporative rate. if you excuse the drift into anthropomorphism (this is only for storytelling purposes of the concept, and not any scientific rigor), the water becomes less hospitable to the co*_2_*, but co*_2_* is a fairly small molecule. it "doesn't want to leave" even more than the water decreases its spaces to occupy. when you warm the water (and the co*_2_*), there's more space for it to occupy, but it leaps out of the solution with more energy.
| 4 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why are some alleles more dominant than others?
|
this has always confused me. why is a brown haired gene more dominant than a blonde hair gene, etc? i know that when it comes to human genes, there's a lot of multi-alleled non-mendellian stuff going on, but i'm just curious as to why some alleles are dominant and some are recessive.
|
the dominant gene codes for a functional protein. the recessive gene codes for a non-functional protein or no protein at all. brown hair is brown because there is pigment because there's a gene that codes for a protein that makes the pigment. if there gene doesn't code for a functional protein, no pigment makes it to the hair, so it is pigmentless, aka blonde. the gene is dominant because if even just one allele codes for the functional protein there's still pigment being made. same thing with blue/green eyes vs brown, yellow peas vs green, etc - the 'colored' version is the dominant trait as a result of a single or double copy of a functional color-producing protein while the 'colorless' version is the recessive trait from a complete lack of color-producing protein.
| 20 |
[] |
[] |
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] |
what makes alleles dominant/recessive
|
what accounts for the expression of one allele over the other? i always suspected it to just be chance, but then you have diseases which are carried by a recessive allele, and only expressed if both parents have the mutated gene. along those same lines, is it just lucky that mutated genes tend to be recessive, or is it that all the dominant alleles that caused disease would have been eliminated by natural selection? or, am i completely off?
|
autosomal dominant genes usually have to do with structural changes. if you have one allele that is normal and the other one makes a aggregating protein (eg huntington's), that one allele alone can cause effects. (in huntington's one allele has several trinucleotide repeats of cag which result in aggregates of the protein huntingin, causng neuronal degeneration) autosomal recessive genes usually have to do with enzymes. if you have one allele that is normal and the other one makes a dysfunctional enzyme (eg phenylketonuria), the normal allele will still be able to compensate for the other and you will not see any effects. (in phenylketonuria (pku), the enzyme responsible for metabolizing phenylalanine is gone from both alleles, so you have a build up of phenylalanine resulting in severe mental retardation, albinism, eczema, and seizures. phenylalanine may also be metabolized into phenylketones which can be found in the urine - **phenyl** **ketone** **uria**) there are exceptions, obviously, but this is the basic framework.
| 11 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why do ice cubes have bubbles in them?
|
i was looking at some ice cubes today and started wondering this. i assume that because the water freezes from the outside towards the center, the volume of the interior expands (because the ice that is forming around it is less dense and is expanding), causing the pressure in the middle to drop and the gas in the liquid trapped in the middle to get pulled out of solution. i could be way off though, so i'm hoping someone will enlighten me...
|
gases (such as air) are soluble in water. however, in ice they are not (barely) soluble so when water with dissolved gas is frozen the gas leaves and is trapped by the forming ice. you can make (almost) perfectly clear icecubes if you boil the water before filling the ice tray (let the water cool down before you fill the tray, some trays are not suitable for boiling water). the solubility of gasses in water decreases with rising temperature so boiling it basically "degasses" your water.
| 8 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why do my ice cubes have bubbles?
|
why don't they just float out the top before it freezes?
|
gas needs to escape when water freezes. in most cases ice freezes from all sides. because ice is a solid, the gas would need to be rather high pressure to break trough and escape compared to if it was still water. as such, the little bubbles stay trapped in the block being unable to escape. couple this with the increase in gas as more of the water freezes, and you end up with teh bubbles centralized around the last part of teh liquid to freeze. however, if the freezing happens from the bottom up, then the gas bubbles will have a chance to break the surface and escape.
| 2 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why do your eyes have to switch focus between things that are near and far in a mirror if a mirror is flat?
|
largely because a mirror is not a magic box that just displays the information you are seeing like an lcd tv. the mirror is just reflecting light and lines of vision. it does not change to focal lengths or points of any of the information it is redirecting.
| 5 |
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|
why do i lose my appetite when i get sick?
|
is this the "intended effect" of the pathogen, meaning it is more conducive to the survival of that pathogen if i do not eat, or is this something my body does as a defense mechanism to combat the pathogen? in other words, who is winning the battle when i lose my appetite after getting sick - my body or the infectious agent? is there some other explanation for sickness leading to loss of appetite?
|
it would be guess with this: when you eat, more blood goes to your stomach to help with digestion, this usually why you get tired after you eat large meals. just like an infection, pharyngitis for example, your throat becomes inflamed and more blood is directed there. so with regarding this, i feel like it is more of a thing with your own body trying to get the most attention to the site of the illness. however, eating is still recommended, probably small and nutritious ones. if i'm wrong then someone correct me. i'm just basing those two ideas.
| 2 |
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] |
why is it that when i'm sick i lose my appetite?
|
shouldn't i be voraciously hungry to help recover?
|
when your body's immune system is activated to fight off an infection, different chemicals are released. cytokines are involved in this process, and they release chemicals that do a bunch of things (won't get into the details of that). just know that some of those chemicals will tell your brain you aren't hungry anymore (satiety). the thing too is that viri/bacteria may feed off the glucose and nutrients you digest...feeding it further. so it can sometimes be a good thing depending on what pathogen you're fighting off. however that is not to say you should not eat. still eat food, stay hydrated, etc. just know that if you don't, our body is still able to find energy elsewhere to fight off the infection...such as by burning your fat stores and such.
| 5 |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why is the moon so spherical if it doesn't spin on it's own axis?
|
i thought the moon was the result of an impact of another mass with the earth. how did it become an almost perfect sphere if it doesn't spin?
|
it does spin on its own axis. in any case, a spherical shape is the most energy-efficient configuration. any object large enough to be significantly affected by its own gravity will ultimately collapse into a sphere under the influence of its gravity.
| 42 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://www.astronomy.com/magazine/ask-astro/2017/08/the-diameter-of-spherical-bodies",
"https://www.newscientist.com/article/2107643-rosettas-biggest-hits-the-comet-chasers-top-seven-discoveries/"
] |
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] |
does a solar eclipse happen everyday somewhere on the planet?
|
same with lunar eclipses
|
no. for a solar eclipse to happen, the moon must be directly between the sun and the earth. for a lunar eclipse to happen, the earth must be directly between the sun and the moon. these alignments are somewhat rare events, happening only a few times a year.
| 7 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://ottawa-rasc.ca/wiki/images/thumb/f/f1/Hamner_Articles_Moon_orbital_mechanics16.jpg/450px-Hamner_Articles_Moon_orbital_mechanics16.jpg"
] |
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] |
if table salt (nacl) dissolved in water is present as sodium and chloride ions, why can i taste salt when i drink the water?
|
so the "taste" of salt is mainly the sodium ions. try dissolving a teaspoon of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) in some water and see how awfully salty it tastes. the carbonate gives it a chalky flavor (or maybe it's more of a feel) as well, but the sodium is unmistakable.
| 39 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
|
why does sticking your finger in soda fizz make the fizz go away faster than normal?
|
when you have a soda that is fizzing over, if you stick your finger into the fizz, the fizz dissipates much faster than if you don't stick your finger into the fizz. why?
|
the oils on your skin lower the surface tension of the soda, causing individual bubble walls to thin and burst sooner/faster. if you have very clean hands (like washed with an anti grease soap like dish soap, rinsed thoroughly, you'll have comparatively less oil and the effect will not happen nearly as noticeably. *edit- the oils on your skin act as a surfactant in this case. _url_0_ happy micro bubble popping!
| 10 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant"
] |
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] |
how is there so much helium in nebulas?
|
i was to understand that only hydrogen was created during the big bang. helium only comes from a star's nuclear fusion. am i wrong about this? and if not, how is there so much free helium just floating around in space? also, how can we even see nebulas? is the color just from a spectrometre or whatever?
|
helium also formed during the big bang, along with small quantities of other elements. that raises the question of why it stopped at helium. [this seems to explain it in detail.](_url_0_) the short version is that by the time the universe was cool enough for deuterium to stay fused, the pressure and temperature were low enough for fusion to stop at helium.
| 4 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/2013/07/05/why-did-the-universe-start-off-with-hydrogen-helium-and-not-much-else/"
] |
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] |
why does smoke (especially cigarette smoke) seem to smell more strongly, and persist over a longer distance, when it is very humid outside? [x-post r/answers, didn't get a good explanation there.]
|
this is related to another post that came up recently asking why the air had a specific smell after a good rain outside. the answer was they were smelling the earth more clearly. i do not remember the biological reason, but your sense of smell is increased in cases of high humidity. i tried to find a reliable source confirming it but was only able to find this paper which discusses the effect. _url_0_
| 2 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17901967"
] |
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] |
|
if bacteria prosper in warm environments, why does our body raising its temperature kill off most harmful pathogens?
|
remember that proteins all have an optimal temperature range to maintain their proper shape. the raising of your body temperature is not what actually kills the bacteria; that is done by your white blood cells. raising the body temperature makes the bacterial proteins (enzymes in particular) less efficient - or that's the goal anyways - slowing their replication and allowing your white blood cells to attack them with more ease.
| 9 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
|
what's the difference between being knocked out and being unconcscious when you sleep?
|
sleep is a complicated, organized process in which your brain slows down but does not stop working. many parts of your brain remain active while you sleep. for example, you might sleep through a quiet conversation in the same room, but then suddenly wake up when someone says your name. the part of your brain that processes sounds is active enough to recognize your name, interpret that it might be important, and send a signal that prompts you to wake up. unconsciousness is different because it's an abnormal state. the system controls wakefulness is either not working properly, or is not able to communicate with the rest of the brain. an unconscious person cannot be awakened by any stimulus. in the hospital, this is one of the quick ways we distinguish true unconsciousness from sleep (or acting). we provide a noxious stimulus, something that a sleeping or wakeful person would be unable to ignore, such as ammonia vapors in the nose or a painful rub on the sternum. a sleeping person would respond by waking up, but an unconscious person cannot wake.
| 27 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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|
does the oxygen released by plants cool or warm the air?
|
i was wondering how, on a hot summer day it can be cool in the shade of trees. is the coolness only because of the shading from sunlight or is there more to it? maybe cool water vapour escapes from the plants and cools the shaded area? but mostly i'm wondering if the oxygen from plants bring out heat energy with it or if it is cooler that the surrounding air.
|
first question: the reason it is cool under a tree is because that area is shielded from the sun. your skin and the ground around you are not being constantly heated by infrared radiation from the sun, and so being in the area feels cool, and the surface of things that have been under a tree for a while feel cool also. if there was very little movement of the air, the air under a tree would also be cooler than the air elsewhere. that is why it feels cool under a tree. second question: bear in mind that anything i say here will be almost negligible in terms of what you will actually notice, this is a tiny difference and this answer is purely for the sake of your speculation. it is a well known fact that evaporation cools a substance as the molecules that leave the surface are those with the highest heat energy, lowering average energy in the substance. however, this heat does not just disappear, the molecule that leaves takes the energy with it into the surrounding air. so the process of evaporation warms the air around a leaf *slightly*. secondly, photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction and so the substances that go into the reaction are warmer than those that come out (in theory). because these differences are so hard to measure, we can't know the details for sure, but in reality, it is only really the shade itself that makes the air cooler. tl;dr a dead tree would be just as good as a living tree if it still had all of it's leaves.
| 3 |
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] |
why does your metabolism slow down with age?
|
part of the reason is for the evolutionary survival of the species. as you get older it's much more likey that you have already passed your genetic information on to the next generation. once you've done that it makes more sense, evolutionarily speaking, to prioritise resources to your offspring. having a slower metabolism would mean that you eat less and, in the old days of competitive hunter/gather life styles were food was scarce, that would mean you'd comsume less and leave more food for your offspring to consume, increasing their chances of survival and therefore also increasing the chances of the survivial of your genetic information.
| 2 |
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] |
|
why does your metabolism slow down with age?
|
what exactly is happening biologically that causes someone in their thirties to put on weight so much easier than someone in their teens?
|
during puberty, the brain flips a switch to "flood" the body with hormones such as testosterone and/or estrogen, to induce physical and mental developments to the body. the increased flux of hormones in the body is the reason why growing boys and girls have fast metabolisms. the hormones have different effects based on gender, as boys significantly gain muscle mass, while girls significantly gain body fat, which is ideal for reproduction. there are many factors we can consider why someone in their thirties gains weight much easier than during their teenage years, and metabolism is not a major one. yes, metabolism is indeed fast during puberty, but it is suggested that we gain weight during our adulthood because we get less active, muscle growth slows down, and the calories we need to consume is now far less than during our teenage years, but our eating habits remains the same. the primary factor suggested that induces weight gain during adulthood is our lifestyle.
| 3 |
[] |
[] |
[] |
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] |
why is yellow a primary colour in paint and not in light?
|
see [additive color](_url_1_) vs [subtractive color](_url_0_). conversely, additive color systems start without light (black). light sources of various wavelengths combine to make a color. in either type of system, three primary colors are combined to stimulate humans’ trichromatic color vision, sensed by the three types of cone cells in the eye, giving an apparently full range.
| 3 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtractive_color",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_color"
] |
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] |
|
why is yellow a primary colour when we talk about paints/pigments but is replaced with green when we talk about light?
|
primary colours are not something that is fixed. any set of colours that can be used to reproduce the colour spectrum can be called a set of primary colours. usually rgb (red green blue) is used when using additive mixing (light is a typical example, using all colours results in white) and cmy (cyan, magenta and yellow) is used for subtractive mixing (adding all colours yield black, mostly the case in printing). however, the precise colour of these primary colours is subject to change and depends on what is accessible. _url_1_ _url_0_
| 231 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtractive_color",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_color",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RYB_color_model",
"http://infographiclist.com/2011/10/05/rgb-color-wheel-infographic/"
] |
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|
were there any planets orbiting first generation stars?
|
there weren't any heavy elements to speak of, so there obviously couldn't have been rocky planets like our own. but what about gas giants? was there anything about the conditions of the early universe that would have stopped hydrogen clouds from 'fracturing' as they collapsed, yielded a hydrogen star with hydrogen planets orbiting it?
|
to build a planet you need lots of rubble and that means lots of heavy elements – stuff more massive than atoms of hydrogen and helium. the prevailing wisdom had been that the magic of stellar alchemy didn’t produce enough useful “star-stuff” to build terrestrial worlds until at least six or seven billion years after the big bang. in this sense a host stars [metallicity](_url_3_) has been previously assumed to be directly correlated to what kinds of planets it can be host to which was backed up by studies of exoplanets, frequently finding worlds around stars with a “metallicity” (i.e. a heavy element abundance) equal to or greater than our sun. this leads to the conclusion then that the 1st generation stars simply were not able to be host to terrestrial (rocky) or gas-giant type planets (also with rocky [metallic] cores. however, the correlation that a stars metallicity is a strong indicator for planets, has been weakened, at least for smaller, terrestrial planets - **relative to our suns metallicity**, a pop i star. surveys do detect a decrease in the number of planet-hosting stars with decreasing metallicity, but this drop is much shallower for terrestrial planets than it is for gas giants. according to our current understanding the very 1st stars, termed [population iii stars](_url_2_) would have had no planets; pop ii stars have low-metallicity *relative to our sun* and created all the other elements in the periodic table (except the more unstable ones). though some older pop ii stars have been found with [gas-giants orbiting them](_url_0_), they are believed to 'adopted' planets. pop i stars (such as our sun) are metal-rich and can therefore be host to rocky planets. in order to make planets you clearly need metals, and therefore it is extremely unlikely to have planets formed alongside their metal deficient or even metal-poor host star.
| 3 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1011.4938",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v486/n7403/full/nature11121.html",
"http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/P/Population+III",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallicity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSR_B1620-26_b",
"http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2003/19"
] |
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] |
did the first stars have planets?
|
stars are separated into three populations. the oldest stars would be pop iii stars, formed soon after the big bang. at this point the universe was almost entirely composed of hydrogen and helium, so planets would be unlikely to form -- but more importantly, pop iii stars would be *enormous* and the environments around them not at all conducive to planetary formation. due to their monstrous size, pop iii stars would also be extremely short-lived. the resulting supernovae both enrich the universe with heavier elements, and send compression waves through the interstellar medium triggering star formation. pop ii stars are therefore richer in heavy elements (by which i mean anything heavier than helium; in astronomy anything heavier than helium is also commonly and misleadingly dubbed "metal"). as another commentor has implied, we also still have some pop ii stars hanging around -- low-mass red dwarfs that can survive for tens of billions of years. it seems outside the realms of possibility for many of these stars not to have planets (along with earlier and larger, hotter pop ii stars) though as noted the proportion of metals present is still low so they're much more likely to be gas giants akin to jupiter or saturn than anything like the earth. the sun is a pop i star, formed from the detritus of the supernovae of the largest pop ii stars. pop i stars have a richer abundance of metals and correspondingly higher chance both of rocky planetary formation and indeed the formation of life. one thing i quite like is that this implies that we popped up about as early as life possibly could in the universe. the universe has aged enough to have the elements necessary for life; the cosmos has settled rather into galaxies with quiet neighbourhoods such as ours so we're not repeatedly battered by extreme energy sources; and as soon as that happened, here we are. since we did arise so quickly to me suggests that the probability of life is really quite high -- although given astronomical timescales, the likelihood of the ~100,000 years we've been around overlapping with another lifeform within our pocket of the galaxy is still pretty slender.
| 14 |
[] |
[] |
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] |
|
why do objects like wheels appear to spin backwards as they speed up?
|
i'm not entirely sure why this phenomenon occurs, but it does happen consistently. is it my eyes being unable to process the spinning object or my brain processing it in an odd way?
|
it is a light phenomenon, not a brain phenomenon. it happens in movies because of the frame rate of the video (rapid series of photos) being taken. if the spokes move at the same rate as the frame rate then the wheels won't look like they are turning at all because every time you take a photo the wheels have rotated to the exact same spot they were previously. if there is a difference in rate, optical illusions occur. this only occurs in real life when the car is under lights that blink. many street lamps for example blink so rapidly that the blinking can't be perceived. if the rotation of the wheel mathematically aligns in a specific way, the wheel will appear to be moving backwards. the same effect can be achieved in a dark room with a strobe light and ceiling fan.
| 199 |
[] |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagon-wheel_effect"
] |
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] |
if the universe is expanding and galaxies are flying away from each other at accelerating rate, how can they collide?
|
in [this](_url_0_) wikipedia article it's mentioned that andromeda and milky way will collide in approximately another 4 billion years. but aren't we moving away from each other into an expanding spacetime at an accelerated rate? this should ideally result in no collisions between galaxies.
|
because they're close enough that their mutual gravitational attraction prevents expansion from driving them apart. expansion is real but it's not insurmountable.
| 18 |
[] |
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda%E2%80%93Milky_Way_collision"
] |
[] |
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