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y877u
|
Are there clear examples of self-destructive behavior, similar to alcoholism or overeating, in other species?
|
This question arose out of a discussion of alcoholism. Essentially, do other organisms eat, drink or otherwise over-indulge themselves to death?
|
askscience
|
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"> Laboratory rats were given unlimited access to intravenous cocaine hydrochloride or heroin hydrochloride. Animals self-administering cocaine quickly developed a pattern of episodic drug intake, with periods of excessive cocaine self-administration alternating with brief periods of abstinence. Subjects allowed continuous access to intravenous heroin showed stable drug self-administration, with a gradual increase in daily heroin intake over the first two weeks of testing. The general health of the animals became markedly different: those self-administering heroin maintained grooming behavior, pretesting body weight, and a good state of general health; rats self-administering cocaine tended to cease grooming behavior, to lose up to 47% of their pretesting body weight, and to show a pronounced deterioration in general health. The mortality rate for 30 days of continuous testing was 36% for animals self-administering heroin and 90% for those self-administering cocaine. These results suggest that cocaine is a much more toxic compound than heroin when animals are given unlimited access to intravenous drug.\n\n_URL_0_",
"The reason you normally don't *see* overeating in animals is because **a.** most food is scarse in nature (if there is an abundance of food then the number of organisms in that habitat will simply accumulate), and **b.** natural predators will quickly weed out the 'over eaters' that become disabled by their behavior. \n\nWestern society lacks 'natural predators' and our environment is filled with foods with a high fat and high sugar content - that's why humans get the opportunity to over-eat and not die (and even reproduce). \n\nEdit: some people mention pets overeating; which is of course because of the fact that pets lack both a natural predator and have access (dependent on its owner of course) to an almost unlimited food supply.",
"Given the opportunity, dogs will eat themselves to obesity, which leads to health issues down the line.\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_2_\n\nThe health complications for pet obesity are pretty similar to the health complications for human obesity.\n\nPrimary Risks of Excess Weight in Pets\n\n Osteoarthritis\n\n Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes\n\n High Blood Pressure\n\n Heart and Respiratory Disease\n\n Cranial Cruciate Ligament Injury\n\n Kidney Disease\n\n Many Forms of Cancer\n\n Decreased life expectancy (up to 2.5 years)"
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=399323",
"http://www.petobesityprevention.com/pet-obesity-fact-risks/",
"http://www.petmd.com/dog/nutrition/evr_dg_identify_overweight_pet"
]
}
|
Are there clear examples of self-destructive behavior, similar to alcoholism or overeating, in other species?
This question arose out of a discussion of alcoholism. Essentially, do other organisms eat, drink or otherwise over-indulge themselves to death?
|
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|
l6knh
|
How is a simple movement not considered the destruction of energy?
|
"Energy is neither created nor destroyed." Alright, what if I'm driving a car. The energy used to put the car in motion, isn't it being destroyed to put the car in movement? I understand that the energy is being shifted over into the movement, but wouldn't that count as destroying energy? The energy is being put into the motion, but the motion isn't exerting force on the environment, it's just depleting energy, isn't it?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"The energy used to put the car into motion is converted into kinetic energy",
"Moving objects have kinetic energy. When the gasoline burns and puts the car into motion, the energy isn't destroyed; it's changed to a different form of energy.\n\nMathematically: kinetic energy = 1/2 * mass * velocity squared, or e=mv^2 /2",
"When your car slows down, all the kinetic energy is dispersed as heat through the tires and brake pads.",
"Okay, so, in order to accelerate the car, you need a force. That takes energy. \n\n > the motion isn't exerting force on the environment\n\nBecause we're in a non-ideal system, the road and air and mechanical friction present cause deceleration. Our car *is* exerting force on its environment. If it was an ideal case, we could turn off the engine after reaching our desired speed and not lose any of our kinetic energy.\n\nI might also note that, in a combustion engine, about 80% of the energy gained by burning gasoline is converted into heat, not kinetic energy of the vehicle."
],
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{
"url": []
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{
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{
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|
How is a simple movement not considered the destruction of energy?
"Energy is neither created nor destroyed." Alright, what if I'm driving a car. The energy used to put the car in motion, isn't it being destroyed to put the car in movement? I understand that the energy is being shifted over into the movement, but wouldn't that count as destroying energy? The energy is being put into the motion, but the motion isn't exerting force on the environment, it's just depleting energy, isn't it?
|
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|
1dduu9
|
What do chimpanzees and other apes do with the dead bodies of other apes?
|
In response to the picture that made it to the front page (Dorothy), I am wondering if apes have funeral rituals.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Wikipedia claims without citation that \"[Elephants are the only other species known to have any recognizable ritual surrounding death.](_URL_0_)\". [This article](_URL_2_) links to a number of examples of observed animal grief, including gorillas, chimps and baboons. On gorillas after death, \"...and he picked up a piece of her favorite food — celery — and put it in her hand and tried to get her to wake up. I was weeping, it was so emotional.\" Later, the scene at Babs's December funeral was similarly moving. As reported by local news, gorilla family members \"one by one ... filed into\" the room where \"Babs's body lay,\" approaching their \"beloved leader\" and \"gently sniffing the body.\"\" [This article](_URL_1_) includes a photo you may have seen before from the news involving a mother gorilla carrying around her dead baby.",
"In Dian Fossey's book, *Gorillas in the Mist*, she notes that when a member of the troop dies some of the other members will attack and violate the dead body before leaving it and moving on.\n\nDian Fossey hypothesized that they did so in an effort to elicit some sort of response from the now dead troop member.",
"[This should fill you in](_URL_3_) on the details\n\ntl;dr chimps understand and mourn death. mothers have been known to carry their dead infants for days to weeks after death.\n\nI do not know what the troop would do with body of a full grown member after a few days but I imagine that isn't a big issue since troops tend to move pretty often and it doesn't take long for nature to reclaim the body",
"As someone not subscribed to /r/pics, \"that picture on the frontpage\" isn't a very good reference. I think it would be good to provide a link to the post in question.\n\n[Link to post](_URL_4_)",
"[Source of that image](_URL_5_)\n\n[Article about that image:](_URL_6_)\n\n > Although each of the chimpanzees groomed Pansy close to her estimated time of death, none groomed her after she passed away. Rosie stayed near her mother’s body during the night, and the male – Chippy – aggressively displayed three times, ending each bout with an attack on Pansy’s corpse. The chimpanzees were described as acting “subdued” over the following two days, and reluctant to go into the sleeping area where Pansy died. \n\n > This contrasted from recorded instances of traumatic death of wild chimpanzees – a male falling from a tree in one instance, and fatal leopard attack on a young female in another – which triggered alarm calls, aggressive displays, and left the groups highly agitated.\n\n > The chimpanzees showed some behaviors consistent with our own reactions to death – disturbed sleep, subdued behavior and loss of appetite – but the analysis imputed emotional reactions to the animals that could not be verified. **This is not to say that these chimpanzees did not experience grief or did not mourn Pansy’s death, but rather that we cannot know for sure since the thoughts and motives of the apes are unknown to us.**",
"Related - [Neanderthal](_URL_8_) burial rituals. [Downloadable](_URL_7_) papers by Dr. Julien Riel-Salvatore on the subject.",
"It should be noted that most accounts of grieving in animals are just observation. The same is true for \"language\" found in animals such as Koko. Little to no systematic or peer reviewed evidence exists for these sorts of things.\n\n\nI'm not saying there isn't a kernel or more of truth to these claims but we should be aware that scientists and naturalists are people too, and when highly emotional things occur in animals, such as death or language, we may be quick to overlay anthropomorphic explanations onto them that just aren't there.",
"Watch this video, it should give you an idea of the behaviors they exhibit.\n\n_URL_9_",
"Beyond checking to make sure they are really dead, and maybe mourning a bit, pretty much nothing, no rituals or rites or burial. The body is quickly eaten by jungle carnivores, and it's a lucky primatologist who actually sees the body to confirm the death. From what I've heard, the usual case is that a sick or injured ape will just *disappear* and it has to be assumed they died someplace nearby.",
"Dogs also grieve. When the cat died the dog sniffed her body and cried for days. She wouldn't eat for weeks we thought we were going to lose her too. :(",
"This was something that always upset me as an undergraduate studying anthropology. I remember two professors claiming they had no burial rituals and were, as such, absent that aspect of \"culture.\" However, I later discovered they engage in a lot of what has been explained in other comments (Leave the body there, sit at its side, come by to sniff/ touch the body, etc) which I consider to be what humans have, but in the opposite direction. In other words, its possible that there understanding of what is \"right\" to do when a community member dies is to leave them there, and they're perplexed or even offended by us carting the corpse out of sight somewhere.",
"Here is a video of a squirrel fending off crows from another dead squirrel _URL_10_ And here is video of a cat mourning another dead cat after attempting to wake it. _URL_11_ **warning possible tears for the cat video**",
"troops need to roam to new vegetation, they have immense territories, so it just gets left behind eventually."
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{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions",
"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/2609440/Mother-gorillas-grief-shows-emotion-is-not-only-human.html",
"http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/animal-emotions/200910/grief-in-animals-its-arrogant-think-were-the-only-animals-who-mourn",
"http://www.livescience.com/6335-chimps-understand-mourn-death-research-suggests.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/pics/comments/1ddfv5/dorothy_died_heart_attack_her_friends_says_goodbye/",
"http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/visions-of-earth/visions-earth-2009#/1109-chimps-714.jpg",
"http://phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/2011/04/18/what-death-means-to-primates/",
"http://ucdenver.academia.edu/JulienRielSalvatore/Papers",
"http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1112789278/neanderthal-early-human-burial-funeral-practices-anthropology-022113/",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jzrige2nqqw",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8sOw3mCz4Oc",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4O7zkXjSQWk"
]
}
|
What do chimpanzees and other apes do with the dead bodies of other apes?
In response to the picture that made it to the front page (Dorothy), I am wondering if apes have funeral rituals.
|
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] |
|
5u6l23
|
What is the mistake in this mathematical proof?
|
From *Hexaflexagons and Other Mathematical Diversions* by Martin Gardner
> a=b+c
> multiply both sides by a-b
> a^2 -ab=ab+ac-b^2 -bc
> move ac to the left
> a^2 -ab-ac=ab-b^2 -bc
> factor:
> a(a-b-c)=b(a-b-c)
> divide both sides by a-b-c
> a=b
He says that this is a fallacy, but can't you just say that c=0?
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"In the last step, you divide both sides by a - b - c, but this operation is only valid when a - b - c is not equal to zero. But from the very first assumption, we have that a = b + c, so a - b - c = b + c - b - c = 0.\n\nThe derivation is correct up to this point, but in the second-to-last step, it actually says: a * 0 = b * 0, which is obviously true, but can't be used to infer that a = b.",
"You start with\n\nA = B + C\n\nSubtract both sides by (B + C)\n\nA - B - C = 0\n\nSo later when you divide both sides by (A - B - C) you're actually dividing by zero, which you can't do, so everything gets kinda screwed up.",
"Division by zero. It's nearly always division by zero. Go over every step where division occurs and check if the denominator is zero (you've got a pretty good cue right there: \"divide both sides by...\")\n\nParadox-producing errors might also occur if you're not careful with square roots or logarithms. Checking your domains and ranges will usually root out those errors.",
"IN GENERAL, when you encounter a totally false proof like this, just put in arbitrary non-special numbers and see where you reach the first false statement.\n\nHere, it could be\n3 = 2 + 1 (both sides equal 3) \n3\\*3 - 3\\*2 = 3\\*2 + 3\\*1 - 2\\*2 - 2\\*1 (both sides equal 3) \n3\\*3 - 3\\*2 - 3\\*1 = 3\\*2 - 2\\*2 - 2\\*1 (both sides equal 0) \n3\\*(3 - 2 - 1) = 2\\*(3 - 2 - 1) (both sides still equal 0) \n3 = 2 (NOPE)\n\nFor false proofs that have only special cases wrong, it would take a special case to discover it.",
"As others have said, the proof error stems from the final division step, which is undefined if a - b - c = 0. Your specific question indicates a deeper misunderstanding though. It is a fallacy because of the implicit quantifier: that \"a=b\" is apparently true for all a,b, and c such that a=b+c, not some particular values of them (obviously true if c=0, as you say). The reason it is a fallacy is because this is clearly absurd for many values (although one counter-example is sufficient).\n\nEdit: Clarification",
"> He says that this is a fallacy, but can't you just say that c=0?\n\nJust to add to the other correct answers here, in this \"proof\" he is supposedly *deducing* that a=b (and hence c=0), and that this argument is supposed to work when you start with *any* three numbers a, b, c such that a+b=c. For example, start with 4+3=7 and follow the steps. If the steps were all correct, you would end up with 4=3. (Incidentally, following along the argument with these specific numbers is an easy way to see where the mistake is.)",
"I haven't seen anyone answer it this way, but here's the easy answer: a - b - c = 0. Here's why: \n \n a = b + c \n subtract b from both sides \n a - b = c \n subtract c from both sides \n a - b - c = 0 \n \nSo, now that we've proven a - b - c = 0, you know you can't divide both sides by (a - b - c) in your example.",
"Because from the first equation we see a-b-c=0. So a(a-b-c)=b(a-b-c) is actually a(0)=b(0) . You cant divide both sides by 0 [so if you take c as 0, a=b is for a special case; i.e. it does not imply from a=b+c that a=b. Its only a proof if the conclusion must be true given the conditions.",
"As others have said, there's a division by zero in there, but I think your \"can't you just say that *c* = 0\" question needs addressing, too.\n\nThe bad proof, as presented, places no restrictions on the values of *a*, *b* and *c*, so we have to take it as being a statement about **all** values of *a*, *b* and *c*. And it's the *for all values* bit that's the problem.\n\nIn fact, *a* **can** be equal to *b*, but only when *c* = 0. The proof is very simple:\n\n > a = b + c; c = 0\n > \n > *[substitute 0 for c]*\n > \n > a = b + 0\n > \n > *[cancel out additive identity]*\n > \n > a = b\n\nAnd notice that this line of reasoning works in both directions. You can just as easily start from *a* = *b*, and end up with *a* = *b* + *c*; *c* = 0. From this, we conclude that:\n\n > a = b + c; c = 0\n\nand\n\n > a = b\n\nare really the same statement.\n\nDoes that makes sense?",
"You can't multiply or divide both sides of an equation by any number that might be zero. Period.\n\nBoth of these things are done in this proof.\n\n\n\nIF b was hypothetically equal to a (impossible to prove from your beginning)\n\nthen multiplying by a-b would give you zero on both sizes.\n\nDividing by a-b-c would be dividing by zero on both sides.\n\nI'm simply emphasizing how terrible this is.",
"In the last step;\n\n > a(a-b-c)=b(a-b-c)\n\nyou can't just get rid of the (a-b-c)'s. Because c=0, (a-b-c) is also equal to zero and to get rid of it you need to divide each side by (a-b-c). So the second last line really reads as \n\n > a(0)=b(0)\n\nor just \n\n > 0=0",
"The assumption that a = b+c implies that a-b-c = 0, so the step where you divide by a-b-c is never valid.\n\nThis doesn't mean that the resulting conclusion is FALSE, it just means that your proof is not valid. As you noted, the conclusion is of course true if c = 0, so in that case you get a incorrect proof of the trivial but true statement \"if a = b + 0, then a = b\".",
"a - b - c is the same as a - (b + c) \nAt the start you're given that a = b + c\nSo a - (b + c) = a - a (should be an equivalent sign but whatever.\n = 0 \nSo when you divide both sides by ( a - b - c) you're actually just dividing by 0, which isn't possible. \n\nIf we just say that c = 0, then no proof is necessary in the first place, since the initial statement is just a = b anyway.",
"OP was actually closer than he thought with the statement \"can't you just say that c=0\". He just didn't see it through all the way. \n\nIf c=0, then a=b+0. Which means a-b=0. Now that you know the value of a-b, you know dividing by it in the last step is undefined.",
"> He says that this is a fallacy, but can't you just say that c=0? \n \nOk, lets say c = 0. \nThis would mean your first line is basically \"a = b\".\nBut in that case (a - b - c) = (a - b) = 0 \nThis means the \"Divide both sides by (a - b - c)\" is really saying \"divide both sides by zero\". \n \nMore generally: If a = b + c then (a - b - c) is the same as (b + c - b - c) which is zero. So no matter what you make a, b, and c, as long as they satisfy the initial statement (a = b + c) then the \"divide both sides by (a - b - c)\" is going to be division by zero.",
"Reminds of when you ask Siri to divide zero by zero.... \"Imagine that you have zero cookies and you split them evenly among zero friends. How many cookies does each person get? See? It doesn't make sense. And Cookie Monster is sad that there are no cookies, and you are sad that you have no friends.\"",
"With these proofs, you always have to look when they divide. So often the issue is that they are dividing by something you've defined to be zero. First time through, ignore everything and look for division first.",
"As everyone has said, divide by zero (usually the answer when you have things inappropriately equaling each other. I'd like to add that it's easier to see when you just fill in an example.\n\n5 = 2 + 3 (5 = 5)\n\n5^2 - 5*2 = 5*2 + 5*3 - 2^2 - 2*3 (15 = 15)\n\n5^2 - 5*2 - 5*3 = 5*2 - 2^2 - 2*3 (0 = 0) (oh, there its gonna be!)\n\n5 (5 - 2 - 3) = 2 (5 - 2 - 3) (5*0 = 2*0) and there the problem becomes clear.",
"Rather than answer where the mistake is, I will explain how to find where the mistake is. Take a case where the initial assumption is true, and the final assumption isn't, and follow through the logic.\n\nAn easy case is a=3, b=2, c=1.\n\nFirst line says a=b+c: 3=2+1. This is true.\n\nNext line says a^2-ab=ab+ac-b^2-bc: 9-6=3=6+3-4-2. This is true.\n\nNext line says a^2-ab-ac=ab-b^2-bc: 9-6-3=0=6-4-2. This is true.\n\nNext line says a(a-b-c)=b(a-b-c): 3(3-2-1)=3*0=0=2*0=2*(3-2-1). This is true.\n\nNext line says a=b: 3=2, which is not true.\n\nSo a problem must have occurred in the step from a(a-b-c)=b(a-b-c) to a=b.",
"Since you have a=b+c, you can subtract b and c from both sides to see that a-b-c=0. If you were to substitute this into your final equation you would get 0=0. When you divided by (a-b-c), you have an undefined answer. Either way, a=b is false. Just because one can arrange it in such a way does not necessarily mean that it is true.",
"If a=b, then c=0 because a=b+c (the first equation), then a-b-c=0, then *divide both sides by a-b-c* is *divide both sides by 0*, which is where it goes wrong."
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What is the mistake in this mathematical proof?
From *Hexaflexagons and Other Mathematical Diversions* by Martin Gardner > a=b+c > multiply both sides by a-b > a^2 -ab=ab+ac-b^2 -bc > move ac to the left > a^2 -ab-ac=ab-b^2 -bc > factor: > a(a-b-c)=b(a-b-c) > divide both sides by a-b-c > a=b He says that this is a fallacy, but can't you just say that c=0?
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|
asfcvh
|
Can a pendulum clock run in centrifugal artificial gravity?
|
On theoretical space habitats where gravity is simulated by the habitat being a spinning ring where 'down' is 'out', would a pendulum clock like a grandfather clock be able to run? It's been a while since high school physic but as far as I can tell the (main? only?) forces acting on the clock would be the acceleration to the side from it's outward movement being deflected and possibly normal force with the floor but I think they might be the same force in this case.
So, without the constant acceleration from gravity but with the as far as I can guess constant centrifugal force would a pendulum clock work? Would you have to mount it on an angle because 'gravity' wouldn't go straight down? Could a pendulum of a given length have a different period because of the potential difference in magnitude of the centrifugal force compared to gravity?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"eguk90y",
"egv6xln",
"egv8sre"
],
"text": [
"Whether you have constant acceleration due to gravity or due to being kept in circular motion, the force is pretty much straight down (with the \"pretty much\" part depending on the clock's orientation relative to the spinning and on the scale of the clock vs. the ship). But if the clock is kept in the same orientation, you could calibrate out the error just like you do on earth.",
"Harmonic oscillators have a fixed frequency regardless of amplitude, when the restoring force is proportional to the displacement.\n\nIn the case of pendula, it is a good approximation, as long as the displacement is a small angle the horizontal component of the gravity force is almost proportional to the angle.\n\nIn a rotating habitat, the radius of the rotating part is usually large enough so that there is not a large difference in force across the living compartment, so the pendulum is still going to be accurate.\n\nHowever if the radius of the rotating part is not much larger than the pendulum length you are going to be right out.\n\nTo take the most extreme example, if the pendulum was hung from the center of rotation it would clearly not swing at all.",
"Yes, with the slight caveat that in a rotating reference frame there are actually two fictitious forces - the centrifugal one (which gives us 'gravity') and the [Coriolis force](_URL_0_). If your system is large enough that the centrifugal force looks constant w.r.t the pendulum's motion this would likely not matter, but it would be an extra error term that wouldn't happen if you did this in a linearly accelerating reference frame."
],
"score": [
6,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_force"
]
}
|
Can a pendulum clock run in centrifugal artificial gravity?
On theoretical space habitats where gravity is simulated by the habitat being a spinning ring where 'down' is 'out', would a pendulum clock like a grandfather clock be able to run? It's been a while since high school physic but as far as I can tell the (main? only?) forces acting on the clock would be the acceleration to the side from it's outward movement being deflected and possibly normal force with the floor but I think they might be the same force in this case. So, without the constant acceleration from gravity but with the as far as I can guess constant centrifugal force would a pendulum clock work? Would you have to mount it on an angle because 'gravity' wouldn't go straight down? Could a pendulum of a given length have a different period because of the potential difference in magnitude of the centrifugal force compared to gravity?
|
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|
nlhwn
|
Hey Reddit, I was wondering: What compels us to sleep in a horizontal position as opposed to a vertical one?
|
Apart from the fact that it's easier to fall to the ground (or onto your bed) to sleep. Why is it physically more comfortable than say, sitting and sleeping?
If a foam cast were to be made of your body horizontally, and you got into it and then it was brought into a vertical position, what biological attributes of the human body would prevent you from having a good night's sleep?
Your thoughts on this would be greatly appreciated! Thanks Reddit!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"The horizontal position represents the lowest energy state your body could be in. First, in this position your heart will work less to circulate blood, as it will not be working against gravity to any large extent. Also, it is the safest, since your center of mass is lowest in this configuration.",
"[There is a GABA-based motor suppression circuit](_URL_0_) in our brains that relaxes most of our skeletal muscles (atonia) during sleep. This is thought to serve a few purposes, one of which is to keep us from acting out our dreams and walk over a cliff, fall out of our tree, etc. This means that we cannot fully sleep while standing up- it's also why people get \"the nods\" when they are fighting sleep deprivation. The atonia in the neck and back muscles cause the head to fall under gravity, inducing a panic response from the vestibular system in the ear and waking the person back up.\n\nFor reasons that other answers have stated, it's much easier for the body to sleep while relaxed and horizontal. The metabolic load is lower, the water column of the blood vessels isn't as pressurized, and the motor neurons controlling posture don't have to work. Animals that do sleep vertically either have ways to minimize energy use (bats, for instance, don't need strong muscles to hang from their feet because their legs are built with lever systems to lock their toes when under load) or trade the energy spent on sleeping standing up for better predator evasion (i.e., it's easier to run when you hear a predator if your muscles aren't atonic and poorly perfused).",
"One thing which would problematic about vertical sleeping would be the stress which would be put on the one-way valves in the veins in your legs, which allow blood to pump against gravity. When they become incapacitated it causes swelling, varicose veins, etc. People who spend long periods of time sitting or standing tend to have more problems of those types, so regularly sleeping upright would probably be particularly damaging.",
"Thanks to everyone for their responses. Much appreciated.\n\nI see that some have cited \"gravity\" as a reason for discomfort. While I understand that gravity is a cause of the uncomfortable sensation. I was actually looking for a more verbose biological explanation as to why.\n\nThanks [BillBuckets](_URL_4_) & [PhillyE](_URL_4_) for your constructive input.\n\nI will try and do some googling today to find out if a cast/mould has been fabricated and used in a vertical sleep experiment to answer [atomfullerene](_URL_4_).\n\nEDIT: Found [this](_URL_4_) at wiseGEEK.",
"I wonder just how well you would sleep in this hypothetical vertical cast. If you were completely supported, maybe you'd sleep pretty well. Or maybe not. I wonder if the experiment has been done."
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0024998",
"http://www.wisegeek.com/is-it-possible-to-sleep-standing-up.htm",
"http://www.reddit.com/user/PhillyE",
"http://www.reddit.com/user/BillyBuckets",
"http://www.reddit.com/user/atomfullerene"
]
}
|
Hey Reddit, I was wondering: What compels us to sleep in a horizontal position as opposed to a vertical one?
Apart from the fact that it's easier to fall to the ground (or onto your bed) to sleep. Why is it physically more comfortable than say, sitting and sleeping? If a foam cast were to be made of your body horizontally, and you got into it and then it was brought into a vertical position, what biological attributes of the human body would prevent you from having a good night's sleep? Your thoughts on this would be greatly appreciated! Thanks Reddit!
|
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|
ir0ja
|
Would it be unethical to create a voluntary, selective human breeding program?
|
I am watching Stan Lee's Superhumans and the host of the show is said to be the most flexible person in the world. I thought that must be a trait that could be bred.
I know things like Eugenics have been proposed in the past and have very obvious ethical problems. But, if you created a voluntary program to try and breed for particular traits, say strength or intelligence, would it still be unethical? And why so?
Of course, even if you got two people to agree to breed, you couldn't ensure that their offspring would also want to participate, but let's say you did it on the hopes that they would.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c25znoi",
"c25z9hu",
"c25zeki",
"c25zhjw"
],
"text": [
"Science cannot answer ethical questions. This is not an appropriate forum for that question.\n\n_URL_2_ -or- _URL_0_ -or- _URL_1_",
"In one sense, it happens anyway. Most people I know who are married met through college or work. There's clearly some stratification in traits between those who work unskilled jobs and engineers, for example.\n\nBesides (generally in the west), we all voluntarily select a partner, based on whatever traits we value - whether this is looks or intelligence or humour.",
"This is definitely an area for ethics/philosophy.\n\nFirst of all, ethically, you need to pose the following questions.\n\nIs it voluntary?\nDoes it do harm?\nIs everyone aware of the risks?\nWhat are your motivations and are they explicitly stated?\nWho's getting paid? Who are the stake holders?\n\nSecondly, you need to read post-modern ethics regarding [Eugenics](_URL_6_)\n*\"Some ethicists suggest that even non-coercive eugenics programs would be inherently unethical\"*\nI personally disagree with this but only under the strictest circumstances:\n\n1) You cannot use this to Euthanize those who do not fit the profile. If you have some genetic line who naturally develop cancer, you could not use that as an excuse to execute their children because that line of genetics is unsuitable. Sounds odd I know, but Hitler did it.\n\n2) You must allow an exit strategy for those who wish to leave the program.\n\n3) You must allow people to mate with those they find desirable, even if that does not work for your program.\n\n4) If you find people whom you deem to have political views \"unsuitable\" or skin color \"unsuitable\", this would immediately make your program unethical. While I detest what religion does to the human spirit, denying people in your program the right of religion would naturally make it unethical.\n\n\nI am skipping over the entire [discussion of Evolutionary Ethics](_URL_4_), [Bioethics](_URL_6_), and the [appeal to nature](_URL_5_) branches of ethics which do, in fact, directly link to your question.\n\nTo get away with this ethically, you could probably set up a dating service that emphasizes longevity and asks people the standard battery of questions regarding lifestyle, food choice, genetic heritage, etc. This would probably be completely ethical and might give you the results that you seek.",
"Impractical. Humans just take too long to breed compared to, say, mice."
],
"score": [
12,
6,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/philosophy/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/bioethics",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/ethics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioethics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_to_nature",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics#Ethical_re-assessment"
]
}
|
Would it be unethical to create a voluntary, selective human breeding program?
I am watching Stan Lee's Superhumans and the host of the show is said to be the most flexible person in the world. I thought that must be a trait that could be bred. I know things like Eugenics have been proposed in the past and have very obvious ethical problems. But, if you created a voluntary program to try and breed for particular traits, say strength or intelligence, would it still be unethical? And why so? Of course, even if you got two people to agree to breed, you couldn't ensure that their offspring would also want to participate, but let's say you did it on the hopes that they would.
|
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|
ox9ia
|
Random Star Trek Physics question I was musing over.
|
I had a teacher once tell me that even though the USS Enterprise was capable of traveling a little over nine times the speed of light, a person on the ten forward would not see the stars streaking by because even at that speed, the stars are so spaced out that they would still look like they are barely moving. Just like a far distant object would from a moving car's perspective. However, I was thinking about the theory of relativity and the fact that the closer to the speed of light you are traveling, relative time will slow down for you. Because of this, if you got ridiculously close to the speed of light, like .99999999 you could travel across the galaxy in your life time. If you were on a ship like this, wouldn't the stars appear to be zipping on past you like they do in Star Trek?
|
askscience
|
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"No answers to the actual science in your question, however I am a Star Trek geek and can correct some of the Star Trek physics to possibly make the question more real science viable.\n\nFirst, since you mention Ten Forward, I will assume you are talking about the Enterprise from TNG (with Picard). It has a maximum speed similar to Voyager, which is quoted by Tom Paris as having a maximum speed of approximately 4,000,000,000 miles/second (he puts it into miles/time terms for Amelia Earhart). Since the speed of light is approximately [186,000 miles/second](_URL_0_), that means that the ship is actually capable of traveling at ~21,505 times the speed of light, meaning that it is highly possible that the stars would appear as streaks.\n\nSecond, Star Trek ships do not conventionally move at relativistic speeds, but rather use a warp bubble which supposedly warps the fabric of space ahead and behind them, allowing them to move through space faster than light without actually conventionally moving at anywhere near the speed of light, thus allowing interstellar travel without all of that pesky time distortion (if there was time distortion due to near, or faster than, light speed travel, they would travel 3 hours to get to somewhere only to find that several years may have passed at their destination).\n\nInterestingly enough, [there is a real mathematical model for a drive based on Star Trek's warp drive that seems, mathematically at least, plausible](_URL_1_).",
"It's funny you mention this though, there's a [really cool galaxy simulation program called Celestia](_URL_2_) which I used to play around with. You can take yourself up to many times the speed of light, and even at many times the speed of light, the stars still shift by very slowly. Download it any try it out! I honestly have never seen anything give a better way for mere mortals to get a mental grasp on the size of the galaxy. \n\nIncidentally, [the warp scale is logarithmic](_URL_3_) (The warp factor scale was recalculated between Kirk's time and Picard's, where in the latter scale, warp 10 was the limit at which infinite energy would be required to reach it).",
"The streaks were \"explained\" as some effect of small amounts of matter hitting the warp bubble not as actual stars passing by. Now if I could remember where I read that, I could give you a source on that.",
"I believe that warp 9 is not 9 times the speed of light. If I recall my Trek-Foo, warp speed is supposed to be either factors of 10 times the speed of light, or some other factor.\n\nLet's say you are on a path in which the stars are spaced every light year. And let's say you are going 10 times the speed of light. In a classical situation (t=d/v), a star would go by you every 1/10 of a year. I am ignoring any kind of time dilation effects, because they clearly don't seem to show those in Star Trek.\n\nIt is tough to figure out how the math should work in a physical model that isn't true, though.",
"Let's see... I believe the average spacing between stars is about 1-2 parsecs, about 3-6 lightyears. It looks like the speed of the Enterprise ranges from [about c at warp 1 to about 1000c at warp 9](_URL_4_). Let's work with 1000c. So at warp 9 it would take about 1-2 days to get from one star to the next.\n\nI'm a huge fan of Next Gen, but they're [awful at gauging distances](_URL_5_).\n\nEdit: By the way, this is ignoring any relativistic effects. Strangely enough, if the Star Trek warp drive is like the [Alcubierre warp drive](_URL_6_) then this is actually correct. Time passes in the warp frame at the same rate as in the rest frame.",
"I think warp 9 was like 1000 times the speed of light (something a little more than (warped) cubed). But current GR does not allow for accelerating to the speed of light so any answer which makes you happy is fine.",
"For our astrophysicists: Does [Red Shift](_URL_8_) and [Blue Shift](_URL_7_) come into play with an issue like this?"
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{
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcubierre_drive",
"http://www.shatters.net/celestia/",
"http://i.imgur.com/HspZI.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Warptable.gif",
"http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/SciFiWritersHaveNoSenseOfScale",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcubierre_drive",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_shift",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_shift"
]
}
|
Random Star Trek Physics question I was musing over.
I had a teacher once tell me that even though the USS Enterprise was capable of traveling a little over nine times the speed of light, a person on the ten forward would not see the stars streaking by because even at that speed, the stars are so spaced out that they would still look like they are barely moving. Just like a far distant object would from a moving car's perspective. However, I was thinking about the theory of relativity and the fact that the closer to the speed of light you are traveling, relative time will slow down for you. Because of this, if you got ridiculously close to the speed of light, like .99999999 you could travel across the galaxy in your life time. If you were on a ship like this, wouldn't the stars appear to be zipping on past you like they do in Star Trek?
|
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|
mxm7o
|
Has there been an "Out of Africa" hypothesis made for any other species?
|
I'm aware of the Out of Africa hypothesis that states that modern humans can all be traced back to a relatively small group, maybe even a single female.
Has a similar trend been found for other modern animals?
Did all animal life come out of Africa? All mammals? etc?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c34o47a",
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"c34nsvu",
"c34peuu"
],
"text": [
"Here's one example: Between 25 and 40 million years ago, a species of flat nosed monkeys managed to get from Africa to South America. They're the ancestor for all South American monkeys. This is when SA and Africa were closer together, so its not clear how they got there (island hopping, accidental rafting, mangroves). It's kind of interesting to think about, but one pregnant female riding a raft for 12 days could be the ancestor of every monkey in SA.",
"It may not be another animal per se, but another eukaryote actually *followed* us out of africa- Plasmodium Falciparum. \nI'd like to just start off by clarifying that I have very little qualifications beyond a high school diploma and a passion for science. Last fall I took a course at my university on the evolution of infectious diseases. One of the articles we read for the course was one concerning research done by Kazuyuki Tanabe, among others, on the genomics of P. Falciparum- the agent responsible for most fatal malaria cases. \nI'll attach a copy of the article I found online (please, someone let me know if this is not kosher, I just googled the article title and am submitting the second google result), but the study used statistical computation to show genetic variance trends relative to geographic location. The premise the researchers, and many human evolutionary biologists, acted under is that as migration occurred, less genetic variance was maintained- that is, if a small group of hominid traveled to Scandinavia, that smaller gene pool would result in less genetic variance. They found that, like humans, P. Falciparum expressed less genetic variance along the path of migration- i.e. less variation in Europe than Africa, less variation in Northeast Asia than Europe, less variation in North America than Northeast Asia, and the least variation in Central and South America. \nSource: [Tanabe et al.](_URL_0_) \n\n**tl;dr:** It is thought that Plasmodium Falciparum, the agent responsible for most *fatal* malaria cases actually followed humans out of Africa.",
"Before a biologist comes in to directly answer your question, I will try to clarify one part of it; animals and plants have been around for a lot longer than Africa has as a recognisable continent. Out of Africa works for humans, because that is where our particular species originated, and then spread from. Humans are special in that we were able to survive in a wide number of subsequent environments to spread globally. Most species are more geographically restricted as they are not able to survive in other environments. \n\nAfrica is not special in a species-generating context, it is simply that it is the continent we happened to originate from. Other species have originated on the other continents.",
"Your description of the Out of Africa hypothesis is not accurate. Any two animals (of whatever species) can trace their matrilineal descent back to a common female ancestor - this fact is not a \"hypothesis\".\n\nThe Out of Africa hypothesis is a specific claim about the time (~100,000 ybp) and place (Africa, obviously) that the most recent female ancestor of all modern humans existed. It is not a hypothesis about whether or not this common female ancestor ever existed.\n\nIn fact, the only aspect of OOA that is controversial is the time, since bipedal hominids more than a million years old have been discovered outside of Africa (in Europe and Asia). If Wilson's crew in the mid-80's had come up with an age estimate for \"Eve\" of 1 million years instead of 100,000 years, their paper would have been utterly unremarkable."
],
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://www.zoo.cam.ac.uk/zoostaff/manica/ms/2010_tanabe_et_al_curr_biol.pdf"
]
}
|
Has there been an "Out of Africa" hypothesis made for any other species?
I'm aware of the Out of Africa hypothesis that states that modern humans can all be traced back to a relatively small group, maybe even a single female. Has a similar trend been found for other modern animals? Did all animal life come out of Africa? All mammals? etc?
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|
lgm9b
|
Is there anything to my running shoe store's practice of advising me on shoes by filming my ankles while running?
|
I know this sounds odd. And please excuses me if I post this in the wrong subreddit.
But the store where I buy my long distance running shoes has a practice where they let their customers run on a treadmill, film their ankles (horizontally from the back) and then advise them on which shoes to buy.
Their reasoning, medically sound or so they claim, is that ankles should be straight. And that any bending of the ankles inward or outward is bad for the knees, the back, and running in general.
They then proscribe shoes with extra support on the in or outsides and
of course a slightly higher price tag.
I noticed them selling energy bracelets at the counter and I'm starting to get suspicious. Is there really a medical benefit to running with straight ankles? It seems to me that probably everybody has some inward or outward bending going in and that it'd be therefor the perfect trick to sell more expensive shoes. Also it just sounds too obvious, if I were a running shoe quack I'd claim the same thing.
Thank you.
EDIT: Thank you! You are all awesome. And informative. I wasn't even sure if I was going to get any response. Warm fuzzy feeling in the chest region now. Thank you!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2siscw",
"c2sisq1",
"c2sj1t8",
"c2sisg5"
],
"text": [
"_URL_0_\n\nThe science around the different ways in which the foot strikes the ground has yet to provide any solid conclusions which could give you a certain answer. Sure, there are ways to run which are very wrong, but there is a lot of middle ground which is quite uncertain. In the absence of thorough scientific study, you can read many opinions from running enthusiasts (and professionals), trainers, and podiatrists which are at times contradictory and certainly with varying amounts of quackery.\n\nThe conclusions that a reasonable person can gain from all of this is that gait is probably important, though what is best for each individual is still uncertain. What you should do personally breaches the no medical advice rule, but considering you aren't seeking help for a problem, what can a little self-experimentation hurt? \n\nI'm not endorsing him as correct on all counts, but Christopher McDougall's _Born to Run_ is a very interesting read related to all of this.",
"Take a look at the 'supination' section here:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nBasically, there are three kinds of running shoes - neutral, stability, and motion control - in increasing levels of cushioning. There's minimalist, too, with even less of everything.\n\nDepending on how your ankle rolls as your foot strikes while you run, different shoes would be better or worse for you, specifically. The best way to tell this is to watch you run, and since it's hard to watch someone's foot move real fast as they run, you take some video you can pause. \n\nThe level of cushioning doesn't correspond to the price terribly well. The minimalist shoes are some of the most expensive, with the least material, while stability shoes are often the entry-level model.",
"Quick background: I'm well into my second decade of running, and I competed at NCAA div 1 level. I've put in a whole lot of miles in a whole lot of shoes.\n\nThere isn't anything inherently wrong w/ filming and watching the motion of the foot though the gait. I would caution that unless the person reviewing the film and selling you the shoes is a long-time runner themselves, they may interpret it incorrectly. Stability, neutral, motion control all work differently for different gaits and don't always fall into something as clean cut as \"you have heavy pronation, use motion control.\"\n\nThe real mark of a good shoes store is if they have a return policy that will allow you to pound out several miles on different days and see what feels best...mile 0 feels much different than mile 10. \n\nTL:DR; Use what they recommend as a starting point, try on many, many pairs before you leave, then make sure they have a returns policy.",
"With angled ankles, your feet can roll in/out and put more pressure on the inside/outside of the foot and the toe, and on the small space called the sinus tarsi. This can lead to pressure on your knees, hips and back, leading to pain and arthritis.\n\nI would argue that it depends more on how you strike the ground than the angle of contact incidence, and how often/long you run. I don't think you need more expensive shoes that adjusts for the ankle, the human body was adapted for distance running without shoes."
],
"score": [
9,
6,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot_strike_%28gait%29#Foot_strike",
"http://www.rei.com/expertadvice/articles/running+shoes.html"
]
}
|
Is there anything to my running shoe store's practice of advising me on shoes by filming my ankles while running?
I know this sounds odd. And please excuses me if I post this in the wrong subreddit. But the store where I buy my long distance running shoes has a practice where they let their customers run on a treadmill, film their ankles (horizontally from the back) and then advise them on which shoes to buy. Their reasoning, medically sound or so they claim, is that ankles should be straight. And that any bending of the ankles inward or outward is bad for the knees, the back, and running in general. They then proscribe shoes with extra support on the in or outsides and of course a slightly higher price tag. I noticed them selling energy bracelets at the counter and I'm starting to get suspicious. Is there really a medical benefit to running with straight ankles? It seems to me that probably everybody has some inward or outward bending going in and that it'd be therefor the perfect trick to sell more expensive shoes. Also it just sounds too obvious, if I were a running shoe quack I'd claim the same thing. Thank you. EDIT: Thank you! You are all awesome. And informative. I wasn't even sure if I was going to get any response. Warm fuzzy feeling in the chest region now. Thank you!
|
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v807s
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I keep reading about endurance running as a primary force in human evolution; what's the real evidence?
|
The theory that early humans used persistence hunting (running down prey in the heat until it was exhausted), and that this method strongly influenced human evolution (bipedalism, hairlessness, sweating, foot and leg bone structure, etc.) seems to be everywhere in pop science, but I almost never hear any solid data supporting it. I've read many accounts of scientists searching for hunter-gatherers who still practice persistence hunting, but the best they find is stories and rumors, which I'd discount as hearsay.
Is there any real, solid evidence that persistence hunting and endurance running were prominent human behaviors--enough to influence our evolution? Or is this the latest aquatic ape theory, a just-so story that explains physical features without data to back it up?
On a personal note, I find jogging to be the height of torture, so I find it difficult to imagine that running somehow helped select my genes; if this behavior were a key element of human evolution like, say, socializing or using language or cooking, wouldn't it be more universal?
|
askscience
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"Most of the answers provided to you are based upon unreliable sources without backing. I'll stick with peer-reviewed studies that should help you.\n\nBefore we start, please realize that this is not a theory, but a hypothesis. In the list of scientific principles, the top is a scientific theory, next a scientific law, followed by a scientific hypothesis. At this point in time, there is some evidence and conjecture for ER (endurance running) as an adaptive feature that drove evolution, but little consensus or scientific evidence. For it to be a theory would require consensus based upon so much evidence that it can be predictive.\n\nFurthermore, evolution is driven by natural selection or genetic drift only (though there are some hypotheses about other mechanisms). Before we accept your statement, you need to back up and figure out why an adaption for endurance running would be naturally selected by environmental factors. ER requires physiological changes, which would be selected for in evolution, if your hypothesis were correct.\n\nBut I could propose other reasons to select for bipedalism, hairlessness, and intelligence. Bipedalism may have resulted in the move from jungle to savannah, specifically as the climate changed. Hairlessness as a result of warmer temperatures. I could \"hypothesize\" a lot. And don't fall for the meme that there is One Truth™ for human evolution. You are completely right, there were probably thousands of advantageous adaptations that allowed any of us to survive as a species. Just because ER may have lead to larger brain capacity, it doesn't mean that further advantages selected for even larger capacity.\n\nFinally, many people cannot (or will not?) do ER because most phenotypes in humans have a range from one extreme to another. It's one of those cool things in evolution that genetic variation is a necessary requirement to allow organisms to fill new niches or respond to environmental changes.\n\nHere are some peer-reviewed REAL research for you to read:\n\n1. [Calcaneus length determines running economy: implications for endurance running performance in modern humans and Neandertals.](_URL_1_) \n2. [Locomotor anatomy and biomechanics of the Dmanisi hominins.](_URL_2_)\n3. [Walking, running and the evolution of short toes in humans.](_URL_4_)\n4. [Limb length and locomotor biomechanics in the genus Homo: an experimental study.](_URL_3_)\n5. [Acquisition of bipedalism: the Miocene hominoid record and modern analogues for bipedal protohominids.](_URL_5_)\n6. [Endurance running and the evolution of Homo.](_URL_0_)\n\nNow that may seem to be a lot of good research supporting it, but the problem there is some evidence that disputes it. In fact, the last study started a long line of back and forth letter writing in the Journal Nature.\n\nAs for the aquatic ape \"hypothesis\", that never became a part of human evolution research. It is a pseudoscience, that pretends to be a science, but there was no evidence. The ER evolution hypothesis is much stronger.\n\nBut, please don't conflate theory and hypothesis in science. A theory is the top of science. A hypothesis is at the beginning (and should not be disparaged, you need a hypothesis to \"evolve\" into a theory).\n\nI hope this helps, and apologize for it being TLDR.\n\nAnd get back to jogging. (I prefer cycling.)",
"For an easy answer, watch this [TED Talk](_URL_6_)\n\nI can expand on other things if you have more questions.. He presents evidence (such as the tribe in Mexico) Let me know if you have any more questions though.\n\nIf you dont watch the video, basically the evidence is the human body's ability to shed heat better than most animals, the lack of a significant drop off in endurance of a trained person well into their 60s (discussed in the video), the lack of overpowering strength or major offensive weapons like claws as well as the lack of ability for natural camoflague to be an ambush predator. These facts point that direction, he explains it in more detail in the video.",
"> Lieberman said, is that we began adding meat to our diets around 2.6 million years ago, long before we developed advanced weapons like the bow and arrow, which was developed as recently as 50,000 years ago.\n\nThere's one thing that might constitute as evidence. At the end of [this](_URL_7_) article it mentions that a plausible evolutionary scenario begins with humans scavenging for meat before hunting, and those who could make it to kills faster would get a larger share of that meat which would push natural selection to favour those better at running until weapons came along. \n\nThough this may seem far fetched, a theory like this is also one that hypothesizes the domestication of wolves (those who would scavenge at human settlements and wouldn't run away right away when seeing a human would get more food, over time this created a wolf with less and less skittishness towards humans).",
"You are correct that there is absolutely no evidence for persistence hunting as a consistently viable, successful hunting strategy among humans. There is no evidence that such activity has ever been engaged in by modern peoples (i.e. peoples actually studied by Anthropologists), and there is certainly no historical or fossil evidence of this (it's hard to even imagine what such evidence *could be*: fossilized running shoes?). To the extent that there is any \"evidence\" at all, it's evidence that this activity is *possible* (I would argue that it's actually an absurdly implausible scenario).\n\nMoreover, there is no evidence that *any predator species, in any environmental niche anywhere on Earth*, employs persistence hunting as a strategy. This absence is not at all surprising: even for successful hunters, most predation attempts end in failure. This is why every predator on Earth uses some combination of speed, stealth and surprise in hunting, so that the amount of energy spent on any one attempt is low.\n\n**Preemptive strike**: someone at some point here is going to post a link to a snippet of an Attenborough documentary that purportedly shows !Kung hunters running down game using persistence hunting. It seems strange to think that one of the most comprehensive Anthropological studies ever done of extant hunter-gathers (by Richard Lee and other Harvard Anthropologists in the 60s and 70s, a study that focused very specifically on the amount of time that the !Kung spent in their various food-gathering activities) somehow missed ever seeing the !Kung do this, although they did observe the !Kung wounding animals with poison and then tracking them until they fell (which is obviously *not* persistence hunting). **Edit:** sure enough, this clip has been linked to *twice* already in this discussion. What is it about the name \"Attenborough\" that makes people treat the voice-over text in a documentary as the Word of Truth?",
"The below link is a clip from BBC's Life of Mammals which follows a tribesman runner pursuing his prey through the most harsh conditions in a gruelling eight hour chase. I'd constitute this as persistence hunting for sure.\n\n_URL_8_",
"> On a personal note, I find jogging to be the height of torture, so I find it difficult to imagine that running somehow helped select my genes; if this behavior were a key element of human evolution like, say, socializing or using language or cooking, wouldn't it be more universal?\n\nNatural selection is indifferent and can be very brutal. If its true that you have difficulty running, then there is no guarantee that you would be alive right now without the aid of modern conveniences."
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{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15549097",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21269660",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20447679",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17568443",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19218523",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15198702",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/christopher_mcdougall_are_we_born_to_run.html",
"http://phys.org/news95954919.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=826HMLoiE_o"
]
}
|
I keep reading about endurance running as a primary force in human evolution; what's the real evidence?
The theory that early humans used persistence hunting (running down prey in the heat until it was exhausted), and that this method strongly influenced human evolution (bipedalism, hairlessness, sweating, foot and leg bone structure, etc.) seems to be everywhere in pop science, but I almost never hear any solid data supporting it. I've read many accounts of scientists searching for hunter-gatherers who still practice persistence hunting, but the best they find is stories and rumors, which I'd discount as hearsay. Is there any real, solid evidence that persistence hunting and endurance running were prominent human behaviors--enough to influence our evolution? Or is this the latest aquatic ape theory, a just-so story that explains physical features without data to back it up? On a personal note, I find jogging to be the height of torture, so I find it difficult to imagine that running somehow helped select my genes; if this behavior were a key element of human evolution like, say, socializing or using language or cooking, wouldn't it be more universal?
|
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112su9
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If I cut a piece of wood in half, why can't I put it back together?
|
If the atoms are naturally attached to each other, and I separate them, why can't I put it back together?
Also, why does this work with liquids, but not with solids? Why is it that if I have two separate pieces of iron, I can't stick them back together, but I can melt it and freeze it and it will be attached to each other?
EDIT: Spelling
|
askscience
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"So there's actually a lot going on in your questions...\n\nAtoms can attach to each other only if they are in compounds (covalent bonds). Atoms can also be associated with each other through electrostatic interactions (ionic bonds). Molecules can be associated with each other through a host of interactions, such as hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole, london dispersion, etc.\n\nWhen you cut a piece of wood in half, you are not cutting atoms away from each other...what you are doing is destroying the cellular architecture of the wood, and once you do that, there is no way to piece it together since it was originally a very dense matrix of cells that adhered to each other. This adherence was originally mediated by electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic bonding, protein-protein interactions, etc when the tree was still alive. Once dead and dried, these interactions are essentially non-existant. So when you cut it, its cut for good.\n\nYou can easily separate liquids into two containers, and then pour them together again because its an inherent property of liquids - liquid molecules are able to move about freely, interact, and intermix.\n\nSolids however, are rigid and their molecules are immobile. In the case of a piece of metal, you can imagine it as protons of the metal floating in a sea of electrons, everything **not** moving. So when you separate a piece of iron, there is no *simple* way to put the two together immediately, since the molecules don't move and intermix. When you heat it, you turn the solid metal into a liquid, granting the molecules the ability to move freely, to intermix, and when solidified, you are back to one piece.\n\nEdit: fixed wording thanks to all the redditers that brought cold-welding to my attention!",
"This will answer your question about why you can't just stick two pieces of iron together.\n\nThe short answer is: in a vacuum, you can.\n\n_URL_0_",
"Breaking an object creates imperfections at the newly exposed surfaces. Imperfections can be deformation, oxidation, or dust/dirtification. \n\nQuick thought: Where do objects break? \n\n*pause for 30s*\n\nIf you said at the weak spots, +20 points for you! If you said at the strong spots, -20 points (or +30 points if you were being sarcastic). Think about a failing bridge: the weak points get all bent out of shape, and then more stress is put on the slightly stronger bits, until they too get bent out of shape. Let's say that eventually your bridge snaps right in half before falling into the river below. The two pieces are not simply 2 halves of a perfectly functional bridge. They be messed up. This same principle applies to the smaller world, but imperfections may be too small to see with the naked eye, especially if sharp cutting devices were used. \n\nWith wood, it is easy to imagine that some cell walls are weaker than others, and will rip off from their neigbours, leading to less than perfect surfaces on your two halves. Once the new face is open, a degree of freedom of motion as been removed, and so there is likely to be plenty of shifting around of cellulose and whatever else makes up wood. \n\nMetal is a bit trickier because the imperfections are harder to see, but they do usually exist. Even if the break is perfect (somehow), a newly exposed surface is just that: exposed. Depending on the metal type, oxidation could occur, or dust/water can land on the surface. Also, just having air between the two edges, even if unreacted, means that you'd have to force every last air particle out of the way to get your two pieces back together.\n\nAh-ha! You might be saying to yourself! Put the pieces in a vacuum and stick them back together! Now we're getting somewhere, although if the two pieces were broken off from each other, I think we'd still have some problems with imperfections. The trick to getting perfect surfaces seems to be to grow perfect crystals. Our friends suggest that sticking two perfect crystals of the same material together in a vacuum will in fact bond. Cool stuff!",
"> If I cut a piece of wood in half, why can't I put it back together?\n\n* There are an awful lot of chemical bonds that you just cut through! It's really not feasible to re-align everything and remake them again.\n\n* After the cut, you will create some dangling bonds. They are not stable and will try and react with nearby atoms. This means, in the process of cutting, you'll be making new chemical bonds too, and some of them won't want to be rearranged back to what things were like before the cut. \n\n > Also, why does this worth with liquids, but not with solids?\n\n* The forces that hold a liquid together are much weaker than those that hold the wood together. In the former, it will be the weaker molecule-molecule interactions like van der Waals forces, dipole interactions, hydrogen bonding, and similar intermolecular forces that will matter the most. It is much easier to break these bonds and reform them again. In addition, you don't really have to worry about the alignment problem. The molecules in a liquid fluctuate much faster than in a solid, and any kind of inhomogeneity will quickly dissipate away. \n\n* Those weak intermolecular forces are also present in wood, but there are also covalent bonds that comprise the structure of the wood which you just cut through. Those bonds are not going to magically reform for you.\n\n > Why is it that if I have two separate pieces of iron, I can't stick them back together,\n\n* If you cut through a piece of iron, you will make it rust microscopically. That oxide layer will prevent you from putting them back together. You could cut the block in a vacuum and smush them together with some effort to form a cold weld though. These types of metallic bonds are not the same as the covalent bonds in wood. You have attraction essentially between fixed, positively charged nuclei embedded in a negatively charged electron gas. It's relatively easy to just extend the cloud of electrons to cover a extra metal atoms.\n\n > [Why can I] melt [metal] and freeze it and it will be attached to each other?\n\n* The extra heat aids the diffusion and intermixing of metal atoms so that when you finally cool everything down, the metal atoms will be able to sit near their correct lattice positions.",
"[This](_URL_1_) is a very similar question from a few months ago. It ended up focusing on paper rather than wood, but overall it's a similar concept.\n\nSeraph's answer anyway sums it up pretty well.",
"These replies are rather convoluted so just to sum it up: plant fibers (celluose) in the wood are long carbon polymers- ie: chemical bonds create the fibers of plants for plant structure, not just weaker attractive forces. You are severing these chemical bonds with an axe due to the extreme, focused pressure. The only way to reattach two pieces of wood is to reform the chemical bond which won't happen when you merely press the wood together whether dead or alive. Also in a more general sense, cells are glued together through extensive scaffolding also composed of chemical bonds which is why your skin doesn't slough off when you rub it."
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"url": [
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|
If I cut a piece of wood in half, why can't I put it back together?
If the atoms are naturally attached to each other, and I separate them, why can't I put it back together? Also, why does this work with liquids, but not with solids? Why is it that if I have two separate pieces of iron, I can't stick them back together, but I can melt it and freeze it and it will be attached to each other? EDIT: Spelling
|
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|
301jd2
|
What's used as a NOT gate in computers?
|
I know that transistors are the basic blocks of modern computers, but from what I know they don't invert signals. They are more of an AND gate as the 2 inputs must be on for the output to be on. For computer logic to work there needs to be something which acts as a NOT gate. So what do the NOT gates actually consist of in my CPU? Thanks.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cpoa3yx",
"cpoj0q9",
"cponwzj"
],
"text": [
"Strictly speaking, transistors don't invert signals, but they can be placed in a circuit in such a way that the circuit input will be inverted. Some quick background - digital logic is generally done with a MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor). MOSFETs come in two varieties, pFETs and nFETs, where p/n are 'positive' and 'negative'. pFETs turn on when there's a logical zero at their gate; nFETs turn on when there's a logical one at their gate. \n \n \nIt is possible to make a functional inverter with a single transistor, as shown in the [first two examples](_URL_0_). However, the third implementation - the CMOS inverter - is what you're likely to run into. CMOS is popular because you can easily balance the on/off switching time (pFETs are intrinsically slower than nFETs - IIRC, to achieve similar performance, the pFET gate will be about 3x wider than the nFET). Also, CMOS logic has very low steady-state power consumption - it only really uses power when it's actively switching on or off. Since more and more transistors are being crammed into CPUs of roughly the same size, power dissipation is a huge problem. \n \nedit: wider, not longer. Thanks for catching that.",
"In actual fact, most gates within a computer are NAND gates, that is, an AND gate with it's output inverted.\n\nIt [can be shown](_URL_2_) that any logic combination can be achieved with NAND gates alone so rather than produce a lot of different gates, you can mass produce one gate only. \n\nTo produce a NOT gate using this, the two inputs of a NAND gate can be tied together.\n\nTo implement a NAND gate using transistors depends on the type of process you are using. Some of them are covered [here.](_URL_2_)",
"Actually, pretty much every logic gate used in modern circuitry is inverting. AND and OR gates aren't fundamental building blocks -- NAND and NOR are. These are like AND and OR but the outputs are inverted. Non-inverting AND and OR gates are usually made by taking a NAND or NOR and putting a NOT gate on the output to \"de-invert\" the signal.\n\nAs for the NOT gates themselves, they can either be made directly (they're actually the simplest gate to make, basically a one-input NAND or NOR) or you can take either a NAND or NOR and connect both the inputs to the same thing.\n\nAlso, as others have said -- you can make literally any logic system you want with nothing but NAND gates. (Or with nothing but NOR gates, for that matter.) You just have to chain them together the right way.\n\nTo make other gates out of NAND gates:\n\n**NOT:** Tie the NAND's inputs together -- this forms a single NOT input.\n\n**AND:** Put a NOT gate on the output of a NAND gate. (It can be a \"real\" NOT gate or just a NAND gate with the inputs tied together.)\n\n**OR:** Put a NOT gate on each input of a NAND gate.\n\n**NOR:** Put a NOT gate on each input and the output of a NAND gate.\n\nMaking stuff out of NOR gates is the same, but AND and OR are swapped. (And putting NOT gates on the inputs and output of a NOR gate makes a NAND gate.)"
],
"score": [
29,
14,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverter_%28logic_gate%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAND_logic",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAND_gate#Implementations"
]
}
|
What's used as a NOT gate in computers?
I know that transistors are the basic blocks of modern computers, but from what I know they don't invert signals. They are more of an AND gate as the 2 inputs must be on for the output to be on. For computer logic to work there needs to be something which acts as a NOT gate. So what do the NOT gates actually consist of in my CPU? Thanks.
|
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q1m6w
|
[META] Is your question missing from the new queue? Also, info for new subscribers!
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askscience
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"text": [
"I would also like to emphasize that if you are a non-panelist making a top level response, you should include citations for your answer.",
"While we're being meta, another little suggestion:\n\nI see a lot of questions of the form \"Why does X happen\" or \"Why is X\"? These questions assume the truth of X. Unless you have a scientific source showing that X is true, the question should be phrased something like \"Does X happen, and if so, why?\"",
"If you ask a question about whether something from sci-fi is possible, and it turns out that it isn't, don't hate the playa. Hate the game.",
"Can you clarify the \"no speculative questions\" requirement? For example, right now two of the top questions are \"How far away from Earth would you be able to detect human presence?\" and \"If there was a total meltdown of society, how long would the GPS system continue to work?\" Neither one seems to fall under the \"concrete science\" requirement, as both clearly require some level of speculation. So where exactly are you drawing the line?",
"I posted [this](_URL_0_), but it never showed up. I PM'd a mod and he said meta threads were generally discouraged anyway and I should post it in this thread. So I am here, doing that.",
"Let me take this opportunity to thank the mods of this subreddit. Thank you for being transparent about the rules and communicating regularly with us. We need active mods like you guys on every subreddit as far as I'm concerned.",
"I just have to say, it's rules like these that make this the best moderated subreddit. Hats off to you guys, what a great subreddit.",
"I would also like to add that the few of us with shiny pink tags would *love* for you to ask math-related questions.",
"Any chance you could add a \"Here's somewhere else to ask your stupid question\" list to the sidebar?\n\nI appreciate that you want to have a hard-science community here, but between the posting rules and the spam filter that blocks everything (all posts = spam? Post THEN mail? Spam filter that catches everything is dumped every 4 hours?) this is a remarkably offputting and unwelcoming sub.",
"> We are (...) not [here] to have debates or imagine the future.\n\nActually, where can we do these things? Informed guesswork and speculation is part of what makes science fun for me, and if I can't do that here, then I would like to migrate.\n\nActually, what? *Debating* is not allowed?",
"What should I do if I come across a question that has been answer and I really don't have anything to add? I feel like an upvote isn't enough and saying \"this\" isn't really appropriate...\n\nI do think that there is sometimes a need to add weight to an answer.",
"Are you guys going to do a redux of tags in the near future?"
],
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%23AskScience",
"www.reddit.com/r/askscience"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/q1coy/before_you_begin_your_question_with_why_does/"
]
}
|
[META] Is your question missing from the new queue? Also, info for new subscribers!
Have you submitted a question and it isn't showing up in the New tab after 10 minutes or so? Send us a [modmail](_URL_0_) with a link to the post in question and we will have a look and fish it out. There are other reasons for your question not showing up. If it falls into one or more of these categories, we most likely have removed the question: * **Asking a question that is too personal.** ("Why do my feet fall asleep but my brother's don't?") We can't answer this because we don't know your medical history, nor can we diagnose you if you give us your medical history as it is against Reddit's Terms of Use. You can reword personal questions to be more general and leave out personal details. ("What happens when your feet fall asleep? Are certain people more prone to this?") * **Asking a question that cannot be answered without speculation.** ("If we were to meet aliens, what would they look like?" or "What is the next step in human evolution?") While these questions are great questions, they just don't fall under the umbrella of what we are here to do. We are here to answer concrete scientific questions, not to have debates or imagine the future. * **Asking a question that ignores a fundamental property of science.** ("If we could go faster then the speed of light what would we see?" or "If DNA had 6 base pairs instead of 4 what would life look like?") This is another type of question that is fun to talk about, but it can't be answered without speculation or straight up guessing. Unfortunately, it's not our bag. * **Asking a question that is a "frequent flier".** We get a lot of questions here and it is likely someone may have asked something similar in the past. If you look through [/r/sciencefaqs](/r/sciencefaqs) , there are posts that cover popular questions, and we are adding to it all the time. In most cases we will let you know if this is a popular question, and we will have you read over older threads to see if it covers your question. Another thing you can do **before posting** is a Google search of AskScience by adding site:_URL_1_ to the end of your search terms. It works really great! These rules are a little harsh, we know, but we are here to help! If we don't release your thread we will always help you reword your question if possible, or come up with an alternate question that may be more appropriate. We're almost at 450,000 users, these rules are in place to keep our quality as high as possible. Sometimes this means that we may have to remove a post even if it is a great question because the comments get out of control. In this case, if there is any salvageable conversation we will clean the thread and re-release it at a later time. You can help us by doing the following things: * Read through the existing comments before posting to see if there's an answer you can expand on. * If you aren't a panelist, please add citations for your answers. If you are a panelist, be willing to add citations if they're asked for when possible. * Use the report link on any comments or posts that don't follow our guidelines. * Report any trolls. * Refrain from posting anecdotes and speculation, it just makes more work for us when you do. * Downvote anecdotes and speculation. * Point users to older posts if you recognize a repeat question, then mod mail us so we can add it to ScienceFAQs. One final thing to remember is this: There's a little more than 30 of us and 450,000 of you. Sometimes things slip through the cracks and we'll miss things that don't follow the rules. Please report this stuff and we'll get around to it. We always welcome suggestions via mod mail, so if you've got ideas let us know. Thanks for being a part of this community!
|
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|
pwyzu
|
For My Biology Minded Redditors: How Bad is it Really to "Feed the Wildlife?"
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3swr7a",
"c3swnfq",
"c3swhev",
"c3swtow"
],
"text": [
"Park manager and ecologist here. It's a perennial problem, and one which can cause much controversy. _URL_0_ I have tried various means to stop people feeding wildfowl in my parks, but with little success. \n\nI think the clue in understanding why this is bad is to stop trying to think of the individual animals, and think of the population or better still, the species. Clearly, feeding individuals can be good for those individuals, and that's what people love to see and do. But the side-effect of artificial feeding is that natural behaviour patterns alter, populations change to levels unsustainable without the extra food, and sometimes other species entirely become established which otherwise wouldn't be present. This is not good for the species as a whole, because it reduces the population's ability to adapt and respond to its environment. So, for example, birds may no longer migrate, but stay where the pickings are good. So they are denied the process of selection which migration obviously involves, and will not meet the same potential mates, nor will they or their offspring experience the habitat of their migration destination. \n\nIn practice, on a site I manage this means what was once a natural brackish lagoon with a few seasonal waterfowl on it has become a year-round riot of all sorts of species of waterfowl who sit in a sterile bowl of eutrophic muck awaiting their daily unloading of bread. Domestic species seem to turn up as well, I guess because people bring their unwanted ducks and geese there and dump them. And don't get me started about the rats.",
"So I get the dependency issue, but even when not being directly fed, these animals scavenge off of things that are dropped and thrown away. They still, even if indirectly thrive off of the park. While I don't see the park going away anytime soon, they have become dependent on it just existing. Would they be able to find food else where if such an abundant source weren't available? Central Florida certainly provides for our local critters with all of the tourism that we have. I guess the real question I'm asking is with such a unique environment as the Central Florida Theme Park circuit, and the unique scavenging of food that is available to local wildlife, does feeding the animals really hurt them or are they made dependent just on the unique circumstances of the environment?",
"One problem is if they become dependent on humans, such as in a park. Then they'll stop collecting their own food, and therefore if we ever decide to stop feeding them, they could all starve, since they're so unequipped.",
"I used to live in a small town called Port Alberni (BC). The native black bears there are known to wander around overturning garbage cans. Some of them don't even go into the normal hibernation cycle because food (trash) is abundant enough that they continue to feed all year round. This is becoming a real problem for the city, to the point that everyone is now required to buy \"bear proof\" garbage cans. \n\nThe point is that in the wild animals have to fend for themselves or die, but when living in close proximity to humans who feed them or leave waste behind animals will break for their regular patterns."
],
"score": [
8,
3,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3275233.stm"
]
}
|
For My Biology Minded Redditors: How Bad is it Really to "Feed the Wildlife?"
|
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8qgzff
|
Is there a term for the idea that evolution is only 'good enough,' that is, that it can't achieve perfect if there's a dip in survival chance along the way?
|
A professor last year mentioned the idea that evolution couldn't overcome a temporary dip in survival chance, even if there was a much greater chance of survival afterwards. I think he used the metaphor of a hill, a valley, and a much taller hill, with the idea that the way evolution works wouldn't really allow (most?) species to reach the 'higher hill.'
Is this accurate? And if so, is there a name, or studies about it? I'm ideally wanting to use the concept for an essay but can't find it through searching.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"The hill-valley metaphor is typically called the 'fitness landscape' or 'adaptive landscape' and the hill/valley (depending on how the scoring works) would be called a local optima, local maxima, or local minima. [Example.](_URL_0_)",
"The usual way I hear that phrased is that natural selection finds a \"local maximum\" but it can't, in general, find an \"absolute maximum\" of fitness. A good example is the way animals deal with the nitrogen when we burn proteins. The most energy\\-efficient approach would be to convert it to N2 gas, but apparently no creature on Earth has ever developed the ability to do that. Instead, fish convert it to ammonia, but land\\-animals can't survive that because ammonia is too toxic without having a whole ocean to dilute it. Most animals convert it to urea, and those that develop inside eggs turn it into uric acid. Each of these is less efficient than the others, but solves a local toxicity problem. None has ever \"discovered\" that pure nitrogen would be the most efficient and the least toxic.",
"Another term you could use is \"[greedy](_URL_1_) .\"This kind of thing occurs in math/signal processing sometimes too. Specifically I've seen it for radars a lot. You're trying to estimate an aircrafts location, but your data is imperfect die to physical limitations in the hardware. One way to try and get as accurate as method of measuring as possible is to use an iterative algorithm. You give it an educated initial guess, then it plugs that number into an equation and gives you a number that's closer to the actual number. You then take the new number it just gave you and plug that in, getting a third number that's even closer, and so on. The problem is that it will sometimes converge on a local maximum instead of the true maximum. \n\nSay 7km is more likely to be the number than 8 or 9km, but 10 km is the real number. If your original guess is 6km, then your algorithm will converge to 7, since going from 7 to 8 would require it to spit out a number less likely than the one it already has. If you guess 9 though, it'll go right to 10 without a problem (this is an oversimplification obviously, theres normally multiple variables to estimate, so some 'wrong' combinations of the variables could more correct than others). So itll settle for whatever is immediately the best instead of what would be the best in the long term, hence we call it a greedy algorithm. Being more strictly mathematical the example isnt exactly the same, but Id say it fits the not wanting to take a dip even if it means getting something better later on. \n\nI think Dawkins has a book called the Greedy Gene or the Selfish Gene or something. I've never read it, but I've seen some discussions that indicate it may be talking about something similar, how many creatures could take certain actions to benefit many different creatures later on, but choose not to because it would cost them resources now.",
"in mathematics, the word is \"local optimum\". \n\nIf you have some function from some space (eg, the space of all alleles) to some measure of value (eg, expected number of copies of the allele, given the current environment), the function might have some *global optimum* representing the *best possible* genome (or marketing strategy or engine design or circuit configuration or neural network), but it may also have many *local optima*, representing points in the search space that are better than anything you can get via small tweaks (but not necessarily best overall).\n\nEvolution (specifically, sexual reproduction and mutation) can do better than \"just small tweaks\", so it won't *necessarily* get stuck in a local optimum. Sometimes, however, a local optimum *is* sufficiently different from any neighboring hilltops that it can get stuck there.\n\nNote, also, that the landscape evolution is playing against is full of moving targets. It might have found the global optimum, only to find that a few generations later, other genes have moved on, and the hill is rapidly becoming a valley."
],
"score": [
15,
6,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5013765/",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greedy_algorithm"
]
}
|
Is there a term for the idea that evolution is only 'good enough,' that is, that it can't achieve perfect if there's a dip in survival chance along the way?
A professor last year mentioned the idea that evolution couldn't overcome a temporary dip in survival chance, even if there was a much greater chance of survival afterwards. I think he used the metaphor of a hill, a valley, and a much taller hill, with the idea that the way evolution works wouldn't really allow (most?) species to reach the 'higher hill.' Is this accurate? And if so, is there a name, or studies about it? I'm ideally wanting to use the concept for an essay but can't find it through searching.
|
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|
11f08q
|
If I mix an equal amount of 20°C water and 40°C water, will I obtain 30°C water?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6lvmie",
"c6lzwlp",
"c6lvg22"
],
"text": [
"Only if the specific heat of the water is independent of temperature. This is (almost) true in the temperature range you're considering. So, yes, very close to 30C.\n\n_URL_0_",
"Wolfram alpha to the rescue!\n\n[Entropy of 1l water at 100kPa and 20°C is 295.9J/K](_URL_4_)\n\n[Entropy of 1l water at 100kPa and 40°C is 567.9J/K](_URL_4_)\n\nMixing the two the entropy should be 863.8J/K\n\nAnd now at 30:\n\n[Entropy of 2l water at 100kPa and 30°C is 869.7J/K](_URL_4_)\n\nClose enough, but not exactly! [It will probably be 29.784°C!](_URL_4_)",
"Pretty much, yeah. ~~If you mix 20C and 40C of any substance~~ most liquid substances, you will get 30C, barring heat loss or gain from the environment.\n\nThere is a property called \"specific heat\" or \"specific heat capacity\" which is how much thermodynamic energy it takes to raise a gram of a substance by one degree celsius. Every gain from the 20 would require an equal loss from the 40, since they have identical specific heat capacities."
],
"score": [
40,
11,
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-thermal-properties-d_162.html",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=2l+of+water+at+30%C2%B0C+and+100+kPa",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=2l+of+water+at+29.784%C2%B0C+and+100+kPa",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=1l+of+water+at+20%C2%B0C+and+100+kPa",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=1l+of+water+at+40%C2%B0C+and+100+kPa"
]
}
|
If I mix an equal amount of 20°C water and 40°C water, will I obtain 30°C water?
|
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||
1ndjvi
|
what would happen if a healthy (stable) person took a shot from an EpiPen?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"Elevated heart and respiratory rate, mostly.\n\nIt actually happens more than you'd think. Plenty of badly trained first aiders (or properly trained first aiders acting under intense stress because they are aiding someone they care about) inject themselves with the stuff by accident. The most common mistake is to put the thumb at the end of the stick when pressing against the thigh of the casualty, if they try to insert the wrong end (yes, it happens), then the needle pops out in their thumb. It's not life threatening by itself, but in the meantime the casualty is suffocating.",
"The other thing people forget is that epi pens have a pretty small dose, 0.3mg, of epinephrine. I can only speak from Wilderness First Responder training (there are different protocols for patient care in the wilderness, where you don't have ready access to real medical care).\n\nWFR protocols call for the equivalent of an epi pen dose up to once every 5 minutes and even more if the airway worsens (but apparently needing more than 3 is rare). [Protocol here](_URL_0_)\n\nOne of the guys who trained me had an accidental stick with what he thought was a trainer. I don't know what dose he actually got because it isn't an instant injection and you are supposed to hold them down for 10 seconds. So, he may have had only a partial dose because he didn't hold it. He said it felt like he had drank way too much caffeine, he felt on edge, and got a headache but he said it didn't last all that long.\n\nI had to use an epi pen in a real situation only once (three epi pens actually). The girl who had been stung said she felt really similar to what the trainer described. She also got a bit sweaty even though it was not that warm. She got very fidgety as well. She definitely had an elevated heart rate and it went up after subsequent injections but nothing too crazy if I remember right. I don't think we took blood pressure.\n\n\n\nHowever, she was already freaked out because she didn't even know she was allergic prior to her having a big reaction that time. She really was not happy when she started to have trouble breathing.\n\nFor various other reasons that day was a shit show.",
"EDIT: I underestimated how much adrenaline is in there and apparently it's fairly debilitating. So where I said it would be mild, I was wrong, sorry. But science behind how the EpiPen works is correct as far as I know.\n\nNothing drastic should happen. You may, however, notice that you get a slightly faster heart rate. I suppose if you used it often enough in high doses, you will be putting unnecessary strain on your heart and have problems there down the line.\n\nThe active ingredient in an EpiPen is Epinephrine which is more commonly known as adrenaline.\n\nAdrenaline is a naturally occurring substance in your body that causes a rise in blood glucose and heart rate (and also the stroke volume i.e. the volume of blood per heart beat) as well as constricting of your blood vessels dilation of air passages and making you feel overall more 'excited'. It also contributes to the fight-or-flight response. It is releases by your body into the blood stream when you are stress for example when you play sport or you're about to go on stage for a performance or anything similar to that. The feeling of being pumped/ nervous is caused by the adrenaline in your blood stream. It always you to take in more air by opening up your airways and the faster heart rate is in preparation for strenuous activity.\n\nWhen a person suffers from an anaphylactic reaction, it's basically just your body freaking out because it thinks something that you have come into contact with (food, insect bites etc.) is life threatening. Symptoms include a drop in blood pressure, swelling of airways and outbreak of hives. The constricting of blood vessels cause by a shot of adrenaline from the EpiPen helps blood circulate faster which stops the drop in blood pressure meaning that your airways relax and open up (easier to breathe) and it also stops the swelling of skin (hives).\n\nSo injecting yourself with an EpiPen when you're not having an anaphylactic reaction is generally safe, causing you only to feel kind o excited :)",
"Symptoms would include a racing heart and anxiety. The increased work load on the heart might cause some chest pain especially if you had pre-existing heart problems. Worst case is that it might precipitate some kind of arrhythmia (abnormal heart rhythm), which, depending on the type and severity, could cause you to collapse and possibly even die. This is very unlikely though. \nI've seen an otherwise healthy man given a good dose of adrenaline after being misdiagnosed with anaphylaxis. He was hypertensive, tachycardia and very anxious, but it settled fairly quickly.",
"As someone who did this once at a party the main thing that happened was my teeth started chattering uncontrolably for like 15 minutes. My buddy has a video of it, Ill try to get it from him and upload it."
],
"score": [
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.wildmed.com/pdf/WMA-Field-Protocols.pdf"
]
}
|
what would happen if a healthy (stable) person took a shot from an EpiPen?
|
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] |
||
w4o0c
|
Are the ocean floors scattered with bones?
|
What happens to whales and other large sea animals when they die? Do their bones sink? Do they get consumed?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5a7mn1",
"c5a6u1x",
"c5a9azv",
"c5agmkp"
],
"text": [
"I saw an excellent infographic a while back illustrating a \"whale fall\"--what happens to a whale's body after it dies. I'll look for it. In the meantime, here's an article that goes more in depth about it: [Whale fall](_URL_0_) \n\nedit: My mistake, it wasn't an infographic. It was this [video](_URL_1_). Quite beautiful, actually. One whale can support a community of organisms for 50-75 years after death.",
"The presence of bones and shells on the ocean floor depends on where you are. If the bone or shell is deposited in the deep oceans (where the [CCD](_URL_3_) is present) then the calcium carbonate and calcium will be put into solution with the water. \n\nMOST of the shells are broken down and deposited as a carbonate ooze that will eventually become limestone. \n\nIf it is deposited near-shore, then you can get [coquinas](_URL_2_), or other such biogenic rich rocks",
"[Whale carcass yields bone-devouring worms.](_URL_4_)\n\n[Boneworms on dead whales in Monterey Bay.](_URL_5_) (video)",
"Bones rot away too:\n\nDebris field at the Titanic, no human bodies, only dozens of [close-spaced pairs of shoes.](_URL_6_\")"
],
"score": [
47,
23,
5,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/zoology/mammals/whale-death1.htm",
"http://vimeo.com/29987934",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coquina",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonate_compensation_depth",
"http://www.mbari.org/news/news_releases/2004/whalefall.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URi8KccVkks",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=titanic+\"pairs+of+shoes"
]
}
|
Are the ocean floors scattered with bones?
What happens to whales and other large sea animals when they die? Do their bones sink? Do they get consumed?
|
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|
3iq1d6
|
Why are explosive overpressures so low?
|
I was reading about damage caused by various sizes of bombs and explosions, and it gave the damage estimate based the explosive overpressure. At only 10psi overpressure (25psia, I assume), it says reinforced concrete buildings will be severely damaged, but concrete typically has a strength of 3000-5000 psi. Why the disparity?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"I can answer this from the blast wave side of things, but don't know much about concrete properties. Blast waves feature a large instantaneous step in pressure at its front, plus a rapid non-instantaneous drop following that. As a result, the pressure gradient (dp/dx) will be of very high magnitude.\n\nI suspect those concrete strengths are calculated for static loads, which have much lower pressure gradients and are less damaging.",
"This situation is easier to understand with the more familiar material of glass. The tensile strength of ordinary glass is [fairly similar](_URL_0_) to that of concrete.\n\nImagine two different ways of breaking a glass window that is 1000 square inches (say, 20 inches by 50), and a quarter of an inch thick. How many pounds of force, pushing in the center of the window, would it take to break the glass - perhaps 100 lbs?\n\nOn the other hand, the tensile strength measurement would correspond to the following way of trying to break the window: put a uniform amount of pressure on every square inch of the glass until it gets *crushed*. It might take 4000 pounds per square inch to crush glass (or concrete), and thus 4 million pounds to crush our hypothetical window - a *lot* more than the 100 pounds it would take to break the window by just pushing its center.\n\nA different way of phrasing this, is that the 3000-5000 psi figure is what would be needed to make *every* part of the structure - every cubic millimeter - fail simultaneously; however for the building to fall down or the window to break, all we need is one crack at a crucial place.\n\nAnother perspective is that, you might have noticed that the 3000-5000 psi figure (and the second calculation above) completely ignore the *thickness* of the concrete/window, so this cannot possibly be an \"apples to apples\" comparison with strength: whatever pounds-per-square-inch is measuring, since it ignores thickness (which makes things stronger) it *cannot* be measuring how strong a wall/window is. This is an example of the crucial physics tool of \"dimensional analysis\", where if you know in what ways your answer *should* depend on your inputs, you can often guess what is going on without doing any work!",
"Strength is not a dynamic measure. It means that the concrete can hold that much weight per square inch. Instantaneously change the pressure by 10psi, like by hitting the concrete with a sledge hammer or by exploding some C4 next to it, and the shock wave will disrupt the solid concrete structure and turn it into small pieces.",
"Because it doesn't have to crush a cube of concrete. \n\nThe force (pressure x area) absorbed by the whole wall has to be managed by the joints that connect it to the rest of the building.\n\nThe way a shape focuses stress on particular points is very important in engineering.",
"ME not a CE, but I think I can explain. The issue is not that the concrete fails in bearing directly as your comparison of 10psi to the strength of concrete suggests. A solid block of concrete would have no trouble surviving that load. Buildings are not solid, so the 10psi has lots of surface area to act on and, depending on how the loads flow through the building, can concentrate greatly.\n\nImagine a 10' square wall. At 10psi the load on the face of that wall is 144000 lbs! If the wall was 1' thick, the stress at it's base (assuming it's freestanding) is about 3000psi. This is a moment load, so half of the base is in tension and half in compression as the force tries to tip the wall over. Given that the tensile strength of unreinforced concrete is ~1/10th of its compression strength, that wall would be on the ground.",
"I am not sure what you are talking about exactly. The instantaneous pressure of a detonating seconday high explosive is in the millions of PSI. That represents the pressure the instant it detonates in its own free volume. As the wave moves out it expands in size and decreases in pressure. A high explosive charge, detonating right against a concrete wall easily has enough pressure to blast a hole through it. In fact when properly designed - you can cut through several inches of steel.\n\nFor example:\n\n_URL_1_"
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{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_tensile_strength#Typical_tensile_strengths",
"https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/335352.pdf"
]
}
|
Why are explosive overpressures so low?
I was reading about damage caused by various sizes of bombs and explosions, and it gave the damage estimate based the explosive overpressure. At only 10psi overpressure (25psia, I assume), it says reinforced concrete buildings will be severely damaged, but concrete typically has a strength of 3000-5000 psi. Why the disparity?
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|
1ggbac
|
What happens to a body builder's muscles if he suddenly stops exercising?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cajzq8f",
"cak28e9",
"cak46qz"
],
"text": [
"As others have said, the muscles will atrophy. The SAID principle states that your body will adapt to the demands placed on it. For a body builder, that is the heavy weight lifting. If the person stops this, then the body will also adapt the other way, recycling the muscles so to speak for other things the body feels it should use the proteins for. This process can actually be measured 48 hours after a sharp drop in activity for a muscle, such as a casted limb. The process is gradual, but with the exception of losing innervation (sch as with paralysis) the lost muscle can be regained with work. \n\n\nIf the diet was maintained, the body builder would also have a large caloric excess, resulting in adipose tissue(fat) being deposited on their body.",
"What about muscle memory? Is there science backing an increase in the muscle regeneration rate from a body builder after resuming weight lifting following a lengthy recess (let us say one year)? I often wonder if muscle memory is a myth.",
"So, the consensus seems to be that muscles will atrophy, but I have a question. I've gone on a few exercise benders in the last few years and made decent progress each time. It only lasts a few months and then I'm back to my old slovenly habits, but regardless I always seem to retain the gains I made for a long, long time. I haven't been lifting weights with any seriousness for about a year now, and I have yet to lose the muscle definition I gained. It seems to me that atrophy probably happens but takes a long time to set in. Much longer than it took to gain that muscle, at any rate."
],
"score": [
328,
6,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What happens to a body builder's muscles if he suddenly stops exercising?
|
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||
1qjvcq
|
AskScience AMA Series: IAMA Organismal Biologist who studies turtles & salamanders & frogs
|
Hi! I'm [Dr. Tobias Landberg](_URL_3_) and I've been a panelist and moderator here in AskScience for three years. I've just started a tenure track position as an Assistant Professor of Biology at [Arcadia University](_URL_0_).
Here's a [blog interview where I talk about how great AskScience is](_URL_1_). I < 3 you guys!
My research covers a lot of fields. From functional morphology (how critters do the things they do) to ecology (how they interact with the environment) to development (how they change as they age and grow).
[Here's my google scholar page](_URL_2_) which has links to my peer-reviewed publications.
What makes me an organismal biologist is that I study the whole organism as the level of interest. So how it integrates all the levels above and below it. I'm especially interested in the ways that organisms work, how they respond to the environment (plasticity) and how their life stages evolve. I'm particularly fascinated by metamorphosis. I am an experimentalist whose research ranges from controlled lab studies involving surgeries of amphibian embryos to mesocosm "field experiments" done in big cattle tanks, to studies of wild natural snapping turtle behaviors using crittercam technology.
Ask me anything!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cddihdm",
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],
"text": [
"Can you expand more on the idea of turtles breathing tying into locomotion? I know nothing about their anatomy - do they lack prototypical diaphragms and need some other mechanism to create a pressure gradient in their lungs? How does limb movement play into that?",
"Would you rather fight 100 frog sized horses or one horse sized frog? \n \nOn a more serious note, are there any other animals like axolotls that have a second stage of development (like tadpoles to frogs) that can only be reached using artificial hormones?",
"Can you show us a picture of the cattle tank mesocosms? I have done mesocosm studies before in lakes and kiddie pools, but I've never considered cattle tanks.\n\nWhat's it like using them? Do you find them to be suitable from the getgo for mesocosm studies or do they have to have extensive work done on them to prepare them for specific studies?",
"Excuse me if I'm asking an ignorant question, but is there some particular reason why you study turtles, who are reptilians, amidst salamanders and frogs, who are amphibians?",
"I'm getting into herping, do you have any tips or books to recommend? How do you find salamanders, turtles, or frogs? It seems a lot of it is just passed down from adviser to advisee, and the herpers I know are all mostly snake guys. I'd like to catch something other than copperheads for a change! In central Texas.",
"Which families of salamanders do you study? Which species? Do you work with them *in situ* or in a captive setting? I'm here in East TN studying P. welleri, D. quadramaculatus, and a recently discovered eastern locale of A. aeneus. In addition I work with Dendrobatids from Peru, Ecuador, Panama, Costa Rica, and Colombia. Thanks.",
"How do small cold blooded amphibians regulate their body temp without being able to sunbathe? Even more so with salamanders or frogs that live primarily or mainly in cold streams? And i guess while I'm at it, what about smaller sea turtles without large fat reserves?",
"Simple question: why are giant salamanders so big, and what caused them to evolve larger in america and asia but not in other areas? I guess it's something to do with available habitats and food chains? Do salamanders vocalise? Also, do you study newts?",
"If my memory serves me, frog eggs are massive relative to other species. Is there a purpose that this serves?",
"Can turtles really breathe out of their butt? And if so, how and why do they do it?",
"What are some misconceptions that you notice people having regarding your field(s) of study?",
"Why aren't there salamanders or frogs as big as crocodiles or giant turtles?"
],
"score": [
8,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.arcadia.edu/academic/biology-faculty/",
"http://www.randalolson.com/2013/11/12/answering-peoples-pressing-science-questions-on-reddit-interview-with-tobias-landberg/",
"http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=HxO0UHYAAAAJ&hl=en",
"http://www.eeb.uconn.edu/eebedia/index.php/Tobias_Landberg"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
AskScience AMA Series: IAMA Organismal Biologist who studies turtles & salamanders & frogs
Hi! I'm [Dr. Tobias Landberg](_URL_3_) and I've been a panelist and moderator here in AskScience for three years. I've just started a tenure track position as an Assistant Professor of Biology at [Arcadia University](_URL_0_). Here's a [blog interview where I talk about how great AskScience is](_URL_1_). I < 3 you guys! My research covers a lot of fields. From functional morphology (how critters do the things they do) to ecology (how they interact with the environment) to development (how they change as they age and grow). [Here's my google scholar page](_URL_2_) which has links to my peer-reviewed publications. What makes me an organismal biologist is that I study the whole organism as the level of interest. So how it integrates all the levels above and below it. I'm especially interested in the ways that organisms work, how they respond to the environment (plasticity) and how their life stages evolve. I'm particularly fascinated by metamorphosis. I am an experimentalist whose research ranges from controlled lab studies involving surgeries of amphibian embryos to mesocosm "field experiments" done in big cattle tanks, to studies of wild natural snapping turtle behaviors using crittercam technology. Ask me anything!
|
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] |
|
rbeqm
|
According to NOAA's National Climatic Data Center, over 6,000 daily record highs tied or broken from Mar. 1-22! What the hell is happening?
|
And March isn't even over yet...
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"There was a bulge in the jet stream this winter, lots of highs in the area under it, it blocked the arctic air. North of it, temps were normal.",
"Important context for \"record\" temperatures: Keep in mind that the NOAA temperature records go back to 1871 (in some regions), meaning there are only 141 years on record. That means if you plot the new data point for daily average temperature against the historical there is a 2 out of 142 chance a given day will have a record (because it can either be the highest point or the lowest, using the simplifying assumption that it is a random variable with unchanging parameters). Over the course of a 365 day year this sums up to an average of 2/142\\*365 ~= **5 record temperatures** in a given year per data collecting center (that has full 141 year history). This is even ignoring factors like:\n\n* Gradual regional weather changes\n* Some years will naturally have more than the average number of records and others less\n* Individual days are not independent, it is easy to have a streak of records in a row\n* Close geographic areas are not independent, it is easy to have many different geographic areas set records at the same time\n* and, of course, Gradual global climate changes\n\nSo in my mind, as a mathematician this doesn't seem outrageous or necessarily indicative of global climate changes, this could easily happen out of mere chance. Leave it to the actual climatologist in peer reviewed studies to say whether this is a systematic shift indicative of a global climate change or if it is just random noise.",
"I believe it has to do with with this [weather pattern](_URL_0_). The Northeast is breaking temps but places like Washington and Alaska are getting hit with huge snow fall.",
"Source? I don't doubt this at all, but I have never used their web site and am having trouble finding this information.",
"It is an artifact of the configuration of the jet stream.",
"Thanks for all the info everyone... I'm no meteorologist, though I did take one class in college."
],
"score": [
73,
20,
16,
9,
8,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Ni%C3%B1a"
]
}
|
According to NOAA's National Climatic Data Center, over 6,000 daily record highs tied or broken from Mar. 1-22! What the hell is happening?
And March isn't even over yet...
|
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|
mfhuo
|
Hey social scientists, what do the data actually say about guns and crime?
|
It's often said by gun-control opponents that gun ownership reduces crime, and obviously we can imagine scenarios where we defend our homes from burglars with the aid of our trusty Glock, but gun-control proponents say you're more likely to shoot a member of your household than a burglar. There seem to be reasonable, informed people on both sides of the issue.
What's the truth, empirically? Do places where people have more guns experience less crime, and does it look like the former causes the latter? Does the likelihood of an accident dwarf any such effect?
*Note: I don't think this subreddit could possibly make it more clear, but **/r/askscience is for expert scientific answers, not layman speculation, memes, politics, etc.**. Though follow-up questions are always welcome. I'm terrified by the number of [deleted]'s a question like this might attract. But goshdarnit, I really would like to know the answer.*
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c30ina4",
"c30j0di",
"c30j0yt",
"c30jbaj",
"c30jxck"
],
"text": [
"You may have trouble finding good studies with real data. This New York Times article discusses the ways in which the NRA has used its political clout to defund exactly the kind of research you are hoping to find. It's a very chilling article for any scientist to read.\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nTo be clear, I'm not trying to make a political statement with this; rather, I hope that it serves as a reminder that unfortunately, the \"truth, empirically\" may be mired by politics in such a politically-charged area of inquiry.",
"There's an [AskSocialScience](_URL_1_) subreddit, where you might have more luck.",
"A crude first attempt, but compare [murder rates](_URL_3_) to [gun ownership rates](_URL_2_). If we look at say the US and Canada, the US has about 3x as many guns and 3x as many murders per capita. Between the US and UK, 15x as many guns, still about 3x as many murders. On the other hand, if you look at a country like South Africa, the US has about 7x as many guns, but about 7x *fewer* murders.\n\nOverall, the US is *by far* the world leader in gun ownership, and while our murder rate is significantly higher than in many other developed countries, it's much lower than in many less developed countries, despite the relative lack of guns in those countries.",
"I know you are asking about crime but this research looks into the statistical risks of having a gun in your home. Not exactly a direct answer but it may be helpful in researching this.\n\n_URL_4_",
"Some things I think would be interesting to explore would be...\n\nIs the correlation between property crime and low life expectancy & poverty so great that the level of gun ownership is not a significant factor? [You did not mention Switzerland, very high (and mandatory?) gun ownership]\n\nIf the level of gun ownership is not a significant factor for property crime rates, what about \"passion\" or just the murder rate (it seems that a high level of gun availability would lead to more \"incidental\" deaths during the commission of a crime. \n\nWhat are the contributing factors (or even strongly correlated factors) between accidental gun deaths and gun ownership. Does it matter if the guns are recreational or for security? It is a matter of gun safety training?\n\nfinally, and maybe the most important one, what is the cost-benefit analysis of widespread gun ownership and availability vs. accidental deaths at home/play and incidental deaths during the commission of a crime for a given level of development/health/poverty.\n\nIt does seem unlikely that the number of types of studies to do this is not in the best interest of certain powerful political forces in the US, but the results would be interesting (to me)"
],
"score": [
17,
8,
6,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/26/us/26guns.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskSocialScience/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_gun_ownership",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_intentional_homicide_rate",
"http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/160/10/929.full"
]
}
|
Hey social scientists, what do the data actually say about guns and crime?
It's often said by gun-control opponents that gun ownership reduces crime, and obviously we can imagine scenarios where we defend our homes from burglars with the aid of our trusty Glock, but gun-control proponents say you're more likely to shoot a member of your household than a burglar. There seem to be reasonable, informed people on both sides of the issue. What's the truth, empirically? Do places where people have more guns experience less crime, and does it look like the former causes the latter? Does the likelihood of an accident dwarf any such effect? *Note: I don't think this subreddit could possibly make it more clear, but **/r/askscience is for expert scientific answers, not layman speculation, memes, politics, etc.**. Though follow-up questions are always welcome. I'm terrified by the number of [deleted]'s a question like this might attract. But goshdarnit, I really would like to know the answer.*
|
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] |
|
ptprg
|
Is there any scientific evidence of the idea that harmful toxins build up in your body, that need to be removed by special diets, fasting, or other forms of cleansing?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3s70cy",
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"c3s9bby"
],
"text": [
"First define toxin. Whilst there are actual toxins in existence, people talking about fasting and detox are often not being precise and scientific. Not only do they misuse the word 'toxin' they don't have examples of specific toxins or toxic substances that their diet will help remove or any explanation as to the actual process that is happening. \n\nI guess some people see it as being like scrubbing dirt from a floor - all vague and such. The chemistry inside your body isn't really like that.\n\nTo remove a substance from your body it generally needs to be broken down or physically go through your digestive/kidney system. I can't see how a 'cleansing' diet would make that happen if your kidneys and liver etc couldn't manage it. \n\nThe other thing to consider is that the presence of a 'bad thing' inside your body isn't *necessarily* cause for alarm. Often the difference between 'harmful' or not is based on the amount in your body and over what time period. A tiny amount of mercury from a vaccination is not harmful and the body can deal with it.\n\nRemember, too, that 'good' substances can be bad for you. Excessive doses of things like iron, calcium and fat soluble vitamins can be harmful.",
"[From NPR](_URL_0_)\n\nFrom the article: \n > \"The body has its own amazing detoxification systems: the liver and the kidneys,\" says Ranit Mishori, a faculty member in family medicine at the Georgetown University School of Medicine who has reviewed the medical literature on colon cleanses. \"Unless there's a blockage in one of these organs that do it day and night, there's absolutely no need to help the body get rid of toxins.\"",
"Yes. There are ways that you can be exposed to heavy metals, through groundwater contamination, mercury in fish, lead piping in older buildings and so forth. These in particular will stay in the body unless they are removed through chelation.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nOne should note that this is only used for acute poisoning--\"Alternative medicines\" will sometimes prescribe this therapy to treat a disease that is not caused by heavy metal contamination, but this should not be used to assume that chronic exposure to toxins or pollution is not possible.\n\nI'm not familiar with or haven't even heard about the popularity of enemas or juice diets as a method of removing harmful substances from a person's body.",
"\"Harmful toxins\" is kind of a vague term, especially in this context. There is ample evidence that a variety of complex, fat-soluble, organic compounds do build up in your body over time (dioxins/furans, PCBs, etc). However, there is not currently evidence to support the idea that these cause problems (i.e., adverse human health outcomes). (Toxicologist)"
],
"score": [
23,
23,
7,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/02/15/146927835/can-a-diet-clean-out-toxins-in-the-body",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelation_therapy"
]
}
|
Is there any scientific evidence of the idea that harmful toxins build up in your body, that need to be removed by special diets, fasting, or other forms of cleansing?
|
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] |
||
8rq24l
|
How does the deep sea maintain life?
|
Sun light is the main source of power for life but deep in the ocean is pitch black so, how does it sustain life without a high energy source like the sun flowing into the system
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e0tc3v3",
"e0tjr6m",
"e0tevz1"
],
"text": [
"There are microbes in the deep sea that can perform chemosynthesis, by eating chemicals flowing from thermal vents on the ocean floor. There’s also whale falls, when a dead whale (or other large animal) dies and sinks to the bottom, along with other random flotsam sinking down.",
"Most of the nutrients that keep life in the deep going are brought in from elsewhere (surface) through vertical migration of animals or marine snow (bits of organic debris falling from the surface). However, as this \"food\" falls from the surface it looses both quality and quantity so the deep sea can only support a very low density of life. This low density is also the reason that the deep has such high species richness. If you were to sample a section of the deep sea you would not find one or two dominant species, but a realatively equal distribution of a great number of species. Chemosythesis accounts for only a small fraction of energy in the deep. Most organisms also have adaptations such as large mouths so they have a greater chance of being able to consume anything they come across.",
"There's sources that can provide heat energy other than photons. In regions such as the Mariana trench, there exist [mini volcanoes](_URL_0_) (of hydrothermal vents, to be more scientific) that provides heat energy to the given area. But, now you might wonder, how do they replenish their biological resources? Well, the hydrothermal vents also provide as a source for essential biological matter. They then break apart these molecules in a way that is called [chemosynthesis](_URL_1_). This process is the key into how they convert organic matter into being used as biological resources. But, this can be provided from different sources depending on which specie you're specifically referring to. Some species of crab can for example use carcass of animals as their source of energy and consumption, which is most likely to occur in deep waters (higher pressure is one of the causes.)"
],
"score": [
31,
8,
7
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis"
]
}
|
How does the deep sea maintain life?
Sun light is the main source of power for life but deep in the ocean is pitch black so, how does it sustain life without a high energy source like the sun flowing into the system
|
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|
1ko69o
|
Is natural lump charcoal ash with no additives good for your garden?
|
Google has a mess of answers that aren't helpful whatsoever. Everything from "Yes, it's great for the PH in the soil" to "No, the ash will turn into lye in the ground".
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbqx8wk",
"cbr06zq",
"cbqzsa9",
"cbr0klm"
],
"text": [
"It depends on the acidity of your soil. There are ancient Amazonian groups who increased the charcoal content to decrease the leaching and reduce acidity of Amazonian soils . It's called terra preta.\n\n However, you don't want to add too much or it becomes to basic.",
"In [*The Biochar Solution: Carbon Farming and Climate Change* by Albert Bates](_URL_0_) he claims that adding plain charcoal to soil will act as a sponge, in that it will absorb nutrients from the surrounding soil, so it is best to soak the charcoal in some sort of compost tea or put it in your compost pile to allow it to absorb said nutrients and be colonized by a microbial community before adding it to the soil. Once you've done that however, it will then supposedly become the best thing in the world for your garden, providing a well aerated, diverse microbial community. Of course, Bates' book is written entirely in favor of biochar, so you could probably find people who would contest that claim. \nAs for the pH, Bates' claims that it is widely variable based on the temperature of pyrolysis, which would probably account for the disparity between accounts. \n\n*Edit: Clarification of poorly worded sentence.",
"I think a larger question might be to find out what kind of plants you are growing, what type of nutrients they require, and what kind of behavior they are exhibiting that might lead you to think there is something they are missing. \n\nFor example, my chili plants had been suffering a bit until I discovered they require a bit of bone meal once in a while. Also, apparently Magnesium Sulfate (Epsom salts) are required by some (Habanero) to keep the leaves green / ward off some pests. \n\nI think what's best for your garden depends on the specific requirements of what you're growing, and what type of environment you are growing it in.",
"It is important to realize that *ash* and *charcoal* are two completely separate things. Yes you can get lumps of leftover charcoal out of a fire that didn't burn completely and you can get ashes from a fire as well.\n\nIf you want to figure out if a \"lump of charcoal ash\" is good for your garden then I suggest look up the effects of those items separately in deciding what your garden needs. The Amazonian terra preta was made with charcoal and not ashes."
],
"score": [
11,
3,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=roPvNHFctQAC&dq=biochar&source=gbs_navlinks_s"
]
}
|
Is natural lump charcoal ash with no additives good for your garden?
Google has a mess of answers that aren't helpful whatsoever. Everything from "Yes, it's great for the PH in the soil" to "No, the ash will turn into lye in the ground".
|
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] |
|
iykkn
|
Cocaine and tobacco residues found in Egyptian mummies, does this indicate trade with the Americas?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c27q0pr",
"c27rk9x",
"c27pxlb"
],
"text": [
"Trade could have been possible. Thor Heyerdahl proved the way to Amerika by sailing the papyrus-boat [Ra II](_URL_1_) from Morocco to Bardados (I loved the books as a child.) in 1970. The way from Amerika has been tried by Dominique Görlitz with the [Abora](_URL_0_) so far not fully successful.\n\n(Funny fact about the Ra II-experiment: Ra I failed, because it was not built original enough (missing holding rope).)",
"It could also prove nothing more than that European Gentleman Archaeologists from the 19th and early 20th century who dug up most of them were chain smoking cocaine users. Which in fact they mostly were.",
"if i recall those findings were largely discredited"
],
"score": [
3,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.abora.eu/2010/index.php/abora-iiienglisch.html",
"https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/w/index.php?title=Thor_Heyerdahl&oldid=439567340#The_boats_Ra_and_Ra_II"
]
}
|
Cocaine and tobacco residues found in Egyptian mummies, does this indicate trade with the Americas?
|
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kzh28
|
Vaccine conspiracy theories and hard science.
|
I am girding my loins to bring up vaccination with my non-vaccinating in-laws (their daughter is unvaccinated at 5). I previously posted [this](_URL_0_) hoping to get some other thoughts on vaccines in general. **Note:** They do not believe the autism/vaccine link and are generally evidence based, educated people. They have a four part objection to vaccines:
1. Vaccines are unnecessary with a healthy immune system
2. Vaccines are harmful to a healthy immune system
3. Vaccines are in and of themselves dangerous and part of a conspiracy by the medical establishment to make a profit
4. Vaccines will eventually cause the downfall of man because they are not a 'natural' immune response and humans will eventually not be able to cope with viruses.
Can AskScience help me refute these claims? I understand that viruses don't have the same risk of becoming vaccine resistant with overuse as antibiotics, but I don't understand quite why. I also have a hard time swallowing the whole conspiracy theory thing. I know that there have been some nefarious doings, but it seems to me that this level of nefariousness would have been noticed by now.
I am bringing this up because we have a child who is too young to be vaccinated against some viruses and want to be sure she is protected.
Thanks for any insight into the above!
|
askscience
|
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"I will need evidence on you telling that they are \"evidence based\" people, because none of your four point tenets will ever find any evidence from any decently qualified scientist in that field.\n\n > 1. Vaccines are unnecessary with a healthy immune system\n\nI'd rather not swear but I wish I could. This is not true. Vaccines are unnecessary if you don't mind a good fraction of people dying because of diseases. Vaccines are unnecessary if the only goal is to make sure humanity persists; no disease can generally wipe out a species, but it does not say anything about how many individuals of the species can get wiped out in the process of diseases trying so. If they are truly \"educated\" people, go and ask them to read about something called Smallpox. \n\n\n > 2. Vaccines are harmful to a healthy immune system\n\nVaccines are *not* harmful to your healthy immune system any more than driving a car is bad to your car. If by asking whether its going to cause slight problems, of course its going to. But thats nothing more than our immune systems are designed to cope with. Vaccination is nothing more than giving our system a headsup on how these pathogens look like. That is all. \n\n > 3. Vaccines are in and of themselves dangerous and part of a conspiracy by the medical establishment to make a profit\n\nI don't see a need to explain this because you yourself say that its a conspiracy theory. \n\n > 4. Vaccines will eventually cause the downfall of man because they are not a 'natural' immune response and humans will eventually not be able to cope with viruses. \n\nIt might cause the downfall of people who don't believe in it. I'd not be so depressed about it if it was not for the fact that people who refuse vaccination also end up affecting lives of others (because for eg. babies cant be vaccinated for a few months and morons who don't get vaccinated can give them these diseases in those periods). \n\nI'm all in for people who don't want to get vaccinated to exercise their freedom. But since they don't want to believe the doctors in these things, they should probably also never visit a doctor for anything; I mean come on everything might be a conspiracy for all they know! And they should probably not be allowed any public healthcare measures either. But if they want to argue mindlessly about stuff like this that doesn't even make sense to any rational person who knows stuff, I don't know what to do.",
"> Vaccines are unnecessary with a healthy immune system\n\nUntrue. I recently saw a cluster of measles infections at a hospital I worked at. Other cases have been reported in the last 12 months. Here are some articles\n\n > In USA during the 1980s, the number of measles cases was low but a big increase occurred in 1989 with almost 18 000 cases reported. Lack of a second dose of measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine could have decreased the level of immunity among the school-age population, among whom most of the cases were reported. Subsequently, two rounds of vaccination were recommended. At the end of 2000, thanks to vaccination, the ongoing transmission of endemic measles was declared eliminated in the USA. However, this year from January 1 to May 20, 118 cases were reported in the USA. 46% of the cases were imported, most from countries in the WHO European region.\n\nQuote from _URL_1_\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_4_\n\n_URL_2_ (this one is actually reports of healthy, immunized physicians catching measles from their patients!)\n\n > Vaccines are harmful to a healthy immune system\n\nThere's no evidence of this.\n\n > Vaccines are in and of themselves dangerous and part of a conspiracy by the medical establishment to make a profit\n\n_URL_0_ Results from a survey on the financial situation of vaccines in primary care settings. 11% of respondents said that due to financial pressures, \"their practice had seriously considered whether to stop providing all vaccines to privately insured children in the previous year.\"\n\n > Vaccines will eventually cause the downfall of man because they are not a 'natural' immune response and humans will eventually not be able to cope with viruses. \n\nVaccines use the natural immune response. That's why they are so effective, because our immune systems are absolutely incredible. If someone has a defective immune system, it doesn't matter if they get infected 'naturally' or are immunized, they are not going to build immunity.\n\nIf they want to make genetic arguments about humans getting 'weaker' due to medical treatments, then they should take the initiative by not seeking medical care for any illnesses, including dental work. Until then, they shouldn't put their child at risk.",
"There is a grain of truth to the second point (and the first half of the third point) that shouldn't be outright dismissed.\n\nSome of the more dangerous vaccines are unnecessary for individuals who aren't at risk for the particularly disease being vaccinated against. For example, smallpox has been eliminated in the wild (through successful vaccination programs), so there is little reason to get vaccinated against it, unless your job demands it (e.g., you work in a lab trying to detect biological warfare; medical doctor). The 1970s smallpox vaccine had a serious reaction rate of roughly 1 in 1000, and fatality rate of 1 in a million, so in the absence of a clear threat it doesn't make sense to distribute widely any more. Similarly, the [rabies vaccine](_URL_5_) (for humans) is only given to animal workers (e.g., veterinarians) as for most of us post-exposure rabies prophalaxis will work, while it makes sense to vaccinate your pet as your pet won't tell you he was playing with a rabid raccoon (while most humans would stay away from wild animals and be able to tell you if an animal bit you -- with the exception of bats in a room while you are sleeping). In contrast the diseases currently being vaccinated against often are fatal, and the vaccines have very low rates of significant reactions (much lower than smallpox). People using actual data have weighed the data and see a clear benefit of vaccination.\n\nHowever, people outside of the medical profession are not in the best position to analyze these claims. Every individual who opts out of vaccination doesn't just increase their risk of getting a serious but preventable disease (e.g., whooping cough), but also spreading it to more people (some of whom were vaccinated; but for whatever reason their immune system couldn't fight it off). If a small percentage of the population decided to opt out of vaccines, there's no doubt smallpox would still be out there killing millions of people a year as the community lost its herd immunity. \n\nThis whole I'm smarter than the medical establishment type thinking in terms of infectious diseases puts everyone you interact with at risk.",
"1) This is partly true for some diseases; however, the alternative is to actually get the disease the vaccine is for. A child can become immune to pertussis either by receiving a vaccine or undergoing a horrific pertussis infection.\n\nThis is not true for incurable diseases (polio, HPV). This is also not true for those with weaker immune systems (such as your daughter). Your in-laws are putting your daughter at risk of a fatal infection by allowing their child to be a potential disease vector.\n\n2/3/4 are a bit more on the conspiracy end. It is very hard to reason someone out of a belief that they didn't reason themselves into. The only thing I could suggest is to ask them if they would rather go back 100 years to a time when humans were being ravaged by smallpox and polio.",
"Layman here, and if the scientific argument fails, you could always try the economic argument. Health insurance pays for healthy people to get vaccinated. Vaccines cost money. Hospitalizations for adverse reactions to vaccines cost money. But they know that paying for the Measles vaccine is cheaper than paying to treat someone sick with the Measles.\n\nIf it didn't make economic sense, they wouldn't do it.",
"Ask them if they would like their kid to get polio, oh, wait, they can't, because vaccines have ELIMINATED it.",
"You all are rad. Thanks for so much thoughtful information. I feel slightly more prepared for what is likely to devolve into an unsatisfying discussion. If I convince them I will update you all! \nI am about to look up any clusters of measles outbreaks in their area as I am headed that way. I don't really know what to do because I need to visit an elderly family member and can't really say that the kid needs to stay away from us while we are there. Though perhaps that might convince them if nothing else will!",
"I think it might be useful to have some idea of the history of smallpox and the smallpox vaccination in your back pocket. Smallpox is a truly horrific disease. Most people are unaware of the history of it and would be scandalized to hear just how terrible it was, especially before we discovered rudimentary methods of protecting ourselves against it (first inoculation and then vaccination). Smallpox blows #1 out of the water. Amazingly, all the arguments levied against the modern vaccines were used against the smallpox vaccine. History proved them all wrong.",
"Everybody covered pretty much everything I was going to say, but I just wanted to say that this is pretty much my BIGGEST pet peeve or annoyance or whathaveyou. People who are anti-vaccine are usually just not educated on the subject or don't have enough understanding as to why vaccination is important. One of the main issues I have is that they think they are only 'affecting' (won't say harming) their kids but by not administering vaccines to your kid, herd immunity gets weaker and people are more likely to get sick.",
"It sounds like they do not understand the mechanism by which vaccines work. I think they may be confusing vaccines with antibiotics, which are completely different. Honestly, you should just show them a medical textbook that explains it. Preferably one with diagrams. \n\nAlso, I'd like to add that pharmacies do sometimes sell vaccines at ridiculous markups. This is purely anecdotal, but Walgreens once tried to charge me nearly $1000 for a hepatitis vaccine, but I was able to get it directly from a distributor for around $50. When I told the doctor, he was shocked."
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{
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"http://www.reddit.com/r/TrueReddit/comments/hi5va/new_study_nations_requiring_the_most_vaccines/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19948578",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21700236",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21666213",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21881549",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21677008",
"http://www.cdc.gov/rabies/specific_groups/veterinarians/staff.html"
]
}
|
Vaccine conspiracy theories and hard science.
I am girding my loins to bring up vaccination with my non-vaccinating in-laws (their daughter is unvaccinated at 5). I previously posted [this](_URL_0_) hoping to get some other thoughts on vaccines in general. **Note:** They do not believe the autism/vaccine link and are generally evidence based, educated people. They have a four part objection to vaccines: 1. Vaccines are unnecessary with a healthy immune system 2. Vaccines are harmful to a healthy immune system 3. Vaccines are in and of themselves dangerous and part of a conspiracy by the medical establishment to make a profit 4. Vaccines will eventually cause the downfall of man because they are not a 'natural' immune response and humans will eventually not be able to cope with viruses. Can AskScience help me refute these claims? I understand that viruses don't have the same risk of becoming vaccine resistant with overuse as antibiotics, but I don't understand quite why. I also have a hard time swallowing the whole conspiracy theory thing. I know that there have been some nefarious doings, but it seems to me that this level of nefariousness would have been noticed by now. I am bringing this up because we have a child who is too young to be vaccinated against some viruses and want to be sure she is protected. Thanks for any insight into the above!
|
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98k741
|
Do magnetic and/or electric field have any influence on time and space?
|
According to Einstein, gravity has influence on space and time. Does magnetic field have influence on time and space? Does electric field have influence on time and space?
|
askscience
|
{
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"As other people have pointed out, the answer is yes, but there’s something in the way you phrased the question I want to focus on. You said that gravity curves spacetime, and wondered if other forces do as well.\n\nIt’s much more accurate to think of matter and energy as curving spacetime, and this effect is *itself* gravity. Gravity *is* spacetime curvature. So in that sense it’s on a different footing than the other forces.\n\nAll of the forces are carried by fields - for example, the electric and magnetic forces are carried by the electromagnetic field - and fields have energy, so they do curve spacetime, which is to say, they gravitate. \n\nEDIT: I should add this effect is absolutely tiny unless the strength of the electric or magnetic field is absolutely enormous. \n\nEDIT EDIT: Probably the most famous (theoretical) example of this effect is a charged black hole. The spacetime curvature around such a black hole is different than for an uncharged one. That is to say, charged and uncharged black holes gravitate differently. This is *in addition to* the electromagnetic force that charged black holes have.",
"Yes, all energy contributes to the stress-energy tensor and the curvature of space-time so that includes energy in the electric and magnetic fields",
"I'll provide two different explanations in case you find one more helpful than the other. The first one is mine, and the second one is quoted below from a Scientific American article. While mine speaks a little bit more loosely with certain definitions, it has been a useful way for me to think about some things.\n\n**My explanation:**\n\nOne of the important things in physics to remember is that energy is equivalent across forms. By this I mean, electrical energy can be converted into mechanical energy and so forth. Joules was one of the big pioneers in this field and that's why \"Joules\" are used as a universal unit for energy. Another important thing to remember is that Einstein's special relativity paper showed that all forms of energy contribute to the mass of a body. This is often stated as the \"mass-energy equivalence,\" and people often point to the equation E = mc^2 to discuss this issue (although I would point out that the equation is actually E = γmc^2 , where γ is based on the velocity of the body; but that is a slightly different issue). \n\nAs was realized by Newton, mass causes gravity, and it makes sense that this would somehow be true in general relativity as well. However, in special relativity, we already know that mass and energy are related, so logically it should be energy, not mass, that causes gravity. As we know, however, energy is just one component of a four-component four-dimensional momentum, so perhaps we should be including momentum as well. (Sidenote: this last sentence is a bit of a jump, but it relates to the \"γ\" value in Einstein's equation above, and its derivation might take us off the rails. However, if you're curious, this wikipedia article gives a good in-depth summary of the issue: _URL_0_).\n\nIn fact, it turns out that not only do the momentum and energy come into the equations, but also the way they are flowing or being transferred plays a role as well. The whole source is not just the energy, or even the energy and the momentum, but something nastier that should properly be called the \"stress-strain-energy-momentum tensor.\" But, because even physicists can’t get their mouths around this phrase, it is more commonly called the stress-energy tensor or \"energy-momentum tensor\" or even just the \"stress tensor\" (or sometimes, just Tμν). In Einstein's field equations for general relativity, the stress–energy tensor is the source of the gravitational field, just as mass density is the source of such a field in Newtonian gravity. While the stress-energy tensor contains many components (sixteen in all), just one of these components, the time-time component, is the actual energy density (which is proportional to the mass density).\n\nThis is where your question is answered. The time-time component of the stress-energy tensor accounts for the electromagnetic field having an influence on the space-time continuum, thereby causing gravitational fields under general relativity.\n\nIf you'd like a slightly more detailed coverage of this issue for an undergrad level understanding, this [lecture paper by Eric Carlson](_URL_1_) is a very good overview in my opinion. I would also recommend his slides titled \"General Relativity\" for one of his undergrad courses ([found at the bottom here](_URL_3_)). To really get the full experience, put the slides in presentation mode and click your way through.\n \n**Scientific American explanation:**\n\nThis [article in the Scientific American by Charles Torres](_URL_2_) provides a better detailed answer in layman's terms than I could probably provide. I've quoted the article below:\n\n > Electric charges and magnets do indeed \"distort space,\" but this happens on a couple of levels.\n\n > First, a word of background. According to the current best theory of gravitation, which is contained in Albert Einstein's famous general theory of relativity, a gravitational field represents a curvature of space-time, rather than a distortion of it. Anything that carries energy, momentum and stresses is a source of a gravitational field, that is, a curvature of space-time.\n\n > Electric charges and magnets are manifestations of certain types of matter, most particularly electrons. Since matter carries energy (via Einstein's famous relation that energy is mass times the speed of light squared), such objects will have a gravitational field and so they will distort space-time. So one way in which a charge or a magnet will distort space-time is by virtue of its matter. That answer may not sound too impressive, but there is more. . . .\n\n > You see, electromagnetic fields themselves carry energy (and momentum and stresses). The energy density carried by an electromagnetic field can be computed by adding the square of the electric field intensity to the square of the magnetic field intensity. As another example, a beam of light (produced from, say, a laser) consists of an electromagnetic field, and it will exert a force on charged particles. Thus the electromagnetic field carries momentum. Because an electromagnetic field contains energy, momentum, and so on, it will produce a gravitational field of its own. This gravitational field is in addition to that produced by the matter of the charge or magnet.\n\n > A simple example of the gravitational (or space-time curvature) effect of electric charges arises in the \"Reissner-Nordstrom\" solution to Einstein's gravitational field equations. This solution describes the gravitational field in the exterior of a spherical body with non-zero net electric charge. (The solution describing the special case in which the net electric charge is zero is the famous \"Schwarzschild solution\" to the gravitational field equations.) From the Reissner-Nordstrom solution, it is clear that the motion of test particles in the gravitational field of the spherically symmetric body depends on whether or not the body carries a charge. Just as the Schwarzschild solution can be extended to describe the famous phenomenon of a \"black hole,\" the Reissner-Nordstrom solution can be extended to describe a \"charged black hole.\" For an electrically charged black hole, the gravitational field of the hole includes a contribution due to the presence of an electric field.\n\n > I do not know (and I doubt) whether this aspect of gravitational theory (that electromagnetic fields produce gravitational fields) has been directly tested by experiment. The difficulty is that the gravitational field produced by a typical electromagnetic field you can produce in a laboratory is predicted to be very, very weak. A better place to look for gravitational effects due to electromagnetic fields would be in astrophysical objects carrying a significant net electric charge. Unfortunately, to my knowledge, such objects are expected to be hard to come by. So while the answer to the question is definitely \"yes\" according to theory, the experimental status of this effect appears to be somewhat open.\n\n > If you want to read more about some of these ideas, you might try Space, Time, and Gravity, by Robert Wald (University of Chicago Press, 1992). This book is aimed at non-specialists. For a more detailed mathematical treatment, you can consult any text on the general theory of relativity."
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{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-momentum",
"http://users.wfu.edu/ecarlson/modern/gr.pdf",
"https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-electric-charges-and-m/",
"http://users.wfu.edu/ecarlson/modern/index.html"
]
}
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Do magnetic and/or electric field have any influence on time and space?
According to Einstein, gravity has influence on space and time. Does magnetic field have influence on time and space? Does electric field have influence on time and space?
|
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|
ut67j
|
Are some people actually 'big boned'?
|
I've never really understood the phrase 'big boned'. Are there people that are simply born with 'bigger' bones than other people. That sounds kind of absurd saying it out loud but what do I know. Or is saying someone is 'big boned' simply a nice way of saying they are overweight?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Everyone, please, if you are going to comment, leave your personal histories out of it. Make it scientific and leave sources where appropriate.",
"[I saw this image of an MRI scan a while ago comparing two frames](_URL_0_). \n\nThis line of though piqued a question for me: is a person who is in shape and exercises regularly going to have denser/stronger bones than an overweight/fat person? They do have more weight on their frame, so maybe our bone health would be about the same when not adjusted for size?",
"The skeleton comes in all different sizes. Measuring the wrist is considered a way to get an accurate measurement of your skeleton because there is little to no fat on the wrist. I am female, 5'10\" tall, 180 lbs and I forget the circumference of my wrist, but the measurement showed that I have what is considered to be a medium to large skeleton. I am not at all fat, though I an not quite fit. My rib cage is huge, I have large hands and cannot stretch them around the sides. Even at my thinnest I have never been smaller than a size 10. My sister on the other hand has a tiny skeleton, her wrist is about half the size of mine and she is a size two. So yes, there is such a thing as being big boned.\n\nEdit: when I hear the term \"big boned\" I don't believe it is meant to be taken fully literally, it is partially the size of the bones and partially the size of the persons frame. A larger frame makes a larger person, even at the same percent body fat a person with a large frame will never weigh the same as one with a small frame.\n\n\n_URL_1_\n\nEdit edit: sorry for using myself as an example, I looked for other sources and couldn't find any concise explanations.",
"There is a condition, acromegaly, that literally makes you big-boned, but it's not very common. Far less common than the people who claim to be \"big boned\".",
"I believe that the OP's real questions should read something like this:\n\nIs there any confirmed correlation between bone size and obesity? Is there a causal link between skeletal size and obesity? Talking about bone density is an accurate response to what was asked, but I don't think that's what was meant.",
"No, at least not to the degree to explain significant changes in body habitus. Some do have broader shoulders, wider hips or simply slight \"configuration\" variations that make them appear larger, but again it's not a change in actual bone size (when comparing those of the same height/length). Those who are chronically overweight can have an increase in bone cortex but this is a consequence of the added stress of being overweight, not the cause of it. I've never once reported a patient was \"big boned.\" Now \"excess soft/adipose tissue\" is another story. :)",
"I don't know about actual bone thickness, but there is variance in frame shape. Some people have broader shoulders, wider pelvic bones, etc. in relation to their height, which gives them a stockier look.",
"I've seen [this x-ray of an overweight person](_URL_2_) brought up before, while there are conditions that make ones bones bigger (gigantism for example) I don't think there are any that make someone look fat, if that's what you're asking?",
"> Or is saying someone is 'big boned' simply a nice way of saying they are overweight?\n\nIt is a euphemism for an endomorphic body (ie. obese person). IIRC the etymology of the word in recent popular culture goes back to an early south park episode. \n\nAlthough I recall a science article saying large people are big boned. I am not aware of the validity of the study though, someone else might be able to comment. \n\n_URL_3_"
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{
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}
|
{
"url": [
"http://sflchronicle.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/4K3Ma.jpg",
"http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/17182.htm",
"http://i.imgur.com/UpLaC.jpg",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110322105300.htm"
]
}
|
Are some people actually 'big boned'?
I've never really understood the phrase 'big boned'. Are there people that are simply born with 'bigger' bones than other people. That sounds kind of absurd saying it out loud but what do I know. Or is saying someone is 'big boned' simply a nice way of saying they are overweight?
|
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|
rqy09
|
Is there a universally accepted way to accurately measure or gauge an organism's level of consciousness?
|
There are levels of consciousness from various organisms that varies from species to species, and even in a group of a particular species.
For example, most animals are at the physiological level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Their main focus in life is to find the next meal, how to stay safe, and reproduce. Some aren't even self-aware and fail at recognizing itself in the mirror.
My question is, have we accurately categorized species yet based on how conscious and aware they are of the reality around them?
If so, how did we come up with a way of categorizing consciousness? E.g. Humans would be #1, followed most likely by primates, elephants, dolphins, whales, and some bird species like pigeons (not necessarily in that order.)
Extending this question a step further, have we done this with just humans?
Is our consciousness just based on our ability think and process information? Or is there some underlying mechanism like genetics that limits your IQ and ultimately how much information you are able to understand?
Closest thing I can find related to different levels of human consciousness is this:
_URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c47xtgi",
"c4802ak",
"c47zrgs",
"c47zmp4"
],
"text": [
"Neuroscientist here, although nothing is accepted, one of the leading theories is that the unique information content in the brain can serve as a measurement, you can read about that [here.](_URL_1_)\n\nThere are a number of other theories of similar flavour, such as the information complexity, or the fraction of connections that are causally related, you can read about these and a good summary of the field \n[here.](_URL_0_)",
"Short answer, no. \n\nWe can ask whether animals have specific senses/sensations. For example, if an animal has [nociceptors](_URL_6_), perhaps this can be interpreted as the animal being capable of experiencing pain. \n\nWe can ask what kinds of representations do animals have in general, like do they have a representation of time, space and number and can they act based on those representations. Monkeys (I forget what species) can be trained to select quantities of things in ascending order (1-2-3-4). When trained on a discrimination task (pick the larger group of things), they transfer to novel quantities (once they learn 1-2-3-4, they can answer whether 5 < 8). Desert ants do some sort of path integration in that they take a very windy path from their hill in search of food and then return to their hill in a straight line no matter where they end up.\n\nWe can also investigate whether animals have memories and what kinds of memories those are. For example, birds cache food and can remember what food they cached where at what time. This is very similar to human episodic memory.\n\nThere has been a lot of work in monkeys recently looking at social awareness (sense of [fairness](_URL_6_), [cooperation](_URL_7_), altruism etc.). Also, self-awareness (i.e., self-recognition) has always been a popular research topic in animal cognition. We can also look at complicated, goal-directed behaviors such as tool use (e.g., [a Caledonian Crow bends a wire to make a hook to pull up a bucket from a tube](_URL_7_)).\n\nRecently, there has been an interest in higher-level functions in non-human animals such as work on concepts, analogical reasoning, and understanding of physics (e.g., [trap-tube task](_URL_6_) (couldn't find a better video, sorry). \n\nThe best we can do at the moment is make inferences from observable behavior. However, there's no consensus on what kinds of behaviors we'd have to observe before we could make that inference. Many of the behaviors listed above can be explained by simple associative learning. We don't have a quantifiable \"scale\" of consciousness.\n\n\nSee also this post:\n_URL_7_",
"There's the [mirror test](_URL_8_) of self-awareness that some animals have passed, but this is a behavioral observation, not a measurement.",
"I hope this isn't straying too far off topic, but this question invoked another one that has been bothering me for some time now: are insects such as ants, that seem to be almost robotic in nature, capable of any conscious thoughts? Or are they essentially \"programmed?\" A friend of mine has told me that ants have been known to exhibit some traits of personalities, but I'm not sure if that's accurate or not."
],
"score": [
36,
13,
5,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.stevepavlina.com/blog/2005/04/levels-of-consciousness/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2767381/",
"http://tononi.psychiatry.wisc.edu/research_overview.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nociceptor",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OYZnsO2ZgWo",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bXgxJtuff5U",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aAFQ5kUHPkY",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5piTfu4PPeA",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/qxdfl/is_there_a_crossspecies_intelligence_scale/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_test"
]
}
|
Is there a universally accepted way to accurately measure or gauge an organism's level of consciousness?
There are levels of consciousness from various organisms that varies from species to species, and even in a group of a particular species. For example, most animals are at the physiological level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Their main focus in life is to find the next meal, how to stay safe, and reproduce. Some aren't even self-aware and fail at recognizing itself in the mirror. My question is, have we accurately categorized species yet based on how conscious and aware they are of the reality around them? If so, how did we come up with a way of categorizing consciousness? E.g. Humans would be #1, followed most likely by primates, elephants, dolphins, whales, and some bird species like pigeons (not necessarily in that order.) Extending this question a step further, have we done this with just humans? Is our consciousness just based on our ability think and process information? Or is there some underlying mechanism like genetics that limits your IQ and ultimately how much information you are able to understand? Closest thing I can find related to different levels of human consciousness is this: _URL_0_
|
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|
13m617
|
Why do we care so much about the facial structures of our mates?
|
From an evolutionary standpoint, why do we see some faces as pleasant looking and want to be with those people?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c755k06",
"c756yz5",
"c75748r"
],
"text": [
"To make it clearer, I think what the OP is trying to say is that facial features don't seem to provide any obvious evolutionary advantages, unlike the rest of our body. So we're selecting for an arbitrary set facial features for no apparent reason.\n\nEdit: So apparently I'm both ugly and ignorant, as shown below.",
"Facial symmetry affects our perception of the healthiness of other individuals.\n\nThere are some studies that hypothesize that it predicts freedom from disease/ability to cope with illness etc. \n\nThere's a few papers on it mentioned on the wikipedia [facial symmetry](_URL_2_) page. \n\nA quick search on google scholar turned up this paper : _URL_0_ in which perceived facial attractiveness predicted longevity. \n\nEvolutionary psychologists would say that several facial features pertain to different aspects of health. [This](_URL_1_) paper seems to summarise some of the work on it. It's behind a paywall but I can get at it later on if someone would like it summarised and can't access it themselves.\n\nSince it's not really something you can manipulate in an experiment: you can only test people who are rated facially attractive or not for various evolutionary advantages and make inferences, which makes it something thats difficult to be fundamentally scientific about.",
"So far, three factors have been mostly noted in literature regarding the attractiveness of faces: symmetry, averageness and sexual dimorphism (pronouncedness of facial features that develop during puberty as a result of sex hormones).\n\nThe theoretical approach mostly assumed in this research is that of evolutionary psychology - unsurprisingly, given we're talking about something that's directly related to reproduction. \n\nThe explanation usually given for our attraction to average, symmetrical faces is the apparent lack of illness - increasing the chances that offspring come out healthy as well. \n\nThe explanation for a preference for sexual dimorphism (manly features on men, such as a strong jaw and a deep brow and feminine features on women such as a rounded face and smooth skin) is thought to lie in stereotypical behaviours and bodily features associated with the same sex hormones that trigger these facial changes in puberty: muscles on men, child-bearing hips on women for example. Because although no longer as much the case in today's society, a succesful tribe back at the dawn of man relied on strong men and fertile women.\n\nHope I helped!"
],
"score": [
39,
20,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ehbonline.org/article/S1090-5138(03)00036-9/abstract",
"http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/11/5/154.short",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_symmetry"
]
}
|
Why do we care so much about the facial structures of our mates?
From an evolutionary standpoint, why do we see some faces as pleasant looking and want to be with those people?
|
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|
1cw2wv
|
Why, in a circuit, does electricity travel both directions in a junction and not just through the path of least resistance?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9kiv0a",
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"c9kil7n",
"c9kitif"
],
"text": [
"As ProblemIsInPants said, going through both resistances is the least resistive path. If you consider two (or more) resistors in parallel, the equivalent resistance is given by the formula\n\nReq = (R1*R2)/(R1+R2)\n\nSo Req is *always* smaller than R1 or R2 (check yourself if you don't believe me). It's always \"easier\" for the electricity to travel over both paths, rather than only go through one.\n\nAnother way to look at it, which is the one that I prefer, is that current is a byproduct of voltage and resistance. So, if I have two resistors and a voltage source (battery) wired in parallel, there is an applied voltage across *both* resistors, and there is therefore current through both of them.\n\nBasically, instead of thinking \"the battery makes a current, and the current splits at the junction,\" think \"the battery applies a voltage, and if there's voltage across a resistor, there's current, so there has to be current in both resistors.\"",
"Here's a metaphor: If you punch a bunch of holes in the bottom of a bucket of water, why doesn't all the water flow out just through the largest one? \n \nPeople sometimes say \"Electricity follows the path of least resistance.\" People also sometimes say things that are incorrect, and this is one of them. Electrical current follows *all* available paths, but the ones with less resistance get more current.",
"The path of least resistance is the one where both paths are used. Even if the other path has a huge resistance compared to the other one, some goes through there.",
"Think of a water pipe. When the water reaches a junction, it splits and water flows both ways."
],
"score": [
12,
9,
5,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why, in a circuit, does electricity travel both directions in a junction and not just through the path of least resistance?
|
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||
8ra295
|
AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Kathryn Bywaters and I am an astrobiologist at SETI working on developing new ways to look for life! Ask me anything!
|
To search for life beyond Earth, we first have to decide on several key factors, such as where we should look? An ideal place to look might be the icy moons around Saturn and Jupiter with their liquid oceans. However, once we decide where to look for life we then need to determine what we will look for and how we will look for it? If there is life in this solar system, other than on Earth, it seems most likely that it will be in the form of microbes. But what if it doesn't look like life on Earth-how will we know when we find it? As a SETI researcher, working on life detection projects, these are the types of questions I ask.
I'll be on at 10 am (PT, 1 PM ET, 18 UT) to answer your questions, ask me anything!
|
askscience
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"What other types of life besides carbon-based can we look for on other planets?",
"Does SETI@Home actually help you guys?\n\nFollow up, do you expect the Very Large Array to help at all?",
"What sort of tests do you do to find life? How do you tell life apart from rare, but still possible abiotic reactions that create complex molecules?",
"Hello everyone! Just got online and I'm thrilled to see how many comments there are already :-) I'll try and get to all of them.",
"Are there any methods being used to look for life that may not necessarily require water to survive?",
"Hello and thanks for this AMA, I was wondering what was your opinion (and other people working in your field) about humanity spreading around on other planets?\n\nIs there a debate about whether we should leave other planets/satellites in pristine condition or get out there, after the exploratory phase?\n\nWhat kind of indicators did you adopt recently and that wasn't used beforehand to look for life?\n\nWhat kind of indicators do you know could be used but can't be as of now because of technological limitations?\n\nThank you for your time!",
"In the unlikely scenario that you find life, how will you determine it is not contamination from earth?",
"Did that screen saver that everyone used to run on their windows 98 box at the end of the last century help much?",
"Do we have enough knowledge of extraterrestrial bodies within the solar system to predict or simulate steady state conditions? Could atmospheric sampling (or spectroscopic analysis) detect potential metabolic products and distinguish them from compounds produced without some kind of biotic catalysis?\n\nHow does the solar energy (and geothermal energy) of earth compare to the sum of energies received by Jupiter's moons through tidal and other forces?",
"What would you personally say is a realistic timeframe for detecting extraterrestrial life? Another decade? A century?",
"If you discovered intelligent life on another planet, what would you offer them as a gift of peace? And why?",
"Hi Dr. Kathryn, thanks for doing this! How was your career progression like to be working on astrobiology at SETI? How did you get into the field? I'm studying astrophysics at the masters level now and am interested in this. Any suggestions on where to go from here?",
"Do you think astro botany is a field that would boom anytime soon?",
"So many approaches I hear use a goldilocks approach to look for life. I have also heard that there is a shift away from water-based, carbon-containing life. Can you comment on what some of these might be?",
"Greetings Dr. Bywaters,\n\nis there any potential or ongoing effort for the detection of the more heavily fractionnated stable isotope signatures we commonly associate with life on Earth when looking for signs of life elsewhere in the universe? If I refer to known geological environments, heavily fractionnated sulphur or carbon isotope signatures are commonly considered to be a sign of biological processes; perhaps these might be detectable in some way?\n\nIn the event where such signatures would be identified, say for instance in the absorption spectrum of an exoplanets atmosphere, how significant might they be?",
"Hi,\nIm a student at the University of Edinburgh and had the opportunity to take the Astrobiology course run by Charles Cockell.\nWould just like to say it was an absolutely fascinating course and has inspired me to seek out how to get further involved with the subject.\n\nSo i guess my question is, what are your recommendations (general or specific) for pursuing a career in astrobiology?",
"What are your thoughts about human exploration of Mars in regard to any life that might exist on Mars?",
"If you actually find something, what's the procedure? Who do you call first?",
"If we assume that there is extraterrestrial life that's carbon based, water dependent, and at least complex enough to be large enough that we could see it with the naked eye, what do you think are the odds that we'd be able to eat it? As in have our digestive system be able to extract usable energy/nutrients from it.\n\nI may have skipped breakfast this morning.",
"If its possible for microbes to migrate to other planets and solar systems using asteroids, do you think its possible we may find earth's microbes in other planets that can support that life? and if we do find them, how would we know if they were Earthlings or just evolved there in the same ways our microbes did here?",
"Beyond putting extraterrestrial samples under a microscope. What are the other new ways to look for life?",
"How likely do you think it is that we have just missed spotting life on other planets due to our current understanding of what defines life? / Are our pre-defined criteria for what constitutes Life on other planets hindering our ability to discover them?\n\nHow credible is - we just don't understand what form life could be like on other planets?",
"What kind of data will you be receiving and how will that tell you if there's other life forms on/or habitable planets?\n\nSpace is so exciting; I wish you all the best in your search! x",
"If we don't find life in the places identified, do you think we should seed the place to gain information about whether or not life would definitely grow?",
"Was there any moments in SETI ' I thought that was the signal, but it wasn't '?",
"I just watched a think deep video where this guy said that life here on earth likely started from bacteria being trapped in meteors. Is this a real thing? He said that the pockets (books and crannies) can hold them and help them survive. He also said that some bacteria dehydrate themselves until conditions are favorable to resume life. Is this true too? Thanks homie.",
"So here's a question I've always wondered on. Why are scientists so dead set on water being absolutely essential for any kind of like? Why can't there be an unexpected kind of life? Like one that feeds on iron or something",
"I guess I've always wondered, if we do actually find life. What then? What are our next steps?",
"What inspired you are a kid ( < 18yo) to go into the field of AstroBiology?",
"Some possible life forms could be active emitters in producing detectable electromagnetic signals i.e. radio waves. What more can we do to detect these type civilizations?\n\nChances are significantly higher that life on some worlds will not be producing detectable signals, but will modify their environment in ways we can detect. This could include carbon monoxide/dioxide in a reducing atmosphere or other chemical signatures that can be detected using advanced telescopes with spectography. What more should we be doing to build the equipment to detect these life forms?\n\nAs a biologist, how do you feel about contaminating other planets with human microorganisms?\n\nThere is some possibility of non-oxygen consuming life forms. How do we detect for example a silicon based life form that metabolizes sulphuric acid?",
"Thank you so much for taking the time. I would like to ask a few personal questions and some astrobiology related questions:\n\n1. What is the significance of finding new life forms?\n\n2. How can finding new life forms benefit humans and earth?\n\n3. Will, and if so, how can finding new life forms affect other species besides humans?\n\n4. What are the current methods used to find new life forms, and what are some potential technologies that can be used to find life?\n\nThank you so much for doing this AMA!",
"> But what if it doesn't look like life on Earth-how will we know when we find it? \n\nWhat are the leading theories on what non-Earth-like life might look like? What are the bases for those theories? What makes some theories more likely (or more widely accepted) than others? In other words, is there something about these theories (or any theories) that distinguishes them from a layman’s wild-ass-guess?",
"What is the goal, or what will you do once you find something? I don't see much point in searching for microbes but curious as to your reason for doing so. Also are you searching for intelligent life and does your methods change for that?",
"On earth, microbes, as do all living things, have self generated actions regulated by molecules called nucleic acids. So, how will you look for evidence of self generated actions and precursors to nucleic acid type molecules that may or may not be carbon based ?",
"What is the likelyhood that an intelligent extraterrestrial species does not use the EM spectrum to communicate over distances? And if thats the case, how likely is is that we are just missing each other's communications like ships passing in the night?",
"As someone who is going to university next year,which degree did you take and where,and which degrees do you think people can take to become an astrobiologist?",
"How plausible to you is life that is not based on DNA and how does this influence your search?",
"Assuming we found life, how would a xenobiologist begin to do his or her job?",
"What's the most exciting discovery you've made in your career?",
"What sort of finding would excite you most?",
"I love what you're doing, and I hope to be alive when we find hard evidence of life on another planet, however... What do you think of Nick Bostrom's writings about the \"Great Filter\". If we find life it means humanity will likely not pass a certain technological stage because we have not yet detected it, so intelligent life in the universe must be either a) extremely rare (great, then we have a chance) or b) there's something common that will prevent a civilization from reaching the point of technology detectable by other alien civilizations (so whatever prevented all/most of the other life in the universe from will eventually cause our demise). \n\nIf we find life on another planet, (b) becomes much more likely.",
"You have such a cool job! And thank you for doing this AMA.\n\nFirst off, how do you determine how a planet in our solar system has life? Does it have to do with biophysics in some way? \n\nSecond, any chances of life in Enceladus? There's no way a geothermally active body like that wouldn't have something in that 67mi deep ocean. But I am not sure if I can trust documentaries and various YouTube videos' take on it. \n\nHave a great day!",
"Unfortunately, my main questions are a bit speculative, so I'll ask a different one. When SETI broadcast signals into space to see if intelligent life will pick up on them, do we aim in random directions, or do we try to broadcast them at a directed target we think might contain life, i.e Kepler-62f? Additionally, SETI accounts for relativity when broadcasting right?",
"How sure are we that life in general needs what we needed to form? (Water, goldilocks zone, magnetosphere, etc) If I remember correctly, both sulfur and carbon can form chains to create life, but carbon-based life is much more common. Does the possibility of sulfur-based life open up your search to places you wouldn't otherwise look? Thanks!",
"Can we think through a worst-case scenario? Suppose we continue *not* finding evidence of life elsewhere. Is there a point at which society should consider scaling back SETI?\n\nNot suggesting it be eliminated altogether. It just seems that SETI continues to underscore Fermi's Paradox, am wondering what an end game would be if that only continues.",
"I have to take a break for the moment but I will come back. I'm so thrilled with all of your great questions and interest in the subject. Thank you all so very very much. I have to work but I could talk to you guys all day!",
"Hello, why are we not looking for life on the clouds of Venus? I read that there are possible bio signatures there and Venus clouds are likely the best candidate in our solar system for life. (I am reffering to bacterial life and not \"E.T.\" life).",
"How likely is it that a signal you might detect comes from a civilization long dead?\n\nIf every nuclear weapon were detonated on earth within the span of a day, would a signal be produced that could be detected by an alien civilization within our galaxy?",
"As some one that studied biology and is finishing a masters in biotech, how could I get into astrobiology? I'm from Spain and haven't found a lot about it and most masters I couldn't afford. I'm willing to move to other countries if that helps",
"Hi Dr. Bywaters. I was wondering if there was a procedure at SETI in the event of the discovery of a form of intelligent life?\nAlso, how plausible (or not) is the plot of the Three Body Problem books?\nThank you for doing this!",
"Do you actually believe there is life within a detectable range of Earth? If so, does this belief motivate you to search more thoroughly?\n\nSimply put, do you believe life can be found within your life time?\n\nRegardless, I love what you do!",
"I read somewhere that if we were to find another life form, it would be completely different than what we look like. as in, it could be a blob of jelly instead of the little green/grey men. how true or false is that.",
"Have you been keeping up with the recent spate of UFO/\"anomalous aerial vehicle\" intercept footage and reports released by the Pentagon and in particular the US Navy? Do these things get talked about in the SETI community? What do people think?",
"Lets just say for a hypothetical situation you suddenly became aware of 100 other intelligent beings with civilizations all inhabiting their own world and know nothing of eachother. \n\n\nIn your guesstimate, how many could we “get along with”?",
"In the SETI community, is the 1977 \"WOW!\" signal still considered worth investigating? How has the SETI@Home Network contributed to SETI searches. Has any other science come out of the SETI@Home computation, not specific to SETI?",
"With the technology we have right now, how far away from the Earth could you be with all of your instruments, and be able to determine there is probably life, even intelligent life, upon it?",
"Do you think its possible to find intelligent life that doesnt rely on h2o? Or is all search for intelligent life limited to finding planets with water in the goldie lock zone?",
"What is in your opinion supposed to be done in case we/you actually where to stumble upon a life form where we/you can tell that they are more developed than us?",
"On the off chance that the first life you find is the alien equivalent of SETI, what will you talk about? Who will get to ask the first question?",
"What definition of life do you use? In all seriousness, could a star be considered intelligent if enough of its atoms had entangled electrons, forming a pseudo-neural network?",
"What would be the definition of life to you guys and girls? Is it as \"easy\" as microorganisms or are you looking for some form of intelligence?",
"Do you find it difficult to work in a field that has no tangible gratification as a result of the work or effort you put in?",
"What would be the actual steps that SETI would take if you guys did find Life? Like how would you reveal this to the public?",
"Hello Dr. Bywaters!\n\nI look forward to reading all of the answers later! My question is where did you study to be an astrobiologist?",
"Do you think that capillary electrophoresis is an effective method for seeking life on other planets? What are its limitations in your field?",
"Is there any reasonable chance that there could be any form of complex life in Europa's ocean? As in more than simple microbes.",
"Has there ever been a moment where you thought you found other life out there? \nIf yes, what did that feel like?",
"1. What would silicon life really look like?\n2. What solution do you believe is the best at solving the Fermi paradox?",
"What ways can we detect life through a telescope rather than going to the planet?",
"Do you have a personal prediction for when we might find extra-terrestrial life?",
"Do you have a SOP should you find life that resembles a humanoid?",
"What is the closest thing you’ve found to life on other planets?",
"How do you determine life in a different planet without being there?",
"What are some upcoming 'breakthroughs' or discoveries we will soon see?",
"What is your favorite work of science fiction?",
"What's important about looking for life beyond Earth?"
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AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Kathryn Bywaters and I am an astrobiologist at SETI working on developing new ways to look for life! Ask me anything!
To search for life beyond Earth, we first have to decide on several key factors, such as where we should look? An ideal place to look might be the icy moons around Saturn and Jupiter with their liquid oceans. However, once we decide where to look for life we then need to determine what we will look for and how we will look for it? If there is life in this solar system, other than on Earth, it seems most likely that it will be in the form of microbes. But what if it doesn't look like life on Earth-how will we know when we find it? As a SETI researcher, working on life detection projects, these are the types of questions I ask. I'll be on at 10 am (PT, 1 PM ET, 18 UT) to answer your questions, ask me anything!
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] |
|
4wqc2s
|
If I had a quarter that was as hot as the surface of the sun in my hand, what would it do to the earth?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d6927gr",
"d695rmm",
"d69kwvm"
],
"text": [
"Not much; the coin would vaporize, and the heat would disperse pretty quickly. You'd probably lose the hand. Maybe more.\n\nThe sun is not that hot on the surface, with an effective surface temperature of around 6000 K.",
"Quarters are mostly copper and weigh about 5.7 grams. The surface of the sun is 6000 K. The heat capacity of copper is 0.385 J/g/K.\n\nTo cool down to room temperature the quarter would then release 5.7 grams * (6000-293) K * 0.385 J/g/K = 12.5 kJ.\n\nFor comparison, the M67 hand grenade uses 180 grams of composition B explosive, which yields 17.4 MJ/kg, so it explodes with 3.1 MJ of energy.\n\nThis is not a particularly energetic quarter.",
"There would be a loud bang as the coin vaporized and expanded into the air. Your hand would be injured. That's it.\n\n/u/AOEUD 's energy calculation is correct. The energy release is roughly equal to that from a large [\"M80\"](_URL_0_) style firecracker. (3 g black powder @ 3 kJ/g)"
],
"score": [
99,
56,
9
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-80_(explosive\\)"
]
}
|
If I had a quarter that was as hot as the surface of the sun in my hand, what would it do to the earth?
|
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1jkh22
|
Was proper science used in this study on prayer that was published in JAMA?
|
[This study](_URL_0_) claims a positive result of a randomized, controlled, double-blind, prospective, parallel-group trial of intercessory prayer for around 900 cardiac patients. Are there holes in their methodology or conclusions? Were pertinent factors overlooked? How significant, in its scientific meaning, is the result? I am trying to understand, as a layman, whether the paper is solid science or not.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbfl7a8",
"cbfk972",
"cbflion"
],
"text": [
"Although this is not my field, I think it's important to go beyond the title and abstract to look at what they actually did, and the outcomes they reported. As far as I can tell the experimental design is solid, but the outcomes, and in particular the claim of a positive outcome, is questionable.\n\nThe basis on which they claim a positive outcome is a statistical measure that they devised, called the \"MAHI-CCU score.\" Here is what they say about it:\n\n > The principal limitation of this study was defining the end point measure (ie, determining some way to quantify how well a patient did during a CCU stay). The score we devised, although intuitive and evenly applied to both groups, has not been validated.\n > \n\nIn other words, the \"prayer\" group had better MAHI-CCU scores but the authors don't know for sure whether this translates into better health outcomes. \n\nDrilling down deeper into the results, they say this:\n\n > There were no statistically significant differences between groups for any individual component of the MAHI-CCU score (Table 3). Mean lengths of stay in the CCU and in the hospital (after initiation of prayer) were not different (Table 4), and median hospital stay was 4.0 days for both groups. There were 2 patients in the prayer group whose hospital stays were approximately twice as long (137 and 161 days) as those of any other patient in the study. Without these 2 patients, length of hospital stay for the prayer group dropped from 6.48±0.54 days to 5.84±0.31 days. Neither was significantly different from the length of stay in the usual care group (5.97±0.29 days). There was no significant difference between groups using Byrd's hospital course score (Table 5).\n > \n\nThe MAHI-CCU score is a weighted score based on many factors, but the authors clearly say that in none of these individual factors did the prayer group do better than the control group. Furthermore, when they looked at other comparisons (length of hospital stay and the \"Byrd\" score) there was again no difference between the groups.\n\nTaking all of this into account, I think it's a pretty thin basis on which to assert a positive result for the prayer group. More likely it is a statistical fluke of how their particular data set worked with the metric they devised to measure outcomes.",
"This thread asks a question that is along touchy topic and so any comments which are not acceptable by the /r/askscience rules will be deleted and in severe cases warnings/bans will be handed out.\n\nPlease keep your comments polite, on topic, and most importantly informative.",
"Let me preface the following opinion by saying that I am an evolutionary biologist, not an MD or a statistician, though I am familiar with most of the statistical methods used here, as they are relatively basic. Anyways, I have problems with this study. Firstly, it seems to me that they should compare not just between prayer and control but between prayer and control within conditions. If the results are meaningful, they ought to show up there as well, no? Their results compare between the prayer and control groups for all treatments, just as for all conditions, because they could not find significant differences between the groups for individual treatments. That suggests to me that there is a difference in the make up of the groups themselves that accounts for this difference. A further oddness is that they claim an 11% lower weighted CCU score and a 10% lower unweighted score for the prayer group. Given that the weighting scale goes up to 6 (and there were plenty of events of score 3 and above) it seems odd that the difference between the prayer and control groups for the number of events is so similar to the difference between them for the scores of the events.\n**Long story short:** Ignoring the fact that they did not get results for the speed portion of the prayer, and only claimed to find significance for the \"without complications\" portion, I find their statistical comparisons lacking and their results weak."
],
"score": [
44,
15,
9
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=485161"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Was proper science used in this study on prayer that was published in JAMA?
[This study](_URL_0_) claims a positive result of a randomized, controlled, double-blind, prospective, parallel-group trial of intercessory prayer for around 900 cardiac patients. Are there holes in their methodology or conclusions? Were pertinent factors overlooked? How significant, in its scientific meaning, is the result? I am trying to understand, as a layman, whether the paper is solid science or not.
|
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] |
|
53n4ny
|
Why are Au-Pt cubes used to detect gravitational waves in the LISA Pathfinder mission as opposed to other elements?
|
_URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d7unw9l",
"d7v5byk",
"d7vrgub"
],
"text": [
"As far As I know that is due to the non-magnetic properties of these materiales, in this way you have them affected ideally only by the gravitational forces, in other words the blocks are really in free fall, without other external forces to perturb the mesurements",
"Just a side-remark: LISA pathfinder was never designed to measure gravitational waves. Its arm length is a billion times too short for that. It is \"only\" a technology demonstration, showing that the required precision of the free-floating cubes can be achieved.",
"Dense, Chemically inert, barely if ever radioactive and exceptionally good at reflecting/shielding sensitive equipment from EM radiation, besides not being affected by it.\n\nBasically, if you had to stick 2 objects in space whose mass you wanted stable and whose momentum you didn't want changing, you'd need to make them of a substance that is very hard to cause fission upon/is very resistant to corrosion. Gold and Platinum are the easiest answers to that conundrum."
],
"score": [
34,
15,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://sci.esa.int/lisa-pathfinder/57906-lisa-pathfinder-exceeds-expectations/"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why are Au-Pt cubes used to detect gravitational waves in the LISA Pathfinder mission as opposed to other elements?
_URL_0_
|
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9fp68d
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If it were possible to put a pipe straight through the earth, from north to south pole and you dropped a ball down the pipe what would happen?
|
askscience
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"Ignoring air resistance and assuming the earth is a homogenous sphere,\n\nThe force F acting on the ball while within the earth is described by:\n\n**F** = -GMm/R^(3)**r** where r is the distance from the centre of the earth to the ball. \n\nFor those that have studied springs, this equation is of the form:\n\n**F** = -k**r** where k = GMm/R^(3)\n\nOr equivalently:\n\n**a** = -ω^(2)**r** where ω^2 = k/m = GM/R^3\n\nω is the angular frequency of such a system, and is also given by ω = 2π/T where T is the period of oscillation. \n\nGiven those equations, we can calculate T to be:\n\nT = 2π(R^(3)/GM)^(1/2) ~= 84 minutes. \n\nThat's the time it takes to fall right through the earth and come back to its starting position. Coincidentally, that's also the time it takes to make a full orbit at the surface of the earth (it's not exactly a coincidence, since simple harmonic motion along one axis is simply circular motion projected onto that axis).\n\nSince there is no air resistance, the ball will fall right through to the other side, reverse direction, then fall back to its starting point indefinitely in simple harmonic motion. \n\nIf there is air resistance, the amplitude of this oscillation will decay exponentially and eventually the ball will come to a rest at the centre of the earth.",
"Surprise answer: if there is air in the pipe, the ball will not make it to the center of the Earth because at some point (probably in the mantle) it will float on the increasingly dense air in the pipe! The air will not just provide resistance; it will provide buoyancy as well.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nFirst, our assumptions:\n\n* The air in the pipe is open to the free atmosphere and is therefore at 1 bar at sea level, and follows the ideal gas law at the depths that we're looking at.\n* The pipe is strong enough to withstand the crushing pressures of the deep Earth (which will be higher than the air pressure, at least in the depths we're looking at).\n* The air in the pipe is somewhere between atmospheric temperature and the temperature of the rock right next to it. Let's be generous and say that the air is at the temperature of the rock. Most importantly, the air can't be way, way hotter than the surrounding rock.\n\nJust like ordinary holes in the ground like mines or caves, air pressure will increase exponentially the farther down you go according to p = 101 kPa \\* e^(z/H), where z is the depth and H is the \"scale height\" of the atmosphere. H is proportional to absolute temperature (H = R\\_air\\*T/g); in the atmosphere H is around 8 km, but in the mantle T might be around 2500 K, so H would be around 73 km. *(R\\_air is the gas constant for air that shows up in the ideal gas law, about 287 J/(kg\\*K).)* Let's be generous and assume H = 73 km everywhere. g, the gravitational acceleration, varies with depth within the Earth, but we're looking at relatively shallow depths (around 10%) so let's assume g is constant.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo, p = 101 kPa \\* e\\^(z/70 km), and from the ideal gas law, *density* *= p/(R\\_air\\*T)* = 101 kPa/(R\\_air \\* 2500 K) \\* e^(z/70 km)= 0.14 kg/m^(3) \\* e^(z/70 km). This means that the air becomes denser than a baseball (\\~650 kg/m^(3)) around 600 km depth, and denser than a bowling ball (\\~1300 kg/m^(3)) around 650 km depth (for reference, the outer core is at about 2900 km and the center of the Earth is at \\~6370 km) (which quite shallow in the mantle). At this depth, the ball will be of neutral buoyancy; it will sink a little beyond that depth due to its momentum but then rebound to its equilibrium position, just like a piece of wood tossed into a pond.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIf you somehow managed to keep the air temperature at a normal surface temperature (say, 17 deg C), the air would be way denser all the way down the pipe and the ball would start floating between 50-60 km depth.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEdit: minor changes for clarity.",
"If we really want to dig into this question (pun absolutely intended) more than other answers, we need to start thinking about how and why this pipe exists. The pressure on the pipe would be extreme, not to mention it would have to survive the heat of Earth's core. If the pipe conducts heat, the air in the tunnel would get extremely warm and flow outwards while at the same time cold air would try to get in. Would we get a wind blowing in a single direction (say from north to south) or would wind fly in two \"lanes\"? Probably depends on the size of the tunnel, but I'm not too familiar with the physics here.\n\nAnother question I have is, depending on the width of the pipe, a large amount of air would go into the tunnel, reducing the amount of air in the atmosphere. Would this have a noticeable effect if for example the pipe was 1 m in diameter?",
"I'm more interested in what happens to gravity as you approach the center of the Earth. Wouldn't the ball reach the center, slowing the whole way, and then reverse¿"
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If it were possible to put a pipe straight through the earth, from north to south pole and you dropped a ball down the pipe what would happen?
|
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||
4ogd2g
|
Does it take more energy to heat something up or cool something down, or does it take the same amount?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"Just to make a top level comment with the answer. Cooling takes less energy than heating from a physics stand point. The specific heat of a material, energy per unit mass to raise it one degree, increases with temperature for most materials. So fundamentally it takes more energy to heat 10 degrees than cool 10 degrees.\n\nPractically heating is easier because heat pumps are not 100% efficient machines. They produce waste heat when running, when heating this can be used where when cooling you have to make sure to reject it away from what you are cooling.\n\nEdit: /u/AugustusFink-nottle is also right. Heating is more efficient because the work put in contributes to the heating where when cooling you only have the heat moved.",
"Something will cool down to the temperature of its surroundings without any additional work be done on it. However cooling something below the ambient temperature is very difficult, because under normal circumstances heat flows from hot objects to colder objects equalizing the temperature between them. There are ways to get around that, however they are all really energy inefficient.\n\nThe short answer is it takes more energy to cool something 10 degrees below room temperature then it does to heat it 10 degrees above, however something will cool itself off, while it takes an outside force to heat it.",
"Generally to change the temperature of a fixed amount of material requires removing or adding the same amount of energy. Q(heat)=m(mass)*C(a coefficient)*deltaT(change in temperature.\n\nNow the second part of your question is has to do with heating versus cooling of a material. As stated here in the posts, it depends on if the starting condition is above, at, or below ambient temperature. Then you get into calculating the Carnot efficiency (ideal) of refrigerators. As well as the efficiency of practical machines to do so.\n\n _URL_0_\n\nSo there are multiple possible answers, depending on several things.",
"There are two way to interpret this:\n\n(1) Does more energy enter a system as it heats up than when it cools down?\n\nThe temperature (T) of a system that has been allowed to reach an internal equilibrium at either constant pressure or constant volume is a function of the total internal energy (U). When you add a little heat (Q) to the system, you raise the internal energy and raise the temperature. The amount that the temperature changes defines the specific heat:\n\nC = dQ/dT \n\nSo adding energy (in the form of heat) to the object heats it up by dT = dQ/C, and taking energy away lowers the temperature by dT = -dQ/C. It is completely symmetric. \n\n(Side note: In space, a ball of gas held together by gravity has a negative specific heat, so it actually gets hotter as it radiates energy away and becomes more dense. The lower potential energy balances the heat loss and the increase in kinetic energy associated with higher temperature.)\n\nYou can also heat up something by doing work on it. If you have ever felt a bicycle pump heat up as you use it, that is an example of work being converted to heat. If I compress a gas in a chamber that insulates it well (keeping any heat from leaving or entering) then the temperature will increase. If I then let the gas decompress by the same amount, the temperature goes down by the same amount. So again, this is all symmetric. \n\n(2) Is air conditioning more or less efficient than heating?\n\nSo, we talked about adding or removing heat from a system above. But you can't force heat to enter something that is hotter than its environment, or force heat to leave something colder than its environment, without doing some work as well. In this case, cooling a house down by 10 degrees takes more work than heating it up by 10 degrees. This is because heating something up increases its internal entropy but cooling it down lowers its internal entropy. The second law tells us the total entropy needs to increase, which means an air conditioner needs to be designed so that something else is gaining entropy. That limits the efficiency",
"Well when something cools off, it is considered exothermic meaning it gives off heat. This means that there is already energy but it doesn't take more energy for the heat dissipate. Think about a game of billiards. When one ball hits another it transfers it's momentum to the other ball but still remains moving just not as fast and probably not in its original direction. Heat being the vibration of molecules is very similar to this only on a much tinier scale. The molecules are already moving, the kinetic energy is already there so you don't have to spend energy to stop or cool it down."
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{
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{
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{
"url": [
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Does it take more energy to heat something up or cool something down, or does it take the same amount?
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||
yjkzc
|
If you're out camping and you pee around your campsite, are predatory animals more, less, or equally as likely to stop by?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5w9vqd",
"c5wa7aw",
"c5wad1o"
],
"text": [
"a quick google search gave me [this](_URL_0_) Q & A, which seems to think that peeing around your campsite would do more to attract animals (in this example bears) rather than deter them.\n\nI can see where you are coming from though, i know that fox urine gets rid of skunks because foxes are predators of skunks. My interpretation of these two ideas is that humans aren't really considered predators of many wild animals, and they are less familiar with our urine to know to stay away.",
"Urine will attract deer - this works very, very well. Deer have a natural sodium (salt) deficiency, and they spend a lot of time searching for sources of salt. Urine is full of it, and deer can smell it from a long distance.\n\nOther animals - I'm not so sure.",
"Urine is a huge attractor for mountain goats, which can be very aggressive and territorial. They're not after pheromones, though - they like the salt. \n\nA man was gored to death in Olympic National Park by a goat attracted to the piss lining the trail.\n\n_URL_1_"
],
"score": [
10,
10,
7
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.backpacker.com/community/ask_buck/34",
"http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2015546775_apwaurinemountaingoats.html"
]
}
|
If you're out camping and you pee around your campsite, are predatory animals more, less, or equally as likely to stop by?
|
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15333a
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[Physics] An astronaut leaves earth traveling at 0.9c, comes back, and he's aged less than everyone else. Since he and the Earthlings had identical speeds relative to one another, why is it that his clock experiences time dilation, as opposed to the Earthlings' clocks?
|
Couldn't we use the astronaut as our reference frame and conclude that the Earthlings should be aging slowly? Is it relevant that the Earth is so much bigger than the astronaut? How would this scenario play out in a universe with nothing but two spaceships, where one rockets away for a while, then comes back, and they compare chronometers?
I'm absolutely a layperson so I could just be looking at this from the wrong perspective.
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"> How would this scenario play out in a universe with nothing but two spaceships, where one rockets away for a while, then comes back, and they compare chronometers?\n\nLet's call the ships A and B. For concreteness, let's say A is the only one to fire engines. Let's also assume that A's thrusters are highly effective, so that it takes less than a second as measured by B for A to get from stationary to 0.9c. Finally, let's fix the trip length so that A flies away for two days as measured by B.\n\n**The scenario according to B**: A fires thrusters and ramps up to 0.9c. A's clock is seen to be running slow for two days. Specifically, after the two days have passed, A's chronometer reads only about 6.77 hours. A fires thrusters again, reversing direction and heading back. The trip lasts four days according to B, but when A returns the chronometer on-board reads only 13.54 hours.\n\n**The scenario according to A**: A flips a switch and an intense gravitational field appears. A remains stationary, but B accelerates due to gravity and reaches a speed of 0.9c before the field disappears less than a second later. Now B is receding at 0.9c and B's chronometer is running slow. A watches this for 6.77 hours, at which time B's chronometer shows about 57.3 minutes, and then flips the switch again. The gravitational field reappears, but in the opposite direction. Now gravity brings B to a stop and accelerates it back up to 0.9c in an approaching direction. During that period, however, B's clock ran *very* fast. So fast, that even though only a second or so passed for A, B is now showing three days, 23 hours, 2.7 minutes elapsed time. The field turns off, and A waits for B to approach at 0.9c. This takes a further 6.77 hours, during which time B's clock is again running slow and therefore passes only 57.3 minutes. Thus, when A returns, A's chronometer reads 13.54 hours while B's chronometer shows four days, and everyone rejoices at the consistency of the universe.\n\n\\*special note: the above statements about what is showing on B's clock at a specific time according to A or what's showing on A's clock as a specific time according to B are the *actual* values on those clocks at those times. Due to the speed of light delay, this isn't what they would each *see*. Rather, for example, B would *see* A's clock running significantly slower during the outbound trip, and then faster during the inbound trip. I've assumed that they're capable of accounting for the speed of light delay in order to make my life easier.",
"Because the astronaut is not in an inertial reference frame (he accelerates when he turns around to come back) which breaks the symmetry (so there's no basis for claiming the two perspectives are interchangeable). More discussion is [on wikipedia](_URL_0_)",
"> Couldn't we use the astronaut as our reference frame and conclude that the Earthlings should be aging slowly?\n\nYou can't because (ignoring the short period of acceleration) the astronaut has two inertial reference frames - first the outgoing frame as he leaves, and then the incoming frame as he comes back.\n\nAside from time dilation and length contraction, another effect of relativity is that events that are simultaneous in one reference frame are not simultaneous in another.\n\nSo when the astronaut is leaving, in his outgoing frame, the Earthlings don't age as much - less proper time passes for them. \n\nLets say that at the point of turnaround the Earthlings are watching the 2050 World Series, and only about two years have passed for the Earthlings, but five have passed for the Astronaut (this is in the outgoing frame!).\n\nWhen he switches to the incoming frame, the 2050 World Series is no longer going on \"now\". It happened long in the past. The Earthling's clocks still move slowly, but in the end more total time has passed for them.\n\nYou can calculate all this from the Earthling's perspective and it is much easier to work out. But if you work out everything from the Astronauts outgoing frame, switch to the incoming frame, and finish the calculation , everything works out the same.\n\n\nI am actually of the opinion that everyone majoring in physics should take the time to work out this problem in all three frames of reference, calculate all of the points in each frame of reference, draw careful diagrams, and even include when light from the astronaut reaches Earth and vice versa."
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"url": [
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|
[Physics] An astronaut leaves earth traveling at 0.9c, comes back, and he's aged less than everyone else. Since he and the Earthlings had identical speeds relative to one another, why is it that his clock experiences time dilation, as opposed to the Earthlings' clocks?
Couldn't we use the astronaut as our reference frame and conclude that the Earthlings should be aging slowly? Is it relevant that the Earth is so much bigger than the astronaut? How would this scenario play out in a universe with nothing but two spaceships, where one rockets away for a while, then comes back, and they compare chronometers? I'm absolutely a layperson so I could just be looking at this from the wrong perspective.
|
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] |
|
4aratv
|
Can metal shatter if cold enough?
|
Like in the movies, someone freezes a lock and breaks it, or Mr. Freeze freezing steel doors and driving through them? What real life effect does extreme cols have on metal?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"The key is that the metal needs to go through a ductile-to-brittle transition, if they have one. Most metals fall into one of two primary crystal structures either face-centered cubic (FCC) or body-centered cubic (BCC), though there are more less common options than the main two. BCC metals (e.g. iron) will fracture if below the transition temperature. However FCC metals (e.g. gold, copper) do not have a ductile to brittle transition, regardless of how cold you get.\n\nSauce: PhD in Materials.",
"A realy intresting real world problem in WW2, cheap steel in the liberty ships. Yes it does happen, not as dramatic as holywood makes it out to be unless you are going very cold. \"The Ministry of War Transport lent the British-built Empire Duke for testing purposes.[19] Constance Tipper of Cambridge University demonstrated that the fractures were not initiated by welding, but instead by the grade of steel used, which suffered from embrittlement.[18] She discovered that the ships in the North Atlantic were exposed to temperatures that could fall below a critical point when the mechanism of failure changed from ductile to brittle, and thus the hull could fracture rather easily. The predominantly welded (as opposed to riveted) hull construction then allowed cracks to run for large distances unimpeded. One common type of crack nucleated at the square corner of a hatch which coincided with a welded seam, both the corner and the weld acting as stress concentrators.\" _URL_0_",
"The movies get things vaguely correct there. It is not as simple as they make it out to be. You can't just shoot a couple spritzes of liquid and shatter a lock.\n\nTo show it, I searched YouTube for \"liquid nitrogen breaking metal\" and the first hit was _URL_1_ which looks fairly accurate. You'll notice however that he takes them down to very very cold.",
"Well strictly speaking any room temperature metal (except mercury) is \"frozen\". \n\nThe brittleness of steel depends on the phase it's been \"frozen\" in.\n\nHere's a fun trick: buy a brand new, high-quality file. Lay it on an extremely hard solid surface eg. an anvil. Whack it with a hammer really hard. Spend the next 3 days in surgery while they dig a thousand pieces of shrapnel out of your body.",
"If the material becomes brittle due to the temperature change then it will tend to fail by fracturing (\"shattering\") rather than deforming (\"bending\"). So that part is true.\n\nBut making something brittle does not also necessarily make it weak. You're not going to be able to spray liquid nitrogen on a steel door and turn it into dust with the tap of a hammer. The movies also sometimes show thieves spraying liquid nitrogen onto padlocks and smashing them to bits with a hammer. The same issue exists there; liquid nitrogen is not magic shattering fluid. (Also, the quick spray shown in the movies isn't enough to chill the lock down more than a degree or two, at most.) It might reduce the energy needed to destroy the lock, but not nearly as much as Hollywood would have you believe. (Consider this: if liquid nitrogen allowed you to shatter any metal with the touch of a feather, then how is the liquid nitrogen container still intact? The internal pressure would explode the can if that were true!)",
"I'm surprised that this thread has gone so long without a mention of Bulk Metallic Glass (BMG). Embrittled material is fine if you want a dull, boring pop, but I think if you're hoping for a glass-like, movie-effect shattering of a cold metal, BMGs would be your best bet. Granted, they're rare, and aren't made in to things like doors or locks or hinges, but let's not get hung up on technicalities.\n\n\nThe reason is this: there's already been some discussion in this thread about things like crystal structure, slip planes, and deformation. For various reasons, these things keep metals from breaking in to a million pieces - even at cryogenic temperatures. But BMGs don't have crystal structures! They are, as the name might suggest, glass made from metallic elements. \n\n\nThe difference lies in how it's made. Metals like steel are allowed to solidify at such a rate that they organize; hence, crystals and crystalline structure. BMGs are solidified so quickly that the atoms can't organize in to crystals. No crystals means no slip planes or grain boundaries to deform along... No way to deform plastically means sudden and drastic failure.",
"Yes, as others have noted you can embrittle a metal as T drops. You can also make it much more brittle by other methods by causing flaws in the material to build up and make it locked in (brittle) (e.g., take a wire and wiggle it around, eventually it will break).\n\nBut back to your question, first, what makes a metal a \"metal\" and not a \"ceramic,\" lets' say. Looking into the metal we would find that the electrons are not strongly associated to any of the atoms (an electron sea); and in a ceramic the electron are very strongly associated to specific atoms. Think of it this way, in a metal the electron have enough energy that they aren't bound to the nuclei and just swim around.\n\nAs you cool down, those electrons lose energy and get sucked back in to the nuclei, little lighthouses in our sea of electrons. As they get sucked back, the material looks more and more like a ceramic... and behaves like one too, with shattering, loss of conductivity, etc, etc, the whole shebang.\n\nTLDR: yes",
"I am a carpenter and for some reason our boss had us laying rebar and getting ready to pour some cement. None of us had messed with rebar before. it was so cold out we snapped 90° angle apart just by trying to bend it up a little to fit in some more bar. Put less than 20lbs of pressure on it and snapped some 6 gauge. It was about a inch in diameter. \n\nEdit: moral of the story a decent amount of metal flakes came off, like a partial shatter. Depending on the type of metal and dimensions of it and as you said the temp. I'm sure some hardened metal would shatter",
"Yes. It is referred to as brittle fracture, although it generally isn't shattering into a million pieces like glass will. \n\nHere is an example of a Naval ship that literally cracked in half in a split second, likely due to brittle fracture. _URL_2_",
"It actually doesn't even have to be cold in some cases. Some metals are naturally brittle and a stronger impact will cause them to shatter like glass, rather than just bend. I work on CNC machines and some tools are really quite fragile."
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{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty_ship",
"https://youtu.be/idMkzmXAgeI",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Schenectady"
]
}
|
Can metal shatter if cold enough?
Like in the movies, someone freezes a lock and breaks it, or Mr. Freeze freezing steel doors and driving through them? What real life effect does extreme cols have on metal?
|
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|
ioiao
|
Could someone give me some simple explanations of the theories about what the universe exists in?
|
I figure someone here could do a good job of explaining some of the theories to a non-physicist.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"We can only observe that which is within the universe. If we can measure it, then it is by definition within our universe. If there is something \"outside\" of our universe, we can't possibly measure it, so it's not a matter science can deal with.",
"There are none. The universe is all there is (pretty much by definition).",
"\"What the universe exists in?\" Please clarify what you mean by that.",
"If the universe existed within something, that something would also be part of the universe.\n\nThe *observable* universe is basically a local section of universe that exists within a larger expanse of the same."
],
"score": [
9,
9,
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Could someone give me some simple explanations of the theories about what the universe exists in?
I figure someone here could do a good job of explaining some of the theories to a non-physicist.
|
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] |
|
wycc1
|
How much jello would you need to stop a bullet?
|
My friend's were having an argument over the bullet stopping power of 2-inch thick titanium block and the conversation went on a couple tangents. [For reference](_URL_0_). And to reduce the number of variables, can we say 7.62×39mm ak round is fired at an infinitely long stretch of jello. when would it stop? any input is welcome
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5hiunu",
"c5hjcyr",
"c5hiuvo"
],
"text": [
"Are you specifically asking about *jello* brand gelatin, or will any gelatinous substance work?\n\nA (NOT FOOD) gelatin called ballistics gelatin is used as a roughly human tissue analogue, and the data sets on that are readily and reliably available, as well as videos and pictures of experimental results.\n\nI know this doesn't answer your question, but it's something you and your friend might find interesting - I strongly recommend watching a slowmo of a high powered rifle impacting a block of ballistics gel if you're interested in that sort of thing. Seeing the cavity formed behind it is an awe inspiring and intimidating sight. If you didn't already have a healthy respect for firearms, that should create it.",
"Any liquid-based medium will stop a bullet in a relatively short distance. Per your specs, we are using a full-metal jacket bullet which will take longer to expend its energy than a soft-point bullet.\n\nThe suggestions re: ballistic gelatin are spot-on and will give you a good idea. I would also search for water penetration tests. Jell-O would probably fall somewhere between those two.",
"It'd also depend on the thickness of the gelatin. For instance, there's [ballistic gelatin](_URL_0_), used to simulate the effect of a firearm on human tissues.\n\nIs there a standard for the thickness of food-grade Jell-O?"
],
"score": [
6,
5,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.kraftbrands.com/jello/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_gelatin"
]
}
|
How much jello would you need to stop a bullet?
My friend's were having an argument over the bullet stopping power of 2-inch thick titanium block and the conversation went on a couple tangents. [For reference](_URL_0_). And to reduce the number of variables, can we say 7.62×39mm ak round is fired at an infinitely long stretch of jello. when would it stop? any input is welcome
|
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|
10m692
|
Is an apple separated from the tree alive or dead?
|
If I plucked an apple, does it "die"? More technically, how are processes in a plucked apple different from an apple still on the tree?
It's a known fact that fruit & vegs ripen when left alone; where do they get the energy for that?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Technically, the cells that make up the fruit and the seeds are still alive, but they start fading the moment they're picked. The energy they get for ripening is already there, it just needs to be converted to the right sugars and what not. The cells of the fruit are still working (and will until they no longer have the fluids and energy they need). What's important is that the seeds are alive and they have to stay alive in order to create a new tree.",
"> Is an apple separated from the tree alive or dead?\n\nDying.\n\n > If I plucked an apple, does it \"die\"? More technically, how are processes in a plucked apple different from an apple still on the tree?\n\nWhen you pluck an apple, you remove its connection to the roots/leaves/etc. So it has no access to the nutrients the tree usually collects (water, C02, the sugars resulting from photosynthesis).\n\n > It's a known fact that fruit & vegs ripen when left alone; where do they get the energy for that?\n\nThe energy that plucked fruit use to do any process comes form the chemical energy stored in their sugars. That is the reason why we eat fruit in the first place, to absorb their nutrients (including sugars, which give **us** energy).",
"This just got me thinking: Normally when you bite into an apple that is detached, it starts browning and drying up rather quickly.\n\nWhat would happen if you were to bite into the apple still attached to the tree? Would the cells react any differently? (I wish i had an apple tree)",
"Technically, an apple isn't an organism, but the whole tree is. So it was never technically \"alive\" or \"dead\" at any moment.\n\nThat said, an apple is comprised of many millions of cells, each of which are alive. Just like when someone takes a swab of the inside of your cheek (taking epithelial cells) and putting it in a dish with culture media in it, these cells are alive, but the tissue that is composed of them isn't considered an organism.\n\nAll the energy that a fruit uses to ripen is already stored within the fruit: in the form of sugars.",
"Not really worth making a new post, but it is related so I'll ask here and hope for an answer.\n\nIt sounds like when an apple is picked, it's technically still alive but starts the process of dying.\n\nThis sounds similar to the process of losing a finger. The cells in the finger are still alive, but without access to the blood supply of the body, they will dying shortly after being severed.\n\nMy question is, since it is possible to reattach a finger that has been severed if done so quickly, is it possible to reattach an apple that has been picked?",
"On a similar note ... Is hair alive or dead?",
"Could someone please explain what the distinction between \"living\", \"dying\" and \"dead\" is which is being used in these discussions?",
"Fun fact: there is no widely accepted scientific definition of what constitues \"life\" of \"living\". People can make up their minds if its a dichotomy or a gradient. E.g., viruses, seeds, etc",
"A fruit is neither alive nor dead. It is simply a medium that carries and help disperse the seed/seeds inside. Most of the time fruits are composed of sugar as a source of attraction for animals. Wild animals come to harvest the fruits, eat the outer coat and may carry the seeds far away from the parent plant. The seeds on the other hand, contain real living organism that are the miniature plant lying dormant waiting for the suitable conditions to germinate.",
"Is a baby separated from the womb alive or dead? We've all got a clock... only really winds down when all the cells stop jumbling. So... apple is alive... but dying.",
"The starch and the lipids and the sugars are not alive, but the cells that utilise them are.",
"Many seeds already contain a miniature plant with 2 leafes in it.\n\nFruits are just a sugar coating around seeds so that that gets eaten instead of the seed, and the seed gets transported to a likely better place with the sugar coating turned into fertilizer.\n\nThe whole human skin is coated in a layer of dead skin cells. The picked appleseeds are surrounded by diing apple cells.",
"> It's a known fact that fruit & vegs ripen when left alone; where do they get the energy for that?\n\nFruiting bodies ripen based off a hormone called Ethylene. It's actually a gas. Ethylene gas is emitted by a ripe fruit and even more so by an overripe fruit. This is where the saying \"One bad apple ruins the rest\" comes from.",
"Fresh vegetable matter is quite alive for some time. That is if by alive you mean there is operational cellular machinery.\n\nSo if you consume fresh vegetables (or apples) you are eating living tissue.\n\nSo enjoy that crisp delicious living apple, OP.",
"I'm not too sure about apple seeds in particular, but I know some seeds are metabolically active for many years - so in a sense they are very much alive."
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Is an apple separated from the tree alive or dead?
If I plucked an apple, does it "die"? More technically, how are processes in a plucked apple different from an apple still on the tree? It's a known fact that fruit & vegs ripen when left alone; where do they get the energy for that?
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|
lr755
|
Is it possible to "float" a metallic object in mid-air using magnets?
|
The idea would be that the upward pull of the magnet and the downward pull of gravity cancel each other out, so that the object would be essentially neutrally buoyant -- floating in space.
Possible? If not, why not?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2uy033",
"c2uzr5e",
"c2uyets",
"c2uy1vg"
],
"text": [
"Yes, Google \"maglev\" or \"magnetic levitation\" to see all the ways this can be applied.",
"Search google shopping for \"floating magnet\" and you will see tons.\n\nOnce you are done with that, check out the video here to be amazed again: _URL_0_",
"Yes, but that configuration is inherently unstable. Think about it this way: you have a magnet on the ceiling and a ferromagnetic piece of metal underneath it at exactly the distance at which the magnetic force is equal to the gravitational force (F_g = F_M). Now, lets say a small gust of wind moves the metal a tiny bit upwards. Since the metal is now closer to the magnet, the magnetic force is now stronger than it was before. This means that now the magnetic force is now stronger than the force of gravity on the metal (F_M > F_g) and the metal will move even further towards the magnet until it eventually hits it. The same is true if the metal were moved slightly down from equilibrium: the magnetic force would weaken so that now gravity would win out (F_g > F_M and the metal would fall towards the ground. The reason that maglev trains work is that they carefully monitor the distance between the metal rail and the electromagnets on the train and adjust the magnetic field strength to keep the train at a constant distance. \n\nTL;DR - Yes, but it would be like balancing a broom upside down on your palm: unstable",
"There is even a ridiculously expensive bed based on this idea."
],
"score": [
5,
4,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2050476/Quantum-levitation-video-Can-hover-board-far-behind.html"
]
}
|
Is it possible to "float" a metallic object in mid-air using magnets?
The idea would be that the upward pull of the magnet and the downward pull of gravity cancel each other out, so that the object would be essentially neutrally buoyant -- floating in space. Possible? If not, why not?
|
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1emyk5
|
What is a good analogy to explain the "peta-" prefix, as in a "Petabyte?"
|
Greetings, Ask Science!
I hope that this is an appropriate question, but I'm stuck. I'm producing a piece for radio and I would like to include some information about storing information at the petabyte level. The piece is about the Library of Congress and their digital audio-visual collection, which is now beyond 10 Petabytes for their tape archive alone.
The issue that I'm having is that most people don't understand how large things such as megabytes, gigabytes or terabytes are. My understanding is that the peta- prefix represents 10^15 and a petabyte would be 1000 Terabytes or 1,000,000 Gigabytes.
Do you have any good methods to clearly illustrate these enormous numbers to an audience that may not often consider what those prefixes actually mean?
Any help is greatly appreciated!
|
askscience
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"People might better understand it, when put in capacity terms, that they can relate to. A PB is about 210,000 DVDs.",
"Imagine one dietary calorie. You hear about them all the time in advertisements and on the back of food packages. An apple is 91 Cal, a big mac is 520, etc. \n\n10^15 dietary calories is equal to one billion tons of TNT. \n\n(WolframAlpha)",
"The cube root of 10^15 is 10^5. That's *roughly* the number of millimeters (=10^-3 m) in the length of football field (on the order of 100 m). So, if you made a giant cube, such that each side of the cube was as long as a football field, and divided it up into tiny cubes, each with sides one millimeter long, then there would be on the order of 10^15 tiny cubes inside the giant cube.",
"Well since the Library of Congress is a library after all, why not think of it in terms of books?\n\nAssuming an average eBook is 2.5 MB (I think a pretty reasonable estimate), then 10 PB would be the equivalent of about 4,000,000,000 books worth of information. The LoC is the one of the largest libraries in the entire world and it holds only ~152 million items. So therefore 10 PB is very roughly about 26 and 1/3 Libraries of Congress worth of information.\n\nLet's say you were a speed reader and could read any book in just 5 hours. If you continuously read all 4 billion books, it would take you ~2.3 million years.\n\nIf an average book is 3 cm thick, then you would need a 4 level bookshelf that's 30,000 km (~18,600 mi) long. If you stacked all of the books on top of each other, the stack would be 120,000 km (~74,500 mi) high, or about 3 times the height a GPS satellite orbits the earth at or about 3 times the circumference of the earth.",
"In my experience (electronics sales) the best way to relate computing storage to people who aren't terribly computer savvy is to put it in terms of how many iPods/Smartphones that storage is worth.",
"People generally understand how big a gigabyte is. iPods, smarthpones, etc, all come in gigabyte sizes of 8, 16, 32, etc.\n\nFrom there you explain that a terabyte is (about) a thousand gigabytes, which will impress them enough. When you reveal that a petabyte is (about) a thousand terabytes, there should be a good enough foundation. Then just do some calculations saying something like \"My iPhone can hold 16 gigabytes worth of data. One petabyte is like < however many > of my iPhones.\"",
"I am not sure you need a scientist for this. I have experience doing exactly what you are talking about on a small scale in retail, if it helps.\n\nI break it down by numbers, first. Most people understand thinking in units of 10, 100 or 1000. The average MP3 is 256 bit-rate, usually between 5-6 megs in size. I tell them a Megabyte is 1/1000th the size of a gigabyte. A gigabyte is 1/1000 a terabyte, and so on, up to the size i need. Well, if a song is 6 megs, i can fit 166 of them on to one gig of space. Multiply that by 1000, and you have your allotment for a terabyte. \n\nI scale that up as needed, but in the case you out lined, you would need to relate to them the hard ware they would require to do it them selves. The largest hard drive for consumer purchase is a 3.5 inch, 4 terabyte hard drive. I don't feel like googling the physical volume of a 3.5 inch hard drive, but you could give them the cubic foot measurements of a petabytes worth of 4 terabytes. Tell them a number of simple things, also. How many Cubic feet would that occupy? What about in thumb drives? If you want to be anachronistic, floppies or CDs or DVDs. \n\nalso, tell them the run time of the entire library, if they have it. You can guestimate, if it is not available. For example, 166 songs on that gigabyte HDD is going to have a run time of, lets say 9.13 hours. 10 petabytes run time would be roughly 9,130,000 hours of non-stop listening, if my basic math has not failed me. I sell computers. I don't engineer them. Sorry if my math is off, but its how i help customer's relate scale for what is an abstraction to them."
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What is a good analogy to explain the "peta-" prefix, as in a "Petabyte?"
Greetings, Ask Science! I hope that this is an appropriate question, but I'm stuck. I'm producing a piece for radio and I would like to include some information about storing information at the petabyte level. The piece is about the Library of Congress and their digital audio-visual collection, which is now beyond 10 Petabytes for their tape archive alone. The issue that I'm having is that most people don't understand how large things such as megabytes, gigabytes or terabytes are. My understanding is that the peta- prefix represents 10^15 and a petabyte would be 1000 Terabytes or 1,000,000 Gigabytes. Do you have any good methods to clearly illustrate these enormous numbers to an audience that may not often consider what those prefixes actually mean? Any help is greatly appreciated!
|
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] |
|
1cy633
|
How does microwaving a sponge sanitize it?
|
Are you essentially boiling it clean?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9l66vt",
"c9l4bhz",
"c9l2u2l",
"c9l7cvw"
],
"text": [
"Well, the idea is that a wet sponge heats up quickly in the microwave and hits boiling point and kills some/most of the bacteria, but the dirt is still in there and its still dirty. Microwaving it isn't the same as buying a new one. If its filthy just toss it.",
"Yep. It works best if the sponge has water in it. The water heats up rapidly, and if you leave it long enough it will turn to steam. This is above boiling, which is enough to kill most of the bacteria inside of it. You can do the same thing to rags too.\n\nBefore washing machines, people would boil kitchen rags and anyhing that needed to be sanitized. The microwave is just more convenient.",
"Yes. There has to be some water in the sponge.",
"An interesting follow-up or corollary thought would be why the sponge has to be wet, as most of the posters have suggested so far. \n\nBacteria are ~75% water (all that cytoplasm sloshing about on their insides). Wouldn't the microwave heat this water also? And wouldn't this internal hot water lead to either protein denaturation and/or cell lysis from the pressure when it starts to boil?"
],
"score": [
50,
21,
20,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How does microwaving a sponge sanitize it?
Are you essentially boiling it clean?
|
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|
2hqkku
|
Am I, as a human, closer in size to the earth or an atom?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Depends on what you mean by size and how you measure it. In the following I will measure by logarithmic scales, as it makes more sense for such large differences in size.\n\n_____\n**Mass**\n\nAtom: ~ -27 to -22\n\nHuman: ~ 2\n\nEarth: ~ 24\n\nSo we are almost exactly in the middle of atoms and the Earth in terms of our mass. Maybe slightly closer to the Earth.\n_____\n\n**Radius**\n\nNote humans don't really have a radius, but I'm going to use 1m.\n\nAtom: ~ -11 to -10\n\nHuman: 0\n\nEarth: 6\n\nSo definitely closer to the Earth.\n____\n**Volume**\n\nAtom: ~ -32 to -29\n\nHuman: ~ -2\n\nEarth: ~ 21\n\nAgain closer to the Earth.\n_______\n\nSo in summary, using logarithmic scales, you are closer to the Earth through most definitions of size.\n\nNote that for linear scales, you will be closer to atoms for all of the above criteria.\n\nEDIT: So customary thanks for gold\n\nEDIT: So as others have pointed out, saying \"linear scale\" isn't completely right. I meant to say absolute scales.",
"In terms of orders of magnitude in size, you (1 Meter) are actually about halfway between the size of the sun (diameter of 10^10 m) and an atom (10^(-10) m)",
"**Human**\n\nlength ≈ 1.7 m\n\nmass ≈ 70 kg\n\n\n**Hydrogen atom**\n\ndiameter = 2 * [bohr radius](_URL_0_) = 1.058*10^-10 m\n\ndiameter of hydrogen's nucleus = [1.75*10^-15](_URL_4_)\n\nmass = [1.007825](_URL_5_) [u](_URL_1_) = 1.674*10^-27 kg\n\n\n**Earth**\n\ndiameter = [12742000 m](_URL_3_)\n\nmass = [5.972*10^24](_URL_2_)\n\n\nlength of a human ≈ 1.607*10^10 (16 billion) times the diameter of a hydrogen atom\n\nor 9.714*10^14 (971 trillion) times the diameter of the nucleus\n\nEarth's diameter ≈ 7.495*10^6 (7.5 million) times the length of a human\n\n1 human mass ≈ 4.182*10^28 (4182 trillion trillion) times the mass of a hydrogen atom\n\nEarth's mass ≈ 8.531*10^22 (85 billion trillion) times the mass of a human\n\nSo by a wide margin we are closer to the size of the earth than a hydrogen atom.\n\nedit: maybe I should have done volume instead of length, but meh",
"An atom is about 10^-10 m, you are about 1.8 m, the earth has a diameter of about 1.3\\*10^7 m. That makes you 1.8\\*10^10 times bigger than an atom and earth 6.7\\*10^6 bigger than you. So you are about 2700 times closer in size to earth than to an atom.",
"Also, a [Planck length](_URL_7_) is about 10^-35 m. The [observable universe](_URL_6_) is about 10^27 m in diameter. So in orders of magnitude humans are much closer to the observable universe than a Planck length.",
"Richard Feynman used to say that an apple is the same size relative to the Earth as an atom is to the apple. That said, according to Feynman's demonstration, it would seem that the apple is the \"halfway mark\", and that you are closer in size to the Earth. I believe he provided that demonstration in one of his earlier *Lectures on Physics.*",
"The earth, according to Feynman. Your question immediately brought to mind this quote:\n\n“If an apple was magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.”\n―Richard Feynman (see *Six Easy Pieces*, 1995)\n\nNow if earth:apple ~ apple:atom, and we're closer to earth-size than an apple, and further away from atom-size compared with an apple, then it follows we're closer in size to the earth than to an apple, by a little.",
"One way of expressing this is 'how many atoms in the human body' compared to 'how many people would make up the mass of the world'.\n\n7*10^27 (7,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000) is the number for the first part, based on a 70kg person given [here](_URL_8_)\n\n[Wolfram Alpha](_URL_9_) gives 8*10^22 (80,000,000,000,000,000,000,000) as the answer for the second part (mass of earth/70kg).\n\nSo closer to the earth than to an atom. [The mass of an atom relates to the mass of a person has a similar proportion to the mass of a person compared to the mass of the sun](_URL_10_)",
"Earth. The earth is about 10^7 m in diameter, we are about 10^0 m tall. An atom is about 10^-10 m wide. So we are three orders of magnitude closer to the Earth than an atom.",
"[Powers of Ten](_URL_11_) 9 minute video. \n\n\"Powers of Ten takes us on an adventure in magnitudes. Starting at a picnic by the lakeside in Chicago, this famous film transports us to the outer edges of the universe. Every ten seconds we view the starting point from ten times farther out until our own galaxy is visible only a s a speck of light among many others. Returning to Earth with breathtaking speed, we move inward- into the hand of the sleeping picnicker- with ten times more magnification every ten seconds. Our journey ends inside a proton of a carbon atom within a DNA molecule in a white blood cell. POWERS OF TEN © 1977 EAMES OFFICE LLC\"",
"The earth has a volume of 1.1x10^24 Liters. The average human has a volume of around 66.4 L (according to wolfram alpha). A carbon atom has a volume of around 9.97x10^-27 L (though saying an atom has a volume is kinda sketchy). \n\nThat means the earth is 1.6x10^22 times the size of a human, and a human is 6.7x10^27 times the size of a carbon atom. So in that sense, a human is closer to the size of the earth than an atom by a factor of around 4x10^5.",
"I walk around in this life in complete awe of my surroundings, and I feel like everyone around me is just so content with waking up and going to work, eating and sleeping. Nobody takes the time to look up at the stars and feel overwhelmed by how small you are, and what a fantastic miracle it is your able to actually reflect on your surroundings and your own thoughts. I'm acutely aware that I'm suspended in infinity, everything goes forever in every direction, big, small, in and out, up and down and through dimensions not easily perceived. Absolutely incredible.",
"A nano science teacher of mine put it this way:\n\nRatio of an atom to a soccer ball is almost the same as a soccer ball to the earth \n\nSince we're bigger than a soccer ball we're closer to the size of the earth. Just my dumbed down version of an answer with no math or exponents :)",
"Here is a great tool to kinda give you a hint about, well..the size of things..\n\n_URL_12_",
"On average, an atom is about an angstrom in diameter (10^-10 meters). The earth is approximately 10^7 meters. We are on the order of 10^0 meters (i.e. one meter). Orders of magnitude have it, we are closer in size to the earth than to an atom!"
],
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_radius",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=earth+diameter#q=earth+mass",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=earth+diameter",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_atom",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observable_universe",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_length",
"http://education.jlab.org/qa/mathatom_04.html",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=mass+of+earth+%2F+70kg",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=mass+of+sun+%2F+70kg",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0fKBhvDjuy0",
"http://htwins.net/scale/"
]
}
|
Am I, as a human, closer in size to the earth or an atom?
|
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||
sdyzy
|
Where is the hypothetical sweet spot for stargazing?
|
I was reading about how you can't see stars in space, you need to be within Earths atmosphere. I didn't understand a lot of it. I also know that being in a commercial airliner over the ocean should get you away from most light pollution, the 'seeing' is not nearly as good as when in the desert on a moonless night. If I recall it is actually pretty bad.
So from this I take it you need atmosphere, and you need to be lower than 30,000 feet. Does more atmosphere equal better 'seeing?' I've been in the highlands of Sierra NP and the stars there (around 10,000 feet) were phenomenal.
I hope my question is understood. Bonus points if someone can explain to my why you can only see objects in our solar system if you are in space. It seems counter intuitive.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Generally the seeing is better the further up you are. That is why optical telescopes are often placed in space. Hubble space telescope is placed in orbit around Earth and James Webb space telescope will be placed much further away.\n\nThe problem with seeing stars on a commercial airliner probably comes from the windows. It will not be very dark around them and they will not be completely transparent.\n\nAs to your last question I'm sorry, but I don't understand what you are asking. It is quite possible to see some objects in our solar system like the sun, Venus, etcetera that can be seen from Earth.",
"You can absolutely see stars in space. Our atmosphere only gets in our way of seeing stars and other objects in space more clearly. Higher elevation helps for viewing stars, but mostly you want to get away from light and air pollution. There are places in the mid-west united states that are amazing because they're nowhere near cities. Your bonus question is incorrect, as you can most definitely see objects not in our solar system from space. Where exactly were you reading all of this?",
"I'm no scientist but I'm pretty sure your completely wrong. The only thing about stars you would see in atmosphere that you wouldn't see in space is the twinkling due to atmospheric distortions. \n\nThe Hubble telescope gets such amazing pictures for that reason. Because its in space!\n\nAs far as light pollution goes your best bet is probably an ocean cruise ship.",
"I would like to see the source that you read that claimed \"you cannot see stars in space\"\n\nThat is a horribly misinformed statement, the reason its hard to understand is because its not at all true. Your personal anecdotes of stargazing at different altitudes are not helping so forget them.\n\nThe higher you go outside our atmostphere, the easier it is to resolve incoming light, there is no sweetspot to speak of, unless your taking into account very specific pieces of equipment and whatever envorionments or conditions that specific telescope was designed to work in.",
"One reason people sometimes have the wrong idea that you can't see stars in space is that they're not visible in pictures taken during the Moon landings and in pictures of the Earth various astronauts have taken. The reason you can't see them in those shots is that it's daytime, so the camera's exposure is set too low to capture the stars."
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|
Where is the hypothetical sweet spot for stargazing?
I was reading about how you can't see stars in space, you need to be within Earths atmosphere. I didn't understand a lot of it. I also know that being in a commercial airliner over the ocean should get you away from most light pollution, the 'seeing' is not nearly as good as when in the desert on a moonless night. If I recall it is actually pretty bad. So from this I take it you need atmosphere, and you need to be lower than 30,000 feet. Does more atmosphere equal better 'seeing?' I've been in the highlands of Sierra NP and the stars there (around 10,000 feet) were phenomenal. I hope my question is understood. Bonus points if someone can explain to my why you can only see objects in our solar system if you are in space. It seems counter intuitive.
|
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|
4ov9xt
|
What is the apex predator of a typical backyard?
|
[removed]
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"- it's whatever the largest raptor is in the area. an owl will kill and eat housecats and large snakes. a golden eagle can kill and eat animals as big as wolves.\n- if you're in one of the few places with cougars then they're probably the apex predator\n- if your back yard is part of a swamp in florida then it's possibly a gator\n- bears are not apex predators. they're more like apex scavengers who don't care about other predators.",
"That's really going to depend on region. Even limiting ourselves to the US, it can vary. Coyotes are very common in some places. I have lived in typical suburban areas with mountain lions and bears. Are we including pets? Many suburban areas have predatory birds such as eagles and owls.",
"What the apex predator is is really dependent on first, predator of what, and second, the landscape scale you are interested in. For example, there are microscopic apex predators, or even apex predators among the insects in just about any backyard you could imagine (e.g. ladybugs, dragon flies, ants and wasps, etc.) Lady bugs can be quite effective at eliminating agricultural pests such as aphids, and thus are some of the most favorite predators to have around. Dragon flies are like the Apache Helicopters of the insect worlds, and their scientific name (odonata) actually means \"toothed ones). They are even fiercer predators in their aquatic larval stages, and can be one of the most important predators in a lake when predatory fish such as bass are absent. Ants and wasps on the other hand, are the tiny predators we don't like around so much. What is the apex predator is also largely dependent on the geographic region. If you live on the beach, it could be a shark. Or maybe you live near a swamp and its an Alligator or Crocodile (such as in Florida). And lets not forget about the predatory birds (Owls, Hawks, Falcons, Eagles, etc..) most of which have large ranges, may include your yard at least peripherally in their hunting range. Or perhaps as others have mentioned it is humans, but there are plenty of instances of humans falling prey to animals in their own backyards such as sharks, alligators, lions, etc..., so the lines can get muddied and it the debate become something of semantics at that point.",
"An apex predator is an animal which eats other animals but is not eaten (or is not regularly eaten) by other animals.\n\nGenerally speaking, no insect is an apex predator; the largest insects are simply too small to avoid being preyed on, including preying mantises. The only apex predator invertebrate on land (or indeed, possibly anywhere) is the [coconut crab](_URL_0_). However, unless you live out in the Pacific or Indian Ocean, you're very unlikely to have them in your back yard.\n\nIn the US, it depends on where you live. If you live in a city, the most likely apex predators are cats, hawks, falcons, and owls - none of them regularly prey on each other (at least, not adults).\n\nIn more suburban areas, you might see eagles as well. Coyotes are prevalent in some suburban areas, and will eat cats and sometimes attack foxes as well.\n\nAlong the west coast, cougars are likely apex predators in rural areas. Brown bears are apex predators in some regions as well.\n\nIn Florida and some other parts of the Southeast, alligators are also apex predators.\n\nIf you go up to Alaska, you may find polar bears, though few people live around polar bears as polar bears will eat people.\n\nIn some remote regions of the US, wolves are also apex predators.",
"Humans? Between insecticides, mole and mouse traps, catching strays, and shooting the occasional rodent with a pellet gun, I think we're pretty much in charge.\n\nHouse cats probably kill the largest number of small animals. Big dogs could take down a cat in a fight, but don't usually have the same hunting temperament. Racoons should also be pretty high up the list..\n\nBut out here, there are a few black bears that occasionally mosey through the neighborhood. There are a few humans on the block with weapons to take them out, but everyone goes inside when they come by!",
"So top 200 comments, used Ctrl+F, and didn't see it...\n\n\"Apex predator\" means nothing preys upon it as a general rule, not that it eats the most stuff.\n\nSo obviously humans are the apex predator of our own backyards, we can eat and kill anything we feel like with impunity. That said, of the animal-animals, there is one that *only* humans kill. And even then, only accidentally: The Skunk. \n\nDogs mess with Skunks... Then run crying to their owners. Cats mess with skunks... And get a chunk ripped from them. Lions mess with skunks... Get blinded and marked. \n\nMeanwhile, the skunk is freely snatching up both scraps from scavenging, as well as fruits, mice, rabbits, whatever. The fact they're omnivorous may discount them (like bears), but I'd say that since they're super-common, and the only thing that reliable \"preys\" upon them are Suburban SUVs, that they're the apex predator. No predator, no snake, no coywolf, no mountain lion, is stupid enough to try to fight them for it. \n\nLarge owls will hunt skunks, but large owls are not common in many suburban areas (where you think when you think \"backyard\") in many geographies. They're more rural.",
"I think part of the disagreement in this thread stems from the fact that a typical backyard doesn't have a resident apex predator. This is because most apex predators are large, highly mobile species that move around a large area in search of food. Thus, there are probably several apex predator species that could visit any given backyard. This set of species will be different depending on where in the world the backyard is. \n\nI would also like to point out the birdfeeder effect: the presence of food for intermediate consumers (such as songbirds) attracts more intermediate consumers, which in turn attracts apex predators (such as hawks of the genus *Accipiter*). \n\nEdit: words are hard\nEdit2: words are really hard",
"What suburbs? In Australia? In the USA? In the Netherlands? In Japan? In South-Africa? In India? In Chile?\n\nIf you take a global look, WE are the apex predator. If you take a local look, it varies per region. In Western Europe it will be the housecat, in areas with large predatory birds it will be them, in areas without them outside of Western Europe it will most likely be the biggest/most organized canine or feline in the region."
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What is the apex predator of a typical backyard?
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|
1xcgrs
|
Do bonobos have sexually-transmitted diseases? How are they able to be highly promiscuous without medical consequences?
|
Humans suffer from a number of unpleasant and even lethal sexually-transmitted diseases like syphilis and AIDS. How is it that bonobos can be so universally promiscuous without suffering mass epidemics (epizootics) of analogous diseases?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cfa58zo",
"cfa55tq",
"cfahcv0",
"cfans6j"
],
"text": [
"Whilst Bonobos are promiscous they still live in relatively contigous social groupings compared to Humans. That is, we live in colonies of millions and tens of millions and with substantial and continous connections to other colonies of tens of millions. Most small social groupings will have either all the same diseases or non of them, transmission rates between groups being low. Compared that is to humans.",
"Not really about monkeys, but lions have their own version of AIDS, but its rarely kills them. _URL_0_\n\nI think you have to look at it as a fast deadly STD would kill off a whole population, and the STD with it. Some populations are isolated from others, so it wouldn't kill off the whole species. So basically the slow one keeps getting passed on.",
"Of course bonobos have sexually transmitted diseases. Females bononbos also leave their parent group and emigrate to another after reaching sexual maturity. Selective pressures only count up to breeding age. If the disease doesn't keep individuals from reproducing, even if it eventually kills them, then it won't be selected against. Primates, especially apes are susceptible to many of the same diseases we are.",
"Not an expert but I’ve indulged in some power googling this afternoon. Unfortunately it seems the research is understandably flooded with [SIV](_URL_6_) and [SFV](_URL_6_) studies making it a bit difficult to find anything else but here’s what I’ve found in any case.\n\n\nI’m unable to find any mention anywhere of deadly STDs affecting bonobos. As noted by others here deadly STDs are rare in humans as well so their absence in bonobos is no huge surprise. \n\n\nInterestingly there is some speculation that the specific immune marker molecules(MHC) found in all chimpanzees(including bonobos) suggest that there was a major viral outbreak before bonobos separated from other chimps. Some think that this outbreak was SIV or an SIV-like illness. Standing on the outside it seems like this is controversial but I know literally nothing about the internal wranglings of the apeologist community. [here is a short summary](_URL_6_) and [Ctrl-F paniscus on this article for a short critique of this](_URL_6_)\n\n\nThere seems to have been a theory that reactive arthritis in seen in bonobos and other chimps was due to an STD but this now seems to be unlikely(due to bonobos getting laid a lot more and not getting the disease any more often than other chimps). Although not entirely debunked it now seems the arthritis is more likely due to a gastrointestinal infection.[see here for abstract](_URL_6_)\n\n\nFinally [wikipedia says](_URL_6_) that papillomavirus does occur in bonobos. This is the virus that is often sexually transmitted in humans and can lead to genital warts and cervical cancer. I wasn’t able to find any evidence of sexual transmission in bonobos though :(.\n\n\nOther than this I did quickly scan some veterinary textbooks I have online access to and, although I did learn that macaques are riddled with herpes, I couldn’t find anything else relevant to your question. \n\n\nMy guess is that there are two reasons for the dearth of information on the topic;\n\n1/ Any STDs that do exist are minor enough to not have dramatic impacts and are largely unnoticed(by us if not by the bonobos)\n\n2/ Outside of diseases that have relevance to human health(i.e. SIV) there is no real interest in or resources for the necessary research"
],
"score": [
29,
7,
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.britannica.com/blogs/2008/02/lions-are-getting-aids/",
"http://jvi.asm.org/content/79/7/3891",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simian_immunodeficiency_virus",
"http://www.thebody.com/content/art22271.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papillomaviridae#Evolution",
"http://www.researchgate.net/publication/7728335_Etiology_of_reactive_arthritis_in_Pan_paniscus_P._troglodytes_troglodytes_and_P._troglodytes_schweinfurthii",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simian_foamy_virus"
]
}
|
Do bonobos have sexually-transmitted diseases? How are they able to be highly promiscuous without medical consequences?
Humans suffer from a number of unpleasant and even lethal sexually-transmitted diseases like syphilis and AIDS. How is it that bonobos can be so universally promiscuous without suffering mass epidemics (epizootics) of analogous diseases?
|
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|
4xth1d
|
What is a good metric to identify the "uniformity" of a distribution?
|
I have a distribution of temperatures over a 2-D plane. Trying different methods (and simulations) to heat the plane as uniformly as possible to a uniform temperature. Sensors (and virtual sensors in CFD) placed along various 1-D lines (rakes) record a temperature distribution. As expected the edges are cooler than the center with "waviness" across the center depending on flow conditions. But comparing distribution curves by eye for various applied conditions is not good enough, I need a single metric to that says "This temperature distribution is more uniform than that one".
I'm trying the "entropy of a probability distribution" as a first shot (-Sum of p(x)ln(p(x)), just normalizing the temperature range as 0~1 and treating each regularly spaced sensor as a "bin", then whichever case has the highest entropy is the "most uniform". Is there some better metric of uniformity I can use?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d6i98o5",
"d6ikhl5",
"d6ic1s6",
"d6ij6ap"
],
"text": [
"Entropy is nice if you can be sure that your distribution is continuous. Piecewise uniform distributions also maximize entropy.\n\nI haven't done this personally but my gut feeling is that I would go with a simple error norm between the (unique) uniform distribution function on a certain domain and your measured function. Just make sure the scale is right. Depending on what you want to measure you can choose different norms (for example, if the heat transport is important you could choose a norm that measures derivatives, like H^1 — otherwise L^2 is good).",
"I think that you haven't defined your problem well enough. The type of metric you use should be directly related to why you are interested in something.\n\nFor example, if you are designing a reactor and are concerned about extreme temps above a certain reaction temperature, then a threshold is the correct metric. If you are concerned about different reaction rates at different locations then you should use a metric which scales exponentially with nonuniformity (like mean squared, but exponential).\n\nReally, your metric should depend on why exactly you care about the temperature distribution. If you are interested in it from a purely mathematical perspective then I don't have any great ideas, sorry.",
"I think calculating the mean temperature and then finding the root mean square error about that mean should work pretty well. \n\n_URL_0_",
"Apart from entropy, you could compute [KL divergence](_URL_1_). You could also compute chi-squared goodness of fit."
],
"score": [
13,
7,
6,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_squared_error",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kullback%E2%80%93Leibler_divergence"
]
}
|
What is a good metric to identify the "uniformity" of a distribution?
I have a distribution of temperatures over a 2-D plane. Trying different methods (and simulations) to heat the plane as uniformly as possible to a uniform temperature. Sensors (and virtual sensors in CFD) placed along various 1-D lines (rakes) record a temperature distribution. As expected the edges are cooler than the center with "waviness" across the center depending on flow conditions. But comparing distribution curves by eye for various applied conditions is not good enough, I need a single metric to that says "This temperature distribution is more uniform than that one". I'm trying the "entropy of a probability distribution" as a first shot (-Sum of p(x)ln(p(x)), just normalizing the temperature range as 0~1 and treating each regularly spaced sensor as a "bin", then whichever case has the highest entropy is the "most uniform". Is there some better metric of uniformity I can use?
|
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zffg8
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If 8 years in advance, we detected that an object 1/3 the size of the moon were on a collision course with earth could humanity pull it's resources and save some small percentage of the species? How?
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My first thought would be to start immediately building some type of circular space station in order to simulate gravity for long term space travel. Perhaps this would give us time to have a couple thousand people travel to mars and slowly start a city, first with material dropped from the space station then eventually using the martian dust and melted ice as some sort of concrete? We could bring nuclear reactors for long term power and carefully grow crops from seeds in some sort of large terrarium. We could also harvest oxygen from ice and mine for metals. This is assuming there are enough natural resources on Mars to sustain humanity for an extended period of time, which I am not sure of.
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"There's a pretty easy and cheap way to deflect an asteroid. We just have to detonate a hydrogen bomb somewhere near it. As long as it's still relatively far away we would only need to alter it's path by a few degrees to make it miss earth. The only downside of this is that it's risky to get a bomb like that into orbit. And you have to make sure that you don't break it to pieces. (Unless they're small enough to ignore them afterwards.) Because more of them would also be more difficult to handle, if they're still on collusion course.\n\nIf you want to know more about this, you should try this [Wikipedia article](_URL_0_).",
"Could people return to earth after the collision?\n\nPost impact earth would be better than mars I think...",
"One thing to consider is that we'd be tossing caution to the winds--so, for example, right now there's a big problem with getting people to Mars: lots of radiation. Well, hell, if Earth is a goner, we can tolerate a certain amount of cancer among the refugees.\n\nOne option this would open up is [nuke-powered rockets](_URL_1_). It's actually surprisingly reasonable from an engineering standpoint, but has some moderate safety concerns and massive PR concerns. But again: most of us are doomed, so if we can slap together some rickety nukemobile that only blows itself up *some* of the time, we could carry a lot more materials and people off the planet.\n\nThe problem is, 8 years is a short time to build factories, relocate workers, basically redesign the infrastructure of our economy. But when people are united by a common threat, they can do amazing things: look at what happened in WWII. Psychology would be a key part of the strategy: a combination of personal motivation, such as a lottery system so everyone knows they have some chance, maybe with benefits given to the hardest workers, combined with the sense of unity that creates such unparalleled productivity in a society at total war.",
"\"An object 1/3 the size of the moon\"... the moon has a radius of 1737 km. An object 1/3 that is about the size of Uranus' moon [Ariel](_URL_3_) or Saturn's moon [Dione](_URL_2_). \n\nAssuming such an object could be discovered to be on an Earth collision course at all, surely we would detect it more than 8 years prior?",
"> an object 1/3 the size of the Moon\n\nSay bye-bye to Earth. It would basically sterilize it. Might as well start looking for a new planet instead."
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{
"url": []
}
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{
"url": []
}
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{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_pulse_propulsion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dione_%28moon%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_%28moon%29"
]
}
|
If 8 years in advance, we detected that an object 1/3 the size of the moon were on a collision course with earth could humanity pull it's resources and save some small percentage of the species? How?
My first thought would be to start immediately building some type of circular space station in order to simulate gravity for long term space travel. Perhaps this would give us time to have a couple thousand people travel to mars and slowly start a city, first with material dropped from the space station then eventually using the martian dust and melted ice as some sort of concrete? We could bring nuclear reactors for long term power and carefully grow crops from seeds in some sort of large terrarium. We could also harvest oxygen from ice and mine for metals. This is assuming there are enough natural resources on Mars to sustain humanity for an extended period of time, which I am not sure of.
|
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|
1w6vch
|
Why is GPS more accurate at getting my cellphone location than cell tower triangulation?
|
Is it just the accuracy of the times involved or is there something else?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cezbg1b",
"cezbatx",
"cezkx9w"
],
"text": [
"**tl;dr:** Individual cell towers can't pinpoint your location as effectively as GPS because they can't measure distance directly, whereas GPS receivers can. That inaccuracy means that GPS will almost always win over tower triangulation. GPS also uses something more sophisticated than triangulation to determine your distance.\n\n**Long answer:**\n\nThe mechanisms that they use to determine your position are completely different, and this accounts for the discrepancy in the accuracy. Cell towers use **triangulation**, where _angles_ are measured. GPS uses **trilateration**, where _distances_ are measured.\n\nLet's talk about each one.\n\n# **Cell phone towers**\n\nFirst, let's take a look at a typical cell phone tower. Here's [an illustrative picture](_URL_1_). You can see that the tower consists of sets of triangular arrays. Typically, each set of arrays belongs to a different provider (or it might be the same provider adding more bandwidth or upgrading service).\n\nMost of the time towers will look like the one in the picture, with three arrays per set. But sometimes you'll only see one or two arrays, especially in rural areas, where there's no need to service one or more directions. Otherwise, in denser service areas, the \"cells\" of a cell tower grid wind up forming [roughly hexagonal shapes](_URL_2_).\n\nEach of the three arrays in a set covers one-third of the service area of the tower -- you can see this in the grid shown above, where **each tower is located at the intersection of three hexagons**. That mean each array covers a wedge approximately 120 degrees wide.\n\nBy convention, we call the antennas that service each wedge α, β, and γ -- the lowercase Greek letters _alpha_, _beta_, and _gamma_. We call the wedges \"sectors\".\n\n# **Cell tower triangulation**\n\nCell phone tower triangulation works by measuring the \"distance\" to a phone the tower for each sector that can see it. The distance is not an actual physical distance, but rather is estimated based on signal strength and the round-trip time of the signal. This is not a very accurate measurement, especially in urban environments where there can be lots of reflections and interference.\n\nThat means that the antenna can't precisely determine its distance to the phone. Instead, the phone can only be located within a distance band -- a portion of the sector that's a particular distance away from the tower.\n\nIn this example, one of the sector antennas of our tower has located a phone in between signal levels L2 and L3.\n\n * )) )) ))///////)) )) ))\n /_\\\n / \\\n Tower L0 L1 L2 ★ L3 L4 L5\n phone\n\nThe tower doesn't know anything more than that the phone is somewhere between signal strength L2 and signal strength L3, but this is an area 120 degrees wide from the sector antenna relative to the tower, and several miles thick. So it's not very accurate.\n\nThis information from a single tower is combined with information from other towers. \nWhen two sector antennas detect a phone, we know that the phone must be in the area that their sectors overlap. Likewise, when three antennas come into play, we know that the phone must be in mutually overlapping area.\n\nBut the area covered by a tower is frequently large, and they aren't always laid out in a way that's suitable for triangulation. Even in an urban environment with lots of towers, often the best you can do is a fraction of a square kilometer. [In this diagram](_URL_0_), for example, even with cell towers that cover a rather small radius, the best we can do is about 600' accuracy, the largest circle that will cover the red shaded area.\n\n# **GPS satellite trilateration**\n\nGPS is a constellation of satellites that orbit the Earth, combined with an algorithm for decoding the transmissions from those satellites, with the goal of having at least six satellites be visible in the line-of-sight for an unobstructed observer. Since GPS satellites are specifically designed for positioning, unlike cell towers, the satellite configuration is set up so as to try to maximize the number of satellites visible in the sky at a given moment.\n\nThe satellites each have an expensive atomic clock that is very precise and synchronized to all the others. Each satellite transmits a repeating string of information over and over, starting from a particular time (e.g. \"today at midnight\").\n\nGPS receivers have cheap quartz clocks. They also play the same repeating string of information, starting at the same time. Since the satellite's broadcast travels at the speed of light and not instantaneously, it will slightly lag behind the receiver's playback. A receiver can determine how far away it must be from a satellite by measuring the lag between its own playback and the received signal.\n\nBy listening to the satellites, the GPS receiver can also work out how far off it must be from the expensive atomic clocks. There will only be one time that minimizes the error from all the satellites, which determines your position very accurately.\n\nPractically speaking, this means that you can get GPS resolution of a few square meters as opposed to fractions of a square kilometer. Overall, GPS is significantly more accurate.",
"GPS uses the timing of the signal in order to work out position. This isn't affected much by the environment (unless you're inside, in which case it will have difficulty) and can be measured extremely accurately. GSM tracking works via relative signal strength, which will differ based on atmospheric conditions and what's between you and the cell phone towers, so it's a lot less predictable.",
"The simple answer is that GPS satellites are purpose built for achieving positioning; the biggest factors are that all the satellites are precisely time-synchronized, and the satellites also report their own positions (almanac & ephemeris). Those two things are what make all the difference.\n\nCell towers, as stated in other comments, do not report their position for device-based positioning, and with the exception of CDMA (IS-95 and CDMA 2000) systems, most major cell technologies do not synchronize the timing of cell sites; that is in contrast to GPS (GNSS in general)\n\nIn the future, 4G (LTE) cellular services have been designed with reference signals that will allow much more precise cellular positioning. Test deployments are active now; expect this to be rolled out within the next year: high-end phones already support it. Note that because the network does not report the position of cell sites to phones, the network ultimately has to do the positioning calculation and provide it back.\n\nThere are also some other cool things going on that will improve our ability to get accurate positions without satellites.\n\nSource: I work in this industry."
],
"score": [
125,
11,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://hawktrack.files.wordpress.com/2013/07/cell-phone.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/2009-03-06_Cell_tower_in_Morrisville_\\(close-up\\).jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/57/CellTowersAtCorners.gif"
]
}
|
Why is GPS more accurate at getting my cellphone location than cell tower triangulation?
Is it just the accuracy of the times involved or is there something else?
|
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|
2blamn
|
Any examples of predators overexploiting their prey population, leading to the extinction of both?
|
Just trying to settle a bet. I'm aware that predator-prey dynamics normally involve oscillation in the sizes of each population. I've read in a couple of places that overpredation can lead to the extinction of the prey population, which can then cause the predator population to go extinct. I can't find any examples! Are there any relatively modern ones? Ones from the fossil record?
|
askscience
|
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"I am writing this from my phone, so I apologise for any mistakes that I have made, and perhaps a lack of detail or completion to my thoughts.\n\nBelieve it or not, there is absolutely no known example of a species causing its own extinction. \n\nSpecies (as far as we know) can only become extinct due to an environmental change causing their likelyhood of survival to decrease. In modern species, a predator will never deplete its food source completely. If a population of prey begins to deplete, the predator population will deplete at a much faster rate this is due to the exchange of energy within the system being fairly inefficient. As the predators population decreases, the prey's population will be able to increase resulting in a pattern where neither species ever dies out completely. \n\nHowever, it is incredibly difficult -at this time- for us to determine why some of the much older species became extinct, so it would not be correct to assume that they followed the patterns that we see today.",
"I remember reading about this during my university days:\n\nLocation: St. Matthews Island\n\n\nBack story: \n\nIn 1944, 29 reindeer were introduced to the island by the United States Coast Guard to provide an emergency food source. The coast guard abandoned the island a few years later, leaving the reindeer. Subsequently, the reindeer population rose to about 6,000 by 1963[5] and then died off in the next two years to 42 animals.[6] A scientific study attributed the population crash to the limited food supply in interaction with climatic factors (the winter of 1963–64 was exceptionally severe in the region).[1] By the 1980s, the reindeer population had completely died out.[2] Environmentalists see this as an issue of overpopulation. For example, Garrett Hardin cited the \"natural experiment\" of St. Matthew Island of the reindeer population explosion and collapse as a paradigmatic example of the consequences of overpopulation in his essay An Ecolate View of the Human Predicament.[7]\n\n\nSource: _URL_0_",
"After briefly looking around I came across [the cascade effect](_URL_1_), which sounds like what you're looking for.\n\n > An ecological cascade effect is a series of secondary extinctions that is triggered by the primary extinction of a key species in an ecosystem.\n\nI don't know if we've specifically documented it happening for an entire species, but if all the members of a species were in an ecosystem that experienced one of these, that would qualify.",
"> I'm aware that predator-prey dynamics normally involve oscillation in the sizes of each population\n\nThis actually isn't quite true! \n\nThe Lotka-Volterra Predator-Prey models do indeed predict such oscillations, but in practice they're very rare. As far as I know just about the only undisputed examples involve microtine rodents living at high latitudes, and their predators. The models that predict these oscillations are useful but also highly simplified.",
"If you are strictly talking about animals, I can't seem to find much of anything. I would imagine that the Maori, which hunted the Moa (_URL_2_) to extinction, led to the abandonment of some areas by the Maori, but that really isn't \"extinction\"\n\nIf you are talking about any type of species, I would then use the example of the inhabitants of Easter Island which once had a population of around 15k but is all but extinct from over-harvesting/hunting all species of plant and animal life on the island (_URL_3_).",
"The issue is, how would we know if it happened? Two coincidental extinctions could easily have been related, but without direct observation of the ecological interactions between both it's impossible to know for sure. That pretty much rules out any pre-historic or poorly studied systems, leaving us with the dearth of modern examples referenced by others. While it is theoretically possible (and geological history is a long time after all, so even unlikely events have likely occurred at least once), I'm unaware of any documented case. Best I've got is this article ( _URL_4_ ) which focuses on host-parasite interactions but does a decent job introducing the difficulties inherent to the scientific study of extinction in the ecological context. \n\nEdit: let's add a link that actually works...",
"While not entirely influenced by prey loss the longest running predator prey study I am aware of might be interesting to you. It's the moose/wolf study at Isle Royale National park. \n\n_URL_5_\n\nCurrently the wolf population is in decline and in danger in large part now due to lack of genetic diversity. \n\nThe current worry is actually that if the wolves die out then the moose population may get out if control however in a local scenario at least the reverse could theoretically be possible. \n\nHope this is of interest to you.",
"There's a chapter of Gordon Grice's **the red hourglass: lives of the predators** that covers the brown recluse, also known as the violin spider.\n\nHe includes an account of an isolated brown recluse population that eats its prey to extinction, and resorts to cannibalism before inevitably dying out. \n\nNow, I read this book as a child, so I'm uncertain of Grice's scientific stature. It was, however, very compelling. \n\nLink: _URL_6_",
"every invasive species? they don't fit in. \n\nthere was this incident where cats were dropped into an island, yes air dropped in boxes, to kill some sick rats. they ended up hunting the local bird population to extinction since the birds couldn't fly.",
"The idea is that of a \"superpredator\" (one that causes its own extinction). The thing is once an animal evolves into such a state, it only would last for a short time as such, so the fossil record would be very scarce with evidence. I think almost certainly there have been a good deal of such species throughout earths past, but to find evidence of specific ones will prove difficult. Some think humans have the potential to be our own extinction, partly as a result of superpredation and other resource depletions",
"There is the case of the Stephens Island Wren (island is small, 1.5km^2). Cats were introduced to the island in the late 1894. They went feral and by winter of the next year had wiped the wrens out entirely.\n\nThe cats were then methodologically exterminated over the next 30 years to protect the remaining species of animal on the island.\n\nSo the cats caused direct extinction of the wrens via predation, which led to their own \"extinction\" by humans.\n\nI know this does not match your scenario entirely as cats in general are not extinct, nor did they die out because of lack of prey. But they did manage to get themselves exterminated from the island because of their actions.\n\nIf your scenario has happened anywhere in the world, I would expect it to have happened when two geographically isolated environments are forced to interact due to outside influences. \n\nLike a small population of predators fleeing a sinking island making it another island with appropriate prey animals, but not large enough to support the predators long-term. Or if an opening opens up between two deep cave pools that have been isolated for tens of thousands of years, intruding species to each other in a catastrophic manner.",
"There are abundant examples of this in artificial ecosystems. You can create a closed ecosystem with Hydra (the predator), Daphnia (the prey), and algae. This system will cycle through a chaotic series of variations and it will inevitably crash due to the extinction of either the Hydra or the Daphnia, resulting in the loss of the other species.\n\nYour question is meaningless, however, in a complex environment, because it attempts to reduce a chaotic system to a single set of axes. Reality is chaotic and not amenable to such reductionism.\n\nIf anyone were to propose, as a hypothesis, that what you suggest may have happened, the multifactorial nature of a complex environment would necessarily prohibit a definitive answer to the question. The hypothesis would be instantly falsifiable due to an infinity of potential interactions inside the system. That is how complexity works: you can only find out the truth by watching it unfold, and, even then, the uncertainty principle prohibits you from being completely informed about the nature of the system.\n\nYou may only ask the question for a non-complex ecosystem.",
"No, most articles of extinction due to natural predation was proven to be false. The success rate of hunts are low. Due to the low success rate it would be impossible for predators to hunt prey to extinction.\n\nOf course there are some predators that just kill without any desire to eat it but even those kills are few in numbers, it just isn't enough to make a prey animal to go extinct. \n\nThere is no way to make a prey population go extinct through natural hunting. However, unnatural deaths such as ones caused from humans do make animals go extinct, indirectly and directly.",
"In fact, yes!\n\nPerhaps the best example comes from the cilliate predator-prey pair *Colpidium striatum* and *Didinium nasutum*. The system is highly extinction-prone pairing due to the incredible feeding rate of *D. nasutum*. The excellent ecologist Marcel Holyoak (_URL_8_) has worked extensively with the system.\n\n[Here](_URL_7_) is one of many great papers on the subject.\n\nInterestingly, extinction-prone pairings such as these can persist indefinitely when local populations are connected by dispersal.",
"We live in a rural neighborhood and were just about over run with rabbits. Any time I would pull in at night their eyes would light up across the yards and my dogs would get a hold of one or two per week. A pair of hawks showed up and made it a happy hunting ground for about a year until I finally saw the haws less and less until about 6 months ago when I realized they weren't here at all. I recently saw a juvenile hawk perched on my fence a couple days in a row but he realized this wasn't the best place to hunt yet and moved on. I assumed the juvenile was from the pair that used to hunt my yard and that they are nearby exploiting a new hunting ground and in talking to a neighbor on the other side of the subdivision he mentioned having a pair of hawks that have been hunting that area for the past 6-8 months so I assume the pair rotated with the food source. I've seen a few rabbits recently so I assume their population is on the rise again and probably about the time we get rabbit-ful again, the hawks will rotate back to this side and give the other area a break for a while. I think predators reduce breeding during lean times which probably helps maintain a balance. Not that they make a conscious decision to have less offspring but that their bodies know they aren't living in a rich enough environment to support them well enough to support heavy breeding. Anyway, kind of cool to watch nature take it's course and make adjustments.",
"[In this situation on the Isle Royale](_URL_9_), it *could* happen. If there was an overabundance of the Balsam Fir, which is the moose main food source, then the moose population would go way up. Then with all the moose, the wolves would then have an overabundance of their food source, so the wolf population would rise as fast as it could. If they had enough individuals, they could eventually kill out the moose over time, also killing the wolves. So again, it *could* happen, but it would have to be some perfect situation (like on this island)",
"The only chance of this happening that I could think of would be from an invasive species scenario. \n\nInvasive species introduced..on some small island..maybe they are dietary specialists that prey on say bird eggs...migratory birds visit island annually... then over the years... migratory birds change route...causing a local extinction event...then invasive species change their diet or witness an extinction event of their own.\n\nIF you're interested there is a neat island not far from guam I think that all the birds on the island are extinct. Resulting in massive spider population densities. \n\nCool question though!",
"i'm not 100% sure but I think there's a piece about this in A Short History of Nearly Everything by Bill Bryson. (Bit of a weird source I know).\n\nHe effectively says that over-predation causes the predator to die off massively but hasn't been observed to wipe out both species. I'll try and find the actual source but it basically works something like this:\n\n_URL_10_",
"Moa in New Zealand?\n\nI know it's also because of the slash and burn technique for getting land, but there is a lot of New Zealand that wasn't slashed and burnt. The Moa does seem to be a species that was killed off. Correct me if I'm wrong.\n\nInadvertently the Haast eagle.",
"Happens with fish populations occasionally. If a predator invades an enclosed body of water (introduction via man or naturally) they can wipeout an entire prey base. Kinda what you were asking but this is more about on a microcosm level",
"It's possible that if an entire area had a decreasing population from some external factor (e.g. an island with rising sea levels), that this phenomenon may have occurred. The end result however would be that a whole area would be extinct, making it hard to record the events.\n\nHowever it's extremely hard to find out, as predators have multiple preys, so it would need to make multiple species go extinct until they would disappear. \n\nOn the other hand, smaller prey tend to have lots of offspring. If the predator becomes extinct, then the likeliness that it would come to a 1v1 stand-off would be rare. It would be more likely the case of 1v10+, which would allow the predator to have enough food to last until more offspring is made.\n\nThis response is pretty over-simplified, but I hope it covers some points. I've done a good 30 minute google search, and I can't come with any valid examples. It's entirely plausible, but we have few to no examples of this.",
"this is one of the ethical reasons for hunting. It helps cull an animal population that would eventually eat itself into starvation and eventual extinction(from that region). \n\nas far as the question, I can't think of any. Trying to think of a predator who would biologically need to eat so much of its prey that both eventually became extinct. It is my understanding that animals in the wild only do things because their instincts tell them too. with that in mind I would assume an animal would stop eating once it was no longer hungry. And if a predator killed off its prey I would by overeating I would assume an animal would move on to another prey before it would die off.",
"It hasn't caused total extintion, but cats brought along with explorers and settlers have been blamed for the extinction of several species native to small islands. These species wouldn't have had a very large population in the first place, and the cat's owners would have continued to care for them, but it's there.\n\nOf course, the idea of this happening is hotly contested, but one case where it's fairly certain our feline friends are to blame is the extinction of the [Stephens Island Wren](_URL_11_). Some claim a *single cat* caused this dieoff, though that is fairly unlikley; however, it's true that the island only had a handful of cats, most of whom weren't actually hunting for food.",
"One example of this happening would be\n\n1) Sea Otters\n2) Clams\n3) Kelp\n\nSea otter population starts to decline due disease. Result: Clam populations start to rise. As clam populations rise, they start to consume more and more kelp. Sea otter population declines even more. Clams eat so much kelp that it cannot keep pace with them, and eventually starve. But not *all* would starve. So complete extinction would be tough, because even if the clam population shrunk from like 100,000 to 500, the those 500 would have access to any of the kelp that started to grow back and then with less clams, the kelp can grow back very quickly....",
"Its very hard to get down to 0. I can imagine that such a thing could have happened. Except instead of it being animal v animal more of a virus v animal (If you consider viruses as life)... If you introduce a very effective and contagious virus that stops reproduction of a species that may already be concentrated can pretty much knock it out of existence and at the same time eradicate it self. 4.6 billion years of life.. Im sure its happened at least once.",
"Closest thing I can think of for this is the introduction of the Brown Tree Snake to Guam. Its introduction has devastated the local bird life as it is a natural climber and nocturnal hunter.\n\nThe bird life is pretty much gone but the snake is doing very well because it has alternate food sources; other introduced species such as rats.\n\nCould it have caused the extinction of the bird life and then itself if it had no alternate food source?",
"Is there any indication that predators have understanding of the need not to do this?\n\nThat lions attack the weakest prey (I think) is practical for them but might tend to strengthen the prey species. It might simply be that by doing this and not killing unnecessarily predator species do not wipe out their prey.\n\nBut could observance of the \"truce\" of the waterhole (Kipling?) be based on an understanding that the prey need to drink in order to survive?",
"I am going to give you the most amusing example of which I know, but it really doesn't fit the bounds of your question.\n\nBed bugs breed through [traumatic insemination](_URL_12_). Literally, the male pierced the abdomen of the female with its penis and injects the semen.\n\nOnce a bed bug colony become large enough, the male population will traumatically inseminate the entire female population to death, eventually wiping out the colony.",
"The only exemple i know of is a man made. \n\nIn the 19th century, a ship left a few rabbits on a really tiny island in the pacific. When the ship returned the next year. The plants were gone and there was no sign of the rabbits. Most likely that without predators, they just ate all the plants and died of.",
"Although this may not be exactly what you were asking, you can win the bet with it.\n\nHumans. Humans have over-exploited many populations, there are dozens of examples of this, including the Dodo bird, passenger pigeon, Baiji White dolphin, and more.\n\nI hope this counts as part of your bet!",
"The only way a predator-prey relationship becomes extant long enough for us to observe it is if they get the equilibrium stuff down-pat. So yeah, while it's more than possible to have them out of sync, the ones that do are gone in a geological heartbeat."
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Matthew_Island",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascade_effect_%28ecology%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moa",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Island",
"http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110411-160304",
"http://www.isleroyalewolf.org/overview/overview/at_a_glance.html",
"http://www.amazon.com/gp/aw/d/0385318901?pc_redir=1405230126&robot_redir=1",
"http://www.des.ucdavis.edu/faculty/holyoak/MHpubs/Holyoak_Lawler_Ecology_1996.pdf",
"http://www.des.ucdavis.edu/faculty/holyoak/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolves_and_moose_on_Isle_Royale",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/images/10_lynx__hare.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephens_Island_Wren",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traumatic_insemination"
]
}
|
Any examples of predators overexploiting their prey population, leading to the extinction of both?
Just trying to settle a bet. I'm aware that predator-prey dynamics normally involve oscillation in the sizes of each population. I've read in a couple of places that overpredation can lead to the extinction of the prey population, which can then cause the predator population to go extinct. I can't find any examples! Are there any relatively modern ones? Ones from the fossil record?
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1i2xbw
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When we hear a person's voice over the phone we sometimes think we can judge a person's physical attractiveness. Is this judgement accurate, or is there no relation?
|
askscience
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"_URL_3_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\nYes, there is a strong correlation between attractiveness of voice and body.\n\nThis may be due to testosterone, oestrogen, and health. More testosterone means a deeper and more masculine voice and some more attractive male characteristics. Less testosterone and more oestrogen means a higher more feminine sounding voice and more attractive female characteristics. Bodily symmetry is correlated with voice attractiveness, and we rate more symmetry highly as it is evidence of good health as disease tends to be asymmetrical.\n\nEdit. \n\nPeople have a strong ability to make judgements about your appearance from your voice.\n\n_URL_2_\n\n > Two experiments examined listeners ability to make accurate inferences about speakers from the nonlinguistic content of their speech. In Experiment I, naıve listeners heard male and female speakers articulating two test sentences, and tried to select which of a pair of photographs depicted the speaker. On average they selected the correct photo 76.5% of the time. All performed at a level that was reliably better than chance. In Experiment II, judges heard the test sentences and estimated the speakers age, height, and weight. A comparison group made the same estimates from photographs of the speakers. Although estimates made from photos are more accurate than those made from voice, for age and height the differences are quite small in magnitude...When judgments are pooled, estimates made from photos are not uniformly superior to\nthose made from voices.\n\nBut it's not a correlation of 1, and people do make mistakes. You may have met people whose voice is unlike their body, and that is normal.\n\nH2OedDownAzn mentioned the correlations in the second paper.\n\n > Opposite-sex ratings of voice\nattractiveness were positively correlated with SHR (r=.503) in males and negatively correlated with WHR (r=–.376) in females. \n\n > shoulder-to-hip ratios (SHR) and waist-to-hip ratios (WHR),",
"There's been some work done on this in linguistics. Some of this seems to be culturally determined.\n\nIn an experiment done in the mid-nineties, Dutch subjects considered women with medium and low pitched voices to be more attractive than high pitched voices, and Japanese subjects rated women with medium and higher pitches to be more attractive than women with low pitched voices. The authors attributed this to Dutch culture being more egalitarian than Japanese. Higher pitch = smaller and more submissive according to Ohala's frequency code, so in a country with more rigid gender roles like Japan, a woman who sounded more submissive was rated as being more attractive, and the opposite held true for a country like the Netherlands. \n\nThe article is:\n\nvan Bezooijen, Renee. 1995. Sociocultural aspects of pitch differences between Japanese and Dutch women. Language and Speech 38 (3).\n\nSee also [this](_URL_4_) article with some helpful references.",
"Follow up question: is there a reliable measure for the pitch of a voice? I feel like my voice is low, but I'm sure that's because its mine. What is considered 'deep and more masculine'?",
"What about gay men, whose speech is often regarded as \"more effeminate\", but who are also often regarded as taking care of their bodies, and thus might appear more attractive (sweeping generalizations, I know, but it was the first thought that came to mind)?",
"Follow up question: Does a heavier set person sound measurably different over the phone as a function of the extra tissue around the head? I've just seen a lot of frequency related stuff here, and was wondering if there was a mechanical reason."
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{
"url": [
"http://www.researchcareers.sgul.ac.uk/Gill%20July%202011.pdf",
"http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/~simon/dissertations/saxton.pdf",
"http://www.columbia.edu/~rmk7/PDF/Voice.pdf",
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/anthropology-in-practice/2012/01/03/the-barry-white-syndome-why-are-deep-voices-attractive/",
"http://people.ucsc.edu/~gmcguir1/BabelKingMcGuire&Miller_SubmissionDraft.pdf"
]
}
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When we hear a person's voice over the phone we sometimes think we can judge a person's physical attractiveness. Is this judgement accurate, or is there no relation?
|
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||
1i37dp
|
Would flipping your body every 30 seconds for an hour get you just as tan as lying on both sides for 30 minutes each?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cb0jwnm",
"cb0lzr1",
"cb0oip4"
],
"text": [
"There are two ultraviolet lights at work in tanning: UVA and UVB. UVA causes the oxidation of melanin present in the skin, which causes a short term darkening of the skin. UVB triggers the production of melanin (which takes around 72 hours to have an effect). \nAlthough these processes are very different, they do both respond to damage from UV radiation, and the damage it causes is immediate and proportional to time (so it doesn't need to 'build up' before it begins having an effect). All this comes together to mean that it doesn't matter how you flip, but that it is the total elapsed exposure for each part of your skin that alters the tan.",
"Does the heat matter at all?\n\nIf I have a massive fan blowing air over me keeping me cool on a very hot day, does this affect my tan/burn in any way?",
"I would assume that since your turning over every 30 seconds, there will be short periods (.5 second) that your side will be taking the sun instead of either your back or your front. Since your side has less surface area than your back or front resulting in slightly less rays. You might only end up getting 29 minutes of sun on each side.\n\n2 minute loss is most likely completely negligible though."
],
"score": [
103,
11,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Would flipping your body every 30 seconds for an hour get you just as tan as lying on both sides for 30 minutes each?
|
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||
126982
|
Have any questions on AskScience sparked any new research?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6sidzt",
"c6sip35",
"c6sjhn1"
],
"text": [
"One of the other organizers is involved with education research and has made some conference presentations on it. Probably not what you're thinking of though.",
"An article I saw posted on reddit a few weeks ago concerning atrazine sparked my interest, which lead to me giving a fairly important presentation concerning the effects of atrazine. The presentation was for my last biology class for my b.s. in biology. It was a 20 minutes presentation that I feel I rocked. Had it not been for reddit, I would not have known anything about atrazine. \n\nNo independent research though. Just a summation of multiple studies.",
"The community of askscience panelists has sparked at least one collaborative project between them that I'm aware of."
],
"score": [
5,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Have any questions on AskScience sparked any new research?
|
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] |
||
lhsa1
|
How where logs calculated when there were no calculators ?
|
I think log tables existed for very long time. How were they computed for various bases and with how much accuracy ?
edit: in title, its *were* not *where*
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2stblq",
"c2ssf7z",
"c2stje2",
"c2sujbx"
],
"text": [
"Actually, the same way they're calculated now (only by computers, not by hand)- series decomposition. Here's the wiki entry on taylor series: _URL_0_\n\nYou can represent the function as the sum of an infinite series of terms, with steadily decreasing significance. you keep computing terms until you hit the level of accuracy you want.\n\nit's how you get a numerical estimate for all kinds of transcendental functions (logs, sines, etc). doable by hand, just not fun.",
"It was a lot like making sausage, not very pretty. Napier spent much of his adult life computing the tables by hand. You can read some of the history of the log tables [HERE](_URL_1_)",
"Can anyone explain how they were done by hand?",
"Using an sbacus. If I am not mistaken Napier created an abacus for this exact purpose called Napier Bones."
],
"score": [
18,
8,
6,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_series",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithm#History"
]
}
|
How where logs calculated when there were no calculators ?
I think log tables existed for very long time. How were they computed for various bases and with how much accuracy ? edit: in title, its *were* not *where*
|
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|
1jpwl9
|
What's the farthest that water can splash?
|
At sea level on Earth. Is there an equation for figuring out how far water droplets will travel after an object of certain mass and velocity is submerged? Because I assume that once you drop a big enough object (say, an asteroid) the water molecules will vaporize before traveling very far.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbh765n",
"cbh7xtt",
"cbheufu"
],
"text": [
"[High-Speed Jet Formation after Solid Object Impact](_URL_0_) (requires Login for the full version)\n\nGist of it - \n\n[The physics behind water spikes is remarkably complicated and only recently has their formation been accurately described and simulated](_URL_1_)",
"My imagination went to an asteroid hitting the ocean. It's an interesting question, but I wonder what scale you had in mind.",
"As Nickel62 said, the actual problem is very difficult. But I think we can still get some intuition about this. Lets start with the following four assumptions:\n\n1) There is no air on earth (bear with me here)\n\n2) The water won't boil away when it hits the upper atmosphere\n\n3) The distance a water droplet travels is only proportional to the mass of the impacting object and the mass of the water droplet. AKA we ignore a lot of the crazy fluid dynamics that actually happens.\n\n4) The distribution of water droplet sizes is the same in all directions, i.e. at any angle from the ground.\n\nIn this simplification, the smallest droplet would go the furthest due to 3). Because of 1) the only significant force acting on these water droplets is gravity. Because of 2) there are droplets flung from all angles from the ground. And Because of 4), if there is an optimal angle, a droplet of that size will be flung in that direction and thus achieve the maximal distance that can be traveled for that impact.\n\nIn this scenario there is no end to how far a droplet can go since we can get progressively more massive impact objects due to 3). And since this only follows newtonian mechanics, eventually we will hit the escape velocity of the earth and fly off. This shows you how permissive these four assumptions allow you to be. But obviously it is because these are extreme assumptions.\n\nBut lets remove the assumptions one by one and see what happens. If we remove 1), we add in the notion of terminal velocity. Which will limit how far the droplets can go. But if they can reach escape velocity they can reach quite far distances still. If not, we'd have to know what the terminal velocity is to really say how far they would go.\n\nIf we remove 2) that limits which arcs re allowed and changes the optimal angle.\n\nIf we remove 3) and include fluid mechanics in the model, we get a crazy distribution of droplet sizes and velocities. Which actually breaks assumption 4) as well.\n\nSo as we remove these simplifying assumptions, we start to see the places where it could get complicated. There are probably things I missed as well."
],
"score": [
8,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v102/i3/e034502",
"http://www.askamathematician.com/2010/02/q-is-there-a-formula-for-how-much-water-will-splash-most-importantly-how-high-and-in-what-direction-from-the-toilet-bowl-when-you-ehem-take-a-dump-in-it/"
]
}
|
What's the farthest that water can splash?
At sea level on Earth. Is there an equation for figuring out how far water droplets will travel after an object of certain mass and velocity is submerged? Because I assume that once you drop a big enough object (say, an asteroid) the water molecules will vaporize before traveling very far.
|
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|
1ig9vd
|
It's 100 degrees in taipei and my friend tells me air conditioning from all these buildings causes the outside air to heat up. Is he correct?
|
It sounds a bit incredulous to me. I don't think ovens or internal combustion engines heat up the surrounding area to an appreciable extent, but they don't displace heat like AC does. I would think that the concrete, lack of vegetation, and smog cause cities to be hotter, but I may be wrong.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cb484ay",
"cb45sx8",
"cb4bfik"
],
"text": [
"A decent AC has a coefficient of performance of about 3. That means, to remove 3 kJ of heat, they need to use 1 kJ of electricity, which is thus transformed into heat. So, they absorb 3 kJ out of your house and evacuate 4 kJ outside.",
"He's not wrong, because they do in fact pump the heat from the inside of the buildings outside. But you are right that this doesn't have as much impact as the sun does: it was ultimately the sun and human bodies which generates the warmth inside the buildings to begin with.",
"Using the following data:\n\n_______________________________________________\nArea = 271.8km^2\n\nPop. Dens. = 9600/km\n\nAvg Family Size = 2 (guess)\n\n2 times as much cooling done by businesses than family homes (guess)\n\naverage building height of 26m (educated guess)\n\nDensity of air = 1.127kg/m^3\n\nHeat capacity of air = 1.009kJ/kgK\n\nFabien4's estimate of air conditioner heat output\n____________________________________________\nI calculated that the air conditioners cause an increase in temperature of about 1.3 degrees Celsius."
],
"score": [
12,
9,
8
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
It's 100 degrees in taipei and my friend tells me air conditioning from all these buildings causes the outside air to heat up. Is he correct?
It sounds a bit incredulous to me. I don't think ovens or internal combustion engines heat up the surrounding area to an appreciable extent, but they don't displace heat like AC does. I would think that the concrete, lack of vegetation, and smog cause cities to be hotter, but I may be wrong.
|
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2yoltk
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Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science
|
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_0_).
Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_2_).
Ask away!
|
askscience
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"text": [
"How far are we really in achieveing nuclear fusion? What problems do we need to overcome? Is it possible all homes could have their own nuclear fusion plants in their basements in the very far future? Would starlite be a suitable material for withstanding the high temperatures?",
"Why do scientists always say they need to find a planet that has water and oxygen or whatever to support life on it in order to find other life out in the universe? I understand that humans need it, obviously. But other life forms on these planets were just born into their environment and they live with what they have (be it carbon, sulfur, methane, whatever). Like if the planet doesn't have oxygen and water, we just assume nothing can live on it?",
"Why wouldn't a far away observer be able to see an object pass through the event horizon of a black hole? From what I understand, the object will seem to forever creep closer and closer to the event horizon, from the view point of the observer.",
"Serious question to illustrate the distance to the nearest stars:\nOur fastest current space craft on a trip to Alpha Centauri and a garden snail on a trip from Los Angeles to New York(without stopping)...\nWho reaches their destination first? \n\nEDIT: well, I did some math and I was stunned (if I did the numbers right). The fastest space craft: The Helios probes, which reached a speed of 157000 MPH. They would arrive at Alpha Centauri in 18759.27 years where as the snail would make it to NY in a breezy 93.68 years giving him enough time to see the sites and repeat the trip 100 more times. \n\nEDIT 2: Me do math wrong. Snail makes it in around 9-10 years. Thank you to the other posters",
"Is it possible and/or feasible within the foreseeable future of humanity to build a large enough space station to provide a permanent home to a small, multi-generational human civilization that we would then send out into space in search of either a new home planet or simply to gather data and expand the human presence in the universe? something like the death star, but used for good :o",
"I understand that the Panama canal is operated using a system of locks. But let's say the entire length was dredged to say 100 feet below sea level of the Atlantic and Pacific, and no locks were present. Given that mean sea level of one of the oceans is higher than the other, what would happen to the water in the canal? Would it all move in one direction, from high to low, like a river?",
"I'm going to post some of my /r/askscience questions that have never been aswered if that's ok. I'm just going to post the links with the details inside to avoid writing a wall of text:\n\n[To my understanding, things don't have a choice, why are living beings different, if at all?](_URL_6_)\n\n[Can we still terraform Mars while it has a colony on it?](_URL_5_)\n\n[Would a living being as big or bigger than a galaxy be able to stand on top of a galaxy?](_URL_0_)\n\n[Can we prove that the Universe and everything wasn't created 10 seconds ago, exactly as it is now?](_URL_2_)\n\n[Could we build a self-sustaining spaceship with current technology?](_URL_1_)\n\n[Is it possible to observe Quantum entanglement at a macroscopic level?](_URL_3_)\n\n[Could we take a Black Hole apart by \"shooting\" antimatter at it?](_URL_7_)\n\n[Why does light have a speed? If at the speed of light from its prospective the time to reach an arbitrary place is 0, shouldn't light travel at infinite speed?](_URL_4_)\n\n\n[Is it possible, with our technology, to prevent a Supervolcano from exploding? Or if not at least prevent the damage?](_URL_9_)\n\n[In the double slit experiment, do photons create an interference pattern because they are not influenced by time?](_URL_8_)\n\n[Would bitcoin become useless if we had Quantum computing?](_URL_10_)",
"How do we know that gravity is an actual force instead of an \"apparent force\" like centrifugal force?\n\nIs it possible that gravity is the consequence of objects moving linearly in on a curved substrate-type something and thus no force is applied until a collision happens?",
"Why doesn't the moon's tidal effect on the ocean apply to other bodies of water such as lakes? Why doesn't it apply to something even as small as a glass of water? Can it affect other large bodies such as sand dunes?",
"I have been thinking of a hypothetical planet in which it's rotational axis is a tangent to it's orbit. So looking from the top down on the elliptical shape of the planets orbit, the line drawn through the north and south poles would be a tangent to that.\n\nWhat I'm wondering is if it's even possible for a planet like that to exist? As a sub question, assuming a planet like that could exist, what effect would it have on the life/climate of that planet? I imagine seasons would be much more mild and entirely dependent on the how wide the elliptical orbit is.\n\nThis is very speculative, so there may be no good answers, but it might be fun to let your brains run on it.",
"I understand that this isn't directly relayed to these topics, but I really need advice. I'm a high schooler who has a passion for astronomy, physics, and planetary science. I have bought a telescope and am having great fun with it. I want to be an astronomer, but I have heard that the field is incredibly competetive, and requires a PhD( I would love to get one, but I assume it would put me in a lot of debt). What can I do( in both taking classes and planning ahead) to try and become an astronomer? Thank you so much, any advice is helpful!",
"In physics, how come cause precedes effect? \n\nIf we think of physics as some function that takes the universe at time t and computes the universe at time t+1 (a deterministic universe), doesn't that mean that it's also reversible? like, why go forward at all? If we assume conservation of energy, the equation is really balanced on both sides anyway. \n\nso what the hell is time and why does it seem to go one way?",
"Seeming that the farther away you are from an entity, the light you see from that entity is old and presents a younger version of said entity. Does that mean that, as you travel faster towards that entity, that time would appear to speed up, as if set to fast forwards? Like if it was a galaxy, would its spin appear to speed up?",
"**Could we create a black hole and use it for disposal?** \n\nCould we then feed it real objects and then \"send it off\" into the Space where it would slowly evaporate?\n\n*(By real objects I actually have something quite concrete on mind—all the plastic waste we produce and to a laic that sounds like a nice concept, however I would like to know whether this is at all conceivable.)*",
"Do the planets in our solar system have orbits that are all on the same plane? Is there a similar \"line-up\" with galaxies in relation to a universal center and the relation of planets to other planets in the galaxy (on the same plane around a universal core)? How would life/weather/etc. be effected if Earth's plane was at a different angle to what it is now (in relation to the sun and in relation to other planets)",
"If we in fact live in a deterministic universe, and the laws of physics are constant throughout, would we eventually be able to discover all formulas to calculate anything, and then with enough observable data and sufficiently powerful computer network could we determine anything we aren't, or can't observe directly? Like \"since x is happening there and y is also happening over here, then z must be doing this.\"\n\nLike, using enough events to go backwards in the formula chain to where all events we started with are true if and only if something else is true that far back, and using *that* information within the formula chain (I think a better term may be function or proof) to see what information about event z must then be true, without having observed the event at all. I hope I'm making sense. Cuz my followup is this: if so, then we could predict the future with 100% accuracy, and if we actively changed it by seeing the future and deliberately did something else, then did we just break the universe a bit by it now being indeterminate?\n\nI do understand such a computer or network would have to be super massive but I'm of course just asking hypothetically.",
"explain to me what exactly a 4th dimensional star is- or what theoretically it might be. do they think they're a lot of them? how could a 4th dimensional star exploding create a 3rd dimensional universe? could one of our 3rd dimensional stars create a 2 dimensional universe?",
"My question is about Dark Matter.\n\nRecently there was a lecture at my college about Dark Matter, and it left me with more questions than answers (a 5 minute perusal of the Dark Matter wikipedia page taught me more than the lecture). I asked this question and didn't get a clear answer:\n\nDoes Dark Matter's gravitational effect the formation of galaxies?\n\nHe said that they believe Dark Matter to be spread evenly throughout most galaxies, and therefore would not have a net gravitational effect. Something about this didn't sit well with me. How can Dark Matter be spread so evenly if it interacts gravitationally? Wouldn't this result in Dark Matter being thicker in some areas due to it interacting with itself and other forms of matter that are moving around? Does this even matter? (pun intended)",
"In Interstellar, when McConaughey and friends go down to the planet near the black hole, something like 7 years for the friends left behind passes, but McConaughey only experiences an hour. If the people left behind in space had watched him with some kind of very powerful telescope, what would they have seen? Would the people on the planet have been moving VERY slowly? If he wouldn't seen the image of the planet from 7 years ago, what would happen if he watched McConaughey as he descended? Would McConaughey just fade out or something?",
"If I'm sitting on a rocket traveling 0.5c, and I shine a flash light in the direction the rocket is traveling, why does the light not travel at 1.5c? In other words, why does light not travel within the laws of a frame of reference?",
"I am in community college right now, looking to transfer possibly to Florida Institute of Technology to major in Planetary Science or Astronomy (I'm still trying to make up my mind, but I'm leaning towards Planetary Science). \nI would really love to work for NASA no matter which of those two I pick. If I decide to major in Planetary Science, I would love to study and analyze data sent back from orbiter, landers, clippers, and/or rovers. \nWhat other types of jobs are out there for Planetary Science or Astronomy majors? \nWhat is the average work day like for people in these fields? \nWhat are some good schools for these majors? I am interested in Florida Tech because they have close ties to NASA and I am familiar with that area after living down there for six years. I have also looked into the University of Maryland, and while they only offer Planetary Science as a minor, they do offer Astronomy as a major. Being in-state, UMD would be a lot cheaper. But I don't know much about the school, and I don't know that I want to stay in Maryland anymore. \nMy long term goal is to become an astronaut, but even if I don't achieve that, I can't think of a better way to spend the rest of my life than studying the solar system and/or universe. \nI can't really think of any other questions at the moment, but I would appreciate any extra information you would like to share with me on these topics. \nThank you!",
"I've written a novel set in an alternate version of Earth's solar system. The key difference is that it's a binary system. A small star orbits a larger one, and the planets (including the alternate version of Earth) all orbit the center mass of both stars. I did this as a way of ensuring, for the purposes of the story, that all of Earth experiences winter at the same time. My theory is that when the larger star is between Earth and the smaller star, Earth will experience winter, as the heat and light from the small star won't reach Earth.\n\nI've also decided (though it's not mentioned in the story specifically) that the small star has a very long orbital period, on the order of hundreds of years. This is to ensure that Earth's seasonal cycles are relatively consistent from year-to-year, at least in the short term.\n\nLastly, Earth's axial tilt (the real reason we have seasonal change) doesn't exist in the story. All of Earth experiences winter while the small sun is obstructed by the large one.\n\nMy questions:\n\n1. Is this at least somewhat realistic, or completely absurd?\n\n2. Aside from simultaneous global winter, what other effects would a binary system have on an Earth-like planet?\n\nThanks!",
"I don't even really know how to phrase this question... that's how confused I am by it.\n\nI would like to understand the concept that the further away in space we venture, we could see into the past on earth? I know we can't actually SEE the past but I read an ELI5 and someone asked if we went far enough away, if we could see the dinosaurs with a powerful enough telescope. I just don't understand the whole seeing the past the further away we are from earth... Halp! Thanks :)",
"Is it possible for some advance human civilization on Earth exists over 10 thousands years go, many even before the famous Atlantis, and perhaps several prior to that, maybe the evidence of such is now buries beneath Greenland, or Antarctica or deep under the Oceans. Scientifically, are those assumption possible? maybe there are archaeological evidence of huge cities buries deep several mile beneath the Earth somewhere that we haven't stumble upon? maybe in Greenland?\n\nI sorry if my questions too far off the guidelines and too much speculation for scientific inquiries.",
"Theoretically, if there were a galaxy 20 billion light years away, but the universe came into existence 14 billion years ago, would we just assume the age of the universe is 14 billion years (because that's the furthest thing we can see due to the passage of time), or is there a way to know that the distant galaxy is there?\n\nEDIT: If we assume that something other than a big bang from a single point occurred to bring it into existence.",
"Would there be auroras on a hypothetical toroidial planet? If so where would they be? I've heard toroidial planets are stable in certain conditions, I haven't calculated it myself. What would the climates look like?\n\nspecifications: \n\n* The axis of rotation is the axis of rot symmetry.\n\n* The planet (let's call it Donutus) would be in the goldilocks zone and other than shape very earthlike, with oceans, and a similar atmosphere.",
"If a spaceship in space continues to accelerate, wouldn't it eventually reach speeds close to the speed of light? Objects in space don't reach terminal velocity and there isn't any drag or friction on the surface of the spaceship creating heat so what is stopping a spaceship from \"infinite acceleration\"?",
"What is the difference between a planet and a star? Is a star just a really really big planet? Do all planets if they get big enough eventually become stars or is it possible to have a star-size planet that isn't a star?",
"If we had a very long indestructible rope tied to the earth and threw the other end very far in space right into a black hole, would the earth be pulled into the black hole? And at what speed?\n\nThank you!",
"What exactly does gravity pull on? what particle gets pulled on in objects? Neutron, electron, proton, etc. Would it be possible to develope a substance without that particle to make it exempt from the pull of gravity?",
"What do we mean when we talk about positive and negative charges, such as in protons and electrons? How is there a negative value for energy?",
"What is more efficient, a system containing one pump, or a two pump system?\nThe pumps would both be pumping a fluid unidirectionally, consistently, but with an altering rate of flow. I'm trying to determine the pros and cons of a two pump system, but I'm having difficulty finding any relevant literature. I've found the following websites, and think both could be of use, but they're a bit beyond my level:\n_URL_12_\n_URL_11_\nTheoretically, in a two pump system, if one pump were to fail, it would double the pressure on the other pump and cause it to fail sooner.\nIf anyone could offer any help on the subject, it would be greatly appreciated. Thanks for taking the time to read this.",
"Thought experiment: If you would have a sufficiently strong telescope at your disposal, would it be theoretically feasible to see dinosaurs walking around on earth if you were looking at it from a planet say 100 million light years away at this very moment? Or if this example is too extreme, then would it be feasible for someone looking at earth from let's say \"only\" 15 lightyears away to see the earth \"live\" as it was 15 year ago (ie. Twin Towers still standing, yourself 15 years younger, etc)?\nIn case yes, do you think it would also be practically possible?",
"I've had this question for a while but never asked:\n\nOk, so in the night sky we can see the galactic core of our Milky Way galaxy. That's our view of space at night. \n\nMy question is, what would our view look like if we were able to see the stars during the day? Is it the same view of the same core? Or an exterior spiral arm? Or the abyss? Our tiny place in something so massive boggles my mind. Hopefully someone can sort this out for me. Thanks!",
"Given what I've read about wormhole theory I understand generating one as big as they are in the movies uses an implausibly large amount of energy. If energy consumption scales with size, and assuming we could control the endpoint location(s), would it be saner amounts of energy to create/maintain a wormhole with an opening large enough for an ultraviolet laser to be fired through to the other side and still read it at the distant endpoint faster than if fired from point A to B directly?",
"Darkmatter is supposed to be 80% of the mass of the universe. This means that the observations of how fast things are moving ( gravities influence) and the observations of stars and everythign between it has a mass balance issue of an 80% difference. How do we know that this missing mass is not in black holes that are out in the middle of nowhere between galaxies and are therefor not visible black holes as nothing is close enough to reveal their location.",
"Howdy! I was wondering why humans, when we hallucinate colors, don't perceive more colors than what are normally available from our eyesight. I'm not sure if, when we hallucinate, the hallucination has to go through the cones and rods in our eyes before reaching our brain. Or if the hallucination is a manifestation of our brains, and we perceive what we see in a completely different way.\nI hope this makes sense\ntl;dr: why do we perceive the colors seen in hallucinations?",
"What speed would a car need to reach escape velocity and go to space? I mean how fast would it need to go that if the driver pushed the gas pedal far enough, to an outside earthbound observer the car would appear to be lifting off, but to the driver it would seem to simply continue going straight ahead and the Earth would seem to be leaving the car? Aka a straight line instead of a curve obeying the planetary gravity?",
"I get into arguments with my friends about this all the time. \n\nIs our sun named Sol?\nIf so, we are in the Solar system.\nBut are other systems with suns or stars called Star Systems then? In movies and even on this website I see and hear people call extra-solar systems \"solar systems.\" But aren't they star systems? \n\nSorry if I ramble, I'm on a mobile.",
"Is there a giant antenna on the dark side of the moon that we've never seen because its on the dark side of the moon? Possibly put there by an alien race to monitor our activity? Also why does the moon rotate at the same pace as its revolution around the earth making it so we never see the dark side of the moon?",
"If I am an object, transmitting radio waves back to a receiver and moving at close to the speed of light, how does this receiver pick up the signal?\n\nWill it be broken? Slowed down? \n\nI imagine if I'm travelling the speed of light away from the receiver, and transmitting back at the speed of light, it wouldn't be observed ever?",
"So we are currently experiencing a gravitational force of about 9.8 m/s2. Does this mean that we are currently accelerating in space time at 9.8 m/s2?\n\nIf that is the case, then how come we don't notice the ever increasing speed that we gain from this acceleration, i.e. why don't we notice any effects of approaching the speed of light?",
"So voyager 1 is this tiny object moving at insane speeds, included is the golden record among other things that would probably interest the hell out of whatever aliens can catch the thing. How would they go about catching the thing? How would we if an alien voyager like object entered our solar system?",
"We have started learning about energy and power in my Honors Physics class. We learned about potential and kinetic energy and the different types. I am specifically talking about how energy can stored in bonds (if I remember correctly).\n\nHow does this work? Is energy something we can see through a microscope/something similar?",
"How the hell can we determine atmospheric composition of extra-solar-system planets. We can't get a better picture of Pluto than a potato-looking blob, yet we can confidently know what's out there in places light years away? How do we know it isn't distorted by anything else?",
"How do you identify the north star in city light? I have a telescope, but I haven't been able to polar align it properly, even following the guides online, I'm still lost as I don't have proper knowledge of the constellations.",
"What is the best way for me to demonstrate the earth is round and orbits the sun from my home on a budget of $5 or less?",
"For planets with the same surface gravity as earth, will the diameter of the planet be just as similar or can this value vary?",
"How do we know a black hole is a singularity instead of just a really tight lump of mass?",
"Is there an approximation on the number of atoms in the universe?"
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"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2mzptf/can_we_prove_that_the_universe_and_everything/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2p9ajl/is_it_possible_to_observe_quantum_entanglement_at/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2sm9t4/why_does_light_have_a_speed_if_at_the_speed_of/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2m1q7o/can_we_still_terraform_mars_while_it_has_a_colony/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2x1r2p/to_my_understanding_things_dont_have_a_choice_why/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2s60so/could_we_take_a_black_hole_apart_by_shooting/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2v8d1u/in_the_double_slit_experiment_do_photons_create/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2uemi7/is_it_possible_with_our_technology_to_prevent_a/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2wyuno/would_bitcoin_become_useless_if_we_had_quantum/",
"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/pumps-parallel-serial-d_636.html",
"http://www.mcnallyinstitute.com/15-html/15-01.htm"
]
}
|
Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_0_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_2_). Ask away!
|
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|
1eruv6
|
Apogee, Perigee ... and 'Time'
|
Apsis = Farthest distance from orbiting body
Periapsis = Closest distance from orbiting body
earth orbits the sun in 'equal' 365 days, if the earth is farther away from the sun in apogee, then it has to cover more spatial distance to rotate and revolve around the sun at its farthest point (the outside of a wheel rotates faster than the inside) and the inverse when its closer, since our clocks are on earth, we dont measure the difference (although we have many many clocks in space, they arent used to answer this question), but theres a HAS to be a time differential for each day on the planet. this is my intuition, but i cannot validate my observation, can anyone help or let me know where ive gone wrong in my thinking? so 'objectively' 24hrs is longer in summer (apogee) than in winter (perigee), right?
thanks
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ca35782",
"ca3933s",
"ca3572t"
],
"text": [
"The Earth actually rotates in about 23 hours and 56 minutes. The extra four minutes are the time it takes the Earth to move to the position where the sun is in the same place in the sky. Because the Earth moves faster when it's closer to the sun (around January), the day is actually slightly shorter than when it's farthest from the sun (around July). The axial tilt also has an effect, so overall the days are shortest around the equinoxes and longest around the solstices.",
"You are absolutely right. What's usually understood as a day, or what is almost exactly 24 hours, is the **average** solar day. A solar day, roughly speaking, is the time it takes for the Sun to return to the same place in the sky. In this time Earth rotates about 361 degrees. Yes, that's 361, the extra one degree is due to Earth moving on its orbit and the relative direction of the Sun changing by about one degree.\n\n[This](_URL_1_) is a good demonstration of the difference between sidereal and solar time. Press +10 on the left column (solar time) a couple of times, each click advances time by 10 solar days. Notice how the guy on the planet is pointing directly up at start but a bit to the left after you click the button. That's because for each solar day Earth rotates that one degree extra.\n\nThen reset the simulation (button at top right corner), and do the same with the sidereal time. Now Earth rotates 10 times 360 degrees for each click. The guy is always pointing directly up. At first the Sun is directly overhead for him, but after a few clicks it isn't any more. That's because a sidereal day is shorter than a solar day.\n\nAnd as you say, the orbital speed of Earth depends on where exactly Earth is on its orbit. Near perihelion the orbital speed is faster and a solar day would be a bit longer. A good demonstration of this effect is [here](_URL_0_). You can use that to see all kinds of things about the movement of the Sun, play with the time of day, day of year and observer latitude. But for what we want to see here, turn on the analemma at the bottom left corner. The red figure eight type thing is where the Sun will be at the chosen time of day on different days of the year. You can change the date, while keeping time of day the same, to see how the Sun follows that path. The up and down movement is because of axial tilt of Earth. In the winter the Sun is lower and in the summer it's higher, this is of course what gives us the seasons. And the sideways movement is exactly because the length of a solar day varies throughout the year. It doesn't really make a difference to everyday life like seasons do but it's still there if you look closely.",
"A day is measured by the Earth's spin, not by it's orbit around the sun. However, you are correct that a day at apsis is not the exact same as a day at periapsis. Since the Earth is moving in it's orbit around the sun as it spins, the sun won't be in exactly the same place in 24 hours, so one noon-noon period (a solar day) will be more or less as the Earth travels faster or slower in it's orbit. \n\nThe difference, however, is quite tiny (+/- about a minute). See Wikipedia's article on [solar time](_URL_2_)"
],
"score": [
6,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://astro.unl.edu/classaction/animations/coordsmotion/sunmotions.html",
"http://astro.unl.edu/classaction/animations/coordsmotion/siderealSolarTime.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_time"
]
}
|
Apogee, Perigee ... and 'Time'
Apsis = Farthest distance from orbiting body Periapsis = Closest distance from orbiting body earth orbits the sun in 'equal' 365 days, if the earth is farther away from the sun in apogee, then it has to cover more spatial distance to rotate and revolve around the sun at its farthest point (the outside of a wheel rotates faster than the inside) and the inverse when its closer, since our clocks are on earth, we dont measure the difference (although we have many many clocks in space, they arent used to answer this question), but theres a HAS to be a time differential for each day on the planet. this is my intuition, but i cannot validate my observation, can anyone help or let me know where ive gone wrong in my thinking? so 'objectively' 24hrs is longer in summer (apogee) than in winter (perigee), right? thanks
|
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|
6nx7f8
|
Why do we need water?
|
This is an actual question, I know food provides protein, sugars, minerals and so much more, but what is the purpose of water? Like why do we need it , sure it has some minerals and what not, but nothing like food. Thanks guys!!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dkd6a5p",
"dkd53il",
"dkd81tj",
"dkd2q25"
],
"text": [
"Almost all chemical reactions happening inside our body need water. Water either takes a part in the reactions or provides an environment to make the reactions possible.\n\nTwo main ways we losing water are sweating and urining. Sweating keeps our body temperature, and urining takes trashes out of our body. To compensate the lost, we have to drink water all the time.",
"Water is a very useful medium for chemical reactions to take place in, far better than air. So since life is basically a huge line of continued chemical reactions we need the water to keep these chemical reactions happening.",
"To provide a environment for chemical reactions to occur frequently. Water is polar so it dissolves a lot of things. It also suspends chemicals just enough to complete reactions but not too much that nothing stable can form.\n\n\nIf you think about it when we made the transition to land we had to bring the \"ocean\" with us and evolve dry skin so it didn't evaporate away.",
"Well we need water to create cellular energy, breaking ATP into ADP releases energy and essentially powers all of our cellular activities. \n\nThen since our bodies are mostly water we need it to maintain our equilibrium inside of our cells."
],
"score": [
14,
11,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why do we need water?
This is an actual question, I know food provides protein, sugars, minerals and so much more, but what is the purpose of water? Like why do we need it , sure it has some minerals and what not, but nothing like food. Thanks guys!!
|
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l9x8c
|
Why does the meat of animals that live in the water (i.e. seafood) spoil faster than the meat of land animals?
|
askscience
|
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"Ok, I know I referenced the source in my comment but I guess that wasn't good enough so here it is:\nFrom \"[On Food and Cooking](_URL_0_)\", Harold McGee \n\"The cold aquatic environment is also responsible for the notorious tendency of fish and shellfish to spoil faster than other meats\" It goes on to state that fish are high in fragile unsaturated fatty acis and that the enzymes and bacteria in fish are more susceptible to temperature than those of land animals. From the next paragraph: \"Where refrigerated beef will keep and even improve for weeks, mackerel and herring remain in good condition on ice for only five days, cod and salmon for eight, trout for 15, carp and tilapia for 20.\" Note: that's on ice, not just in the fridge.\n\nEDIT: Click the link and go to page 189",
"Oh man. I know someone else already answered, but I so rarely get a question that I am qualified to answer that I'm going to answer anyway. \n\nThe reason is pretty much fat. Fish that spoil faster (high-fat species and species from northern climates) do so because they contain lots of long-chained fatty acids that are designed to remain fluid at lower temperatures. The thing is, the fish (and almost all the other animals that have these fats) don't produce them themselves, they are produced by algae (and some bacteria).\n\nHumans have really high demand for these fatty acids, both due to our big brains and an apparent dependence on fish at some point in our evolutionary history. There's widespread evidence that Americans are very deficient in these fatty acids, and deficiency is associated with a huge variety of mental health and immune system deficiencies. We don't eat enough fish (really can't anymore) and terrestrial plants don't really produce these long-chained fatty acids in any kind of abundance.",
"Seafood DOES spoil faster than the meat of land animals. I'm sorry that I can't remember the specifics but I remember reading from Harold McGee's \"On Food and Cooking\" that sea creatures contain different proteins and compounds due to their unique environment and these compounds are more \"delicate\" and decompose more quickly and at colder temperatures than those of land animals.",
"Because the bacteria that thrive in/on marine animals are used to surviving in much colder temperatures than the ones of land animals. This is why beef can last longer in the fridge than, say, halibut filets.",
"Are you sure that it does? How do you know?\n\nIF this is true, it may be that seafood takes longer to get to your market or is handled differently during transport."
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Why does the meat of animals that live in the water (i.e. seafood) spoil faster than the meat of land animals?
|
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||
16y5in
|
How can a headless insect continue to function?
|
I was watching a praying mantis eat her spouse after mating and the male mantis continued to try to escape her clutches even after she slapchopped his head off. How is this possible?
Video in question: _URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c80gdo8",
"c80gb30",
"c80l112",
"c80lfb4"
],
"text": [
"Nervous system insects have does not have one central organ, but is built from series of ganglions, located along whole body. When an insect loses its head it loses most of organs that allow it to survive in the long run, but most of its nervous system is still intact, and it'll probably live until it starves to death.",
"Contrary to what happens in most vertebrates, the nervous system of insect and more primitive animals are very diffuse, and not so concentrated in the head area, so even if the head is no longer with the body, their nervous systems still can function and coordinate movements.",
"I think this will provide some insight to your question. _URL_0_",
"True about the ganglia. Most insects have ganglia focused at each one of their limbs. You actually have them too, running down each side of your vertebral column."
],
"score": [
12,
11,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KYp_Xi4AtAQ"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://youtu.be/3teflb1QNN4?t=1m29s"
]
}
|
How can a headless insect continue to function?
I was watching a praying mantis eat her spouse after mating and the male mantis continued to try to escape her clutches even after she slapchopped his head off. How is this possible? Video in question: _URL_0_
|
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1s57f8
|
Wait, energy isnt conserved? Please elaborate.
|
In reference to the question about the expansion of the universe it was mentioned that energy isnt conserved when taking into account the entire universe. It makes sense, now that I think of it, that if the galaxies are accelerating relative to each other that they're gaining kinetic energy. Is momentum still conserved? You guys are blowing my mind here. Would someone who knows more physics than me explain conservation laws in an expanding universe?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"The concept of \"Conservation of Energy\" implies that there is a defined quantity called \"energy\" to conserve. In Newtonian physics, this is no problem, but do keep in mind that the quantity of energy you calculate depends on your choice of reference frame (i.e. it's *conserved* in any given reference frame, but not *invariant* across reference frames). For instance, A car on a freeway might have no kinetic energy as measured by a passenger in the car, but much KE as measured by someone standing on the side of the road. Each observer agrees that energy is conserved, but they disagree on how much energy is there. Another example: a book sitting on a table can have zero gravitational potential energy, if you set the zero height coordinate to be the table, but it can have a lot of GPE if you set your zero *y*-coordinate to be the floor. But in either case, energy is conserved.\n\nWhat's important to realize about all this is that the amount of energy an observer calculates for a body depends on that observer's choice of reference frame: both the origin of the coordinate system and the motion of that coordinate system. **Energy is a reference-frame dependent quantity.** And we haven't even started talking about Relativity yet.\n\nIn Newtonian mechanics, reference frames are valid for the entire universe. Once you've chosen an origin and velocity for your frame, you can describe everything that happens in the Coma cluster, many millions of light years away using that reference frame. Not so in General Relativity.\n\nIn GR, reference frames are *only local*. There's a limit to how far out in space and time your coordinate system makes sense for. That's pretty much what we mean by \"space-time is curved:\" that reference frames break down beyond a certain limit.\n\nSo since energy depends on reference frame, and reference frames are good only locally in GR, Energy is only defined for local areas. There's no such thing as the energy of the entire universe, or the energy of two galaxies separating due to the Hubble expansion, or the momentum of a distant galaxy receding at greater than *c*. Energy and momentum are quantities that can't even be defined for cosmological distances, so they cannot be conserved either.",
"Energy is only conserved *locally* (inside tiny boxes) in General Relativity. So yes, generally speaking, in an expanding universe there is neither conservation of energy nor momentum. Similarly, galaxies can even move away from each other faster than the speed of light. This is because again, what matters is that the laws of physics are *locally* relativistically invariant: galaxies can't *pass each other* faster than the speed of light.",
"Since no one has answered I'll chime in. Disclaimer: iana physicst, so anyone wanting to expand/clarify/correct... please do.\r\n\r\nEmmy Noether showed that for every symmetry there is a corresponding conservation law. For example, the laws of physics don't show a preferred location, so we know linear momentum is conserved. His works the other way too: physics has no privileged direction so we know angular momentum is conserved. \r\n\r\nConservation of energy corresponds to time-reversibility. The laws of physics work equally well at non-cosmic scale if we reverse the time direction, so we conclude energy is conserved on those scales. However, the universe as a whole is not symmetric in time as shown by the big bang singularity, so it's not certain that energy is conserved in the cosmos as a whole.",
"In the loose, intuitive sense of energy conservation (energy cannot be created randomly out of nothing with no cause), energy conservation does apply even at the cosmic scale because the energy is created by the expansion of the the universe in a predictable way.\n\nIn the strict, scientific sense of energy conservation (energy must come from some other energy or from mass), energy is not conserved on the cosmic scale. Energy conservation is a direct result of time symmetry. Without time symmetry, you have no energy conservation. Everything in the universe seems to have time symmetry and therefore obey energy conservation, *except* the universe itself on the cosmic scale. Because of the Big Bang and the expansion of the universe, there is no time symmetry and therefore no energy conservation on the cosmic scale, in the strict scientific sense. But that does not mean that energy just pops into existence when ever it feels like it in a random fashion on the cosmic scale. Rather, the appearance of energy is linked to the changing structure of spacetime as the universe expands in a predictable way. So, free energy machines (perpetual motion machines) are still disallowed.\n\nYou are probably having a problem with the fact that energy is not conserved because you are thinking about it in the loose intuitive sense and not the strict scientific sense. If you are thinking about it in the loose intuitive sense, then have no worries because energy is conserved in this sense. If you are thinking about it in the strict scientific sense, then have no worries, because the time assymetry requires energy to not be conserved so no laws of physics are really being broken. It's just your intuition that is being stretched. \n\nThis is not my field of expertise, so commenters please expand/correct these comments."
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Wait, energy isnt conserved? Please elaborate.
In reference to the question about the expansion of the universe it was mentioned that energy isnt conserved when taking into account the entire universe. It makes sense, now that I think of it, that if the galaxies are accelerating relative to each other that they're gaining kinetic energy. Is momentum still conserved? You guys are blowing my mind here. Would someone who knows more physics than me explain conservation laws in an expanding universe?
|
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23yqjz
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Hey /r/askscience, I'm having a hard time understanding how force carrier particles (gluons, etc.) work, can you help me clarify?
|
First of all, I am having a very hard time understanding how a particle travelling between two points (such as a gluon or a graviton) can transmit a force that has the effect of "pulling" the objects together or closer, as is apparently done by the Strong force and Gravity?
Secondly, I am wondering if the force carriers of the EM field are the photons? And if Gravitons are the force carriers of gravity and the curving of space time?
And last I have what might seem as a bit odd question. How can gravity pull on photons if photons are massless particles that are moving in the speed of light, just as gravitons are. In another perspective my question is like this; If I am driving my bike trying to push my friend who is also biking. We are driving at the same speed. How can I (Graviton) catch up with my friend (the Photon) and push him?
I know Gravitons are a theoratical particle, put my question on how gravity can influence light still stands.
|
askscience
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"There is a general miscommunication between experts and lay people that leads to your confusion. That miscommunication is the couching of forces in terms of \"virtual particles.\" This is misleading on a number of fronts, but I'll just say that \"virtual particles\" are the result of a mathematical tool, and not a fundamental description of reality. The fundamental description of reality is: things (described by quantum fields) attract and repel from other things. It is misleading to think that this is \"caused by\" exchanging photons or other force carriers. It is more accurate to simply say that the EM field is associated with the force between electrically charged particles, and photons are ripples in the EM field. Similarly for the other forces. Now, to answer your other questions:\n\n > I am wondering if the force carriers of the EM field are the photons? And if Gravitons are the force carriers of gravity and the curving of space time?\n\nYes in the language of gauge theory the \"force carriers\" of the EM field are photons, and gravitons are the force carriers of gravity and the curving of space time. A caveat to the latter is that we don't have an agreed-upon theory of quantum gravity, and it may not turn out to be a gauge theory; nonetheless in any such theory it is likely that what you say about gravitons is essentially true.\n\n > And last I have what might seem as a bit odd question. How can gravity pull on photons if photons are massless particles that are moving in the speed of light, just as gravitons are. In another perspective my question is like this; If I am driving my bike trying to push my friend who is also biking. We are driving at the same speed. How can I (Graviton) catch up with my friend (the Photon) and push him?\n\nThis misunderstanding is one and the same as what I addressed in my first paragraph. Gravitons are not literally sent out from the sun (for example) and \"catch up with photons\" and hit them in such a way that the photon is pulled toward the sun. The more simple and correct statement is simply that photons interact gravitationally. One way of *calculating* this gravitational interaction involves summing over un-physical graviton exchanges. But this should not be taken literally.",
"The concept of \"virtual particle\" is ill-suited to describe quasi-static situations like the long range curvature of spacetime or the attraction of opposite electric charges. It can be done, but it is not particularly enlightening. \n\nOne should not think of virtual particles like classical objects. To obtain the probability for some real process to happen, you must sum many amplitudes together and square the result. In particular, such quasi-static properties arise from the **interference term** between \"no particle exchanged\" and \"one particle exchanged\". The \"exchanged\" virtual particles in this calculation are in quantum proper state of momentum, which means that they are \"everywhere\". Therefore, you cannot imagine that one particle emits the exchanged virtual particle and the other receives it (which classically always leads to repulsion). \n\nConcerning you other question on why gravity influences light, you should remember that the gravitational \"charge\" is the mass only in Newtonian gravity. In Einstein's gravity, which predicts the deflection of light, the graviton field couples to the full energy-momentum tensor. Photons do carry energy and momentum.",
"I just want to add to the excellent explanation by “ididnoteatyourcat”. The fields-vs.-particles problem began in 1948 when Julian Schwinger and Sin-Itiro Tomanaga, who shared the Nobel prize, derived a solution to the renormalization problem using the equations of Quantum Field Theory. Richard Feynman, who also shared in the Nobel prize, produced the same equations using particle diagrams with no basis other than that \"they worked\". Since Feynman's diagrams, paradoxical as they are, are much easier to use, they won out over the field explanation, and today it is Feynman's picture that appears on a postage stamp, not Schwinger's.\n\nSo in QFT, forces arise from the way different fields interact with each other, not by exchanging virtual particls. As I wrote in my book (see _URL_0_): \n\nForce. Before fields were recognized, forces were thought (except by Newton) to happen through “action at a distance”. That is, a body or particle in one place causes a body in another place to move, without any medium in between. When Faraday introduced the concept of fields, this picture was changed: The first body creates a field in the surrounding space and this field then exerts a force on the second body. In QFT, everything is fields, even the bodies; reality consists only of fields and interactions between fields. The effect of force comes from terms in the field equations that describe how one field influences another. Thus the force field does not exert a force on another “body” in the classical sense. Instead it interacts with the field that constitutes the other “body” and alters its evolution, causing its spatial distribution to change. This change in evolution is equivalent to the older classical picture of a particle experiencing a force. Indeed, Newton’s laws of motion can be derived from the equations of QFT!\n\n(Note: QFT also provides an elegant and simple explanation for e=mc2, described in the same chapter of my book.)"
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Hey /r/askscience, I'm having a hard time understanding how force carrier particles (gluons, etc.) work, can you help me clarify?
First of all, I am having a very hard time understanding how a particle travelling between two points (such as a gluon or a graviton) can transmit a force that has the effect of "pulling" the objects together or closer, as is apparently done by the Strong force and Gravity? Secondly, I am wondering if the force carriers of the EM field are the photons? And if Gravitons are the force carriers of gravity and the curving of space time? And last I have what might seem as a bit odd question. How can gravity pull on photons if photons are massless particles that are moving in the speed of light, just as gravitons are. In another perspective my question is like this; If I am driving my bike trying to push my friend who is also biking. We are driving at the same speed. How can I (Graviton) catch up with my friend (the Photon) and push him? I know Gravitons are a theoratical particle, put my question on how gravity can influence light still stands.
|
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xilf0
|
If you have a piece of steel rebar 1 lightyear in length and you pull on it at one end, how long would it take to notice at the other end?
|
Would it be instantaneous or would it take some amount of time? I assume it would take some amount of time, because the steel molecules have to react with one another. I guess I'm thinking the piece of rebar would be like a very ridgid bungee cord at that length.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"The pressure wave would propagate through the rod at the speed of sound in steel. In fact, I sometimes hate that the speed of sound is called \"the speed of sound\" instead of \"the speed of propagation of a compression wave\".",
"Are there any materials so rigid that would make the pull close to simultaneuos?",
"Follow-up question: If you created a lever with the steel rebar, placing the fulcrum .5 lightyears from each end, how long after pushing the near end down would it take for the far end to raise up?",
"Added question: How much would this rod weigh, and how much force would you need to pull it?",
"I assume from the discussion (which is an interesting one even from my laymans point of view) that EVERYTHING is elastic?",
"It's an interesting discussion, but I'm not surprised to see it all came down to \"rebar made out of neutron star\". I'm proud of you Reddit. \n\nNothing in existence could have the tensile strength to support itself being that long and under any kind of stress you could notice from one end to the other. We can speculate and assume it's made of naquadah, but realistically you'd probably never be able to observe any kind of pull at the other side without breaking it.",
"It would depend on how you pulled on it. If you applied the pressure over a small part of the rod, a force great enough to move the rod would be roughly equivalent to the weight of the rod. There is no known chemical material that has the tensile strength to support its own weight over so large a distance.\n\nNot even close.",
"What would happen if you simultaneously pulled on both ends at the same time?"
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If you have a piece of steel rebar 1 lightyear in length and you pull on it at one end, how long would it take to notice at the other end?
Would it be instantaneous or would it take some amount of time? I assume it would take some amount of time, because the steel molecules have to react with one another. I guess I'm thinking the piece of rebar would be like a very ridgid bungee cord at that length.
|
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|
bdemuu
|
Why can every carnivore ear meat raw but humans need to cook it first?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"Humans eat raw meat. I’ve had steak tartare, raw fish and raw oysters among other raw foods.\n\nCooking kills germs and other pathogens in raw meat making it safer. Many carnivores are immune to those pathogens. \n\nCooking is also supposed to break down the proteins and requiring less energy to digest the meal.",
"Humans can eat raw meat (ever tried steak tartare? delicious), but some of the meat we consume have a non-negligible chance of being contaminated with bacteria/parasites either by nature or due to the way the animals are bred.\n\nSome have a higher chance of contamination (pork, chicken), some are generally safe to eat raw if sanitary standards are followed (beef).",
"In addition to what people are saying about humans being able to eat raw meat, also remember that animals eat their meat (generally) fresh from the kill. It hasn't had a chance to spoil. There's a big difference between meat that is practically still alive and meat that has gone through a butchers first.",
"_URL_0_\n\nYou should check this out... generally cooking our food made out bodies take it in easier which is what lead to out brains being developed instead of our bodies. So we could have gone eating raw food but we wouldn’t have become smarter and evolved as a more feral like animal.",
"If we were to hunt, kill, and immediately eat our meat in the wild, there would be less risk of food borne illness; save for parasites. Domesticated livestock are exposed to a variety of contaminants. You buy the meat, maybe a week after it was killed, and it sits in your fridge for longer. If the food sits between 40-140 degrees F, it is at risk for bacterial, parasitic, and viral growth. We can and do eat raw meat. But cooking kills contaminants and creates a [Maillard reaction](_URL_1_) rearranging proteins and sugars, softening, and improving flavor.",
"Animals aren't special. We can eat raw meat just fine. \n\nKeep in mind that most food borne illnesses aren't life threatening. They just suck. Infections resolve themselves over time, parasites are something that can be lived with. Wild animals get sick quite frequently. They just deal with it or live with it. (There's a reason a cat or dog will throw up at basically the least provocation). Where as we're able to recognize what happened and how to prevent it. Given the choice of eating raw meat and maybe getting sick,or cooking it and very probably not getting sick, which you gonna do? \n\nMost food safety rules are a result of either industrial processes and long term storage, or out of caution because they're easy and they prevent the low chance of harm. Meat that's been stored can become colonized by harmful bacteria that gets you sick. Cooking it kills them, solving the problem. It's still probably fine as long as it's been kept refrigerated, but if you're wrong, at best it's going to be extremely unpleasant and at worst you're in the hospital. Why take the risk. \n\n\nWe cook food because it makes it easier to access the nutrients in it (easier to digest) and because it significantly reduces issues with parasites etc. None of that is necessary, just beneficial. If you're out in a survival situation and can catch yourself some food, but for some reason not start a fire, you can probably eat it raw just fine.",
"Mainly because we don't eat it right there on the spot where the animal died, while it's still super fresh. The thing you have to worry about eating fresh, raw meat is parasites (which almost every wild animal will have in one form or another). When we cook meat we're mostly killing the bacteria that's collected on the outside of the meat since it was butchered.",
"We can eat raw meat for the most part, but over the past (many?) thousands of generations of using fire to cook our food we have lost lot of that ability through evolution.\n\nAlso, cooking meat makes it easier to digest, which leaves more energy for other pursuits, it’s a big part of why we evolved to dominate the planet",
"From Alaska to Japan and throughout Eruope and Africa humans eat raw meat. Sometimes it can be treated with salt, lemon or spices others it is just dried or fresh from the kill.\n\nCooking enhances flavors, kills germs and makes digestion easier."
],
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/cooking-up-bigger-brains/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maillard_reaction"
]
}
|
Why can every carnivore ear meat raw but humans need to cook it first?
|
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||
llf4c
|
AskScience AMA Series - IAMA published climate science/atmospheric chemistry PhD student at a major research institution
|
I am a fourth year atmospheric chemistry and climate science PhD student. My first paper was published last month. I work at a major US research university, and one of my advisors is a lead author on the upcoming IPCC report.
I will be around most of the weekend to answer questions. I'll answer any question (including personal and political ones), but will not engage in a political debate as I don't think this is the right forum for that type of discussion.
**Edit: I'm heading to bed tonight, but will be around most of the day tomorrow. Please keep asking questions! I'm ready to spill my guts! Thanks for the great questions so far.**
**Edit 2: I'm back now, will answer questions as they come and as I can.**
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"I understand that the ocean is soaking up carbon at the moment, and that while it is soaking up enormous amounts, it will reach a point where that stops and there may be a spike in atmospheric CO2 levels.\n\nAre there similar tipping points in the atmosphere that you are interested in talking about? I.e., are we currently experiencing relatively slow change in atmospheric constitution, and will there at some time be more rapid change?",
"1. In understanding that the average global temperature is rising, what percentage of that has been directly correlated with human intervention?\n\n2. What degree of regulation is necessary to contain the rising temperature so that it will not cause great damage in the future?",
"How serious is ocean acidification? I understand a lot of the climate change arguments, but this is one argument I feel isn't often discussed but does concern me.",
"Can you talk a little about what a lay person could or should be taking from the recent Berkeley Earth Project's analysis of global temperature record? A am trying to wrap my head around [THIS ARTICLE](_URL_0_) I read yesterday.",
"What can people start doing today to combat the effects of climate change? What major policy decisions do you believe will be necessary at some point in the future?",
"1. What is one chemical reaction that affects the climate in an interesting or unexpected way?\n2. What is the state of support for atmospheric chemistry within large-scale climate modeling systems?",
"I'd like to check my general ideas and certainties (as a semi-familiar layman) with yours for refinement purposes. How reasonable do you think the following probabilities are?\n\n\nStarting with the basics:\n\n-The earth has, on average, warmed over the last 150 years. (0.98)\n\n-Pollution, or at least substances that would not be present in their current magnitudes without humans, can have an effect on climate (0.99999) and that effect can be a net warming (0.9999)\n\n-Human activity has contributed significantly to warming in the last 150 years (0.9)\n\nNow for some consequences. All of the following assumes technological advancement rates level out over the next century (no almighty AI god to save us) unless otherwise stated.\n\n-Continuing the current trend, climate change will become a catastrophe within X.\n\n[Catastrophe will be defined as something at least capable of killing a significant fraction of humans and destroying the quality of life of many others; the Black Death would qualify.]\n\nFor durations of X equal to:\n\n50 years (0.0001)\n\n100 years (0.005)\n\n200 years (0.02)\n\n500 years (0.2)\n\n\n-Continuing the current trend, climate change will have a significant and attributable impact on economies and general health of civilizations, especially in poorer regions within X.\n\n['Significant and attributable' meaning you might see unrest, instability, starvation, and the occasional related problems like genocide in large part because of climate change. The effects could be things like a significant increase in severe famine or drought that turns out to be well-predicted and reasonably blamed on anthropogenic climate change. Some unrest occurs today due to famine and drought, but blaming current unrest primarily on the warming of the last century seems to stretch the evidence into sensationalism (0.95).]\n\nFor durations of X equal to:\n\n50 years (0.2)\n\n100 years (0.3)\n\n200 years (0.5)\n\n500 years (0.8)\n\n\nOn the solution:\n\n-Implementing strict regulations and requirements immediately would effectively and substantially reduce the effects of anthropogenic climate change such that if the catastrophe scenario would have occurred otherwise, it would only be as bad as the regional instability scenario, and if the lesser scenario would have occurred otherwise, almost no negative effects would happen. (0.15)\n\n\nMy pessimism on this point is due primarily to the extreme complexity of, and politics now inherent in, the problem. If humans could choose and successfully implement the correct choice on a wide scale, I might have picked something higher, perhaps 0.5. It seems likely to me that an ineffective option will be chosen or any optimal solutions will at least be poorly executed.\n\n\nHowever, I suspect that technological advancement rates will not level out over the next century- quite the opposite. If you found my previous probabilities reasonable, I may lose you here: my actual probabilities without restrictive assumptions on technology are extremely 'optimistic' with regard to climate to the point that global warming is a nonissue; I believe it will either be easily handled in the long term (0.89) or 'solved' by one of many much worse, much quicker cataclysms (0.1) :)",
"What is your opinion on the reliability of statistical downscaling? Is it a worthy product to use, or is it still in its infant stage, or are scientists playing with a time bomb that will undoubtedly be exploited by sceptics?\n\nFor people who doesn't know what statistical downscaling is, it is a technique that allows us to determine modelled atmospheric variables beyond the resolution of the model. Take for example a model with 100 km by 100 km grid cells. A grid cell may have a temperature of 25 °C, but statistical downscaling can tell us the northern 20 km is actually 27 °C and the southern 20 km is 23 °C. This is done so by applying constrains from physical laws across the grids.\n\nStatistical downscaling is used often to give specific regional predictions of the effects of climate change, but knowing how modelling works, I'm sceptical if the subsequent result is actually sensible. The inputs are, to begin with, of coarser resolution than the downscaled product, and certain processes (such as waves) need more than one grid cell to be represented (so the model is actually coarser than the smallest grid resolution).",
"What do you think of the various geoengineering schemes that have been proposed? To me, they all seem scary, costly, and some are difficult to reverse quickly. For example, blasting sulfate aerosols into the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere requires that many thousands of tons of material is lifted ~15km and the particles are of a size that could cause respiratory problems. Ocean seeding to produce plankton blooms requires an intimate knowledge of where and when to seed and, again, requires a large amount of material. A solar shield at the lagrange point between the earth and the sun (according to some back of the envelope calculations) would need to be about the size of Australia to block out enough solar radiation to counter a doubling in CO2.\n\nBy the way, this question stems from your response [here](_URL_1_). Also, I had typed out a nice long question for you with some information from my grad school research, but the java update I just installed decided to refresh every page in my browser, blowing away my question.",
"A few years ago I read about \"global dimming\" -- a decrease in sunlight reaching the surface of the Earth due to an increase in airborne particulates. The finding was supported by a significant change in pan evaporation rates, of which there are historical records going back to ancient Rome. Given that burning fossil fuels is a major factor in the elevation of these particulates, a major shift into alternative energy and/or nuclear power could actually increase the amount of sunlight that reaches the ground/water before carbon dioxide levels decline enough to moderate the ongoing warming trend.\n\nApart from asking for correction if any aspect of my understanding is in error, I wanted to know how significant would this reversal of global dimming be. Would a transition away from fossil fuels see an abrupt upward spike in temperatures and a \"last gasp\" for climate change before the system began to recover from anthropogenic changes? If so, how severe might this phenomenon be?",
"1: What do you say to people who deny climate change?\n\n2: How do you separate the political and scientific motivations in support of climate change?\n\n3: What is your political leaning?\n\nA little backstory to explain my questions. I had no idea what to believe about climate change, because every source in support of it that was shown to me was related to politics in some way. In my opinion, politics corrupt everything. I am a fan of SciFi and get Analog Science Fiction and Fact, they recently had a fact article about climate change that had absolutely nothing to do with politics, and it made me believe in it. So I am just trying to fight through all this political bullshit.",
"A question that bothered me a while. How come that we think, that if we stop producing greenhouse gas, the effects to the atmosphere are reversible? At what point would it be out of human hand to stop the climate change? Im sorry for the bad english and the dumb question but it realy bothers me since the politics thinks we have X+years to discuss and regulate the production of greenhouse gas. Thanks.",
"Although the people believing in climate change call the skeptics 'deniers' there are no serious people denying climate change, they just doubt amount of heating caused by humans. I read that you think he human factor is about 0,5 degrees so far. My question is, what should we think of the scientists ( among them 3 nobelprize winners) who don't believe that the current modeling is in anyway predicting the future correctly?",
"Has the way funding is awarded changed recently in your field, or will it chenge in the near future? NSF just changed by adding something called 'pre-proposals', and a given researcher can submit any number of pre-proposals, but only one full proposal per year. How are you funded? Have you gotten any of your own grant money? Are there separate grant programs in place for students in climate science?",
"How much are students in your field expected to publish, and do you tend to publish more to journals or conferences? I'm always interested because I'm in engineering and in my particular field experimentalists are expected to publish 3-5 over a PhD and theorists 1-2 (from what I've heard) in journals, but I know in Comp sci for example conferences are more the mainstream than journals.",
"Recently, an article from the National Post was written regarding a newly released book concerning the IPCC's lack of transparency in its findings. The book claims that up to a third of its references are not peer reviewed articles.\n\nIn addition, the book claims that major article authors are not even qualified to be lead investigators.\n\nWhat do you think about these claims? [link](_URL_2_)",
"Do you think the EPA ozone standards that were recently rescinded by the Obama administration could have been feasible to reach? I've heard that background ozone levels are far too close to the proposed standards to have made this possible.",
"Not science related, but how do you feel about global warming being rebranded by the media as \"climate change\"? Do you feel it doesn't matter, or that it dulls public opinion to the matter, or something else entirely? Thanks!",
"What is your opinion of the _URL_3_ software? I really love the idea of being able to contribute to climate modeling, but is this program relevant in today's ever-evolving science?",
"What are you currently working on? Are you more involved with laboratory, field, or modeling work?"
],
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2,
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{
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{
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|
{
"url": [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15400748",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/llf4c/askscience_ama_series_iama_published_climate/c2tn1ax",
"http://www.financialpost.com/news/Conspiracy+silence/5591088/story.html",
"Climateprediction.net"
]
}
|
AskScience AMA Series - IAMA published climate science/atmospheric chemistry PhD student at a major research institution
I am a fourth year atmospheric chemistry and climate science PhD student. My first paper was published last month. I work at a major US research university, and one of my advisors is a lead author on the upcoming IPCC report. I will be around most of the weekend to answer questions. I'll answer any question (including personal and political ones), but will not engage in a political debate as I don't think this is the right forum for that type of discussion. **Edit: I'm heading to bed tonight, but will be around most of the day tomorrow. Please keep asking questions! I'm ready to spill my guts! Thanks for the great questions so far.** **Edit 2: I'm back now, will answer questions as they come and as I can.**
|
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|
5502pn
|
How did people measure light intensity before electronics existed?
|
One of the reasons Quantum Mechanics was first created was that the intensity of light radiated from black body did not agree with the intensity predicted by the Rayleigh-Jeans equation. My question ii: How could they reliably measure the intensity of emmited light for each wavelength?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d86po36",
"d86hhqe",
"d86prm3"
],
"text": [
"One very early photometer was called the grease spot photometer. Using a candle as the comparison source. Whence we get the term candle power.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n > This remarkably simple 19-th century optical experiment can confirm that,\n indeed, the intensity of light decreases like 1/R2 , where R is the distance from the source.\n\n > It also drives home the fact that physical measurements are often comparisons to a standard. A two-pan balance does not measure weight--it compares it to that of a set of standard weights. A surveyor compares distances to a baseline, a Wheatstone bridge compares electric resistances to a given resistance standard, and so on.",
"With photosensitive dyes on plates or film. You can use a diffraction grating or prism to split the light into \"colors\" then expose it for a known amount of time to a photographic plate. As long as you can reproducibly manufacture the plate, you can compare brightness. Different dies can be used to be more or less sensitive to different wavelengths.",
"Until discovery of IR in 1800, people only knew about visible light, and measurements were done by eye, comparing various sources. After that came photosensitive chemistry, measurement of heating effect (thermopiles, rotating vanes, bolometers).\nPhotovoltaics were discovered in early 19th century already, but practically the most accurate measurements were done by measuring temperature until 20th century. Well, it's technically still the most accurate method (cryogenic radiometer), just not very practical."
],
"score": [
20,
5,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.phy6.org/outreach/edu/greaspot.htm"
]
}
|
How did people measure light intensity before electronics existed?
One of the reasons Quantum Mechanics was first created was that the intensity of light radiated from black body did not agree with the intensity predicted by the Rayleigh-Jeans equation. My question ii: How could they reliably measure the intensity of emmited light for each wavelength?
|
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|
51ut5n
|
What career choice makes the highest percentage of people happiest?
|
EDIT: Just want to clarify that I am looking for jobs that correlate with people being happy in day-to-day life. I'm not necessarily looking for jobs that result in stress-free life (not the same thing) or job satisfaction.
And before anyone says it, I know correlation doesn't necessarily imply causation. Still, I'm interested to see if there is a strong correlation and I couldn't find any good info for this with Google. Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d7ft84t",
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],
"text": [
"Happiness is difficult to measure, though one component of it could be lack of stress.\n\nA [survey](_URL_0_) was done for least stressful jobs and the top 10 were composed of computers, math, and healthcare.\n\n* Audiologist\n* Dietitian\n* Software Engineer\n* Computer Programmer\n* Dental Hygienist\n* Speech Pathologist\n* Philosopher\n* Mathematician\n* Occupational Therapist\n* Chiropractor",
"IO Psychology MSc. (I study the psychology of people at work). Interesting question here but hoping to get some more info before I dig into the research. When you say \"Happy\" what are you looking at? Like, day to day happiness (positive affect), happiness with the job itself (job satisfaction), some form of fulfillment/self-actualization? \nSome jobs are really difficult but crazy fulfilling. \n\nFiguring out the exact way you qualify \"happiness\" would help you figure out what career to go after (which I assume is why you're asking this question). It would also help me know what research to draw on here.",
"This isn't my area of study, so perhaps someone else can chime in, but since there seems to be interest in this question and no good answers, here's a go.\n\nThere are regular surveys done by various companies and news organizations that poll this kind of question. Below, I list a few examples, starting with, what I think, are the least reliable, and moving on to more reliable.\n\nSchool Principal -- [Summary of a survey from CareerBliss in 2015](_URL_7_). In [2016](_URL_7_) the answer was Recruiter. Of course, this is a job search / recruitment site, so answers are going to be biased towards the kinds of jobs posted there. It's not clear who they sampled or how many people and their measure isn't actually happiness, it includes a bunch of factors in a mysterious way: \"In addition to compensation, CareerBliss evaluated employee sentiment regarding relationship with one’s boss and coworkers, work environment, professional resources, opportunities for growth, regular tasks, company culture and reputation, and how much control an employee has over the work they do on a daily basis. A minimum of 20 employee reviews from 2015 and 2016 of each job was required for inclusion on the list.\" There's a little more of a description [here](_URL_7_) where they write \"CareerBliss examined 57,000 employee evaluations across more than 450 different job titles. The final measure of job satisfaction, which CareerBliss calls a \"bliss score,\" is given on a scale of one to five (one being the least happy and five the most). The bliss scores are based on eight factors: work-life balance; relationship with coworkers; work environment; job resources; compensation; growth opportunities; company culture; and daily tasks.\" (That is a description of their 2014 survey where the happiest job was research / teaching assistant.)\n\nEngineer -- this [Gaurdian analysis](_URL_7_) a little more robust than the CareerBliss survey in that it is the combination of 9 surveys. They ranked the jobs by which ones appeared most often in the top 10 of the survey. Engineer was actually never #1 in any of the surveys, but it appeared in 6 of the 9, so it got the highest ranking in this \"meta-survey\". The surveys were \"Surveys included were from the Cabinet Office, Career Bliss 2014 and 2015, City and Guild 2012 and 2013, Gallop, the University of Chicago, LV=, and research conducted for the Guardian by IBM Analytics. Some surveys were more specific about occupations they listed than others so broad definitions of each job had to be used for comparison purposes. Typical salaries based on mean incomes listed by the Cabinet Office in 2014.\" So it's most likely a mix of both US and UK responders. It's possible that there is a difference across the countries (and across the world), which isn't mentioned here.\n\nPhysician -- A more robust poll, with actual report of survey methods, is probably [this Gallup poll](_URL_7_). I wasn't able to find a newer poll (this one is from 2013). \"Well-being\" isn't quite the same thing as career satisfaction and it seems to be a glom of various other measures. However, they did poll 172,000+ people, which is good, and they have more robust polling methodology. Again, this is US population. \n\nRegarding scientific articles, I found [this one](_URL_7_), and [this one](_URL_7_), but both are pay-walled, unfortunately. Based on the abstracts, it seems to suggest that the answer to your question is going to vary a lot depending on other factors such as gender, race, ethnicity, geographic location, etc."
],
"score": [
28,
17,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://newsfeed.time.com/2011/05/09/overworked-make-a-leap-to-americas-10-least-stressful-jobs/",
"http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/personalfinance/2015/03/08/cheat-sheet-happiest-jobs/24509095/",
"http://www.businessinsider.com/happiest-jobs-in-america-2014-1",
"http://www.forbes.com/sites/kathryndill/2016/03/04/the-happiest-and-unhappiest-jobs-in-2016/#35e0405248ef",
"http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/JMP-07-2014-0223",
"https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/apr/07/going-to-work-with-a-smile-on-your-face",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001879116300197",
"http://www.gallup.com/poll/161324/physicians-lead-wellbeing-transportation-workers-lag.aspx?utm_source=tagrss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=syndication"
]
}
|
What career choice makes the highest percentage of people happiest?
EDIT: Just want to clarify that I am looking for jobs that correlate with people being happy in day-to-day life. I'm not necessarily looking for jobs that result in stress-free life (not the same thing) or job satisfaction. And before anyone says it, I know correlation doesn't necessarily imply causation. Still, I'm interested to see if there is a strong correlation and I couldn't find any good info for this with Google. Thanks!
|
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|
r7nm0
|
What is the purest element that most people will encounter in their daily lives?
|
I was thinking about how steel's properties can change so drastically depending on the iron/carbon ratio (as well as other added elements), and wondered how close we've gotten to making a sizable block entirely out of one element, and what we might encounter on a daily basis that comes close to that. No other elements occupying places in the bonds, or larger scale mixing. Relatedly, what about compounds/molecules? How large of a pure sample of those have we gotten, with no mixtures, solutions, etc. created?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Semiconductor-grade silicon is the purest sample of any element on earth.",
"Diamonds are crystals of pure carbon. Most of us aren't around samples that are all that large, but when I think \"block composed purely of a single element, down to the atomic scale\", that's what comes to mind.",
"Liquid helium is the purest substance because nothing else can be liquid at that temperature. If you ever have an MRI, you're surrounded by it.",
"graphite.\n\nunless it is mixed with clay, like they do to get different number pencils.",
"Pure elements in daily life in no particular order (except alphabetical.)\n\n* Aluminum - Everything from beverage cans to door handles to hard disks.\n* Carbon - Diamonds, graphite lube.\n* Chromium - Plating on faucets and utensils.\n* Copper - Wiring, plumbing and electronics.\n* Gold - Jewelry (not very pure, actually) and electronics\n* Helium - In balloons.\n* Iron (not steel) - Scrubbing pads and cookware.\n* Lithium - Batteries (the non-rechargeable kind)\n* Mercury - In fluorescent lighting, thermometers and tilt switches (hood light.)\n* Nickel - In coins, plating on metal/plastic.\n* Silver - Coating on mirrors, utensils.\n* Zinc - Found in pennies, batteries and galvanized steel.\n\nOf course, your usage will vary. If I were to hazard a guess I would say that Aluminum is likely the most encountered pure element in our daily lives."
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{
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|
What is the purest element that most people will encounter in their daily lives?
I was thinking about how steel's properties can change so drastically depending on the iron/carbon ratio (as well as other added elements), and wondered how close we've gotten to making a sizable block entirely out of one element, and what we might encounter on a daily basis that comes close to that. No other elements occupying places in the bonds, or larger scale mixing. Relatedly, what about compounds/molecules? How large of a pure sample of those have we gotten, with no mixtures, solutions, etc. created?
|
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|
ih61v
|
Tell us something you are aware of due to your field of science, that "normal" people do not know, and that has an effect on your life/behaviours.
|
Example: If you study food poisoning you may be reluctant to eat food prepared by someone else.
Please elaborate if this is something you think everybody should know about, and if it is good or bad knowledge (above example might be both depending on how you look at it...)
|
askscience
|
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"If you tell someone (for example, a teacher) how to do something in a way which is obviously superior to their current way (such as a new classroom assessment) then they will probably never use it. If you present it to them as something that works well for you personally, saying the words, \"When I do x, I find it works better\" then they're much more likely to adopt the new way... because it's now their idea to use it and I'm not 'telling them how to do their job.'\n\nWorks very well, especially on significant others and children. :)",
"\"All Natural Flavors\" is bullshit. \n\nThere's nothing safer about natural foods. It's the same chemicals you're eating that make your food taste a certain way. For example, almond flavor is just benzaldehyde. Whether it came from peach pits or was synthesized in a lab, you're still consuming the same chemical. In fact, some methods of deriving \"natural flavors\" are archaic and potentially more hazardous than having them synthesized in the lab. Peach pits contain trace amounts of cyanide, while the \"artificial\" flavor has a more pure end-product.\n\n**Edit** [Further Reading](_URL_0_)",
"Food is safer than it's ever been in the history of the world. At least in developed countries. Food science is responsible for making food so safe. Unfortunately, you only ever hear stories about outbreaks, so the public thinks that food is unsafe. They are mistaken. The CDC recently reported an all-time low in foodborne illness incidence and provided evidence that the number of cases is lower than ever.",
"Nuclear Engineer:\n\nNuclear energy is one of, if not, the safest sources of energy available. \n\nAs such, I hate the yellow media that essentially makes up stories to get more ratings, and misinforms the general populace.\n\nEvery time I meet someone, I have to spend at least 30 mins explaining that the knowledge I gained in five years of university study, far out weighs the intern who misquoted an official and filled the rest of the article with factless speculation",
"From the perspective of a computer scientist:\n\nEven the tiniest things you do on a computer, the tiniest nudge of a mouse or a single key-press have so much computation involved (whether directly or indirectly) that it will make your head explode if you try to narrow it all down. As such, whenever I see coworkers at the office fanatically shake their mice and mash their keyboard when their outlook isn't opening \"fast enough\" it makes me palmface. To give you an idea of what may be involved:\n\n- You move the mouse a tiny bit\n- The mouse senses movement via the laser/ball and sends the information to the USB port on your computer\n- The USB controller processes the signal and sends a signal to the CPU to stop what it's doing and process the USB data that just came in\n- The computer saves all the things (ie. register data) it was currently doing in the CPU to return to after it has processed the data from the mouse\n- The OS has to go through various levels of abstraction from generic USB drivers to specific drivers for your crazy 20-button world of warcraft gaming mouse to actually even know that the cursor on the screen is supposed to move at all\n- The OS moves the cursor and then processes what should happen upon reaching its new position (i.e. have you hovered over a new window? should an action be taken?)\n- etc. etc. etc. etc.\n\nNote that this list is incredibly simplified and each of those steps involves quite an assload of computation in itself. Computers certainly don't run on magic, but it is amazing how much processing they do and a lot of people take it for granted.",
"Growing organs is hard. Dont fuck up your organs if you can avoid it. I'm looking at you, liver!",
"BPA, or bisphenol A. It is like estradiol (estrogen) and really messes with people hormonally, especially with males and fertility. BPA is most commonly found on receipt paper, in aluminum cans, and most plastic.\n\nI never, ever microwave plastic anymore. Ever. In fact, I got rid of all my plastic tupperware and now only have glass. I try and drink out of only glass bottles. And I never keep receipts in my pocket or basically anywhere unless I need them for accounting.\n\nHigh heat and high acidity make BPA seep out of plastics and aluminum. That is why you should not microwave plastics. Soda pop is incredibly acidic, so it sucks the BPA out of the aluminum and into the beverage. I learned all this because I work in the lab right across Dr. Vom Saal, the guy who discovered all this crazy shit. I know how bad BPA is for pregnant females, so whenever I get knocked up, I know I'm going to be psycho about what I eat/touch/anything. I'm not looking forward to it :(",
"Very basic physics, but a feel for how big quantities of energy and power actually are is very enlightening sometimes. \n\nFor example, I know that my 1500W fan heater uses the same energy in a second that I would if I lifted someone up to a height of 2m. So if I leave the heater on for, say, half an hour, that's the same energy as lifting someone up 1,800 times, which you can *feel* is a lot. This brings home the fact that that thing is a stupid waste of energy and I really should just put on an extra jumper.\n\n(For those who are interested, you can work this out by taking the mass of a person as 75kg, then we have the gravitational potential energy mgh at 2m high as (roughly) 75kg x 10ms^-2 x 2m = 1500J. A watt is 1 joule per second, so 1500W is 1500J/s, so I could expend the 1500J of energy described above every second for a power use of 1500W)",
"I refuse to use triclosan containing soaps because of the resistance most things have to it and its tendency to cause unnecessary sensitization of the immune system.\n\nI also refuse to use any form of hand sanitizer because it does more harm than good.",
"Now and again, I forget that most people don't think of the planet Earth as having negligible mass...",
"Everyone knows you should wash your hands when you go to the bathroom.\n\nMicrobiology will teach you, if you can only wash them once: wash *before* you go, not after.",
"You have less control over what you buy (specifically) than you think, people severely underestimate how susceptible they are to the psychology of marketing.",
"I actually understand logic. My field of study is math. I rage when someone starts off a sentence with \"Logically,...\" then proceeds to make a completely illogical statement.",
"Before starting post-secondary, I was a lifeguard and sported a rocking tan every summer. At one point, I had a watch tan that lasted all winter until the following summer.\n\nNow that I'm a medical physicist, working at a cancer centre, I own several wide brim hats, and many a cover-up. I always wear sunscreen and try to not go outside during the middle of the day if I can help it. Oh, and I have proper, wrap-around sunglasses with UV protection, that are also polarized.\n\nFun thing to do: Find a friend with expensive sunglasses, comment on how pretty they are, then ask to see them. Hold them up against yours and show your friend that theirs aren't polarized and that they paid all that money for a fancy label.\n\n**Edit:** In response to all the questions, I would like to offer this [concise article](_URL_1_) in Science-Based Medicine that covers the science of sunscreens/skin cancers.",
"There is not really a good way of predicting the future behavior of most complex systems.",
"There is no point stirring the milk in coffee. It will mix itself.",
"After studying hydrodynamics for too long, I'm now paranoid about being on any sort of boat :/\n\nIt doesn't matter how tall you make your ship, the waves can still come over the top. It doesn't matter how thick the steel you use for the hull is, slamming velocity can be faster than the speed of sound in the water, and your hull is still going to get dented.",
"Options Pricing. Once you realize that there is a dollar value to a contract that will expire worthless most of the time, that it is easily computable, and that the price changes drastically with the *variance* of the underlying assest, it really changes your perspective on a lot of things. For example I go to convenience stores for baking supplies now, they're so much closer, barely more expensive in absolute terms, and when they don't have what I need, I still feel like I won because I \"purchased\" an option on cocoa powder that was a great deal, even if it didn't expire in the money this time. Also applies to parking (lining up potential parking locations so that I can optimally trade off the chance of getting a spot with driving around too long) and tourist traps (yes, this was not worth $10, but it *could* have been, and I made rational decision to roll the dice based on probabilistic value so why worry)",
"I work in a standard chemistry lab, I have all kinds of reagents, bases, acids, organic solvents, halogens, all kinds of stuff. Here is what amazes me. It all looks like water. From standard hexanes to organosilicas, all of it looks like water. If you have a grad cylinder, you can see the difference by the size of the meniscus, do all kinds of tests from TLC to NMR and you will definitely tell you it is not water, but it all **LOOKS** like water.\n\nI usually smell almost everything before I drink it just to make sure it isn't ammonia or acetone.",
"There exist interesting problems which are literally impossible to solve with any algorithm. Really puts it in perspective when you're tempted to complain about something being difficult...",
"I study materials science and plan on going into failure analysis when I grow up, so every time I get in an airplane I get super paranoid I spend a huge amount of time looking at as much of the plane as I can from my seat to make sure there aren't any surface cracks.",
"There are currently about 80,000 chemicals in commercial use (and ~2,000 new ones per year) in USA alone. Many of them had very little if any toxicity testing.\n\nWho needs animal testing while all of us are de facto guinea pigs. \n\nSome data:\n\n- There are no chemically-safe sunblocks.\n\n- Many pesticides and other commercial chemicals show strong estrogenic activity\n\n- Many pesticides and other commercial chemicals show strong ability to induce obesity",
"The side effects and long term ramifications of many drugs are worse than what they treat.",
"I learned how pervasive [catenaries](_URL_2_), the shape of a hanging chain, really are.",
"I have a neurotically over-developed awareness of just how life limiting diabetes is. Everyone is aware that it's bad, but for an astonishing number of people it seems to have developed an aura of 'just one of those things.' I've never been overweight, but I take particular care to watch my diet having spent an unhealthy amount of time on rotation in diabetes II clinics.",
"From my drugs of addiction and learning classes: In order to not get addicted to a drug (or love for that matter) you have to do two things. 1) Take the drug at unusual intervals (don't develop a pattern) and 2) Don't take the drug at the same place or under the same conditions every time you use it (you develop context conditioning).",
"Neuroscience & physiology -- my \"gaydar\" has an empirical bend. \n\nOn average, gay men have slightly smaller limbs and hands, are more likely to be left-handed, and are more likely to have a counterclockwise whorl in their hair than straight men. If I can get a good look at a guy's hands, the index finger:ring finger ratio (2d:4d) of gay men tends to be more bimodally skewed than for straight men, in that they tend to have ring fingers that are significantly longer *or* subtly shorter than their index fingers (this is thought to be a fairly accurate indicator of prenatal testosterone; however, I don't use the 2d:4d difference very much because the studies on it aren't as strong -- if I remember correctly, two studies found no significant difference. However if I already know a guy is gay, there is some evidence that digit-ratio predicts sexual-role preference i.e. being a 'top' or 'bottom'). Gay men also have greater density in the fingerprint ridges of their left thumb and pinky than straight men.\n\nNone of these facts are any more or less true for closeted gay men than for ones who are out, at least in my experience. I'm usually strict with myself about confirmation bias, but anecdotally I've stumbled across more than one guy who I suspected was closeted (for the reasons mentioned above, and for other subtle behavioral mannerisms), and who ended up coming out months or years after I met him.",
"Microphones are designed to function about 10cm from the source (i.e. a singer's mouth) while held on the body, not on the head. They are not designed to go in your mouth and be grappled like you're handling a snake...",
"Neuroscience: Practice makes perfect. Sure it's common knowledge, but it's cool to understand the neurophysiology behind it. It's remarkable how much one can accomplish simply by practicing. \n\nAlso, memory cues. It's easier to remember something if you're in a setting that is similar to the one where you originally learned or studied it. You can create cues for yourself when studying. I usually don't actually do this though, because I'm too lazy.",
"Chemist here; the biggest thing IMO is understanding randomness and statistical systems. You see pretty much everything differently, and it really helps to counterbalance our pattern-seeking tendencies (eg confirmation bias), and correct for a lot of cognitive fallacies (they still happen, of course; you just notice them more, and can therefore often stop yourself from acting on a bad misunderstanding).",
"I was once on the bus with a girl who decided to read her snack bag. She proudly professed to her boyfriend that she only eats foods with ingredients she recognizes. She read out \"sodium chloride\" and squealed \"OH MY GOD WHY WOULD THEY EVEN PUT SOMETHING LIKE THAT IN PEOPLES FOOD?! It's probably like, some chemical that's totally gonna kill you!\" They chortled about the unenlightened public, blindly consuming all these chemical concoctions. I laughed because she was freaking out over simple table salt.",
"My mom works in water quality, and she always filters tap water. So do I.",
"There's really nothing from my field that directly affects my daily life or behaviors. It enables me to be annoying during science fiction movies when they're getting things wrong (which is all the time), but that's about it. There are things from my science background that may affect how I perceive some everyday things here and there, but nothing from the field of particle physics (not from the top of my head, anyway).",
"Political \"Science\" - presidential speeches don't affect public opinion very much (I read the transcript the morning after) and less than one percent of the population watches cable news. (I don't worry too much when /r/politics says that FoxNews is destroying America. Wait, I don't read /r/politics either.)",
"Having actual data and fact to bolster my ideas when I suggest office changes. Having science to back up common sense but against the grain proposals make things go wayyyy smoother :)",
"Boilers don't boil, pumps don't pump and radiators don't radiate (very much...)",
"We are fundamentally exactly the same beings we were 30,000 years ago living in caves. Progress but no true advancement.",
"Vacancies are everywhere. It's pretty weird to think about.",
"(Recent Neuroscience and Psychopharmacology Baccalaureate)\n\nReally, there's one overarching lesson that has come out of my undergraduate career: the vast amount of things in the universe can be quantified as fitting somewhere on a continuum. Binary classifications such as good and evil, liberal and conservative, nature vs nurture, and others, are almost universally the poorest way to classify objects, stimuli and ideas. It really boggles my mind that science has been examining everything on a continuum for centuries now but in every day life most people still think it's possible for things to be either one way or another, and not a little of both.\n\nAnd then there are the specific things. Like the fact that most psychiatric medication amounts to institutionalized and subsidized addiction. Or, the fact that the brain is an associative network and altogether very dissimilar to a computer, yet we keep comparing the two even though it's obvious to science at this point that the brain is very good at taking a lot of information and producing a roughly correct answer whereas computers are very good at taking small amounts of information and computing a perfectly correct answer. Then there's the fact that every part of the brain, particularly perception pathways, is capable of storing memories and when we forget things it does not mean that they are gone but instead that our consciousness no longer includes the circuits where they were encoded and they can come back to us eventually.\n\nThere's lots more, but most of it is merely a consequence of everything being on a continuum.",
"Education research: The method of instruction generally used in schools arises from Skinners behavioural conditioning paradigm. As a method of teaching (aside from the inhumanity of it), it is highly ineffective. \n\nModern learning philosophies (particularly constructivism) aim for real world learning, collaboration, engagement, and interaction with peers in a classroom setting.\n\nThe research supports the latter, but its adoption over the last 30 years has been severely stunted by resistance to change within the education establishments. \n\nHopefully the idea of a \"flipped classroom\" (lectures for homework, exercises for the classroom) made increasingly possible by the internet will help the situation. Tme will tell.",
"Still an upper level university student in astrophysics+mathematics but taking all grad classes and doing a lot of research if that lends any credibility.\n\n1) How hopelessly insignificant we all are and how unimaginably vast and diverse the observable universe is.\n\n2) How fascinatingly complex we all are.\n\n3) How fascinatingly simple we all are.\n\n4) There is, unequivocally, no magical deity guiding your successes and failures.\n\nYou don't need much to KNOW those, but it takes a lot to UNDERSTAND them (especially number 1), and I don't expect to ever fully wrap my mind around it--I don't think we've evolved the ability to fully recognize our insignificance and I kind of doubt that would be productive from a biological standpoint.\n\nAnd no, it doesn't have to be depressing.",
"The Love Canal was not an isolated event. I work identifying the epicenters and extent of the contamination that seriously effects the health of people living in these areas."
],
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.rense.com/general7/whyy.htm",
"http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/index.php/the-great-sunscreen-cover-up/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catenary"
]
}
|
Tell us something you are aware of due to your field of science, that "normal" people do not know, and that has an effect on your life/behaviours.
Example: If you study food poisoning you may be reluctant to eat food prepared by someone else. Please elaborate if this is something you think everybody should know about, and if it is good or bad knowledge (above example might be both depending on how you look at it...)
|
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|
4ovsna
|
Is there a material that allows movement in one direction but stops it in the other depending on how it is applied?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d4g3tc6",
"d4g8nwk",
"d4g90gj",
"d4gbp94"
],
"text": [
"Yes, this is the idea of anisotropic behavior of materials; where the direction, with respect to the atomic arrangemet, matters with in terms of material properties. One example of this is the electrical conductivity of graphite. Graphite is composed of stacked layers of graphene, so it is very conductive along the direction parallel to the graphene layers but is a poor conductor perpendicular to them.",
"An [electrical diode](_URL_0_) does this. In reality a small amount of reverse leakage current does occur when a reverse voltage is applied, but this is measured in microamps, while the forward current could be up to amps. But a million times suppression is pretty good.",
"carbon fibre!\n\nOne of the reason carbon bicycle frames are widely used is because they are incredibly stiff in one direction, but flexible in the other. This allows very efficient power transfer from the pedals to the rear wheel while still being able to absorb road bumps and vibrations.\n\nIn the case of the bike, this is done by ensuring the carbon fibre panels (which are laid around a mold) are facing the appropriate direction for that part of the frame.",
"This is actually my research as a grad student! Apart from my lab, there's a few other places working on gecko-inspired adhesives; all of these stick in certain directions, and don't stick when you push them in the other directions."
],
"score": [
9,
7,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"
]
}
|
Is there a material that allows movement in one direction but stops it in the other depending on how it is applied?
|
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r615d
|
What happened to virtual reality? Is it a dead technology?
|
askscience
|
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"Oh, there's lots of developments in virtual reality, but there's only so much you can do to trick the senses. I work here:\n\n_URL_6_\n\nWe're developing new simulators all the time, mostly to train people to perform procedures and operate equipment. We do a lot of work with haptic devices, which are devices that are used to simulate the sense of touch, but this is the hardest sense to simulate, by far. Unless we develop matrix-style brain jacks though, there's really only so much we can do to simulate an alternate reality.\n\nedit: links to some commercial VR hardware. Not complete, this is just what I've personally used.\n\n_URL_4_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_5_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_2_\n\nedit2: Since a lot of people seem to be interested in VR, I'm going to try and do an IMA this evening (3/21), maybe 5pm eastern time or so.\n\nedit3: _URL_3_",
"I don't think this is a question directly relevant to the sorts of questions asked in r/askscience, but more of a question regarding the social sciences. However, since that is my forte I shall try to answer your question in a more or less askscience tradition.\n\nThe notion of virtual reality (VR) you have in mind is that of an immersive form of VR that more or less arose in scientific and popular discourse in the 1980s-1990s. Virtual reality helmets for example. The possibilities created by digital simulation technologies further supported a technological imaginary that can be recognized throughout our (electrical) technological communications media history: the appearance of eliminating space between persons. This technological imaginary can be seen in the telegraph (Pool et al.), telephone (Pool et al.), radio (Douglas), television (Arnheim, Elsner et al.), and recently the internet (Flichy).\n\nAnyway, to get back to virtual reality. The pursuits in immersive VR have not halted, but have more or less taken a different form. There are far too much technical implications to get a sort of VR as seen in the Matrix, for example. Although people are working on technologies that are able to be controlled by impulses from the brain, this form of interactivity is still in its very early stages (although not strictly scientific, see Wikipedia on [Brain-computer interface](_URL_7_)). The transition to this immersive form of VR is still years ahead of us. However, the illusion of immersion can be created in military flight simulators to a lesser extend. Although the imaginary surrounding immersive VR hasn't disappeared, it is so to say on a back burner until we might reach a brain-computer interface complex enough to translate 'real-world' intentions of interaction to immersive virtual world interactions.\n\nIf anything, amateurs and professionals experimenting with 'primitive' forms of immersion, such as the Kinect modding you mentioned, is a clear indication that there are still pursuits in making this form of VR possible.\n\nI've given a broad overview and I hope there are some askscience subscribers out there who could give you a more detailed account on brain-computer interfaces. I would be interested in this as well.\n\nI hope I gave you a more or less satisfying answer.\n\nSources:\n\nArnheim, R., \"A Forecast of Television\", 1958/1969\n\nDouglas, S.J. \"Amateur Operators and American Broadcasting: Shaping the Future of Radio\", 1986\n\nElsner, M. & Mueller, T. & Spangenberg, P., \"The Early History of German Television: The Slow Development of a Fast Medium\", 1994\n\nFlichy, Patrice. The Internet Imaginaire, 2007\n\nLister, M. et al. New Media: A Critical Introduction, 2009. (Although this book covers a whole range of topics surrounding (new) media, it has some chapters and paragraphs dedicated to virtual reality in all its forms)\n\nPool, I. de Sola et al, \"Foresight and Hindsight: The Case of the Telephone\", 2002\n\nedit: cleaned up my sources a little for easy googling, might have gone overboard with my references.",
"What about dream research? We have a device capable of simulating touch, smell, sound, people and environments in our own bodies. I've taken up lucid dreaming before and was able to achieve it, it's quite surreal. I'd be more interested to hear about this than machines in the waking world attempting to do the same.",
"The problem with VR is, and always has been, time. 60 frame per seconds is fine for unresponsive motion, but the loop that adjusts your eyes for your head position is one of the fastest we have, and VR just doesn't work if reality isn't adjusting properly to that loop. Latency is the dirty bug infecting everything, from Kinect, to music games that don't work on many consumer electronic setups (a problem that's gotten worse, not better, as everything's gone digital), to augmented reality.\n\nI'm not kidding here. I developed an app for the iPhone that corrects color blindness. I have users begging me to put it in some sort of pair of glasses. Look, I have to find a camera that can capture the image, and a display that can render the image, at something under 1/240th of a second lag. Even if I can get the processing done fast enough, the IO kills it dead.\n\nSo that's what happened. We got fast in bulk, but even slower for responsiveness.",
"Note: this isn't really a scientific question, and neither is this response, BUT is is a very interesting question and topic for sociologists and technologists. Hopefully you will not mind me posting a few links and thoughts.\n\nTo me, for the near future, VR is about head mounted displays with built in stereoscopic 3d and head tracking, and high performance hand/finger/arm tracking.\n\nThere stuff like this _URL_16_ and this _URL_18_\n\nAlso this desktop _URL_11_\n\nHeres an old hand tracking one _URL_17_\n\nWhat I am hoping for is that someone will combine a good HMD with stereoscopic 3d and head tracking and also something like Kinect or a fast-updating hand tracking/glove or something with a mini-itx pc like this _URL_16_ running a version of Compiz that is integrate with the hand and head tracking and instead of showing a cube, can load any OBJs or whatever 3d scenes sort of like this _URL_13_ and then display the windows mapping onto any surface or floating in an environment you navigate in.\n\nThere is this Open Cobalt _URL_17_ also here's VNC in Croquet _URL_12_ Open Croquet on a SmartBoard _URL_15_ \n\nHere's someone logging into Second Life from Second Life _URL_14_\n\nAnyway I just think there hasn't been a big social trend for these devices and immersion in general computing and so there wasn't a big enough demand recently which means the devices and software aren't great.. but I think if some of this stuff becomes trendy now, the science and technology is at the point where the HMD 3d glasses and head/hand tracking and could making computing immersive by default.\n\nAlso here is a virtual office in Second Life.. _URL_18_\n\nOne thing which might be happening is a lot of people's VR fix is being handled by Second Life, but they don't want to talk about it because they spend half of their time on Second Life having virtual sex.",
"If you are talking about the old VR Headsets of the early 90's then the technology was hampered by the following technological barriers: \n(My source of information is my Grandad who invented some major gyro components, sold the patents to a virtual reality company that since went bust)\nApparently the full headsets were causing side effects to long term users who were having accidents and falls due to dizzyness. They determined that it was an inner ear related issue which caused the brains natural rejection of the visual information it was receiving (being different to that provided by the inner ear). This was dramatically amplified by the 'lag' that was at the time fairly prevalent even though it was the lowest the technology at the time could provide.\n\nTL; DR: They didn't have the technology to fool the inner ear's sense of balance which made people travel sick and dizzy following heavy use",
"Problem with VR is that it's not cost effective to have a fully immersive environment. You can often get the same effect/information from simpler platforms. Programming for a VR environment is also very intensive. It's not as simple transition from an ordinary environment to one that is 3d/stereo capable.\n\nCheck out the Virtual Reality Applications Center at Iowa State University. _URL_19_\n\nThey have a six sided stereo VR environment, and while it's pretty cool in there, it's certainly nothing like a holodeck. It's also extremely expensive to operate because of the bulbs used for projection alone. There's also a lot of work in haptics that's pretty interesting that extends beyond Xboxs or Kinects.\n\nSo to answer your questions briefly: Yes, VR is here but it's expensive making it cost prohibitive towards the public and not necessarily a lucrative research expenditure because 3Dtv/Stereo Projectors can give the necessary effect to be useful in research.",
"VR is another one of those technologies that was supposed to be \"right around the corner\" in the late 80s and early 90s. \n\nUnfortunately it's taking a bit longer than anticipated, the problems aren't simple to solve. \n\nThey're being solved though. You're seeing it with WoW, Second Life, and even Minecraft. \n\nWe must first learn to simulate worlds people want to live in. The hardware, while not a solved issue, will follow.",
"I work in a virtual reality/simulation lab at my university. It's a pretty large and active lab. I attended a few expos and conferences and virtual reality research is very competitive. I don't think it'll die anytime soon.",
"Not virtual reality, but the Gadget Show here in the UK set up a very cool simulator for Battlefield 3 that comes close to achieving the same sort of experience.\n\n[YouTube clip](_URL_20_)",
"There's been an article circulating _URL_21_ \nThese folks have created a display small enough for each eye that has the resolution of the new ipad's screen 2560x1600. That would look incredible.",
"I think the technology was far behind the imagination at the time. I think augmented reality has taken its place and this might very well become a virtual reality again.",
"OP, you will really enjoy the novel \" ready player one \" . Its also in audiobook format. Yes 'not science' I know.",
"Id say it has advanced into augmented reality"
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{
"url": [
"http://www.emagin.com",
"http://www.nvidia.com/object/3d-vision-main.html",
"http://www.novint.com/index.php/novintfalcon",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/r7bo9/ima_virtual_reality_developer_ama/",
"http://www.sensable.com",
"http://www.3dvisor.com",
"http://www.vrlab.buffalo.edu/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=edik1WUNLdY",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1s9ldlqhVkM",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ie9QXFRBWTw",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=askKFSe3aLk",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YSEEw52CanE&feature=related",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yxe9c5lC1XU",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtHO4AtVSwc&feature=related",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=etBpUcNGVlU&feature=related",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0jsuaCjMY0k",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e-oIIhZpAas",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Btsk2fTLnPM",
"http://vrac.iastate.edu/",
"http://youtu.be/eg8Bh5iI2WY",
"http://arstechnica.com/gaming/news/2012/03/virtual-reality-that-doesnt-suck-my-time-inside-half-life-2.ars"
]
}
|
What happened to virtual reality? Is it a dead technology?
|
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||
2hw282
|
World has lost more than half its wildlife in 40 years -- Can anyone explain the potential impact?
|
According to a new study released by the WWF, Earth's wildlife has declined by 50% in the last 40 years. As someone who is interested in the environment, I would like to know what impact this will have on the planet and our species. What can we expect?
Article: _URL_0_
Study: _URL_1_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ckwlk5p",
"ckwpti9",
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"ckwshsm"
],
"text": [
"WWF is not a scientific organization. It is an activist group that produces literature primarily for the purpose of motivating donors to write them checks. They have a history of making inflated and incorrect claims about the status wildlife populations and other topics of interest to people interested in biological conservation.\n\nVery simply, you will not see any reputable scientific journal publishing these results. Their claim of 50% reduction in biodiversity (either by species number or quantity of animals) doesn't even pass a *prima facie* examination. Half of the animals have disappeared and nobody noticed until the WWF pointed it out in 2014? If you like, I could discuss some of the issues in their very colorful report (I only skimmed it prior to replying), but it would be fairly time consuming to go over it in detail.\n\nBiodiversity and human impact on the environment are certainly important issues worthy of scientific investigation, but WWF studies are not what I would consider a reputable source of information.",
"The WWF (i.e. pseudo-science activists) may be quite surprised to hear that 98% of all documented species are currently extinct. Earth went through multiple mass extinction events and we still see incredible biodiversity. The major issue I have with this study is the notion that we somehow have an absolute value for the number of species that exist and can capture extinction rates based on observation. \n\ntl;dr - WWF study is poo and not credible",
"50% loss in animal biodiversity is pretty high, higher than what I've read. But not by as much as you might think. A conservative estimate is that there is 6 million species on animal on the planet, and as many as 50,000 are going extinct annually. Among vertebrates, 15-30% are listed as threatened or endangered. And among invertebrates, the research is pretty limited, but preliminary indications are that losses are even higher. \nAs far as impacts go, lack of pollinators (decreased plants and crops), lack of predators for pests like mice or mosquitos (leading to increased disease transmission), many invertebrates are involved in nutrient cycles (decay and placing back into the environment) and water quality.\nIf you want to read more, this all came from \"Defaunation in the Anthropocene\" a review by Rodolfo Dirzo and others. It was published in July in SCIENCE magazine. All the sources used ought to be pretty reputable.",
"The fact that the DIVERSITY of species is collapsing is very, very bad. The resilience of ecosystems is directly related to its diversity.\n\nWe're in the middle of a human caused spike of species extinctions that is unprecedented in speed and scale in the planet's history."
],
"score": [
233,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.cbsnews.com/news/world-wildlife-fund-wwf-half-the-worlds-biodiversity-gone-over-last-40-years/",
"http://assets.worldwildlife.org/publications/723/files/original/LPR2014_low_res-2.pdf?1412025775"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
World has lost more than half its wildlife in 40 years -- Can anyone explain the potential impact?
According to a new study released by the WWF, Earth's wildlife has declined by 50% in the last 40 years. As someone who is interested in the environment, I would like to know what impact this will have on the planet and our species. What can we expect? Article: _URL_0_ Study: _URL_1_
|
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|
jx56y
|
Is there a central location for knowledge?
|
Given all of the super-specific research going on and all the super specific discoveries, how do scientists keep from re-studying and rediscovering the same things?
If something is discovered how does everyone else in the field know about (or keep track of) the discoveries?
Is there one central location where all the information on a given topic is pooled?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2fuy0b",
"c2fuchv",
"c2fuqes",
"c2ftv4v",
"c2ftt6u"
],
"text": [
"> Given all of the super-specific research going on and all the super specific discoveries, how do scientists keep from re-studying and rediscovering the same things?\n\nUnfortunately, this is really hard to avoid. When thinking about doing any sort of research, it is very important to perform a thorough search of the literature.\n\nSometimes knowledge lies forgotten in the basement of university libraries for decades.\n\nThe most comical modern example of this sort of thing that I know is the rediscovery of the Trapezoid Rule, a very basic mathematical method taught to all college freshman who take a year of calculus. This was somehow forgotten to a part of the Diabetes research community, and [rediscovered by Dr. Tai](_URL_0_). \"Tai's method\" has been since used in several studies, and Tai's \"discovery\" has been cited in over 70 papers.",
"This sounds like a stupid answer, and it's not as academic as I think you're looking for, but as far as I know the WikiMedia collection including Wikipedia is the largest repository of human knowledge in the world.",
"[PubMed](_URL_1_) is the main search engine for biomedical sciences that most people like. Google scholar is also growing in popularity. The research that scientists do in a given subfield can get published in a variety of research journals, so using the internet to search them is the most efficient way to go about it. \n\nAlso, for many biomedical topics (maybe other fields too?), experts on a particular topic will publish what are called review articles. A review article is a summary of current research on a particular topic, and the review article will have references to the papers that did the primary research that is the basis of the information presented.",
"Scientists are acutely aware of the problem of replicating effort--in part because, in a very selfish way, if they haven't discovered something new then their discovery is less publishable and less important.\n\nIt would be an enormous expenditure of time and effort to attempt to catalogue and codify all of the information being created by the scientific establishment. Instead, scientists use search engines to comb through all of the scientific literature for work that might be relevant to their own. ([SciFinder Scholar](_URL_4_) and [Web of Knowledge](_URL_4_) provide these services for a fee, while other options, like [Google Scholar](_URL_3_), are effectively free.) When scientists are writing a grant to get an experiment funded, or writing up the results of an experiment, or confused about some data in their work that seems incongruous, they'll often search the literature with these sorts of tools.",
"Scientists publish their findings in journals, other scientists read journals.\n\nSometimes scientists independently discover the same things, like Charles Devin in 1961 and Yuri Zudin in 1991 coming up with the same equation for a bubble in a tube."
],
"score": [
5,
5,
4,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/17/2/152.abstract",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/",
"http://www.cas.org/products/sfacad/index.html",
"http://scholar.google.com/",
"http://wokinfo.com/"
]
}
|
Is there a central location for knowledge?
Given all of the super-specific research going on and all the super specific discoveries, how do scientists keep from re-studying and rediscovering the same things? If something is discovered how does everyone else in the field know about (or keep track of) the discoveries? Is there one central location where all the information on a given topic is pooled?
|
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8d7e3f
|
Given an oscillatory system (electrical, mechanical or otherwise) with a single input and output, is an impulse response enough to predict the system's response to any other signal?
|
Assume you have an analytically defined black box.
Obviously, things like discretisation of signals would make things harder/impossible in the real world.
|
askscience
|
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"If you have the impulse response function, you can find the output corresponding to any given input by taking the convolution of the input with the impulse response.",
"Yes, if the system is linear and time invariant. Let me give you an example of how this is actually done with a real application.\n\nIll use mechanical systems as an example; the world of vibration replication and shaker table control. Basically, replicating vibration environments in a lab setting. There is a machine (basically a powerful loudspeaker) which is controlled by a controller specifically designed for mechanical systems (or, specifically for systems whose differential equations are similar to those of mechanical systems).\n\nThere is a \"mechanical\" side of things and a \"signals\" side of things (in my experience, the way a mechanical engineer is taught vs. the way a signal processing engineer is taught). But the two meet in the middle. The \"Mechanical\" way is basically reducing the mechanical system to a set of differential equations. The \"signals\" way is basically the techniques we use to solve those equations.\n\nLets start on the Mechanical side. The Impulse response comes from modeling the system (F=m*A), which you can think of as a spring/mass/damper on the mechanical side. But - once we are on the signal processing side, this same FRF measurement can be applied to real, physical structures which have many structural resonances and can be incredibly complex.\n\nSo you solve the differential equation and you have the Impulse Response (and the Transfer Function, the Laplace domain model). Now, you can convolve that impulse response with any time domain signal, which will estimate for you the response of the system to that signal. Alternatively, you can convolve the impulse response of the inverse Transfer Function with a desired output to estimate the input signal necessary to get that output. If you have a Laplace representation of your signal (like a step function) you can perform the convolution in the Laplace domain, which is very simple (multiplication).\n\nNow comes the DSP side of things. A digital \"system\" is described by a Frequency Response Function (opposed to a Transfer Function). Now (as best as I can describe it) through a mathematical similarity between the way mathematical systems are modeled and fourier theory, and mathematically if you have the Transfer Function, you can easily get the Frequency response Function. The Frequency response Function describes the steady state response of the system for every input frequency. As long as a few conditions are met, its a pretty damn good way to estimate a Transfer Function.\n\nThe most uesful thing about the frequency domain (compared to the Transfer Function / Laplace domain) is the DFT / FFT algorithm which transforms any discrete *time* signal into its corresponding *frequency* components. This transformation allows us to use any arbitrary time signal as an input or output - we can still estimate the response of our system's FRF to it.\n\nIn the frequency domain, systems are stored/described with the Frequency Response function - estimated by the ratio of the FFT(output)/FFT(input). So if you send in some time signal to a mechanical system and measure the acceleration of the response; the FFT(output)/FFT(input) will give you an estimate of the FRF of the single DOF system. It should match the FRF if you calculate it from the Transfer Function. Note that the actual implementation in industry is typically different, with methods added to minimize the effect of noise.\n\nHow is all this used in the real world? Vibration Controllers (for shaker tables) are intended to replicate any vibration, based on its FRF. The controller obviously has an ADC and a DAC to drive the exciter, and to measure the response acceleration. To run a vibration test, the controller:\n\n1. Output random signal to exciter, measure response\n2. Perform this for N time frames, with N measurements of the input/output, use the FFT to compute an average FRF\n3. Compute H^-1\n4. Multiply D = H^-1 * FFT(*desired acceleration*), D is the frequency domain reprensentation of the signal needed to generate *desired acceleration* from the system\n5. take d = IFFT(D), d is the time domain signal needed to generate *desired acceleration*\n6. send d to the system\n\n\nYou'll notice this is meant to operate on \"chunks\" of time, but it is often performed in a loop with some engineering to handle the boundary time conditions at the beginning/and of each frame.\n\nThis method is used to control complex mechanical systems with many resonances; even MIMO systems. More complex MIMO systems exist which have 6+ actuators to replicate 6+DoF of motion. The controller that runs it measures the MIMO FRF using similar techniques; and performs the same multiplication/convolution of [H] with a desired 6+DoF reference profile in realtime; while adjusting to changes in the system FRF.",
"That's generally the idea. The response function, or Green's function or propagator as it is varyingly called is generally considered all you need for a complete description of the system.",
"only if the system is linear and time invariant"
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Given an oscillatory system (electrical, mechanical or otherwise) with a single input and output, is an impulse response enough to predict the system's response to any other signal?
Assume you have an analytically defined black box. Obviously, things like discretisation of signals would make things harder/impossible in the real world.
|
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|
1dsz5t
|
Why is the reflective mylar on the surface of spacecraft/satellites always uneven?
|
I understand the [multi-layered walls](_URL_0_) that covers most parts of artificial satellites and spacecraft that don't have to withstand atmospheric (re)entry is efficient, light, and shiny. Apparently it's used to insulate pretty much every man-made object in space.
My silly question is, why does it always look like a 5 year old's arts and crafts project? Is the surface loose on purpose to leave some room for mechanical stress? Is an uneven surface better at scattering light? Then why is it randomly crumpled and not a pattern? Is mylar just a crappy material to get pretty-looking?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"I make telescope mirrors.\n\nIt is very hard to make a good reflective surface that looks perfectly smooth. It's in the nature of these things that a *very very tiny* deviation from perfect flatness will translate into a major perceived change in how it looks like. This is because if the surface is even just a few microns different from flat, the reflected image (which is how you \"see\" a mirror) will shift much more than a few microns.\n\nGo ahead and try it yourself. Put a mirror on the table. Shine a laser beam on it from a pointer. Watch the reflection on the ceiling. Now slide a piece of paper under one edge of the mirror. The paper is very thin, right? So the mirror's position shifted only a tiny amount. Yet the position of the reflected laser beam on the ceiling has changed much much more.\n\nBasically, the only way to have a mylar/aluminum surface look perfectly smooth is to make a drum - stretch it over a hole so it's tensioned. Even then there will be wrinkles at the edge.\n\nTLDR: Mirrors are hard.",
"I'm a satellite thermal engineer. \n > Is mylar just a crappy material to get pretty-looking?\n\nMylar is just one part of Multi Layer Insulation (also kapton). In general it is very difficult to keep un-crinkled, as all the layers are very thin.\n > Is the surface loose on purpose to leave some room for mechanical stress?\n\nThe surface is loose on purpose, but not for mechanical stress. The point of Multi Layer Insulation is that there is very little conductive heat transfer through the layers. This is achieved by the layers touching as little as possible. Pulling the MLI tight over structures causes all the layers to touch, reducing the effectiveness of the MLI.\n\nHowever you do get some multi layer insulation that has a deliberately uneven surface to scatter rays. This would be used in cases where you would otherwise get reflections from the MLI onto something critical such as an antenna or radiator.",
"It's primary purpose is a radiation barrier. As it says in the wiki link you posted, the insulation is usually multiple layers which aren't in physical contact. The crinkling reduces the contact between layers and in many cases a scrim layer is used to ensure separation (quote from your link):\n > For compactness, the layers are spaced as close as possible, though without touching, since there should be little or no thermal conduction between the layers. A typical insulation blanket has 40 or more layers.[1] The layers may be embossed or crinkled, so they only touch at a few points, or held apart by a thin cloth mesh, or scrim, which can be seen in the picture above.\n\nIt's really thin and fragile and having a little bit of slack reduces tension and the chance that a scratch or poke would lead to a puncture (as you mentioned mechanical stress). It's not patterned, because there isn't any benefit to doing so outside of superficial appearance. Presumably you'd have to use some sort of adhesive, creases/molding or stitching to get a pattern and most of those would worsen the thermal performance. The stuff is also super fragile.",
"Mylar is really fucking crinkly. I just tried to insulate around a window A/C unit. You can't put that stuff in place without it creasing. It isn't woven, you see, as that would defeat the purpose.",
"Because all that matters is getting the radiation *away*. The precise direction of reflection doesn't matter. \n\nThere's no benefit in making it look neat."
],
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-layer_insulation"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why is the reflective mylar on the surface of spacecraft/satellites always uneven?
I understand the [multi-layered walls](_URL_0_) that covers most parts of artificial satellites and spacecraft that don't have to withstand atmospheric (re)entry is efficient, light, and shiny. Apparently it's used to insulate pretty much every man-made object in space. My silly question is, why does it always look like a 5 year old's arts and crafts project? Is the surface loose on purpose to leave some room for mechanical stress? Is an uneven surface better at scattering light? Then why is it randomly crumpled and not a pattern? Is mylar just a crappy material to get pretty-looking?
|
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|
1n0q9d
|
Will we ever enter the titanium era?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cceeq4h",
"ccedibe",
"cceja3k",
"ccedqk5",
"ccef2x5",
"ccejnr3"
],
"text": [
"We're now at the point where our progress is not defined by our metallurgy but by other skills.\n\nThe last couple decades are sometimes referred to as the \"[Information age](_URL_2_)\" (and there's reason to believe this term will stick around for a while as the internet only becomes more important). Prior to that was the [atomic age](_URL_3_) and the [industrial age](_URL_0_). The longer duration ages are generally: [Stone, Bronze, Iron](_URL_1_).\n\nOf all these \"ages\", only two are actually metals.",
"Just considering the scarcity of titanium (0,63% of earth's crust) compared to iron (most common metal on earth by mass), it would probably not be affordable to substitute steel with titanium where the lightness is not essential.\n\nThen there's the fact that steel is an alloy and titanium is an element can't be or making it would cost a fortune (not expert on this part though)",
"Titanium inherently has a huge disadvantage: It burns before it melts. That means that Titanium has to be worked in a vacuum. It can't be shaped, either, because it's too brittle. About the only way to easily make something is by sintering, and that's only useful for small parts. It's just not worth it.",
"I think human progress was marked by metals because it took technological breakthroughs to make tools and build with those metals. Our time will probably be defined by silicon or nuclear reactions. Silicon is being used for scientific and mathematical advancements and has become a necessary part of industry. Nuclear reactions might be what defines our era because of the enormous energy potential for generating electricity and it marks the first time humans can directly cause our own extinction.",
"Well, there's the theoretical [Kardashev scale](_URL_4_) which measures a civilization by the amount of energy at its disposal. There are three levels described (type 1, type 2, and type 3) and according to the formula and the world's energy production capacity, we're at roughly a level 0.717. So, who knows when we'll get to a type 1 civilization level...",
"This is only somewhat related, but what Age do we see coming next? Or are ages usually defined afterward with respect to a significant invention/discovery? \n\nLike... could it be the Fusion age?"
],
"score": [
23,
10,
7,
6,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-age_system",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Age",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Age",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kardashev_scale"
]
}
|
Will we ever enter the titanium era?
|
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||
1x9s0e
|
FAQ Friday - What have you wondered about sleep?
|
This week on **FAQ Friday** we're here to answer your questions about sleep! Have you ever wondered:
- If a person can ever catch up on sleep?
- How we wake up after a full night's sleep?
- If other animals get insomnia?
Read about these and more in our [Neuroscience FAQ](_URL_2_) or leave a comment.
_____
**What do you want to know about sleep? Ask your question below!**
Please remember that [our guidelines still apply](_URL_1_). Requesting or offering medical advice and anecdotes are not allowed. Thank you!
*Past FAQ Friday posts can be found [here](_URL_0_)*.
|
askscience
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"How does drunken sleep compare to regular sleep? are the first few hours of drunken sleep (where your body is getting rid of the alcohol) essentially useless?",
"What are the best tips for a good night's sleep that are actually rooted in science?",
"Are there any long term effects of having an erratic sleep schedule?",
"How, if at all, is the Circadian Rhythm affected when people go blind? \nDoes it function differently in people who were born blind?",
"Is there something neurological that causes somebody to be a \"heavy sleeper?\" And what's the best way to wake up a heavy sleeper in the morning if an alarm typically won't do the trick?",
"Can over-the-counter sleep aids like melatonin lead to dependency?\n\nWhen somebody briefly nods off, like for a second, what is happening at the brain wave level?",
"What exactly does sleep do for us? There is a million explanations on it but why do they actually do what they do? Why does not being awake help us regain energy?",
"(This is crazy; I came to the sub to ask a question about sleep and lo and behold!)\n\nDoes getting the extra ten minutes of sleep when we hit the snooze button actually beneficial? does it make us any more rested?",
"Hi, what is a hypnic jerk? How common are they? How frequently do people have them? What causes them?",
"How do lucid dreams work ? How can you control anything when sleeping ?\n\nIt seems weird to me. Or does it actually fuck up your sleep, maybe you're not resting properly when doing it ?",
"Is there a noticeable difference in brain function when lucid dreaming as opposed to regular dreaming? Also, have there been any reputable scientific studies done on triggering them?",
"Why can we never pinpoint the moment when we're about to fall asleep?",
"Hi. \n\nWhat is the main cause of central sleep apnea? Why does it make a person more tired during they day?",
"What are the risks of chronic sleep deprivation (like over the course of months or years)?",
"Do we know what causes delayed phase sleep disorder?",
"Why can't we sleep \"forever\"? Or, why can't we sleep when we are not tired?\n\nSometimes when I have little money or any plans, it would be quite nice to hibernate for a few days!",
"How is it evolutionarily advantageous to occasionally prioritise death over waking up? In other words, why is it so hard to wake up?",
"What are the drawbacks of a polyphasic sleep schedule? I'm not talking about anything extreme like the uberman sleep schedule, but what if I slept for 3 hours twice a day. What effects do polyphasic sleep schedules have outside of effecting how tired you feel? For example, the uberman sleep schedule is apparently only REM sleep, but a lot of important processes happen during NREM sleep. What happens to those?",
"Do the events in our dreams that we do not remember shape our attitudes, emotions or relationships?",
"I'm interested in evidence-based recommendations about infant sleep. Is sleep training (\"cry it out\" or \"controlled crying\") effective? Are there positive or negative consequences? What is \"normal\" infant sleep? How much sleep is \"enough?\" Are there any positive or negative consequences to co-sleeping?",
"What kinds of factors cause a fluke bad night's sleep? Why e.g. do I sometimes wake up every few hours, and manage only light sleep?",
"How can I explain Narcolepsy (no cataplexy) to people? They think I just fall asleep whenever.",
"If sleeping two \"shifts\" during a night is natural to a human, how come I (as well as most people I know) have never experienced this first hand? I have never gone to bed at 9pm, woke up at 12:30 to do something, and go back to sleep at 1:30. \n\nWhen was this theory first infered and what sort of hard evidence does science have to support it?",
"Why do certain sleep disorders/disturbances cause hallucinations? In terms of \"brain activity,\" what's happening during a disordered sleep state that could possibly cause one to hallucinate?",
"Does having a nightmare or bad dream have any unhealthy side effects compared to having a pleasant dream?",
"Is there anything a person can do to increase or decrease their likelihood of having dreams?",
"I've read somewhere (cannot remember) that especially the blue wavelengths in light are responsible for inhibiting melatonin production. Programs like [flux](_URL_0_) try to help with this, as they turn down the amount of blue light and increase the amount of orange/red light coming from your computer screen when the sun is down. \n\nCan you tell something about the science behind it, and whether you think this is correct and it actually helps (a bit/a lot/not at all) in falling asleep while still having a light source in the room?",
"Is the Uberman Sleep Schedule something that a person could legitimately maintain long-term without negative health or mental effects? \n\nEssentially, the Uberman Schedule calls for a 20 minute nap every 4 hours round the clock, with no other sleeping allowed. This results in 2 hours total sleep time per 24 hour period. Proponents claim that once you're adjusted to this you can be perfectly fine on only the 2 hours of sleep and have many more awake hours to get things done.\n\n_URL_1_",
"Do sleep cycle alarm apps work? It seems accurate for when I wake up, but I'm curious about the \"deep sleep\" measurements. How much time does/should the average 30 year female spend in deep sleep? How do you increase deep sleep?",
"What is the most scientific explanation as to why humans need sleep?",
"My neuroscience professor told us that researchers still don't know why humans need to sleep, as in we won't die from lack of sleep (unless you have fatal familial insomnia). I understand that sleep is important for events such as long-term potentiation, but I still don't understand the physiological necessity to do it so often. What do you think the most important physiological need for sleep is?",
"~~Instead of sleeping 8 hours a night (or 7 or 9 or whatever [the current healthy number is](_URL_6_) - see [8 hour sleep myth](_URL_5_)), should we really be [sleeping twice a night](_URL_6_)? That is, sleep for a period, wake up and read or otherwise occupy the mind a bit, then sleep again?~~\n\n**Edit:** [Mr_Wendal asked](_URL_6_) and [leonard-hatred answered](_URL_5_)",
"What is the general consensus on [sleep cycle calculators](_URL_7_)?\n\nWhen I use it, sometimes I wake up feeling ready to go, and other times I wake up groggy. I understand there are other confounding factors like diet, coffee, etc., but I guess I'm curious to see how accurate the 90-min sleep cycle is.",
"How come some people are able to have orgasms, or even unknowingly have sex, in their sleep? I know that the brain stays active, and the body goes into rest mode, so where does this sudden arousal come from and how does the body go through with these actions without waking up?",
"How does working nights affect a person's health? I often hear that sleeping during the day and staying up at night destroys the person's health. What if they get a regular 7-9 hours of sleep? Would it still affect them?",
"Can I \"stock up\" on sleep? What I mean is, can I take a nap at 3 p.m. for 2 hours then go to sleep at night 2 hours later than normal and still have a good nights rest?",
"Is there some reliable (i.e. scientific) research into what methods are the most effective for getting a lucid dream? Have some methods been debunked by research?",
"Is there any clues to how and when sleep developed?\n\nIs there still significant scientific debate on the purpose of sleep?",
"What is happening in the brain the exact moment you fall asleep?",
"Can night terrors be caused by drug use or sleep deprivation?",
"Why/how are dreams so routinely and quickly forgotten?",
"where do we go when we lose consciousness?"
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{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=flair%3A%27meta%27&restrict_sr=on&sort=new&t=all",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/index#wiki_answering_askscience",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/neuroscience#wiki_sleep"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://justgetflux.com/",
"http://www.polyphasicsociety.com/polyphasic-sleep/overviews/uberman-2/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1x9s0e/faq_friday_what_have_you_wondered_about_sleep/cf9dpcm",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1x9s0e/faq_friday_what_have_you_wondered_about_sleep/cf9ezev",
"http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/feb/24/sleep-twice-a-night-anxiety",
"http://www.alternet.org/story/154424/the_8-hour_sleep_myth%3A_how_i_learned_that_everything_i_knew_about_sleep_was_wrong",
"http://www.bulletproofexec.com/sleep-hacking-1-million-people-prove-sleeping-5-hours-is-healther-than-sleeping-8-hours/",
"http://sleepyti.me/"
]
}
|
FAQ Friday - What have you wondered about sleep?
This week on **FAQ Friday** we're here to answer your questions about sleep! Have you ever wondered: - If a person can ever catch up on sleep? - How we wake up after a full night's sleep? - If other animals get insomnia? Read about these and more in our [Neuroscience FAQ](_URL_2_) or leave a comment. _____ **What do you want to know about sleep? Ask your question below!** Please remember that [our guidelines still apply](_URL_1_). Requesting or offering medical advice and anecdotes are not allowed. Thank you! *Past FAQ Friday posts can be found [here](_URL_0_)*.
|
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|
195f77
|
What happens when a DC is introduced to an AC line without a capacitive coupler. (Dead short)
|
_URL_0_ - crude, simplified diagram to help out.
Let me start off by saying that I am a technician, not an engineer, so my advanced theory is limited.
Basically the control unit is fed AC signal from the generator, then processes whether the generator needs to ramp up or down. The exciter signal is sent to the generator via the two 28 VDC lines.
The generator is supposed to output 115 VAC, however when (hydraulically) powered, it produces a solid 180 VAC.
Upon troubleshooting the system, which gets much more complicated after the relay, we decided to remove the generator which is about an 8 hour process.
When we finally got the generator out we discovered that Posts 1 and 3 were shorted to the 28 VDC pins D and E.
This is where my question comes into play. What happens when that 115 VAC is introduced to that 28 VDC line?
The generator was with 100% confidence not being over spun, and was producing a solid frequency of 400 Hz.
I'm working in a very remote location and don't have much for analyzing tools.
Also, sorry for the crude drawing and any grammatical errors. I did this all on a tablet unfortunately.
I'll keep stopping by to answer any questions, or give any extra data I found.
Thank you in advance!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8l6fdh",
"c8l4ydq",
"c8l4snn"
],
"text": [
"400Hz AC... 28V DC... is this an airplane?",
"Without diagrams, major guesswork going on here but usually when you introduce DC to an AC system you are going to saturate the core (usually transformers but in this case a generator).\n\nMy guess is that the output waveform is rich in harmonics resulting from half cycle saturation (DC will only saturate in one half of the cycle). Your meter might be getting confused with the odd waveform and the reading won't mean much. If (unlikely I realise) you could hook up an oscilloscope to the output you could determine if the waveform is in fact distorted.",
"Does the circuit for the controller have a diode on the 28VDC lines for protection? \n\nAre you just trying to figure out whether the controller will need to be replaced?"
],
"score": [
40,
7,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/8ql3pdr"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What happens when a DC is introduced to an AC line without a capacitive coupler. (Dead short)
_URL_0_ - crude, simplified diagram to help out. Let me start off by saying that I am a technician, not an engineer, so my advanced theory is limited. Basically the control unit is fed AC signal from the generator, then processes whether the generator needs to ramp up or down. The exciter signal is sent to the generator via the two 28 VDC lines. The generator is supposed to output 115 VAC, however when (hydraulically) powered, it produces a solid 180 VAC. Upon troubleshooting the system, which gets much more complicated after the relay, we decided to remove the generator which is about an 8 hour process. When we finally got the generator out we discovered that Posts 1 and 3 were shorted to the 28 VDC pins D and E. This is where my question comes into play. What happens when that 115 VAC is introduced to that 28 VDC line? The generator was with 100% confidence not being over spun, and was producing a solid frequency of 400 Hz. I'm working in a very remote location and don't have much for analyzing tools. Also, sorry for the crude drawing and any grammatical errors. I did this all on a tablet unfortunately. I'll keep stopping by to answer any questions, or give any extra data I found. Thank you in advance!
|
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jz6oe
|
Can someone explain to me, in length, wth voltage is?
|
I'm a first year Electrical Engineering student, and am doing OKAY. This, to me, is not good enough!
I think the main problem is that I don't have a full grasp on the concept of voltage. The main reason being that the only definition I seem to be running in to during lectures is "It's the potential difference." Okay, the potential difference of what? "...of potential differences..."
I know that voltage is defined by "the potential difference" across an element starting at node a and ending at node b. Which means Vab = Va - Vb. Great. So how are Va and Vb defined?
Maybe I'm missing something here. Can anyone help me out? (I don't care if you slam me with a wall of text. I *need* to understand this.)
EDIT: You guys rock. Thanks so much!
|
askscience
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"One analogy I heard that does a good job of getting the point across is to think of voltage and current as a waterfall. Voltage would be the height of the waterfall, so with greater height, the water would reach the base of the waterfall with greater force. Current would be how much water is flowing down the waterfall. \n\nIf you inserted a platform halfway down the waterfall and observed the water there, you would notice the current would be the same, but the voltage would be less than if you measured it at the bottom.\n\nDon't know if this helps you, but I hope it does.",
"There are a lot of descriptions here already but I figure I'll add another one in the mix and hopefully it will help.\n\nThe first thing that may be useful in seeing what voltage is are the units. Voltage has units of (N/C)*m, or more intuitively, the strength of an electric field times a distance. To actually calculate a voltage difference, you would basically take a line integral of the electric field from one point to another.\n\nRecall that an electric field exerts a force on charged particles (like electrons) that are \"inside\" it. In a circuit then, this means each different component is going to be pushing or pulling charged particles differently. For example, wires will have almost no field (so charged particles aren't affected), and resistors will have a stronger field (so charged particles are affected).\n\nSo, when we take our line integral from point A to point B in a circuit, what are we actually doing? Basically we start off at point A, holding onto an electron and measure how much force it has on it. Then we move the electron slightly closer to B, and add in the force we feel now. Move it a bit closer, measure again, and so on until we reach B.\n\nNow, that neglects certain constant factors (you would need something of unit charge, and to move it infinitesimally small amounts each time), but if that process makes sense to you, then you understand voltage. **Basically it is just how much effort it requires to move a charged particle from one place to another.**\n\nYou need to have two points to measure between, because it makes no sense to talk about how much effort it takes to move a charged particle to point B. You have to say to point B *from somewhere*.\n\nSo, if you are talking about a wire, there is basically no electric field going through it, and therefore it doesn't take much effort at all to move charged particles through it, so the voltage difference from one end of a wire to another is 0.\n\nFor a resistor, there is a stronger field, and so the voltage difference will be non-zero.\n\nHope that helped somewhat! I know quite a few EE students, and it took many of them a very long time to really understand voltage, so don't give up.",
"Voltage is the electric potential field. A potential field is a convenient way to do the maths for fields of particular kinds of forces, in this case, the electric potential.\n\nThe forces that can be described with a potential field are called \"conservative\" forces. Gravity and electrostatics are conservative forces, so you can use a potential to describe them and simplify the maths. This potential is strictly a \"scalar\" potential - each point in space is given a single number, it's potential at that point. Magnetism is not a conservative force, so it is described by a \"vector\" potential - each point in space is given *three* numbers to describe it fully.\n\nFor more mathematical meat, a conservative force is [described here](_URL_0_).",
"Don't worry too much. A lot of first year electrical students have some trouble with this. They can do the calculations, but they don't quite understand the theory behind those calculations. Keep reading and doing the homeworks and you'll get it eventually. Something important that you should understand is that voltage is a potential **difference**. That means two nodes are always involved. Yes, like you said, Vab is the voltage across node a and node b, which can mean Va - Vb. Va and Vb are also defined as a potential difference. Va is the potential difference between node a and the theoretical ground node. Vb is the potential difference between node b and the ground node.",
"I see that you did not mention electrons once.\nElectrons are charged negative, so they repel from each other. They'll always try to get to a low electrical potential, moving away from each other. Imagine two pieces of metal. One is filled with electrons (static electricity), the other is not. You get a voltage between those when you connect both with a wire. The electrons start moving to get the electrons balanced.\nThis answer is not as long as you expected, but maybe it helps.",
"Electricity is the movement of electrons. Electrons want to have a balanced existence, where they're equally far from all the other electrons, they don't like to clump up. So if you have a lot of electrons on one side of a wire, they want to move through the wire to the other side. The imbalance is the difference in potential.\n\nWe use the word potential, because this difference only exists potentially, as soon as you actually create the difference (by connecting the wires), the electrons rush over to where they'd rather be (at a flow rate relating to the resistance of the wire).\n\nThe following metaphor works, but only okay.\n\nElectricity is very similiar to water.\nVoltage, is water pressure in a tank. Current, is the flow rate. Resistance is the friction of the pipe walls and the size of the pipe. They're all directly related to eachother, manipulate one, and the others have to change.\n\nIf I open the valve on a water line to outside (like a switch in a wire) suddenly the water has someplace to go where the pressure is less, and it starts flowing. Depending on the size of the pipe and the material its made of, you get a certain amount of water flowing through. Given enough time, the water pressure will drop to zero because it equalizes with your destination. (were you filling a smaller tank you might end up with some water pressure remaining.)",
"It might help to think about the potential difference in a slightly different way. I initially knew it just as a longish two word term, and not much more. The potential here refers to the potential energy of a unit of charge, and the difference is the change in that quantity between two points.\n\nIn order for a unit of charge to travel between the two points, it must absorb or release energy equal to the P.D. The actual value of the potential at each end doesn't really matter, and to an extent is actually arbitrary! For example when you talk about the gravitational potential energy you tend to define it as being zero at an infinite distance from the central body - it makes the mathematics easier. In the case of electrical potential you will probably pick a point in the circuit and just define that point as having an electrical potential of zero, and work from there.\n\nI hope that clears things up a little. It is only the difference in potential (the energy change) that matters, and the actual value of the potential is defined to be whatever makes the mathematics easier.",
"no degree, just a laymen: A way that I've always thought of voltages and charges is similar to the waterfall analogy but instead you have 2 fish tanks next to each other on a level table, a hole is drilled on the sides near the bottom of each tank and a tube is run between them, then clamp off the tube with some pliers (so it's closed off or 'disconnected'.\n\nNow imagine you fill each of the fish tanks evenly with water, open the tube - no water flows - there is equal water pressure from each tank inside the tube.\n\nDrain them, now fill one 1/2 way and the other fully. Open the tube again - the water will flow from the full tank to the other until they are once again equal.\n\nDrain them, now leave one empty and the other full. Open the tube again - the water will flow from the full to the empty and at a higher rate than before, because there is a larger different in water pressure between the full one and the empty one. As the empty one fills up the rate of flow will decrease.\n\nThe difference in water pressure on each side of the hose is the potential. The size of the hose determines how much water can flow through it. In terms of electricity - the amount of resistance in the wire is like the size of the hose.\n\nIn terms of a battery, imagine a gasoline water pump that pulls water from one tank and puts it into the other tank constantly, and at a faster rate than the hose between the 2 tanks can displace. This will make sure water always flows through the middle hose because the potential will never equalize, as long as the water pump has gasoline. Instead of a mechanic device, inside a battery, there is a chemical reaction that moves electrons away from 1 terminal and towards the other, keeping the system out of balance for as long as the chemicals can react.",
"The best explanation of voltage I ever heard related it to current and power. Imagine a waterfall. The height of the waterfall is akin to voltage (potential difference). The speed of the water when it passed the lip of the waterfall and begins falling down is akin to electrical current (amps). The force of the water when it crashes down at the bottom of the waterfall is like power (watts). Volts*Amps = Watts. If you increase the height of the waterfall (the \"potential difference\" of the waterfall) while keeping the speed of the water at the top constant, you increase the force you would feel if you stood under the waterfall at the bottom. Someone explained it to me like this when I was a kid, and the image of the waterfall stuck with me through college.",
"When you get a little further on in your EE degree make sure you take some electromagnetics courses. Really worth it if only a little challenging."
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Can someone explain to me, in length, wth voltage is?
I'm a first year Electrical Engineering student, and am doing OKAY. This, to me, is not good enough! I think the main problem is that I don't have a full grasp on the concept of voltage. The main reason being that the only definition I seem to be running in to during lectures is "It's the potential difference." Okay, the potential difference of what? "...of potential differences..." I know that voltage is defined by "the potential difference" across an element starting at node a and ending at node b. Which means Vab = Va - Vb. Great. So how are Va and Vb defined? Maybe I'm missing something here. Can anyone help me out? (I don't care if you slam me with a wall of text. I *need* to understand this.) EDIT: You guys rock. Thanks so much!
|
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|
n8gd1
|
My hand is made up of tiny atoms. So is this plank of wood. Is it theoretically possible for the atoms in my hand and the atoms in the wood to align in such a way that I could put my hand through the wood?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c372s69",
"c3732qe",
"c3737v1",
"c3733c7"
],
"text": [
"No. While it's generally true that there's quite a bit of empty space, there's a considerable amount of energy. Specifically, we know that two particles cannot occupy the same quantum state - they can't be in the same place with the sames spin (this is called the Pauli exclusion principle). So, when two electron orbitals press up against each other there's a force that prevents them from getting tangled up with each other. On the macro level, it produces the phenomenon you understand as matter being solid and coherent. In a solid, the covalent bonds between atoms are forming a network of atoms without sufficient space for other networks of atoms to pass through (because of exclusion). You could break all the bonds in both, making them gasses, and then they could mix.",
"Considering the \"theoretically possible\" part of your question, according to Brian Geene's \"the elegant universe\", it is absolutely possible to do that, BUT the number of tries it would take to accomplish that feat would take longer than the current age of the universe.",
"This may be relevant to the OP's curiosity: [supercritical](_URL_0_)",
"Any time you alter the structure of electrons in the electron cloud, there is a lot of energy associated with it. If you could somehow pass your hand through the wood without actually altering the structure of the wood, your hand would surely vaporize or be rendered useless. Keep in mind even getting one particle to pass through a piece of wood is hard. Even getting a wave of energy to pass through wood without effecting the wood, would be hard."
],
"score": [
17,
12,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_fluid"
]
}
|
My hand is made up of tiny atoms. So is this plank of wood. Is it theoretically possible for the atoms in my hand and the atoms in the wood to align in such a way that I could put my hand through the wood?
|
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||
7olxyx
|
Why does LIGO have such long arms?
|
I understand that it uses interferometry to detect gravitational waves, but why do the arms have to be 4km long? Thanks in advance.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dsak1l9",
"dsajycp",
"dsajz94"
],
"text": [
"Gravitational waves stretch longer distances by a bigger amount so if you make the arms twice as long your signal (the difference in length) is twice as strong.\n\nThe next Gravitational wave detector is planned to be in space with thousands of kilometers between sattelites as the \"arms\".",
"Because gravitational wave wavelengths are huge. They are typically a hundred to a thousand km in height. The LIGO uses a long arm, which is still shorter than the hundred in a 'small' gravitational wave. They actually bounce the beam back and forth in the chamber, which will magnify the sensitivity of the detector and allow it to find the waves.",
"To better detect the timing differences between the arms. Laser interferometers measure the time it takes for the laser to cover the distance which \"should\" be the same. The minute differences is what measures the stretching in space time."
],
"score": [
11,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why does LIGO have such long arms?
I understand that it uses interferometry to detect gravitational waves, but why do the arms have to be 4km long? Thanks in advance.
|
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89ogfg
|
AskScience AMA Series: IAmA restoration ecologist focused on restoring oysters to the NY Harbor in New York City. AMA!
|
Hello Reddit!
I'm Dr. Liz Burmester, an ecologist with the [Billion Oyster Project](_URL_1_) - a nonprofit dedicated to restoring 1 billion oysters in the NY Harbor by 2035 through education and community involvement. I'm here to answer questions with help from Atlas Obscura.
Why oysters? As suspension (filter) feeders and reef builders, oysters are a keystone species capable of important ecosystem services like water filtration and habitat creation for a variety of marine creatures. My research revolves around understanding how organisms survive, reproduce, and respond to stress. We use that information to inform the Billion Oyster Project's work on restoring the NY Harbor's - once impressive and thriving, but now functionally extinct - population of oysters.
Before transitioning to this urbanized environment, I researched another group of keystone reef builders - corals - and their ability to recover from localized stress.
As part of my work, I also serve as a mentor to high school students performing their own independent research in a career and technical education program at the [Urban Assembly Harbor School](_URL_0_) in New York City.
Looking forward to your questions - I'll be on at 12 ET (16 UT) - ask me anything!
|
askscience
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"Since oysters are filter feeder, would oysters raised in (presumably) polluted areas like NY Harbor's be safe to eat?",
"Where would one apply for volunteering/working for groups like this? \n I've got a lot of down time over the summer and was curious of how I could get involved.",
"This is awesome, its great to hear of habitat restoration to such an urban and (previosuly?) pollut area.\nMy experience on the otherside of the atlantic (cornwall, UK) is invasions from pacific oysters and american slipper limpets on native wildlife.\n\n Is there a specific breed of oyster your'e re-introducing/rewilding to the area? Why that species? Isnt such a busy international harbour a problem when managining native diversity?\n\n And do you have targets based around native biodiversity? Or are you more targetting ecosystem services?\n\nEither way good luck!",
"At what rate do the oysters propagate? And at what point will the population of oysters be self sustaining, or will it be constant work to maintain/increase the oyster population?",
"Is New York passing (or has it passed) any legislation to help the oysters prosper?",
"Does the billion oyster project incorporate disturbance management strategies to protect the oyster beds from dredging or other potential sources of physical damage?",
"What's your favorite aspect about your work and why is that your pick?\n\nP.s: What a cool & unique job!",
"Hello there, thanks for joining us! A couple of questions for you, I hope you don't mind. I was wondering how he work you do as a restoration ecologist differ from the broader field of ecology? Does trying to restore habitat while you’re studying it play into your studies? Since oysters were/are a foodstuff, how does working with animals of economic importance affect your restoration efforts? Thanks again!",
"I listened to a great episode of 99 Percent Invisible on the importance of oysters in NY Harbour! Are there other places around the world where a similar program could start?",
"This is great work that you're doing! Have you visited other sites around the country that are doing similar restoration work? One that I've worked with personally is through the Nature Conservancy and Brevard Zoo and their Oyster Reef Restoration in the Indian River Lagoon on the east coast of Florida.",
"Hi, thanks for stopping by! \n\nI recently graduated undergrad with a focus in ecology, hoping to be a restoration ecologist like yourself! \n\nIt hasn't panned out, though.\n\nWhat do you recommend someone do if they want a similar career? Is grad school necessary?",
"Is similar work being done on the New Jersey side of the Hudson River?",
"The work you're doing sounds really cool! My question is, how do you balance your mentoring of the high school students with your independent research?",
"Im currently a 2nd yr bio major. People keep asking me what im going to do with my degree. What was your original plan in college and how did you end up where you are?",
"Hi Dr. Burmester! Thanks for taking the time to answer questions today. In what ways do oysters serve as ecological indicators? Are they a bit limited in the sense that you can mostly just tell that they’re sensitive to water quality, or can you look at oyster reefs and see other impacts, like specific changes to the food web? If so, how does that vary from place to place? Also (if I haven’t asked too many questions yet) how does that compare to corals?",
"As a Civil Engineer who works a lot with stormwater design and limiting certain pollutants such as excess sediment from entering streams/rivers. What is most harmful pollutant/s to your oysters and their beds?\n\nEdit: Do I not get a reply, was my question already answered? :(",
"How much will warming water in the Atlantic affect your ability to restore oysters to the area?",
"Thanks for doing this AMA and kudos on this project! Do you have a plan to combat the ocean acidification issue for the oysters in the development of their shells?",
"What can I do to join this endeavor?",
"Hi Doctor!. In the case that this case of effort would be done in a really multidiverse ecosystem (Like a tropical cost) would be reasonable to reintroduce only one species at the time? Would this affect the fauna around?",
"Im super drunken. Anf german, sry for gramaticalnat errors ans other errors; once was able to eat eat oystets: why are thay important (i didnt eat them because it was super ugly)",
"Can you fill us in on what exactly killed off the oysters before and what are your plans to prevent the same thing(s) from happening again?",
"what other species have y'all seen show up at your oyster reefs?\n\nis it one species of oyster?",
"How does citizen science factor into the project? How can non-scientists get involved and help?"
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{
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|
AskScience AMA Series: IAmA restoration ecologist focused on restoring oysters to the NY Harbor in New York City. AMA!
Hello Reddit! I'm Dr. Liz Burmester, an ecologist with the [Billion Oyster Project](_URL_1_) - a nonprofit dedicated to restoring 1 billion oysters in the NY Harbor by 2035 through education and community involvement. I'm here to answer questions with help from Atlas Obscura. Why oysters? As suspension (filter) feeders and reef builders, oysters are a keystone species capable of important ecosystem services like water filtration and habitat creation for a variety of marine creatures. My research revolves around understanding how organisms survive, reproduce, and respond to stress. We use that information to inform the Billion Oyster Project's work on restoring the NY Harbor's - once impressive and thriving, but now functionally extinct - population of oysters. Before transitioning to this urbanized environment, I researched another group of keystone reef builders - corals - and their ability to recover from localized stress. As part of my work, I also serve as a mentor to high school students performing their own independent research in a career and technical education program at the [Urban Assembly Harbor School](_URL_0_) in New York City. Looking forward to your questions - I'll be on at 12 ET (16 UT) - ask me anything!
|
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] |
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21xu21
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Is the world outside our eyes blurry?
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We have lenses that bend the light to our retina, but if those aren't set up properly everything is blurry. So if the lens is what makes us see sharply, does that mean the light on the outer side of the lens blurry? Does the real world look more like a gaussian blur in Photoshop?
|
askscience
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"Without a lens to focus light on a point or a cavity to limit light detection to a certain direction, a photosensitive cell would only be able to detect light intensity. The world would appear essentially featureless, as photons from any object within the incident angle would all be detected at the same time. If an object were extraordinarily close to the photodetector, so that it would block the vast majority of light from other objects, some blurry details could be made out.\n\nIf you take photosensitive cells and put them at the end of a cylinder, still without a lens, the world would indeed appear blurry, but featured. Objects within the diameter of the cylinder would be detected by all the cells, while objects within a cone outside the cylinder's diameter would be detected by only some of the cells.\n\nIf a large field of photosensitive cells were behind an opaque membrane with a small opening, a fairly decent amount of detail could be discerned even without a lens. Each cell would only detect light from a very specific angle, and though it would be a blurry image, it would likely be detailed enough to navigate and manipulate objects. However, there's a tradeoff between the sharpness and intensity of the detected image, as narrowing the opening to increase sharpness would decrease total incident light, and vice versa.\n\nEdit - forgot a word.",
"I'm not sure if I understand the question. The world, when we're not looking at it, doesn't \"look\" like anything, because looking like something is only a meaningful property when someone's doing the looking. It's like \"if a tree falls in the woods...\"\n\nSorry to answer your question with philosophy instead of biology.",
"\"The real world\" is clearer and sharper than we could ever see, but at any one point, there are countless images from every angle converging all at once. It's infinate clear pictures stacked into eachother. The purpose of the eye is to take a narrow view, just a tiny slice of all the light around you, so we can make sense of it. \nOur lens helps to narrow your focus as well. Even in the tiny hole in the eye, there are countless origin points of light streaming in from the world, but they are close enough and similar enough that the lens can align these images on top of each other and gives us the clearest view possible (depandant on the resolution of the photo-receptive cells and our brains ability to \"clean\" up images).",
"The world you see is what your brain perceives it to be. What we see is a collection matter that reflects and absorbs visible light. That is because our eyes can only detect light in that range of wavelengths (visible light spectrum). The world appears blurry with a malfunctioning lens because the lens focuses the incoming light beams to a focal point on the back of the eye so that the cones and rods (photodetectors in eye) can send the information to the brain to be processed. If the light doesn't get refracted to the right place in the eye, the image you see appears blurry.",
"i'll just add to the chorus of \"without an imaging system, blur/sharpness are meaningless\". blur and sharpness are subjective ways of describing how well the imaging system is doing its job. prior to being focused by a lens (etc), there's just the [light field] (_URL_0_), and its geometric properties are pretty hard to relate to your image-like subjective experiences..."
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{
"url": [
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|
Is the world outside our eyes blurry?
We have lenses that bend the light to our retina, but if those aren't set up properly everything is blurry. So if the lens is what makes us see sharply, does that mean the light on the outer side of the lens blurry? Does the real world look more like a gaussian blur in Photoshop?
|
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|
j08am
|
If at all possible, how long would it take for a person in the Western (higher water standards) world to become acclimatized to the often non-potable water of developing countries?
|
I'm just intrigued as I'm currently in India and, although religiously adhering to the water-bottle-only policy, found myself with a bacterial infection after accidentally drinking the local water. For some people who decide to move to India, drinking only bottled water would quickly become rather uneconomical. So my question is a matter of 1) is it possible and 2) if so, how long?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2822dj",
"c2835c5",
"c283wz4",
"c283lwm"
],
"text": [
"When I moved from UK to Philippines years ago, I started with the local tapwater. After 3 cases of amebiasis and 1 suspected Typhoid that put me in hospital for days, my advice would be to stick with the bottled water.\n\nIt's still more cost-effective than the potential hospital bills should you become sick.",
"I was 9 years old when I moved to Bangladesh and went from not being able to consume homemade cooking without a mild case of diarrhea to eating food from street vendors with unwashed hands. \n\nThe trick is to do it gradually. Don't drink tap water straight from the faucet. Every family I knew there, boiled the days water in a large pot first at the very least. Then transferred the water to an equally large filter tank. At my house we would then transfer that water to a Brita Jug. It was still pretty bad the first few days. But yeah, it's doable. It'll take a couple of months at the very least.",
"_URL_0_\n\nShows an increase in immune function in developing countries in correlation with periods of high vitamin A intake in children/infants. While I don't suggest downing any of the local water, ever, perhaps an increase in vitamin A can be used as a mild prophylactic against incidental exposure to food borne bacteria. \n\nThis being said, locals are hardly resistant to a much of the microbial contamination found in their food / water. Remember 3.1% of ALL deaths in the world are related to food and water microbial contamination. I don't think acclimating oneself will do much for your safety. Furthermore it may instill a false sense of safety which could lead to the consumption of possibly dangerous contaminated foodstuffs. Remember there are a lot of really dangerous and nasty contaminant diseases, none of which I think you can become acclimated to; C. parvum, hep/A (you should get immunized), hep/E. amoebiasis, roundworm, hookworm, whipworm, H. pylori, and many others. H. pylori always worries me since it often has no symptoms and infection seems to correlate with higher instances digestive tract cancers when untreated (since there are often no symptoms). \n\nI don't know. If you ask me, I'd just stick to bottled water and not eat anything that uses unbottled water and suspect cooking in its production. You talk about bottled water being uneconomical, but I imagine it'd be much cheaper than the medical bills.",
"You've probably already done this, but be sure to shop around - when I lived in Cairo I bought bottled water five cases at a time and it wasn't too expensive (and of course the place was vetted by the Embassy)"
],
"score": [
7,
5,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/182/Supplement_1/S23.full.pdf"
]
}
|
If at all possible, how long would it take for a person in the Western (higher water standards) world to become acclimatized to the often non-potable water of developing countries?
I'm just intrigued as I'm currently in India and, although religiously adhering to the water-bottle-only policy, found myself with a bacterial infection after accidentally drinking the local water. For some people who decide to move to India, drinking only bottled water would quickly become rather uneconomical. So my question is a matter of 1) is it possible and 2) if so, how long?
|
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5pjtub
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Is it possible using software to determine the hardware circuits of a computer system?
|
You can obviously find out a few basic things about hardware you're running with software programs; the amount of RAM channels, control operations on the microprocessor, etc, but how much further could you theoretically go in determining exactly the structure/nature of the circuits on which the software is running?
|
askscience
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"Unfortunately no - and it's the same problem we have with our own reality. :) \n\nWith any instruction you execute, the response returned may only be what the emulator you didn't/ couldn't know was running wants you to know.",
"No, not even what you said. A computer can quite easily lie about quite a few things, and often does for backwards compatibility reasons.\n\nThere's nothing that says that a computer must allow software to interrogate it about its capabilities, either. It's perfectly possible to have a computer that has no straightforward way of asking how much RAM it has, other than trying to write to an address and seeing what happens, while accounting for that addresses might wrap around at some point.\n\nIn fact, the ability to figure out what's inside a computer is quite new. In the 90s and earlier configuration used to be a lot trickier because there wasn't an easy and convenient way of asking the computer what sound card it had inside. Code wanting to do autodetection had to very carefully try to poke at things to figure out whether there was a soundcard at a given IRQ, DMA and IO addresses, and hope that this wouldn't happen to send a signal to something else, which might get misinterpreted in some awful manner -- from a crash to disk corruption.\n\nAnd then there's emulation, which can go really far. With console emulators you usually have the emulator not only emulate the hardware and instruction set, but also the timing and various hardware glitches. Some things like precise timing can be hard to emulate, but only for practical reasons, and not because it's impossible. An emulator could achieve absolute perfection and make it impossible for a program running inside to determine it's being emulated.\n\nNow if you're familiar with virtualization, today most systems don't try to hide their existence, but even there you see this: If you assign a VM 1GB and 2 cores of a 64GB, 32 core machine, as far as the software running inside can tell, you only have 1GB and 2 cores, as well as a Cirrus video card and Realtek network card, neither of which you probably physically have, but that for whatever reason turned out to be convenient to emulate.",
"No.\n\nLets take the simplest case imaginable. Imagine a voltage source V driving one end of resistive divider (two equal R's in series). The only available output to be probed is the point between the 2 resistors. This output, when unloaded, will generate an output voltage of V/2.\n\nNow imagine if you didn't know the structure of this circuit, but rather only had access the output node. Furthermore suppose the only diagnostic tools (UNDER SOFTWARE CONTROL) you had are :\n\n1) hang a known current load on the output node and use a volt meter to measure the resulting voltage of the output node.\n\nAND\n\n\n2) attach a known voltage source to the output node and use ammeter in series to measure the current that sinks into the voltage source.\n\n\nCould you use the above to determine the structure of the circuit ,i.e. that is a voltage source V driving 2 series R??\n\nNo because the voltage divider has an equivalent circuit called a Thevenin equivalent (in this case a voltage source of V/2 with single resistor of value R/2 between the voltage source and output node).\n\nNeither of the two probing instruments listed in #1 and #2 can distinguish between the original 3 component circuit and the functional equivalent 2 component circuit. \n\nThere is also a Norton equivalent for the original circuit (composed of a current source and resistor in parallel) that also mimics the original circuit. And again the instruments cannot distinguish between the two, as long as it has access only to the output node.\n\nNote the original circuit and its Thevenin and Norton equivalents are truly different implementations. The original circuit actively consumes power even if the output node has nothing attached to it, whereas the Thevenin equivalent consumes no power.\n\n\nNote that if we had access to all 3 node in the original circuit, then we could distinguish among the 3 different implementations.\n\n\nThis is just a 3 component circuit. A computer has ~1 billion transistors and other components and only limited \"output\" nodes to probe.",
"Yes, but in a very limited way. You can query using methods which are meant for identifying components, like the CPUID instruction for identifying the CPU, scanning the PCI bus, or reading RAM SPD EEPROM. You can run various benchmarks which could help you determine things like the size of caches, or hint what algorithm could be used for some complex instructions whose execution time varies. You can also explore behaviour which is undocumented, insufficiently documented or potentially buggy. Differences in this kind of behaviour can be used to identify hardware and sometimes gain a bit of insight about how it's implemented.\n\nThis all gives very minimal information compared to the complexity of a modern CPU. There are also all sorts of variations that are possible without affecting behaviour, so you cannot detect them.",
"This is an interesting question. \n\nShort answer: for a modern computer that works perfectly, the answer should be no. This is because the processor design should be abstracted away completely from the instruction sets it implements. You can redesign the silicon layout in ways that keeps the instruction set functionality the same, and the code software would run would have no way of knowing as there is not a one to one mapping of instruction functionality to silicon layout. \n\nIt would basically be the same as asking a user of a program to figure out the exact code that the program consists of just from interacting with the program. There are an infinite number of ways to do anything. \n\nSource: designed processors and operating systems in college",
"> You can obviously find out a few basic things about hardware you're running with software programs; the amount of RAM channels, control operations on the microprocessor, etc,\n\nNo, you can _query_ your hardware's controller(s) for those. They make their best efforts to give you accurate information, but even h/w controllers can malfunction and be misconfigured.\n\n > but how much further could you theoretically go in determining exactly the structure/nature of the circuits on which the software is running?\n\nThis I don't know. I would be surprised if there were any research along these lines."
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Is it possible using software to determine the hardware circuits of a computer system?
You can obviously find out a few basic things about hardware you're running with software programs; the amount of RAM channels, control operations on the microprocessor, etc, but how much further could you theoretically go in determining exactly the structure/nature of the circuits on which the software is running?
|
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1ok18v
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Nuclear Energy (different ways to 'harness' the energy)
|
Hi guys,
Quick question. I was just reading about how Henry Ford made a concept car with a nuclear reactor and it got me thinking.
Apart from using Nuclear Energy/Power to generate heat ---- > steam ---- > Movement of components (Generators, Turbines etc). Is there any other way for us to use Nuclear energy, or is it basically just a really complicated heat source?
Thanks.
|
askscience
|
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"as advanced as we like to think we are, we still get most of our electricity from boiling water.\n\nnuclear energy basically amounts to letting an excess of neutrons slam around inside some radioactive material accelerating the natural decay rate of which a side effect is heat(and some new atoms and some more neutrons). the system for sustaining a nuclear reaction is complex, but the end result is still just boiling water.\n\nthere was a [space craft](_URL_0_) that use a nuclear reactor core to heat sodium and harvested energy with a large thermocouple array. there are also [Radioisotope thermoelectric generators](_URL_1_) which operate in the same fashion.",
"nuclear energy is essentially just a heat source to make steam. But it has advantages in many applications. Nuclear reactions do not need oxygen to work. This allows for great application in vehicles like submarines and ships, and space craft. A sub can stay underwater for much longer using nuclear engines. Nuclear fuel also lasts a lot longer than conventional fuel so vehicles can stay out longer without having to refuel. Nuclear fuel is also more compact so you save space.",
"Other than thermodynamic cycles your only other choices that I know about are either [Thermoelectric](_URL_3_), [Thermoacoustics](_URL_4_) or [Thermophotovoltaic](_URL_4_).\n\nOh, and the reasons we don't use these on earth where space and weight aren't at a premium:\nThermoelectric generator typical efficiencies are around 5–8%\nThermoacoustic generators of the same utility class as traditional cyclical engines but weight more and produce less energy\nThermophotovoltaic caps out at 83% max efficency and is still a new technology.",
"Fuel of any sort is an energy source.\nIn coal, natural gas, and liquid gasoline, we are burning it to break larger molecules into smaller molecules and release energy in the process.\nIn nuclear fuel rods, we are splitting larger **atoms** into smaller **atoms** and releasing energy in the process.\n\nThe processes, conditions, and fuel sources are all very different. Fortunately for the explanation, the product is the same: energy release.\n\nEnergy can be released (and transferred) in many forms, but heat is the form most energy released will take, and it is the most useful to us.\n\nUnfortunately, heat doesn't make things move. Heat isn't going to generate a magnetic field to move electrons along a conductor, and it's certainly not going to make your car move (for proof, set a car on fire and see how far it gets).\nSo every single engine and power plant we have requires a process for taking that heat and turning it into kinetic energy.\n\nSteam is relatively efficient and reusable. You heat water, it boils into steam and causes a pressure increase which helps to turn a turbine which then turns a generator or transmission.\nThis type of process uses **constant** energy release to continue heating the water to produce steam.\n\nIn an internal combustion engine, fuel and air is fed into a cylinder with a piston, compressed by the already turning crank shaft, and then ignited by a spark when the piston is at it's highest compression factor. The heat released by combustion causes rapid expansion of the gas in the piston and helps to continue turning the crank. This process uses **small, short bursts** of energy release in rapid succession to turn the crank shaft directly.\n\nLeaving jet turbine engines out (they resemble steam engines except using constant airflow as the medium rather than circulating steam) for simplicity, we now understand the two main types of engines that we use to move things.\n\nNow we can start to think about how we can apply nuclear fission to this problem. \nNuclear fission and steam engines are made for one another. They couple beautifully. This is because nuclear fuel bundles are very good at providing constant energy release over long periods of time in controlled environments.\nNotice that these are not the conditions in an internal combustion engine.\n\nNuclear fission is not easy to start. It takes a fair amount of energy to begin the chain reaction, and a large amount of moderation to keep the chain reaction stable (it can either dwindle and fizzle out, or in the worst possible scenario, react too quickly). This is why nuclear fission would not be an effective way to rapidly extend a piston. It \"burns\" slowly and takes too much energy to start to be worth it. You could sort of relate it to lighting one of those 3 hour logs for a light source rather than a match.\nAdditionally, nuclear fuel bundles are solid, so it would make fuel feeds a very difficult process.\n\nNuclear jet turbines however are a *slightly* more feasible idea. Also sounds awesome."
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNAP-10A",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoacoustics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoelectric_effect",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermophotovoltaic"
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|
Nuclear Energy (different ways to 'harness' the energy)
Hi guys, Quick question. I was just reading about how Henry Ford made a concept car with a nuclear reactor and it got me thinking. Apart from using Nuclear Energy/Power to generate heat ---- > steam ---- > Movement of components (Generators, Turbines etc). Is there any other way for us to use Nuclear energy, or is it basically just a really complicated heat source? Thanks.
|
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|
mqk6m
|
Could the principles behind the dyson bladeless fan be applied to airplane wings?
|
This isn't just layman's speculation, I'm genuinely curious about this phenomenon and would greatly appreciate it if anyone knows more about it.
I always thought it was interesting how the dyson bladless fan works. By using an impeller at the base, drawing air in and forcing it out through narrow slits along wing shaped disc, it creates a flow of moving air from an otherwise motionless surface.
But this got me thinking, could airplane wings use the same feature? I'm under the impression that lift is created by air moving at different velocities as it passes under and over a wing. I imagine that an aircraft might be able to direct some of its thrust specifically over the wing, even by narrow slits all across the leading surface such as in the dyson fan.
The design implications could be profound, such as an ability to maintain very slow flight. Despite a low airspeed that would normally cause a stall, the actual speed of the air moving over the wing would be much higher. I imagine it would operate something like the custer channel wing, (link: _URL_0_) but much more compact. I swear I once saw a wikipedia page about a Navy aircraft that operated on a similar principle, but I can't seem to find it.
EDIT: I am aware that many airplanes use the Coandă effect by the placement of their engines, but I'm more interested in knowing whether this application has been taken to the extreme
I also wonder what the potential drawbacks to such a design would be, as it clearly isn't a popularly implemented feature of modern day aircraft...but then again maybe most designers haven't put much thought into it.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"c33492r",
"c334ac1"
],
"text": [
"I actually worked as a research assistant on something very similar to this for a summer during college. [Here's a paper](_URL_0_) that describes some of the basic ideas behind the research. I specifically worked on testing different configurations of jet geometries for a standard NACA airfoil (forget which one) and testing and optimization of a conceptual high efficiency vehicle design that took 2nd place in a NASA competition [here](_URL_1_). The conceptual vehicle tested a bit poorly due to some unforeseen detrimental flow characteristics, however the basic airfoil saw increases in the L/D ratio of between 200-500% depending on the air speed, AOA, jet geometry, etc. \n\nThe main areas that this would likely be used is for low speed flight, such as take off and landing, loitering, and other low speed applications. It could drastically decrease TO and landing distances, which could help airports cut down on runway space, or help get exceptionally underpowered planes off the ground in a reasonable distance. Also, it could reduce fuel usage during takeoff as most planes need to use max throttle to lift off before the end of the runway, which burns fuel much more quickly (planes will often use ~3.5% of their total fuel just during takeoff). \n\nThe tech is really impressive in the lab setting, but like anything else, what will make or break the technology will be how successfully it can be integrated with an air vehicle system. It adds complexity (read weight), and presents significant design challenges. [Here](_URL_2_) is the website of professor I worked with, you can read some of the results, see some cool flow visualization pictures of the tech, and look into it further if you would like.",
"Taking this to the extreme would mean that the engine exhausts in a thin slit over the entire wing, and the wing directs this jet downward for additional thrust. Routing exhaust this way would be very lossy (inefficient) and would be worse than useless at high speeds, where efficiency, rather than lift, is the primary concern. There has, however been a lot of research into using small jets to control the airflow around a wing.\n\nJust in case you don't this, the boundary layer is a thin (typically < 1mm) layer of air around the skin of an aircraft in which viscous forces are important. In the frame of the aircraft, the fluid in the boundary layer is slowed down by viscosity over the entire chord of the wing. Pressure gradients push the boundary layer faster over the front part of the wing, then slow it down over the back part. At a certain point of the back side of the wing, the boundary layer can not keep going in face of viscosity and the unfavorable pressure gradient, so the boundary separates from the wing. When this separation occurs a significant distance from the trailing edge, a large, turbulent region forms behind the separation point, reducing lift and increasing drag. This is called stall.\n\nA lot of current research is focused on how to use small jets (because small jet=small energy cost) to control boundary layer behavior, with a goal of being able to achieve a higher lift coefficient with a given airfoil than is possible without the jets. If you want more information, try googling \"synthetic jet\" \"flow control\", and \"boundary layer separation.\" Also, [this wiki article](_URL_3_) has some references at the bottom you should check out. \n\n\n\n > maybe most designers haven't put much thought into it.\n\nBelieve me, designers have put lifetimes of thought into each aspect of each commercial or military plane that has ever entered service. Flow control faces the problem of being largely poorly-understood and of being new. New things take a while to get onto aircraft because of safety/regulatory concerns (and rightly so).",
"They are called \"jet flaps\" or \"blown flaps.\" \nOne of the drawbacks would be, first and foremost, a big slit going along the leading edge of the entire wing would not be good for laminar flow when the device is not on. This trumps any benefits there may be at take-off and landing. \nIt seems the dyson fans don't generate enough circulation for the work the fan in the base does on the airflow when compared to a regular fan. \nThere are much more efficient ways of generating high lift.",
"As various posters have pointed out, there are a multitude of reasons this technology isn't practical for generating lift.\n\nHowever, helicopters have been using this technology for some time to replace their tail rotor.\n\n_URL_4_",
"There is a fan with blades in the base of the Dyson unit."
],
"score": [
26,
5,
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2,
2
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Sn5JL9t_C4"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://flowsci.com/publications/AIAA_2005_1260.pdf",
"http://www.miami.edu/index.php/news/releases/university_of_miami_wins_prize_in_nasa_futuristic_airplane_design_competition_/",
"http://www7.miami.edu/ftp/acfdlab/CFJ_webpage/CFJ.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_jet",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOTAR"
]
}
|
Could the principles behind the dyson bladeless fan be applied to airplane wings?
This isn't just layman's speculation, I'm genuinely curious about this phenomenon and would greatly appreciate it if anyone knows more about it. I always thought it was interesting how the dyson bladless fan works. By using an impeller at the base, drawing air in and forcing it out through narrow slits along wing shaped disc, it creates a flow of moving air from an otherwise motionless surface. But this got me thinking, could airplane wings use the same feature? I'm under the impression that lift is created by air moving at different velocities as it passes under and over a wing. I imagine that an aircraft might be able to direct some of its thrust specifically over the wing, even by narrow slits all across the leading surface such as in the dyson fan. The design implications could be profound, such as an ability to maintain very slow flight. Despite a low airspeed that would normally cause a stall, the actual speed of the air moving over the wing would be much higher. I imagine it would operate something like the custer channel wing, (link: _URL_0_) but much more compact. I swear I once saw a wikipedia page about a Navy aircraft that operated on a similar principle, but I can't seem to find it. EDIT: I am aware that many airplanes use the Coandă effect by the placement of their engines, but I'm more interested in knowing whether this application has been taken to the extreme I also wonder what the potential drawbacks to such a design would be, as it clearly isn't a popularly implemented feature of modern day aircraft...but then again maybe most designers haven't put much thought into it.
|
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|
1iib7a
|
If I took my piano to Mars and played a C major chord, (which would be in tune on Earth), what would it sound like?
|
Does the change in gravity and atmosphere effect sound waves, and could we approximate what it would sound like? Would it be flat or sharp or way way off?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"Alright, I see two questions here. First off, how would the sound be changed that's coming off the piano. Second, how would the propagation of that sound change in Mars' atmosphere. Both are fairly interesting.\n\nA piano's pitch is determined by the tension, mass, and length of the strings. None of those will change in the Martian atmosphere. However, there is a small adjustment made for \"fluid loading\" effects that increase the effective mass of the strings. Since the atmosphere of Mars is more rarified, that means the pitch will be ever so slightly sharper, with the effect being more noticeable on the high end. Basically, you'll want to retune the piano when you get there.\n\nThe other side of the question is propagation. I mentioned that Mars' atmosphere is more rarified. In fact, the atmosphere on mars is so thin that it can't support acoustic waves in the human hearing range. As a result, the sounds waves coming from the piano wouldn't carry very far, and they would have a significant high frequency roll off. The pitch is not changed by this, just the loudness and the relative volume of different frequencies. Essentially, the piano would sound heavily \"muted.\"\n\nInteresting sidenote, if you asked the same question about a pipe organ you'd get a very different answer. Because the pipe organ's pitch is actually determined by the gas in the pipe, the Martian atmosphere would greatly impact the sound that it generated. Moreover, the thin atmosphere would likely make the organ completely unable to function!\n\n*Edit: If you are curious about sound on Mars, Amanda Hanford from Penn State simulated acoustic waves on Mars, Titan, and the upper Earth atmosphere (where the air is thin enough that continuum mechanics don't apply). You can find the paper on it [here](_URL_1_) and a news article on it [here](_URL_0_).*\n\n*Edit 2: Thank you for the gold!*",
"Not a scientist, but a musician, so I do have something to say:\n\nWhen a piano is \"tuned\"...it's not actually in tune! Prior to the invention of the piano, all music was based around natural tuning. Instruments were made in a bunch of different keys so each key could be naturally in tune. If a group was playing in C, the brass would all bring their C horns. This is also why you don't see any modulation within a piece until the baroque era.\n\nSo anyway, an in tune major third is slightly flat, while an in tune perfect fifth is slightly sharp. \n\nBecause we obviously cannot account for every key, chord, and interval on a single piano that would need to be in tune, they invented equal temperament. An octave above a pitch is double the frequency, so for arguments sake, let's use A4 440 hz. The A above that would be 880. They then divided the difference of 440 into 12 equal parts, which is why we have 12 equal half steps.\n\nBut, these half steps aren't going to be in tune with one another when taken into the context of a piece of music. Technically they are the right frequency for that note, but they are not in tune.\n\nThis is pretty much exclusive to keyboard instruments presently, as other instruments will adjust accordingly.\n\nThis was the simple version of the progression of tuning, because there are quite a few books written about it :)",
"What about an acoustic guitar? Would it end up sounding muted like the piano?",
"I presume gravity and atmospheric density would modify the sustain of the strings but would these factors affect the resonant frequency of the strings?",
"It would be the same only quieter. The strings' tension dont give much of a shit regarding what medium they are vibrating in, i.e. air might as well be vacuum. If the atmosphere was solid mercury liquid, then probably the strings would vibrate slower.\n\nSo, no, the piano system doesn't notice that much whether it's in air or in a vacuum. Its own internal forces are far more of an issue than the medium in which they're vibrating.\n\nAnd as far as you hearing it -- the air there is pretty thin so probably a poor carrier of sound. But you'd probably still hear it, quietly though.\n\nedit: i read below about temperature/humidity. you'd have to tune the piano to the ambient temperature/humidity for it to be in tune. but everything else i wrote above holds."
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://news.psu.edu/story/202637/2006/06/28/can-you-hear-me-now-not-mars",
"http://asadl.org/jasa/resource/1/jasman/v125/i2/p640_s1"
]
}
|
If I took my piano to Mars and played a C major chord, (which would be in tune on Earth), what would it sound like?
Does the change in gravity and atmosphere effect sound waves, and could we approximate what it would sound like? Would it be flat or sharp or way way off?
|
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|
17qsn1
|
[Earth Sciences] The Amazon River has another underground river flowing under it. It this a river in the conventional sense, or more just water flowing through porous rock?
|
Further to that, it seems to me that an underground river, if it were actually open space (whether filled completely with water or also with air), it would be the largest cave in the world? Certainly longer than the Mammoth Cave system, so it seems more likely that it is not a conventional river.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c880b58",
"c883qr2",
"c881pf8",
"c87zlep"
],
"text": [
"The original authors of the paper put the word 'river' in quotes because they knew it was not the precise terminology. It is groundwater flow, not navigable by conventional means.",
"This gets posted in TIL occasionally, and I always post to point out that it is not a river. It is an aquifer.\n\nI'm not exactly certain how or why this became news, but basically it seems that some geophysicists found some water flow while studying data from a petrochemical company's test wells. Somehow, this became distorted by the news media and reported as an \"underground river\". [Here is the first article](_URL_0_) on the topic that I know of, and be aware that it is full of errors and misstatements.\n\nWhen the article was linked to in a post on reddit, [loolwat, an actual hydrogeologists, stepped up to address the factual problems](_URL_1_).",
"no, it would not be possible to transit the river. this is groundwater flow. groundwater flow is water moving between soil particles. think of water flowing through a brita filter but horizontally.",
"I guess what I am trying to determine is whether it would be theoretically possible for a human or a robotic device to transit this river?"
],
"score": [
11,
3,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/aug/26/underground-river-amazon",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/worldnews/comments/jv809/underground_river_rio_hamza_discovered_4km/c2fg3m5"
]
}
|
[Earth Sciences] The Amazon River has another underground river flowing under it. It this a river in the conventional sense, or more just water flowing through porous rock?
Further to that, it seems to me that an underground river, if it were actually open space (whether filled completely with water or also with air), it would be the largest cave in the world? Certainly longer than the Mammoth Cave system, so it seems more likely that it is not a conventional river.
|
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|
12hciq
|
Is there any science to "ridding your body of toxins" via exercise/sweating?
|
I recently started taking hot yoga classes at a local studio. They crank the temp up to around 95 degrees for the 90-minute workout and use a lot of language about how the heat helps you "sweat out the toxins in your body" and things like that. Yoga class aside, I've heard this sort of language used in regard to other strenuous exercises. Is there any basis for this? If so, what toxins would they be? Can you give a layman's breakdown of what the "ridding" process is?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"The purveyors of such beliefs never actually define what exactly these toxins are or why their preferred method would get rid of them. It is, however, exactly the sort of vague health claim that allows one to avoid potential trouble with government regulating bodies in many countries, conveniently. \n\nOf course, I'm not claiming that many practitioners don't actually believe it. At any rate, there's nothing to this claim, no evidence has ever been presented in favour of it, and it doesn't make a lot of scientific sense.",
"No. It is, however, great at purging your body of water and electrolytes, causing you to feel drained and exhausted, and therefore fooling you into thinking you've gotten a harder workout than you really have.\n\nYou've already got a couple of organs (liver and kidneys, for example) whose *sole purpose* is to help remove toxic substances from your body. They work pretty well on their own as long as you don't fuck them up.",
"For the most part, the toxin purged is sodium.\n\nAmazes me to see these \"toxin extraction\" patches advertised where they suck toxins out of the body through the feet. If you're gonna use a transdermal process, what sense does it make to use thickest skin in the body?",
"No.\n\n[This]( _URL_0_) says that such a small amount of anything defined as toxins is present in sweat that it's better just to make sure your kidneys and liver are healthy.",
"Not really detox, but fasting has been shown to promote autophagy in a number of studies:\n\nA primer (see the section on autophagy): [The Health Benefits of Intermittent Fasting](_URL_3_)\n\nStudy: [Short-term fasting induces profound neuronal autophagy.](_URL_3_)\n\nStudy: [Mitochondrial degradation by autophagy (mitophagy) in GFP-LC3 transgenic hepatocytes during nutrient deprivation.](_URL_3_)",
"Related question: I've always been told that when withdrawing from alcohol, the copious sweating is due to my body \"sweating\" the alcohol & associated toxins out of my body. Is there any truth to this? If not, what causes people to sweat so much during alcohol withdrawal?",
"Im skeptical myself, but I am seeing a lot of \"no you are wrong that is just stupid alternative medicine garbage\" rather than any actual \"here is some studies that show heavy metals are not excreated in appreciable amounts by sweat.\n\nIn fact the only cited articles I have seen so far are posted are those suggesting that heavy metals ARE excreated in sweat, and in some cases at levels higher than urine (though they leave out the bile excretion a huge factor in heavy metal excretion).\n\nSo how about instead of just saying \"your dumb because that sounds like herbal remedy mumbo jumbo\" we start providing some facts. Medicine is constantly changing folks. A lot of traditional herbs end up having useful medical active ingrediants (though a lot more dont)."
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|
{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": [
"http://health.howstuffworks.com/wellness/men/sweating-odor/does-sweating-cleanse-your-system.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20534972",
"http://www.marksdailyapple.com/health-benefits-of-intermittent-fasting/#axzz2B1sfj1sF",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21106691"
]
}
|
Is there any science to "ridding your body of toxins" via exercise/sweating?
I recently started taking hot yoga classes at a local studio. They crank the temp up to around 95 degrees for the 90-minute workout and use a lot of language about how the heat helps you "sweat out the toxins in your body" and things like that. Yoga class aside, I've heard this sort of language used in regard to other strenuous exercises. Is there any basis for this? If so, what toxins would they be? Can you give a layman's breakdown of what the "ridding" process is?
|
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|
6kgjim
|
How does diet affect the risk of heart disease?
|
There is a lot of conflicting information out there. The common story is that (saturated) fat and cholesterol in meats are the primary culprits, but now a lot of (pop) science seems to claim that those are relatively harmless and sugars are instead the main culprits. What does the actual scientific evidence support?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"djlyn49",
"djm1kp1",
"djmvhny"
],
"text": [
"I don't have a lot of time to go into an in-depth answer, but cholesterol and fats were vilified mainly because when you looked at the hearts and blood vessels of people with cardiovascular disease, you see a lot of plaques which grow and harden and constrict the blood vessels around the heart and the rest of the body. And what are these plaques largely made of? Fats and cholesterol (and a bit of calcium). So naturally scientists looked into does the amount of fats (particularly saturated fats) consume affect the amount of fats and cholesterol blocking up their arteries? And they found that yes they did.\n\nBut fairly recently a group decided to look at weather a diet with increased saturated fats was worse for your health than a diet high in refined sugar. And surprisingly what they found is that actually the high sugar diet produced much a much more profoundly negative affect in the heart in just a few weeks. The high fat group had increased ldl levels (the \"bad cholesterol\"), they also had increased levels of hdl (the \"good cholesterol\") which would mitigate a lot of the bad consequences of the ldl cholesterol. The high sugar group on the other hand showed higher levels of total cholesterol, higher ldl levels and lower hdl levels. This is likely due to the sugar causing the liver to release a lot of harmful fats into the bloodstream.\n\nLarge amounts of sugars can also lead to insulin resistance and eventually can contribute to developing type 2 diabetes, which (amongst a lot of other things) increases your chances of developing heart disease. Sugar also increases your blood pressure.\n\nSo what about the studies before that linked high levels of fats in the diet to cardiovascular disease? Well it is true that people who eat more saturated fats are more likely to develope heart disease, what the researchers didn't take into account is that people eating a lot of saturated fats are much more likely to be consuming a lot more sugar, especially refined sugars.\n\nSo really the bottom line is to moderate your intake if refined/added sugars but you probably shouldn't load your diet up with high saturated-fat foods either, everything in moderation. Really avoiding any heavily processed foods which are usually very high in fats and sugars is a safe bet.\n\n\nSources: Undergrad in biochemistry, currently doing a PhD in Diabetes Complications.",
"The risk of heart disease for an average person will be dominated by two risk factors: being overweight and smoking. If you don't do either of those things, your risk is low. \n\nIt used to be thought that obesity was only indirectly correlated with heart disease, but new research reveals that it may be directly correlated. \n\n > obesity [...] independently predicts coronary atherosclerosis. This relation appears to exist for both men and women with minimal increases in BMI. In a 14-year prospective study, middle-aged women with a BMI > 23 but < 25 had a 50% increase in risk of nonfatal or fatal coronary heart disease, and men aged 40 to 65 years with a BMI > 25 but < 29 had a 72% increased risk\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAs you can see, being even slightly overweight drastically increases heart disease risk. For reference, a BMI of 23 would be 160 lbs in a 5'10 person.",
"Uhh, this is something that really pisses me off because it is full of bad science.\n\nFirst, the body is extraordinarily complex and the only real way to scientifically figure out how diet affects heart disease is to do a well controlled long term study with a large group of people. You'll see lots of published research results where people make some sort of claim, but those end up being on small groups of people with marginal statistical significance.\n\nSo, here's the long term study you need to know about: the Framingham Heart Study. It has been going on for over 50 years and tracked several generations of people in Framingham, Massachusetts.\nGo here if you want to see all the peer reivewed papers\n_URL_2_\n\n\nThe major findings date from the 1960's:\n\n* Cigarette smoking found to increase the risk of heart disease\n* Blood Cholesterol level, blood pressure, and electrocardiogram abnormalities found to increase the risk of heart disease\n* Physical activity found to reduce the risk of heart disease and obesity to increase the risk of heart disease\n\nNote, that blood cholesterol levels increase the risk of heart disease. (This was before the figured out how to test LDL/HDL, it turns out that high levels of LDL cholesterol are the ones that increase the risk of heart disease. ) \n\nAlso, note that they don't say anything about diet. You'll find lots of articles saying that eating X lowers your cholesterol, therefore it reduces the risk of heart disease. But unless they do the double blind large scale test, you can't be sure. The human body is very complex.\n\nThere have been cases (for cancer) where they did the double blind large scale test for a diet that they though would reduce the incidence of cancer, but it actually increased the rate of cancer. Here's one with Carotene and lung cancer _URL_2_"
],
"score": [
155,
13,
8
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/96/9/3248",
"https://www.framinghamheartstudy.org/fhs-bibliography/index.php",
"https://epi.grants.cancer.gov/Consortia/members/caret.html"
]
}
|
How does diet affect the risk of heart disease?
There is a lot of conflicting information out there. The common story is that (saturated) fat and cholesterol in meats are the primary culprits, but now a lot of (pop) science seems to claim that those are relatively harmless and sugars are instead the main culprits. What does the actual scientific evidence support?
|
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y0td4
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How do Olympiads keep breaking world records? Won't there come a point where they can be broken no longer?
|
I understand that technology has improved training immensively, swimsuits, nutrition, and training regimes, but eventually the human potential physically has to be reached, doesn't it?
|
askscience
|
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"Of course there *is* a limit, but the limit can be pushed further and further with the proper technology, diet and training. Maybe someone discovers a new technique for sprinting, or a better way to propel yourself at the start of the race. Or a new method of acceleration? Or perhaps someone discovers a diet that gives the sprinter a slight advantage. And then there's the occasional genetically exceptional athlete.\n\nIt's pretty difficult to truly know when we've hit the limit. Athletes have been steadily improving over the last 100 years. If we're still pretty much in the same place in 30 years with regards to world records, there's a pretty good chance we're nearing our limits.\n\nBut who says we can't host transhumanist Olympics?",
"The limit is constantly pushed due to better diets, exercises and general knowledge of how the body works and how to improve it.[Look at how the 100m record has been changing in the past 100 years](_URL_0_)",
"So we're clear, an Olympiad is a period of 4 years, an Olympian is an Olympic competitor. I realize this doesn't help answer your question, but I feel it's important.",
"In addition to the answers already provided, there are some advantages to be gained from the courses themselves. London's Olympic pool is specially engineered to reduce waves and create less turbulent water. [source](_URL_1_) As our courses become more engineered and improved, one would expect records for speed to improve as well.\n\nI remember hearing from another source that the track is made of a material that is more springy than your typical course.",
"All the other things you mentioned being equal, you can think of each race as a random point on an asymptotic curve. You would expect records to be broken less and less frequently, and by a smaller and smaller margin.",
"I cannot believe people have not said better drugs yet. So many athletes use them, to get bigger, faster and stronger then use other drugs to flush said drugs from their system without leaving traces. There is a reason why the blood tests for medalists are kept for 10 years - so they can test them every year using information on new drugs.",
"Yes there will be, but we are constantly pushing that limit. [This article](_URL_2_) looks right up your alley.",
"Article is pretty much spot on what you're asking. Great site too.\n\n_URL_3_\n\nHere's a snippet about breaking the 4 minute mile.\n\n > So the question that comes up many times in response to this kind of opinion is that back in 1953, people suggested that the mile world record was at its limit and that the 4-minute mile would not be broken. History clearly proves that to have been foolish, as the record is now 17 seconds faster, and many high-school athletes are breaking the barrier. So therefore, is there not a chance that the same applies to the 2-hour marathon?\n\n > Of course there is. But, there are some fundamental differences between that situation and the current one. What we know of physiology now says that the 4- minute mile was always going to happen. So if in 50 years, athletes are running under 2-hours in the marathon, then it will be because we have missed something in our understanding of the physiology today. What are the chance of that? Pretty high, of course, it would be arrogant to say that we know everything, we simply cannot.\n\n > However, I don't believe there are fundamental physiological principles that have not yet been discovered. Performance is limited by the physiological regulators, and things like VO2max, running economy, threshhold running pace and thermoregulation are known to be regulators. So we're either wrong, or we're still waiting for that one-of-a-kind human being who possesses physiological stats never seen before. That wasn't the case in the 1950s - they were good athletes with exceptional but expected physiology, and it was lack of professionalism and training/diet, along with \"vision\" of what might be possible that limited them\n\n > Today, with money to be made, advancements in training, globalization of the sport (back then, Kenyans may have been running 3:50 for the mile, who knows? They weren't competing enough), and a shifting of the horizon in terms of limits, we know much more what is possible. We know what kind of physiological specimens exist, and I believe, we know what doesn't exist. Genetic engineering may change that, but I really do believe we're approaching those limits.",
"The pattern will be similar to a bag of popcorn as kernels stop popping.",
"Let me use an analogy to help shed some light on record breaking as a merely statistical, rather than physical phenomenon.\n\nConsider the weather, specifically high temperature records, nothing more than the highest temperature recorded on a given day of the year within a given city. Simple enough right? But look at the underlying fundamentals of weather. What would cause a record high temperature? Well, likely a heat wave phenomenon. What would that look like? Well, one might imagine at a high level of abstraction an amorphous blob of elevated temperature with certain peaks of high temperature (due to an effect of the underlying weather phenomenon such as a high pressure cell), and it would sort of evolve and change and move across the land over time. What would be the result of that on the ground? Well, cities that are nearest to the temperature peaks within the heat wave \"blob\" would likely end up registering record high temperatures.\n\nNow, what happens a few years later when an almost identical heat wave comes through? Well, even if the overall characteristics of the heat wave are similar it probably won't result in the same temperature records. Because the heat wave will be slightly different geographically (with peak temperatures overlying on different cities) and it will be slightly different temporally as well. Perhaps this time it's a few days later or earlier and thus overlapping different days (causing those to be recorded as new records). And perhaps it peaks during a different part of the day resulting in either higher or lower maximum temperatures.\n\nNow play out such phenomena over many iterations. What you'll notice is that effectively identical heat waves will continuously result in new high temperature records. Due to slight shifts in location and timing.\n\nHow does this apply to the olympics? Well, the same setup exists there. There are a lot of coincidental factors at play. For example, the timing of the olympics relative to each athlete's progression of skill and the closeness of the event to each person's physical peak. And too more subtle factors such as weather, time of day, jet lag, etc. that affect each individual's performance slightly. What you have is a similar situation, sometimes everything will line up and an athlete will be at their peak during one particular event which will result in a new record, and sometimes other folks will be at their peak instead and they will win but not break the record because they aren't as funamentally good but they just had a good day compared to everyone else.\n\nThink about what it would mean to maximize the olympic record for a certain event. It would take finding the person who was the most physically capable and being lucky enough such that their training maximized their potential then having the olympics be held during the time when they are at their physical peak and having an event happen when everything is going right for them. And if not all of those things align exactly, which they almost never will, then you can still get an olympic record but it will be one that is capable of being broken.\n\nNow, take that phenomenon and add onto it some legitimate reasons for improving athletic performance such as a growing population, increasing popularity of athletic events, improving average nutrition during early years, increasing proportion of the world that isdeveloped and wealthy, better fundamental techniques and training, etc. and you have a recipe for breaking many records year after year even if fundamentally the athletes aren't hugely physically different.",
"I wonder why the question seems to imply, \"Are we approaching the limit?\", instead of, \"In the future, will records be broken more frequently by much larger margins?\" I would be reluctant to ask, \"How do scientists keep making new discoveries? Eventually the human potential intellectually has to be reached, doesn't it?\" Intellect has upon it the same physical limitations as sports performance, but we don't ask, \"Have we answered nearly all of the questions we are smart enough to formulate?\" I am sure in both cases there is a limit, but in both cases I suspect it is so far in the distance that we can't contemplate it.",
"Even if there is a limit, there are (pretty much) an infinite number of points till you get there.\n\nAssume the 'ultimate human limit' for 100 m sprint is 8.8 s. Even if someone makes it in 9.0 s, one can beat that record 200 times in increments of 0.001 s...that takes 800 years even if it happens every olympics!",
"It seems to be stabilizing, as is the gender gap in performance.\n_URL_4_\n\nKeep in mind they only need to beat it by a fraction of a second.",
"So it would be like a logarithmic curve, having a finite limit?"
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{
"url": [
"http://www.wimp.com/olympicsprinters/",
"http://www.livescience.com/21928-london-olympic-swimming-pool-tech.html",
"http://www.economist.com/node/21559903",
"http://www.sportsscientists.com/2010/11/limit-of-human-performance-how-much.html",
"www.jssm.org/vol9/n2/8/v9n2-8text.php"
]
}
|
How do Olympiads keep breaking world records? Won't there come a point where they can be broken no longer?
I understand that technology has improved training immensively, swimsuits, nutrition, and training regimes, but eventually the human potential physically has to be reached, doesn't it?
|
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