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1yk3zi
|
Is the interior of the entire GI tract really just a specialized form of skin?
|
I ask because it seems to serve pretty much the same purpose as regular skin - keep the outside world out.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cflb28e"
],
"text": [
"No. The gut develops from the endoderm, while the skin develops from the ectoderm. Together with the mesoderm, these three are the first true differentiation of cells that occurs in an embryo following gastrulation. \n\nThe function of the skin is to help maintain heat and water balance as well as serve as a barrier to the outside world. The gut, on the other hand is designed for absorption of nutrients and water. Both tissues have many functions, and there is tremendous overlap between the two in terms of immune tissue, glands, and lymphatics to name a few, but the two are very different tissues with very different jobs."
],
"score": [
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
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}
|
Is the interior of the entire GI tract really just a specialized form of skin?
I ask because it seems to serve pretty much the same purpose as regular skin - keep the outside world out.
|
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|
peuit
|
My friend is looking for a good science charity/non-profit. What are your favorites?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3os3wa"
],
"text": [
"[_URL_0_ -- science](http://www._URL_0_/donors/search.html?keywords=science)\n\nyou can potentially find local science ed projects to give to there"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"donorschoose.org",
"http://www.donorschoose.org/donors/search.html?keywords=science"
]
}
|
My friend is looking for a good science charity/non-profit. What are your favorites?
|
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||
5jig32
|
What type of options does the body/brain have, as far as "last-ditch efforts", to keep you/critical-functions alive?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dbh5syl"
],
"text": [
"Depends on your situation: Pathogens? A car accident? Extreme hunger?\nA very interesting thing is a [cytokine storm](_URL_0_). It's when the body can't fight off an infection or illness. It stops the regulation of immune cells and the like resulting in a massive amount of them being released. This can stop the pathogens but will also cause damage to the body. The immune cells will attack organs and tissue too. Another downside is that it sometimes activates unnecessarily resulting in permanent damage or even death."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytokine_storm"
]
}
|
What type of options does the body/brain have, as far as "last-ditch efforts", to keep you/critical-functions alive?
|
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||
1fdm2v
|
'Stasis' in the fossil record and 'living fossils' question.
|
I was having an online argument with a creationist and the topic of 'stasis' and so-called 'living fossils' was brought up by him in an attempt to discredit the fossil record showing evolution. I was able to make the case well-enough overall concerning the fossil record, the ages of the geologic column, etc., but I've always wondered about stasis and living fossils myself and was never satisfactorily clear on their explanations from an evolutionary standpoint.
How is it that certain fossils appear to be extremely similar in morphology to modern species? Wouldn't genetic drift cause at least some very noticeable differences to arise? Some of the fossils are really strikingly similar to modern organisms. Is there really enough selective pressure on each particular detail of their morphology that it preserves it so well over millions of years? I've also heard that a very large population size is less effected by genetic drift than a smaller population. How does this work? Thanks for any information you can provide!
Thank you!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ca98fmo",
"ca98127"
],
"text": [
"Everything is constantly evolving.\n\nSpecies like horseshoe crabs and crocodiles have a physical form that is very well suited to their specific ecological niche so we don't observe significant body layout changes over many millions of years. The pressure on those species has not changed much so they haven't either.\n\nHowever, a modern member of one of these species could not produce viable offspring with any member of the same order from 90 million years ago. Although the physical form has not changed dramatically, there have been significant changes to the base genetics of these animals, both due to random drift and natural selection.\n\nIf you actually compared the entire genome and body layout of a modern Saltwater crocodile and a late Jurassic crocodile you would find radical differences in the genetics and a lot of minor changes to the specific body proportions and details.\n\nThey're both stubby legged swamp lurkers, but skin coloration, scale patterning, growth rate, organ layout and function, and even behavior may be different. These things are not readily apparent from the fossil record, we only know that the basic skeletal structure hasn't changed.\n\nSo \"living fossil\" is a bit of a misnomer, these animals are distinct species with many major differences, they only share a common lineage and basic body plan with their ancestor species.",
"I don't think it's particularly surprising that some species would end up close to where they were long in the past. Throw a hundred million species on the table, and some of them are going to happen to occupy a niche that is stable over long periods. Natural selection keeps them tuned to more or less the same shape because that's what is optimal in that niche.\n\nPerhaps it's worth noting, species could be experiencing genetic drift without obvious physical changes. Many genetic changes don't result in obvious phenotypic differences, and natural selection at the organism level can't 'see' those."
],
"score": [
6,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
'Stasis' in the fossil record and 'living fossils' question.
I was having an online argument with a creationist and the topic of 'stasis' and so-called 'living fossils' was brought up by him in an attempt to discredit the fossil record showing evolution. I was able to make the case well-enough overall concerning the fossil record, the ages of the geologic column, etc., but I've always wondered about stasis and living fossils myself and was never satisfactorily clear on their explanations from an evolutionary standpoint. How is it that certain fossils appear to be extremely similar in morphology to modern species? Wouldn't genetic drift cause at least some very noticeable differences to arise? Some of the fossils are really strikingly similar to modern organisms. Is there really enough selective pressure on each particular detail of their morphology that it preserves it so well over millions of years? I've also heard that a very large population size is less effected by genetic drift than a smaller population. How does this work? Thanks for any information you can provide! Thank you!
|
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] |
|
kxrjk
|
Can someone please explain to me how the glasses in the Crayola 3d chalk work.
|
These glasses: _URL_0_
do some really crazy things when looking at fractal patterns or just certain colors it seems? Can someone explain to me what this is and how it works please?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2o47sj",
"c2o6528"
],
"text": [
"After some googling, it appears that it uses [chromadepth](_URL_0_) technology. Basically, the glasses function like a prism, and different colors are refracted at different angles to your eyes. This makes some colors appear closer than others.",
"As noted, the technology depends on bending different wavelengths of light to different degrees. But to actually understand how this leads to depth, you need to understand a bit about stereo vision. The two eyes have different perspectives on the visual leading to the same objects falling on different parts of the two different retinae (except where you are fixating). The amount of difference between the eyes (called disparity) depends on where the object is in depth. What these glasses do is create different levels of disparity for the different colors, producing an interpretation of the various colors appearing at different depths."
],
"score": [
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.bitrebels.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Crayola-3D-Sidewalk-Chalk-1.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChromaDepth"
]
}
|
Can someone please explain to me how the glasses in the Crayola 3d chalk work.
These glasses: _URL_0_ do some really crazy things when looking at fractal patterns or just certain colors it seems? Can someone explain to me what this is and how it works please?
|
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2zn2gk
|
A "cognitive neuroscientist" from "Yale" says he can now read minds in FMRIs. It's blowing mine. How far can it go? [videosource in comments]
|
**Serious Sources**
This is Reddit, I'm lazy, I guess they're out there. I'm sorry.
**Video Source** [Reading Minds | Marvin Chun | TEDxYale](_URL_0_) (25min)
I know, Ted x. Kill me.
**TLDW: Neuroscientists have been putting people in FMRI machines for 20 years, showing them images, giving them instructions, and recording their brain response, recently learning how to read neuron activity and translate it into guesses about the objects of their subjects thoughts and dreams.**
**Serious Questions**
*My first thought was How are we still talking about / seeing so much torture? Talk about a lie detector, right?
*Then, well, actually, do FMRI work?
*Then How do you create the experiment so you can differentiate stimuli and response?
*How much data/subjects do you need to get significant results?
*Would a lot more data/subjects give better results?
*Would a lot more processing power give better results?
*Could this be used to change the subjects thoughts. Via psychological, chemical, electrical simulation?
*Are there ethical boundaries defined in that kind of work?
*Are they sufficient?
**Bonus Question**
How do you put FMRI on a VR headset?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cpkoyqf",
"cpksmsk"
],
"text": [
"Please don't put cognitive neuroscientist in quotes, we're real people ;-)\n\nWhat you're asking about is a technique that has unfortunately come to be known as [brain-reading](_URL_5_). As your TLDW summarises, we have almost two decades of work trying to figure out where and (more importantly) how mental states happen in the brain. Now that brain imaging and computation are good enough, there are a bunch of labs that have been doing the reverse, going from brain activity back towards mental states. You get the most success in this for visual stimuli because the visual parts of the brain ([visual cortex](_URL_8_)) are well understood and somewhat neatly organised. It works with auditory things as well, and even with more abstract mental states, but vision is easiest (and a part of it is to do with how the brain sits in the skull).\n\nWhat you do is you train an algorithm to understand how a person's visual cortex works (for example), and knowing this, you can then try to identify what they saw from a set of priors or by guessing at the image. The results are not *as* mind-blowing as they may first sound. This is a truly amazing feat, don't get me wrong, but there's still a long way to go. Here's [one example](_URL_4_), and here's [another](_URL_9_).\n\nAs for the other things you asked about, here's some quick answer.\n\nFirst, a minor point. It's fMRI, with a lower case *f* because we're fancy, and it doesn't measure neuronal activity. fMRI measures changes in blood flow (specifically oxygenated blood), and this is thought to relate highly to neuronal firing. Still very important to keep in mind that this is **not** a direct measure of brain activity.\n\n > How are we still talking about / seeing so much torture? Talk about a lie detector, right?\n\nfMRI is not a good lie detector. Neither is the [polygraph](_URL_3_). People's memories are really not something that you want to be relying on too much, it's scary how easily you can convince undergraduates that they committed a crime as a child that they in fact didn't, and have them [confabulate](_URL_7_) details.\n\n > Then, well, actually, do FMRI work?\n\nfMRI works incredibly well. In research. I'm yet to be convinced that there is an application for fMRI outside of the lab or hospital.\n\n > Then How do you create the experiment so you can differentiate stimuli and response?\n\nI didn't get this one, stimulus and response are two very different things.\n\n > How much data/subjects do you need to get significant results?\n\nWe use the word significant to mean that something passes some statistical threshold. It doesn't meant that what we saw is in any way meaningful or useful, just that it reached this statistical threshold. An effect can be statistically significant that is actually quite small (a tiny drop in, say, heart disease risk) or huge (a huge drop in heart disease risk).\n\nThe answer to your question is going to vary based on what you're doing. In terms of brain reading, what you usually look for is some index of how good the algorithm is at correctly classifying a stimulus. You show people \"+\" and \"=\" and get an algorithm to classify what someone was seeing from brain activity alone. You really want the algorithm to be better than 50% accurate in picking out when someone was seeing \"+\".\n\n > Would a lot more data/subjects give better results?\n\nYeah and no. There's limits to how much more precision you can get with data. fMRI is rather crude in terms of spatial and temporal resolution. Changes in blood flow take time, and fMRI scanners take seconds to get a snapshot of the brain. Contrast this with the 200 ms (1/5 of a second) it takes for the brain to see and understand a picture of a face. On top of that, we're working at a resolution that is in millimetres of the brain, which is really big given how many neurons are packed into that space.\n\nMore data may be useful in training an algorithm, but more data isn't necessarily better. There is the old adage that if you put crap in, you're going to get crap out. Quality of data is important too (you'd be surprised at how many people fall asleep inside an MRI scanner).\n\n > Would a lot more processing power give better results?\n\nNah, not a limitation. Research universities tend to have large analysis clusters that are more than enough for this kind of data.\n\n > Could this be used to change the subjects thoughts. Via psychological, chemical, electrical simulation?\n\nWe can already change people's thoughts with some rather ancient technologies: speech and writing (the latter of which had to be invented by someone, think about that). If you mean without the person knowing that you're meddling with their thoughts, not really. Brain reading is just that, reading. You're measuring what is going on in the brain and trying to use maths to get meaning from this.\n\n[TMS](_URL_10_) and [tDCS](_URL_6_) can be used to alter the activity of the brain externally, but these techniques are very finicky and subtle. TMS, for example, works by creating a very strong and focal magnetic field on the skull. This induces changes in the neuronal populations below wherever the coil is held. There are many, many limitations to TMS. You're never going to be accurate enough to be certain that you're over the correct part of the brain, and the scale you're working on is still way too big, to just name two limitations. Okay, here's another: you're limited to the parts of the brain that sit directly under the parts of the head that grow hair (give or take). Nothing too close to the eyebrows/face, nothing too close to the ears, and nothing too close to the neck/shoulders. And nothing below the cortex (say goodbye to the subcortical structures).\n\n > Are there ethical boundaries defined in that kind of work?\n\nUniversity studies have to be approved by an IRB, which is an internal ethics board, and they may be audited by external funding bodies. Human researchers are also bound by the [Declaration of Helsinki](_URL_1_), as well as the ethical standards set by universities, professional associations and funding bodies.\n\n > Are they sufficient?\n\nI think so, but maybe I'm not being imaginative enough. That being said, my participants get electrical shocks to their arm, so maybe I'm the wrong person to ask.\n\n > Bonus Question How do you put FMRI on a VR headset?\n\nHah, nope. This is a [Siemens MRI scanner](_URL_0_). This is what happens when [metal gets too close to an MRI](_URL_2_). Now imagine that there was a person's head inside of that bore instead of nothing.\n\nMRI scanners are huge because they require a superconductor to generate a very powerful magnetic field. This magnetic field is then manipulated to measure what hydrogen atoms are up to.\n\nThe superconductor needs to be kept incredibly cold, all the time. To do this we use helium, which comes with it's own [safety concerns](_URL_11_). That video is of a controlled quench for a system being decommissioned. You can imagine how horrible it would be to have that happen inside the actual magnet room as opposed to a pipe on the roof.\n\nMRI is also not forgiving of movement. Participants lie in the scanner and have their heads padded in place to keep movement as low as possible, somewhere around max of 3 mm in any direction in space (x,y or z), but ideally as close to zero movement as possible.\n\nAlso, a new MRI system will set you back about $3 million, with a running cost of around $500/hour to collect fMRI images (and you can't turn it off, a quench can irreparably break the system).",
"Just a couple of things to add to /u/stjep's excellent response, as I work with machine learning algorithms on fMRI data. \n\nFirst thing is that this technique is currently much better as a tool for neuroscientists to study the brain than it is a way to \"read minds\". It's a useful tool for us because if an algorithm can decode a certain kind of information from a brain region, then we learn something about the kind of information encoded in that brain region, and potentially something about *how* the information is encoded. \n\nFor the time being, the best way to learn what someone is thinking is to ask them. fMRI requires a great deal of cooperation on the part of the subject; simply moving your head around a little blurs the images, so if you don't want your mind \"read\" in this way, it's probably not going to happen. \n\nRegarding virtual reality, while we cannot simply add an MRI to a virtual reality setup, there are some limited forms of virtual reality that we can bring inside the scanner. For example, there are MRI-compatible video goggles that many cognitive neuroscientists use to present visual stimuli to people while they are inside the scanner. Some clinical facilities use these for patient comfort; it's nicer to watch a movie than it is to stare at the magnet bore 3 inches in front of your face while you are getting your scan. But again, you can't move your head around, so that kind of VR is out."
],
"score": [
23,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y53EfXv3bII"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://r-med.com.ua/assets/images/mrt/30_tesla/Siemens%20Trio/1.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_declaration",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7g5UVrOt2CI",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph",
"http://jonathanstray.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/03/visual-image-reconstruction-from-fmri.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain-reading",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_direct-current_stimulation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confabulation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex",
"http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/dam/assets/140411160038-faces-brain-study-story-top.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QRahBusouRs"
]
}
|
A "cognitive neuroscientist" from "Yale" says he can now read minds in FMRIs. It's blowing mine. How far can it go? [videosource in comments]
**Serious Sources** This is Reddit, I'm lazy, I guess they're out there. I'm sorry. **Video Source** [Reading Minds | Marvin Chun | TEDxYale](_URL_0_) (25min) I know, Ted x. Kill me. **TLDW: Neuroscientists have been putting people in FMRI machines for 20 years, showing them images, giving them instructions, and recording their brain response, recently learning how to read neuron activity and translate it into guesses about the objects of their subjects thoughts and dreams.** **Serious Questions** *My first thought was How are we still talking about / seeing so much torture? Talk about a lie detector, right? *Then, well, actually, do FMRI work? *Then How do you create the experiment so you can differentiate stimuli and response? *How much data/subjects do you need to get significant results? *Would a lot more data/subjects give better results? *Would a lot more processing power give better results? *Could this be used to change the subjects thoughts. Via psychological, chemical, electrical simulation? *Are there ethical boundaries defined in that kind of work? *Are they sufficient? **Bonus Question** How do you put FMRI on a VR headset?
|
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] |
|
lzuzo
|
How is the World Community Grid able to use my computer to "conquer cancer" and "fight AIDS"? When it's running, what kind of stuff is my CPU actually calculating?
|
_URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2xf8a4"
],
"text": [
"The data sets are of immense size. Even given super computing resources, it would take prohibitively long to calculate an answer for these problems.\n\nThis is not my field per se, but I'll take a stab at it.\n\nAs an example, the Conquer Cancer problem (though a little vague), might be framed as searching gene interaction networks (ie, giant arrays of numbers) for correlations. The output of these searches might be something like \"All persons with cancer type X that developed in Y days had the following 47 common combinations of genomes / alleles.\" \n\nSo imagine that you had a plot, with a dot for each gene. Combinations of genes make alleles, so draw a line between genes which are connected to make alleles of a certain type. Given all genes (there's a lot), and all possible combinations of genes (so many), we're asking a computer to search for clusters of connections which frequently occur in cancer patients of type X.\n\nHere's an example image of what they would be looking for:\n[gene interactions and resulting functions](_URL_0_) [1]\n\nSo a lot of effort goes into breaking the task into small sub-tasks so that a super computer can distribute sub-tasks to single processors. Well, if a research team doesn't have a spare supercomputer, these small tasks can be distributed to a network of altruistic gamers.\n\nThat's about the best I can do.\n\n[1] M. Costanzo et al., “The Genetic Landscape of a Cell,” Science, vol. 425, no. 2010, 2011."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/OU0sY.jpg"
]
}
|
How is the World Community Grid able to use my computer to "conquer cancer" and "fight AIDS"? When it's running, what kind of stuff is my CPU actually calculating?
_URL_0_
|
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] |
|
1jrqkj
|
Can someone explain the significance of the CMB Cold Spot?
|
... And in human language at that.
I read this wiki article ( _URL_0_) but alas it is too complex for me.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbhpinp",
"cbhmxza"
],
"text": [
"See the other responses. The idea is that the standard Big Bang model of the Universe has some predictions for how big you expect the different hot and cold spots in the CMB to be. So if I see a hot spot with a certain size and a certain temperature, I can predict how many other spots like that I would expect to see elsewhere in the CMB.\n\nThe thing about the cold spot is that the calculations actually tell you that you shouldn't expect *any* spots like it. The pattern of hot and cold spots arose by random chance, and the chances of forming a spot as big and cold as that are just pretty tiny.\n\nThis is significant because if you were to take this at face value, you'd think our calculations *have* to be wrong, and there's some really important piece of fundamental physics that we're missing. But no one actually believes that's what's going on. What's much more likely is that the cold spot simply did arise by random chance, and we're only noticing it because it's there. In other words, there are all sorts of weird and very unlikely things that could have appeared in the CMB. We're not noticing the many, many ones that didn't happen. So we shouldn't be surprised when one - in this case, the cold spot - does happen.\n\n(Fun fact: if you look at the pattern of hot and cold spots, you can see a pattern of cold spots forming Stephen Hawking's initials. This is much more improbable even than the cold spot. No cosmologists think that it is a message from God about Professor Hawking's importance in the Universe.)",
"The Big Bang theory assumes that space is isotropic and homogenous. This means that space should look roughly the same everywhere you look. Now quantum fluctuations, the expansion of space, the second law of thermodynamics, etc. have lead to a universe clumped up with galaxies, stars, etc. However, the further you look, the more uniform the universe is expected to appear. The cold spot is anomalous and appears difficult to account for with the assumptions made by the Big Bang Theory."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMB_cold_spot"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Can someone explain the significance of the CMB Cold Spot?
... And in human language at that. I read this wiki article ( _URL_0_) but alas it is too complex for me.
|
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|
izkw7
|
Is there a need for scientific writing to be so boring or could it use a bit of flair?
|
I just read a [tongue-in-cheek article](_URL_0_) about how to write consistently boring scientific literature and whole-heartedly agree with the actual point they're making. As a biologist myself, and currently a PhD student, I get frustrated with having to purge anything remotely interesting from the papers and reports I write. Wouldn't it be possible to add a bit of poetic flair to the writing and still get the message across? I know I'd enjoy both writing and reading scientific articles a lot more if that was the case.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c27wv5j"
],
"text": [
"I get the feeling that, when transmitting pure scientific facts through any medium, you should probably keep the flair to a minimum so as to ensure the original point is being sent unmolested."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://goo.gl/B5UPE"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is there a need for scientific writing to be so boring or could it use a bit of flair?
I just read a [tongue-in-cheek article](_URL_0_) about how to write consistently boring scientific literature and whole-heartedly agree with the actual point they're making. As a biologist myself, and currently a PhD student, I get frustrated with having to purge anything remotely interesting from the papers and reports I write. Wouldn't it be possible to add a bit of poetic flair to the writing and still get the message across? I know I'd enjoy both writing and reading scientific articles a lot more if that was the case.
|
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|
21r3rp
|
Is the human blood stream an anaerobic environment?
|
Oxygen is bound to haemoglobin whilst in the blood stream so would that technically make the blood stream an anaerobic environment?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cgfpvfc"
],
"text": [
"No. You are correct to assume that oxygen is bound to hemoglobin, but oxygen is *also* [dissolved](_URL_0_) in the plasma, albeit at a much lower concentration compared to that which is bound to Hb."
],
"score": [
12
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_gas_tension#Oxygen_content"
]
}
|
Is the human blood stream an anaerobic environment?
Oxygen is bound to haemoglobin whilst in the blood stream so would that technically make the blood stream an anaerobic environment?
|
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] |
|
1j2u39
|
Lake at the north pole... is this new? How often does it happen? Why shouldn't I buy into the silly hype?
|
Or should I? Is this revolutionary? I just saw an image and wanted to know some truth here, and how actual not-media people are thinking about it. I figured I'd beat the hype and people on here could talk about it and get some real information out there before there's a big scare over it.
This is the first I've heard of it, and didn't see any posts about it.
_URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbamono"
],
"text": [
"Melt ponds form on sea ice quite frequently over summer. [Webcam images](_URL_0_) show these ponds have been around at the North Pole since at least 2002.\n\nWhat this doesn't mean is that there is 'no ice' at the North Pole. The melt ponds are quite shallow and there is ice underneath. However, growing melt ponds are a very visual signal of the long-term ice melt, and this year's pictures are particularly striking, which is presumably why they've been picked up.\n\nSo: it's not new, it happens annually. It may seem like silly hype, but I don't blame people reporting on the more visible aspects of global warming. One of the reasons it's *not* new is that we have grown somewhat used to enhanced Arctic melting over the past decade or so."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/oGa7X6l.png"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/ice-npole.shtml"
]
}
|
Lake at the north pole... is this new? How often does it happen? Why shouldn't I buy into the silly hype?
Or should I? Is this revolutionary? I just saw an image and wanted to know some truth here, and how actual not-media people are thinking about it. I figured I'd beat the hype and people on here could talk about it and get some real information out there before there's a big scare over it. This is the first I've heard of it, and didn't see any posts about it. _URL_0_
|
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] |
|
vh5hw
|
If any historical pandemic were to make a comeback, which would be most devastating?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c54gf5r"
],
"text": [
"There is an effective smallpox vaccine so if there were an outbreak it would be a simple matter to include small pox vaccination into the general vaccination people receive as children with emergency vaccination if necessary \n\nPlague is treatable with antibiotics.\n\nA flu like the spanish flu is probably the most dangerous. Flu normally only kills infants and the elderly or people that are otherwise immuno-compromised.\n\n Spanish flu killed those in the prime of their life because it provoked an over reaction of peoples immune system which killed mostly those whose immune system was at its fittest.\n\nIf such a virus were to arise today the results would be the same as in 1918 with the added factor of faster transmission."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
If any historical pandemic were to make a comeback, which would be most devastating?
|
[
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||
2psrhu
|
How does anaphase B work?
|
I understand that anaphase is the stage in mitosis or meiosis where chromosomes or chromatids are separated. In anaphase A the kinetochore microtubules are shortened because of depolymerization and that causes the homologous chromosomes or chromatids to separate and move towards opposite ends of the cell.
How does anaphase B work?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cmzs5po"
],
"text": [
"Anaphase A occurs when sister chromatin cohesion (mediated by cohesin) is broken. The forces on the spindle then pull the chromatids to oppsite poles of the cell.\n\nI believe anaphase B involves the spindle poles moving further apart themselves, in a kinetochore-independent manner. There's not much known about it, but it definitely increases the separation between the chromatids"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How does anaphase B work?
I understand that anaphase is the stage in mitosis or meiosis where chromosomes or chromatids are separated. In anaphase A the kinetochore microtubules are shortened because of depolymerization and that causes the homologous chromosomes or chromatids to separate and move towards opposite ends of the cell. How does anaphase B work?
|
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|
1ysdq4
|
Are there economic models that include higher environmental feedback loops?
|
Like a sociocyber economy, that involves multiple feedback loops for societal health which would would include environment. If you know of any other methods of regulating resources, I found some interesting information from Anthony Beer but that is all I could find.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cfnh2p1"
],
"text": [
"I think it would help if you were to clarify your question a bit more. Are you asking about whether there are serious proposals for restructuring the economy to respond better to environmental feedback than it does now? Or are you asking about whether the current academic picture of how the economy works today includes consideration of environmental feedback? It might also be a good idea for you to distinguish what you mean by \"higher\" environmental feedback, as opposed to some more ordinary kind."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Are there economic models that include higher environmental feedback loops?
Like a sociocyber economy, that involves multiple feedback loops for societal health which would would include environment. If you know of any other methods of regulating resources, I found some interesting information from Anthony Beer but that is all I could find.
|
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216wrv
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AskScience Cosmos Q & A thread. Episode 3: When Knowledge Conquered Fear
|
Welcome to AskScience! **This thread is for asking and answering questions about the science in *Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey*.**
If you are outside of the US or Canada, you may only now be seeing the second episode aired on television. If so, [please take a look at last week's thread instead.](_URL_2_)
This week is the third episode, "When Knowledge Conquered Fear". The show is airing in the US and Canada on Fox at Sunday 9pm ET, and Monday at 10pm ET on National Geographic. [Click here for more viewing information in your country.](_URL_4_)
**[The usual AskScience rules](_URL_3_) still apply in this thread!** Anyone can ask a question, but **please do not provide answers unless you are a scientist in a relevant field.** Popular science shows, books, and news articles are a great way to causally learn about your universe, but they often contain a lot of simplifications and approximations, so don't assume that because you've heard an answer before that it is the right one.
If you are interested in general discussion please visit one of the threads elsewhere on reddit that are more appropriate for that, such as [in /r/Cosmos here](_URL_0_) and [in /r/Television here.](_URL_1_)
Please **upvote good questions and answers** and **downvote off-topic content**. We'll be removing comments that break our rules and some questions that have been answered elsewhere in the thread so that we can answer as many questions as possible!
|
askscience
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"text": [
"In 2061, where will the best place on Earth to view Halley's Comet be?",
"Since the tail of comets consists of materials from the comet itself, wouldn't that mean that the mass of the comet would change? And if so, how can we consistently calculate when it will appear since the mass would have changed, leading to a change in the force of gravity acting upon it?\n\nEdit: Thanks for the answers folks!",
"I don't know if this falls under science, but were the accusations against Hooke historically accurate, and do they tell the whole story?",
"Wait, did he say that when the two galaxies will collide life on earth will be safe?",
"Can someone add on to what NDT said about Halley mapping magnetic fields on earth? How did he map it and were his findings accurate?",
"How can the comet become hot enough to melt in the inner solar system if space is so cold & there is no atmosphere?",
"NDT says that Halley's Comet is an example of a true pattern rather than a false one. How do we know that it is a true pattern rather than a remarkable series of coincidences?",
"So what exactly is happening in the middle of the Milky Way?",
"Is our solar system actually on a crazy tilt like the one shown in the episode? If so what is that degree of tilt in reference to?",
"How did the transit of Venus help calculate the distance from the sun to the Earth? How did they figure out the size of Venus and the sun?",
"If Newton's Principia hadn't been published, how much of a setback would it have been to astronomy? Was Leibniz's calculus with its screwy notation poorly suited to calculating orbits? Was there a continental scientific establishment that could have used it to work on astronomical problems?",
"With regards to the supermassive black hole at the center of our galaxy:\n\n1. Are there supermassive black holes at the center of every galaxy?\n2. How/when did it come to be there at the center of the Milky Way? Did the galaxy form around the black hole or did the black hole form after the formation of the galaxy?\n3. Is it dormant or growing?\n3. When Andromeda and the Milky Way collide in many eons, will their respective supermassive black holes begin to accumulate more mass as they are fed anew, or are the interstellar distances during the collision really so massive that these supermassive black holes will not come into contact with any matter?",
"X-posted, at a mod's suggestion:\n\nIn yesterday's episode of Cosmos, they showed stars moving around the galaxy in more or less sin waves, where they oscillated back and forth above and below the orbital plane along their \"normal\" orbits. Why don't stars just fly off in different directions, or at the very least have angular orbits compared to the plane?\n\nDo planets oscillate in a similar fashion?",
"I missed that this thread existed back on episode one but I'm incredibly curious to know how scientists determine the age(/distance) of light.",
"He said at one point that the ice on comets starts to evaporate when it gets close enough to the Sun. Did he really mean sublimate and was just dumbing it down for the audience for brevity's sake? Or does it actually pass through a liquid phase on its way from ice to gas?",
"wikipedia says the radius of Sagittarius A is 44 million kilometers. thats about 1/3 of the distance from the Earth to the Sun. \n\ndoes that mean the actual center of the super-massive black hole is that large or is that the event horizon, or accretion disk?",
"How big are comets? Because they are losing mass every time they get near the sun enough to create a tail I would assume they would melt after a while, but Halley's has been around for at least a few hundred years.",
"A few questions!\n\n\nOne on Halley's Comet:\n\nDo we know when Halley's Comet will break apart and no longer appear in the earth's sky?\n\nA few on the Milky Way-Andromeda collision:\n\nAs the galaxies come closer, will the collision gain speed? Is there any chance that life will still be stable on earth just prior to the collision? If so, will this event alter our orbit or cause some other sort of catastrophe on earth?\n\nThank you! Got chills last night watching the simulation... Incredible episode.",
"when they say that our galaxy wont be much affected at all by a collision with Andromeda, are they factoring in any potential impact on dark matter holding the two galaxies together?"
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|
AskScience Cosmos Q & A thread. Episode 3: When Knowledge Conquered Fear
Welcome to AskScience! **This thread is for asking and answering questions about the science in *Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey*.** If you are outside of the US or Canada, you may only now be seeing the second episode aired on television. If so, [please take a look at last week's thread instead.](_URL_2_) This week is the third episode, "When Knowledge Conquered Fear". The show is airing in the US and Canada on Fox at Sunday 9pm ET, and Monday at 10pm ET on National Geographic. [Click here for more viewing information in your country.](_URL_4_) **[The usual AskScience rules](_URL_3_) still apply in this thread!** Anyone can ask a question, but **please do not provide answers unless you are a scientist in a relevant field.** Popular science shows, books, and news articles are a great way to causally learn about your universe, but they often contain a lot of simplifications and approximations, so don't assume that because you've heard an answer before that it is the right one. If you are interested in general discussion please visit one of the threads elsewhere on reddit that are more appropriate for that, such as [in /r/Cosmos here](_URL_0_) and [in /r/Television here.](_URL_1_) Please **upvote good questions and answers** and **downvote off-topic content**. We'll be removing comments that break our rules and some questions that have been answered elsewhere in the thread so that we can answer as many questions as possible!
|
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|
8jjtt5
|
Why is it dysfunction and not disfunction?
|
And are there any similar examples you can point to that either emulate the reason or alternatively where the reason has ignored and the more common use of "dis" has applied?
In my mind they both bean "bad" or "opposite" (e.g. disapprove, disengage etc.)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dz0beq3"
],
"text": [
"It says this post has already received two comments but I don't see them, so I will add mine.\n\nThe difference between the dis\\- prefix and the dys\\- prefix is minute but significant nonetheless. \n\n\"Dis\" is Latin and means \"apart\" or \"opposite of\"; so working with your examples you have:\n\napprove and disapprove \\- disapprove being the complete opposite of approve, so you could also say \"not approve\".\n\n\"Dys\" on the other hand is Greek and means \"bad\", \"ill\" or \"abnormal\": again with your example you have:\n\nfunction and dysfunction \\- the main difference here, however, is that dysfunction does not mean \"not function\", but more along the lines of \"not funtion properly\" or \"function abnormaly\".\n\nOther examples are dyslexia and dyspnea. Dyslexia does not mean that you have an inability to read, just that there are difficulties processing and you have trouble reading. Similarly dyspnea isn't the absence of breathing but difficulty breathing/shortness of breath.\n\nSo in short: \n\ndis = separate/opposite\n\ndys = abnormal/bad"
],
"score": [
20
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why is it dysfunction and not disfunction?
And are there any similar examples you can point to that either emulate the reason or alternatively where the reason has ignored and the more common use of "dis" has applied? In my mind they both bean "bad" or "opposite" (e.g. disapprove, disengage etc.)
|
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|
1ju25v
|
Is it plausible to take advantage of natural frequencies to disrupt certain unwanted cells?
|
If so, why is this not being studied more as a means to destroy cancer cells?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbiaunt",
"cbit1xo"
],
"text": [
"What do you mean by \"natural frequencies\"? Frequencies of what? A \"frequency\" is a rate of oscillation of some sort of medium or energy, so what is it that you propose should be oscillated? And what makes a frequency (of some undefined type) \"natural\"?\n\nThis sounds like a question pertaining to some type of snake oil or pseudo-science.",
"Because cancer is more of a chemical regulation failure, like the inactivation of tumor suppressing proteins, the over expression of anti-apoptotic protein, a lack of receptors or response to intercellular signaling... the targetable factors aren't really modifying physical properties of the cell like its mechanical resonance. \n\nWith all the different cell types that exist and all the stages of the cell cycle they go through (imagine the physical differences between a cell that has duplicated all its DNA and one that has just split) I don't see how you can make this any more precise than other physical attempts at destroying cancer like simply excising malignant growths or causing cell death with controlled radiation exposure."
],
"score": [
8,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is it plausible to take advantage of natural frequencies to disrupt certain unwanted cells?
If so, why is this not being studied more as a means to destroy cancer cells?
|
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|
2q30qk
|
How big of a reaction would Francium cause when dropped in water?
|
I've seen reactions with all the other alkali metals and I understand that the reaction is greater the farther down the family you go but I've never seen a reaction with Francium.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cn3imkz"
],
"text": [
"You don't see the Francium + water reaction because it is too scarce an element to create a noticeable reaction. Francium is the most unstable of the naturally occurring elements, and has a half-life of just 22 minutes. \n\nAs such, you can't really amass enough of it to make a noticeable reaction with water.\n\nAccording to wikipedia, \"The largest amount produced in the laboratory was a cluster of more than 300,000 atoms.\". This is a very tiny amount, so the \"explosion\" of dropping this into water would scarcely be noticeable. If certainly wouldn't compare to the reaction of dropping even a tiny chunk of one of the \"weaker\" alkali metals in water."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How big of a reaction would Francium cause when dropped in water?
I've seen reactions with all the other alkali metals and I understand that the reaction is greater the farther down the family you go but I've never seen a reaction with Francium.
|
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|
15zi40
|
Is there a science to temperature acclimation?
|
I was thinking about this earlier today and was wondering if there are any numbers or studies with information. I'm from Connecticut, and if we ever hit 60 degrees during the winter, it will feel extremely hot... Yet if we drop to 60 during the summer, it will feel frigid. Obviously that would be months apart.. How long does it take the average person to become acclimated to certain tempatures? I've also always wondered about acclimation of shower water temperature.. If I jump right into a cold, it's a shock to my system.. If I start warm and gradually drop down to that same system shocking temperature over the course of a minute or two, there's no shock and it doesn't feel cold at all.. Just cool. If I were to jump in an 80 degree shower and drop the temperature one degree per minute (very gradual drop, as when I normally go from warm to cold I drop it about 15-20 degrees in a minute and I'm not fazed.) at what point would it get "unbearable"? If I can comfortably get used to each 1 degree drop within a minute, which is feasible, would there just be a point where the cold sets in?
Sorry for these stupid ponderings, I've just always wondered about this.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7rgsse"
],
"text": [
"No expert here, but the answer to this has to do with your body's brown adipose cells.\n\nI read it a few days ago in another post about how the body generates heat\n\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/15w1rd/if_the_human_body_can_process_enough_energy_to/"
]
}
|
Is there a science to temperature acclimation?
I was thinking about this earlier today and was wondering if there are any numbers or studies with information. I'm from Connecticut, and if we ever hit 60 degrees during the winter, it will feel extremely hot... Yet if we drop to 60 during the summer, it will feel frigid. Obviously that would be months apart.. How long does it take the average person to become acclimated to certain tempatures? I've also always wondered about acclimation of shower water temperature.. If I jump right into a cold, it's a shock to my system.. If I start warm and gradually drop down to that same system shocking temperature over the course of a minute or two, there's no shock and it doesn't feel cold at all.. Just cool. If I were to jump in an 80 degree shower and drop the temperature one degree per minute (very gradual drop, as when I normally go from warm to cold I drop it about 15-20 degrees in a minute and I'm not fazed.) at what point would it get "unbearable"? If I can comfortably get used to each 1 degree drop within a minute, which is feasible, would there just be a point where the cold sets in? Sorry for these stupid ponderings, I've just always wondered about this.
|
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|
11f3qo
|
Is there a way of calculating how much energy is released when speaking?
|
I'm trying to figure out how much energy is released when speaking specific words. Normal speaking voice is apparently between 65 and 70 dB, and there is a unit of dBJ, but how do I determine joules "produced" when a word is spoken?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"There are a couple useful equations here.\n\nFirst is how we calculate sound intensity:\n\nL (in dB) = 10 x log (I/I0), where I0 is the \"standard reference sound intensity\" of 10^-12 W/m^2 . \n\nThe second is what relates intensity to power:\n\nI = Power/Area \n\nIf we assume a spherical distribution of sound from the source, then we have\n\nI = Power/4xpixr^2\n\nIf we assume you speak at 70 dB, this corresponds with an intensity of 10^-5 W/m^2 . If this corresponds with a speaking distance of about 1 m, this would be a power of about 10^-4 W. If you speak for one second, that would be 10^-4 J.",
"You can convert the dB level back to sound intensity. That, if you know how far the dB level is from your mouth, you can roughly know the original required power. Then you have to factor in losses in several assumptions you make.",
"Are you more interested in the energy embodied in the actual sound produced, or the energy your body uses in producing it? The first one is easier to answer."
],
"score": [
2,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is there a way of calculating how much energy is released when speaking?
I'm trying to figure out how much energy is released when speaking specific words. Normal speaking voice is apparently between 65 and 70 dB, and there is a unit of dBJ, but how do I determine joules "produced" when a word is spoken?
|
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|
3pebkd
|
Why do things fall off tables, cupboards etc. even if they have been lying there for several hours?
|
Last night my sleep was interrupted by my headphones, which fell off my nightstand, so I was wondering why they fell in the middle of the night and not immediately after I put them on the nightstand. Is there some kind of trigger for these things?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cw5rlxa"
],
"text": [
"Sometimes it takes very little to push something out of an equilibrium. Your headphones might lay on your nighstand just fine, until they get a little push from somewhere, that sends them over the edge.\n\nThe vibrations of a moving truck going past your window, a micro earthquake, maybe even yourself moving around in your sleep can be enough."
],
"score": [
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why do things fall off tables, cupboards etc. even if they have been lying there for several hours?
Last night my sleep was interrupted by my headphones, which fell off my nightstand, so I was wondering why they fell in the middle of the night and not immediately after I put them on the nightstand. Is there some kind of trigger for these things?
|
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|
ub6kb
|
If I applied a sufficiently strong tensile force to a perfectly uniform rod, where would it break?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4tvcdi",
"c4tw1wf",
"c4tvabd",
"c4tvm67"
],
"text": [
"Assuming a pure theoretical tension, i.e. no stresses caused by clamping or bending, it will break at the largest inclusion/imperfection/irregular grain boundary. In an absolutely perfect material it would be random.",
"I'm not sure your question is answerable. A perfect rod defies thermodynamics. Akin to asking the questions, \"What would -275C feel like?\" or \"What was the universe like before the big bang?\" haha.\n\nFracture only happens because some micro-voids nucleated from defects in the material, then eventually it turns into a crack, then it breaks. This would also assume the force is exactly the same, everywhere with pretty infinite precision since if the force was slightly higher anywhere on the rod, that would be the breaking point (if we assume no defects - also thermodynamically impossible on a macroscopic object) which would not answer your question.",
"At one of the ends where you are somehow grasping it to apply the tensile force.",
"It depends how theoretical and how practical you want to be. It's very hard to apply a force on a rod that creates uniform stress throughout, especially at the point of application. Due to this many failures occur at the point of application. \n\nTo get around this in testing many times the application area will be reinforced somehow (usually larger diameter) to better see the materials reaction. The break will always occur at an imperfection (and at a 45 degree angle) if there is none it will be random."
],
"score": [
25,
9,
7,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
If I applied a sufficiently strong tensile force to a perfectly uniform rod, where would it break?
|
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] |
||
tjlx9
|
What advice would you give to defenders of castle
in middle age which they did not know back then,
but which we know now?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4n5zpm",
"c4n5yl8"
],
"text": [
"As much as possible about proper waste/corpse/etc disposal to avoid disease :)",
"Build dew collectors. When under siege, every drop of water helps."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What advice would you give to defenders of castle in middle age which they did not know back then, but which we know now?
|
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||
slyva
|
What does AskScience think will be the next game changing breakthrough?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4f2cz6",
"c4f281p"
],
"text": [
"It will be energy realted.\n\nWe are in the infancy of utilizing available energy sources. We figured out how to convert stored chemical energy into heat, enabling mechanical and electrical potentials. There is so much more in kinetic (wind, wave, etc.), solar, radioactive, geothermal, other chemical potentials (renewable plant-based, redox gradients, etc.).\n\nThe planet is composed entirely of energy sources, and we are fixated on just a few. I expect a breakthrough in how to utilize that which is nearly free already.",
"Anyone who finds a cost effective way to turn CO2 into methane would solve a lot of world problems."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What does AskScience think will be the next game changing breakthrough?
|
[
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||
1jvqrt
|
what has to be the minumum diameter of a tube for capillary to take action?
|
I have a science project about heron's fountain but I can't seem to find any information on how long the diameter of a tube has to be for capillary to take effect. this is extremely crucial because I need to make the tubes as large as I can.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbirgdu"
],
"text": [
"There is no maximum diameter, but the height of the liquid column increases with decreasing radius. For water at room temperature the height of the column is approximately 1.48*10^-5 divided by the tube radius.\n\nHowever, Heron's fountain has nothing to do with capillary action. It should work with any tube thickness."
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
what has to be the minumum diameter of a tube for capillary to take action?
I have a science project about heron's fountain but I can't seem to find any information on how long the diameter of a tube has to be for capillary to take effect. this is extremely crucial because I need to make the tubes as large as I can.
|
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|
6z0x6z
|
Does anyone use Candela (unit)?
|
Candela is one fundamental unit in the SI system, yet it is defined from the luminosity function for an average human. Isn't it weird a fundamental unit is defined from a biological background?
In physics you will never see this unit appear and it does not define any fundamental constant in nature. You can always use watt per radian or any other luminosity unit.
Do biologists use candela anyway?
Edit:typo
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dmsj2nj",
"dmswb6b"
],
"text": [
"Well, let me put it this way. \n\nI have never once seen candelas used in the literature to report a measurement. My only experience with it has been historical or pedagogical (i.e. the text reads \"luminous intensity is measured in units of candelas or lumens\"). \n\nA quick search of the literature is inconclusive because the primary results returns papers authored by people with the *name* Candela, and a search of only the body of the text returns papers like those mentioned above. A search for the symbol (cd) returns a lot of results more concerned with the element Cadmium. \n\nHowever, I did manage to find a few papers that did report on efficiencies of electrophosphorescent in 'devices' that used units of cd/m^2 [[1](_URL_1_)] [[2](_URL_0_)].\n\nSo perhaps some people use the unit in some respects, but they are likely few and far between. \n\nOther scientists may have different experience than me though, as I am not an optical physicist or astronomer, or really concerned with this sort of thing in any professional context.",
"LEDs intended for illumination or as visual indicators are often specified for luminous intensity (i.e., the quantity that is measured by the unit *candela*) at a given operating current. Because it's fairly important that if you put two green LEDs next to each other on a display, and power them equally, that they look equally bright to your customer.\n\nI'd imagine the whole illumination and lighting design industry would be interested in the luminous intensity of different lamps or other light sources."
],
"score": [
6,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://aip.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1063/1.123055",
"http://aip.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1063/1.124258"
]
}
|
Does anyone use Candela (unit)?
Candela is one fundamental unit in the SI system, yet it is defined from the luminosity function for an average human. Isn't it weird a fundamental unit is defined from a biological background? In physics you will never see this unit appear and it does not define any fundamental constant in nature. You can always use watt per radian or any other luminosity unit. Do biologists use candela anyway? Edit:typo
|
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|
3jg8ml
|
Am I hearing something or just going crazy? I need your help. Badly.
|
[removed]
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cupanhx"
],
"text": [
"This may be against the rules if I'm giving any sort of medical advice, but all I'm going to say is you may want to visit a doctor. \n\n\nReading through your post history, you're showing sure signs of schizophrenia. Including a big symptom from one of your posts saying you're unable to read emotion."
],
"score": [
9
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Am I hearing something or just going crazy? I need your help. Badly.
[removed]
|
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|
19bvzh
|
Has there been any scholarly work done on Jaguars eating Caapi leaves/roots in order to hallucinate?
|
I recently found myself in a discussion on this subject and was not able to find any legitimate scientific sources to support the [claim](_URL_3_) that Jaguars chew this plant in order to hallucinate. I asked the claimant for some more information in addition to searching personally and was unable to find anything other than a _URL_1_ [article](_URL_0_) and a [video](_URL_2_) showing one jaguar chewing on some leaves and rolling around on the ground. Can anyone shed some light and/or provide any sources on this potentially remarkable phenomenon?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8mo35w"
],
"text": [
"I did a Web of Science search for jaguars and caapi leaves and found no articles. Google scholar pulled up [a paper](_URL_0_) from the Journal of Psychoactive Drugs that says: \n\n > The\njaguar's\nnight\nvision\nand\nhunting\nprowess\nare\nlegendary,\nand\nthere\nis\nalso\nevidence\nto\ndemonstrate\nthat\njaguars\nconsume,\nand\nbecome\nintoxicated\nby,\nB.\ncaapi.\n(Downer\n2002:\n143). \n\nThe Downer 2002 reference is Downer,\nJ.\n2002.\nWeird\nNature:\nScience\nis\nStranger\nthan\nMyth.\nLondon:\nBBC.\n\nThat is all I could find on the topic. It wouldn't surprise me that the jaguars eat that plant, but whether or not they do it for the purpose of \"getting high\" is not known."
],
"score": [
13
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.cracked.com/article_17032_7-species-that-get-high-more-than-we-do_p2.html",
"Cracked.com",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OqGDv0KCJl8",
"http://i.imgur.com/5CaJ8LQ.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02791072.2008.10400645"
]
}
|
Has there been any scholarly work done on Jaguars eating Caapi leaves/roots in order to hallucinate?
I recently found myself in a discussion on this subject and was not able to find any legitimate scientific sources to support the [claim](_URL_3_) that Jaguars chew this plant in order to hallucinate. I asked the claimant for some more information in addition to searching personally and was unable to find anything other than a _URL_1_ [article](_URL_0_) and a [video](_URL_2_) showing one jaguar chewing on some leaves and rolling around on the ground. Can anyone shed some light and/or provide any sources on this potentially remarkable phenomenon?
|
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] |
|
48k0o8
|
it says scott kelly experienced over 10,000 orbital sunsets and sunrises in his 1 year. how is this possible?
|
how are there this many sunsets and sunrises in 365 days?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d0ko3co",
"d0kw6oh"
],
"text": [
"The ISS orbits around Earth every 92.69 minutes. In each orbit he'll see a sunrise and sunset.",
"Because the ISS goes arround the Earth WAY faster than the Earth is spinning. It takes the earth 24 hours to spin once, but the ISS only needs 90 minutes to orbit the Earth once.\n\n\nThat means that each day Scott and his fellow Astronauts and Kosmonauts orbited the earth sixteen times. Which means they saw 32 sunrises and sunsets. His mission lasted 340 days which brings us to 10,880 sunrises and sunsets."
],
"score": [
13,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
it says scott kelly experienced over 10,000 orbital sunsets and sunrises in his 1 year. how is this possible?
how are there this many sunsets and sunrises in 365 days?
|
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|
136syv
|
What is the resonance frequency of bone?
|
That is, assuming bone has a single frequency at which it resonates. I'm aware that bone is a tissue, and as such is not the same density or hardness all the way through. So does bone have a resonance frequency? If so, what is it? What would happen to a person if they were hit with a loud noise at that frequency?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c71b0st",
"c71ajob"
],
"text": [
"I'm not sure if you have access to this paper (if you are at a University for example) but [here is a study to determine the resonant frequency of the Ulna](_URL_0_/pdf/0031-9155_15_3_002.pdf). [Another link](_URL_0_). \n\nBasically it is a function of:\n\n- shear and bulk modulus (material properties)\n- density (material property)\n- length and cross section (geometric properties)\n\nIf the velocity, C, is taken to be about 2900 m/s (referenced to Rich, Klink, Smith, Graham and Ivanovich 1966), then they say the **resonant frequency is between 150 to 300 Hz**.\n\nFor a skull, it would be a bit more difficult due to the geometry, though the material properties would be similar.",
"I'm guessing each bone would have its own frequency. IIRC it's based on length and girth."
],
"score": [
8,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9155/15/3/002",
"http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9155/15/3/002/pdf/0031-9155_15_3_002.pdf"
]
}
|
What is the resonance frequency of bone?
That is, assuming bone has a single frequency at which it resonates. I'm aware that bone is a tissue, and as such is not the same density or hardness all the way through. So does bone have a resonance frequency? If so, what is it? What would happen to a person if they were hit with a loud noise at that frequency?
|
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] |
|
45oqb1
|
Do g-waves attenuate with time(or when they interact with matter)?
|
If they do attenuate, how can we determine the source considering the waves could have interacted with a random number of matter
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"czza16n"
],
"text": [
"Gravity waves do not attenuate when they pass through matter; they just deform the matter a little tiny bit and move on.\n\nThey also don't attenuate over time, beyond the fact that they get weaker as the spread out through space."
],
"score": [
25
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Do g-waves attenuate with time(or when they interact with matter)?
If they do attenuate, how can we determine the source considering the waves could have interacted with a random number of matter
|
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] |
|
ap07cx
|
How do we know what air consists of?
|
Who was the first person to test air, or seek to discover its molecular makeup? What did the discovery lead to?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"eg5qf3k"
],
"text": [
"There are multiple methods.\n\nIe you can see what chemicals reactions air gets involved in. You can look at its electromagnetic spectrum.\n\nYou can cool it, and see what different gases become liquid at different temperatures. (That's how liquid nitrogen and liquid oxygen are made, I think.)\n\nDo some Google search / Wikipedia trawling for the history."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How do we know what air consists of?
Who was the first person to test air, or seek to discover its molecular makeup? What did the discovery lead to?
|
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|
6bm7so
|
How does demagnetization (or even coercive fields) work?
|
I do not actually understand how the magnetisation in a material can be zero when a field equal to the coercive strength is applied. Essentially, my intuition tells me the 0 magnetisation point is always unstable, being impossible to de-magnetize the material.
[This image](_URL_0_) can help me explain my train of thought:
Suppose we are at the yellow arrow. Most magnetic domains are aligned, pointing to the right and no magnetic field is being applied.
Now we start applying a field opposite to the orientation of most domains. Energetically, it starts to make sense to reverse
the orientation of magnetisation, so some dipoles will start to flip.
This is where my problem starts.
My intuition tells me this should be a cascade event. Since the dipoles that were cancelling a part of the applied field inside the material now flipped, the stronger field will induce more flips. This would shoot the magnetisation value to the opposite side immediately (I now notice this is exactly like magnetisation in the easy axis), never stopping at the de-magnetised state.
Where am I failing?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dho6b4z",
"dho3now"
],
"text": [
"As you move left or right on the hysteresis curve (away from the vertical axis), the external field is increasing in strength to overcome internal forces that keep the domains in place. If the external field is removed, the material will win up somewhere on the vertical axis, where the net internal forces result in a net state of magnetization (a permanent magnet). \n\nTo stay at the point on the horizontal axis, you would probably need some sort of feedback to continuously adjust your external field intensity in order to prevent the material from returning to a state on the y-axis. \n\nSufficient de-gaussing processes (essentially a uniform randomization of the magnetic domains) can be used to get to the origin on the plot. This can be done with a special time-varying external field that might produce a \"spiral\" towards the origin on the curve, through heating/cooling processes, or mechanical shock (ever accidentally drop a fridge magnet on the ground and have it stop working?)",
"> Essentially, my intuition tells me the 0 magnetisation point is always unstable, being impossible to de-magnetize the material.\n\nYes, zero magnetization with **H** = **0** is an unstable equilibrium. Any slight magnetization in some preferred direction will break the symmetry.\n\nHowever if you have some pre-existing magnetization and you want to undo it, you have to apply an **H** field in the opposite direction. With the right magnitude and direction opposite to **M**, you can bring the magnetization to zero."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.chem.iitb.ac.in/~rajaraman/images/magnetism/image8.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How does demagnetization (or even coercive fields) work?
I do not actually understand how the magnetisation in a material can be zero when a field equal to the coercive strength is applied. Essentially, my intuition tells me the 0 magnetisation point is always unstable, being impossible to de-magnetize the material. [This image](_URL_0_) can help me explain my train of thought: Suppose we are at the yellow arrow. Most magnetic domains are aligned, pointing to the right and no magnetic field is being applied. Now we start applying a field opposite to the orientation of most domains. Energetically, it starts to make sense to reverse the orientation of magnetisation, so some dipoles will start to flip. This is where my problem starts. My intuition tells me this should be a cascade event. Since the dipoles that were cancelling a part of the applied field inside the material now flipped, the stronger field will induce more flips. This would shoot the magnetisation value to the opposite side immediately (I now notice this is exactly like magnetisation in the easy axis), never stopping at the de-magnetised state. Where am I failing?
|
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] |
|
1ijlk7
|
If there are no privileged reference frames and no centre of the universe, what significance does the CMB rest frame have?
|
The big bang happened everywhere, and space is expanding in every direction, so non-gravitationally bound systems are all receding from one another. But there is a frame in which the CMB is isotropic. Does this not mean that that frame is one at which you are "at rest," at least with respect to where your patch of space was when the CMB was emitted? Could that not be considered the "centre of the universe" for you and your neighbours?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cb53ybe"
],
"text": [
"Sure, the CMB rest frame has significance for astronomy, but it's absolutely critical to remember that the laws of physics are no different in it or any other inertial frame.\n\n > Could that not be considered the \"centre of the universe\" for you and your neighbours?\n\nDefinitely not a center, since the CMB rest frame is described by a velocity but not a position. \n\n______________________\n\nYou're probably familiar with the Hubble Flow, the fact that more distant galaxies are receding from us more rapidly due to the metric expansion of the universe. Measuring a galaxy's recessional velocity can give you a good estimate of its distance-- but only if its recessional velocity is relatively large (at least several hundred km/s), because if its recessional velocity is slow, then what is known as *peculiar motion* will dominate. Peculiar motion is just the fact that galaxies all have some motion through space relative to the CMB rest frame. For example, we and the Andromeda galaxy are moving toward each other with a relative velocity of about 200 km/s. Other galaxies, likewise, are flying around their local neighborhoods. In order to do accurate measurements of the Hubble flow, you need to consider their (and the Earth's) motion relative to the CMB.\n\nWe're moving at about 370 km/s relative to the CMB, which is a mixture of the Sun's motion around the galactic center, the Galaxy's motion within the Local Group, and the whole Local Group's infall toward Virgo and the Great Attractor."
],
"score": [
8
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
If there are no privileged reference frames and no centre of the universe, what significance does the CMB rest frame have?
The big bang happened everywhere, and space is expanding in every direction, so non-gravitationally bound systems are all receding from one another. But there is a frame in which the CMB is isotropic. Does this not mean that that frame is one at which you are "at rest," at least with respect to where your patch of space was when the CMB was emitted? Could that not be considered the "centre of the universe" for you and your neighbours?
|
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|
v85di
|
If a person was under the influence of THC from birth, how would they react if they stopped taking it in their adulthood?
|
Would they think that they were "normal" and after coming off of it, think they were high all the time?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c526up3",
"c527gzo"
],
"text": [
"depending on level of intoxication, I would think that there would be some serious developmental issues in terms of cognitive efficency, language and logical thinking. It probably would be there, but diminished. \n\noh, and \"high\" is just word. \"altered state of mind\" would go just as well. and, as a result, this would mean that asudden lack of thc would be experienced as an altered state of mind.",
"Brain chemistry doesn't really work that way. The implications would probably be most drastic in terms of development, not necessarily withdrawals. I highly doubt the child would even survive for very long, or if it did would have serious cognitive and physical issues."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
If a person was under the influence of THC from birth, how would they react if they stopped taking it in their adulthood?
Would they think that they were "normal" and after coming off of it, think they were high all the time?
|
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] |
|
zsd2o
|
What is this strange phenomenon above the night sky in Russia?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c67b3zp"
],
"text": [
"The comment on the page tells you what it was. (With plenty of information elsewhere online, e.g. [here](_URL_0_) - It was a test firing of a Topol-M ICBM, from the Kasputin Yar test range."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://english.ruvr.ru/2012_06_08/77444075/"
]
}
|
What is this strange phenomenon above the night sky in Russia?
|
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||
8jv037
|
Active vs. semi-active vibration isolation vs. vibration control, which is what?
|
Title is a bit weird but I actually want to identify the differences between these four cases :
1) Active Vibration Isolation
2) Semi-active Vibration Isolation
3) Active Vibration Control
4) Semi-active Vibration Control
I am not sure if they are completely different strategies or similar terms used by different researchers.
Isolation is a term related to the transmissibility, but do Isolation and Control aim the same thing? What changes between active and semi-active?
Thanks in advance,
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dz2x3y8",
"dz34f0z"
],
"text": [
"The terms don't necessarily have clear-cut definitions, but I can give you a brief overview. Vibration isolation is one method of vibration control, but there are others (i.e., all vibration isolation systems are vibration control systems, but not all vibration control systems are isolation systems). Isolation attempts to control vibration by allowing the input the occur, but not permitting the energy to be transmitted past a certain point. An easy example is the suspension in your car; you can't stop the vibration inputs caused by the road surface, but most of the energy is absorbed by the spring-damper system and relatively little reaches the cabin, isolating the cabin from the road surface vibration.\n\nActive and semi-active (and passive) refer to how \"smart\" the control system is. A passive system means the components have fixed values and performance parameters, regardless of input. For most of the automobile's history, the suspension would be classified as passive because the damper and spring both have fixed stiffness values that can't be changed.\n\nActive refers to \"smart\" systems that have a lot of control authority and much greater capacity to deal with vibration inputs. An example would be if you replaced the suspension in your car with a constantly powered solenoid. A computer could monitor the car's movements and road vibrations and provide damping by varying the electrical field (and therefore the \"stiffness\" of the solenoid). If you hit a big bump, for instance, the computer could allow the plunger to travel much further up the cylinder before applying a field to slow it down, resulting in no net movement of the car, whereas a \"dumb\" spring-damper system will provide resistance as soon as it begins to move, resulting in some transfer of energy to the cabin. The trade-off that an active system is typically much more complex, more costly, and in our example, much greater power consumption.\n\nA semi-active system is a compromise between the two. An example would be what is called \"magnetorheological\" (MR) suspension. Normal dampers work by having a plunger move up and down a cylinder filled with oil. The viscosity of the oil resists the plunger moving, causing the plunger to feel stiff when you push down on it. This resistance increases as the viscosity of the oil increases and vice-versa, so what MR suspension does is use a special type of fluid that has variable viscosity, called a magnetorheological fluid. By applying a magnetic field to the fluid, they can control how viscous the oil is, thereby changing the stiffness of the damper. This system won't have the performance of a truly active system, but will perform better than a truly passive system, while only moderately increasing cost, complexity, and power consumption, hence \"semi-active.\"",
"As /u/Soloandthewookiee says, these terms aren't really well defined. I can give some examples from structural engineering:\n\nA [tuned mass damper](_URL_2_) is a form of passive structural control, as would be a [sloshing damper](_URL_0_). In both approaches you build a damper at the top of a large building, and once the mechanism is in place it operates entirely based on physics. A lot of engineering work goes into designing and sizing the mechanism on the front end, but once the thing is built the operation of the device requires no input.\n\nIn contrast, an [active mass damper](_URL_3_) is similar to the ideas above, but the mass at the top of the building is connected to actuators so that the structure can actually change its own mass distribution by sliding the mass around. This requires sensors and instrumentation so that an algorithm can analyze the motion of the building and compute a counter-motion to mitigate the effects. This would be called active structural control.\n\nLastly, [base isolation](_URL_1_) uses large bearings and springs to allow a structure to \"float\" over an earthquake while minimizing the total force transmitted to the occupants and interior. This is an entirely passive system that only relies on physics to operate once constructed. This could be called passive isolation.\n\nI'm less familiar with semi-active isolation, but a quick google search suggests that some people have used the term when they combine passive base isolation with active structural control using the magnetorehological (MR) dampers that /u/Soloandthewookiee discussed. In this situation the base isolation system doesn't actually have any elements of active control, but the structure above the base isolator is also equipped with an active control system based on MR dampers. In this case the term is a little misleading because they really mean to say that they've combined passive base isolation with active structural control, and they ended up calling that thing \"semi-active isolation\"."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://vimeo.com/75907892",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eU5nFvfCGsE",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f1U4SAgy60c",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K4kuV_ZXbB4"
]
}
|
Active vs. semi-active vibration isolation vs. vibration control, which is what?
Title is a bit weird but I actually want to identify the differences between these four cases : 1) Active Vibration Isolation 2) Semi-active Vibration Isolation 3) Active Vibration Control 4) Semi-active Vibration Control I am not sure if they are completely different strategies or similar terms used by different researchers. Isolation is a term related to the transmissibility, but do Isolation and Control aim the same thing? What changes between active and semi-active? Thanks in advance,
|
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|
1w52ej
|
Boom and Bust Cycles?
|
It seems throughout history, economies all over the world seem to go through the same type of "boom and bust" cycles. From the great depression to the housing bubble etc. Why do we always seem to gravitate towards this type of economics?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ceyspwf",
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],
"text": [
"The reason that we gravitate to this type of economics is because insolvency after overcapitalization can be delayed multiple years by agents in the system spending down its resources in order to try and avoid a bankruptcy.\n\nIf we look at the housing bubble, the overcapitalization occurred in the early 2000's, but the mass defaults didn't occur until well after. Basically, many banks in the early 2000's thought subprime mortgages as great investments to pour money into. Therefore they overcapitalized (put too much money into that market) the market. This had two main effects - first it raised housing prices past fundamental value. Second it lead to people having major loan balances that they didn't have effectively secured.\n\nWhile this overcapitalization occurred in the early 2000's, people don't want to lose their house. So people scraped barely by for several years. Even though the market was wearing a death mask, it LOOKED healthy, and so more money was poured in.\n\nThis is the boom. The housing market was hot and stocks leapt. Notice though, that at this point the market price is based on value that is predicated on near term trends continuing into the long term. Since the near term trends are being maintained by people making (what they want to be) short term sacrifices to maintain a long term goal of owning their house, if a major shift does not occur, and these short term measures (credit card debt, extra shifts, putting off kids, etc) become unacceptable in the long term then an entire segment of the loan market will start dropping out.\n\nThis is the bust. People start defaulting either by choice or by impossibility of maintaining that cost of living (credit cards maxed out). This drops the prices of the underlying houses, and people are less inclined to stay in the market , and prices drop precipitously.\n\nNotice here, in this story, how it is not a fundamental of the market. The underlying good had the same fundamental value the entire time. It just became overvalued because of the time factor in investing, and the sunk cost fallacy prevents a spoiler on the market by keeping people that will eventually default in the market as long as possible.",
"In 1925 a Russian Economist named Nikolai Kondratieff presented a paper to a group of international economists in Chicago discussing long term boom and bust (Inflation and deflationary) cycles. If you are interested, get a copy of his paper from Princeton press. Looking at what he predicted and the next fifty years, I have come to believe his original Long Wave Cycles (Title of the paper) were actually due to the solar cycle influencing crop production in the agrarian world, by influencing the length and size of generations and therefore the transfer of wealth and power. Since generations are now longer than they were and the industrial world is no longer tied to crops for wealth, the cycle has come unstuck from the length of the solar cycle. Study the original paper and make up your own mind."
],
"score": [
6,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Boom and Bust Cycles?
It seems throughout history, economies all over the world seem to go through the same type of "boom and bust" cycles. From the great depression to the housing bubble etc. Why do we always seem to gravitate towards this type of economics?
|
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|
2qhdte
|
Can you cause a material to combust by rapidly reducing the pressure around it?
|
If I understand correctly, a fire is really just a bunch of molecules slamming into one another fast enough and often enough. It makes sense that introducing an open flame to a highly flammable material will act as a catalyst and slam into the molecules that make up the material hard enough to get the "fire started" so to speak.
My question is: If all you need is the molecules to slam into one another hard enough and often enough, can you just super rapidly lower the pressure around the material and achieve the same effect?
Bonus Question(s): If the answer is yes, how flammable does the material need to be? What kind of pressures are we talking about here?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cn6o0bp",
"cn6qci2",
"cn6vrfx"
],
"text": [
"Nope. You can cause it to combust by rapidly increasing the pressure, however (this is how a Diesel engine works). However, reducing the pressure around a substance will lower its melting and boiling points. In near/total vaccum, water will boil at room temperature, which is pretty cool to watch!",
"No, that would generally do the opposite. It's the \"often enough\" part that comes into play. If one of your reactants is in the gas (oxygen in air, for example), and you reduce the pressure of the gas, you are causing that reactant to have fewer interactions. You also may be decreasing the energy of each collision through cooling via expansion, but that depends on exactly how you go about lowering the pressure.",
"As others have pointed out, you need to increase - rather than decrease the pressure in order to have pressure-based ignition. This is called adiabatic heating or diesel ignition.\n\nThe way it works is that rapid compression raises the temperature to the ignition temperature of the material. Ignition temperatures have a wide range, some chemicals will even spontaneously ignite when exposed to air so no squeezing is necessary. (_URL_0_) How much compression is necessary also depends on the starting temperature and the starting pressure."
],
"score": [
5,
3,
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]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triethylborane"
]
}
|
Can you cause a material to combust by rapidly reducing the pressure around it?
If I understand correctly, a fire is really just a bunch of molecules slamming into one another fast enough and often enough. It makes sense that introducing an open flame to a highly flammable material will act as a catalyst and slam into the molecules that make up the material hard enough to get the "fire started" so to speak. My question is: If all you need is the molecules to slam into one another hard enough and often enough, can you just super rapidly lower the pressure around the material and achieve the same effect? Bonus Question(s): If the answer is yes, how flammable does the material need to be? What kind of pressures are we talking about here?
|
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] |
|
1mte0p
|
What makes amoebas deadly?
|
I have heard stories of people dying from getting infected with amoebas. What makes them so bad?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cccink9"
],
"text": [
"[Some amoeba species secrete chemicals that destroy living tissue.](_URL_0_) This type of amoeba leads to [amoebic dysentery](_URL_2_).\n\n[Some amoeba species have a sucker that lets them easily destroy nerves.](_URL_1_) This type of amoeba can get into your brain through your nose and [destroy your brain](_URL_3_). No brain is bad news."
],
"score": [
7
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entamoeba_histolytica",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC348179/figure/F2/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoebic_dysentery",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_amoebic_meningoencephalitis"
]
}
|
What makes amoebas deadly?
I have heard stories of people dying from getting infected with amoebas. What makes them so bad?
|
[
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|
z9v2g
|
As scientists, what things do you wish your physics/science teacher had told you in high school?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"A bit of a boring one to start with but it was surprisingly late in my education before I realised just how important maths (or math if your american :P) is in science. Maths always seemed so abstract and pointless to me in my early education. Then I realised that you can't do science with out a good mathematical grounding and so then I put the effort in to learn it and actually enjoyed it in the end. I think I was lucky and realised this just in time but many of my friends didn't and as time went on, found science subjects more and more difficult. And so these people didn't carry on into further science education, not because they aren't interested but because they don't have the mathematical skills required.\nSecondly, as a biologist, I wish I was told what DNA and genes are and how their code creates proteins a lot earlier. We were always given vague ideas about how DNA is in the nucleus and this controls the cell but I'm sure I could have understood it earlier if explained properly. This may also help to dispel common misconceptions people have about genetics. \nAlso, teach evolution! Try to show them the overwhelming evidence as simply as you can and hopefully they will be able to come to their own conclusion. I'm from the UK so this isn't much of a issue here fortunately but if you're in the fundamentalist parts of america, this is important. Also, if you want to inspire the younger generation, show them anything to do with NASA. NASA is awesome. Tell them that they can go out and see the ISS flying over head. Show them videos of what it's like to orbit earth, the moon landings and pictures of what it's like on mars from the curiosity rover. If that doesn't get them interested in science I don't know what will :)",
"Calculus, dimensional analysis. The importance of understand concepts as opposed to memorizing formulas or equations. Applications to the real world for the lesson you are teaching. Applications of maths as you teach it(Like show how integrating a velocity curve is useful when you teach integration)"
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
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|
As scientists, what things do you wish your physics/science teacher had told you in high school?
|
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||
9heakm
|
What happened to all the anti-matter?
|
As per Physics...The amount of matter and antimatter produced or released after the big bang must be equal, then why is it so rare, and also how do scientists make it in the Large Haldron Collider?
Is it possible that there is a whole another anti-universe or something?Why does it release tremendous amounts of energy when it comes into contact with matter?
and one last thing...If anti-matter can give us tremendous amounts of energy, then matter also should be able to give the same tremendous amounts of energy when it contacts anti-matter in, say, an anti-matter planet or something, right? then that way if we find out a Place made out of anti-matter, then that'd be a great exchange for the aliens living there, and for us to give our normal matter and get some anti-matter, right?
Fuel for us, fuel for them and we weigh not based on the item, but based on the mass. Or is it that matter out of a Diamond would release more energy when contacted with anti-matter than a banana peel? **Just Curious**.
I hope all of it makes sense.
Edit: Now it might make a little more sense(Punctuation xD)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e6b768b",
"e6b7s3r",
"e6dsg6t"
],
"text": [
"Yes, where did all the antimatter go? It's a good question and the answer is both disappointing and interesting: We don't know. In (astro)physics, this question is referred to as the \"Baryon Asymmetry Problem\" because of the apparent asymmetry between baryonic matter (everyday matter composed of quarks) and antibaryonic matter (antimatter composed of anti-quarks).\n\nIt's natural to assume that matter and antimatter would be created in equal amounts in the big bang. Yet all we see around is regular matter. One of the possible explanations for this is that matter and antimatter don't behave exactly the same way. That is, that the symmetry between matter and antimatter is broken. Physicists refer to this symmetry as charge/parity-symmetry (CP), which expresses that the laws of physics are the same when you replace a particle with its antiparticle and flip the spatial coordinates.\n\nWe know from experiments that CP-symmetry is violated in some cases. The rules apply slightly differently for matter than for antimatter in those cases. However, these CP violations are relatively small and the ones discovered thus far are insufficient to properly explain the matter/antimatter asymmetry. It is, however, the most promising research direction as particle physicists search for more interactions that violate CP-symmetry.\n\nAn alternative explanation could be that there are regions in the universe that are antimatter dominated in the same way that our neighborhood is matter dominated. From a long distance, matter and antimatter appear the same, so it would be hard to directly detect large concentrations of antimatter. However, if there are antimatter dominated regions, then there are also border areas where the transition from matter to antimatter takes place. These areas should have a mixture of both and therefore should see plenty of annihilation effects. Matter/antimatter-annihilation produces light that we would be able to detect. Despite searches, no regions have been found that look like these border areas, so if they exist, they most likely only exist outside the observable universe.",
"1. There are whole large experiments like LHCb which are trying to understand that! So far, we simply don't know.\n2. Unlikely that there is an antimatter part of the universe. There would have to be the intersection point somewhere, and the annihilation products would be visible to us. And we've never seen anything like it.\n3. LHC doesn't make antimatter, don't believe movies ;) Antimatter is generated using Proton Synchrotron (a small circular accelerator at CERN, which is also used as injector for the LHC) by shooting protons into a target. There is some probability that such collision will produce anti-protons.\n4. Yes, if you could make the exchange... There was even an idea to collect anti-particles trapped in earth's magnetic field - > _URL_0_\n5. Mass is mass. The energy would be `E=mc^2`",
"There was matter/antimatter imbalance just after the big bang happened. The imbalance is so insignificant in its scale that its ratio was billion and one to billion. Then everything was annihilated, leaving the universe with photons."
],
"score": [
42,
12,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://phys.org/news/2011-08-antiproton-belt-earth.html"
]
}
|
What happened to all the anti-matter?
As per Physics...The amount of matter and antimatter produced or released after the big bang must be equal, then why is it so rare, and also how do scientists make it in the Large Haldron Collider? Is it possible that there is a whole another anti-universe or something?Why does it release tremendous amounts of energy when it comes into contact with matter? and one last thing...If anti-matter can give us tremendous amounts of energy, then matter also should be able to give the same tremendous amounts of energy when it contacts anti-matter in, say, an anti-matter planet or something, right? then that way if we find out a Place made out of anti-matter, then that'd be a great exchange for the aliens living there, and for us to give our normal matter and get some anti-matter, right? Fuel for us, fuel for them and we weigh not based on the item, but based on the mass. Or is it that matter out of a Diamond would release more energy when contacted with anti-matter than a banana peel? **Just Curious**. I hope all of it makes sense. Edit: Now it might make a little more sense(Punctuation xD)
|
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|
17m6a7
|
Could some experienced chemists take a look at this video and give some analysis?
|
[LINK](_URL_0_) Watching from about 5:30 till the end, will show you the relevant part that I'm interested in, though he presents supporting evidence before that.
TL;DW: A youtuber says that if you look at highspeed footage the current explanation of why alkaline metals (specifically sodium) explode in the presence of water doesn't make sense. Then he goes on to offer his own hypothesis of whats really going on here.
I've seen you guys shed incredible light onto topics, so can anyone say whether this is worth further study?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8719i7"
],
"text": [
"To give another example on \"explosions\" from a macroscopic, heterogeneous system, look at mentos and soda. \n\nI thought the \"1 frame\" was interesting where it shows the drop of water touch the the sodium, sink, and in the next frame \"explodes\". What I think is happening is that the surface area of contact rapidly increases thus increasing the rate of reaction. I think the \"explosion\" is the rapid release of gases and energy release from sodium oxidation. \n\nI'm not entirely sure, given that I'm proficient in heterogeneous interaction, not explosions."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xMfQSV4ygHE"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Could some experienced chemists take a look at this video and give some analysis?
[LINK](_URL_0_) Watching from about 5:30 till the end, will show you the relevant part that I'm interested in, though he presents supporting evidence before that. TL;DW: A youtuber says that if you look at highspeed footage the current explanation of why alkaline metals (specifically sodium) explode in the presence of water doesn't make sense. Then he goes on to offer his own hypothesis of whats really going on here. I've seen you guys shed incredible light onto topics, so can anyone say whether this is worth further study?
|
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] |
|
5lgdty
|
Why does matter tend to stay in phases?
|
Why isn't it more like a spectrum of solid to liquid to gas? What makes the density change so drastically at certain temperatures?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dbw7a4z",
"dbvzq37"
],
"text": [
"The solid/liquid to gas transition can be understood in terms of atoms or molecules acquiring the critical \"escape velocity\" (on average) needed to overcome the attractive forces (of finite range) that bind them together. So the existence of discrete phases is a reflection of the two possibilities of matter being condensed (bound) or gaseous (not bound).\n\nThe solid to liquid transition in the bulk involves subtle structural effects. The solid's resistance to shear declines to zero at the melting point, which means for example that the rigid structure of the crystal can no longer support itself. Again, there is a dichotomy between rigid/flowing at this \"melting\" point that accounts for the existence of discrete solid vs liquid phases.\n\nFurthermore, while not commonly taught in science degrees, there is an observable stage of surface melting that takes place a few degrees below the bulk melting transition. I like to think of the bulk material dissolving into a widening surface melt layer as energy is put into the system, as that is what it looks like in molecular dynamics simulations of melting that include crystal surfaces (many don't).",
"It is a spectrum. Substances exist mainly in certain phases depending on the pressure and temperature they're in. This is why puddles of water shrink; some liquid water escape into the gas phase. In space water will immediately start boiling because there's no pressure against it even if it also happens to be very very cold in space.\n\nSolid stuff like a rock is no exception-- but the pressures and temperatures where the balance starts to tip to liquid and gas is so high that we can safely treat them as just not.\n\nTL;DR everything i's basically in a gradient of different phases yes, but at equilibrium."
],
"score": [
7,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why does matter tend to stay in phases?
Why isn't it more like a spectrum of solid to liquid to gas? What makes the density change so drastically at certain temperatures?
|
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inqkz
|
Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now.
|
_URL_0_
But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?
For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Why spend days crossing when you can spend hours?",
"Many reasons, but since you bring up the Hindenburg, perhaps the tale of the flying aircraft carrier [USS Akron](_URL_0_) best exemplifies the problem.",
"We haven't stopped.\n\nYou can tour the SF bay area in airships: _URL_4_\n\nSome specs on their ship here: \n\n_URL_4_\n_URL_4_comparison.php\n_URL_4_\n\nNot that cheap, though. I guess it's just that they're not that cost effective for moving cargo compared to trains/boats; and not fast enough for moving people compared to planes.",
"I think there is someone trying to do another concorde, but I cannot think of the name. It basically failed because it was too expensive, and now in this economy, good luck. Dirigibles are not taking off right now because they are too slow. Do you really want to spend a few days crossing america when you could do it in a few hours? It would basically be a novelty market, and cruises would be cheaper and better besides. Also, we will run out of mine-able helium in about 30 years _URL_5_ \n\nSo in 30 years the cost of helium will rise 10,000% and airships will no longer be economical.",
"Because people want to not spend 24 hours in a blimp when they could spent 8 in a plane. The cruise ship idea doesn't really work either, because of weight. Weight is public enemy number one in aircraft design. You can imagine a luxurious blimp like the Excelsior in Archher doing an awesome sky cruise, but that means that you need to carry lots more food and water and furnishings, so you need to either make the blimp bigger, or reduce the number of passengers. Both increase cost significantly.\n\nWe entirely have not stopped development on blimps, just changed their usage. They can make fantastic aerial observation posts (as seen by any big professional sports game), which is compounded by the ability to go unmanned. Load one up with cameras and radio equipment and sensors, and you could have hours or even days of surveillance from the blimp the size of a small car.",
"One of the biggest reasons is that they are incredibly unstable. An airship is basically at the mercy of the weather, and one errant gust can be catastrophic. They're also very expensive and slow. \n\nSupersonic passenger flight has the same expense problems. Supersonic flight requires massive amounts of fuel. In order to cut down on fuel expenditure the fuselage has to be smaller, which means less passengers, which means more expensive tickets to break even. If you increase cabin size, you're increasing fuel expense and the tickets remain expensive to cover the extra fuel. People would much rather just pay a few hundred dollars and accept an 8 hour flight than pay thousands for a 4 hour flight. Its just not efficient or practical.",
"25 years ago I knew a woman who had witnessed the Hindenburg crash. She and her husband and some friends had gone to the airfield to see it land. They were in that line of cars you see approaching the airfield as the crash occurred.",
"> where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?\n\nThe Concorde was not cost-effective. That's why it's out of use.",
"Helium has better uses to man kind than air travel.",
"Airships are really really slow. Perhaps the relatively low energy cost may make them more interesting in the future if the cost of energy rises significantly.\n\nAs for supersonic jets, they have very high energy costs and they can only travel supersonic across water (as people tend to not like the sonic booms over land).",
"I took a trip on an airship from Mountain View California to Long Beach a few years ago. The entire experience was immensely more pleasant than a flight on an airliner, though the airship I was on was much smaller (maximum of 12 person capacity, I think).\n\nPictures here:\n_URL_6_",
"It is because airships used to use Hydrogen which was much more abundant and buoyant than helium. However after several major disasters similar to the Hindenburg all Hydrogen airships ceased operation due to their Flammable nature."
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{
"url": [
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Akron",
"http://www.airshipventures.com/theship.php",
"http://www.airshipventures.com/factsandfigures.php",
"http://www.airshipventures.com/",
"http://www.airshipventures.com/comparison.php",
"http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/why-the-world-is-running-out-of-helium-2059357.html",
"http://www.flickr.com/photos/mbessey/sets/72157622232572572/"
]
}
|
Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now.
_URL_0_ But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again? For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?
|
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|
2am208
|
What is the ideal altitude for long-distance bicycling?
|
At higher altitudes, there is less air resistance so the same power output would make a bike go faster. However, there is also less oxygen so the biker is less able to sustain optimal power output. What is the ideal altitude for long distance biking, optimized with respect to both these effects?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ciwkp1d"
],
"text": [
"I'll do my best to answer this as I thought it was a very interesting question. First of all we should take a look at the equation of drag Fd = (1/2)(rho)(v^2)(Cd)(A). This will help us determine the discrete effect of air resistance on the cyclist. There are a lot of variables such as Cd (coefficient of drag) and A (Area of the surface) that are a bit hard to pull out the air but I actually found a [website](_URL_0_) that is devoted to this very question. Using the calculator we can find that a cyclist going 8 m/s at seas level is expending 278.5 W, while at 1500 m they are expending 267.6 W, and finally at 3000 m they are expending 258 W. With a biggest difference of 20.5 W between sea level and 3000 m it should be noted for reference 50 W is about the level for light exercise.\n\n\nThe big question though is at long distances how does this effect fare and the effect on the human body over longer periods of time. In one particular study they found were able to measure the distances traveled in one hour by cyclists at different alttitudes;\n\"The best overall performance appears to be the current one-hour record at sea-level using an aerodynamic bicycle (Moser: 50.644 km.h-1). This performance is equivalent to 53.5 km.h-1 in Mexico City (2230 m), 54.4 km.h-1 in La Paz (3417 m) and 54.5 km.h-1 at 3843 m (472 mmHg), which would be the optimal altitude to set the record.\"\n\n\nIn this study we actually find that of the three records, above the 2230 m mark there appears to be at most a 1 km difference in performance, while this is a 3.856 improvement upon the performance at sea level. From this we determine there is an improvement on performance above sea level but with the 426 m difference in the last two records there is diminishing returns.\n\n\nUltimately it may depend on the persons training and physiology if it is their first time performing at altitude. According to another study, the human body begins to acclimatize to high altitudes with increased red blood count and muscle restructure. Assuming a moderate level of athletic capability from the given data I would conclude that 2000 m would be appropriate. For athletes who train with the live-high train-low method, and have training at altitude it seems that around 3500 would be ideal for cycling.\n\n\nSources:\n\n\n_URL_2_\n\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\n_URL_1_"
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.analyticcycling.com/ForcesPower_Page.html",
"http://jap.physiology.org/content/99/5/2053.long",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2736448"
]
}
|
What is the ideal altitude for long-distance bicycling?
At higher altitudes, there is less air resistance so the same power output would make a bike go faster. However, there is also less oxygen so the biker is less able to sustain optimal power output. What is the ideal altitude for long distance biking, optimized with respect to both these effects?
|
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] |
|
1odxkt
|
How does a Venturi flow tube work?
|
I understand it measures differential pressure and is supposed to be efficient in reducing pressure loss while measuring. Are there in a specifics or other applications that would help understand the process better? Wikipedia is not exactly a treasure trove of information in this instance.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ccrfezg"
],
"text": [
"The venturi effect is a consequence of Bernoulli's Priniciple, which is really just a statement of conservation of energy. From energy conservation, if there is no work done on a fluid by outside forces (in this case the walls are stationary, so that's not possible), and there is no heat transfer (subsonic venturis have negligible temperature changes), then the energy within the fluid must be conserved. Pressure can be viewed as potential energy, which can be exchanged with kinetic energy. So in the case of a venturi, mass flow must remain constant, and because the fluid is incompressible (or at a low mach number) volume flow must remain constant, so a reduction in area must result in an increase in velocity. The energy to raise the velocity comes from the pressure. Then, when the fluid is expanded back to it's original area, the pressure rises again. If you know the difference in pressure, and the flow areas, you can back out the flowrate."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How does a Venturi flow tube work?
I understand it measures differential pressure and is supposed to be efficient in reducing pressure loss while measuring. Are there in a specifics or other applications that would help understand the process better? Wikipedia is not exactly a treasure trove of information in this instance.
|
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] |
|
36mnjc
|
How is useful the application of imaginary numbers in air traffic control?
|
By watch some documentary about how our world is influenced and conducted by numbers in its generality, it was said that air traffic control wasn't possible if imaginary numbers didn't exist, since all the calculations that are needed to track a plane in real time would take a lot of time using real numbers (therefore, the plane position would not correspond to the real one). How can imaginary mumbers may be useful in this case?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"crg68kn",
"crfwipd"
],
"text": [
"I've actually got a great book about tracking here (\"Tracking and Kalman Filtering Made Easy\") and it hardly uses complex numbers at all. The Kalman Filter (which is what takes sporadic data from the radar and uses it to track all the planes over time) is purely based on real arithmetic. I think @trickyben2 has it right, that the complex numbers are used in the radar systems, at quite a low level. Certainly they are important in digital radio systems, where the [IQ demodulation](_URL_0_) is basically giving you a stream of complex numbers.\n\nIt's probably worth mentioning that the documentary's claim is spurious, since calculations involving complex numbers are performed using calculations involving real numbers anyway. So there is no speed improvement per se inside the computer, but a lot of the on-paper mathematics becomes more tractable if you use complex numbers.",
"Principally it is relevant to air traffic control in terms of radar, because imaginary numbers are convenient for describing electromagnetic phenomena. Some more details about imaginary numbers usage are [here](_URL_1_), including the radar."
],
"score": [
6,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://whiteboard.ping.se/SDR/IQ",
"http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/53879.html"
]
}
|
How is useful the application of imaginary numbers in air traffic control?
By watch some documentary about how our world is influenced and conducted by numbers in its generality, it was said that air traffic control wasn't possible if imaginary numbers didn't exist, since all the calculations that are needed to track a plane in real time would take a lot of time using real numbers (therefore, the plane position would not correspond to the real one). How can imaginary mumbers may be useful in this case?
|
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|
157yjo
|
How accurate is this explanation of the origin of the Yin Yang symbol? Claims it was astronomical in nature
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7k20be"
],
"text": [
"[Here](_URL_0_) is a paper over the subject. It includes what's in your link and expounds upon that. So to answer your question, your source is very accurate."
],
"score": [
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://archive.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/pubPDFs/InTech.pdf"
]
}
|
How accurate is this explanation of the origin of the Yin Yang symbol? Claims it was astronomical in nature
|
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] |
||
k00eb
|
What caused this noise?!
|
Okay, I'm sure I'm going to get a lot of people saying it's fake or something, but check this out.
_URL_2_
_URL_3_
_URL_1_
_URL_0_
There are more videos, these are just a few that stood out to me. What is this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2gkjl5",
"c2gimpd"
],
"text": [
"[There was a similar question a few weeks ago.](_URL_0_)\n\nI posted this response:\n > I'm not sure what is causing the sound, but it sounds to me like you are hearing different frequencies at different times. Each time I hear the sound, it sounds like the high frequencies are first, then lower frequencies.\n > \n > This is probably due to dispersion (frequency dependent velocity) or frequency dependent attenuation. However, you don't get dispersion for sound traveling through a gas, only when sound travels through liquids or solids.\n > \n > Thus, my guess is that this sounds originates underground as a loud BANG. When traveling through the ground, the higher frequencies in the BANG travel quicker giving rise to the strange sound you hear some distance away. I'm not sure how the sound is being transferred from solid ground to air, but it could be through a variety of resonant structures in the buildings.\n > \n >",
"I'm assuming these are the Kiev sounds? (I can't view youtube from here). If so, I'm very convinced it is underground tunnel digging using a massive tunneling machine. That's the only kind of large mechanical device that could vibrate buildings with such intensity."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrLudx6X0sE",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Q3xT-UBVbs&feature=related",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vcUDYBIrWio",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5YjbQFIIVs"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/jjlrk/what_is_the_most_likely_scientific_explanation/"
]
}
|
What caused this noise?!
Okay, I'm sure I'm going to get a lot of people saying it's fake or something, but check this out. _URL_2_ _URL_3_ _URL_1_ _URL_0_ There are more videos, these are just a few that stood out to me. What is this?
|
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] |
|
ikiaq
|
Thought Experiment about Invisibility
|
So lets say there is an object emitting light (a star is a good example). Now that light emits radially in all directions. The photons only move in a straight line. Is it possible for something to be far enough away it would be invisible? [See image](_URL_0_)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c24h5wr",
"c24jj1b"
],
"text": [
"Not exactly, because assuming that the photons are emitted in a truly chaotic and random fashion you can always wait long enough for an individual photon to arrive. You might get to the point where, on average, you receive 1 photon per second. And this rate would simply approach zero (but not reach it) as you move further and further away. But that being said, the object would indeed be invisible *between* the reception of each photon.",
"It would not be invisible, only very dark. \n\nPhotons don't go out in any kind of defined pathways like the spokes of a bicycle. They go out at all possible angles, which means there is no way to dodge between them or avoid their path.\n\nIf you increase the distance from the light source, all that means is that your object receives fewer photons per second. You could say it is \"not visible,\" but only in the way that an object in a dark room is not visible."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/jIH0s.png"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Thought Experiment about Invisibility
So lets say there is an object emitting light (a star is a good example). Now that light emits radially in all directions. The photons only move in a straight line. Is it possible for something to be far enough away it would be invisible? [See image](_URL_0_)
|
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|
362ovu
|
Theoretically, how would a genotype of YY display?
|
Ignoring its possibility of occurring.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"crag04l"
],
"text": [
"A quite similar question was asked before, [please refer to this thread in /r/askscience](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2x2y7m/is_it_technically_possible_for_a_human_to_have/"
]
}
|
Theoretically, how would a genotype of YY display?
Ignoring its possibility of occurring.
|
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|
igeod
|
Question about atoms and visibility
|
I'm not really sure how to word this without sound like a total idiot, but I'll try:
I've been thinking about this for a while now, if a coin is 99% pure silver or gold or something, we can see it, but the only reason you could see an ice cube is because of all the little air bubbles that cause light to refract off of it. But both are solids, is silver just much more compact that the molecules in ice?
Second, when you look from your chair to your computer monitor, it seems clear, but aren't you really looking through billions of oxygen and nitrogen atoms? Why do we never see little specs or anything when there's an unusually large cluster of oxygen or nitrogen in a spot? And if there is so much empty space between these atoms, what is the empty space?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c23jq6v"
],
"text": [
"Light can only be absorbed if there's some degree of freedom, some change of state in the material which has the same energy as the light.\n\nMetals like silver have the physical/chemical property that the valence (outermost) electrons of the atoms are more or less free to roam around in the material. This is what gives metals most of their properties - their malleability (metal bonds can break and re-form easily), their electrical conductivity (directly due to the free-movement of the electrons), their thermal conductivity, and their reflectiveness.\n\nSo if you think of electrons in a metal, you can think of them as a kind of 'jelly' ([no really](_URL_0_)) where they're evenly distributed, like a gas or something. What happens if you expose that to an electrical field? The electrons in the material will redistribute themselves unevenly, with more electrons towards the positive pole of the field, and fewer towards the negative. (because electrons are negatively charged) Remove the field and they'll return back where they were.\n\nNow, light is basically a wave in the electrical field. So when it hits the material, the electrons will move about accordingly, and then move back. This motion of the charges creates an electromagnetic wave in response - which is the reflected light. To make an analogy, it's like a ball bouncing off a rubber surface - the surface deforms until the ball is stopped (the light gets absorbed) and then returns to its original state while pushing the ball back.\n\nIn an ice crystal, the electrons aren't free to move around; they're stuck around their respective atoms. For this reason, it doesn't have as much ability to absorb radiation in the visual range, and most light just passes through it without absorption. But at the boundaries between air and ice, and between different ice crystals, you have surfaces, and at each surface there's a probability the light will scatter rather than penetrate into the material. So when you have lots of bubbles, and lots of surfaces in the material, there's a lot of light being scattered about, and it appears opaque. It's not reflective because the incident light isn't being emitted back at a nice uniform angle. (water/ice does absorb _some_ radiation though, mostly in the red, which is why it looks faintly blue)\n\nOxygen and nitrogen molecules in air don't absorb much visual light, which has to do with how their chemical bonding works. Again, their electrons can't move around freely, so they can't reflect. They can only absorb light if it corresponds to particular changes of the energetic state of the molecule. There simply aren't very many of those in the range of visible light, so they don't absorb much light.\n\nThere's nothing between the molecules; it's empty space, vacuum."
],
"score": [
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellium"
]
}
|
Question about atoms and visibility
I'm not really sure how to word this without sound like a total idiot, but I'll try: I've been thinking about this for a while now, if a coin is 99% pure silver or gold or something, we can see it, but the only reason you could see an ice cube is because of all the little air bubbles that cause light to refract off of it. But both are solids, is silver just much more compact that the molecules in ice? Second, when you look from your chair to your computer monitor, it seems clear, but aren't you really looking through billions of oxygen and nitrogen atoms? Why do we never see little specs or anything when there's an unusually large cluster of oxygen or nitrogen in a spot? And if there is so much empty space between these atoms, what is the empty space?
|
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|
svbak
|
Fight or flight: How is the choice made?
|
I am working on a project on animal behavior and one of the key mechanisms is fight or flight. If the animal finds itself in a dangerous situation, a bunch of immediate changes occur in its physiology preparing it either for battle or running away from it. What I couldn't find is how the animal makes the choice. I understand that some, like deer, tend to freeze up, while wild boars tend to be more aggressive, but what are the factors that determine the choice?
Example: a deer is grazing in the woods, when suddenly it senses a wolf nearby. It's large enough to fight and kill the wolf, but there's still the risk of serious injury. What will it do?
I have googled this question quite a bit, but most results explain *what* happens to the animal to prepare it for fight or flight, rather than how it chooses either.
Thanks.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4hakje"
],
"text": [
"I can't help you too much because I don't know too much about prey animals, yet. I know in dogs fight or flight choices are, in part, made by if they can escape. If you back a scared dog up against a wall you will get bitten, if you try to get them in an open field they will simply run."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Fight or flight: How is the choice made?
I am working on a project on animal behavior and one of the key mechanisms is fight or flight. If the animal finds itself in a dangerous situation, a bunch of immediate changes occur in its physiology preparing it either for battle or running away from it. What I couldn't find is how the animal makes the choice. I understand that some, like deer, tend to freeze up, while wild boars tend to be more aggressive, but what are the factors that determine the choice? Example: a deer is grazing in the woods, when suddenly it senses a wolf nearby. It's large enough to fight and kill the wolf, but there's still the risk of serious injury. What will it do? I have googled this question quite a bit, but most results explain *what* happens to the animal to prepare it for fight or flight, rather than how it chooses either. Thanks.
|
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] |
|
nqjwy
|
Can we make an animal?
|
Ethics and morals aside. Could we? Like make one from the ground up or change one drastically in the mother?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3b6nx7",
"c3b6gb4"
],
"text": [
"As of right now there is research being done into [synthetic genomes](_URL_0_) - but at this point we are only doing single-celled organisms. As of right now, we still don't understand everything genes do - so it's hard to create them synthetically, but there's potential to do so in the very distant future.",
"You might enjoy this [TED talk](_URL_1_). \n\nFor the lazy it's about the possibility of altering a chicken's DNA in such a way to make it a dinosaur."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=synthetic-genome-cell",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/jack_horner_building_a_dinosaur_from_a_chicken.html"
]
}
|
Can we make an animal?
Ethics and morals aside. Could we? Like make one from the ground up or change one drastically in the mother?
|
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|
1c1qri
|
Could we possibly capture WIMPs using the weak force?
|
So my understanding is that WIMPs are the leading candidate for explaining dark matter. If they exists, WIMPs only interact via the weak atomic force an gravity. It seems unlikely that we could ever capture them by using gravity, but could we capture them with the weak atomic force?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9c6wc1"
],
"text": [
"No, the weak force is the second weakest of the four fundamental forces (after gravity). Neutrinos are a type of particle that only interact via the weak force. Because of this, a neutrino can travel through one light year of lead before there's a reasonable chance it will interact with the lead.\n\nThe goal behind dark matter detection experiments is to build a really large particle detector and hope enough dark matter particles pass through the detector for one to randomly interact."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Could we possibly capture WIMPs using the weak force?
So my understanding is that WIMPs are the leading candidate for explaining dark matter. If they exists, WIMPs only interact via the weak atomic force an gravity. It seems unlikely that we could ever capture them by using gravity, but could we capture them with the weak atomic force?
|
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|
8cm8vf
|
Structurally, how can you tell the difference between the aorta and superior vena cava?
|
I am currently studying the structure of the heart in biology and, after dissecting a heart am unsure of how you can tell what is the aorta and what is the superior vena cava. I have put a link with images of the heart I dissected if it helps.
_URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dxgg1ss",
"dxgdv6l"
],
"text": [
"Often in dissection, the SVC just becomes a hole in the right atrium. You should see the aorta and pulmonary artery coming out of the superior part (base) of the heart. The pulmonary artery is more anterior while the aorta almost seems to emerge from the very center of the heart. Also, the aorta will have two small openings where it emerges from the left ventricle; just distal to the aortic valve you should see the openings of the right and left coronary arteries. You can stick a probe in each of these and see where these arteries run. \n\nI can talk about anatomy all day. Feel free to ask any questions.",
"One method is the thickness of the wall. The aorta will have a thick layer of smooth muscle, while the SVC will have much thinner walls. the SVC will enter the right atria, which you should be able to identify the aortic valve in the aorta. So if you can introduce a blunt instrument into the two vessels, the one with the valve will be either the aorta or the pulmonary trunk (although those two should be easily differentiable)."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://imgur.com/a/sRcxs"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Structurally, how can you tell the difference between the aorta and superior vena cava?
I am currently studying the structure of the heart in biology and, after dissecting a heart am unsure of how you can tell what is the aorta and what is the superior vena cava. I have put a link with images of the heart I dissected if it helps. _URL_0_
|
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|
41ar3r
|
How did Eratosthenes measure the angle between Syene and Alexandria to be 7.2 °?
|
Eratosthenes used man power to measure the distance between Alexandria and Syene, which was found to be ~800km. He also found out the angle to be 7.2° (that is, if you imagine two long rods, one from each city, connecting at the center of the Earth, the angle difference between them would be 7.2°).
He then used basic math to find the circumference of the Earth along the equator: If a circle = 360°, the distance and angular difference between Syene and Alexandria = 800km and 7.2° respectively, then the circumference = `(360/7)*800', which is approximately 41000, which is impressively close considering the tools he used.
But the question is, how did he measure the angular difference between the two cities to be 7.2°?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cz0wiq2",
"cz0wle9"
],
"text": [
"He assumed light coming from the Sun was parallel due to its distance from Earth, and used the shadow cast by a pole at each location at a known time of the day as a reference.\n\nHe knew that at a certain time of the year (the solstice) one of the poles (at Syene) would not cast a shadow at noon, meaning the Sun would be perfectly upright.\n\nSo the pole at Alexandria, at this same moment on the same day, would cast a shadow with a length that would give you the angle between the two locations.\n\n[This page](_URL_0_) explains the details.",
"[Here's a blog post](_URL_1_) that goes into some details (and cites sources). He used readings taken at midday on the equinox in each city of the ratio between the shadow of a gnomon (a rod) and its actual length. It sounds like the data he had for on-the-ground distances was a bit doubtful, but the angles were right."
],
"score": [
10,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/eratosthenes.html",
"http://kiwihellenist.blogspot.co.nz/2015/11/eratosthenes-and-well.html"
]
}
|
How did Eratosthenes measure the angle between Syene and Alexandria to be 7.2 °?
Eratosthenes used man power to measure the distance between Alexandria and Syene, which was found to be ~800km. He also found out the angle to be 7.2° (that is, if you imagine two long rods, one from each city, connecting at the center of the Earth, the angle difference between them would be 7.2°). He then used basic math to find the circumference of the Earth along the equator: If a circle = 360°, the distance and angular difference between Syene and Alexandria = 800km and 7.2° respectively, then the circumference = `(360/7)*800', which is approximately 41000, which is impressively close considering the tools he used. But the question is, how did he measure the angular difference between the two cities to be 7.2°?
|
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|
126n0f
|
What happens when I make a decision?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6sp82g"
],
"text": [
"We don't know. If we knew exactly what happens when a human thinks, neuroscience would have a lot less to do."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What happens when I make a decision?
|
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y63kq
|
What would you get if you made static some material that was at the exact point of freezing, melting, or catching fire?
|
For example, I'm trying to understand the transitional stages of matter. If you extended the time it took for ice to melt to 1000 years (Ala 1000 years is akin to 1 second or something.), what would the observable intermediary process look like? Can we observe things within this minute time span? Could there be hidden properties of these transitional stages?
Thanks
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5so996"
],
"text": [
"A substance that ignites is simply the reaction the material has with oxygen (oxydation) - slowing down the process to such a level would simply mean that you'd be observing (theoretically when zoomed in) the reaction of individual molecules of substance with oxygen. At the other end, freezing is the structuring of water molecules because they 'slow down' to a certain point, you'd simply be watching water molecules and seeing (as temperature is not evenly distributed) how one molecule will start to 'stick' to another as their vibrations decrease.. in laymans terms. \n\nI don't see how this would show any 'hidden properties'; it's simply the slowing down (and zooming in for clarity) processes on a molecular level."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What would you get if you made static some material that was at the exact point of freezing, melting, or catching fire?
For example, I'm trying to understand the transitional stages of matter. If you extended the time it took for ice to melt to 1000 years (Ala 1000 years is akin to 1 second or something.), what would the observable intermediary process look like? Can we observe things within this minute time span? Could there be hidden properties of these transitional stages? Thanks
|
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|
1lempl
|
What will happen as the Ogallala Aquifer dries up?
|
The aquifer is supposed to dry up in the next few decades. Obviously this means that farmers will have to use far less water. How will this affect US food production? Are we going to see a decrease in output? A change in crop types?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbyklv0",
"cbyn1xa",
"cbykcwr"
],
"text": [
"This will really deteriorate crop production The area which uses the aquifer the most, areas just East of the Rockies like Texas, Oaklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska, will seriously have to cut back irrigation. Those areas receive such little rainfall that corn will most likely not be able to grow there, even with GMO technology. The result will probably be a shift to old crops such as wheat which needs less water and are currently grown more in the Northern places like Montana and the Dakotas. These places were once areas of short grass prairie and Bison, hopefully someone will be smart enough to reestablish native prairie grasses and graze Bison, which live there naturally without any real help, rather than grow corn to be fed to cattle in a feedlot. (I'm biased toward this fyi). This change in production of major crops like corn won't effect our food availability much because we have so much surplus to export, but it will increase prices. The aquifer really will effect local small produce growers in the region that need irrigation for fruit and veggies. I hope this answers your question. I can expand on it more if you want.",
"Geologist here. This isn't exactly what you're asking, as the Ogallala aquifer is depleted, we can expect a great deal of subsidence in the high plains. The Ogallala is composed (to the best of my memory) of loosely consolidated gravel, which means that as water is pumped out and the pore pressure of the aquifer decreases, the gravel will settle and the ground's surface will subside. This might not be a problem, but we've seen in areas like Florida that subsidence can lead to a devastating sinkhole problem.\n\nMore reading:\n_URL_1_\n_URL_0_",
"Either the land will have to go fallow, the types of crops grown will have to those which require less water, or possibly crops that are GM modified to be more drought tolerant. There are some areas of the aquifer that will be dry in a few decades, and some that will have access to water for a longtime though, it all depends upon the local depth and use intensity of the aquifer."
],
"score": [
26,
9,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://news.discovery.com/earth/weather-extreme-events/sinkholes-florida-groundwater.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater-related_subsidence"
]
}
|
What will happen as the Ogallala Aquifer dries up?
The aquifer is supposed to dry up in the next few decades. Obviously this means that farmers will have to use far less water. How will this affect US food production? Are we going to see a decrease in output? A change in crop types?
|
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] |
|
bxj262
|
Why is the symbol for internal energy ΔU and not something like ΔI? What does the "U" stand for?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"eq7zflc"
],
"text": [
"I mean, the symbol for the Helmholtz Free Energy is \"F\" while Enthalpy is \"H\" and Entropy is \"S\". You may be asking questions here whose answers were not meant for mortal man."
],
"score": [
25
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why is the symbol for internal energy ΔU and not something like ΔI? What does the "U" stand for?
|
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||
5fvf5z
|
When answering a yes or no question, are there distinct parts of the brain that light up?
|
Just to further clarify, I'm not talking about the nature of the question. It doesn't matter. In the end, some part of the brain has to decide yes or no. Has it been documented where specifically this yes/no signal is given?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"darl5bd"
],
"text": [
"No, I wouldn't go as far as to say that there is differing signals or parts of the brain work to produce a \"yes\" versus a \"no\". Logic and critical thinking skills are usually correlated and seen in primarily the frontal lobe of the brain, and many \"choices\" go through the frontal lobe. Your question is very basic however, and discussions could be brought up on how your brain may react differently if you are lying or under physical or mental stress. Also, the brain is extremely interconnected and while there are parts that have specific roles (e.g. amygdala with emotion, hippocampus with memory), a simple \"yes\" versus \"no\" would not see differing patterns if/when measured via brain imaging."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
When answering a yes or no question, are there distinct parts of the brain that light up?
Just to further clarify, I'm not talking about the nature of the question. It doesn't matter. In the end, some part of the brain has to decide yes or no. Has it been documented where specifically this yes/no signal is given?
|
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|
5gg2b8
|
How come we can draw a right angle with sides 1 and hypotenuse root 2?
|
So I can easily use a ruler and a compass to draw a right angle triangle with sides 1 and then join the ends to draw the hypotenuse. But the value (using pythagoras) comes to around root 2. Root 2 is an irrational number and its decimal numbers go on forever. So how is it possible to accurately represent an irrational number? Are there any theories or solutions?
|
askscience
|
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"The decimal expansion of a number in no way limits what can happen in the real world. Decimals are just the way that we have chosen to represent numbers, because it is convenient to add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers written in this way. The fact that the decimal expansion goes on forever without repetition is just an artifact of the choices *we* made and hold no sway over the real world. In fact, if we choose to represent numbers using continued fraction expansions, then our expression for sqrt(2) is [1:2,2,2,2,...], which does repeat. \n\nAlso, the important thing about irrational numbers is that they are not a ratio of two integers, which is much more important than what happens to a decimal expansion since this is not dependent on how we choose to write things. The fact that the hypotenuse on a 1-1 right triangle just means that there is no triangle with identical integer length legs whose hypotenuse is also an integer. There's no reason to expect the real world to care about integers when it comes to length (since the universe didn't create integers, we invented them to count discrete things and invented real numbers to measure length). There's no issue that we have irrational lengths.",
"A ruler isn't a magic \"know everything about the universe to infinity precision\" machine. Let's say you have a ruler whose smallest tick marks are 1 mm (millimeter). Then the first line is 1 cm +/- 1 mm and the other line is 1 cm +/- 1 mm and, if we assume that you have a magical perfect protractor that is 100% accurate, for simplicity, then Pythagorus says you should measure between 1.2727... and 1.555... which is to say the value you measure with your ruler will be 1.4 cm +/- 2mm.\n\nPi is also an irrational number. It's the ratio of a circle's diameter to its circumference. If you magically had the ability to draw a perfect circle of diameter 1.000000000000000000000000 m than the circumference would be 3.14159..... on paper and in measurement, depending on your rule you'd get 3.1 +/- 0.1 or 3.14 +/- 0.01 or 3.141 +/- 0.001 and so on.",
"The numbers that you can construct with a set of tools are determine by those tools.\n\nThe tools typically used by mathematicians in ancient Greece are a compass and a straightedge. These tools aren't magically special, but they hold historical value. Much has been done to figure out what numbers can be constructed with those tools on a flat piece of paper. The short answer is: anything of the form of (x + √y)/z for any integers x, y, and z. Obviously, this includes √2, and many other irrational numbers.\n\nBut there are many useful things that can't be constructed using those tools — for example, pi. Or any (non-integer) cube roots. Greeks even figured that out, as \"squaring the circle\" and \"doubling the cube\" were well-know unsolved problems going back to ancient Greece — though the proof that they were impossible to solve didn't come together until hundreds of years later."
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How come we can draw a right angle with sides 1 and hypotenuse root 2?
So I can easily use a ruler and a compass to draw a right angle triangle with sides 1 and then join the ends to draw the hypotenuse. But the value (using pythagoras) comes to around root 2. Root 2 is an irrational number and its decimal numbers go on forever. So how is it possible to accurately represent an irrational number? Are there any theories or solutions?
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|
1fc2mh
|
Is a superfluid fountain really a perpetual motion device?
|
Hey ask science. If a superfluid has zero viscocity and can form a frictionless or endless fountain, why can't we put a turbine of some sorts on a fountain of superfluids? Would the introduction of friction to the system cause the flow of the fountain to slow to an eventual stop or is it just not feasible at a useful scale?
_URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ca8s9s0",
"ca8tun3"
],
"text": [
"As soon as the fluid came in contact with the turbine it would lose some energy, eventually slowing the fluid to a stop.\n\nedit: perpetual motion machines can't exist according to the laws of physics.",
"The reason the fluid flows in an endless fountain is because there is no internal friction the to slow it down. so think of it as a spinning wheel in a vacuum on a frictionless bearing. nothing will slow the wheel down untill an external force is applied to it. so as soon as you attach the wheel to a generator the wheel will slow down and eventually stop spinning because the kinetic energy that the wheel contained was transferred to the generator. This same principle applies to the super fluid"
],
"score": [
7,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluid"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is a superfluid fountain really a perpetual motion device?
Hey ask science. If a superfluid has zero viscocity and can form a frictionless or endless fountain, why can't we put a turbine of some sorts on a fountain of superfluids? Would the introduction of friction to the system cause the flow of the fountain to slow to an eventual stop or is it just not feasible at a useful scale? _URL_0_
|
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|
lvlq7
|
Evolution as a bodily response to environmental pressures?
|
Involuntarily of course.
Is it possible that another pathway for evolution is the response from the body to environmental pressures (aside from random mutation and gene exchange etc.)?
After learning about Hox genes, I began to wonder if the body somehow 'knew' that it was no longer competing as well for resources, or that it was no longer well adapted to its environment. Furthermore, I wondered if this could lead to the body triggering something which leads to a higher density of mutated gametes, which would spur evolution.
An analogy here would be giving an animal a very calorie restricted diet over its lifetime. The question would then arise: Is evolution more suited to those who are less adapted and therefore less fit?
I suspect that I had this thought after learning that it is pretty rare to find transitional forms in fossils, and after seeing that once a new species is created, in a very short amount of time, it has the ability to dominate the fossil records. Also, some species evolved very rapidly, while others have not changed for hundreds of millions of years (turtles, alligators).
This is all very confusing to me and i'm hoping someone can help. Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2vz1r2"
],
"text": [
"No, only populations evolve. Individuals adapt, and if they can't, they aren't selected for. There's no evidence for anything that \"increase\" mutation rate in individuals who aren't competing effectively for scarce resources.\n\nWhere did you get the idea that it's pretty rare to find transitional forms? Sure, finding fossils in general is rare, but we have plenty of fossils of transitional forms.\n\nAlso, \"created?\" & #3232;\\_ & #3232;\n\nWith some species evolving rapidly, this is the main point of the theory of punctuated equilibrium. Basically, it says that species will remain in stasis for a long time before a sudden selection pressure causes a rapid speciation event. \n\nThe reason why horseshoe crabs, alligators, and such haven't changed in hundreds of millions of years is because they are well suited to the niche they occupy and haven't really experienced any selection pressures for a long, long time."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Evolution as a bodily response to environmental pressures?
Involuntarily of course. Is it possible that another pathway for evolution is the response from the body to environmental pressures (aside from random mutation and gene exchange etc.)? After learning about Hox genes, I began to wonder if the body somehow 'knew' that it was no longer competing as well for resources, or that it was no longer well adapted to its environment. Furthermore, I wondered if this could lead to the body triggering something which leads to a higher density of mutated gametes, which would spur evolution. An analogy here would be giving an animal a very calorie restricted diet over its lifetime. The question would then arise: Is evolution more suited to those who are less adapted and therefore less fit? I suspect that I had this thought after learning that it is pretty rare to find transitional forms in fossils, and after seeing that once a new species is created, in a very short amount of time, it has the ability to dominate the fossil records. Also, some species evolved very rapidly, while others have not changed for hundreds of millions of years (turtles, alligators). This is all very confusing to me and i'm hoping someone can help. Thanks!
|
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] |
|
1ctrsc
|
What is the best scientific argument in favour of freewill?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9jw9ug",
"c9jvyr1"
],
"text": [
"The problem is that the question largely depends on how you define \"free will\" - some of those definitions will allow the scientific method to test certain aspects, while other definitions won't, and would fall under a more logic/philosophical umbrella.\n\nWhat we can do, is say that certain aspects of most definitions of \"free will\" do seem to violate certain scientific principles. For example, your brain is made up of particles, and those particles behave exactly the same as particles anywhere else in the universe - given their initial positions and velocities, they evolve in a distinct and testable way.\n\nIf by \"free will\" you mean there is some entity/essence inside your head that is \"causing\" you to think certain things/to do certain things by \"manipulating\" the way those particles interact, then this would violate several scientific principles that hold everywhere else in the universe. If you define \"free will\" a different way, then it might not be a question that science can directly address.",
"Wish I could ease your anxiety. I was pretty depressed in college when I finally admitted that I didn't believe in free will (I came from very Catholic family). Godspeed."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is the best scientific argument in favour of freewill?
|
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||
15r3n0
|
Why do we refer to things going on in places several lightyears away as happening in the present tense?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7p0xxy",
"c7p1lxr"
],
"text": [
"Because that's what we see happening in the sky.",
"Due to the issues of simultaneity with relativity the observer is a natural point of reference. There are any number of reference points which would change the time something occurred, but given our location in the universe the things we see happening now *are* happening now for us. The impression that we should be treating the information as being \"old news\" comes from the easy yet flawed view that the universe has one speed of time and just travel time for information to propagate. That isn't the case."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why do we refer to things going on in places several lightyears away as happening in the present tense?
|
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||
17fs4w
|
Since physical properties are the only thing that changes during a phase transition, could you send an electric current through a conductive liquid/gas.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c852pa4"
],
"text": [
"You can have conductive gases or liquids, but these are bigger than a solid with the same number of atoms, not smaller."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Since physical properties are the only thing that changes during a phase transition, could you send an electric current through a conductive liquid/gas.
|
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||
4on5n6
|
What does weight and bias in an artificial neural network corresponds to in a brain, and how does it work?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d4erd0n",
"d4eoy7c"
],
"text": [
"Neurons in a brain interact through synapses. Almost every neuron has an \"Input\" which are dendrites and an \"Output\" which is the axon. Synapses are the connections of the axon of a neuron with the dendrites of another neuron. \n\nA signal that comes from the first neuron, is translated into an amount of chemicals (neurotransmitters) and released into the synapse, where it is absorbed into the dendrites of the other neuron. There an electrical response forms. The strength of the response depends on a number of factors, such as amount of neurotransmitter released, number of receptors in the synapse, type of neurotransmitter, are certain other chemicals blocking the receptors or binding the neurotransmitter and more complex stuff. \n\nThe weight in an artificial neural network is a simplification of all these factors. \n\nIn a biological neuron the neurotransmitters cause chain reaction in the dendrites, which produces electric signals to travel from the synapse to the cell body. Electric signals from all ingoing synapses of a neuron are \"summed up\" in the cell body and create a response of the neuron that travels though its axon to the next neurons. For this response to have significant impact on the next neurons, it has to be strong enough. \n\nIn an artificial neuron ingoing signals are simply numbers. They are multiplied by the corresponding weight of the synapse and then summed up. If the result is larger than the bias the artificial neuron will create a response (typically 1) if it is smaller than the neuron will return 0 (sometimes -1). \n\nThis is a rough sketch of the most important stuff (I believe) so if something is not clear or if you have more questions feel free to ask.",
"Technically, the weights are supposed to represent synaptic strength / strength of connections between neurons. However, ANNs don't really resemble the brain in any meaningful way..."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What does weight and bias in an artificial neural network corresponds to in a brain, and how does it work?
|
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||
6emgd2
|
How does lower glomerular filtration rate activate macula densa?
|
So I've read that the macula densa is activated through stretch-sensitive receptors when the filtrate is hypotonic (causing water to enter the cells through osmosis and make them swell). However, I can't seem to grasp nor find how a lower GFR (e.g. in hypotension) would cause the filtrate to be have low [Na] (because the filtrated fluid should still be isotonic no matter the perfusion pressure).
Is more Na reabsorbed when GFR is low? Is less Na filtrated compared to the amount of water when GFR is low? How come?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dic44gd"
],
"text": [
"The macula densa does not sense the filtrate immediately after it crosses the glomerular membrane and enters the glomerular capsule. It senses the filtrate in the distal convoluted tubule.\n\nAt this point, the filtrate is no longer isotonic; it's been processed several times over — by the proximal tubule, the descending limb, and the ascending limb — and is at its lowest concentration; it's hypotonic at that point.\n\nSo that's part 1. Part 2 is to connect this to GFR.\n\nOnce the filtrate starts making its way through the tubules, the rate at which various things are (or aren't) reabsorbed is a function of two things: how fast the filtrate is moving (which is determined by the GFR), and various regulatory mechanisms for filtration and reabsorption. \n\nThe main reason why a low GFR leads to a reduced tonicity of DCT filtrate is that low GFR means lower rate of transit of filtrate through the tubules, which means longer time of transit of filtrate, which means that there is simply more time for the Na to be reclaimed.\n\nAll the active transporters in the ascending limb are working hard to bring Na back, and if you slow down the passage of filtrate, they will reclaim more and more of it. The ascending limb is impermeable to water, so Na leaves, water stays, and filtrate concentration drops. The longer the filtrate spends in the ascending limb, the more its concentration goes down.\n\n(The rate of Na return is also affected by aldosterone, which is a completely separate topic, but no amount of variation in aldosterone is going to make up for extreme fluctuations of flow rate due to extreme GFR changes.)"
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How does lower glomerular filtration rate activate macula densa?
So I've read that the macula densa is activated through stretch-sensitive receptors when the filtrate is hypotonic (causing water to enter the cells through osmosis and make them swell). However, I can't seem to grasp nor find how a lower GFR (e.g. in hypotension) would cause the filtrate to be have low [Na] (because the filtrated fluid should still be isotonic no matter the perfusion pressure). Is more Na reabsorbed when GFR is low? Is less Na filtrated compared to the amount of water when GFR is low? How come?
|
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] |
|
18x9se
|
Question about formula 1 air intake (fluid dynamics)
|
Can someone please explain why the pressure would increase as it spreads out before it reaches the manifold? I feel like the increase in volume would cancel out the decrease in velocity.
"Inside the air intake is an expansion chamber (diffuser) that slows the air down and thus increases its pressure ready for its passage into the engine inlet manifold."
_URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
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],
"text": [
"You may want to read [this entry on Bernoulli's principle](_URL_0_) if you truly want to get to the bottom of this.\n\nThe result follows from simultaneously applying conservation of mass and conservation of energy principles to a system at equilibrium (yes, clear as mud, I know).\n\nYou could think of it this way: As the cross-sectional area (what you mean by volume) increases, the average velocity of the fluid decreases. You'll recall that for a mass its kinetic energy is given by 1/2 * mv^2 . A detailed analysis gets a fair bit more involved, but let's avoid that and keep things simple at the expense of not being as precise as we could be. Since the average velocity has decreased that energy has to go somewhere. In this case it acts to compress the fluid through an increase in pressure."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.formula1-dictionary.net/engine_air_intake.html"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_principle"
]
}
|
Question about formula 1 air intake (fluid dynamics)
Can someone please explain why the pressure would increase as it spreads out before it reaches the manifold? I feel like the increase in volume would cancel out the decrease in velocity. "Inside the air intake is an expansion chamber (diffuser) that slows the air down and thus increases its pressure ready for its passage into the engine inlet manifold." _URL_0_
|
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|
1894bd
|
If all the mass on/in Earth was converted into a thread, how long would this thread be?
|
I'm talking about all living things, man made things, water, rocks, magma, etc being converted into thread. I had a string about [this thick](_URL_0_) in mind.
Would the thread stretch from the center of the sun to the center of Pluto? Would it even get close to that possibly existing 13 light years away planet from where the center of Earth is *now?*
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8cpoa3",
"c8cpowh"
],
"text": [
"The lightest thread has a thickness of around 60 wt, or 60 kilometers would weigh one kilogram.\n\n\nThe mass of the earth is 5.972E24 kg\n\n\nTherefore, the string would be 3.583314 × 10^26 kilometers long, which converts to a whopping 3.8 x 10^13 light years, or in standard notation,\n\n38000000000000 light years away, which is slightly longer than the estimated length of the universe. Whoah.",
"I'm having trouble finding good figures for thread diameters, so let's say 1/100 inch. [I get 2.3 trillion light-years](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
9,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Spool_of_white_thread.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=volume+of+the+earth+%2F+%28pi+*+%28%281%2F200%29+inch%29^2+in+light+years"
]
}
|
If all the mass on/in Earth was converted into a thread, how long would this thread be?
I'm talking about all living things, man made things, water, rocks, magma, etc being converted into thread. I had a string about [this thick](_URL_0_) in mind. Would the thread stretch from the center of the sun to the center of Pluto? Would it even get close to that possibly existing 13 light years away planet from where the center of Earth is *now?*
|
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] |
|
11z86l
|
Where can I get some Renografin 60? Help me, Reddit Ask Science, you're my only hope.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6qtno2",
"c6qtt0f"
],
"text": [
"I'm not sure about asking for prescription medications, even one that is just a radiopaque substance with no clinical effect, on reddit.\n\nDoesn't Bracco make it any more? If not, then I would suggest contacting distributors like Cardinal, McKesson, or Owens & Minor. If you're not using this for human use, but just for experimental purposes, they may have expired supply they may be able to contribute for your use. If you're using it for human use, I know it has 2 year shelf life, and you're probably out of luck.",
"Also, what about Isopaque from Mallinckrodt? It's essentially similar, but I'm not sure what you're doing for your work."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Where can I get some Renografin 60? Help me, Reddit Ask Science, you're my only hope.
|
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||
3frcum
|
I am a blood cell. How far, in time or feet/miles, do I travel, on average, during my trip through the body until I get back to the heart?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ctrdojs"
],
"text": [
"Well, I guess the furthest distance would be to a capillary bed in your toe, which would be maybe 3-4 meters round trip, allowing for some slightly wandering arteries or veins along the way. The shortest distance would be to heart muscle itself, just a few cm. The majority of blood flows to organs in your abdomen, so that might also be a convenient average distance. One meter round trip?\n\nYou may have heard that there are 50,000 or more miles of blood vessels in the human body, but most of that is alternate capillary routes. A given red blood cell only takes one of those routes when it travels through the body (and then a second single route through the pulmonary capillary beds before returning to the heart) so the answer is not very dramatic."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
I am a blood cell. How far, in time or feet/miles, do I travel, on average, during my trip through the body until I get back to the heart?
|
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||
1t8bfs
|
Induced Fit Hypothesis: why is it still a hypothesis? Is it not observable?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ce5hv1x",
"ce5n2aw"
],
"text": [
"The \"hypothesis\" part is not obligatory. In many textbooks it's referred as an induced fit model or induced fit theory. So the name isn't a comment on how supported by evidence the idea is.",
"It's not a hypothesis. It happens and is easily observable with structural and biochemical studies. A well-understood example is the HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme. A certain class of HIV drugs called NNRTIs, bind to a pocket on the enzyme that doesn't exist in the absence of the drug. It literally carves its own binding site out of the enzyme."
],
"score": [
8,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Induced Fit Hypothesis: why is it still a hypothesis? Is it not observable?
|
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||
1ebjn7
|
All your breast/ovarian cancer questions here!
|
Big news today is that [Angelina Jolie has had a double mastectomy (surgical removal of both breasts) to reduce her hereditary risk of breast cancer, based on family history and a genetic test showing a risk mutation in her BRCA1 gene.](_URL_4_)
This special thread is for all your questions about breast/ovarian cancer, BRCA1/BRCA2, gene patenting, and other related issues!
---
Before we begin, let me clear up a few things:
**Gene, allele, mutation**
Everyone has two copies of [the BRCA1 gene](_URL_6_), which is often pronounced as "bracka 1". This gene encodes a protein that repairs damaged DNA, which is extremely important for preventing cancer. [Many alleles (versions) of](_URL_8_) in BRCA1, as well as the functionally related [BRCA2 gene](_URL_1_), have harmful mutations that reduce the proteins' effectiveness and greatly increase the risk of cancer, especially in breasts and ovaries, but also in other specific body parts. That's why Ms. Jolie, 37, had her breasts removed even though it was ovarian cancer that killed her mother at 56.
So it's not accurate to say Ms. Jolie's concern was that she "had the BRCA1 gene". Everyone does. What she has is *an allele of the BRCA1 gene that is associated with high risk of breast and ovarian cancer*. Likewise, you wouldn't diagnose someone as having a liver; you'd diagnose them as having *cirrhosis* of the liver. A gene is a perfectly normal part of the genome just like a liver is a normal part of the body, but the gene may be damaged, and that damage may be inherited. Except in this case, a mutant BRCA1 allele is not itself a disease; it is simply a *risk factor* for the possible onset of cancer. Ms. Jolie's mastectomy was preventive, and only reduced her risk of developing breast cancer from 87% to less than 5% (usually these are reported as the probability over one's entire lifetime), while she hasn't said what she'll do about the ovarian cancer risk.
**The genetic test**
Because of her family history, it appears that Ms. Jolie's physician ordered a genetic test. Specifically, from a blood sample, doctors tested her DNA for the presence of a large number of BRCA1 (and probably also BRCA2) variants that are known to be associated with cancer risk, and found one. If there is a family history of breast/ovarian cancer, it is also possible to give the full test to the affected family member, and if a risk allele is detected, test her offspring only for that specific allele to save money. I don't have any information on whether Ms. Jolie's children have been tested but it is quite likely they will be at some point in their lives.
This test is ordered by a physician and the results are given to that physician. Typically a [genetic counselor](_URL_5_) will present the results to the patient, in the context of what it means to have a probabilistically increased risk, not 100% certainty of developing a disease.
There are also direct-to-consumer genetic testing services that test a huge number of genetic markers that may be associated with a huge variety of traits and disease risks. Some of them even test BRCA1 or BRCA2, *but only for a few common alleles*, not the full test. This is partly because...
**The BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are patented**
[Myriad Genetics, Inc.](_URL_0_), a company based in Utah, USA, holds US patents on the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. Where this patent is honored, Myriad holds the exclusive rights to carry out the diagnostic test for BRCA risk alleles, for which it charges about $3000 (so this is probably what Ms. Jolie's doctor used). Gene patenting is very controversial in the arenas of both research and clinical diagnosis, and has been legally challenged in several jurisdictions; most notably, the U.S. Supreme Court [recently heard oral arguments](_URL_2_) on [a case challenging the patents](_URL_7_).
**See also:** [BRCA1 & BRCA2 factsheet from the National Cancer Institute of the US National Institutes of Health](_URL_3_)
---
Anyway, feel free to add any other useful information (subject to the usual source requirements) or ask any related questions. Please remember, **political commentary and requests for medical advice are not allowed**. See your doctor if you are concerned about your risk for cancer!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9yobpk",
"c9yub6r",
"c9yofut",
"c9ypfh2",
"c9yr6w2",
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"text": [
"What *can* she do about the ovarian cancer risk?",
"How (any by how much) does taking birth control change a woman's risk of breast and/or ovarian cancer? Does taking it continuously (skipping periods) have a different effect, or is it the same?\n\nAre breast and ovarian cancers connected (besides the obvious gender link) in any way, and if so, how?",
"Are cancer rates higher today than they used to be in decades past?\n\nAre cancer rates higher in the USA than in other parts of the world?\n\nIt seems like suddenly everyone is getting cancer, was it always this way? Are there environmental factors that are contributing to all this cancer?\n\nIf it does turn out that America has more cancer, and that our time has more cancer than the past, then why?",
"What is your opinion on Angelina Jolie's elective double mastectomy?",
"How common is it for a doctor to recommend a preemptive mastectomy?\n\nDoes the procedure completely eliminate the risk of breast cancer in the future?\n\nHow at risk does a patient have to be before a mastectomy is put on the table by a doctor?\n\nEDIT: Are the patents on the BRCA genes specific to the genes or to the method of screening the genes for cancer causing alleles?",
"What is you take on BPA and other environmental chemicals and their cancer risk factors?",
"Most cancers are not caused by inherited genetic alterations. However an estimated 5-10% of cancers are caused by inherited alteration in a cancer gene.\n\nFeatures of hereditary cancer include 1) young age at diagnosis (compared to what age that cancer typically presents in most people), 2) having multiple individuals on the same side of the family with the same or related cancer (related being breast/ovary, or colon/uterine) 3) individuals in the family with more than one primary cancer diagnosis (bilateral breast cancer, or both colon and uterine cancer in the same person), and 4) some rare cancers - male breast cancer, medullary thyroid cancer, to name a few.\n\nFor hereditary breast/ovary cancer, anyone with the following should consider or be offered the option for testing BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes: \n\n- Any woman diagnosed with breast cancer at or before age 45 (some insurance companies will cover testing if a woman was premenopausal at diagnosis, regardless of age). \n\n- Any woman with (epithelial) ovarian, fallopian tube, or primary peritoneal cancer. \n\n- Any woman with triple negative breast cancer diagnosed before age 60. \n\n- Any male diagnosed with breast cancer. \n\n- Any woman with breast cancer and 2 relatives on the same side of the family with breast/ovary/pancreas cancer diagnosed at any age(s). \n\n- Any person with 3 relatives with breast/ovary/pancreas/aggressive prostate cancer on the same side of the family.\n\n- Any person with a blood relative with a BRCA mutation \n\n- Any person of Jewish ancestry and a personal history of breast or ovarian cancer \n\n\nFor hereditary colon cancer, similar criteria apply. Lynch syndrome is associated with an increased risk for a number of cancers, most notably colon, uterine, stomach, and ovary, but also includes pancreas, renal pelvis (kidney) or ureter, and primary brain cancer.\n\n- Colon or endometrial cancer diagnosed before age 50. \n\n- Colon polyp (adenoma) before age 40 +/- family history of Lynch-associated cancers. \n\n- 3 relatives with a Lynch-associated cancer on the same side of the family, especially if a relative was diagnosed before age 50. \n\n- any person with 20 or more colon adenomatous polyps; consider FAP (familial adenomatous polyposis)\n\nNote: This is not a complete list, but is a generalization based from guidelines in the United States.\n\nIf you or your family meets any of the criteria above, ask your healthcare provider for a hereditary cancer risk assessment.\n\nEdit: format",
"I'm a little late to this party, but I have a BRCA 1 mutation and I am quite young. I am likely going to get an oopherectomy and double mastectomy (with implants) in my mid-twenties. It feels like I can't get a straight answer regarding HRT. My gynecologist seems to think that it would be fine and that I would not have to go through surgical menopause, but I keep hearing from other people that they do not do HRT on BRCA mutation patients. What do you all know about this? (I am not asking for medical advice, as I am not about to go out and start doing stuff with my hormones because Reddit told me to. I more just want to know what sort of things I should be wary of and what sort of questions I should be asking.)",
"Why is nobody talking about the rather high chance for false positives in Brca testing? Since a company patented BRCA 1 testing, they made a point to reduce false negatives to as low as possible in order to not get sued. However, what is a companies incentive to reduce false positives? How neglected is research into BRCA1 false positives? Since the gene is owned, has myriad eliminated any chance of a combined genetic screen with other markers which could reduce the number of false positives?",
"Additional information on BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes:\n\n[FORCE: Facing our risk of cancer, empowered](_URL_0_)\n\n[Bright Pink](_URL_2_)\n\n[Find a Genetic Counselor](_URL_1_) in the US\n\n\n*Sorry I was at work when this was posted - I'm the cancer genetic counselor on the AskScience panel*",
"If you are wondering whether you are a candidate for BRCA1 and 2 testing, or for other potentially hereditary cancers like colon or pancreatic, you can take this online quiz to see if testing would be appropriate. _URL_3_",
"How does the BRCA1 (or in general) genetic testing work? Do they only sequence certain SNP sites known for increased cancer risks? Do they test for other factors such as copy number variations or chromosomal translocations, etc?"
],
"score": [
23,
15,
8,
8,
7,
5,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myriad_Genetics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRCA2",
"http://www.scotusblog.com/?p=162400",
"http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/BRCA",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/14/opinion/my-medical-choice.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_counselor",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRCA1",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Molecular_Pathology_v._Myriad_Genetics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRCA_mutation"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.facingourrisk.org",
"http://www.nsgc.org",
"http://www.brightpink.org",
"https://www.hereditarycancerquiz.com/"
]
}
|
All your breast/ovarian cancer questions here!
Big news today is that [Angelina Jolie has had a double mastectomy (surgical removal of both breasts) to reduce her hereditary risk of breast cancer, based on family history and a genetic test showing a risk mutation in her BRCA1 gene.](_URL_4_) This special thread is for all your questions about breast/ovarian cancer, BRCA1/BRCA2, gene patenting, and other related issues! --- Before we begin, let me clear up a few things: **Gene, allele, mutation** Everyone has two copies of [the BRCA1 gene](_URL_6_), which is often pronounced as "bracka 1". This gene encodes a protein that repairs damaged DNA, which is extremely important for preventing cancer. [Many alleles (versions) of](_URL_8_) in BRCA1, as well as the functionally related [BRCA2 gene](_URL_1_), have harmful mutations that reduce the proteins' effectiveness and greatly increase the risk of cancer, especially in breasts and ovaries, but also in other specific body parts. That's why Ms. Jolie, 37, had her breasts removed even though it was ovarian cancer that killed her mother at 56. So it's not accurate to say Ms. Jolie's concern was that she "had the BRCA1 gene". Everyone does. What she has is *an allele of the BRCA1 gene that is associated with high risk of breast and ovarian cancer*. Likewise, you wouldn't diagnose someone as having a liver; you'd diagnose them as having *cirrhosis* of the liver. A gene is a perfectly normal part of the genome just like a liver is a normal part of the body, but the gene may be damaged, and that damage may be inherited. Except in this case, a mutant BRCA1 allele is not itself a disease; it is simply a *risk factor* for the possible onset of cancer. Ms. Jolie's mastectomy was preventive, and only reduced her risk of developing breast cancer from 87% to less than 5% (usually these are reported as the probability over one's entire lifetime), while she hasn't said what she'll do about the ovarian cancer risk. **The genetic test** Because of her family history, it appears that Ms. Jolie's physician ordered a genetic test. Specifically, from a blood sample, doctors tested her DNA for the presence of a large number of BRCA1 (and probably also BRCA2) variants that are known to be associated with cancer risk, and found one. If there is a family history of breast/ovarian cancer, it is also possible to give the full test to the affected family member, and if a risk allele is detected, test her offspring only for that specific allele to save money. I don't have any information on whether Ms. Jolie's children have been tested but it is quite likely they will be at some point in their lives. This test is ordered by a physician and the results are given to that physician. Typically a [genetic counselor](_URL_5_) will present the results to the patient, in the context of what it means to have a probabilistically increased risk, not 100% certainty of developing a disease. There are also direct-to-consumer genetic testing services that test a huge number of genetic markers that may be associated with a huge variety of traits and disease risks. Some of them even test BRCA1 or BRCA2, *but only for a few common alleles*, not the full test. This is partly because... **The BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are patented** [Myriad Genetics, Inc.](_URL_0_), a company based in Utah, USA, holds US patents on the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. Where this patent is honored, Myriad holds the exclusive rights to carry out the diagnostic test for BRCA risk alleles, for which it charges about $3000 (so this is probably what Ms. Jolie's doctor used). Gene patenting is very controversial in the arenas of both research and clinical diagnosis, and has been legally challenged in several jurisdictions; most notably, the U.S. Supreme Court [recently heard oral arguments](_URL_2_) on [a case challenging the patents](_URL_7_). **See also:** [BRCA1 & BRCA2 factsheet from the National Cancer Institute of the US National Institutes of Health](_URL_3_) --- Anyway, feel free to add any other useful information (subject to the usual source requirements) or ask any related questions. Please remember, **political commentary and requests for medical advice are not allowed**. See your doctor if you are concerned about your risk for cancer!
|
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] |
|
2ioxd7
|
If you had a chain with each link having equal strength and durability, then proceeded to pull on each side with equal force, where would it break?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cl4jl6j"
],
"text": [
"It would break at the higher of the two exterior links. If the exterior links were at the same height, then they would break at the same time. The force carried by a hanging tension member is not uniform. Any tension member hanging from its ends hangs in a shape called a [catenary curve](_URL_0_), and the tension isn't uniform in this shape even if the force at the ends happens to be the same."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/math/catenary.htm"
]
}
|
If you had a chain with each link having equal strength and durability, then proceeded to pull on each side with equal force, where would it break?
|
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||
31tq6d
|
What was different about the Itanium architecture and what were the technical problems with it other than backward incompatibility?
|
It seemed like Intel wanted Itanium to be the way of the future as everything was moving to 64-bit, and Microsoft even ported Windows to it, but it never took off. What happened? I recall hearing some general complaints about it but don't remember what they were.
|
askscience
|
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],
"text": [
"First part - Itanium was different in that it attempted to enable some out-of-order behavior within an in-order framework. It also attempted to put dispatch logic into the instruction set (although this failed). It had more registers than was usual, and had an unusual scheme for register rotation. The variable sized register stack frame was arguable the best feature (although misused and poorly specified).\n\n\nThe second is a very complicated question :)\n\nThe short, short answer is that instruction set architecture doesn't matter.\n\nSome of the other contributing factors:\n\n * Management mistakes\n\n * Implementation team mistakes\n\n * Market behavior\n\n * False assumptions and promises made by microarchitecture researchers which could not be delivered on\n\n * Failure in compiler technology to deliver"
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
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What was different about the Itanium architecture and what were the technical problems with it other than backward incompatibility?
It seemed like Intel wanted Itanium to be the way of the future as everything was moving to 64-bit, and Microsoft even ported Windows to it, but it never took off. What happened? I recall hearing some general complaints about it but don't remember what they were.
|
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|
185jpe
|
What is the definition/a simplified example of puncta in the brain?
|
I am reading an article about visualizing puncta size and denisty in the brain using fluorescent markers and am unsure if I fully understand what puncta are. If I'm understanding correctly, I believe that puncta is a collection of dendritic spines?
Any clarification would be great. Thank you!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8bswyg"
],
"text": [
"Puncta in this context is a general term. While they could indeed represent dendritic spines, in the contest of IHC (immunoflourescent histochemistry), puncta simply means a discrete, clearly dilienated, area where antibody (or whatever the fluorescent tag is) has bound and is visible. \n\nSo, as an example, if the antibody is marking PSD95 in a dendritic spine, then each visualized spot would be a puncta. You can count the puncta, and get a quantification of whatever is being looked at."
],
"score": [
12
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is the definition/a simplified example of puncta in the brain?
I am reading an article about visualizing puncta size and denisty in the brain using fluorescent markers and am unsure if I fully understand what puncta are. If I'm understanding correctly, I believe that puncta is a collection of dendritic spines? Any clarification would be great. Thank you!
|
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|
8a22ez
|
Are ion channels adiabatic?
|
I'm learning about ion channels, and I think I understand the basics: a stimulus opens an ion channel. An influx of ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, etc) rush in/out of a cell due to a concentration gradient between the cytoplasm and media outside the cell. The movement of positive ions induce a current, and which causes subsequent ion channels to open.
I've been reading a series of papers that discuss the thermodynamics of ion channels, and all (so far) treat the system as adiabatic (closed system, no change in heat). Intuitively, I'd assume that the circuit induces some kind of heat production, especially with such a large flux.
Are ion channels truly adiabatic, or is this a reasonable assumption that keeps the problem manageable? Can anyone recommend any papers to read?
Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dwvo9ol"
],
"text": [
"I can't say this with 100% certainty, but I don't see why heat production must occur (having said that, I'm very much ignorant of physical chemistry). \n\nThere's no friction as such, as interactions between the molecule and its environment don't change much (ion channel pores interact with the ion in a way mimicking the interaction between the ion and its hydration shell). It's also not so much a classical \"current,\" as in electricity in electronics, resistance is what produces heat in electric circuits I believe, and since the flow of ions is spontaneous and just attempting to reach equilibrium across the membrane, there should be no resistance as far as I can see? Nothing is being converted due to the movement, interactions are maintained, no bonds are broken, I just can't see anything that would make me presume heat is produced. I can't recommend any papers just because I can't really find anything mentioning/studying it. \n\nSorry for the kind of baseless answer, but nobody has answered so far so I answered based on what I know. Hopefully someone has more specific knowledge."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Are ion channels adiabatic?
I'm learning about ion channels, and I think I understand the basics: a stimulus opens an ion channel. An influx of ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, etc) rush in/out of a cell due to a concentration gradient between the cytoplasm and media outside the cell. The movement of positive ions induce a current, and which causes subsequent ion channels to open. I've been reading a series of papers that discuss the thermodynamics of ion channels, and all (so far) treat the system as adiabatic (closed system, no change in heat). Intuitively, I'd assume that the circuit induces some kind of heat production, especially with such a large flux. Are ion channels truly adiabatic, or is this a reasonable assumption that keeps the problem manageable? Can anyone recommend any papers to read? Thanks!
|
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] |
|
5udho6
|
True versus false vacuums or ground states are often explained with a certain graph. What do the axes of this graph represent in terms of QFT, if anything?
|
The kind of graph in question looks like this:
[False Vacuum Graph](_URL_0_)
Often a metaphor of placing a ball somewhere on the graph and letting it roll is used to explain true and false vacuum, metastability, and other such things.
This is a great way to make things intuitive, but I'm having trouble understanding what it actually means for the ball to move on the graph. The y-axis seems to be some measure of energy, but what's the x-axis? (or what does it 'represent' if the value isn't necessarily a scalar)?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ddtecty"
],
"text": [
"The vertical axis (\"E\") usually represents the potential energy, and the horizontal axis (\"phi\") represents the expectation value of the field.\n\n > This is a great way to make things intuitive, but I'm having trouble understanding what it actually means for the ball to move on the graph. The y-axis seems to be some measure of energy, but what's the x-axis? (or what does it 'represent' if the value isn't necessarily a scalar)?\n\nDepending on the expectation value (average value) of the field, the potential energy is different. Just like if you have a ball on a hill, the potential energy depends on where the ball is located.\n\nOf course in both situations, the system wants to have the lowest possible potential energy.\n\nFields in QFT are not always scalars, and they're not always even real-valued. But this is a simplified diagram."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Falsevacuum.svg"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
True versus false vacuums or ground states are often explained with a certain graph. What do the axes of this graph represent in terms of QFT, if anything?
The kind of graph in question looks like this: [False Vacuum Graph](_URL_0_) Often a metaphor of placing a ball somewhere on the graph and letting it roll is used to explain true and false vacuum, metastability, and other such things. This is a great way to make things intuitive, but I'm having trouble understanding what it actually means for the ball to move on the graph. The y-axis seems to be some measure of energy, but what's the x-axis? (or what does it 'represent' if the value isn't necessarily a scalar)?
|
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] |
|
mk90p
|
Question about some lyrics in The Big Bang Theory Theme Song...
|
"It's expanding ever outward ***but one day
It will cause the stars to go the other way,
Collapsing ever inward,*** we won't be here, it wont be hurt
Our best and brightest figure that it'll make an even bigger bang!"
My friend interrupted the Barenaked Ladies song while i was chillin and checkin my fantasy football and said that he was under the impression that the universe will only expand and expand forever (which also sounds good to me). So my fellow redditors whats the deal? Is he right or is the song right or...?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c31lb1r",
"c31la8z"
],
"text": [
"No, the song is not scientifically accurate. As best as we know, the expansion of the Universe is accelerating and there's nothing which will make that turn around and collapse.",
"Yeah, it's expected to expand forever, based on observations of the speeds of distant supernovae as well as measurements of the cosmic microwave background."
],
"score": [
12,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Question about some lyrics in The Big Bang Theory Theme Song...
"It's expanding ever outward ***but one day It will cause the stars to go the other way, Collapsing ever inward,*** we won't be here, it wont be hurt Our best and brightest figure that it'll make an even bigger bang!" My friend interrupted the Barenaked Ladies song while i was chillin and checkin my fantasy football and said that he was under the impression that the universe will only expand and expand forever (which also sounds good to me). So my fellow redditors whats the deal? Is he right or is the song right or...?
|
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|
6312m3
|
What is the coldest recorded or known spot in the universe?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dfqpv0i",
"dfrj8dn",
"dfr8nwi"
],
"text": [
"The ambient temperature of space is about 2.7 degrees Kelvin. In the Reflection Nebula the average temperature is actually 1 degree Kelvin. The reason for this is that the nebula is expanding so fast that the gasses that comprise it cool faster than they can be reheated to 2.7. \n\nOf course on earth we have made artificial environments and cooled gasses to temperatures of a few fractions of a degree above absolute zero.",
"Temperature is not a concept that applies everywhere. You need a dense enough collection of matter for it to make much sense. It's like asking whether a molecule of water has more or less surface tension than a molecule of methane. Surface tension is just not well-defined for small collections of molecules, and neither is temperature.",
"Also, pedantically, experiments on earth have actually achieved temperatures BELOW 'absolute zero.' [Publication](_URL_0_) \n\nIn the above research, T < (-1.9) nK\n\nIt happens that these aren't lower energy than the BEC mentioned above. It's just a fluke of how we define temperature--it's not the simple 'how much energy is in the system' that we learn early on. Rather, temperature is defined by the change in entropy of a given system as a result of a change in that systems energy (dS/dU). Positive temperatures are by and large the lion's share of our physical universe--specifically, the derivative of entropy of these systems with respect to energy is positive, so adding energy increases the entropy. \n\nHowever, some systems decrease in entropy when you add energy. For example, a system with most particles in high energy states may decrease in entropy when adding enough energy to bump the remaining low-energy particles into the higher energy state, thus decreasing the overall possible states (read: entropy).\n\nNote, temperature is the inverse of that entropy response, which is only mathematically interesting and doesn't change the overall sign."
],
"score": [
13,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.68.365"
]
}
|
What is the coldest recorded or known spot in the universe?
|
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||
3uf087
|
Doesn't the no-communication theorem directly conflit this article from stanford?
|
_URL_1_
No communication theorem wikipedia article: _URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cxes836",
"cxi5g4l"
],
"text": [
"No. As far as I can tell from the article this is just an experiment in distributing entanglement. That is, entangling two particles and transferring this entanglement to other particles. Everything here moves at or slower than the speed of light, so no violation of the no-communication theorem.",
"Here is what they did: \nEntangled photon to an electron.\nSent photon through fiber optic cable.\nRead photon state at other end.\n\nAs you can see, nothing involving instantaneous communication involved, the photon still had to get from point A to point B the ol' fashioned way."
],
"score": [
6,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-communication_theorem",
"http://news.stanford.edu/news/2015/november/cryptography-quantum-tangle-112415.html"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Doesn't the no-communication theorem directly conflit this article from stanford?
_URL_1_ No communication theorem wikipedia article: _URL_0_
|
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|
1ayo1s
|
I want to create Captain America's shield. What is the overall toughest stuff we can make these days?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c91z2fv"
],
"text": [
"No material strength will prevent conservation of momentum for ruining your day when you get hit by a 75+ mm tank shell. Conservation of momentum guarantees that you'll be destroyed. \n\nAnyway, the best armor material varies greatly by projectile."
],
"score": [
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
I want to create Captain America's shield. What is the overall toughest stuff we can make these days?
|
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||
7ggx28
|
Can reptile and fish scales regrow? (if torn out, not just damaged)
|
I've read every wiki article on scales, fish scales, reptile scales, snake scales, etc. I know that they grow from different layers of the integumentary system (dermis vs epidermis) and are made of different materials, etc. I've even gone to the second page of google results, but they are all forum discussions and unreliable.
So, can a fish or reptile regrow their scales if they get ripped out? My intuition is yes, just like birds can regrow lost feathers, and humans can regrow a nail.
And, if so, and given a less than 100% scientifically accurate fantasy setting... Could scales be harvested for human use, or would that be like ripping toe nails and be super painful?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dqjgxok"
],
"text": [
"I think it is hard to answer your question because there are different types of scales. Some can even be formed from bone and then covered in another substance, like enamel. These would not grow back if removed. For other types of scales, I think the cells that grow out the scale (the equivalent for the follicle for a hair) are only present in embryos, so after growing up the scales won't regrow if they are removed. Here is a link to a science magazine article about a potential evolutionary link between hair, feathers, and scales: _URL_0_\n\nRegardless, I think even if they did regrow, it would be painful."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/06/human-hair-bird-feathers-came-reptile-scales"
]
}
|
Can reptile and fish scales regrow? (if torn out, not just damaged)
I've read every wiki article on scales, fish scales, reptile scales, snake scales, etc. I know that they grow from different layers of the integumentary system (dermis vs epidermis) and are made of different materials, etc. I've even gone to the second page of google results, but they are all forum discussions and unreliable. So, can a fish or reptile regrow their scales if they get ripped out? My intuition is yes, just like birds can regrow lost feathers, and humans can regrow a nail. And, if so, and given a less than 100% scientifically accurate fantasy setting... Could scales be harvested for human use, or would that be like ripping toe nails and be super painful?
|
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] |
|
1571nr
|
Say it rained for forty days and forty nights. What would realistically happen?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7o1632"
],
"text": [
"idk for sure but shit would probably get pretty wet"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Say it rained for forty days and forty nights. What would realistically happen?
|
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||
1xsebn
|
What is the science behind "self-control is a limited resource"?
|
Read this article somewhere
> People naturally vary in the amount of self-control they have, so some will find it more difficult than others to break a habit. But everyone’s self-control is a limited resource; it’s like muscle strength: the more we use it, the less remains in the tank, until we replenish it with rest.
> In one study of self-control, participants first had to resist the temptation to eat chocolate (they had a radish instead); then they were given a frustrating task to do. The test was to see how long they would persist. Radish-eaters only persisted on the task for about 8 minutes, while those who had gorged on chocolate kept going for 19 minutes. The mere act of exerting willpower saps the strength for future attempts. These sorts of findings have been repeated again and again using different circumstances.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cff1psq"
],
"text": [
"The effect you mentioned was discovered by Baumeister and is called [ego depletion](_URL_0_). Within the ego depletion literature there are robust and common findings that exposing a person to a \"demanding\" task will result in decreases in behavioral outcomes on a second task, like the task listed above. The chocolate task has, from what I know, been abandoned. It has been found that blood sugar level has an effect on ego depletion studied. There is a [meta-analysis](_URL_1_) documenting many of the effects of ego depletion, though it is behind a pay wall.\n\nMy own personal opinion is that there is something clearly going on in ego depletion, but we are not really sure what it is. Specifically there is no *real* way to measure ego depletion, we can only measure the behavior of the participants. Ego depletion has also not been clearly linked to other areas of research on self-control, such as delay discounting. My last reservation is that many of the domains where decreases in behavior are found, and the cause is supposed to be ego depletion, are not behaviors historically associated with self-control like cognitive performance. People will argue that ego depletion affects these things as well as self-control, but this is just post-hoc reasoning there is no clear way self-control should affect other cognitive processes."
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego_depletion",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20565167"
]
}
|
What is the science behind "self-control is a limited resource"?
Read this article somewhere > People naturally vary in the amount of self-control they have, so some will find it more difficult than others to break a habit. But everyone’s self-control is a limited resource; it’s like muscle strength: the more we use it, the less remains in the tank, until we replenish it with rest. > In one study of self-control, participants first had to resist the temptation to eat chocolate (they had a radish instead); then they were given a frustrating task to do. The test was to see how long they would persist. Radish-eaters only persisted on the task for about 8 minutes, while those who had gorged on chocolate kept going for 19 minutes. The mere act of exerting willpower saps the strength for future attempts. These sorts of findings have been repeated again and again using different circumstances.
|
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|
3rvun2
|
Is there a mental bias which is the opposite of the Bandwagon Effect ?
|
I'm asking this because I have this friend on facebook who seems to always think the opposite of popular belief, even if it makes no sense. I started to look into mental biases and I was wondering if it was one. Thanks
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cwrwvq6",
"cws6mtt"
],
"text": [
"Yes. It's called the Snob Effect, and it is essentially the exact opposite of the Bandwagon Effect. Your friend is choosing to be contrary to the popular opinion because they enjoy being on the outside looking in, or arguing with people.",
"Contrarianism. Where someone goes against what's popular just because they need to have a differing opinion. But it would seem that at some point if enough people are similarly contrarian, it becomes bandwagon again."
],
"score": [
63,
11
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is there a mental bias which is the opposite of the Bandwagon Effect ?
I'm asking this because I have this friend on facebook who seems to always think the opposite of popular belief, even if it makes no sense. I started to look into mental biases and I was wondering if it was one. Thanks
|
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|
1aafa9
|
Biomechanics of dumbbell press vs. barbell press - why can we lift more with a barbell?
|
It's pretty well known that the average lifter can lift more with a two-arm barbell press than with two dumbells (one arm each). The general response to the why is "stabilizing muscles" and some hand waving.
I think it's actually basic leverage principles (dynamics), but when I tried to bring this up in a fitness forum the response was not polite.
[Here is my simplistic diagram of the gross biomechanics involved](_URL_0_)
To my thinking, with a barbell press you're forming a diamond, and your chest muscles (very large) can do all the work - you've make a screw jack, which is incredibly mechanically efficient.
With a dumbbell press, you don't get the stabilizing diamond - now your tricep muscle has to act to actually lift the weight, and it becomes the limiting factor in the lift. Triceps muscles aren't nearly as strong as pectorals and the other chest muscles.
While it's arguable that you could say this is the concept the "stabilizing muscles' hand-waving is trying to get across, I think it's an incorrect statement, since the real issue is that a dumbbell lift is tricep-limited, while a barbell press isn't.
(I know there's more factors, but I think this is the major reason)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8vjji8"
],
"text": [
"I haven't looked at the exercises differences in detail in terms of muscle activation and activity, so I'll comment from a kinematics and a quasi-static analysis. Hopefully a physiologist or kinesiologist will comment and elaborate further.\n\nThe differences between the two exercises (unilateral and bilateral) relate to the type of kinematic chain involved, and maneuverability of the chain (final degrees of freedom). In the case of a barbell press, there is a constrained type of open kinematic chain (less maneuverability), with the trunk, both shoulders and arms comprising the chain. In contrast, the single armed press is a true open chain (trunk and arm) with the end effector free to move within its full maneuverability.\n\nThe bilateral lift, semi-constrained open chain engages both arms to lift and stabilize the load. Having two points of contact on the bar limits the degrees of freedom of the lift (certain rotations are limited). This, alongside the balanced and symmetrical nature of the lift leads to shared stabilization across the chain, resulting in a subject able to lift and stabilize a heavier load and maneuver it into it's final position. More muscle force can be exerted to lift a heavier load, since the load and configuration of the lift inherently increase stability.\n\nIn the unilateral lift, there are no constraints and it's a true open chain capable of full maneuverability. With this, the muscles in the chain will have to work harder in order to maneuver to the final position and keep it there. There is also no sharing as the chain only involves the torso and one arm rather than two, which means more muscles need to be engaged to stabilize the load. The muscle force is shared between lifting and stabilizing the heavy load, due to the aforementioned less stable nature, resulting in a lower weight capable of being lifted.\n\nThere is most likely more to it than that, and I hope more people will provide more detail to answer your question."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/Y8KU579.png"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Biomechanics of dumbbell press vs. barbell press - why can we lift more with a barbell?
It's pretty well known that the average lifter can lift more with a two-arm barbell press than with two dumbells (one arm each). The general response to the why is "stabilizing muscles" and some hand waving. I think it's actually basic leverage principles (dynamics), but when I tried to bring this up in a fitness forum the response was not polite. [Here is my simplistic diagram of the gross biomechanics involved](_URL_0_) To my thinking, with a barbell press you're forming a diamond, and your chest muscles (very large) can do all the work - you've make a screw jack, which is incredibly mechanically efficient. With a dumbbell press, you don't get the stabilizing diamond - now your tricep muscle has to act to actually lift the weight, and it becomes the limiting factor in the lift. Triceps muscles aren't nearly as strong as pectorals and the other chest muscles. While it's arguable that you could say this is the concept the "stabilizing muscles' hand-waving is trying to get across, I think it's an incorrect statement, since the real issue is that a dumbbell lift is tricep-limited, while a barbell press isn't. (I know there's more factors, but I think this is the major reason)
|
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|
3drtop
|
If I were to count the number of cells in a straight line through my hand (Back to Front) how many cells would I find?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ct8d8wt"
],
"text": [
"I'm measuring from the thickest part of my hand, since you didn't provide how thick your hand was. For my hand, which is 1 inch thick at its thickest point, there would be 5080 cells stretching between those two points. That is, of course, assuming each cell is the same size (5 µm)."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
If I were to count the number of cells in a straight line through my hand (Back to Front) how many cells would I find?
|
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||
2pcgm2
|
Can you prove that you cannot solve the three-body problem analytically? (or is it possible that we may solve it with future mathematics?)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cmvspnv"
],
"text": [
"Well, [Wikipedia](_URL_0_) says, \n\n > In 1912, the Finnish mathematician Karl Fritiof Sundman proved there existed a series solution in powers of t^1/3 for the 3-body problem\n\nThis means that we _can_ solve the 3 body problem analytically. However, \n\n > Unfortunately the corresponding convergent series converges very slowly. That is, getting the value to any useful precision requires so many terms, that his solution is of little practical use.\n\nThat is to say, we can create equations of arbitrary precision that solves the 3 body problem for any 3 bodies, but the equations are _so long_ that we might as well use other, approximate methods.\n\nIn other words, there exists a series of equations that may be infinite, but whose answer is finite. For example, the series (and forgive the formatting)\n\nsum[1- > infinity] : 1/2^i = 1\n\nthat is, the sum of 1/2^i for all i converges to 1.\n\nNow clearly, this series is infinite: it's for all integers ever, yet we know that this series will, if summed up to infinite numbers, yield 1.\n\nSimilarly the 3 body problem has such a series whose result is the _exact_ solution of the motion of the bodies. The problem is, they have so many terms - they have to be evaluated across so many i's - that a numerical approach is less computationally intensive for practical purposes.\n\nEDIT: math correction."
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-body_problem"
]
}
|
Can you prove that you cannot solve the three-body problem analytically? (or is it possible that we may solve it with future mathematics?)
|
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||
1sgmsq
|
Can someone please explain Kahneman's System One and System Two and how the availability bias affects 'both' these systems?
|
I just briefly read up on these and can really use some professional help understanding this.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cdxpvur"
],
"text": [
"This question is pretty broad. Ling/Psych BA here. Your choice to decided if that is enough or not.\n\nFirst let's define what the availability means. The availability \"heuristic\" (bias is another term) is a mental/cognitive model that describes a shortcut used by the brain to determine the value/importance of information based on the ease of retrieval. A \"heuristic\" is an experience based cognitive strategy used to speed up processing given the assumption that exhaustive searches are inefficient/impossible. The faster and more reliably your brain recalls information as based on how many examples you have encoded during your lifetime and the recency of these examples (we tend to bias first and last), the more representative that information is suggested to be.\n\nNow when you say both systems, it's important to note that prevailing research and models suggest that these systems don't function in vacuum but do have some degree of cross-communication. As you are likely aware, System 1 is fast processing/low-effort and System 2 is slow processing/high-effort. Both systems rely on the availability heuristic to function.\n\n**Given the following task/question (quoted from Kahneman 2011, Thinking, Fast and Slow) to describe the relationship between System 1 and System 2 + implications:**\n\n1. \"How many murders occur in the state of Michigan in one year?\"\n\n2. \"How many murders occur in Detroit in one year?\"\n\n**There are two possible comparative outcomes for both questions.**\n\nAnswer 1 to question 1 as compared to Answer 1 to question 2: Lower number of murders in Michigan, higher number of murders in Detroit. People who answer this do not successfully recall that Detroit is a city in Michigan and has, historically, a higher murder rate. In terms of the System 1 to System 2 interaction. System 1 generates an intuitive answer based on the availability of information regarding the state of Michigan. The answer is then checked by System 2, suffering the same lack of available information as System 1 (fails to recall Detroit is in Michigan), which then confirms the answer. As we can see, both systems are affected the same by the immediate/autonomic recall of information (low-effort). **The availability bias resulted in a failure to produce a \"correct\" answer in both System 1 and System 2.**\n\nAnswer 2 to Question 1 as compared to Answer 2 to Question 2: High numbers of murders in Michigan within close range to estimated high numbers of murders in Detroit. People who answer this correctly, successfully recall that Detroit is a city in Michigan and that the high numbers of murders in Detroit naturally drive up the total number of murders in Michigan. In terms of the System 1 to System 2 interaction. System 1 generates a low estimate and sends it to System 2 which identifies the intuitive answer as flawed. System 2 will then engage in effort to retrieve information regarding Michigan, which leads to correctly identifying Detroit as a city in Michigan, corrects the answer and outputs it. The other route is that System 2 will generate a high estimate (let's say the person asked lives in Detroit and has high-availability for information in Detroit and Michigan) and then System 2 monitors and confirms the high estimate.\n\n\nNaturally, the availability heuristic in this situation is incredibly simplified. There are a vast number of possibilities on how available information is to the individual being asked the question. They could be statisticians, they could be researches studying the how socio-economic status affects a populations crime rates, they individuals in law-enforcement. The availability of information to these three types of individuals makes them less prone to the bias and more prone towards investing mental effort to have System 2 check the intuitive answer of System 1. Conversely, the individual answer the question could be from abroad or could be ignorant to geography, or could be untraveled, or in a field having nothing to do with Michigan or Detroit. These individuals are more prone to availability heuristics (or the lack of information altogether) and not have System 2 check their System 1 intuitive answer based on that lack of information.\n\n\nKeep in mind that these are all cognitive models used to describe the economy of thinking and are currently the most prevalent models. These models also concern the amount of effort required and the amount of effort any given individual is willing to invest to correctly answer questions.\n\n[This article presents the above in a financial setting and considers the System 1/System 2 model in the financial sector.](_URL_0_) It's an interesting read.\n\nEdit: Grammar, formatting."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://bus.miami.edu/docs/UMBFC-2013/sba-ecommerce-5221c85365f07/bmw3b.pdf"
]
}
|
Can someone please explain Kahneman's System One and System Two and how the availability bias affects 'both' these systems?
I just briefly read up on these and can really use some professional help understanding this.
|
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|
rtasb
|
Hey r/AskScience, over the last 6 months I have taken a strong liking to many aspects of science, where should I start? What should I read?
|
Firstly, I apologize if this is in the wrong spot, even though it isn't a thought-provoking question, I think this is where it goes.
Background: I am a 21 year old male who has absolutely no science background. In fact, I found science difficult/boring in high school and therefore paid no attention to anything science-related. After redditing for about a year, taking a critical thinking course, and watching several interesting films/documentaries it has really opened my eyes to science.
My question is where do I start with educating myself if I have no background? I am particularly interested in the Origin of Species and, although my friends tell me it is hard to grasp, I cannot contain myself and will start reading it today; What should I know/research/understand in terms of definitions or principles before reading something like that? Similarly, what should I research/understand before I eventually start reading intricate theories like relativity?
I have found a particular interest in black holes; where do I start in terms of understanding the cosmos?
I find it very interesting to read stuff like Einstein's theory of relativity but find it difficult to find stuff like Newton's Laws of Motion & Gravitation, etc; could somebody please provide me with these links or any other laws/principles of physics?
Any suggestions and advice, interesting articles about black holes/the universe/evolution, documentaries are greatly appreciated. I know this sounds like I am trying to learn everything in a hurry/all at once, but that is not the case. I am 21 and plan on learning my whole life, so although my curiosity is all over the place in terms of areas of science I am in no hurry and in fact want to enjoy this late learning process.
**TL:DR - 21 year old newb at science wants to educate himself. Loves the cosmos and evolution and does not know where to start/find links. Help?**
**EDIT**: I cannot thank you enough for all the great suggestions and encouragement.
**Another Question**: If I was putting together a huge binder of laws/principles of physics such as law of motion, relativity, etc. What are the main laws I should include? And could you link a PDF if you happen to have it?
|
askscience
|
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"Bill Bryson's [A Short History of Nearly Everything](_URL_0_) is a very good read.",
"I'd recommend \"The Greatest Shown on Earth\" by Richard Dawkins for information about evolution, and once you've read that I'd suggest \"The Selfish Gene\".\n\nAnother good book is \"The Oxford Book of Modern Science Writing\". Filled with amazing essays on the cosmos, evolution, chemistry, mathematics... Essentially a brief overview of amazing stuff from all fields of science. \n\nEDIT: Just found my copy of \"The Oxford...\" ever time I found a particularly interesting essay I made my self a not. I have about 50 or so written down. And when I say \"essay\" I really mean a few pages of science written so that non-experts can read. But I recommend this book above all others.\n\nEDIT 2: If you think of any \"big name\" in Science of modern time, they are in this book.",
"If you are interested in some lighter reading as well, about the appreciation of science rather than about science itself, you should take a look at Richard Feynman's *Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman* and Oliver Sacks' *Uncle Tungsten*. Both are autobiographical novels that detail the lives and . \n\nThose two books were part of what fostered an appreciation and interest in science – specifically physics – in me when I was younger, and after reading *Surely You Must Be Joking, Mr. Feynman*, I fell in love with Feynman's charismatic nature, and so I read everything I could understand by him and watched every video and lecture I could find.\n\nThere's a series of two books, called *Six Easy Pieces* and *Six Not-So-Easy Pieces* which are excerpted from The Feynman Lectures on Physics (a series of textbooks written based on the lectures in a series of freshman courses taught by Feynman). They present some of the basic building blocks of modern physics, in a way that requires little to no advanced mathematics, with all of Feynman's usual charisma and wit translated well into writing.\n\nLastly, Feynman's video interview/mini-lectures/whatever series *Fun to Imagine* is a really fun series of explanations of various physical phenomena, presented in an engaging, insightful, and not overly rigorous way. [Here's a link to a youtube playlist](_URL_1_) although I don't know how long it will be up.",
"I see that everyone is suggesting a lot of qualitative books.\n\nHere's the truth: You can read all the Brian Greene and Richard Dawkins you want, but until you are prepared to sit down with a textbook and learn Newton's laws and the glycolysis cycle, you'll never really understand science. You'll just be another person with a popscience understanding of the world around them. \n\nA list of physics equations does not a physicist make.",
"I really enjoyed reading [The Age of Wonder](_URL_4_) by Richard Holmes.\n\nAlso [Thunderstruck](_URL_4_) by Erik Larson.\n\nBoth of these books are fantastic nonfiction accounts of the history of scientific discovery.\n\nOn the biology side, anything by Dawkins is a good choice. I recommend [The Greatest Show on Earth](_URL_5_)\n\nMy gateway drug was [The Panda's Thumb](_URL_5_) by Stephen Jay Gould",
"**The Demon Haunted World by Carl Sagan**\n\nIt's about scientific inquiry and practical applications in the real world. It gets your brain thinking they way it needs to for SCIENCE!",
"I would recommend Matt Ridley for books on genes, genomes and evolution. I liked GENOME the most, and THE RED QUEEN the second most.",
"Okay, I am a physics undergraduate so take what I am saying with a HUGE pinch of salt. Not only will it be heavily biased but I'll probably start blathering on about Feynman pretty quickly.\n\nFirst off, Neil deGrasse Tyson came up with a [book list that everyone should read](_URL_6_) with links. There are some free books on there (such as Origin of Species) that you might find interesting.\n\nIf you are interested in the cosmos (black holes etc.) then try to watch Sagan's tv mini series of the same name. Typing \"Carl Sagan Cosmos\" into Google came up with the complete first episode on Youtube, so it should be fine. A word of warning: things such as Black Holes can quickly go from being very hand wavy to involving some advanced mathematics and physics (it probably requires general relativity - I haven't touched this topic).\n\nAs a back up for special relativity (if it initially messes with your head too much), try \"The Time and Space of Uncle Albert\" by Russell Stannard. I read it as an (8 year old) kid and it proved to be a very useful introduction.\n\nOkay, Feynman was a very good teacher (alongside coming up with good physics as well). Unless you have a lot of money to spare, I would look past the Feynman lectures (very good read and filled with a lot of key ideas) and read through some of his other books such as \"character of physical law\".\n\nOther topics really depend on how deep you want to go. A lot of topics will eventually require quantum physics *shudders* and/or electromagnetism. With these, the ability to do some mathematics (matrices, vector calculus and multiple integration) is a massive benefit (maybe even essential).",
"Learn math!\n\nSeriously, math is the backbone of all areas of science. Even things like biology have plenty of math in them. \n\nOther people in this thread have given links to pop science, and that's great, but it will only get you so far. If you really want to *understand* things, you *have* to know math. There is simply no other way.\n\nUnfortunately, math is a subject that is hard to learn by independent reading. A class of some sort greatly helps.\n\nLook at the math courses on MIT open course ware, and try working through lecture notes and examples as if you were in an actual classroom. Also, there are plenty of internet forums where you can discuss math problems and find out if you got solutions to problems right.\n\nAs for the type of math, depends on the area you would like to study. Genetics deals a lot with statistics and probability (higher-level genetics gets more abstract and gets into linear algebra and such). Physics runs the whole math gamut from calculus and differential equations to group theory and topology. If you want to start learning it, calculus would be a good place to start (in fact most calculus books include sections on newtonian dynamics).\n\n > I found science difficult/boring in high school and therefore paid no attention to anything science-related.\n\nI know exactly what you mean. In high school I was terrible at everything and constantly dozing off. I too had a 'late spark' and suddenly became interested in science; now I'm 25 and doing a PhD in biophysics. High school teachers are terrible and most of mine sucked.",
"So I am a biologist. I found myself in your exact situation as well just a couple of years ago. I was an economics major in college, and on a whim, switched to biology. Now, I'm going to MIT to research inhibitory neurons. It's pretty exciting. I began with taking introductory level courses. But if you don't have access to courses I suggest these:\nGray's Anatomy\n\nBiology by Campbell (best biology textbook there is)\n\nThe Universe in a Nutshell\n\nA Brief History of Time\n\nOn the Origin of Species (like you mentioned)\n\nJust some things :) I also have a lot of interest in physics/astronomy, but have had little time to educate myself in those areas. I did, however, take an astrobiology course and it was awesome. But as for biology and some evolution, you might enjoy Biology by Campbell. I've included a link to the Amazon buying site, cheap as I could find. If you're just self-educating, then you shouldn't need like a brand new version or anything.\n[Campbell's Biology](_URL_7_)",
"Wikipedia entries on some very fundamental concepts in science:\n\n* [The scientific method and the burden of evidence.](_URL_9_) What is the burden of evidence? How are experiments done? What is the difference between a hypothesis and a scientific theory? Does new theories replace or complement old theories?\n* [Epistemology - the study of knowledge.](_URL_11_) What constitutes knowledge? How do we differ between psuedo-science, untestable theories and sound theories from each other? Are there strict conditions that must be met?\n* How we reason about things [1](_URL_14_) [2](_URL_8_) [3](_URL_10_)\n* [Cognitive bias.](_URL_13_) Can we trust our own assumptions and background? How prone are we to make mistakes based on our background and misplaced intuition?\n* [The philosophy of mathematics](_URL_12_) How come mathematical models manage to approximate and describe real phenomena so well? If there is a clear correlation, does the math 'exist' somewhere in nature?",
"I'm a science newb myself! I think the best way to get into this stuff is to find a hobby that nutures it. I'm getting into high power rocketry and it is heavy in the sciences. So just find something that forces you to learn new concepts. A lot of the time little things you learn from electronics, rockets, or even astronomy, will teach you a ton about the universe you live in.",
"For a great and entertaining read on Physics and Quantum Mechanics... I HIGHLY recommend [*How to teach physics to your dog*](_URL_15_).\n\nHe also has another one... *How to teach relativity to your dog* (but read the first one first).\n\nYou can get it in hardcopy as well as iPad / Kindle, etc...\n\nAlso... *A Universe from Nothing* is a very good book.",
"If you want a relatively intense read, but not that difficult altogether, Stephen Hawking's [A Brief History of Time](_URL_16_) is a great read for cosmological science and theoretical physics (general relativity, quantum mechanics, black holes, string theory, etc.)",
"Just have to say that reading [Chaos: Making a New Science](_URL_17_) by James Gleick a bit later on in your learning will change your perspective on *everything.* Such a good, fun read too.",
"[Khan Academy](_URL_18_) has a great collection of videos covering the basics of Bio, Chem and Physics as well as a ton of other subjects.",
"Seriously? No one has told him to watch The Cosmos?"
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"http://www.amazon.com/A-Short-History-Nearly-Everything/dp/0767908171",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v3pYRn5j7oI&feature=results_main&playnext=1&list=PLC168842952F39BD5",
"http://www.amazon.com/Thunderstruck-Erik-Larson/dp/1400080665",
"http://www.amazon.com/The-Pandas-Thumb-Reflections-Natural/dp/0393308197/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1333567494&sr=1-1",
"http://www.amazon.com/The-Age-Wonder-Generation-Discovered/dp/0375422226",
"http://www.amazon.com/The-Greatest-Show-Earth-Evolution/dp/B004AYCWY4/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1333567430&sr=1-1",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/ngd5e/i_am_neil_degrasse_tyson_ama/c38vowu?context=1",
"http://www.amazon.com/gp/offer-listing/0805368442/ref=sr_1_1_olp?ie=UTF8&qid=1333566341&sr=8-1&condition=used",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_induction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_bias",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning",
"http://dogphysics.com/",
"http://www.amazon.com/Illustrated-History-Updated-Expanded-Edition/dp/0553103741/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1333603617&sr=8-1",
"http://www.amazon.com/Chaos-Making-Science-James-Gleick/dp/0143113453/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1333575243&sr=8-1",
"http://www.khanacademy.org/"
]
}
|
Hey r/AskScience, over the last 6 months I have taken a strong liking to many aspects of science, where should I start? What should I read?
Firstly, I apologize if this is in the wrong spot, even though it isn't a thought-provoking question, I think this is where it goes. Background: I am a 21 year old male who has absolutely no science background. In fact, I found science difficult/boring in high school and therefore paid no attention to anything science-related. After redditing for about a year, taking a critical thinking course, and watching several interesting films/documentaries it has really opened my eyes to science. My question is where do I start with educating myself if I have no background? I am particularly interested in the Origin of Species and, although my friends tell me it is hard to grasp, I cannot contain myself and will start reading it today; What should I know/research/understand in terms of definitions or principles before reading something like that? Similarly, what should I research/understand before I eventually start reading intricate theories like relativity? I have found a particular interest in black holes; where do I start in terms of understanding the cosmos? I find it very interesting to read stuff like Einstein's theory of relativity but find it difficult to find stuff like Newton's Laws of Motion & Gravitation, etc; could somebody please provide me with these links or any other laws/principles of physics? Any suggestions and advice, interesting articles about black holes/the universe/evolution, documentaries are greatly appreciated. I know this sounds like I am trying to learn everything in a hurry/all at once, but that is not the case. I am 21 and plan on learning my whole life, so although my curiosity is all over the place in terms of areas of science I am in no hurry and in fact want to enjoy this late learning process. **TL:DR - 21 year old newb at science wants to educate himself. Loves the cosmos and evolution and does not know where to start/find links. Help?** **EDIT**: I cannot thank you enough for all the great suggestions and encouragement. **Another Question**: If I was putting together a huge binder of laws/principles of physics such as law of motion, relativity, etc. What are the main laws I should include? And could you link a PDF if you happen to have it?
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] |
|
119rk3
|
I was resistant to poison ivy as a kid. Could literally roll in the stuff and be fine. I haven't tested in a while because a friend said the same but also said they lost resistance around 35. What is the science behind this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6km3fa"
],
"text": [
"Reaction to poison ivy is the result of the oil [urushiol](_URL_0_) inducing a [type IV hypersensitivity reaction (delayed type hypersensitivity)](_URL_1_). \n\nSome people are immune for the same reason some people have seasonal allergies and others don't, or why some people have sensitivity to nickel and others don't - variations in their immune systems create varying responses to stimuli. Poison oak also has urushiol, so I don't see why it would be different. And it's not that you 'lose resistance', but that you 'develop sensitivity'. In other words, the 'default' state of the body is not to have sensitivity. But after exposure, the body may develop an immune response towards a stimulus and become sensitive in the future."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urushiol-induced_contact_dermatitis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delayed-type_hypersensitivity_response"
]
}
|
I was resistant to poison ivy as a kid. Could literally roll in the stuff and be fine. I haven't tested in a while because a friend said the same but also said they lost resistance around 35. What is the science behind this?
|
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] |
||
1dgcmo
|
If the populations of, say, France and the Congo switched locations, given several thousand years, would their appearances reverse?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9q28vn",
"c9q4vl2"
],
"text": [
"There are a lot of black people in France, but you probably mean white europeans, in general.\n\nAn actual adaptational change due to environmental pressures does not occur that quickly. In addition, since this is the 21st century, freely available shelter, air conditioning and vehicles probably eliminate the biggest pressures on a 'non adapted' group (ie white europeans') to adapt to this type of environment (congo)",
"No. While some appearance-related traits are influenced by selection (such as skin pigmentation), it's likely that many or most differences in appearance between populations, such as facial structure, are due to [drift](_URL_0_) rather than selection."
],
"score": [
9,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_drift"
]
}
|
If the populations of, say, France and the Congo switched locations, given several thousand years, would their appearances reverse?
|
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] |
||
onoe6
|
What do we know about resveratrol?
|
There is a lot of hype about resveratrol but it seems that most of its benefits have only been observed in animals. What are the potential benefits and side effects of resveratrol in humans?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3imxrz"
],
"text": [
"Even in animals, resveratrol is not a strong longevity drug, and has mixed effects on mortality depending on the experimental situation. Most of that research is irrelevant to the red wine studies (the concentrations of resveratrol in wine are drastically lower and thus if there are biological effects, they will certainly be different). We honestly do not know much, and most people taking it are not registered in quality studies but are buying it from sharks based on what are essentially false implied health claims. Even if future research proved resveratrol to be a miracle longevity drug, I still think it's a crime to claim it is one before there is evidence, which there is not. \n \nThat said, resveratrol is definitely biologically active and works on many molecular signaling pathways relevant to cell cycle, metabolism, etc. and is getting a lot of attention from cancer researchers. One human study about blood sugar levels is raising interest as well. Read _URL_0_"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resveratrol"
]
}
|
What do we know about resveratrol?
There is a lot of hype about resveratrol but it seems that most of its benefits have only been observed in animals. What are the potential benefits and side effects of resveratrol in humans?
|
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|
9c24xr
|
What do the axes on Garret Lisi's elementary particle explorer mean?
|
I recently found [this](_URL_0_) very cool-looking tool that arranges particles in an 8-dimensional space according to their different charges which forms nice patterns. The problem is that I have no idea what the axes actually mean.
If you switch the coordinates from "math" to "physics" and go to the "interactions" tab (the one that tells you what the particles actually are), I see that the charges/axes are Σ, w subindex S, w subindex T, W, Y, X, g3 and g8. The only one I think I understand is W, which I believe is the weak hypercharge, but the others are complete unknown to me.
Additional questions about the explorer: What is a frame-Higgs? What is a PS X boson?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e57mmuo",
"e58axun"
],
"text": [
"The About section of the tool has a link to Garrett Lisi's E8 Theory. Here I found that w subindex S is spin number in space, w subindex T is spin number in time. Y is hypercharge, W is weak nuclear charge. g3 and g8 seem to be strong-force charge numbers. Going out on a limb here but it seems that X is a charge number for the X bosons in SU(5) model. \n\nFrom the paper, it sounds like the frame-Higgs is an extension of the Higgs boson in the Spin(11,3) Lie group. \"The Spin(11,3) Lie group allows for blocks of 64 fermions and, amazingly, predicts their spin, electroweak and strong charges perfectly. It also automatically includes a set of Higgs bosons and the gravitational frame; in fact, they are unified as 'frame-Higgs' generators in Spin(11,3). The curvature of the Spin(11,3) fiber bundle correctly describes the dynamics of gravity, the other forces and the Higgs...\"(Garrett Lisi and James Owen Weatherall \"A Geometric Theory of Everything\"; Scientific American, December 2010)\n\nHope this helps. Cool tool and a fun interpretation of current models.",
"There's an interesting connection between Lisi's theory and pure mathematics. [This](_URL_0_) great paper discusses the different systems that were competing in the 19th century to be the best way of representing 3-dimensional space. The authors conclude that Clifford's 8-dimensional system is the best. This may shed some light on why Lisi's theory uses eight dimensions."
],
"score": [
5,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://deferentialgeometry.org/epe/epe8/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303300945_The_Vector_Algebra_War_A_Historical_Perspective"
]
}
|
What do the axes on Garret Lisi's elementary particle explorer mean?
I recently found [this](_URL_0_) very cool-looking tool that arranges particles in an 8-dimensional space according to their different charges which forms nice patterns. The problem is that I have no idea what the axes actually mean. If you switch the coordinates from "math" to "physics" and go to the "interactions" tab (the one that tells you what the particles actually are), I see that the charges/axes are Σ, w subindex S, w subindex T, W, Y, X, g3 and g8. The only one I think I understand is W, which I believe is the weak hypercharge, but the others are complete unknown to me. Additional questions about the explorer: What is a frame-Higgs? What is a PS X boson?
|
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|
kq6zy
|
Can someone explain thermal conductivity units?
|
I mostly understand thermal conductivity. What really confuses me, is the unit for it, watts per meter per kelvin (W/(m·K)).
In general, derived units seem to make some kind of intuitive sense. One meter per second is a speed at which an object travels one meter in one second. One meter per second per second (1 m/s^2) is a rate of acceleration of one m/s every second. An irradiance of 1 W/m^2 is a watt of radiated energy falling on a square meter of area. Et cetera. All of these seem to make sense without further explanation.
I've read articles on Wikipedia and elsewhere about thermal conductivity trying to wrap my head around "watts per meter per kelvin", and for whatever reason I can't figure out how a unit of power, a linear distance, and a unit of temperature combine to form a unit of thermal conductivity.
Presumably the unit of temperature is intended as temperature differential. I'm okay with that. And watts are the amount of energy transferred through the material in question. But "meters" ? Why a linear distance? Why not a surface area, and a distance traveled through the material at a normal to that surface?
**TL;DR** For thermal conductivity, why the unit W/(m·K) ?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2mardq",
"c2mafjk",
"c2marjc",
"c2mb4gs"
],
"text": [
"The units are simplified which makes them hard to understand. These are the non-simplified units:\n \n Thermal conductivity = (J*m)/(m^2*s*K)\nHere is a sentence copy/pasted from wikipedia that explains it well:\n > It is defined as the quantity of heat, ΔQ, transmitted during time Δt through a thickness x, in a direction normal to a surface of area A, per unit area of A, due to a temperature difference ΔT, under steady state conditions and when the heat transfer is dependent only on the temperature gradient.\n\n[Wikipedia Source](_URL_0_)",
"You could think of it as a diffusion distance of a watt per unit kelvin.\n\nTo put it in to more usable terms: a watt put into a \"good\" thermal conductor will distribute over a distance easily, while a watt put into \"poor\" thermal conductor will stay localized and not conduct outwards as easily.",
"You're on the right path with surface area and temperature differential. But there's another relevant parameter: the distance over which that temperature differential is applied. \n\nTo sum up:\n\n- Thermal energy is transferred at a certain rate, i.e. there is a thermal power transfer (measured in Watts). Thermal resistance characterizes a material's ability to transfer this power.\n- Thermal energy can only be transferred over a temperature differential. Hence the Kelvin.\n- The larger the area of the region under consideration, the greater the energy transfer.\n- The longer the length of material the temperature differential is applied, the lower the thermal gradient, and the lower the amount of energy transfer.\n\nSo to get the amount of power transferred, you multiply thermal conductivity my the temperature difference and area, then divide by the length of the material, to get the transfer rate.",
"To continue along the lines of explanation from pmacdon, first think of a slab or stuff with a cross-sectional area A and a thinkness t. Now impose a thermal gradient dT across the thickness of that slab. Then ask how much heat dQ is conducted through the slap. The answer is as follows:\ndQ=G dT A/t. \nFor irregular geometries, the answer will always be some geometric factor in units of length, like the A/t in this simplified case. The factor G is the thermal conductivity, a material property independent of geometric factors. If dQ is in Watts, and dT in Kelvin, then you can see that G must be in units of W/(m K). Its pretty much that simple."
],
"score": [
12,
4,
2,
2
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conductivity#Equations"
]
}
|
Can someone explain thermal conductivity units?
I mostly understand thermal conductivity. What really confuses me, is the unit for it, watts per meter per kelvin (W/(m·K)). In general, derived units seem to make some kind of intuitive sense. One meter per second is a speed at which an object travels one meter in one second. One meter per second per second (1 m/s^2) is a rate of acceleration of one m/s every second. An irradiance of 1 W/m^2 is a watt of radiated energy falling on a square meter of area. Et cetera. All of these seem to make sense without further explanation. I've read articles on Wikipedia and elsewhere about thermal conductivity trying to wrap my head around "watts per meter per kelvin", and for whatever reason I can't figure out how a unit of power, a linear distance, and a unit of temperature combine to form a unit of thermal conductivity. Presumably the unit of temperature is intended as temperature differential. I'm okay with that. And watts are the amount of energy transferred through the material in question. But "meters" ? Why a linear distance? Why not a surface area, and a distance traveled through the material at a normal to that surface? **TL;DR** For thermal conductivity, why the unit W/(m·K) ?
|
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